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#### Grenville
According to the 1895 work of the family's historian Rev. Roger Granville, Rector of Bideford, the descent of the [manor](/wiki/Manorialism "Manorialism") of [Bideford](/wiki/Bideford "Bideford") in North [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon"), England, was as follows:Granville, Roger, M.A., (Rector of Bideford). *[The History of the Granville Family Traced Back to Rollo, First Duke of the Normans, with Pedigrees etc](https://archive.org/details/historyofgranvil00gran)*. (Exeter, 1895\).{{better source needed\|date\=April 2019}}
##### Sir Richard de Grenville (died after 1142\)
[thumb\|1860 imaginary depiction of Robert FitzHamon (died 1107\) (left) and his younger brother [Richard de Grenville](/wiki/Richard_de_Grenville "Richard de Grenville") (died after 1142\) (right), Church of St James the Great, [Kilkhampton](/wiki/Kilkhampton "Kilkhampton"), Cornwall](/wiki/File:RobertFitzHamon_%26RichardDeGrenville_1860Window_Kilkhampton.JPG "RobertFitzHamon &RichardDeGrenville 1860Window Kilkhampton.JPG")
[thumb\|Historic seats of the Grenville family (spelled "Granville" after 1661Round, p. 130\.) in Normandy ([Granville, Manche](/wiki/Granville%2C_Manche "Granville, Manche")), Glamorgan ([Neath Castle](/wiki/Neath_Castle "Neath Castle")), Devon ([Bideford](/wiki/Bideford "Bideford")) \& Cornwall ([Stowe, Kilkhampton](/wiki/Stowe%2C_Kilkhampton "Stowe, Kilkhampton"))](/wiki/File:MapGrenvilleSeats.PNG "MapGrenvilleSeats.PNG")
Sir [Richard de Grenville](/wiki/Richard_de_Grenville "Richard de Grenville") (died after 1142\) (*alias* de Grainvilla, de Greinvill, etc.) was one of the [Twelve Knights of Glamorgan](/wiki/Twelve_Knights_of_Glamorgan "Twelve Knights of Glamorgan") who served in the Norman Conquest of [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan "Glamorgan") under [Robert FitzHamon](/wiki/Robert_FitzHamon "Robert FitzHamon") (died 1107\), the first Norman [feudal baron of Gloucester](/wiki/Feudal_barony_of_Gloucester "Feudal barony of Gloucester") and [Lord of Glamorgan](/wiki/Lord_of_Glamorgan "Lord of Glamorgan") from 1075\. He obtained from FitzHamon the lordship of [Neath](/wiki/Neath "Neath"), Glamorgan, in which he built [Neath Castle](/wiki/Neath_Castle "Neath Castle") and in 1129 founded [Neath Abbey](/wiki/Neath_Abbey "Neath Abbey"). Richard de Grenville is by tradition the founder and ancestor of the prominent [Westcountry](/wiki/Westcountry "Westcountry") Grenville family of [Stowe](/wiki/Stowe%2C_Kilkhampton "Stowe, Kilkhampton") in the parish of [Kilkhampton](/wiki/Kilkhampton "Kilkhampton") in Cornwall and of Bideford in Devon.
By tradition Richard de Grenville is said by [Prince](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 "John Prince (biographer)") (died 1723\),[Prince, John](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 "John Prince (biographer)"), (1643–1723\) The Worthies of Devon, 1810 edition, p.440, biography of Sir Theobald Grenvil (apparently following *[Fuller's Worthies](/wiki/Fuller%27s_Worthies "Fuller's Worthies")*)Round, p. 138\.) after he had founded Neath Abbey and bestowed upon it all his military acquisitions for its maintenance, to have "returned to his patrimony at Bideford where he lived in great honour and reputation the rest of his days". However, according to Round no proof exists that Richard de Grenville ever held the manor of Bideford, which was later one of the principal seats of the Westcountry Grenville family. It was however certainly one of the constituent manors of the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester "Honour of Gloucester") granted by King [William Rufus](/wiki/William_Rufus "William Rufus") to [Robert FitzHamon](/wiki/Robert_FitzHamon "Robert FitzHamon")." Richard de Grenville is known to have held seven [knight's fees](/wiki/Knight%27s_fee "Knight's fee") from the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester "Honour of Gloucester"), either granted to him by his FitzHamon or the latter's son\-in\-law and heir [Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester](/wiki/Robert%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gloucester "Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester") (1100–1147\). Round supposes that the Grenvilles of Bideford and Stowe were instead descended from a certain "Robert de Grenville" (*alias* de Grainville, de Grainavilla, etc.) who was a junior witness to Richard's foundation charter of Neath Abbey and who in the 1166 [Cartae Baronum](/wiki/Cartae_Baronum "Cartae Baronum") return was listed as holding one [knight's fee](/wiki/Knight%27s_fee "Knight's fee") from the Earl of Gloucester, feudal baron of Gloucester. Robert's familial relationship, if any, to Richard is unknown.
##### Richard de Grenville (fl. late 12th century)
Richard de Grenville (eldest son, by tradition). He married Adelina de Beaumont, and during the reign of King Henry II (1154–1189\) held 3 1/2 knight's fees from the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester "Honour of Gloucester").
##### Richard de Grenville (died 1204\)
Richard de Grenville (died 1204\) (son), who married a certain *Gundreda*. He died in 1204, leaving his children as minors. King John granted the wardship of his son and heir Richard de Grenville to Richard Fleminge in consideration for six hundred marks and six palfreys.Granville, p. 32\.
##### Richard de Grenville (died c. 1217\)
Richard de Grenville (died c. 1217\) (son). As arranged by his father, he married the daughter and heiress of Thomas de Middleton, whose wardship and marriage the former had acquired from King John in 1204\.Granville, p. 31\.
##### Richard de Grenville (fl. 1295\)
[thumb\|200px\|1860 imaginary depiction of Richard de Grenville (fl. 1295\), with escutcheon showing the arms of Grenville impaling Trewent](/wiki/File:RichardVGrenville_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.PNG "RichardVGrenville KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.PNG")
Richard de Grenville (son) (fl. 1295\), who married Jane Trewent, daughter and heiress of William Trewent of [Blisland](/wiki/Blisland "Blisland"), Cornwall, in the hundred of Trigg Minor,Granville, p. 34\. situated 5 miles north\-east of [Bodmin](/wiki/Bodmin "Bodmin"). A [roll of arms](/wiki/Roll_of_arms "Roll of arms") from the reign of King Edward III states: *Monsire Esteine de Trewent, port les armes de Tyes, a trois egles de gules a double teste.*Nicholas, Nicholas Harris (ed.), *[Rolls of Arms of the Reigns of Henry III and Edward III](https://archive.org/details/rollsofarmsofrei00nico)*, London, 1829, p.14 of A Roll of Arms of the Reign of Edward III ("Monsieur Stephen de Trewent bears the arms of de Tyes, three eagles with two heads gules"). These are the arms shown in the 19th century stained glass window in Kilkhampton Church shown impaled by Grenville. He left four sons:
* Richard de Grenville (died 1310\) (eldest son and heir)
* Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\), heir to his elder brother
* Robert de Grenville
* [William de Grenville](/wiki/William_Greenfield "William Greenfield") (died 1315\), [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor "Lord Chancellor") of England and [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York "Archbishop of York").Granville, p. 36\.
##### Richard de Grenville (died 1310\)
Richard de Grenville (died 1310\) (eldest son and heir). He married Isabel of Monte Treganion, daughter of Joscelyn of Monte Treganion, but died without children.
##### Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\)
Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\) (younger brother). He married Amy Vyvyan, daughter of Sir Vyell Vyvyan of Treviddren, Cornwall. Walter de Stapeldon, [Bishop of Exeter](/wiki/Bishop_of_Exeter "Bishop of Exeter"), granted to "Sir Bartholomew
and his wife Amy" a licence for the celebration of divine service *in capella sua de Bydeforde* ("in his chapel of Bideford").Granville, p. 49\.
##### Henry de Grenville (died 1327\)
[thumb\|200px\|17th c. depiction of arms of Henry Grenville (died 1327\) (*Gules, three clarions or*) impaling Wortham (*Sable, a chevron ermine between three lion's gambs erased argent*), the arms of his wife Ann Wortham. Kilkhampton ChurchGranville, p. 51Pole, p. 509, with tinctures amended to image at Kilkhampton](/wiki/File:GrenvilleImpalingWortham_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.PNG "GrenvilleImpalingWortham KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.PNG")
Henry de Grenville (died 1327\) (son), who married Ann Wortham, daughter and heiress of the family of Wortham, near Lifton, Devon. He was buried at Kilkhampton, where in 1895 his armorials impaling Wortham (*Sable, a chevron between three lion's paws argent*) were said to survive. In 1324 Henry de Grenvile presented to the Rectory of Kilkhampton Thomas Stapeldon, brother to Bishop Stapeldon, and also Walter de Prodhomme, a nephew of the ishop's, to the Rectory of Bideford in the same year. The Bishop in his will bequeathed to Walter de Prodhomme a legacy of 40s. for the maintenance of Bideford Bridge, as well as 10 marks *pro defectibus Ecclesiae de Bideforde reperandis* ("for the repairing of the Church of Bideford").
##### Sir Theobald de Grenville I (1323 – c. 1377\)
Sir Theobald de Grenville I (1323 – c. 1377\)Granville, p. 54\. (son), the builder of [Bideford Long Bridge](/wiki/Bideford_Long_Bridge "Bideford Long Bridge") and [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon "Sheriff of Devon"). He married Joyce de beaumont, daughter of Thomas de Beaumont, [Earl of Meulan](/wiki/Earl_of_Meulan "Earl of Meulan"). Following a financial dispute between the king and the Bishop of Exeter, Sheriff Theobald was ordered by the king in the summer of 1347 to enforce an order made against the bishop in the Court of King's Bench. He marched to the bishop's manor of [Bishops Tawton](/wiki/Bishops_Tawton "Bishops Tawton") at the head of an army of 500 persons and seized goods to the value stated, not without killing several occupants of that manor. In January 1348 he made apology on bended knee to the bishop in his great hall at Chudleigh.Granville, pp. 52–3\.
##### Sir Theobald de Grenville II (c. 1343 – July 1381\)
Sir Theobald de Grenville II (c. 1343 – July 1381\) (son), who married by 1365, Margaret Courtenay (born between 1342 and 1350, died after July 1381\), a daughter of Sir [Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon](/wiki/Hugh_Courtenay%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Devon "Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon") (12 July 1303 – 2 May 1377\), and his wife, [Margaret de Bohun](/wiki/Margaret_de_Bohun%2C_Countess_of_Devon "Margaret de Bohun, Countess of Devon") (b. 3 April 1311 \- d. 16 December 1391\), daughter of [Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford](/wiki/Humphrey_de_Bohun%2C_4th_Earl_of_Hereford "Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford") (by his wife [Elizabeth of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Rhuddlan "Elizabeth of Rhuddlan"), a daughter of [King Edward I](/wiki/King_Edward_I "King Edward I"))Vivian, J. L. The Visitations of Cornwall of 1530, 1573, \& 1620\. (1887\): p. 190 (Grenvile ped.), (author states, "Sr. Theobald Grenvile, Kt., temp. Rich II. \= Margaret, da. of Hugh Courtenay, Earl of Devon.")
##### Sir John Grenville (died 1412\)
Sir John Grenville (died 1412\) (eldest son and heir),Granville, p. 56\. [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon "Sheriff of Devon") in 1395, [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall "Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1411 and four times [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Devon](/wiki/Devon_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Devon (UK Parliament constituency)"), in 1388, 1394, 1397 and 1402\.Roskell, J. S.; Clark, L.; Rawcliffe, C. R. (1993\). "[Grenville, Sir John (d.1412\), of Stow in Kilkhampton, Cornw. and Bideford, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/member/grenville-sir-john-1412)". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\. At some time before September 1391 he married Margaret Burghersh (c. 1376 – c. 1421\), elder daughter and co\-heiress of Sir John Burghersh, MP, of Ewelme, Oxfordshire. He had no male children, only a daughter who predeceased him. His wife survived him and remarried to John Arundell (c. 1392 – 1423\), MP, (who during his marriage lived at Bideford) eldest son of Sir John Arundell (c. 1366 – 1435\), MP, of Lanherne, Steward of the [Duchy of Cornwall](/wiki/Duchy_of_Cornwall "Duchy of Cornwall").
##### William de Grenville, Esq. (died 1450\)
William de Grenville, Esq. (born by 1381 \- died 1450\) (younger brother). He married twice, firstly to Thomasine Cole, daughter of John Cole, by whom he had no children. His second marriage was to Philippa Bonville (living 1464\), a daughter or sisterThere is conflicting evidence regarding Philippa's relationship to William Bonville, see [Margaret Grey](/wiki/Margaret_Grey%23Marriage_and_issue "Margaret Grey#Marriage and issue") (wife of William Bonville) for details. of [William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville](/wiki/William_Bonville%2C_1st_Baron_Bonville "William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville") (1392–1461\). Lord Bonville was an enemy of the Courtenay [Earls of Devon](/wiki/Earl_of_Devon "Earl of Devon") of [Tiverton Castle](/wiki/Tiverton_Castle "Tiverton Castle"), but an ally of their cousins the Courtenays of [Powderham](/wiki/Manor_of_Powderham "Manor of Powderham"). By his second marriage Grenville had several children: his son and heir was Sir Thomas Grenville.Granville, p. 57\.
##### Sir Thomas Grenville I (died c. 1483\)
Sir Thomas Grenville I (born by 21 January 1432 \- died c. 1483\) (son), the first member of the family to modernise his surname by omitting the *particule* "de". He served as [Sheriff of Gloucester](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Gloucester "Sheriff of Gloucester") in 1480 and [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall "Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1483\.Granville, p. 58\. He married twice, firstly in 1447 in the [Basset family](/wiki/Basset_family "Basset family")'s [Umberleigh Chapel](/wiki/Umberleigh_Chapel "Umberleigh Chapel") to Anne Courtenay, a daughter of [Sir Philip Courtenay](/wiki/Philip_Courtenay_%28died_1463%29 "Philip Courtenay (died 1463)") (1404–1463\) of [Powderham](/wiki/Manor_of_Powderham "Manor of Powderham"), by his wife Elizabeth Hungerford, daughter of [Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford](/wiki/Walter_Hungerford%2C_1st_Baron_Hungerford "Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford") (died 1449\). One of her brothers was [Peter Courtenay](/wiki/Peter_Courtenay "Peter Courtenay") (died 1492\) [Bishop of Exeter](/wiki/Bishop_of_Exeter "Bishop of Exeter").Vivian (1895\), p.246, pedigree of Courtenay The marriage was childless. He married secondly to Elizabeth Gorges, daughter of Sir Theobald Gorges, K.B., lord of Wraxall, Somerset, and Braunton Gorges, co. Devon by his wife, Jane Hankford.Weis, p. 30\. Line 22\-11 (author states, "THOMAS GRENVILLE, ESQ., ... m. (2\) by 21 Jan 1453, Elizabeth dau. of Sir Theobald Gorges, K.B., lord of Wraxall, Somerset, and Braunton Gorges, co. Devon, by (1\) wife Joan (or Jane) Hankeford.").Roberts, Gary Boyd. *The Royal Descent of 600 Immigrants to the American Colonies or the United States*, (2008\): p. 524 \[Gen: 14] (author places Elizabeth Gorges as the daughter of Sir Theobald Gorges and Jane Hankford). His younger son Rev. John Grenville (died 1509\) was Rector of Bideford from 1504\.
##### Sir Thomas Grenville II (died c. 1513\)
[Sir Thomas Grenville II](/wiki/Thomas_Grenville_%28died_1513%29 "Thomas Grenville (died 1513)"), [K.B.](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath "Order of the Bath"), (c. 1453 – c. 1513\), (eldest son and heir).Weis, p. 30\. Line 22\-12 (author states, "SIR THOMAS GRENVILLE, K.B., son \& h. by (2\), b. say 1455, d. 18 Mar. 1513/4 ... "). He was [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Cornwall "High Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1481 and in 1486\.Richard Polwhele, The Civil and Military History of Cornwall, volume 1, London, 1806, pp 106–9; Byrne, vol. 1, p. 302 states "1485", quoting Public Record Office, Lists \& Indexes, vol. IX, List of Sheriffs During the [Wars of the Roses](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses "Wars of the Roses") in his youth he was a Lancastrian supporter and took part in the conspiracy against King Richard III organised by the [Duke of Buckingham](/wiki/Duke_of_Buckingham "Duke of Buckingham").Byrne, vol. 1, p. 302\. On the accession of King Henry VII (1485–1509\) and at the end of the wars, Grenville was appointed one of the [Esquires of the Body](/wiki/Esquire_of_the_Body "Esquire of the Body") to King Henry VII. On the marriage of Prince Arthur to Katherine of Aragon on 14 November 1501 he was appointed [K.B.](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath "Order of the Bath") He served on the Commission of the Peace for Devon from 1510 to his death.
##### Sir Roger Grenville (1477–1523\)
Sir Roger Grenville (1477–1523\) (eldest son and heir by his father's first wife Isabel Gilbert). he served as [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall "Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1510–11, 1517–18, 1522, and was present within the Cornish contingent at the [Field of the Cloth of Gold](/wiki/Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold "Field of the Cloth of Gold").Byrne, vol. 1, p. 303\. He married Margaret Whitleigh (*alias* Whitlegh, Whitely, etc.) one of the two daughters and co\-heiresses of Richard Whitleigh (died 1509\)Byrne, vol. 1, p. 307\. of [Efford](/wiki/Efford "Efford")Pole, p. 333\. in the parish of [Egg Buckland](/wiki/Egg_Buckland "Egg Buckland") on the south coast of Devon. Sir Roger Grenville had by his wife Margaret Whitleigh, three sons and six daughters.Granville, pp. 71\-77\. His second son was John Grenville (c. 1506 – c. 1562\), three times MP for Exeter, in 1545, 1554 and 1558\.Hawkyard, A.D.K. (1982\). "[GRENVILLE, John (by 1506\-62 or later), of Exeter, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1509-1558/member/grenville-john-1506-62-or-later)". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\.
##### Sir Richard Grenville (c. 1495 – 1550\)
Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville_%28died_1550%29 "Richard Grenville (died 1550)") (c. 1495 – 1550\) (eldest son and heir). He entered the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple "Inner Temple"), with his brother John, in 1520Byrne, vol. 4, p. 11\. and served as MP for Cornwall in 1529\.Goring, J.J. (1982\). "[GRENVILLE, Richard I (by 1495\-1550\), of Stowe in Kilkhampton, Cornw.](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1509-1558/member/grenville-richard-i-1495-1550)". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\. He married Matilda Bevil, a daughter and co\-heiress of John Bevil of Gwarnock, St Allen, Cornwall. He was pre\-deceased by his eldest son:
[thumb\|Grenville arms on a bench\-end in All Hallows Church, [Woolfardisworthy](/wiki/Woolfardisworthy%2C_Torridge "Woolfardisworthy, Torridge"), North Devon](/wiki/File:GrenvilleArms_BenchEnd_WoolfardisworthyChurch_NorthDevon.PNG "GrenvilleArms BenchEnd WoolfardisworthyChurch NorthDevon.PNG")
* Roger Grenville (died 1545\), present on the [Mary Rose](/wiki/Mary_Rose "Mary Rose") when it sank in Portsmouth Harbour in 1545, whose son was the heroic Admiral Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville "Richard Grenville") (1542–1591\). Roger Grenville (died 1545\) married Thomasine Cole (d.1586\),Vivian (1887\), p. 13, pedigree of Arundell of Trerice. a daughter of Thomas Cole of [Slade](/wiki/Slade%2C_Cornwood "Slade, Cornwood")Pole, p.388; Vivian (1887\), p. 191, pedigree of Grenville; Vivian (1895\), pp. 213\-4, pedigree of Cole. in the parish of [Cornwood](/wiki/Cornwood "Cornwood") in Devon and of [Bucks](/wiki/Bucks_Mill "Bucks Mill") in the parish of [Woolfardisworthy](/wiki/Woolfardisworthy%2C_Torridge "Woolfardisworthy, Torridge"), North Devon. A bench\-end from this period displaying the arms of Grenville survives in All Hallows Church, Woolfardisworthy. Thomasine survived her husband and remarried to Thomas Arundell (d.1574\) of Ley and of Clifton in the parish of [Landulph](/wiki/Landulph "Landulph"),Lysons, Magna Britannia: Cornwall{{page needed\|date\=September 2018}} in Cornwall,Vivian (1887\), p. 13, pedigree of Arundell of Trerice; Vivian (1895\), p. 214\. a grandson of Nicholas Arundell of [Trerice](/wiki/Trerice "Trerice") by his wife Johanna St John (died 1482\).
##### Admiral Sir Richard Grenville (1542–1591\)
[thumb\|200px\|Arms of Richard Grenville (1542–1591\) (*Gules, three clarions or*) impaling St Ledger (*Azure fretty argent, a chief or*), arms of his wife Mary St Ledger. Kilkhampton Church](/wiki/File:GrenvilleImpalingStLeger_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.png "GrenvilleImpalingStLeger KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.png")
Admiral Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville "Richard Grenville") (1542–1591\) (grandson), was Captain of the *[Revenge](/wiki/English_ship_Revenge_%281577%29 "English ship Revenge (1577)")*, MP for [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Cornwall (UK Parliament constituency)"), [Sheriff of Cork](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cork "Sheriff of Cork") from 1569 to 1570, [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall "Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1576–77, and an Armed Merchant Fleet Owner, privateer, colonizer, and [explorer](/wiki/List_of_explorers "List of explorers"). He died at the [Battle of Flores](/wiki/Battle_of_Flores_%281591%29 "Battle of Flores (1591)") (1591\), fighting heroically against overwhelming odds, and refusing to surrender his ship to the far more numerous Spanish. He married Mary St Leger (c. 1543 – 1623\), daughter of [Sir John St Ledger](/wiki/John_St._Leger_%28died_1596%29 "John St. Leger (died 1596)") of [Annery, Monkleigh](/wiki/Annery%2C_Monkleigh "Annery, Monkleigh"),Hasler, P. W. (1981\). "[GRENVILLE, Richard II (c.1542\-91\), of Stowe in Kilkhampton, Cornw. and Buckland Abbey, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/grenville-richard-ii-1542-91)". *The History of Parliament.* Retrieved 3 September 2018\. (near Bideford) and heir to her brother. She outlived her husband and died aged about 80 on 9 November 1623 and was buried at St Mary's Church, Bideford. The family initially lived at Buckland Abbey before moving to a newly built house at Bideford.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2018}} An escutcheon showing the arms of Grenville impaling St Ledger survives in Kilkhampton Church.
##### Sir Bernard Grenville (1567–1636\)
Sir [Bernard Grenville](/wiki/Bernard_Grenville "Bernard Grenville") (1567–1636\), (eldest surviving son and heir). He served as [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall "Sheriff of Cornwall") in 1596–97, and was a [Justice of the Peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_Peace "Justice of the Peace") and a [Deputy Lieutenant](/wiki/Deputy_Lieutenant "Deputy Lieutenant") of Cornwall in 1598\. He was appointed a [Gentleman of the Privy Chamber](/wiki/Gentleman_of_the_Privy_Chamber "Gentleman of the Privy Chamber") to King Charles I in 1628\. He was elected a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Bodmin](/wiki/Bodmin_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Bodmin (UK Parliament constituency)"), Cornwall, in 1597\. He married Elizabeth Bevill, only daughter and heiress of Phillip Bevill of Brinn and Killigarth.
##### Sir Bevil Grenville (1596–1643\)
Sir [Bevil Grenville](/wiki/Bevil_Grenville "Bevil Grenville") (1596–1643\) (eldest son and heir), a [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier "Cavalier") soldier in the [Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"), killed in action in heroic circumstances at the [Battle of Lansdowne](/wiki/Battle_of_Lansdowne "Battle of Lansdowne") in 1643\. He served as [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Cornwall (UK Parliament constituency)") 1621–1625 and 1640–42, and for [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Launceston (UK Parliament constituency)") 1625–1629 and 1640\. He married Grace Smith, a daughter by his second marriage of Sir [George Smith](/wiki/George_Smith_%28MP_for_Exeter%29 "George Smith (MP for Exeter)") (died 1619\) of Madworthy, near Exeter,Vivian (1895\), p. 569, pedigree of Monk of Potheridge Devon, a merchant who served as [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Exeter (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1604, was three times Mayor of Exeter and was Exeter's richest citizen, possessing 25 [manors](/wiki/Manorialism "Manorialism").Thrush, Andrew and Ferris, John P. "[SMITH, George (\-d.1619\), of Madford House, Exeter, Devon](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1604-1629/member/smith-george-1619)". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\.Round, p. 164\. Grace's half\-sister Elizabeth Smythe was the wife of Sir [Thomas Monk](/wiki/Thomas_Monk "Thomas Monk") (1570–1627\) of [Potheridge](/wiki/Potheridge "Potheridge"), Devon, [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Camelford](/wiki/Camelford_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1626, and mother of the great general [George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle](/wiki/George_Monck%2C_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle "George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle"), KG (1608–1670\). It was largely due to his close kinship to his first cousin the Duke that Sir Bevil's son Sir John Granville was raised to the peerage in 1660 as [Earl of Bath](/wiki/Earl_of_Bath "Earl of Bath"),Round, p. 163: "Great as was the favour bestowed on Sir John Granville" (i.e. later cr. 1st Earl of Bath) "and his brothers under Charles II, the actual part taken by Sir John in the restoration of the King was less potent to obtain it than his lucky relationship to George Monk, the prime agent in that event" and was also granted the reversion of the Dukedom of Albemarle in the event of the failure of George Monck's male issue.Round, p. 165\.
His third son was Bernard Granville, father of [George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdown](/wiki/George_Granville%2C_1st_Baron_Lansdown "George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdown") (1666–1735\). George became [heir male](/wiki/Heir_male "Heir male") of the family on the extinction of the senior male line in 1711, following the death of [William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath](/wiki/William_Granville%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bath "William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath") (1692–1711\), and due to this in 1712 was raised to the peerage as "Baron Lansdown of Bideford".
##### John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath (1628–1701\)
[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath](/wiki/John_Granville%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bath "John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath") (1628–1701\) (son and heir). He was a major figure in effecting, in a subsidiary role to his cousin [George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle](/wiki/George_Monck%2C_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle "George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle"), the [Restoration of the Monarchy](/wiki/Restoration_%281660%29 "Restoration (1660)") to King Charles II in 1660, for which service he was elevated to the peerage. He left two sons and three daughters, who were in their issue the eventual co\-heiresses of his grandson the 3rd Earl:
* Jane Granville (died 27 February 1696\), wife of [Sir William Leveson\-Gower, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_William_Leveson-Gower%2C_4th_Baronet "Sir William Leveson-Gower, 4th Baronet") and mother of [John Leveson\-Gower, 1st Baron Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Baron_Gower "John Leveson-Gower, 1st Baron Gower") (1675–1709\) and grandmother of [John Leveson\-Gower, 1st Earl Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Gower "John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower") (1694–1754\).
* Catherine Granville, wife of [Craven Peyton](/wiki/Craven_Peyton "Craven Peyton") (c. 1663 – 1738\), Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge 1705–1713\. She died childless.Hayton, D.; Cruickshanks, E.; Handley, S. (2002\). "[PEYTON, Craven (c.1663\-1738\), of Stratton Street, Westminster](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690-1715/member/peyton-craven-1663-1738)". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\.
* Grace Granville, *suo jure* Countess Granville (3 September 1654 – 18 October 1744\), wife of [George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret](/wiki/George_Carteret%2C_1st_Baron_Carteret "George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret") and mother of [John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville](/wiki/John_Carteret%2C_2nd_Earl_Granville "John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville").
##### Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath (1661–1701\)
[Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath](/wiki/Charles_Granville%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Bath "Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath") (1661–1701\), (eldest son and heir). The family changed the spelling of its surname to "Granville", which was believed to be a more accurate reflection of its Norman origins at Granville in Normandy. He died from a gunshot wound during the preparations for his father's funeral, possibly suicide. He was twice married, firstly to Lady Martha Osborne (1664–1689\), daughter of [Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds](/wiki/Thomas_Osborne%2C_1st_Duke_of_Leeds "Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds"). Without children. Secondly in 1691 he married Isabella van Nassau (1668–1692\), sister of [Henry Nassau d'Auverquerque, 1st Earl of Grantham](/wiki/Henry_Nassau_d%27Auverquerque%2C_1st_Earl_of_Grantham "Henry Nassau d'Auverquerque, 1st Earl of Grantham"). His second son was [John Granville, 1st Baron Granville](/wiki/John_Granville%2C_1st_Baron_Granville "John Granville, 1st Baron Granville") of [Potheridge](/wiki/Potheridge "Potheridge") (1665–1707\).
##### William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath (1692–1711\)
[William Henry Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath](/wiki/William_Granville%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bath "William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath") (1692–1711\) (son and heir by father's 2nd marriage). He died of smallpox aged 19 without children when the earldom became extinct. His co\-heirs were the surviving descendants of the three daughters of the 1st Earl:
* [John Leveson\-Gower, 1st Earl Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Gower "John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower") (1694–1754\), grandson of Jane Granville (died 1696\), daughter of the 1st Earl and wife of [Sir William Leveson\-Gower, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_William_Leveson-Gower%2C_4th_Baronet "Sir William Leveson-Gower, 4th Baronet").
* Grace Granville, *suo jure* Countess Granville (1654–1744\), daughter of the 1st Earl and wife of [George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret](/wiki/George_Carteret%2C_1st_Baron_Carteret "George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret") and mother of [John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville](/wiki/John_Carteret%2C_2nd_Earl_Granville "John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville")
|
[
"#### Grenville",
"According to the 1895 work of the family's historian Rev. Roger Granville, Rector of Bideford, the descent of the [manor](/wiki/Manorialism \"Manorialism\") of [Bideford](/wiki/Bideford \"Bideford\") in North [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\"), England, was as follows:Granville, Roger, M.A., (Rector of Bideford). *[The History of the Granville Family Traced Back to Rollo, First Duke of the Normans, with Pedigrees etc](https://archive.org/details/historyofgranvil00gran)*. (Exeter, 1895\\).{{better source needed\\|date\\=April 2019}}",
"##### Sir Richard de Grenville (died after 1142\\)",
"[thumb\\|1860 imaginary depiction of Robert FitzHamon (died 1107\\) (left) and his younger brother [Richard de Grenville](/wiki/Richard_de_Grenville \"Richard de Grenville\") (died after 1142\\) (right), Church of St James the Great, [Kilkhampton](/wiki/Kilkhampton \"Kilkhampton\"), Cornwall](/wiki/File:RobertFitzHamon_%26RichardDeGrenville_1860Window_Kilkhampton.JPG \"RobertFitzHamon &RichardDeGrenville 1860Window Kilkhampton.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Historic seats of the Grenville family (spelled \"Granville\" after 1661Round, p. 130\\.) in Normandy ([Granville, Manche](/wiki/Granville%2C_Manche \"Granville, Manche\")), Glamorgan ([Neath Castle](/wiki/Neath_Castle \"Neath Castle\")), Devon ([Bideford](/wiki/Bideford \"Bideford\")) \\& Cornwall ([Stowe, Kilkhampton](/wiki/Stowe%2C_Kilkhampton \"Stowe, Kilkhampton\"))](/wiki/File:MapGrenvilleSeats.PNG \"MapGrenvilleSeats.PNG\")\nSir [Richard de Grenville](/wiki/Richard_de_Grenville \"Richard de Grenville\") (died after 1142\\) (*alias* de Grainvilla, de Greinvill, etc.) was one of the [Twelve Knights of Glamorgan](/wiki/Twelve_Knights_of_Glamorgan \"Twelve Knights of Glamorgan\") who served in the Norman Conquest of [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan \"Glamorgan\") under [Robert FitzHamon](/wiki/Robert_FitzHamon \"Robert FitzHamon\") (died 1107\\), the first Norman [feudal baron of Gloucester](/wiki/Feudal_barony_of_Gloucester \"Feudal barony of Gloucester\") and [Lord of Glamorgan](/wiki/Lord_of_Glamorgan \"Lord of Glamorgan\") from 1075\\. He obtained from FitzHamon the lordship of [Neath](/wiki/Neath \"Neath\"), Glamorgan, in which he built [Neath Castle](/wiki/Neath_Castle \"Neath Castle\") and in 1129 founded [Neath Abbey](/wiki/Neath_Abbey \"Neath Abbey\"). Richard de Grenville is by tradition the founder and ancestor of the prominent [Westcountry](/wiki/Westcountry \"Westcountry\") Grenville family of [Stowe](/wiki/Stowe%2C_Kilkhampton \"Stowe, Kilkhampton\") in the parish of [Kilkhampton](/wiki/Kilkhampton \"Kilkhampton\") in Cornwall and of Bideford in Devon.",
"By tradition Richard de Grenville is said by [Prince](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 \"John Prince (biographer)\") (died 1723\\),[Prince, John](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 \"John Prince (biographer)\"), (1643–1723\\) The Worthies of Devon, 1810 edition, p.440, biography of Sir Theobald Grenvil (apparently following *[Fuller's Worthies](/wiki/Fuller%27s_Worthies \"Fuller's Worthies\")*)Round, p. 138\\.) after he had founded Neath Abbey and bestowed upon it all his military acquisitions for its maintenance, to have \"returned to his patrimony at Bideford where he lived in great honour and reputation the rest of his days\". However, according to Round no proof exists that Richard de Grenville ever held the manor of Bideford, which was later one of the principal seats of the Westcountry Grenville family. It was however certainly one of the constituent manors of the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester \"Honour of Gloucester\") granted by King [William Rufus](/wiki/William_Rufus \"William Rufus\") to [Robert FitzHamon](/wiki/Robert_FitzHamon \"Robert FitzHamon\").\" Richard de Grenville is known to have held seven [knight's fees](/wiki/Knight%27s_fee \"Knight's fee\") from the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester \"Honour of Gloucester\"), either granted to him by his FitzHamon or the latter's son\\-in\\-law and heir [Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester](/wiki/Robert%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gloucester \"Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester\") (1100–1147\\). Round supposes that the Grenvilles of Bideford and Stowe were instead descended from a certain \"Robert de Grenville\" (*alias* de Grainville, de Grainavilla, etc.) who was a junior witness to Richard's foundation charter of Neath Abbey and who in the 1166 [Cartae Baronum](/wiki/Cartae_Baronum \"Cartae Baronum\") return was listed as holding one [knight's fee](/wiki/Knight%27s_fee \"Knight's fee\") from the Earl of Gloucester, feudal baron of Gloucester. Robert's familial relationship, if any, to Richard is unknown.",
"##### Richard de Grenville (fl. late 12th century)",
"Richard de Grenville (eldest son, by tradition). He married Adelina de Beaumont, and during the reign of King Henry II (1154–1189\\) held 3 1/2 knight's fees from the [Honour of Gloucester](/wiki/Honour_of_Gloucester \"Honour of Gloucester\").",
"##### Richard de Grenville (died 1204\\)",
"Richard de Grenville (died 1204\\) (son), who married a certain *Gundreda*. He died in 1204, leaving his children as minors. King John granted the wardship of his son and heir Richard de Grenville to Richard Fleminge in consideration for six hundred marks and six palfreys.Granville, p. 32\\.",
"##### Richard de Grenville (died c. 1217\\)",
"Richard de Grenville (died c. 1217\\) (son). As arranged by his father, he married the daughter and heiress of Thomas de Middleton, whose wardship and marriage the former had acquired from King John in 1204\\.Granville, p. 31\\.",
"##### Richard de Grenville (fl. 1295\\)",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|1860 imaginary depiction of Richard de Grenville (fl. 1295\\), with escutcheon showing the arms of Grenville impaling Trewent](/wiki/File:RichardVGrenville_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.PNG \"RichardVGrenville KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.PNG\")\nRichard de Grenville (son) (fl. 1295\\), who married Jane Trewent, daughter and heiress of William Trewent of [Blisland](/wiki/Blisland \"Blisland\"), Cornwall, in the hundred of Trigg Minor,Granville, p. 34\\. situated 5 miles north\\-east of [Bodmin](/wiki/Bodmin \"Bodmin\"). A [roll of arms](/wiki/Roll_of_arms \"Roll of arms\") from the reign of King Edward III states: *Monsire Esteine de Trewent, port les armes de Tyes, a trois egles de gules a double teste.*Nicholas, Nicholas Harris (ed.), *[Rolls of Arms of the Reigns of Henry III and Edward III](https://archive.org/details/rollsofarmsofrei00nico)*, London, 1829, p.14 of A Roll of Arms of the Reign of Edward III (\"Monsieur Stephen de Trewent bears the arms of de Tyes, three eagles with two heads gules\"). These are the arms shown in the 19th century stained glass window in Kilkhampton Church shown impaled by Grenville. He left four sons:\n* Richard de Grenville (died 1310\\) (eldest son and heir)\n* Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\\), heir to his elder brother\n* Robert de Grenville\n* [William de Grenville](/wiki/William_Greenfield \"William Greenfield\") (died 1315\\), [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor \"Lord Chancellor\") of England and [Archbishop of York](/wiki/Archbishop_of_York \"Archbishop of York\").Granville, p. 36\\.",
"##### Richard de Grenville (died 1310\\)",
"Richard de Grenville (died 1310\\) (eldest son and heir). He married Isabel of Monte Treganion, daughter of Joscelyn of Monte Treganion, but died without children.",
"##### Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\\)",
"Bartholomew Grenville (died 1325\\) (younger brother). He married Amy Vyvyan, daughter of Sir Vyell Vyvyan of Treviddren, Cornwall. Walter de Stapeldon, [Bishop of Exeter](/wiki/Bishop_of_Exeter \"Bishop of Exeter\"), granted to \"Sir Bartholomew\nand his wife Amy\" a licence for the celebration of divine service *in capella sua de Bydeforde* (\"in his chapel of Bideford\").Granville, p. 49\\.",
"##### Henry de Grenville (died 1327\\)",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|17th c. depiction of arms of Henry Grenville (died 1327\\) (*Gules, three clarions or*) impaling Wortham (*Sable, a chevron ermine between three lion's gambs erased argent*), the arms of his wife Ann Wortham. Kilkhampton ChurchGranville, p. 51Pole, p. 509, with tinctures amended to image at Kilkhampton](/wiki/File:GrenvilleImpalingWortham_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.PNG \"GrenvilleImpalingWortham KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.PNG\")\nHenry de Grenville (died 1327\\) (son), who married Ann Wortham, daughter and heiress of the family of Wortham, near Lifton, Devon. He was buried at Kilkhampton, where in 1895 his armorials impaling Wortham (*Sable, a chevron between three lion's paws argent*) were said to survive. In 1324 Henry de Grenvile presented to the Rectory of Kilkhampton Thomas Stapeldon, brother to Bishop Stapeldon, and also Walter de Prodhomme, a nephew of the ishop's, to the Rectory of Bideford in the same year. The Bishop in his will bequeathed to Walter de Prodhomme a legacy of 40s. for the maintenance of Bideford Bridge, as well as 10 marks *pro defectibus Ecclesiae de Bideforde reperandis* (\"for the repairing of the Church of Bideford\").",
"##### Sir Theobald de Grenville I (1323 – c. 1377\\)",
"Sir Theobald de Grenville I (1323 – c. 1377\\)Granville, p. 54\\. (son), the builder of [Bideford Long Bridge](/wiki/Bideford_Long_Bridge \"Bideford Long Bridge\") and [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon \"Sheriff of Devon\"). He married Joyce de beaumont, daughter of Thomas de Beaumont, [Earl of Meulan](/wiki/Earl_of_Meulan \"Earl of Meulan\"). Following a financial dispute between the king and the Bishop of Exeter, Sheriff Theobald was ordered by the king in the summer of 1347 to enforce an order made against the bishop in the Court of King's Bench. He marched to the bishop's manor of [Bishops Tawton](/wiki/Bishops_Tawton \"Bishops Tawton\") at the head of an army of 500 persons and seized goods to the value stated, not without killing several occupants of that manor. In January 1348 he made apology on bended knee to the bishop in his great hall at Chudleigh.Granville, pp. 52–3\\.",
"##### Sir Theobald de Grenville II (c. 1343 – July 1381\\)",
"Sir Theobald de Grenville II (c. 1343 – July 1381\\) (son), who married by 1365, Margaret Courtenay (born between 1342 and 1350, died after July 1381\\), a daughter of Sir [Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon](/wiki/Hugh_Courtenay%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Devon \"Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon\") (12 July 1303 – 2 May 1377\\), and his wife, [Margaret de Bohun](/wiki/Margaret_de_Bohun%2C_Countess_of_Devon \"Margaret de Bohun, Countess of Devon\") (b. 3 April 1311 \\- d. 16 December 1391\\), daughter of [Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford](/wiki/Humphrey_de_Bohun%2C_4th_Earl_of_Hereford \"Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford\") (by his wife [Elizabeth of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Rhuddlan \"Elizabeth of Rhuddlan\"), a daughter of [King Edward I](/wiki/King_Edward_I \"King Edward I\"))Vivian, J. L. The Visitations of Cornwall of 1530, 1573, \\& 1620\\. (1887\\): p. 190 (Grenvile ped.), (author states, \"Sr. Theobald Grenvile, Kt., temp. Rich II. \\= Margaret, da. of Hugh Courtenay, Earl of Devon.\")",
"##### Sir John Grenville (died 1412\\)",
"Sir John Grenville (died 1412\\) (eldest son and heir),Granville, p. 56\\. [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon \"Sheriff of Devon\") in 1395, [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1411 and four times [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Devon](/wiki/Devon_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Devon (UK Parliament constituency)\"), in 1388, 1394, 1397 and 1402\\.Roskell, J. S.; Clark, L.; Rawcliffe, C. R. (1993\\). \"[Grenville, Sir John (d.1412\\), of Stow in Kilkhampton, Cornw. and Bideford, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/member/grenville-sir-john-1412)\". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\\. At some time before September 1391 he married Margaret Burghersh (c. 1376 – c. 1421\\), elder daughter and co\\-heiress of Sir John Burghersh, MP, of Ewelme, Oxfordshire. He had no male children, only a daughter who predeceased him. His wife survived him and remarried to John Arundell (c. 1392 – 1423\\), MP, (who during his marriage lived at Bideford) eldest son of Sir John Arundell (c. 1366 – 1435\\), MP, of Lanherne, Steward of the [Duchy of Cornwall](/wiki/Duchy_of_Cornwall \"Duchy of Cornwall\").",
"##### William de Grenville, Esq. (died 1450\\)",
"William de Grenville, Esq. (born by 1381 \\- died 1450\\) (younger brother). He married twice, firstly to Thomasine Cole, daughter of John Cole, by whom he had no children. His second marriage was to Philippa Bonville (living 1464\\), a daughter or sisterThere is conflicting evidence regarding Philippa's relationship to William Bonville, see [Margaret Grey](/wiki/Margaret_Grey%23Marriage_and_issue \"Margaret Grey#Marriage and issue\") (wife of William Bonville) for details. of [William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville](/wiki/William_Bonville%2C_1st_Baron_Bonville \"William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville\") (1392–1461\\). Lord Bonville was an enemy of the Courtenay [Earls of Devon](/wiki/Earl_of_Devon \"Earl of Devon\") of [Tiverton Castle](/wiki/Tiverton_Castle \"Tiverton Castle\"), but an ally of their cousins the Courtenays of [Powderham](/wiki/Manor_of_Powderham \"Manor of Powderham\"). By his second marriage Grenville had several children: his son and heir was Sir Thomas Grenville.Granville, p. 57\\.",
"##### Sir Thomas Grenville I (died c. 1483\\)",
"Sir Thomas Grenville I (born by 21 January 1432 \\- died c. 1483\\) (son), the first member of the family to modernise his surname by omitting the *particule* \"de\". He served as [Sheriff of Gloucester](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Gloucester \"Sheriff of Gloucester\") in 1480 and [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1483\\.Granville, p. 58\\. He married twice, firstly in 1447 in the [Basset family](/wiki/Basset_family \"Basset family\")'s [Umberleigh Chapel](/wiki/Umberleigh_Chapel \"Umberleigh Chapel\") to Anne Courtenay, a daughter of [Sir Philip Courtenay](/wiki/Philip_Courtenay_%28died_1463%29 \"Philip Courtenay (died 1463)\") (1404–1463\\) of [Powderham](/wiki/Manor_of_Powderham \"Manor of Powderham\"), by his wife Elizabeth Hungerford, daughter of [Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford](/wiki/Walter_Hungerford%2C_1st_Baron_Hungerford \"Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford\") (died 1449\\). One of her brothers was [Peter Courtenay](/wiki/Peter_Courtenay \"Peter Courtenay\") (died 1492\\) [Bishop of Exeter](/wiki/Bishop_of_Exeter \"Bishop of Exeter\").Vivian (1895\\), p.246, pedigree of Courtenay The marriage was childless. He married secondly to Elizabeth Gorges, daughter of Sir Theobald Gorges, K.B., lord of Wraxall, Somerset, and Braunton Gorges, co. Devon by his wife, Jane Hankford.Weis, p. 30\\. Line 22\\-11 (author states, \"THOMAS GRENVILLE, ESQ., ... m. (2\\) by 21 Jan 1453, Elizabeth dau. of Sir Theobald Gorges, K.B., lord of Wraxall, Somerset, and Braunton Gorges, co. Devon, by (1\\) wife Joan (or Jane) Hankeford.\").Roberts, Gary Boyd. *The Royal Descent of 600 Immigrants to the American Colonies or the United States*, (2008\\): p. 524 \\[Gen: 14] (author places Elizabeth Gorges as the daughter of Sir Theobald Gorges and Jane Hankford). His younger son Rev. John Grenville (died 1509\\) was Rector of Bideford from 1504\\.",
"##### Sir Thomas Grenville II (died c. 1513\\)",
"[Sir Thomas Grenville II](/wiki/Thomas_Grenville_%28died_1513%29 \"Thomas Grenville (died 1513)\"), [K.B.](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath \"Order of the Bath\"), (c. 1453 – c. 1513\\), (eldest son and heir).Weis, p. 30\\. Line 22\\-12 (author states, \"SIR THOMAS GRENVILLE, K.B., son \\& h. by (2\\), b. say 1455, d. 18 Mar. 1513/4 ... \"). He was [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"High Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1481 and in 1486\\.Richard Polwhele, The Civil and Military History of Cornwall, volume 1, London, 1806, pp 106–9; Byrne, vol. 1, p. 302 states \"1485\", quoting Public Record Office, Lists \\& Indexes, vol. IX, List of Sheriffs During the [Wars of the Roses](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses \"Wars of the Roses\") in his youth he was a Lancastrian supporter and took part in the conspiracy against King Richard III organised by the [Duke of Buckingham](/wiki/Duke_of_Buckingham \"Duke of Buckingham\").Byrne, vol. 1, p. 302\\. On the accession of King Henry VII (1485–1509\\) and at the end of the wars, Grenville was appointed one of the [Esquires of the Body](/wiki/Esquire_of_the_Body \"Esquire of the Body\") to King Henry VII. On the marriage of Prince Arthur to Katherine of Aragon on 14 November 1501 he was appointed [K.B.](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath \"Order of the Bath\") He served on the Commission of the Peace for Devon from 1510 to his death.",
"##### Sir Roger Grenville (1477–1523\\)",
"Sir Roger Grenville (1477–1523\\) (eldest son and heir by his father's first wife Isabel Gilbert). he served as [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1510–11, 1517–18, 1522, and was present within the Cornish contingent at the [Field of the Cloth of Gold](/wiki/Field_of_the_Cloth_of_Gold \"Field of the Cloth of Gold\").Byrne, vol. 1, p. 303\\. He married Margaret Whitleigh (*alias* Whitlegh, Whitely, etc.) one of the two daughters and co\\-heiresses of Richard Whitleigh (died 1509\\)Byrne, vol. 1, p. 307\\. of [Efford](/wiki/Efford \"Efford\")Pole, p. 333\\. in the parish of [Egg Buckland](/wiki/Egg_Buckland \"Egg Buckland\") on the south coast of Devon. Sir Roger Grenville had by his wife Margaret Whitleigh, three sons and six daughters.Granville, pp. 71\\-77\\. His second son was John Grenville (c. 1506 – c. 1562\\), three times MP for Exeter, in 1545, 1554 and 1558\\.Hawkyard, A.D.K. (1982\\). \"[GRENVILLE, John (by 1506\\-62 or later), of Exeter, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1509-1558/member/grenville-john-1506-62-or-later)\". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\\.",
"##### Sir Richard Grenville (c. 1495 – 1550\\)",
"Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville_%28died_1550%29 \"Richard Grenville (died 1550)\") (c. 1495 – 1550\\) (eldest son and heir). He entered the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple \"Inner Temple\"), with his brother John, in 1520Byrne, vol. 4, p. 11\\. and served as MP for Cornwall in 1529\\.Goring, J.J. (1982\\). \"[GRENVILLE, Richard I (by 1495\\-1550\\), of Stowe in Kilkhampton, Cornw.](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1509-1558/member/grenville-richard-i-1495-1550)\". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\\. He married Matilda Bevil, a daughter and co\\-heiress of John Bevil of Gwarnock, St Allen, Cornwall. He was pre\\-deceased by his eldest son:\n[thumb\\|Grenville arms on a bench\\-end in All Hallows Church, [Woolfardisworthy](/wiki/Woolfardisworthy%2C_Torridge \"Woolfardisworthy, Torridge\"), North Devon](/wiki/File:GrenvilleArms_BenchEnd_WoolfardisworthyChurch_NorthDevon.PNG \"GrenvilleArms BenchEnd WoolfardisworthyChurch NorthDevon.PNG\")\n* Roger Grenville (died 1545\\), present on the [Mary Rose](/wiki/Mary_Rose \"Mary Rose\") when it sank in Portsmouth Harbour in 1545, whose son was the heroic Admiral Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville \"Richard Grenville\") (1542–1591\\). Roger Grenville (died 1545\\) married Thomasine Cole (d.1586\\),Vivian (1887\\), p. 13, pedigree of Arundell of Trerice. a daughter of Thomas Cole of [Slade](/wiki/Slade%2C_Cornwood \"Slade, Cornwood\")Pole, p.388; Vivian (1887\\), p. 191, pedigree of Grenville; Vivian (1895\\), pp. 213\\-4, pedigree of Cole. in the parish of [Cornwood](/wiki/Cornwood \"Cornwood\") in Devon and of [Bucks](/wiki/Bucks_Mill \"Bucks Mill\") in the parish of [Woolfardisworthy](/wiki/Woolfardisworthy%2C_Torridge \"Woolfardisworthy, Torridge\"), North Devon. A bench\\-end from this period displaying the arms of Grenville survives in All Hallows Church, Woolfardisworthy. Thomasine survived her husband and remarried to Thomas Arundell (d.1574\\) of Ley and of Clifton in the parish of [Landulph](/wiki/Landulph \"Landulph\"),Lysons, Magna Britannia: Cornwall{{page needed\\|date\\=September 2018}} in Cornwall,Vivian (1887\\), p. 13, pedigree of Arundell of Trerice; Vivian (1895\\), p. 214\\. a grandson of Nicholas Arundell of [Trerice](/wiki/Trerice \"Trerice\") by his wife Johanna St John (died 1482\\).",
"##### Admiral Sir Richard Grenville (1542–1591\\)",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Arms of Richard Grenville (1542–1591\\) (*Gules, three clarions or*) impaling St Ledger (*Azure fretty argent, a chief or*), arms of his wife Mary St Ledger. Kilkhampton Church](/wiki/File:GrenvilleImpalingStLeger_KilkhamptonChurch_Cornwall.png \"GrenvilleImpalingStLeger KilkhamptonChurch Cornwall.png\")\nAdmiral Sir [Richard Grenville](/wiki/Richard_Grenville \"Richard Grenville\") (1542–1591\\) (grandson), was Captain of the *[Revenge](/wiki/English_ship_Revenge_%281577%29 \"English ship Revenge (1577)\")*, MP for [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Cornwall (UK Parliament constituency)\"), [Sheriff of Cork](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cork \"Sheriff of Cork\") from 1569 to 1570, [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1576–77, and an Armed Merchant Fleet Owner, privateer, colonizer, and [explorer](/wiki/List_of_explorers \"List of explorers\"). He died at the [Battle of Flores](/wiki/Battle_of_Flores_%281591%29 \"Battle of Flores (1591)\") (1591\\), fighting heroically against overwhelming odds, and refusing to surrender his ship to the far more numerous Spanish. He married Mary St Leger (c. 1543 – 1623\\), daughter of [Sir John St Ledger](/wiki/John_St._Leger_%28died_1596%29 \"John St. Leger (died 1596)\") of [Annery, Monkleigh](/wiki/Annery%2C_Monkleigh \"Annery, Monkleigh\"),Hasler, P. W. (1981\\). \"[GRENVILLE, Richard II (c.1542\\-91\\), of Stowe in Kilkhampton, Cornw. and Buckland Abbey, Devon.](https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/grenville-richard-ii-1542-91)\". *The History of Parliament.* Retrieved 3 September 2018\\. (near Bideford) and heir to her brother. She outlived her husband and died aged about 80 on 9 November 1623 and was buried at St Mary's Church, Bideford. The family initially lived at Buckland Abbey before moving to a newly built house at Bideford.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2018}} An escutcheon showing the arms of Grenville impaling St Ledger survives in Kilkhampton Church.",
"##### Sir Bernard Grenville (1567–1636\\)",
"Sir [Bernard Grenville](/wiki/Bernard_Grenville \"Bernard Grenville\") (1567–1636\\), (eldest surviving son and heir). He served as [Sheriff of Cornwall](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Cornwall \"Sheriff of Cornwall\") in 1596–97, and was a [Justice of the Peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_Peace \"Justice of the Peace\") and a [Deputy Lieutenant](/wiki/Deputy_Lieutenant \"Deputy Lieutenant\") of Cornwall in 1598\\. He was appointed a [Gentleman of the Privy Chamber](/wiki/Gentleman_of_the_Privy_Chamber \"Gentleman of the Privy Chamber\") to King Charles I in 1628\\. He was elected a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Bodmin](/wiki/Bodmin_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Bodmin (UK Parliament constituency)\"), Cornwall, in 1597\\. He married Elizabeth Bevill, only daughter and heiress of Phillip Bevill of Brinn and Killigarth.",
"##### Sir Bevil Grenville (1596–1643\\)",
"Sir [Bevil Grenville](/wiki/Bevil_Grenville \"Bevil Grenville\") (1596–1643\\) (eldest son and heir), a [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier \"Cavalier\") soldier in the [Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), killed in action in heroic circumstances at the [Battle of Lansdowne](/wiki/Battle_of_Lansdowne \"Battle of Lansdowne\") in 1643\\. He served as [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Cornwall (UK Parliament constituency)\") 1621–1625 and 1640–42, and for [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Launceston (UK Parliament constituency)\") 1625–1629 and 1640\\. He married Grace Smith, a daughter by his second marriage of Sir [George Smith](/wiki/George_Smith_%28MP_for_Exeter%29 \"George Smith (MP for Exeter)\") (died 1619\\) of Madworthy, near Exeter,Vivian (1895\\), p. 569, pedigree of Monk of Potheridge Devon, a merchant who served as [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Exeter (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1604, was three times Mayor of Exeter and was Exeter's richest citizen, possessing 25 [manors](/wiki/Manorialism \"Manorialism\").Thrush, Andrew and Ferris, John P. \"[SMITH, George (\\-d.1619\\), of Madford House, Exeter, Devon](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1604-1629/member/smith-george-1619)\". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\\.Round, p. 164\\. Grace's half\\-sister Elizabeth Smythe was the wife of Sir [Thomas Monk](/wiki/Thomas_Monk \"Thomas Monk\") (1570–1627\\) of [Potheridge](/wiki/Potheridge \"Potheridge\"), Devon, [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Camelford](/wiki/Camelford_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1626, and mother of the great general [George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle](/wiki/George_Monck%2C_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle \"George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle\"), KG (1608–1670\\). It was largely due to his close kinship to his first cousin the Duke that Sir Bevil's son Sir John Granville was raised to the peerage in 1660 as [Earl of Bath](/wiki/Earl_of_Bath \"Earl of Bath\"),Round, p. 163: \"Great as was the favour bestowed on Sir John Granville\" (i.e. later cr. 1st Earl of Bath) \"and his brothers under Charles II, the actual part taken by Sir John in the restoration of the King was less potent to obtain it than his lucky relationship to George Monk, the prime agent in that event\" and was also granted the reversion of the Dukedom of Albemarle in the event of the failure of George Monck's male issue.Round, p. 165\\.",
"His third son was Bernard Granville, father of [George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdown](/wiki/George_Granville%2C_1st_Baron_Lansdown \"George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdown\") (1666–1735\\). George became [heir male](/wiki/Heir_male \"Heir male\") of the family on the extinction of the senior male line in 1711, following the death of [William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath](/wiki/William_Granville%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bath \"William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath\") (1692–1711\\), and due to this in 1712 was raised to the peerage as \"Baron Lansdown of Bideford\".",
"##### John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath (1628–1701\\)",
"[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath](/wiki/John_Granville%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bath \"John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath\") (1628–1701\\) (son and heir). He was a major figure in effecting, in a subsidiary role to his cousin [George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle](/wiki/George_Monck%2C_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle \"George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle\"), the [Restoration of the Monarchy](/wiki/Restoration_%281660%29 \"Restoration (1660)\") to King Charles II in 1660, for which service he was elevated to the peerage. He left two sons and three daughters, who were in their issue the eventual co\\-heiresses of his grandson the 3rd Earl:\n* Jane Granville (died 27 February 1696\\), wife of [Sir William Leveson\\-Gower, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_William_Leveson-Gower%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir William Leveson-Gower, 4th Baronet\") and mother of [John Leveson\\-Gower, 1st Baron Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Baron_Gower \"John Leveson-Gower, 1st Baron Gower\") (1675–1709\\) and grandmother of [John Leveson\\-Gower, 1st Earl Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Gower \"John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower\") (1694–1754\\).\n* Catherine Granville, wife of [Craven Peyton](/wiki/Craven_Peyton \"Craven Peyton\") (c. 1663 – 1738\\), Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge 1705–1713\\. She died childless.Hayton, D.; Cruickshanks, E.; Handley, S. (2002\\). \"[PEYTON, Craven (c.1663\\-1738\\), of Stratton Street, Westminster](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690-1715/member/peyton-craven-1663-1738)\". *The History of Parliament*. Retrieved 3 September 2018\\.\n* Grace Granville, *suo jure* Countess Granville (3 September 1654 – 18 October 1744\\), wife of [George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret](/wiki/George_Carteret%2C_1st_Baron_Carteret \"George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret\") and mother of [John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville](/wiki/John_Carteret%2C_2nd_Earl_Granville \"John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville\").",
"##### Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath (1661–1701\\)",
"[Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath](/wiki/Charles_Granville%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Bath \"Charles Granville, 2nd Earl of Bath\") (1661–1701\\), (eldest son and heir). The family changed the spelling of its surname to \"Granville\", which was believed to be a more accurate reflection of its Norman origins at Granville in Normandy. He died from a gunshot wound during the preparations for his father's funeral, possibly suicide. He was twice married, firstly to Lady Martha Osborne (1664–1689\\), daughter of [Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds](/wiki/Thomas_Osborne%2C_1st_Duke_of_Leeds \"Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds\"). Without children. Secondly in 1691 he married Isabella van Nassau (1668–1692\\), sister of [Henry Nassau d'Auverquerque, 1st Earl of Grantham](/wiki/Henry_Nassau_d%27Auverquerque%2C_1st_Earl_of_Grantham \"Henry Nassau d'Auverquerque, 1st Earl of Grantham\"). His second son was [John Granville, 1st Baron Granville](/wiki/John_Granville%2C_1st_Baron_Granville \"John Granville, 1st Baron Granville\") of [Potheridge](/wiki/Potheridge \"Potheridge\") (1665–1707\\).",
"##### William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath (1692–1711\\)",
"[William Henry Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath](/wiki/William_Granville%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bath \"William Granville, 3rd Earl of Bath\") (1692–1711\\) (son and heir by father's 2nd marriage). He died of smallpox aged 19 without children when the earldom became extinct. His co\\-heirs were the surviving descendants of the three daughters of the 1st Earl:\n* [John Leveson\\-Gower, 1st Earl Gower](/wiki/John_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Gower \"John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower\") (1694–1754\\), grandson of Jane Granville (died 1696\\), daughter of the 1st Earl and wife of [Sir William Leveson\\-Gower, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_William_Leveson-Gower%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir William Leveson-Gower, 4th Baronet\").\n* Grace Granville, *suo jure* Countess Granville (1654–1744\\), daughter of the 1st Earl and wife of [George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret](/wiki/George_Carteret%2C_1st_Baron_Carteret \"George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret\") and mother of [John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville](/wiki/John_Carteret%2C_2nd_Earl_Granville \"John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville\")",
""
] |
Cinema
------
His films dedicated to the relationship between man and the sea were distributed worldwide. Among them, the following received significant recognition: "Sesto continente" (Special Prize at the Venice Film Festival in 1954\), "Ultimo paradiso" (Silver Bear at the Berlin Festival in 1956\), "Tikoyo e il suo pescecane" (UNESCO Culture Prize in 1961\), "Oceano" (Special Prize at the Taormina Film Festival in 1971 and David di Donatello in 1972\), "Fratello mare" (First Prize at the International Marine Film Festival, Cartagena, 1974\), and "Cacciatori di navi" in 1991 (Umbria Fiction Prize, 1992\).
In 1965, Esso entrusted him with the production of a series of films about Italy shot from above using a helicopter: from 1966 to 1978, 14 such documentaries were made, all titled "L'Italia vista dal cielo"; sixteen illustrated volumes accompanied these films. The commentary for the fourteen films was entrusted to important writers and art historians of the time such as [Leonardo Sciascia](/wiki/Leonardo_Sciascia "Leonardo Sciascia"), [Giovanni Comisso](/wiki/Giovanni_Comisso "Giovanni Comisso"), [Cesare Brandi](/wiki/Cesare_Brandi "Cesare Brandi"), [Mario Praz](/wiki/Mario_Praz "Mario Praz"), [Italo Calvino](/wiki/Italo_Calvino "Italo Calvino"), [Guido Piovene](/wiki/Guido_Piovene "Guido Piovene"), [Michele Prisco](/wiki/Michele_Prisco "Michele Prisco"), [Ignazio Silone](/wiki/Ignazio_Silone "Ignazio Silone"), and [Mario Soldati](/wiki/Mario_Soldati "Mario Soldati").
Other acclaimed films of his, both in cinemas and not only in Italy, include: "Dagli Appennini alle Ande" (1959\), which won the "Concha de plata" at the San Sebastian International Festival; "Il dio sotto la pelle" in 1974\. Among his mid\-length films of particular commitment, some were presented out of competition at the [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival "Venice Film Festival"): "Paul Gauguin" (1957\) and "L'angelo e la sirena" (1980\). In 1964, he removed his name from the film "Le schiave esistono ancora" due to disagreements with the producer Maleno Malenotti, not only because of the arbitrarily chosen title but also due to the inclusion of numerous false scenes in the film.
In 1976, called upon by [Dino De Laurentiis](/wiki/Dino_De_Laurentiis "Dino De Laurentiis"), he collaborated in the underwater filming for [Michael Anderson](/wiki/Michael_Anderson_%28director%29 "Michael Anderson (director)")'s film "[Orca: The Killer Whale](/wiki/Orca_%281977_film%29 "Orca (1977 film)")"; the screenplay was written by [Luciano Vincenzoni](/wiki/Luciano_Vincenzoni "Luciano Vincenzoni"), who often recalled Quilici's contribution as crucial to the success of the filming.
Also noteworthy is "Botticelli, una nuova primavera" (1982\). In 1970, he produced "Firenze 1000 giorni," about the 1967 flood and the efforts to save its cultural heritage. Folco Quilici was nominated for an [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") in 1971 for "Toscana," one of the fourteen films from "L'Italia vista dal cielo." In 2000, for the Franco\-German television network Arte, he produced and directed the feature films "Kolossal" (1999/2000\) and "Il mondo di Pinocchio" (2002\). In 2004, for the Luce Institute, he directed the feature film "L'impero di marmo" (awarded at the Agon International Archaeological Film Festival, Greece, in 2006\) and the documentary film "L'ultimo volo" (Acqui Storia Prize 2010\). Later, he directed "Lazio – Paesaggio e storia" (Bellezze d'Italia Prize 2012\).
|
[
"Cinema\n------",
"His films dedicated to the relationship between man and the sea were distributed worldwide. Among them, the following received significant recognition: \"Sesto continente\" (Special Prize at the Venice Film Festival in 1954\\), \"Ultimo paradiso\" (Silver Bear at the Berlin Festival in 1956\\), \"Tikoyo e il suo pescecane\" (UNESCO Culture Prize in 1961\\), \"Oceano\" (Special Prize at the Taormina Film Festival in 1971 and David di Donatello in 1972\\), \"Fratello mare\" (First Prize at the International Marine Film Festival, Cartagena, 1974\\), and \"Cacciatori di navi\" in 1991 (Umbria Fiction Prize, 1992\\).",
"In 1965, Esso entrusted him with the production of a series of films about Italy shot from above using a helicopter: from 1966 to 1978, 14 such documentaries were made, all titled \"L'Italia vista dal cielo\"; sixteen illustrated volumes accompanied these films. The commentary for the fourteen films was entrusted to important writers and art historians of the time such as [Leonardo Sciascia](/wiki/Leonardo_Sciascia \"Leonardo Sciascia\"), [Giovanni Comisso](/wiki/Giovanni_Comisso \"Giovanni Comisso\"), [Cesare Brandi](/wiki/Cesare_Brandi \"Cesare Brandi\"), [Mario Praz](/wiki/Mario_Praz \"Mario Praz\"), [Italo Calvino](/wiki/Italo_Calvino \"Italo Calvino\"), [Guido Piovene](/wiki/Guido_Piovene \"Guido Piovene\"), [Michele Prisco](/wiki/Michele_Prisco \"Michele Prisco\"), [Ignazio Silone](/wiki/Ignazio_Silone \"Ignazio Silone\"), and [Mario Soldati](/wiki/Mario_Soldati \"Mario Soldati\").",
"Other acclaimed films of his, both in cinemas and not only in Italy, include: \"Dagli Appennini alle Ande\" (1959\\), which won the \"Concha de plata\" at the San Sebastian International Festival; \"Il dio sotto la pelle\" in 1974\\. Among his mid\\-length films of particular commitment, some were presented out of competition at the [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival \"Venice Film Festival\"): \"Paul Gauguin\" (1957\\) and \"L'angelo e la sirena\" (1980\\). In 1964, he removed his name from the film \"Le schiave esistono ancora\" due to disagreements with the producer Maleno Malenotti, not only because of the arbitrarily chosen title but also due to the inclusion of numerous false scenes in the film.",
"In 1976, called upon by [Dino De Laurentiis](/wiki/Dino_De_Laurentiis \"Dino De Laurentiis\"), he collaborated in the underwater filming for [Michael Anderson](/wiki/Michael_Anderson_%28director%29 \"Michael Anderson (director)\")'s film \"[Orca: The Killer Whale](/wiki/Orca_%281977_film%29 \"Orca (1977 film)\")\"; the screenplay was written by [Luciano Vincenzoni](/wiki/Luciano_Vincenzoni \"Luciano Vincenzoni\"), who often recalled Quilici's contribution as crucial to the success of the filming.",
"Also noteworthy is \"Botticelli, una nuova primavera\" (1982\\). In 1970, he produced \"Firenze 1000 giorni,\" about the 1967 flood and the efforts to save its cultural heritage. Folco Quilici was nominated for an [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") in 1971 for \"Toscana,\" one of the fourteen films from \"L'Italia vista dal cielo.\" In 2000, for the Franco\\-German television network Arte, he produced and directed the feature films \"Kolossal\" (1999/2000\\) and \"Il mondo di Pinocchio\" (2002\\). In 2004, for the Luce Institute, he directed the feature film \"L'impero di marmo\" (awarded at the Agon International Archaeological Film Festival, Greece, in 2006\\) and the documentary film \"L'ultimo volo\" (Acqui Storia Prize 2010\\). Later, he directed \"Lazio – Paesaggio e storia\" (Bellezze d'Italia Prize 2012\\).",
""
] |
Career
------
From 1954, he published numerous works of non\-fiction in Italy and abroad: "Mala Kebir" (1955\), "Mille fuochi" (1964\), "Sesto continente" (1965\), "Gli ultimi primitivi" (1972\), "I grandi deserti" (1972\), "Magia" (1977\), "Le frontiere di Allah" (1978\), "Natura chiama uomo" (1979\), "Il riflesso dell'Islam" (1983\), "L'uomo europeo" (1983\), "India" (1990\), "I mari del sud" (1991\), "Il mio Mediterraneo" (1992\), "La mia Africa" (1992\), "Le Americhe" (1993\), "Il mio Mar Rosso" (1998\), "Tobruk 1940" (2004\), "I miei mari" (2006\). Between 1976 and 1979, he directed "La grande enciclopedia del mare." In 1974/1975, he co\-authored "La Mediterranéé" with Fernand Braudel. With his wife Anna, he authored two biographies: "Amundsen" (1998\) and "Jack London" (2000\), which won the Chianciano Prize and the Castiglioncello Prize.
Starting from 2002, he collaborated on a series of illustrated volumes, with [Luca Tamagnini](https://lucatamagnini.it/) (published by [Phoatlante](https://www.photoatlante.it/)), dedicated to the protected areas of the Italian seas.
He ventured into fiction with "Cacciatori di navi" (1985\), translated in the United States, "Cielo verde" (1997\), a novel long present in the bestseller list in Italy, and in 1998 with "Naufraghi." In 1999, with the novel "Alta profondità," he began the cycle composed of "L'abisso di Hatutu" (2001\), "Mare Rosso" (2002\), "I serpenti di Melqart" (2003\), "La fenice del Bajkal" (2005\). In 2008, he published the novel "Libeccio" and in 2012 "La dogana del vento."
In 2011 and 2012, he wrote two books for children's literature: "Storie del mare" and "Amico oceano."
Quilici collaborated with Italian and international press since 1954, for newspapers such as [Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 "Life (magazine)"), [Epoca](/wiki/Epoca_%28magazine%29 "Epoca (magazine)"), [Panorama](/wiki/Panorama_%28magazine%29 "Panorama (magazine)"), Europeo, and for dailies such as [La Stampa](/wiki/La_Stampa "La Stampa") and [Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera "Corriere della Sera"). His journalistic commitment saw him working for Il Messaggero on naturalistic themes. In 1994, he won the "Penna d'oro" for his services on Latin America. In 1997, he was awarded the "Premio Campidoglio per la carriera nel giornalismo culturale."
In 1983, President [Sandro Pertini](/wiki/Sandro_Pertini "Sandro Pertini") awarded him the "Medaglia d'oro" for cultural merits.
He taught courses at the University of Bologna (1966/1967\), at the University of Berlin (1991\), at the Experimental Cinematography Center (1995\), at the Catholic University of Milan (1998\), at the Third University of Rome (2001/2002\), at the University of Padua (2004/2005\). From 1985 to 1989, he taught at ORAO (Centro dell'Immagine Culturale), in courses resumed in 1997 and continued in 1998\.
From February 2003 to June 2006, he was president of ICRAM, Central Institute for Scientific and Technological Research Applied to the Sea, and directed the Institute's "Quaderni scientifici." Previously, from 1995 to 1996, he was the director of the monthly "Mondo Sommerso."
He was among the founding members of H.D.S. (Historical Diving Society Italia) and the environmental association Marevivo.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"From 1954, he published numerous works of non\\-fiction in Italy and abroad: \"Mala Kebir\" (1955\\), \"Mille fuochi\" (1964\\), \"Sesto continente\" (1965\\), \"Gli ultimi primitivi\" (1972\\), \"I grandi deserti\" (1972\\), \"Magia\" (1977\\), \"Le frontiere di Allah\" (1978\\), \"Natura chiama uomo\" (1979\\), \"Il riflesso dell'Islam\" (1983\\), \"L'uomo europeo\" (1983\\), \"India\" (1990\\), \"I mari del sud\" (1991\\), \"Il mio Mediterraneo\" (1992\\), \"La mia Africa\" (1992\\), \"Le Americhe\" (1993\\), \"Il mio Mar Rosso\" (1998\\), \"Tobruk 1940\" (2004\\), \"I miei mari\" (2006\\). Between 1976 and 1979, he directed \"La grande enciclopedia del mare.\" In 1974/1975, he co\\-authored \"La Mediterranéé\" with Fernand Braudel. With his wife Anna, he authored two biographies: \"Amundsen\" (1998\\) and \"Jack London\" (2000\\), which won the Chianciano Prize and the Castiglioncello Prize.",
"Starting from 2002, he collaborated on a series of illustrated volumes, with [Luca Tamagnini](https://lucatamagnini.it/) (published by [Phoatlante](https://www.photoatlante.it/)), dedicated to the protected areas of the Italian seas.",
"He ventured into fiction with \"Cacciatori di navi\" (1985\\), translated in the United States, \"Cielo verde\" (1997\\), a novel long present in the bestseller list in Italy, and in 1998 with \"Naufraghi.\" In 1999, with the novel \"Alta profondità,\" he began the cycle composed of \"L'abisso di Hatutu\" (2001\\), \"Mare Rosso\" (2002\\), \"I serpenti di Melqart\" (2003\\), \"La fenice del Bajkal\" (2005\\). In 2008, he published the novel \"Libeccio\" and in 2012 \"La dogana del vento.\"",
"In 2011 and 2012, he wrote two books for children's literature: \"Storie del mare\" and \"Amico oceano.\"",
"Quilici collaborated with Italian and international press since 1954, for newspapers such as [Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 \"Life (magazine)\"), [Epoca](/wiki/Epoca_%28magazine%29 \"Epoca (magazine)\"), [Panorama](/wiki/Panorama_%28magazine%29 \"Panorama (magazine)\"), Europeo, and for dailies such as [La Stampa](/wiki/La_Stampa \"La Stampa\") and [Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera \"Corriere della Sera\"). His journalistic commitment saw him working for Il Messaggero on naturalistic themes. In 1994, he won the \"Penna d'oro\" for his services on Latin America. In 1997, he was awarded the \"Premio Campidoglio per la carriera nel giornalismo culturale.\"",
"In 1983, President [Sandro Pertini](/wiki/Sandro_Pertini \"Sandro Pertini\") awarded him the \"Medaglia d'oro\" for cultural merits.",
"He taught courses at the University of Bologna (1966/1967\\), at the University of Berlin (1991\\), at the Experimental Cinematography Center (1995\\), at the Catholic University of Milan (1998\\), at the Third University of Rome (2001/2002\\), at the University of Padua (2004/2005\\). From 1985 to 1989, he taught at ORAO (Centro dell'Immagine Culturale), in courses resumed in 1997 and continued in 1998\\.",
"From February 2003 to June 2006, he was president of ICRAM, Central Institute for Scientific and Technological Research Applied to the Sea, and directed the Institute's \"Quaderni scientifici.\" Previously, from 1995 to 1996, he was the director of the monthly \"Mondo Sommerso.\"",
"He was among the founding members of H.D.S. (Historical Diving Society Italia) and the environmental association Marevivo.",
""
] |
College career
--------------
Thompson was ranked as the \#8 athlete in the country upon entering college.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-07\-24\|title\=Oklahoma football: Ranking the Sooners quarterbacks since 2000\|url\=https://stormininnorman.com/2019/07/24/oklahoma\-football\-ranking\-the\-sooners\-quarterbacks\-since\-2000/2/\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-04\|website\=Stormin in Norman\|language\=en\-US}} He had been courted by both the [University of Texas](/wiki/University_of_Texas "University of Texas") and Oklahoma but chose to play for the Sooners because they would give him the opportunity to play quarterback. He turned down Texas due to the fact they wanted him to play as a wide receiver.{{Cite web\|last\=Oklahoman\|first\=RYAN ABER The\|title\=Collected Wisdom with former OU quarterback Paul Thompson\|url\=https://tulsaworld.com/sportsextra/ousportsextra/collected\-wisdom\-with\-former\-ou\-quarterback\-paul\-thompson/article\_8923091d\-6e82\-547a\-9295\-ed208af37d93\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-04\|website\=Tulsa World\|language\=en}} Ironically, after former Oklahoma quarterback [Rhett Bomar](/wiki/Rhett_Bomar "Rhett Bomar") took over as the starter in 2005, Thompson asked to be moved to the wide receiver position.
### 2002 season
He arrived on campus in the fall of 2002 as a backup to both [Jason White](/wiki/Jason_White_%28American_football%29 "Jason White (American football)") and [Nate Hybl](/wiki/Nate_Hybl "Nate Hybl"). He was scheduled to be [redshirted](/wiki/Redshirt_%28college_sports%29 "Redshirt (college sports)") that season. During the second game of the year against [Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama_athletics "University of Alabama athletics"), starter Jason White hurt his knee, forcing Hybl to take his spot. More importantly for Thompson was the fact that he would not be redshirted in 2002\. He would receive playing time in four games, but did not start, remaining the second\-string quarterback.
### 2003 season
After the Sooner [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_Game "Rose Bowl Game") win, Hybl graduated, leaving White and Thompson the quarterback job. Jason White earned the top spot, once again leaving Thompson on the bench. White led the team, and ultimately ended up winning the Heisman Trophy. Paul played in 10 games in 2003\.
### 2004 season
Thompson expected to have the job all to himself in 2004, but special circumstances allowed Jason White to play another year.{{Cite web\|date\=2006\-08\-02\|title\=Sooners dismiss Bomar, Quinn\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/news/story?id\=2537332\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-04\|website\=ESPN.com\|language\=en}} White led the team to an undefeated regular season. Thompson was redshirted for the season.
### 2005 season
With [Jason White](/wiki/Jason_White_%28American_football%29 "Jason White (American football)") gone, Paul would battle with Rhett Bomar for the starting spot. Thompson earned the starting role against [TCU](/wiki/Texas_Christian_University "Texas Christian University") in the first game of the season. Thompson was benched in the middle of the game in favor of Bomar. From then on, Bomar would take most of the snaps under center, leaving Thompson to a new position, [wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver "Wide receiver").
### 2006 season
In his last collegiate season, chances for Thompson to start at quarterback or wide receiver looked unlikely. On August 2, 2006 [Rhett Bomar](/wiki/Rhett_Bomar "Rhett Bomar") and offensive lineman J.D. Quinn were dismissed from the football team.[Yahoo! Sports \- Sports News, Scores, Rumors, Fantasy Games, and more](https://sports.yahoo.com/ncaaf/news?slug=ap-oklahoma-bomar&prov=ap&type=lgns) Thompson regained the duties of the starting quarterback for the Sooners. His first game as starter for the 2006 season was a 24–17 victory on September 2, 2006, against [UAB](/wiki/University_of_Alabama_at_Birmingham "University of Alabama at Birmingham"). Thompson threw for 227 yards with two interceptions and two touchdown passes, including a 69\-yard pass to [Adrian Peterson](/wiki/Adrian_Peterson "Adrian Peterson") for a touchdown. It was soon after this performance that Thompson would be renamed Paul "Prime\-Time" Thompson.[Rivals.com College Football \- UAB gives Oklahoma all it can handle](http://collegefootball.rivals.com/content.asp?CID=578715) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310223019/http://collegefootball.rivals.com/content.asp?CID\=578715 \|date\=2007\-03\-10 }}
After going 3–2 in their first five games, he helped lead the Sooners to 8 straight wins, including the [Big 12 Championship Game](/wiki/Big_12_Football_Championship_Game "Big 12 Football Championship Game") win over Nebraska in [Kansas City](/wiki/Arrowhead_Stadium "Arrowhead Stadium"). This win propelled the Sooners to a [BCS](/wiki/Bowl_Championship_Series "Bowl Championship Series") berth in the [Fiesta Bowl](/wiki/Fiesta_Bowl "Fiesta Bowl") on New Years Day. The Sooners lost this game in overtime to Boise State University in a very close game, in which Paul Thompson threw three interceptions and lost a fumble. Paul then was later added into The Oklahoma Sooner Hall of Fame.
|
[
"College career\n--------------",
"Thompson was ranked as the \\#8 athlete in the country upon entering college.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-24\\|title\\=Oklahoma football: Ranking the Sooners quarterbacks since 2000\\|url\\=https://stormininnorman.com/2019/07/24/oklahoma\\-football\\-ranking\\-the\\-sooners\\-quarterbacks\\-since\\-2000/2/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-04\\|website\\=Stormin in Norman\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He had been courted by both the [University of Texas](/wiki/University_of_Texas \"University of Texas\") and Oklahoma but chose to play for the Sooners because they would give him the opportunity to play quarterback. He turned down Texas due to the fact they wanted him to play as a wide receiver.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Oklahoman\\|first\\=RYAN ABER The\\|title\\=Collected Wisdom with former OU quarterback Paul Thompson\\|url\\=https://tulsaworld.com/sportsextra/ousportsextra/collected\\-wisdom\\-with\\-former\\-ou\\-quarterback\\-paul\\-thompson/article\\_8923091d\\-6e82\\-547a\\-9295\\-ed208af37d93\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-04\\|website\\=Tulsa World\\|language\\=en}} Ironically, after former Oklahoma quarterback [Rhett Bomar](/wiki/Rhett_Bomar \"Rhett Bomar\") took over as the starter in 2005, Thompson asked to be moved to the wide receiver position.",
"### 2002 season",
"He arrived on campus in the fall of 2002 as a backup to both [Jason White](/wiki/Jason_White_%28American_football%29 \"Jason White (American football)\") and [Nate Hybl](/wiki/Nate_Hybl \"Nate Hybl\"). He was scheduled to be [redshirted](/wiki/Redshirt_%28college_sports%29 \"Redshirt (college sports)\") that season. During the second game of the year against [Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama_athletics \"University of Alabama athletics\"), starter Jason White hurt his knee, forcing Hybl to take his spot. More importantly for Thompson was the fact that he would not be redshirted in 2002\\. He would receive playing time in four games, but did not start, remaining the second\\-string quarterback.",
"### 2003 season",
"After the Sooner [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_Game \"Rose Bowl Game\") win, Hybl graduated, leaving White and Thompson the quarterback job. Jason White earned the top spot, once again leaving Thompson on the bench. White led the team, and ultimately ended up winning the Heisman Trophy. Paul played in 10 games in 2003\\.",
"### 2004 season",
"Thompson expected to have the job all to himself in 2004, but special circumstances allowed Jason White to play another year.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2006\\-08\\-02\\|title\\=Sooners dismiss Bomar, Quinn\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/news/story?id\\=2537332\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-04\\|website\\=ESPN.com\\|language\\=en}} White led the team to an undefeated regular season. Thompson was redshirted for the season.",
"### 2005 season",
"With [Jason White](/wiki/Jason_White_%28American_football%29 \"Jason White (American football)\") gone, Paul would battle with Rhett Bomar for the starting spot. Thompson earned the starting role against [TCU](/wiki/Texas_Christian_University \"Texas Christian University\") in the first game of the season. Thompson was benched in the middle of the game in favor of Bomar. From then on, Bomar would take most of the snaps under center, leaving Thompson to a new position, [wide receiver](/wiki/Wide_receiver \"Wide receiver\").",
"### 2006 season",
"In his last collegiate season, chances for Thompson to start at quarterback or wide receiver looked unlikely. On August 2, 2006 [Rhett Bomar](/wiki/Rhett_Bomar \"Rhett Bomar\") and offensive lineman J.D. Quinn were dismissed from the football team.[Yahoo! Sports \\- Sports News, Scores, Rumors, Fantasy Games, and more](https://sports.yahoo.com/ncaaf/news?slug=ap-oklahoma-bomar&prov=ap&type=lgns) Thompson regained the duties of the starting quarterback for the Sooners. His first game as starter for the 2006 season was a 24–17 victory on September 2, 2006, against [UAB](/wiki/University_of_Alabama_at_Birmingham \"University of Alabama at Birmingham\"). Thompson threw for 227 yards with two interceptions and two touchdown passes, including a 69\\-yard pass to [Adrian Peterson](/wiki/Adrian_Peterson \"Adrian Peterson\") for a touchdown. It was soon after this performance that Thompson would be renamed Paul \"Prime\\-Time\" Thompson.[Rivals.com College Football \\- UAB gives Oklahoma all it can handle](http://collegefootball.rivals.com/content.asp?CID=578715) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310223019/http://collegefootball.rivals.com/content.asp?CID\\=578715 \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-10 }}",
"After going 3–2 in their first five games, he helped lead the Sooners to 8 straight wins, including the [Big 12 Championship Game](/wiki/Big_12_Football_Championship_Game \"Big 12 Football Championship Game\") win over Nebraska in [Kansas City](/wiki/Arrowhead_Stadium \"Arrowhead Stadium\"). This win propelled the Sooners to a [BCS](/wiki/Bowl_Championship_Series \"Bowl Championship Series\") berth in the [Fiesta Bowl](/wiki/Fiesta_Bowl \"Fiesta Bowl\") on New Years Day. The Sooners lost this game in overtime to Boise State University in a very close game, in which Paul Thompson threw three interceptions and lost a fumble. Paul then was later added into The Oklahoma Sooner Hall of Fame.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Original line\-up
In 1987, bass guitarist and vocalist [Steve Rowe](/wiki/Steve_Rowe "Steve Rowe") formed the Australian [power metal](/wiki/Power_metal "Power metal") band LightForce with Murray Adams on guitar, Steve Johnson on vocals and Errol Willenberg on drums. The group played on the local metal scene and signed with United States label, [Pure Metal Records](/wiki/Refuge_Records "Refuge Records") to release their debut album, *Mystical Thieves* in May 1989\. They supported US Christian glam metallers [Stryper](/wiki/Stryper "Stryper") on their 1989 tour of Australia. In 1990, Rowe, was determined to play heavy music with a Christian message, and was joined by drummer [Jayson Sherlock](/wiki/Jayson_Sherlock "Jayson Sherlock") and guitarist Cameron Hall under the LightForce name to record the demo *[Break the Curse](/wiki/Break_the_Curse "Break the Curse")*. The group had changed musically towards [thrash metal](/wiki/Thrash_metal "Thrash metal") with a [death metal](/wiki/Death_metal "Death metal") influence and when Michael Carlisle replaced Hall on guitar, they were renamed Mortification. According to Rowe, the name comes from the *[King James Bible](/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version "Authorized King James Version")*, "Mortify therefore the deeds of the flesh." *Break the Curse* was released in 1991 as Mortification's second album.
{{Listen
\|filename\=Mortification \- Scrolls of the Megilloth.ogg
\|title\="Scrolls of the Megilloth"
\|description\=Sample of "\[\[Scrolls of the Megilloth (single)\|Scrolls of the Megilloth]]" by Mortification, from ''\[\[Scrolls of the Megilloth]]'' (1992\). The album's music garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground and, according to \[\[AllMusic]], contains some of the most frightening vocals ever recorded.}}
In early 1991, they released their [self\-titled](/wiki/Mortification_%28album%29 "Mortification (album)") debut album on the US Christian label [Intense Records](/wiki/Intense_Records "Intense Records"). The direction of the music had changed once again. A lot of the songs were taken from their demo *Break the Curse*, but the band tuned their guitars down, and the feel to the songs was a lot more heavy and doomy than on previous material. Also, Rowe proved to be an excellent death metal vocalist, presenting his "Grind Baritone vocals of extreme reality" throughout the album. According to AllMusic, the band "sought to provide a positive alternative to traditional death metal acts such as [Carcass](/wiki/Carcass_%28band%29 "Carcass (band)"), [Death](/wiki/Death_%28metal_band%29 "Death (metal band)") and [Obituary](/wiki/Obituary_%28band%29 "Obituary (band)"). On the strength of their self\-titled 1990 debut, Mortification quickly gained a reputation in their native Australia for being one of the loudest and fastest bands around."
In 1992, the band signed a deal with [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records "Nuclear Blast Records") in Germany, which had many European death metal groups on their roster. Mortification released their third album, *[Scrolls of the Megilloth](/wiki/Scrolls_of_the_Megilloth "Scrolls of the Megilloth")*, which had great success and, in the Christian metal scene, is considered a classic as well as a piece of Australian metal history. The line\-up had outdone themselves, playing some fast death metal with a few doom metal influences on a couple of tracks. According to AllMusic, the album contains "some of the most frightening vocals ever recorded." A video\-compilation titled *Grind Planets* which featured eight Mortification music\-videos shot by film maker Neil Johnson was also released. *Grind Planets*, the title is a word play of the term 'Rock Star'.The term "Grind Planets" was explained in the video credits: "We thought it was funny when people came up to us and said "What's it like being a Rock Star?" After the funny aspect departed we realised that many people became easily prideful through human admiration. We are glad that people enjoy our music and appreciate the comments but wish to draw our identity from Christ and point the listener in his direction. He is the only way to eternal life. We are Grind Planets...the opposite of Rock Stars." Grind Planets DVD Reissue (SM007\) It presented a more humorous side of Mortification with the "On the Road" material in contrast with their serious message about spiritual warfare – a common theme among Christian extreme metal bands during the early 1990s when anti\-Christian bands such as Deicide and Morbid Angel gained popularity.
The band conquered new ground with their 1993 release *[Post Momentary Affliction](/wiki/Post_Momentary_Affliction "Post Momentary Affliction")*. Most notably, the vocal style shifted, adding some thrash\-like screams to the already\-familiar metal growls. The band also experimented with the industrial style. The album also featured one of Mortification's most popular songs,{{Citation needed\|date\=January 2011\|reason\=how do you determine that it's famous or popular let alone one of? Seems like a weasel word.}} "Grind Planetarium". Jayson Sherlock had his last concert with the band at the Black Stump Festival '93, and the concert was released both on CD and also VHS under the name *[Live Planetarium](/wiki/Live_Planetarium "Live Planetarium")*. A big US major magazine cited the *Live Planetarium* video as the best live album and video they have ever seen and heard. Jayson joined [Paramaecium](/wiki/Paramaecium "Paramaecium"), and Phil Gibson replaced him as Mortification's drummer.
### Commercial success
The band released a new album in 1994 called *[Blood World](/wiki/Blood_World "Blood World")*. They leaned more towards modern groove/thrash with classic metal and hardcore punk influence rather than death metal, and Steve mainly used his shouts rather than growling. Phil and Michael left the band, and Steve stood by himself. The strange combination of extreme styles began setting Mortification apart from the crowd of same sounding bands and widened the band's audience as they became quickly recognised as innovators and not imitators. *Blood World* received rave reviews in America and Europe. Horror Infernal Magazine gave the album 13 out of 13 points. Blood World eventually became their best selling album.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2011}}
1994 also saw the birth of Steve's own record label, "Rowe Productions". Also, *Break the Curse* was remixed and re\-released by [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records "Nuclear Blast Records") with a bonus track called "*Butchered Mutilation*".
Together with numerous friends, Steve recorded the album *[Primitive Rhythm Machine](/wiki/Primitive_Rhythm_Machine "Primitive Rhythm Machine")* which was released in 1995\. The sound of the album is really nasty and messy with a tribal\-percussion to it. Musically, Steve mixed all the styles Mortification had played in the past, death metal, thrash metal and groove metal.
Also, Mortification's *[The Best of Five Years](/wiki/The_Best_of_Five_Years "The Best of Five Years")* were released. A compilation album of older material. Two songs from each previous release made a good introduction to new fans, and showed the bands innovation. This was the last album to be released by Mortification through Intense Records.
In 1996, Steve Rowe started his search for a new drummer and guitarist. The drum position was filled by longtime roadie Keith Bannister, who had become a Christian during the first Mortification tour back in 1990\. He learned how to play the drums while Mortification was on tour, and when they came back, Steve saw that he had been practising, and was amazed at his progress, and instantly chose him to fill the spot as the drummer of the band. The guitar position was filled by guitarist Lincoln Bowen. Together, they recorded the album *[EnVision EvAngelene](/wiki/EnVision_EvAngelene "EnVision EvAngelene")*. This disc mixed elements of classic metal, thrash metal and added a punk feel to some of the songs. The first cut is an epic 18\+ minute about Christ's crucifixion from the angels' point of view.
Two live EPs were also released, *Noah Sat Down and Listened to the Mortification Live EP While Having a Coffee* and *Live without Fear*. Unlike their first live album *Live Planetarium* from the Black Stump Music and Arts Festival, this was recorded at a small club, with a raw sound.
A video compilation called *EnVidion* was released, containing numerous music\-videos and interviews. Also released this year was a novel by Steve Rowe titled "Minstrel".
In 2006, their song "Livin like a Zombie" was played in the background of the BME Pain Olympics:Final Round.
### Rowe diagnosed with leukaemia
In late 1996, Steve Rowe was diagnosed with [acute lymphatic leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia"), and after 18 months he was in remission despite a seemingly failed [bone marrow transplant](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant "Bone marrow transplant"). Soon after, Mortification recorded their tenth album, *[Triumph of Mercy](/wiki/Triumph_of_Mercy "Triumph of Mercy")*, and released it in August 1998\. It was issued by Rowe Productions in the US and Nuclear Blast Germany in Europe. Lyrically, the album focused on the experiences of Rowe and the band during the previous two\-years. The style of the album was a mixture of [groove](/wiki/Groove_metal "Groove metal") and thrash. They followed with a North American tour.
1999 saw the release of *[Hammer of God](/wiki/Hammer_of_God_%28album%29 "Hammer of God (album)")*, also a mix of thrash and groove. The death metal elements had vanished, but the religious message of the lyrics remained. The band's line\-up was Rowe, with Keith Bannister on drums and Lincoln Bowen on guitar. They undertook another European tour to promote *Hammer of God*. By August that year, the group had sold a total of a quarter of a million albums across Europe and the US.
In 2000, Mortification released another live album, recorded at Black Stump Festival in 1999, called *[10 Years Live Not Dead](/wiki/10_Years_Live_Not_Dead "10 Years Live Not Dead")*, which mainly featured material from their newer albums plus a new song called "Dead Man Walking". Keith Bannister left the band, and a replacement was found in the very young drummer Adam Zaffarese.
The new line\-up released the album *[The Silver Cord is Severed](/wiki/The_Silver_Cord_is_Severed "The Silver Cord is Severed")* in 2000 and the band went on its first world tour. The music continued to be thrash and groove. While many fans thought the album was the weakest effort in the band's career, *The Silver Cord is Severed* sold well like its precessors. This was due to the fact that – like Nuclear Blast founder [Markus Staiger](/wiki/Markus_Staiger "Markus Staiger") stated in a newsletter – had become "some kind of superstars in the Christian metal scene". At the end of 2000 Lincoln Bowen left, and the band was split, which seemed like it was the end of Mortification.
A collection of Mortification songs was released in 2002 on the compilation\-album *[Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion](/wiki/Ten_Years_1990%E2%80%932000_Power%2C_Pain%2C_and_Passion "Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion")*.
However, things changed when the guitarists Jeff Lewis ([Sympathy](/wiki/Sympathy_%28band%29 "Sympathy (band)")) and Mick Jelinic (Terraphobia) joined the band, and in 2002 they released *[Relentless](/wiki/Relentless_%28Mortification_album%29 "Relentless (Mortification album)")*. The band went in a slightly more heavy direction with a good dose of thrash and classic metal. The band played live as a 4\-piece only a couple of times, as Jeff Lewis left the band.
### Return to death/thrash roots
2004 saw the released of *[Brain Cleaner](/wiki/Brain_Cleaner "Brain Cleaner")*, now with ex\-Cybergrind and current *Martyrs Shrine* drummer Mike Forsberg. This was the heaviest release from the band in ten years, and fast thrash dominates the album with many groove and death metal influences.
In 2006, Mortification released a new album. It was originally titled *Impaling the Goblin*, but after many complaints{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} that in some cultures this term had a sexual connotation to it, they changed the name to *[Erasing the Goblin](/wiki/Erasing_the_Goblin "Erasing the Goblin")*. The album, with a cover which features a warrior throwing a sword into a goblin sitting on a rocking chair in a cave, is said to be a take on their older death/thrash sound around the time of their first 2\-3 albums.
In early 2008, the band's nine early records were re\-released by Polish [Metal Mind Productions](/wiki/Metal_Mind_Productions "Metal Mind Productions").[MORTIFICATION: Nine Titles To Be Reissued](http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=88908) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221083116/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=88908 \|date\=21 February 2009 }}. Blabbermouth.net. In July 2008 Steve Rowe announced on his website that drummer Damien Percy was leaving after three years in the band and has been replaced by Dave Kilgallon, who is also the drummer for Australian Christian metal bands [Grave Forsaken](/wiki/Grave_Forsaken "Grave Forsaken") and [Scourged Flesh](/wiki/Scourged_Flesh "Scourged Flesh").
On 6 June, it was announced that Mortification will record a new album in 2009\.[MORTIFICATION To Release New Album In 2009, 20th\-Anniversary CD In 2010](http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=98514) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221081500/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=98514 \|date\=21 February 2009 }} Blabbermouth.net On 5 August, the band stated that they would record a demo for the new album.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=102198 \|title\=MORTIFICATION To Record New Demo \|publisher\=Roadrunnerrecords.com \|access\-date\=2 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221082639/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=102198 \|archive\-date\=21 February 2009 }} On 4 February, Rowe announced that the album titled *[The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine](/wiki/The_Evil_Addiction_Destroying_Machine "The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine")* was partially completed, and it was released early June.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=113770 \|title\=Mortification: New album title revealed \|publisher\=Roadrunnerrecords.com \|access\-date\=2 May 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221083102/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=113770 \|archive\-date\=21 February 2009 }} Confusing many fans, Steve Rowe has reportedly called the new musical direction "easy\-listening thrash". Rowe noted in a message for The Metal Resource about the reception of *The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine*: "With all new Mort releases there have been mixed response; pretty black and white. Some Really Like It and some really Don't Like It. But I knew with presenting the band in a reinvented way it was an excitingly dangerous move!"[A Message from Steve Rowe](http://www.mauce.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1814&Itemid=1). The Metal Resource. 5 June 2009\.
In 2016, Rowe spoke in an interview about a re\-pressing of *Post Momentary Affliction* on vinyl. He stated that former drummer Jayson Sherlock redesigned the artwork.{{cite web\|url\=http://metalmofos.com/steve\-rowe\-of\-mortification\-talks\-metal\-with\-the\-mofos/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011131642/http://metalmofos.com/steve\-rowe\-of\-mortification\-talks\-metal\-with\-the\-mofos/\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=11 October 2016\|title\=Steve Rowe of Mortifcation Talks Metal with the Mofos\|date\=19 July 2016 \|publisher\=Metal Mofos\|access\-date\=26 July 2016}} On 1 January 2018, Rowe announced that he had reunited with Mick Jelinic and that they were jamming some of their old material, with possible new material to be written.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/mortification777/photos/a.215496771854328\.51641\.126596977410975/1775915499145773/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/126596977410975/1775915499145773 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=What a great way to start off the new year.\|website\=\[\[Facebook]]\|date\=1 January 2018\|access\-date\=16 April 2018}}{{cbignore}}{{primary source inline\|date\=April 2018\|reason\=A secondary source would help with the WP:NOTNEWS effect here}} *The Intense Years: 30th Anniversary Box Set* was released on Soundmass Records in 2020 and contained reissues of Mortification's first five studio albums and *Live Planetarium*, with each of them having extra material.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}} An exclusive disc, *Live 1996*, is included with the box set.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Original line\\-up",
"In 1987, bass guitarist and vocalist [Steve Rowe](/wiki/Steve_Rowe \"Steve Rowe\") formed the Australian [power metal](/wiki/Power_metal \"Power metal\") band LightForce with Murray Adams on guitar, Steve Johnson on vocals and Errol Willenberg on drums. The group played on the local metal scene and signed with United States label, [Pure Metal Records](/wiki/Refuge_Records \"Refuge Records\") to release their debut album, *Mystical Thieves* in May 1989\\. They supported US Christian glam metallers [Stryper](/wiki/Stryper \"Stryper\") on their 1989 tour of Australia. In 1990, Rowe, was determined to play heavy music with a Christian message, and was joined by drummer [Jayson Sherlock](/wiki/Jayson_Sherlock \"Jayson Sherlock\") and guitarist Cameron Hall under the LightForce name to record the demo *[Break the Curse](/wiki/Break_the_Curse \"Break the Curse\")*. The group had changed musically towards [thrash metal](/wiki/Thrash_metal \"Thrash metal\") with a [death metal](/wiki/Death_metal \"Death metal\") influence and when Michael Carlisle replaced Hall on guitar, they were renamed Mortification. According to Rowe, the name comes from the *[King James Bible](/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version \"Authorized King James Version\")*, \"Mortify therefore the deeds of the flesh.\" *Break the Curse* was released in 1991 as Mortification's second album.\n{{Listen\n\\|filename\\=Mortification \\- Scrolls of the Megilloth.ogg\n\\|title\\=\"Scrolls of the Megilloth\"\n\\|description\\=Sample of \"\\[\\[Scrolls of the Megilloth (single)\\|Scrolls of the Megilloth]]\" by Mortification, from ''\\[\\[Scrolls of the Megilloth]]'' (1992\\). The album's music garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground and, according to \\[\\[AllMusic]], contains some of the most frightening vocals ever recorded.}}",
"In early 1991, they released their [self\\-titled](/wiki/Mortification_%28album%29 \"Mortification (album)\") debut album on the US Christian label [Intense Records](/wiki/Intense_Records \"Intense Records\"). The direction of the music had changed once again. A lot of the songs were taken from their demo *Break the Curse*, but the band tuned their guitars down, and the feel to the songs was a lot more heavy and doomy than on previous material. Also, Rowe proved to be an excellent death metal vocalist, presenting his \"Grind Baritone vocals of extreme reality\" throughout the album. According to AllMusic, the band \"sought to provide a positive alternative to traditional death metal acts such as [Carcass](/wiki/Carcass_%28band%29 \"Carcass (band)\"), [Death](/wiki/Death_%28metal_band%29 \"Death (metal band)\") and [Obituary](/wiki/Obituary_%28band%29 \"Obituary (band)\"). On the strength of their self\\-titled 1990 debut, Mortification quickly gained a reputation in their native Australia for being one of the loudest and fastest bands around.\"",
"In 1992, the band signed a deal with [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records \"Nuclear Blast Records\") in Germany, which had many European death metal groups on their roster. Mortification released their third album, *[Scrolls of the Megilloth](/wiki/Scrolls_of_the_Megilloth \"Scrolls of the Megilloth\")*, which had great success and, in the Christian metal scene, is considered a classic as well as a piece of Australian metal history. The line\\-up had outdone themselves, playing some fast death metal with a few doom metal influences on a couple of tracks. According to AllMusic, the album contains \"some of the most frightening vocals ever recorded.\" A video\\-compilation titled *Grind Planets* which featured eight Mortification music\\-videos shot by film maker Neil Johnson was also released. *Grind Planets*, the title is a word play of the term 'Rock Star'.The term \"Grind Planets\" was explained in the video credits: \"We thought it was funny when people came up to us and said \"What's it like being a Rock Star?\" After the funny aspect departed we realised that many people became easily prideful through human admiration. We are glad that people enjoy our music and appreciate the comments but wish to draw our identity from Christ and point the listener in his direction. He is the only way to eternal life. We are Grind Planets...the opposite of Rock Stars.\" Grind Planets DVD Reissue (SM007\\) It presented a more humorous side of Mortification with the \"On the Road\" material in contrast with their serious message about spiritual warfare – a common theme among Christian extreme metal bands during the early 1990s when anti\\-Christian bands such as Deicide and Morbid Angel gained popularity.",
"The band conquered new ground with their 1993 release *[Post Momentary Affliction](/wiki/Post_Momentary_Affliction \"Post Momentary Affliction\")*. Most notably, the vocal style shifted, adding some thrash\\-like screams to the already\\-familiar metal growls. The band also experimented with the industrial style. The album also featured one of Mortification's most popular songs,{{Citation needed\\|date\\=January 2011\\|reason\\=how do you determine that it's famous or popular let alone one of? Seems like a weasel word.}} \"Grind Planetarium\". Jayson Sherlock had his last concert with the band at the Black Stump Festival '93, and the concert was released both on CD and also VHS under the name *[Live Planetarium](/wiki/Live_Planetarium \"Live Planetarium\")*. A big US major magazine cited the *Live Planetarium* video as the best live album and video they have ever seen and heard. Jayson joined [Paramaecium](/wiki/Paramaecium \"Paramaecium\"), and Phil Gibson replaced him as Mortification's drummer.",
"### Commercial success",
"The band released a new album in 1994 called *[Blood World](/wiki/Blood_World \"Blood World\")*. They leaned more towards modern groove/thrash with classic metal and hardcore punk influence rather than death metal, and Steve mainly used his shouts rather than growling. Phil and Michael left the band, and Steve stood by himself. The strange combination of extreme styles began setting Mortification apart from the crowd of same sounding bands and widened the band's audience as they became quickly recognised as innovators and not imitators. *Blood World* received rave reviews in America and Europe. Horror Infernal Magazine gave the album 13 out of 13 points. Blood World eventually became their best selling album.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2011}}",
"1994 also saw the birth of Steve's own record label, \"Rowe Productions\". Also, *Break the Curse* was remixed and re\\-released by [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records \"Nuclear Blast Records\") with a bonus track called \"*Butchered Mutilation*\".",
"Together with numerous friends, Steve recorded the album *[Primitive Rhythm Machine](/wiki/Primitive_Rhythm_Machine \"Primitive Rhythm Machine\")* which was released in 1995\\. The sound of the album is really nasty and messy with a tribal\\-percussion to it. Musically, Steve mixed all the styles Mortification had played in the past, death metal, thrash metal and groove metal.",
"Also, Mortification's *[The Best of Five Years](/wiki/The_Best_of_Five_Years \"The Best of Five Years\")* were released. A compilation album of older material. Two songs from each previous release made a good introduction to new fans, and showed the bands innovation. This was the last album to be released by Mortification through Intense Records.",
"In 1996, Steve Rowe started his search for a new drummer and guitarist. The drum position was filled by longtime roadie Keith Bannister, who had become a Christian during the first Mortification tour back in 1990\\. He learned how to play the drums while Mortification was on tour, and when they came back, Steve saw that he had been practising, and was amazed at his progress, and instantly chose him to fill the spot as the drummer of the band. The guitar position was filled by guitarist Lincoln Bowen. Together, they recorded the album *[EnVision EvAngelene](/wiki/EnVision_EvAngelene \"EnVision EvAngelene\")*. This disc mixed elements of classic metal, thrash metal and added a punk feel to some of the songs. The first cut is an epic 18\\+ minute about Christ's crucifixion from the angels' point of view.",
"Two live EPs were also released, *Noah Sat Down and Listened to the Mortification Live EP While Having a Coffee* and *Live without Fear*. Unlike their first live album *Live Planetarium* from the Black Stump Music and Arts Festival, this was recorded at a small club, with a raw sound.",
"A video compilation called *EnVidion* was released, containing numerous music\\-videos and interviews. Also released this year was a novel by Steve Rowe titled \"Minstrel\".",
"In 2006, their song \"Livin like a Zombie\" was played in the background of the BME Pain Olympics:Final Round.",
"### Rowe diagnosed with leukaemia",
"In late 1996, Steve Rowe was diagnosed with [acute lymphatic leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia \"Acute lymphoblastic leukemia\"), and after 18 months he was in remission despite a seemingly failed [bone marrow transplant](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant \"Bone marrow transplant\"). Soon after, Mortification recorded their tenth album, *[Triumph of Mercy](/wiki/Triumph_of_Mercy \"Triumph of Mercy\")*, and released it in August 1998\\. It was issued by Rowe Productions in the US and Nuclear Blast Germany in Europe. Lyrically, the album focused on the experiences of Rowe and the band during the previous two\\-years. The style of the album was a mixture of [groove](/wiki/Groove_metal \"Groove metal\") and thrash. They followed with a North American tour.",
"1999 saw the release of *[Hammer of God](/wiki/Hammer_of_God_%28album%29 \"Hammer of God (album)\")*, also a mix of thrash and groove. The death metal elements had vanished, but the religious message of the lyrics remained. The band's line\\-up was Rowe, with Keith Bannister on drums and Lincoln Bowen on guitar. They undertook another European tour to promote *Hammer of God*. By August that year, the group had sold a total of a quarter of a million albums across Europe and the US.",
"In 2000, Mortification released another live album, recorded at Black Stump Festival in 1999, called *[10 Years Live Not Dead](/wiki/10_Years_Live_Not_Dead \"10 Years Live Not Dead\")*, which mainly featured material from their newer albums plus a new song called \"Dead Man Walking\". Keith Bannister left the band, and a replacement was found in the very young drummer Adam Zaffarese.",
"The new line\\-up released the album *[The Silver Cord is Severed](/wiki/The_Silver_Cord_is_Severed \"The Silver Cord is Severed\")* in 2000 and the band went on its first world tour. The music continued to be thrash and groove. While many fans thought the album was the weakest effort in the band's career, *The Silver Cord is Severed* sold well like its precessors. This was due to the fact that – like Nuclear Blast founder [Markus Staiger](/wiki/Markus_Staiger \"Markus Staiger\") stated in a newsletter – had become \"some kind of superstars in the Christian metal scene\". At the end of 2000 Lincoln Bowen left, and the band was split, which seemed like it was the end of Mortification.",
"A collection of Mortification songs was released in 2002 on the compilation\\-album *[Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion](/wiki/Ten_Years_1990%E2%80%932000_Power%2C_Pain%2C_and_Passion \"Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion\")*.",
"However, things changed when the guitarists Jeff Lewis ([Sympathy](/wiki/Sympathy_%28band%29 \"Sympathy (band)\")) and Mick Jelinic (Terraphobia) joined the band, and in 2002 they released *[Relentless](/wiki/Relentless_%28Mortification_album%29 \"Relentless (Mortification album)\")*. The band went in a slightly more heavy direction with a good dose of thrash and classic metal. The band played live as a 4\\-piece only a couple of times, as Jeff Lewis left the band.",
"### Return to death/thrash roots",
"2004 saw the released of *[Brain Cleaner](/wiki/Brain_Cleaner \"Brain Cleaner\")*, now with ex\\-Cybergrind and current *Martyrs Shrine* drummer Mike Forsberg. This was the heaviest release from the band in ten years, and fast thrash dominates the album with many groove and death metal influences.",
"In 2006, Mortification released a new album. It was originally titled *Impaling the Goblin*, but after many complaints{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}} that in some cultures this term had a sexual connotation to it, they changed the name to *[Erasing the Goblin](/wiki/Erasing_the_Goblin \"Erasing the Goblin\")*. The album, with a cover which features a warrior throwing a sword into a goblin sitting on a rocking chair in a cave, is said to be a take on their older death/thrash sound around the time of their first 2\\-3 albums.",
"In early 2008, the band's nine early records were re\\-released by Polish [Metal Mind Productions](/wiki/Metal_Mind_Productions \"Metal Mind Productions\").[MORTIFICATION: Nine Titles To Be Reissued](http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=88908) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221083116/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=88908 \\|date\\=21 February 2009 }}. Blabbermouth.net. In July 2008 Steve Rowe announced on his website that drummer Damien Percy was leaving after three years in the band and has been replaced by Dave Kilgallon, who is also the drummer for Australian Christian metal bands [Grave Forsaken](/wiki/Grave_Forsaken \"Grave Forsaken\") and [Scourged Flesh](/wiki/Scourged_Flesh \"Scourged Flesh\").",
"On 6 June, it was announced that Mortification will record a new album in 2009\\.[MORTIFICATION To Release New Album In 2009, 20th\\-Anniversary CD In 2010](http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=98514) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221081500/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=98514 \\|date\\=21 February 2009 }} Blabbermouth.net On 5 August, the band stated that they would record a demo for the new album.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=102198 \\|title\\=MORTIFICATION To Record New Demo \\|publisher\\=Roadrunnerrecords.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221082639/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=102198 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2009 }} On 4 February, Rowe announced that the album titled *[The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine](/wiki/The_Evil_Addiction_Destroying_Machine \"The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine\")* was partially completed, and it was released early June.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=113770 \\|title\\=Mortification: New album title revealed \\|publisher\\=Roadrunnerrecords.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221083102/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=113770 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2009 }} Confusing many fans, Steve Rowe has reportedly called the new musical direction \"easy\\-listening thrash\". Rowe noted in a message for The Metal Resource about the reception of *The Evil Addiction Destroying Machine*: \"With all new Mort releases there have been mixed response; pretty black and white. Some Really Like It and some really Don't Like It. But I knew with presenting the band in a reinvented way it was an excitingly dangerous move!\"[A Message from Steve Rowe](http://www.mauce.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1814&Itemid=1). The Metal Resource. 5 June 2009\\.",
"In 2016, Rowe spoke in an interview about a re\\-pressing of *Post Momentary Affliction* on vinyl. He stated that former drummer Jayson Sherlock redesigned the artwork.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://metalmofos.com/steve\\-rowe\\-of\\-mortification\\-talks\\-metal\\-with\\-the\\-mofos/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011131642/http://metalmofos.com/steve\\-rowe\\-of\\-mortification\\-talks\\-metal\\-with\\-the\\-mofos/\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2016\\|title\\=Steve Rowe of Mortifcation Talks Metal with the Mofos\\|date\\=19 July 2016 \\|publisher\\=Metal Mofos\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2016}} On 1 January 2018, Rowe announced that he had reunited with Mick Jelinic and that they were jamming some of their old material, with possible new material to be written.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/mortification777/photos/a.215496771854328\\.51641\\.126596977410975/1775915499145773/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/126596977410975/1775915499145773 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=What a great way to start off the new year.\\|website\\=\\[\\[Facebook]]\\|date\\=1 January 2018\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2018}}{{cbignore}}{{primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2018\\|reason\\=A secondary source would help with the WP:NOTNEWS effect here}} *The Intense Years: 30th Anniversary Box Set* was released on Soundmass Records in 2020 and contained reissues of Mortification's first five studio albums and *Live Planetarium*, with each of them having extra material.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}} An exclusive disc, *Live 1996*, is included with the box set.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}}",
""
] |
### Commercial success
The band released a new album in 1994 called *[Blood World](/wiki/Blood_World "Blood World")*. They leaned more towards modern groove/thrash with classic metal and hardcore punk influence rather than death metal, and Steve mainly used his shouts rather than growling. Phil and Michael left the band, and Steve stood by himself. The strange combination of extreme styles began setting Mortification apart from the crowd of same sounding bands and widened the band's audience as they became quickly recognised as innovators and not imitators. *Blood World* received rave reviews in America and Europe. Horror Infernal Magazine gave the album 13 out of 13 points. Blood World eventually became their best selling album.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2011}}
1994 also saw the birth of Steve's own record label, "Rowe Productions". Also, *Break the Curse* was remixed and re\-released by [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records "Nuclear Blast Records") with a bonus track called "*Butchered Mutilation*".
Together with numerous friends, Steve recorded the album *[Primitive Rhythm Machine](/wiki/Primitive_Rhythm_Machine "Primitive Rhythm Machine")* which was released in 1995\. The sound of the album is really nasty and messy with a tribal\-percussion to it. Musically, Steve mixed all the styles Mortification had played in the past, death metal, thrash metal and groove metal.
Also, Mortification's *[The Best of Five Years](/wiki/The_Best_of_Five_Years "The Best of Five Years")* were released. A compilation album of older material. Two songs from each previous release made a good introduction to new fans, and showed the bands innovation. This was the last album to be released by Mortification through Intense Records.
In 1996, Steve Rowe started his search for a new drummer and guitarist. The drum position was filled by longtime roadie Keith Bannister, who had become a Christian during the first Mortification tour back in 1990\. He learned how to play the drums while Mortification was on tour, and when they came back, Steve saw that he had been practising, and was amazed at his progress, and instantly chose him to fill the spot as the drummer of the band. The guitar position was filled by guitarist Lincoln Bowen. Together, they recorded the album *[EnVision EvAngelene](/wiki/EnVision_EvAngelene "EnVision EvAngelene")*. This disc mixed elements of classic metal, thrash metal and added a punk feel to some of the songs. The first cut is an epic 18\+ minute about Christ's crucifixion from the angels' point of view.
Two live EPs were also released, *Noah Sat Down and Listened to the Mortification Live EP While Having a Coffee* and *Live without Fear*. Unlike their first live album *Live Planetarium* from the Black Stump Music and Arts Festival, this was recorded at a small club, with a raw sound.
A video compilation called *EnVidion* was released, containing numerous music\-videos and interviews. Also released this year was a novel by Steve Rowe titled "Minstrel".
In 2006, their song "Livin like a Zombie" was played in the background of the BME Pain Olympics:Final Round.
|
[
"### Commercial success",
"The band released a new album in 1994 called *[Blood World](/wiki/Blood_World \"Blood World\")*. They leaned more towards modern groove/thrash with classic metal and hardcore punk influence rather than death metal, and Steve mainly used his shouts rather than growling. Phil and Michael left the band, and Steve stood by himself. The strange combination of extreme styles began setting Mortification apart from the crowd of same sounding bands and widened the band's audience as they became quickly recognised as innovators and not imitators. *Blood World* received rave reviews in America and Europe. Horror Infernal Magazine gave the album 13 out of 13 points. Blood World eventually became their best selling album.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2011}}",
"1994 also saw the birth of Steve's own record label, \"Rowe Productions\". Also, *Break the Curse* was remixed and re\\-released by [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records \"Nuclear Blast Records\") with a bonus track called \"*Butchered Mutilation*\".",
"Together with numerous friends, Steve recorded the album *[Primitive Rhythm Machine](/wiki/Primitive_Rhythm_Machine \"Primitive Rhythm Machine\")* which was released in 1995\\. The sound of the album is really nasty and messy with a tribal\\-percussion to it. Musically, Steve mixed all the styles Mortification had played in the past, death metal, thrash metal and groove metal.",
"Also, Mortification's *[The Best of Five Years](/wiki/The_Best_of_Five_Years \"The Best of Five Years\")* were released. A compilation album of older material. Two songs from each previous release made a good introduction to new fans, and showed the bands innovation. This was the last album to be released by Mortification through Intense Records.",
"In 1996, Steve Rowe started his search for a new drummer and guitarist. The drum position was filled by longtime roadie Keith Bannister, who had become a Christian during the first Mortification tour back in 1990\\. He learned how to play the drums while Mortification was on tour, and when they came back, Steve saw that he had been practising, and was amazed at his progress, and instantly chose him to fill the spot as the drummer of the band. The guitar position was filled by guitarist Lincoln Bowen. Together, they recorded the album *[EnVision EvAngelene](/wiki/EnVision_EvAngelene \"EnVision EvAngelene\")*. This disc mixed elements of classic metal, thrash metal and added a punk feel to some of the songs. The first cut is an epic 18\\+ minute about Christ's crucifixion from the angels' point of view.",
"Two live EPs were also released, *Noah Sat Down and Listened to the Mortification Live EP While Having a Coffee* and *Live without Fear*. Unlike their first live album *Live Planetarium* from the Black Stump Music and Arts Festival, this was recorded at a small club, with a raw sound.",
"A video compilation called *EnVidion* was released, containing numerous music\\-videos and interviews. Also released this year was a novel by Steve Rowe titled \"Minstrel\".",
"In 2006, their song \"Livin like a Zombie\" was played in the background of the BME Pain Olympics:Final Round.",
""
] |
### Rowe diagnosed with leukaemia
In late 1996, Steve Rowe was diagnosed with [acute lymphatic leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia"), and after 18 months he was in remission despite a seemingly failed [bone marrow transplant](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant "Bone marrow transplant"). Soon after, Mortification recorded their tenth album, *[Triumph of Mercy](/wiki/Triumph_of_Mercy "Triumph of Mercy")*, and released it in August 1998\. It was issued by Rowe Productions in the US and Nuclear Blast Germany in Europe. Lyrically, the album focused on the experiences of Rowe and the band during the previous two\-years. The style of the album was a mixture of [groove](/wiki/Groove_metal "Groove metal") and thrash. They followed with a North American tour.
1999 saw the release of *[Hammer of God](/wiki/Hammer_of_God_%28album%29 "Hammer of God (album)")*, also a mix of thrash and groove. The death metal elements had vanished, but the religious message of the lyrics remained. The band's line\-up was Rowe, with Keith Bannister on drums and Lincoln Bowen on guitar. They undertook another European tour to promote *Hammer of God*. By August that year, the group had sold a total of a quarter of a million albums across Europe and the US.
In 2000, Mortification released another live album, recorded at Black Stump Festival in 1999, called *[10 Years Live Not Dead](/wiki/10_Years_Live_Not_Dead "10 Years Live Not Dead")*, which mainly featured material from their newer albums plus a new song called "Dead Man Walking". Keith Bannister left the band, and a replacement was found in the very young drummer Adam Zaffarese.
The new line\-up released the album *[The Silver Cord is Severed](/wiki/The_Silver_Cord_is_Severed "The Silver Cord is Severed")* in 2000 and the band went on its first world tour. The music continued to be thrash and groove. While many fans thought the album was the weakest effort in the band's career, *The Silver Cord is Severed* sold well like its precessors. This was due to the fact that – like Nuclear Blast founder [Markus Staiger](/wiki/Markus_Staiger "Markus Staiger") stated in a newsletter – had become "some kind of superstars in the Christian metal scene". At the end of 2000 Lincoln Bowen left, and the band was split, which seemed like it was the end of Mortification.
A collection of Mortification songs was released in 2002 on the compilation\-album *[Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion](/wiki/Ten_Years_1990%E2%80%932000_Power%2C_Pain%2C_and_Passion "Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion")*.
However, things changed when the guitarists Jeff Lewis ([Sympathy](/wiki/Sympathy_%28band%29 "Sympathy (band)")) and Mick Jelinic (Terraphobia) joined the band, and in 2002 they released *[Relentless](/wiki/Relentless_%28Mortification_album%29 "Relentless (Mortification album)")*. The band went in a slightly more heavy direction with a good dose of thrash and classic metal. The band played live as a 4\-piece only a couple of times, as Jeff Lewis left the band.
|
[
"### Rowe diagnosed with leukaemia",
"In late 1996, Steve Rowe was diagnosed with [acute lymphatic leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia \"Acute lymphoblastic leukemia\"), and after 18 months he was in remission despite a seemingly failed [bone marrow transplant](/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant \"Bone marrow transplant\"). Soon after, Mortification recorded their tenth album, *[Triumph of Mercy](/wiki/Triumph_of_Mercy \"Triumph of Mercy\")*, and released it in August 1998\\. It was issued by Rowe Productions in the US and Nuclear Blast Germany in Europe. Lyrically, the album focused on the experiences of Rowe and the band during the previous two\\-years. The style of the album was a mixture of [groove](/wiki/Groove_metal \"Groove metal\") and thrash. They followed with a North American tour.",
"1999 saw the release of *[Hammer of God](/wiki/Hammer_of_God_%28album%29 \"Hammer of God (album)\")*, also a mix of thrash and groove. The death metal elements had vanished, but the religious message of the lyrics remained. The band's line\\-up was Rowe, with Keith Bannister on drums and Lincoln Bowen on guitar. They undertook another European tour to promote *Hammer of God*. By August that year, the group had sold a total of a quarter of a million albums across Europe and the US.",
"In 2000, Mortification released another live album, recorded at Black Stump Festival in 1999, called *[10 Years Live Not Dead](/wiki/10_Years_Live_Not_Dead \"10 Years Live Not Dead\")*, which mainly featured material from their newer albums plus a new song called \"Dead Man Walking\". Keith Bannister left the band, and a replacement was found in the very young drummer Adam Zaffarese.",
"The new line\\-up released the album *[The Silver Cord is Severed](/wiki/The_Silver_Cord_is_Severed \"The Silver Cord is Severed\")* in 2000 and the band went on its first world tour. The music continued to be thrash and groove. While many fans thought the album was the weakest effort in the band's career, *The Silver Cord is Severed* sold well like its precessors. This was due to the fact that – like Nuclear Blast founder [Markus Staiger](/wiki/Markus_Staiger \"Markus Staiger\") stated in a newsletter – had become \"some kind of superstars in the Christian metal scene\". At the end of 2000 Lincoln Bowen left, and the band was split, which seemed like it was the end of Mortification.",
"A collection of Mortification songs was released in 2002 on the compilation\\-album *[Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion](/wiki/Ten_Years_1990%E2%80%932000_Power%2C_Pain%2C_and_Passion \"Ten Years 1990–2000 Power, Pain, and Passion\")*.",
"However, things changed when the guitarists Jeff Lewis ([Sympathy](/wiki/Sympathy_%28band%29 \"Sympathy (band)\")) and Mick Jelinic (Terraphobia) joined the band, and in 2002 they released *[Relentless](/wiki/Relentless_%28Mortification_album%29 \"Relentless (Mortification album)\")*. The band went in a slightly more heavy direction with a good dose of thrash and classic metal. The band played live as a 4\\-piece only a couple of times, as Jeff Lewis left the band.",
""
] |
Mechanisms
----------
A pathogen displays tropism for a specific host if it can interact with the host cells in a way that supports pathogenic growth and infection. Various factors affect the ability of a pathogen to infect a particular cell, including: the structure of the cell's [surface receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor "Cell surface receptor"); the availability of [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor "Transcription factor") that can identify pathogenic DNA or RNA; the ability of the cells and tissue to support viral or bacterial replication; and the presence of physical or chemical barriers within the cells and throughout the surrounding tissue.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8149/\|title\=Medical Microbiology\|last1\=Baron\|first1\=Samuel\|last2\=Fons\|first2\=Michael\|last3\=Albrecht\|first3\=Thomas\|publisher\=The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\|year\=1996\|isbn\=978\-0963117212\|edition\=4th\|location\=Galveston, TX\|chapter\=Chapter 45: Viral Pathogenesis\|pmid\=21413306}}
### Cell surface receptors
Pathogens frequently enter or adhere to host cells or tissues before causing infection. For this connection to occur, the pathogen must recognize the cell's surface and then bind to it. [Viruses](/wiki/Virus "Virus"), for example, must often bind to specific [cell surface receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor "Cell surface receptor") to enter a cell. Many viral membranes contain virion surface proteins that are specific to particular host cell surface receptors. If a host cell expresses the complementary surface receptor for the virus, then the virus can attach and enter the cell. If a cell does not express these receptors, then the virus cannot normally infect it. Therefore, if the virus cannot bind to the cell, it does not display tropism for that host.
[Bacteria](/wiki/Bacteria "Bacteria") infect hosts differently than viruses do. Unlike viruses, bacteria can replicate and divide on their own without entry into a host cell. Still, to grow and divide, bacteria require certain [nutrients](/wiki/Nutrient "Nutrient") from their environment. These nutrients can often be provided by host tissues, and that is why some bacteria need a host for survival. Once a bacterium recognizes the host cell receptors or nutrient\-rich surroundings, it colonizes the cell surface.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ribet\|first1\=David\|last2\=Pascale\|first2\=Cossart\|year\=2015\|title\=How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues\|journal\=Microbes and Infection\|volume\=17\|issue\=3\|pages\=173–183\|doi\=10\.1016/j.micinf.2015\.01\.004\|pmid\=25637951\|url\=https://hal\-pasteur.archives\-ouvertes.fr/pasteur\-01115526\|doi\-access\=free}} Bacteria have various mechanisms for colonizing host tissues. For example, [biofilm](/wiki/Biofilm "Biofilm") production allows bacteria to adhere to the host tissue surface, and it provides a protective environment ideal for bacterial growth.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Aparna\|first1\=Madhu Sharma\|last2\=Yadav\|first2\=Sarita\|date\=2008\-12\-01\|title\=Biofilms: microbes and disease\|journal\=Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases\|volume\=12\|issue\=6\|pages\=526–530\|doi\=10\.1590/S1413\-86702008000600016\|pmid\=19287843\|issn\=1413\-8670\|doi\-access\=free}} Some bacteria, such as [spirochetes](/wiki/Spirochetes "Spirochetes"), are capable of proliferating the host cell or tissues. This then allows the bacterium to surround itself in a nutrient\-rich environment that protects it from immune responses and other stressors.
### Transcription factors, nutrients, and pathogenic replication
For viruses to [replicate](/wiki/Viral_replication "Viral replication") within a host cell and for bacteria to carry out the [metabolic processes](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") needed to grow and divide, they must first take in necessary nutrients and [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor "Transcription factor") from their surroundings. Even if a virus is able to bind to a host cell and transfer its genetic material through the cell membrane, the cell may not contain the necessary [polymerases](/wiki/Polymerase "Polymerase") and enzymes necessary for viral replication to occur and for pathogenesis to continue.
Many pathogens also contain important [virulence factors](/wiki/Virulence_factor "Virulence factor") within their genomes. In particular, pathogenic bacteria are capable of translating virulence genes located within their [plasmids](/wiki/Plasmid "Plasmid") into different virulence factors in order to aid the bacterium in pathogenesis. Many different types of virulence factors exist within pathogens, including: adherence factors, invasion factors, capsules, [siderophores](/wiki/Siderophore "Siderophore"), [endotoxins](/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide "Lipopolysaccharide"), and [exotoxins](/wiki/Exotoxin "Exotoxin").{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8526/\|title\=Medical Microbiology\|last\=Peterson\|first\=Johnny W.\|date\=1996\-01\-01\|publisher\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\|isbn\=978\-0963117212\|editor\-last\=Baron\|editor\-first\=Samuel\|edition\=4th\|location\=Galveston (TX)\|chapter\=Chapter 7: Bacterial Pathogenesis\|pmid\=21413346}} All of these virulence factors either aid directly in host colonization or in host cell and tissue damage.
### Host cell defense mechanisms
Host organisms are equipped with a variety of different defense mechanisms used to protect the host from pathogenic infection. Humans in particular possess multiple lines of defense that affect pathogenesis from beginning to end. For a virus or bacterium to display tropism for a specific host, it must first have the means to break through the host organism's line of defense. The first line of defense, known as the [innate immune system](/wiki/Innate_immune_system "Innate immune system"), is meant to prevent initial pathogenic entry and establishment. The innate immune system is only broadly specific to pathogens and includes: anatomical barriers, [inflammation](/wiki/Inflammation "Inflammation"), [phagocytosis](/wiki/Phagocytosis "Phagocytosis"), and nonspecific inhibitors.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8348/\|title\=Medical Microbiology\|last1\=Dianzani\|first1\=Ferdinando\|last2\=Baron\|first2\=Samuel\|date\=1996\-01\-01\|publisher\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\|isbn\=978\-0963117212\|editor\-last\=Baron\|editor\-first\=Samuel\|edition\=4th\|location\=Galveston (TX)\|chapter\=Chapter 49: Nonspecific Defenses\|pmid\=21413325}}
An ***anatomical barrier*** is any physical or chemical barrier that helps prevent entry of microorganisms into body. This includes the [skin](/wiki/Skin "Skin"), sweat, [mucus](/wiki/Mucus "Mucus") layer, saliva, tears, [endothelial lining](/wiki/Endothelium "Endothelium"), and natural human [microbiota](/wiki/Microbiota "Microbiota"). The epidermis of the skin provides a physical barrier against pathogens, but it can easily be compromised by insect bites, animal bites, scratches or other minor skin trauma. Sweat, saliva, and tears are all chemical barriers that contain enzymes, such as [lysozymes](/wiki/Lysozyme "Lysozyme"), that can kill bacteria and viruses. The mucus layer lines the [nasopharynx](/wiki/Pharynx "Pharynx") and serves as a physical barrier that encases foreign pathogens and carries them back out of the body through snot and [phlegm](/wiki/Phlegm "Phlegm"). A human's microbiota, the other microorganisms living within and on the body, compete with pathogenic organisms and play a large role in pathogenic control. Lastly, a semi\-permeable membrane known as the [blood\-brain\-barrier](/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier "Blood–brain barrier") is a lining of endothelial cells separating the blood from the tissues and organs. Without this lining, viruses and bacteria could easily infect vital human organs such as the brain, lungs, and placenta.
***Inflammation*** is one of the first immune responses to pathogenic infection that many host organisms possess. Inflammation involves an elevated temperature surrounding the site of infection, accumulation of CO2 and organic acids, and a decrease in the infected tissue's oxygen tension in response to pathogen\-induced cell damage.{{Cite book\|last1\=Charles A Janeway\|first1\=Jr\|last2\=Travers\|first2\=Paul\|last3\=Walport\|first3\=Mark\|last4\=Shlomchik\|first4\=Mark J.\|date\=2001\-01\-01\|title\=Principles of innate and adaptive immunity\|publisher\=Garland Science \|url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27090/\|language\=en}} Coagulation of blood (clotting) also occurs in an inflamed area, providing a physical barrier against pathogenic infection.{{Cite book\|last1\=Charles A Janeway\|first1\=Jr\|last2\=Travers\|first2\=Paul\|last3\=Walport\|first3\=Mark\|last4\=Shlomchik\|first4\=Mark J.\|date\=2001\-01\-01\|title\=The front line of host defense\|publisher\=Garland Science \|url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27105/\|language\=en}} These changes ultimately create unfavorable living conditions for the pathogen (i.e. pH changes, decrease in ATP, and changes in cellular metabolism) and prevent further replication and growth.
Once a bacterium or virus overcomes the body's innate immune system, the host organism's [acquired immune system](/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system "Adaptive immune system") takes over. This immune response is highly specific to pathogens and provides the host with long\-lasting immunity against future infection by that specific pathogen. When [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte "Lymphocyte") recognize [antigens](/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") on a pathogen's surface, they secrete [antibodies](/wiki/Antibody "Antibody") that bind to the pathogen and alert [macrophages](/wiki/Macrophage "Macrophage") and [natural killer cells](/wiki/Natural_killer_cell "Natural killer cell").{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8423/\|title\=Medical Microbiology\|last\=Klimpel\|first\=Gary R.\|date\=1996\-01\-01\|publisher\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\|isbn\=978\-0963117212\|editor\-last\=Baron\|editor\-first\=Samuel\|edition\=4th\|location\=Galveston (TX)\|chapter\=Chapter 50: Immune Defenses\|pmid\=21413332}} These cells target the pathogen itself, killing it or rendering it inactive. This process further produces [memory B cell](/wiki/Memory_B_cell "Memory B cell") and [memory T cells](/wiki/Memory_T_cell "Memory T cell") that allow long\-lasting immunity to occur.
In conclusion, if a pathogen is capable of overcoming various host defenses, recognizing a host cell for infection, and successfully replicating within a host tissue, then the pathogen is likely to possess tropism for that specific host.
|
[
"Mechanisms\n----------",
"A pathogen displays tropism for a specific host if it can interact with the host cells in a way that supports pathogenic growth and infection. Various factors affect the ability of a pathogen to infect a particular cell, including: the structure of the cell's [surface receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor \"Cell surface receptor\"); the availability of [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor \"Transcription factor\") that can identify pathogenic DNA or RNA; the ability of the cells and tissue to support viral or bacterial replication; and the presence of physical or chemical barriers within the cells and throughout the surrounding tissue.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8149/\\|title\\=Medical Microbiology\\|last1\\=Baron\\|first1\\=Samuel\\|last2\\=Fons\\|first2\\=Michael\\|last3\\=Albrecht\\|first3\\=Thomas\\|publisher\\=The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=978\\-0963117212\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Galveston, TX\\|chapter\\=Chapter 45: Viral Pathogenesis\\|pmid\\=21413306}}",
"### Cell surface receptors",
"Pathogens frequently enter or adhere to host cells or tissues before causing infection. For this connection to occur, the pathogen must recognize the cell's surface and then bind to it. [Viruses](/wiki/Virus \"Virus\"), for example, must often bind to specific [cell surface receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor \"Cell surface receptor\") to enter a cell. Many viral membranes contain virion surface proteins that are specific to particular host cell surface receptors. If a host cell expresses the complementary surface receptor for the virus, then the virus can attach and enter the cell. If a cell does not express these receptors, then the virus cannot normally infect it. Therefore, if the virus cannot bind to the cell, it does not display tropism for that host.",
"[Bacteria](/wiki/Bacteria \"Bacteria\") infect hosts differently than viruses do. Unlike viruses, bacteria can replicate and divide on their own without entry into a host cell. Still, to grow and divide, bacteria require certain [nutrients](/wiki/Nutrient \"Nutrient\") from their environment. These nutrients can often be provided by host tissues, and that is why some bacteria need a host for survival. Once a bacterium recognizes the host cell receptors or nutrient\\-rich surroundings, it colonizes the cell surface.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ribet\\|first1\\=David\\|last2\\=Pascale\\|first2\\=Cossart\\|year\\=2015\\|title\\=How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues\\|journal\\=Microbes and Infection\\|volume\\=17\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=173–183\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.micinf.2015\\.01\\.004\\|pmid\\=25637951\\|url\\=https://hal\\-pasteur.archives\\-ouvertes.fr/pasteur\\-01115526\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Bacteria have various mechanisms for colonizing host tissues. For example, [biofilm](/wiki/Biofilm \"Biofilm\") production allows bacteria to adhere to the host tissue surface, and it provides a protective environment ideal for bacterial growth.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Aparna\\|first1\\=Madhu Sharma\\|last2\\=Yadav\\|first2\\=Sarita\\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-01\\|title\\=Biofilms: microbes and disease\\|journal\\=Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=526–530\\|doi\\=10\\.1590/S1413\\-86702008000600016\\|pmid\\=19287843\\|issn\\=1413\\-8670\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Some bacteria, such as [spirochetes](/wiki/Spirochetes \"Spirochetes\"), are capable of proliferating the host cell or tissues. This then allows the bacterium to surround itself in a nutrient\\-rich environment that protects it from immune responses and other stressors.",
"### Transcription factors, nutrients, and pathogenic replication",
"For viruses to [replicate](/wiki/Viral_replication \"Viral replication\") within a host cell and for bacteria to carry out the [metabolic processes](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\") needed to grow and divide, they must first take in necessary nutrients and [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factor \"Transcription factor\") from their surroundings. Even if a virus is able to bind to a host cell and transfer its genetic material through the cell membrane, the cell may not contain the necessary [polymerases](/wiki/Polymerase \"Polymerase\") and enzymes necessary for viral replication to occur and for pathogenesis to continue.",
"Many pathogens also contain important [virulence factors](/wiki/Virulence_factor \"Virulence factor\") within their genomes. In particular, pathogenic bacteria are capable of translating virulence genes located within their [plasmids](/wiki/Plasmid \"Plasmid\") into different virulence factors in order to aid the bacterium in pathogenesis. Many different types of virulence factors exist within pathogens, including: adherence factors, invasion factors, capsules, [siderophores](/wiki/Siderophore \"Siderophore\"), [endotoxins](/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide \"Lipopolysaccharide\"), and [exotoxins](/wiki/Exotoxin \"Exotoxin\").{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8526/\\|title\\=Medical Microbiology\\|last\\=Peterson\\|first\\=Johnny W.\\|date\\=1996\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\\|isbn\\=978\\-0963117212\\|editor\\-last\\=Baron\\|editor\\-first\\=Samuel\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Galveston (TX)\\|chapter\\=Chapter 7: Bacterial Pathogenesis\\|pmid\\=21413346}} All of these virulence factors either aid directly in host colonization or in host cell and tissue damage.",
"### Host cell defense mechanisms",
"Host organisms are equipped with a variety of different defense mechanisms used to protect the host from pathogenic infection. Humans in particular possess multiple lines of defense that affect pathogenesis from beginning to end. For a virus or bacterium to display tropism for a specific host, it must first have the means to break through the host organism's line of defense. The first line of defense, known as the [innate immune system](/wiki/Innate_immune_system \"Innate immune system\"), is meant to prevent initial pathogenic entry and establishment. The innate immune system is only broadly specific to pathogens and includes: anatomical barriers, [inflammation](/wiki/Inflammation \"Inflammation\"), [phagocytosis](/wiki/Phagocytosis \"Phagocytosis\"), and nonspecific inhibitors.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8348/\\|title\\=Medical Microbiology\\|last1\\=Dianzani\\|first1\\=Ferdinando\\|last2\\=Baron\\|first2\\=Samuel\\|date\\=1996\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\\|isbn\\=978\\-0963117212\\|editor\\-last\\=Baron\\|editor\\-first\\=Samuel\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Galveston (TX)\\|chapter\\=Chapter 49: Nonspecific Defenses\\|pmid\\=21413325}}",
"An ***anatomical barrier*** is any physical or chemical barrier that helps prevent entry of microorganisms into body. This includes the [skin](/wiki/Skin \"Skin\"), sweat, [mucus](/wiki/Mucus \"Mucus\") layer, saliva, tears, [endothelial lining](/wiki/Endothelium \"Endothelium\"), and natural human [microbiota](/wiki/Microbiota \"Microbiota\"). The epidermis of the skin provides a physical barrier against pathogens, but it can easily be compromised by insect bites, animal bites, scratches or other minor skin trauma. Sweat, saliva, and tears are all chemical barriers that contain enzymes, such as [lysozymes](/wiki/Lysozyme \"Lysozyme\"), that can kill bacteria and viruses. The mucus layer lines the [nasopharynx](/wiki/Pharynx \"Pharynx\") and serves as a physical barrier that encases foreign pathogens and carries them back out of the body through snot and [phlegm](/wiki/Phlegm \"Phlegm\"). A human's microbiota, the other microorganisms living within and on the body, compete with pathogenic organisms and play a large role in pathogenic control. Lastly, a semi\\-permeable membrane known as the [blood\\-brain\\-barrier](/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier \"Blood–brain barrier\") is a lining of endothelial cells separating the blood from the tissues and organs. Without this lining, viruses and bacteria could easily infect vital human organs such as the brain, lungs, and placenta.",
"***Inflammation*** is one of the first immune responses to pathogenic infection that many host organisms possess. Inflammation involves an elevated temperature surrounding the site of infection, accumulation of CO2 and organic acids, and a decrease in the infected tissue's oxygen tension in response to pathogen\\-induced cell damage.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Charles A Janeway\\|first1\\=Jr\\|last2\\=Travers\\|first2\\=Paul\\|last3\\=Walport\\|first3\\=Mark\\|last4\\=Shlomchik\\|first4\\=Mark J.\\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Principles of innate and adaptive immunity\\|publisher\\=Garland Science \\|url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27090/\\|language\\=en}} Coagulation of blood (clotting) also occurs in an inflamed area, providing a physical barrier against pathogenic infection.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Charles A Janeway\\|first1\\=Jr\\|last2\\=Travers\\|first2\\=Paul\\|last3\\=Walport\\|first3\\=Mark\\|last4\\=Shlomchik\\|first4\\=Mark J.\\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=The front line of host defense\\|publisher\\=Garland Science \\|url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27105/\\|language\\=en}} These changes ultimately create unfavorable living conditions for the pathogen (i.e. pH changes, decrease in ATP, and changes in cellular metabolism) and prevent further replication and growth.",
"Once a bacterium or virus overcomes the body's innate immune system, the host organism's [acquired immune system](/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system \"Adaptive immune system\") takes over. This immune response is highly specific to pathogens and provides the host with long\\-lasting immunity against future infection by that specific pathogen. When [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte \"Lymphocyte\") recognize [antigens](/wiki/Antigen \"Antigen\") on a pathogen's surface, they secrete [antibodies](/wiki/Antibody \"Antibody\") that bind to the pathogen and alert [macrophages](/wiki/Macrophage \"Macrophage\") and [natural killer cells](/wiki/Natural_killer_cell \"Natural killer cell\").{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8423/\\|title\\=Medical Microbiology\\|last\\=Klimpel\\|first\\=Gary R.\\|date\\=1996\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston\\|isbn\\=978\\-0963117212\\|editor\\-last\\=Baron\\|editor\\-first\\=Samuel\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Galveston (TX)\\|chapter\\=Chapter 50: Immune Defenses\\|pmid\\=21413332}} These cells target the pathogen itself, killing it or rendering it inactive. This process further produces [memory B cell](/wiki/Memory_B_cell \"Memory B cell\") and [memory T cells](/wiki/Memory_T_cell \"Memory T cell\") that allow long\\-lasting immunity to occur.",
"In conclusion, if a pathogen is capable of overcoming various host defenses, recognizing a host cell for infection, and successfully replicating within a host tissue, then the pathogen is likely to possess tropism for that specific host.",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
The *Left 4 Dead* games are [first\-person shooters](/wiki/First-person_shooters "First-person shooters") incorporating [survival horror](/wiki/Survival_horror "Survival horror") elements. A player controls one of the four Survivor characters, and has the ability to move, jump, and use weapons in their possession. Players are limited to two weapons: a main firearm with limited ammunition taken from ammo caches, and either one (or two pistols) sidearm with unlimited ammunition or a melee weapon. Players also have three additional inventory slots. The third slot gives the player a thrown weapon, including a [Molotov cocktail](/wiki/Molotov_cocktail "Molotov cocktail"), a [pipe bomb](/wiki/Pipe_bomb "Pipe bomb") that can be used to lure a horde towards it before it explodes, or a bile jar that can be used to lure a horde to a specific area. The fourth slot provides for either a health kit which they can use on themselves or the other survivors, a defibrillator to revive a dead Survivor, or a special ammo deployment kit providing unique ammo such as explosive bullets. The fifth inventory slot is used for pain pills, giving the player a temporary health boost, or an adrenaline shot, temporarily increasing the player's movement, interaction, healing, and teammate revival speed. Some environmental objects like propane tanks or gasoline cans can be carried and thrown at hordes, upon which they can be fired upon as a makeshift explosive, but cannot be stored in the player's inventory. In *Left 4 Dead 2*, limited\-use weapons such as the chainsaw, [grenade launcher](/wiki/China_Lake_grenade_launcher "China Lake grenade launcher") or the [M60 machine gun](/wiki/M60_machine_gun "M60 machine gun") can also be carried in a similar manner. The player can use whatever object they are holding to temporarily push back any Infected surrounding them.
A [health bar](/wiki/Health_bar "Health bar") is used to track each character's health; players are aware of the state of each other's health and special items, and each character is shown to other players through an outlined silhouette on the game's [HUD](/wiki/Heads-up_display "Heads-up display"), regardless of walls that separate the characters, and colored based on their health state. A character's health suffers from attacks from any Infected, environmental effects such as fires, and from friendly\-fire incidents. When a character's health falls below a certain level, the character will not be able to move as fast until they can restore their health. If the player's health drops to zero, they become incapacitated, whereby they fall to the floor and need to be helped up by a teammate, and a new temporary health bar appears, representing a [bleed out](/wiki/Exsanguination "Exsanguination") period. Should this bar drop to zero, the character dies, and can only be restored either through a defibrillator, appearing later in a level in a "rescue closet" from which they must be freed, or when the remaining players reach the safe house. Otherwise, an incapacitated character can be revived with the assistance of any other character. However, if a character becomes incapacitated three times in a row without using a first\-aid kit, they will immediately die the third time. Similarly, if a character falls over an edge, they will hang precariously for a limited time, falling to their death if they are not assisted in time.
In the main campaign mode, each campaign is divided into two to five chapters. For all but the last chapter, the goal of the players is to reach the safehouse at the end of the level, where fresh supplies of weapons, ammo, and health items are typically found. In the finale, the campaign comes to a climax and requires the players to either make a stand against waves of Infected as they wait for a rescue vehicle, fill up an escape vehicle's gas tank while fending off the horde, or race through a gauntlet of Infected to make their way to the rescue point.
Additional game modes are also available. A 4\-on\-4 competitive mode named Versus is available, where in alternating matches, one side controls the Survivor characters while the other controls Special Infected. When playing as the Survivors, the goal remains the same as the normal campaign mode. The Infected side tries to prevent the Survivors from making their way to the safehouse; should they be killed by the survivors, they will respawn later as a new type of Infected. Scoring is based on how far the Survivors get and other factors, with the team with the most points at the end of a campaign considered the winner. Other modes are based on single\-situation standoffs where the Survivors have to hold out as long as possible, or where two teams compete to fill a generator with as many gas cans as possible.
In *Left 4 Dead 2* two additional modes have been introduced. In "Realism" mode, several of the video game aspects are removed from the game, such as the identification of the location of teammates via their silhouette, the respawning of dead characters later in rescue closets, and more severe damage models. The sequel also features "mutations", game modes based on either the campaign or competitive modes where specific rules may be in place. For example, one mutation may give all the Survivor characters chainsaws from the start, while another may make every unique infected appear as a specific type, such as the Tank.
Both games support user\-generated content through new maps and campaigns using tools provided by Valve; *Left 4 Dead 2* also provides support for custom mutations. Valve has further supported the user community by highlighting popular third\-party maps, and including select ones in software patches for the game.
### AI Director
The *Left 4 Dead* series uses a collection of [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") routines, collectively the "AI Director", to monitor and alter the gameplay experience in response to the players. Valve's primary goal with the AI Director was to promote replayability of the games' campaigns, as their previous multiplayer games with this feature, such as *[Counter\-Strike](/wiki/Counter-Strike "Counter-Strike")* and *[Team Fortress 2](/wiki/Team_Fortress_2 "Team Fortress 2")* have shown thriving communities of players that continue to play the games despite the limited number of maps available due to the unpredictable nature of online play. In considering this for *Left 4 Dead*, Valve identified that many games use static events that always occur at fixed points in a level, or limited dynamic events where one of several events could occur at fixed points. Valve themselves had used this idea in some key battles in *[Half\-Life 2: Episode Two](/wiki/Half-Life_2:Episode_Two "Episode Two")* where the spawning of Combine forces would be based on the player's location.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/left\-4\-dead\-2\-interview?page\=2 \|publisher\=eurogamer.net \|title\= Left 4 Dead 2 Interview \|quote\=The AI director—I don't want to say it fell out of Half\-Life 2, but it was definitely a jumping\-off point of stuff we did in Half\-Life 2, particularly Episode 2\. There are a couple of key battles where the number of Combine, and where they come at you from, uses something like that. It's much cruder than what we accomplished with Left 4 Dead, but there was some of that there \|date\=July 3, 2009 \|access\-date \= July 5, 2009}} They recognized that such systems do not promote replayability or cooperation: players could easily memorize where events would occur, and those that had yet to experience the events would slow other players down.{{cite web \| url \=http://www.valvesoftware.com/publications/2009/ai\_systems\_of\_l4d\_mike\_booth.pdf \| title \= The AI Systems of Left 4 Dead \| first \= Michael \| last \= Booth \| year \= 2009 \| access\-date \= March 7, 2011 \| publisher \= \[\[Valve Corporation\|Valve]] }} With the concept of the AI Director, Valve believed it could capture the same chaos and randomness that would occur in *Counter\-Strike* and *Team Fortress 2* in the cooperative gameplay experience, transforming it from simple memorization to a skills challenge. Valve has further termed this approach "[procedural narrative](/wiki/Emergent_gameplay%23Emergent_narrative "Emergent gameplay#Emergent narrative")", creating a new story each time the game is played.{{cite magazine \|url\=http://www.next\-gen.biz/opinion/gabe\-newell\-writes\-edge \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120909153756/http://www.next\-gen.biz/opinion/gabe\-newell\-writes\-edge \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=September 9, 2012 \|title\=Gabe Newell Writes for Edge \|last\=Newell \|first\=Gabe \|date\=November 21, 2008 \|quote\=''The events are trying to give them a sense of narrative. We look at sequences of events and try to take what their actions are to generate new sequences. If they've been particularly challenged by one kind of creature then we can use that information to make decisions about how we use that creature in subsequent encounters. This is what makes procedural narrative more of a story\-telling device than, say, a simple difficulty mechanism.'' \|magazine\=\[\[Edge (magazine)\|Edge]] \|access\-date\=November 22, 2008 }}
The AI Director has several facets that combine to form "structured unpredictability" for each playthrough. The Director first procedurally generates a dramatic flow for the level, which identifies the size and location of hordes of common infected and uncommon infected throughout the level. The procedural generation considers each traversable area on the map, using pathfinding algorithms that Valve had incorporated into *Counter\-strike* computer\-controlled characters, and the "flow" of the map—the general direction from the start of the level to the safe house. As players progress through the map, the Director will spawn infected in areas near the players and out of sight, while removing infected from earlier portions of the map the players have passed through. The placement also considered the "Escape Route", the shortest path through the map, and will increase encounters along this route to increase the difficulty. Spawning rules are different for each of the infected; hordes are more often spawned behind players to take them by surprise, while special infected like the Hunter and Smoker will spawn ahead of the players, giving their individual AI the opportunity to lay in wait for the players. Procedural generation is also used to place weapons and other items throughout the level. Weapons and equipment can be programmed by the map designer to be generated by the Director at fixed points, allowing for some predictability for the players, and to give some creative control to the design for story\-telling and visual effects.
Overriding the procedural generation is the aim to create "active dynamic pacing" of the game by continuous monitoring of players, and altering the predetermined pacing to react to this. Each player character is tracked by a metric called the Survivor Intensity, which increases as the character takes damage, becomes incapacitated, or another character dies nearby, among other effects, and slowly decays in time. The Director will alter its previously developed schedule for spawning of infected to build up Survivor Intensity to a certain threshold; when this occurs, the game sustains this peak for a few seconds, then enters a period where it relaxes and reduces the spawning of infected, allowing the players to finish their current encounter and allow their Survivor Intensities to fall away from the threshold. The Director then repeats this cycle until the players have reached the end of the level.
The boss infected encounters are generated through different means, creating a sequence based on cycling without repetition between three situations: Tank, Witch, or "No event". Boss events are then generated based on the number of areas the players have passed through. These events are not modified by the dynamic pacing of the game; Valve discovered when these were controlled by the pacing, players would often be at too high of an intensity to allow these encounters to occur. Keeping the events on a separate track allows the pacing to be unpredictable, further enhancing the replayability goal of the Director.
{{Wide image\|Left2dead ai demonstration.jpg\|600px\|A sample series of encounters (with progress from left to right) during a level playthrough of ''Left 4 Dead''. The top bar shows the original population of common (white icons), special (colored icons) and boss (large icons) procedurally generated by the AI Director prior to starting the level. The second bar is the monitored "Survivor Intensity", with the red "Relax" sections occurring immediately after the Intensity reaches a threshold limit. The third bar is the actual population generated while playing the level; certain common hordes have been removed due to the Intensity being high and in a "relaxed" state, while other hordes and uncommons have been added when the Intensity is very low near the end of the level.}}
The Director also creates mood and tension with emotional cues, such as visual effects, audio cues for specific types of infected, and character communication.{{cite video \|people\=Gabe Newell \|title\=EA E3 Presentation Video \|url\=http://www.left4dead411\.com/news/2008/07/ea\-e3\-presentation\-video/ \|medium\=Video presentation \|publisher\=Left 4 Dead 411 \|date\=2008}} Within *Left 4 Dead 2*, the Director has the ability to alter placement of walls, level layout, lighting, and weather conditions, and reward players for taking more difficult routes with more useful weapons and items.{{cite journal \|url\=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2009/06/01/left\-4\-dead\-2\-exclusive\-rps\-preview/ \|title\=Left 4 Dead 2: Exclusive RPS Preview \|first\=John \|last\=Walker \|date\=June 1, 2009 \|access\-date\=June 1, 2009 \|journal\=\[\[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]]}}{{cite web \|url\=http://e3\.gamespot.com/live.html?tag\=live\-schedule \| title\=E3 09 Live Game Demos at GameSpot \|date\=June 2, 2009 \|access\-date\=June 2, 2009 \|publisher\=\[\[GameSpot]]}} A dedicated Director routine dynamically controls music and other ambient sound effects, monitoring what a player has experienced to create an appropriate sound mix. The process is client\-side and done by a multi\-track system. Each player hears their own mix, which is being generated as they play through the game, and dead players watching a teammate hear their teammates' mix.{{cite video game \|title\=Left 4 Dead \|developer\=\[\[Valve Corporation\|Valve]] \|date\=2008 \|platform\=PC \|level\=No Mercy (developer commentary) \|quote\='''Tim Larkin''': We took several steps to keep the music interesting enough that the players would be inclined to keep it on as they play. We keep it changing so it won't become tedious; to this end, we created a music director that runs alongside the AI director, tracking the player's experience rather than their emotional state. We keep the music appropriate to each player's situation and highly personalized. The music engine in ''Left 4 Dead'' has a complete client\-side, multi\-track system per player that is completely unique to that player and can even be monitored by the spectators. Since some of the fun of ''Left 4 Dead'' is watching your friends when you're dead, we thought it was important to hear their personal soundtrack as well. This feature is unique to ''Left 4 Dead''.}}
Valve sees the AI Director as a tool to be used for other games. A software patch for the cooperative game *[Alien Swarm](/wiki/Alien_Swarm "Alien Swarm")* added a game mode, Onslaught, that used a version of the AI Director from *Left 4 Dead* to dynamically generate enemies for the players to fight.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.pcgamer.com/2010/08/24/aliens\-swarm\-adds\-ai\-director\-gets\-even\-harder/ \| title \= Aliens Swarm adds AI Director, gets even harder \| first \= Tom \| last \= Senior \| date \= August 24, 2010 \| access\-date \= March 7, 2011 \| work \= \[\[PC Gamer]] }}
Valve has investigated the use of [biofeedback](/wiki/Biofeedback "Biofeedback") from the players directly as input for the Director. At the 2011 [Game Developers Conference](/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference "Game Developers Conference"), Valve demonstrated a simple test where a player, fitted with a device to measure [skin conductance](/wiki/Skin_conductance "Skin conductance") level, played through a *Left 4 Dead 2* level. Certain in\-game actions, such as hearing a threatening noise or passing an opening doorway, would cause the skin conductance to rise. Valve postulates that such information fed into the Director could create a much more effective player experience.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.g4tv.com/thefeed/blog/post/710843/Valve\-on\-the\-Importance\-of\-Using\-Sweat\-to\-Make\-Games\-Better\-.html \| title \= Valve on the Importance of Using Sweat to Make Games Better \| date \= March 4, 2011 \| access\-date \= March 7, 2011 \| first \= Dennis \| last \= Scimeca \| publisher \= \[\[G4 (U.S. TV channel)\|G4 TV]] }}
### Infected characters
The Infected characters within the game are divided into four categories. The most abundant are the "Common" Infected, the least deformed of the infected creatures. Alone, these infected are weak, but in large numbers, they pose a significant threat to the Survivors. Often, the Director will engineer a "horde", where a large number of Common Infected charge the players. Hordes can also be created by setting off in\-game "crescendo events" that usually involve some loud noise created by the players, or by activating a [car alarm](/wiki/Car_alarm "Car alarm"). As such, many individual levels feature a unique, noisy event, such as the raising of a rusty elevator, where a very large horde will be attracted, with the players given forewarning so that they can prepare for the onslaught.
A second type of infected introduced in *Left 4 Dead 2*, are the "Uncommon Infected". Uncommon infected are unique to certain campaigns and have a special ability that can hamper the players' progress. For example, the Uncommon Infected in "Hard Rain" are infected road workers that are still wearing protective ear pieces, making them immune to the sound of pipe bombs.
The third type of Infected are the "Special Infected". Each of these creatures appear less frequently during a campaign, and are designed to keep the players working together as a team. A Survivor that is attacked by these Special Infected is rendered completely incapable of taking action, encapsulating their intent: the victim *must* be rescued by other Survivors as they cannot help themselves. Special Infected have very specific vocalizations, as well as [leitmotifs](/wiki/Leitmotif "Leitmotif") which are inserted into the game's soundtrack when the AI Director places one, allowing Survivor players some forewarning. They serve as playable characters for the Infected in the games' Versus and Scavenge modes.
* **Hunter** \- a nimble and agile Infected that wears a [hoodie](/wiki/Hoodie "Hoodie") and is able to leap large distances and pounce on a single Survivor, who will take damage until either they are killed or the Hunter is either killed or shoved off.
* **Smoker** \- an Infected with a long tongue that he uses to ensnare and strangle Survivors, rendering them helpless until the tongue is hit or the Smoker is killed or stunned with explosives or shoving. When killed, he leaves a cloud of smoke that temporarily obscures the Survivors' vision and makes them cough.
* **Boomer** \- a slow\-moving bloated Infected that vomits bile onto Survivors; though not harmful itself, the bile attracts Common Infected to the character and obscures their vision for a time. When killed, a Boomer explodes, covering any nearby Survivors in more bile.
* **Spitter** \- an Infected that spews a large amount of acidic "spit" at the Survivors. Survivors standing in the "goo" suffer quickly\-increasing damage until they move out of the puddle. The Spitter herself is quite weak and upon her death, she leaves a small puddle of acid that also damages Survivors.
* **Charger** \- an Infected with a large mutated arm that attacks by charging Survivors at high speed. The charge attack is capable of knocking down and effectively stunning every Survivor at once, and the Survivor at the forefront of the attack is carried as far as the Charger runs or until the Charger hits a wall, at which point the Charger begins to pummel the Survivor. Survivors being pummeled are completely helpless and will be killed unless the Charger is killed. The Charger is also unique among the Special Infected in that, due to his hulking size, cannot be shoved; only frag rounds and explosives can stumble a Charger.
* **Jockey** \- a small Infected with a hunchback that can "ride" a Survivor, hence the name. A Jockey can control a Survivor's movement while riding them, steering the Survivor into danger. A Survivor suffers damage as long as a Jockey rides them and is completely helpless unless they are incapacitated or the Jockey is shoved or killed.
Finally, there are two special "boss" Infected characters that the AI Director includes at rare moments:
* **The Witch** \- a female Infected with glowing eyes and long clawed fingers. Witches are unique in that they are passive, preferring to be left alone to cry. However, if a Survivor "startles" her, either with their flashlight, by invading her space, or by damaging her, she will charge that Survivor and automatically incapacitate them. Once incapacitated, the Witch will viciously attack the downed Survivor until either they are killed or she is, or if she changes targets by being set on fire. If she kills the Survivor who initially disturbed her, then she will run away. On higher difficulty levels, a Witch can automatically kill a Survivor. She is particularly durable, and can run faster than Survivors, making it difficult to slay her before someone takes damage. She is the strongest and fastest Infected on foot. However, she has the second most hit points, behind the Tank. She can be stunned by explosives and frag rounds.
* {{anchor\|The Tank}}**The Tank** \- an enormous Infected with superhuman strength. The Tank can punch Survivors and smash them to the floor, or can throw debris and rocks, or punch cars, dumpsters, and other large objects at them (the latter resulting in instant incapacitation). Kiting is a valid tactic, but Survivors must do so for an extended period of time: a Tank on Normal difficulty has ten times the health of all the Survivors *combined*. In Versus, players may not control the Witch, and may only play as a Tank if the AI Director has already chosen to spawn one. He is the second strongest infected and has the highest number of hit points by far over all of the other infected. Due to his gargantuan size, the Tank can only be stumbled by exploding Boomers, oxygen canisters or propane tanks.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"The *Left 4 Dead* games are [first\\-person shooters](/wiki/First-person_shooters \"First-person shooters\") incorporating [survival horror](/wiki/Survival_horror \"Survival horror\") elements. A player controls one of the four Survivor characters, and has the ability to move, jump, and use weapons in their possession. Players are limited to two weapons: a main firearm with limited ammunition taken from ammo caches, and either one (or two pistols) sidearm with unlimited ammunition or a melee weapon. Players also have three additional inventory slots. The third slot gives the player a thrown weapon, including a [Molotov cocktail](/wiki/Molotov_cocktail \"Molotov cocktail\"), a [pipe bomb](/wiki/Pipe_bomb \"Pipe bomb\") that can be used to lure a horde towards it before it explodes, or a bile jar that can be used to lure a horde to a specific area. The fourth slot provides for either a health kit which they can use on themselves or the other survivors, a defibrillator to revive a dead Survivor, or a special ammo deployment kit providing unique ammo such as explosive bullets. The fifth inventory slot is used for pain pills, giving the player a temporary health boost, or an adrenaline shot, temporarily increasing the player's movement, interaction, healing, and teammate revival speed. Some environmental objects like propane tanks or gasoline cans can be carried and thrown at hordes, upon which they can be fired upon as a makeshift explosive, but cannot be stored in the player's inventory. In *Left 4 Dead 2*, limited\\-use weapons such as the chainsaw, [grenade launcher](/wiki/China_Lake_grenade_launcher \"China Lake grenade launcher\") or the [M60 machine gun](/wiki/M60_machine_gun \"M60 machine gun\") can also be carried in a similar manner. The player can use whatever object they are holding to temporarily push back any Infected surrounding them.",
"A [health bar](/wiki/Health_bar \"Health bar\") is used to track each character's health; players are aware of the state of each other's health and special items, and each character is shown to other players through an outlined silhouette on the game's [HUD](/wiki/Heads-up_display \"Heads-up display\"), regardless of walls that separate the characters, and colored based on their health state. A character's health suffers from attacks from any Infected, environmental effects such as fires, and from friendly\\-fire incidents. When a character's health falls below a certain level, the character will not be able to move as fast until they can restore their health. If the player's health drops to zero, they become incapacitated, whereby they fall to the floor and need to be helped up by a teammate, and a new temporary health bar appears, representing a [bleed out](/wiki/Exsanguination \"Exsanguination\") period. Should this bar drop to zero, the character dies, and can only be restored either through a defibrillator, appearing later in a level in a \"rescue closet\" from which they must be freed, or when the remaining players reach the safe house. Otherwise, an incapacitated character can be revived with the assistance of any other character. However, if a character becomes incapacitated three times in a row without using a first\\-aid kit, they will immediately die the third time. Similarly, if a character falls over an edge, they will hang precariously for a limited time, falling to their death if they are not assisted in time.",
"In the main campaign mode, each campaign is divided into two to five chapters. For all but the last chapter, the goal of the players is to reach the safehouse at the end of the level, where fresh supplies of weapons, ammo, and health items are typically found. In the finale, the campaign comes to a climax and requires the players to either make a stand against waves of Infected as they wait for a rescue vehicle, fill up an escape vehicle's gas tank while fending off the horde, or race through a gauntlet of Infected to make their way to the rescue point.",
"Additional game modes are also available. A 4\\-on\\-4 competitive mode named Versus is available, where in alternating matches, one side controls the Survivor characters while the other controls Special Infected. When playing as the Survivors, the goal remains the same as the normal campaign mode. The Infected side tries to prevent the Survivors from making their way to the safehouse; should they be killed by the survivors, they will respawn later as a new type of Infected. Scoring is based on how far the Survivors get and other factors, with the team with the most points at the end of a campaign considered the winner. Other modes are based on single\\-situation standoffs where the Survivors have to hold out as long as possible, or where two teams compete to fill a generator with as many gas cans as possible.",
"In *Left 4 Dead 2* two additional modes have been introduced. In \"Realism\" mode, several of the video game aspects are removed from the game, such as the identification of the location of teammates via their silhouette, the respawning of dead characters later in rescue closets, and more severe damage models. The sequel also features \"mutations\", game modes based on either the campaign or competitive modes where specific rules may be in place. For example, one mutation may give all the Survivor characters chainsaws from the start, while another may make every unique infected appear as a specific type, such as the Tank.",
"Both games support user\\-generated content through new maps and campaigns using tools provided by Valve; *Left 4 Dead 2* also provides support for custom mutations. Valve has further supported the user community by highlighting popular third\\-party maps, and including select ones in software patches for the game.",
"### AI Director",
"The *Left 4 Dead* series uses a collection of [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") routines, collectively the \"AI Director\", to monitor and alter the gameplay experience in response to the players. Valve's primary goal with the AI Director was to promote replayability of the games' campaigns, as their previous multiplayer games with this feature, such as *[Counter\\-Strike](/wiki/Counter-Strike \"Counter-Strike\")* and *[Team Fortress 2](/wiki/Team_Fortress_2 \"Team Fortress 2\")* have shown thriving communities of players that continue to play the games despite the limited number of maps available due to the unpredictable nature of online play. In considering this for *Left 4 Dead*, Valve identified that many games use static events that always occur at fixed points in a level, or limited dynamic events where one of several events could occur at fixed points. Valve themselves had used this idea in some key battles in *[Half\\-Life 2: Episode Two](/wiki/Half-Life_2:Episode_Two \"Episode Two\")* where the spawning of Combine forces would be based on the player's location.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/left\\-4\\-dead\\-2\\-interview?page\\=2 \\|publisher\\=eurogamer.net \\|title\\= Left 4 Dead 2 Interview \\|quote\\=The AI director—I don't want to say it fell out of Half\\-Life 2, but it was definitely a jumping\\-off point of stuff we did in Half\\-Life 2, particularly Episode 2\\. There are a couple of key battles where the number of Combine, and where they come at you from, uses something like that. It's much cruder than what we accomplished with Left 4 Dead, but there was some of that there \\|date\\=July 3, 2009 \\|access\\-date \\= July 5, 2009}} They recognized that such systems do not promote replayability or cooperation: players could easily memorize where events would occur, and those that had yet to experience the events would slow other players down.{{cite web \\| url \\=http://www.valvesoftware.com/publications/2009/ai\\_systems\\_of\\_l4d\\_mike\\_booth.pdf \\| title \\= The AI Systems of Left 4 Dead \\| first \\= Michael \\| last \\= Booth \\| year \\= 2009 \\| access\\-date \\= March 7, 2011 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Valve Corporation\\|Valve]] }} With the concept of the AI Director, Valve believed it could capture the same chaos and randomness that would occur in *Counter\\-Strike* and *Team Fortress 2* in the cooperative gameplay experience, transforming it from simple memorization to a skills challenge. Valve has further termed this approach \"[procedural narrative](/wiki/Emergent_gameplay%23Emergent_narrative \"Emergent gameplay#Emergent narrative\")\", creating a new story each time the game is played.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://www.next\\-gen.biz/opinion/gabe\\-newell\\-writes\\-edge \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120909153756/http://www.next\\-gen.biz/opinion/gabe\\-newell\\-writes\\-edge \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=September 9, 2012 \\|title\\=Gabe Newell Writes for Edge \\|last\\=Newell \\|first\\=Gabe \\|date\\=November 21, 2008 \\|quote\\=''The events are trying to give them a sense of narrative. We look at sequences of events and try to take what their actions are to generate new sequences. If they've been particularly challenged by one kind of creature then we can use that information to make decisions about how we use that creature in subsequent encounters. This is what makes procedural narrative more of a story\\-telling device than, say, a simple difficulty mechanism.'' \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Edge (magazine)\\|Edge]] \\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2008 }}",
"The AI Director has several facets that combine to form \"structured unpredictability\" for each playthrough. The Director first procedurally generates a dramatic flow for the level, which identifies the size and location of hordes of common infected and uncommon infected throughout the level. The procedural generation considers each traversable area on the map, using pathfinding algorithms that Valve had incorporated into *Counter\\-strike* computer\\-controlled characters, and the \"flow\" of the map—the general direction from the start of the level to the safe house. As players progress through the map, the Director will spawn infected in areas near the players and out of sight, while removing infected from earlier portions of the map the players have passed through. The placement also considered the \"Escape Route\", the shortest path through the map, and will increase encounters along this route to increase the difficulty. Spawning rules are different for each of the infected; hordes are more often spawned behind players to take them by surprise, while special infected like the Hunter and Smoker will spawn ahead of the players, giving their individual AI the opportunity to lay in wait for the players. Procedural generation is also used to place weapons and other items throughout the level. Weapons and equipment can be programmed by the map designer to be generated by the Director at fixed points, allowing for some predictability for the players, and to give some creative control to the design for story\\-telling and visual effects.",
"Overriding the procedural generation is the aim to create \"active dynamic pacing\" of the game by continuous monitoring of players, and altering the predetermined pacing to react to this. Each player character is tracked by a metric called the Survivor Intensity, which increases as the character takes damage, becomes incapacitated, or another character dies nearby, among other effects, and slowly decays in time. The Director will alter its previously developed schedule for spawning of infected to build up Survivor Intensity to a certain threshold; when this occurs, the game sustains this peak for a few seconds, then enters a period where it relaxes and reduces the spawning of infected, allowing the players to finish their current encounter and allow their Survivor Intensities to fall away from the threshold. The Director then repeats this cycle until the players have reached the end of the level.",
"The boss infected encounters are generated through different means, creating a sequence based on cycling without repetition between three situations: Tank, Witch, or \"No event\". Boss events are then generated based on the number of areas the players have passed through. These events are not modified by the dynamic pacing of the game; Valve discovered when these were controlled by the pacing, players would often be at too high of an intensity to allow these encounters to occur. Keeping the events on a separate track allows the pacing to be unpredictable, further enhancing the replayability goal of the Director.",
"{{Wide image\\|Left2dead ai demonstration.jpg\\|600px\\|A sample series of encounters (with progress from left to right) during a level playthrough of ''Left 4 Dead''. The top bar shows the original population of common (white icons), special (colored icons) and boss (large icons) procedurally generated by the AI Director prior to starting the level. The second bar is the monitored \"Survivor Intensity\", with the red \"Relax\" sections occurring immediately after the Intensity reaches a threshold limit. The third bar is the actual population generated while playing the level; certain common hordes have been removed due to the Intensity being high and in a \"relaxed\" state, while other hordes and uncommons have been added when the Intensity is very low near the end of the level.}}",
"The Director also creates mood and tension with emotional cues, such as visual effects, audio cues for specific types of infected, and character communication.{{cite video \\|people\\=Gabe Newell \\|title\\=EA E3 Presentation Video \\|url\\=http://www.left4dead411\\.com/news/2008/07/ea\\-e3\\-presentation\\-video/ \\|medium\\=Video presentation \\|publisher\\=Left 4 Dead 411 \\|date\\=2008}} Within *Left 4 Dead 2*, the Director has the ability to alter placement of walls, level layout, lighting, and weather conditions, and reward players for taking more difficult routes with more useful weapons and items.{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2009/06/01/left\\-4\\-dead\\-2\\-exclusive\\-rps\\-preview/ \\|title\\=Left 4 Dead 2: Exclusive RPS Preview \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Walker \\|date\\=June 1, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2009 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]]}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://e3\\.gamespot.com/live.html?tag\\=live\\-schedule \\| title\\=E3 09 Live Game Demos at GameSpot \\|date\\=June 2, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2009 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]]}} A dedicated Director routine dynamically controls music and other ambient sound effects, monitoring what a player has experienced to create an appropriate sound mix. The process is client\\-side and done by a multi\\-track system. Each player hears their own mix, which is being generated as they play through the game, and dead players watching a teammate hear their teammates' mix.{{cite video game \\|title\\=Left 4 Dead \\|developer\\=\\[\\[Valve Corporation\\|Valve]] \\|date\\=2008 \\|platform\\=PC \\|level\\=No Mercy (developer commentary) \\|quote\\='''Tim Larkin''': We took several steps to keep the music interesting enough that the players would be inclined to keep it on as they play. We keep it changing so it won't become tedious; to this end, we created a music director that runs alongside the AI director, tracking the player's experience rather than their emotional state. We keep the music appropriate to each player's situation and highly personalized. The music engine in ''Left 4 Dead'' has a complete client\\-side, multi\\-track system per player that is completely unique to that player and can even be monitored by the spectators. Since some of the fun of ''Left 4 Dead'' is watching your friends when you're dead, we thought it was important to hear their personal soundtrack as well. This feature is unique to ''Left 4 Dead''.}}",
"Valve sees the AI Director as a tool to be used for other games. A software patch for the cooperative game *[Alien Swarm](/wiki/Alien_Swarm \"Alien Swarm\")* added a game mode, Onslaught, that used a version of the AI Director from *Left 4 Dead* to dynamically generate enemies for the players to fight.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.pcgamer.com/2010/08/24/aliens\\-swarm\\-adds\\-ai\\-director\\-gets\\-even\\-harder/ \\| title \\= Aliens Swarm adds AI Director, gets even harder \\| first \\= Tom \\| last \\= Senior \\| date \\= August 24, 2010 \\| access\\-date \\= March 7, 2011 \\| work \\= \\[\\[PC Gamer]] }}",
"Valve has investigated the use of [biofeedback](/wiki/Biofeedback \"Biofeedback\") from the players directly as input for the Director. At the 2011 [Game Developers Conference](/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference \"Game Developers Conference\"), Valve demonstrated a simple test where a player, fitted with a device to measure [skin conductance](/wiki/Skin_conductance \"Skin conductance\") level, played through a *Left 4 Dead 2* level. Certain in\\-game actions, such as hearing a threatening noise or passing an opening doorway, would cause the skin conductance to rise. Valve postulates that such information fed into the Director could create a much more effective player experience.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.g4tv.com/thefeed/blog/post/710843/Valve\\-on\\-the\\-Importance\\-of\\-Using\\-Sweat\\-to\\-Make\\-Games\\-Better\\-.html \\| title \\= Valve on the Importance of Using Sweat to Make Games Better \\| date \\= March 4, 2011 \\| access\\-date \\= March 7, 2011 \\| first \\= Dennis \\| last \\= Scimeca \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[G4 (U.S. TV channel)\\|G4 TV]] }}",
"### Infected characters",
"The Infected characters within the game are divided into four categories. The most abundant are the \"Common\" Infected, the least deformed of the infected creatures. Alone, these infected are weak, but in large numbers, they pose a significant threat to the Survivors. Often, the Director will engineer a \"horde\", where a large number of Common Infected charge the players. Hordes can also be created by setting off in\\-game \"crescendo events\" that usually involve some loud noise created by the players, or by activating a [car alarm](/wiki/Car_alarm \"Car alarm\"). As such, many individual levels feature a unique, noisy event, such as the raising of a rusty elevator, where a very large horde will be attracted, with the players given forewarning so that they can prepare for the onslaught.",
"A second type of infected introduced in *Left 4 Dead 2*, are the \"Uncommon Infected\". Uncommon infected are unique to certain campaigns and have a special ability that can hamper the players' progress. For example, the Uncommon Infected in \"Hard Rain\" are infected road workers that are still wearing protective ear pieces, making them immune to the sound of pipe bombs.",
"The third type of Infected are the \"Special Infected\". Each of these creatures appear less frequently during a campaign, and are designed to keep the players working together as a team. A Survivor that is attacked by these Special Infected is rendered completely incapable of taking action, encapsulating their intent: the victim *must* be rescued by other Survivors as they cannot help themselves. Special Infected have very specific vocalizations, as well as [leitmotifs](/wiki/Leitmotif \"Leitmotif\") which are inserted into the game's soundtrack when the AI Director places one, allowing Survivor players some forewarning. They serve as playable characters for the Infected in the games' Versus and Scavenge modes.\n* **Hunter** \\- a nimble and agile Infected that wears a [hoodie](/wiki/Hoodie \"Hoodie\") and is able to leap large distances and pounce on a single Survivor, who will take damage until either they are killed or the Hunter is either killed or shoved off.\n* **Smoker** \\- an Infected with a long tongue that he uses to ensnare and strangle Survivors, rendering them helpless until the tongue is hit or the Smoker is killed or stunned with explosives or shoving. When killed, he leaves a cloud of smoke that temporarily obscures the Survivors' vision and makes them cough.\n* **Boomer** \\- a slow\\-moving bloated Infected that vomits bile onto Survivors; though not harmful itself, the bile attracts Common Infected to the character and obscures their vision for a time. When killed, a Boomer explodes, covering any nearby Survivors in more bile.\n* **Spitter** \\- an Infected that spews a large amount of acidic \"spit\" at the Survivors. Survivors standing in the \"goo\" suffer quickly\\-increasing damage until they move out of the puddle. The Spitter herself is quite weak and upon her death, she leaves a small puddle of acid that also damages Survivors.\n* **Charger** \\- an Infected with a large mutated arm that attacks by charging Survivors at high speed. The charge attack is capable of knocking down and effectively stunning every Survivor at once, and the Survivor at the forefront of the attack is carried as far as the Charger runs or until the Charger hits a wall, at which point the Charger begins to pummel the Survivor. Survivors being pummeled are completely helpless and will be killed unless the Charger is killed. The Charger is also unique among the Special Infected in that, due to his hulking size, cannot be shoved; only frag rounds and explosives can stumble a Charger.\n* **Jockey** \\- a small Infected with a hunchback that can \"ride\" a Survivor, hence the name. A Jockey can control a Survivor's movement while riding them, steering the Survivor into danger. A Survivor suffers damage as long as a Jockey rides them and is completely helpless unless they are incapacitated or the Jockey is shoved or killed.",
"Finally, there are two special \"boss\" Infected characters that the AI Director includes at rare moments:",
"* **The Witch** \\- a female Infected with glowing eyes and long clawed fingers. Witches are unique in that they are passive, preferring to be left alone to cry. However, if a Survivor \"startles\" her, either with their flashlight, by invading her space, or by damaging her, she will charge that Survivor and automatically incapacitate them. Once incapacitated, the Witch will viciously attack the downed Survivor until either they are killed or she is, or if she changes targets by being set on fire. If she kills the Survivor who initially disturbed her, then she will run away. On higher difficulty levels, a Witch can automatically kill a Survivor. She is particularly durable, and can run faster than Survivors, making it difficult to slay her before someone takes damage. She is the strongest and fastest Infected on foot. However, she has the second most hit points, behind the Tank. She can be stunned by explosives and frag rounds.\n* {{anchor\\|The Tank}}**The Tank** \\- an enormous Infected with superhuman strength. The Tank can punch Survivors and smash them to the floor, or can throw debris and rocks, or punch cars, dumpsters, and other large objects at them (the latter resulting in instant incapacitation). Kiting is a valid tactic, but Survivors must do so for an extended period of time: a Tank on Normal difficulty has ten times the health of all the Survivors *combined*. In Versus, players may not control the Witch, and may only play as a Tank if the AI Director has already chosen to spawn one. He is the second strongest infected and has the highest number of hit points by far over all of the other infected. Due to his gargantuan size, the Tank can only be stumbled by exploding Boomers, oxygen canisters or propane tanks."
] |
Demographics
------------
### 2020 census
As of the [census of 2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"),{{cite web\|title\=2020 Decennial Census: Keshena CDP, Wisconsin \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US5539250\&y\=2020\&d\=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20%28PL%2094\-171%29 \|website\=data.census.gov \|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau \|access\-date\=13 July 2022}} the population was 1,257\. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|150\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 364 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|43\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 2\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Black](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._Census%29 "Black (U.S. Census)") or [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census"), and 1\.0% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 2\.8% [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 1,394 people, 353 households, and 296 families residing in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 164\.7 people per square mile (63\.5/km2). There were 376 housing units at an average density of 44\.4/sq mi (17\.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 3\.08% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 95\.98% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.07% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.07% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.65% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.73% of the population.
There were 353 households, out of which 58\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 40\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\.1% were non\-families. 13\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3\.85 and the average family size was 4\.07\.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 46\.1% under the age of 18, 9\.3% from 18 to 24, 26\.1% from 25 to 44, 13\.2% from 45 to 64, and 5\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 20 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\.6 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $19,792, and the median income for a family was $20,526\. Males had a median income of $22,115 versus $20,170 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $8,578\. About 43\.9% of families and 45\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 57\.7% of those under age 18 and 32\.1% of those age 65 or over.
English was spoken in 84\.69% of homes, [Menominee](/wiki/Menominee_language "Menominee language") in 12\.21%, and [Hmong](/wiki/Hmong_language "Hmong language") in 3\.09% of homes.{{Cite web\|url\=https://apps.mla.org/map\_data\_results\&SRVY\_YEAR\=2000\&geo\=\&state\_id\=55\&county\_id\=\&mode\=place⟨\_id\=\&zip\=\&place\_id\=39250\&cty\_id\=\®ion\_id\=\&division\_id\=≪\=\&ea\=nℴ\=\&a\=n\&pc\=1\|title\=Data Center Results}}
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"### 2020 census",
"As of the [census of 2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=2020 Decennial Census: Keshena CDP, Wisconsin \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US5539250\\&y\\=2020\\&d\\=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20%28PL%2094\\-171%29 \\|website\\=data.census.gov \\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2022}} the population was 1,257\\. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|150\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 364 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|43\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Black](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Black (U.S. Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\"), and 1\\.0% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 2\\.8% [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,394 people, 353 households, and 296 families residing in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 164\\.7 people per square mile (63\\.5/km2). There were 376 housing units at an average density of 44\\.4/sq mi (17\\.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 3\\.08% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 95\\.98% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.07% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.07% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.65% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.73% of the population.",
"There were 353 households, out of which 58\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 40\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16\\.1% were non\\-families. 13\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3\\.85 and the average family size was 4\\.07\\.",
"In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 46\\.1% under the age of 18, 9\\.3% from 18 to 24, 26\\.1% from 25 to 44, 13\\.2% from 45 to 64, and 5\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 20 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\\.6 males.",
"The median income for a household in the CDP was $19,792, and the median income for a family was $20,526\\. Males had a median income of $22,115 versus $20,170 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $8,578\\. About 43\\.9% of families and 45\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 57\\.7% of those under age 18 and 32\\.1% of those age 65 or over.",
"English was spoken in 84\\.69% of homes, [Menominee](/wiki/Menominee_language \"Menominee language\") in 12\\.21%, and [Hmong](/wiki/Hmong_language \"Hmong language\") in 3\\.09% of homes.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://apps.mla.org/map\\_data\\_results\\&SRVY\\_YEAR\\=2000\\&geo\\=\\&state\\_id\\=55\\&county\\_id\\=\\&mode\\=place⟨\\_id\\=\\&zip\\=\\&place\\_id\\=39250\\&cty\\_id\\=\\®ion\\_id\\=\\&division\\_id\\=≪\\=\\&ea\\=nℴ\\=\\&a\\=n\\&pc\\=1\\|title\\=Data Center Results}}",
""
] |
Work
----
[thumb\|right\|*Agualine* (1980\) at the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art "National Gallery of Art") in 2022](/wiki/File:Agualine%2C_1980%2C_Nancy_Graves_at_NGA_2022.jpeg "Agualine, 1980, Nancy Graves at NGA 2022.jpeg")
A prolific artist who worked in painting, sculpture, printmaking and film, Graves first made her presence felt on the New York art scene in the late 1960s and 70's, with life\-size sculptures of camels that seemed as accurate as a natural history display. Like\-minded artists included [Eva Hesse](/wiki/Eva_Hesse "Eva Hesse"), Close, [Bruce Nauman](/wiki/Bruce_Nauman "Bruce Nauman"), [Keith Sonnier](/wiki/Keith_Sonnier "Keith Sonnier"), and Serra, to whom Graves was married from 1965 to 1970\.[Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith "Roberta Smith") (October 24, 1995\), [Nancy Graves, 54, Prolific Post\-Minimalist Artist](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/24/arts/nancy-graves-54-prolific-post-minimalist-artist.html) *New York Times*. Her work has strong ties to the [Alexander Calder](/wiki/Alexander_Calder "Alexander Calder")'s stabiles and to the sculptures of [David Smith](/wiki/David_Smith_%28sculptor%29 "David Smith (sculptor)"), with their welded parts and found objects; she collected works by both artists.
Her most famous sculpture, *Camels*, was first displayed in the [Whitney Museum of American Art](/wiki/Whitney_Museum_of_American_Art "Whitney Museum of American Art"). The sculpture features three separate camels, each made of many materials, among them burlap, wax, fiberglass, and animal skin. Each camel is also painted with acrylics and oil colors to appear realistic. The camels are now stored in the [National Gallery of Canada](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Canada "National Gallery of Canada"), and two later "siblings" reside in the [Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst](/wiki/Ludwig_Forum_f%C3%BCr_Internationale_Kunst "Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst") in [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen "Aachen"), Germany. Working in [Fiberglas](/wiki/Fiberglas "Fiberglas"), [latex](/wiki/Latex "Latex"), marble dust and other unorthodox materials, Graves later moved on to camel skeletons and bones, which she dispersed about the floor or hung from ceilings. In *Variability of Similar Forms* (1970\), from drawings that Graves made of Pleistocene camel skeletons, she sculpted 36 individual leg bones in various positions, each nearly the height of a man, and arranged them upright in an irregular pattern on a wooden base. In the early 1970s, she made five films. Two of them, *Goulimine, 1970* and *Izy Boukir,* recorded the movement of camels in Morocco, reflecting the influence of [Eadweard Muybridge](/wiki/Eadweard_Muybridge "Eadweard Muybridge")'s motion\-study photography. In 1976, German art collector Peter Ludwig commissioned a wax variation of a 1969 sculpture of camel bones.
Graves began showing open\-form polychrome sculptures in 1980, one prime example being *Trace,* a very large tree whose trunk was made from ribbons of bronze with foliage of steel mesh.Grace Glueck (October 22, 1982\), [Art: Botanical Bronzes from Nancy Graves](https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/22/arts/art-botanical-bronzes-from-nancy-graves.html) *New York Times*. Also in the early 1980s, she began to produce the works for which she became most widely known: the colorfully painted, playfully disjunctive assemblages of found objects cast in bronze, including plants, mechanical parts, tools, architectural elements, food products and much more.
Graves also created a distinctive body of [aerial landscapes](/wiki/Aerial_landscape "Aerial landscape"), mostly based on maps of the Moon and similar sources. Below is a link to an example (*VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon*). Author Margret Dreikausen (1985\) writes extensively of Graves's aerial works as part of a broader discussion of the [aerial view](/wiki/Aerial_view "Aerial view") and its importance in modern and contemporary art.
Graves also began using the lost wax technique in her later work. She would cast delicate objects in bronze. Then use them to create arrangements. Her color scheme changed over time to bright colors in the 1980s and then shifted to more "subtle" colors in the 1990s.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10\.1093/gao/9781884446054\.001\.0001/oao\-9781884446054\-e\-7000034150\|title\=Graves, Nancy {{!}} Grove Art\|website\=www.oxfordartonline.com\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1093/gao/9781884446054\.article.T034150\|isbn\=978\-1\-884446\-05\-4\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-14}}
Some of Graves's other works include:
* *Goulimine* (film, 1970\)
* *Izy Boukir* (film, 1971\)
* *VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon* (lithograph, 1972\)[*VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon*](http://magart.rochester.edu/Obj1689?sid=8769&x=151596), Memorial Art Gallery, rochester.edu.
* *Fragment* (painting, 1977\)[*Fragment*](http://magart.rochester.edu/Obj413?sid=8769&x=151593) painting, Memorial Art Gallery, rochester.edu.
* *Wheelabout* (sculpture, 1985\)[*Wheelabout*](http://themodern.org/f_html/graves.html){{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} sculpture, themodern.org, Nancy Graves.
* *Hindsight* (sculpture, 1986\)[*Hindsight*](http://collections.walkerart.org/item/object/580) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411072738/http://collections.walkerart.org/item/object/580 \|date\=2008\-04\-11 }} sculpture, Walker Art Center.
* *Immovable Iconography* (sculpture, 1990\)[*Immovable Iconography*](http://www.kemperart.org/permanent/works/Graves.asp) sculpture, Nancy Graves, Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art.
* *Footscray* (oil on canvas, paint, and sculpture)
* *Metaphore \& Melanomy*, (cast bronze, 1995\)[Walla Walla Foundry](http://www.wallawallafoundry.com/portfolio/graves.html), Nancy Graves.
* *Camels, VI, VII, VIII* (wood, steel, burlap, polyurethane, wax, oil paint, 1969\){{Cite book\|title\=Women artists : the Linda Nochlin reader\|last\=Linda\|first\=Nochlin\|others\=Reilly, Maura\|isbn\=9780500239292\|location\=New York, New York\|oclc\=892891670\|year \= 2015}}
* *Fossils* (Plaster, dust, marble dust, acrylic and steel, 1970\)
* *Calipers* (Hot\-rolled steel, 1970\)
* *Shaman* (Latex on muslin, wax, steel, copper, aluminum wire, gauze, oil paint, marble dust, and acrylic, 1970\)
* *Variability and Repetition of Similar Forms II* (Bronze and COR\-TEN steel, 1979\)
* *Trambulate* (Bronze and carbon steel with polyurethane paint and baked enamel, 1984\)
At the end of her life, Graves was incorporating handblown glass into her sculptures and experimenting with poly\-optics, a glasslike material that can be cast.
Graves worked and lived in [Soho](/wiki/Soho "Soho") and in [Beacon, New York](/wiki/Beacon%2C_New_York "Beacon, New York"), where she maintained a studio.
|
[
"Work\n----",
"[thumb\\|right\\|*Agualine* (1980\\) at the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art \"National Gallery of Art\") in 2022](/wiki/File:Agualine%2C_1980%2C_Nancy_Graves_at_NGA_2022.jpeg \"Agualine, 1980, Nancy Graves at NGA 2022.jpeg\")\nA prolific artist who worked in painting, sculpture, printmaking and film, Graves first made her presence felt on the New York art scene in the late 1960s and 70's, with life\\-size sculptures of camels that seemed as accurate as a natural history display. Like\\-minded artists included [Eva Hesse](/wiki/Eva_Hesse \"Eva Hesse\"), Close, [Bruce Nauman](/wiki/Bruce_Nauman \"Bruce Nauman\"), [Keith Sonnier](/wiki/Keith_Sonnier \"Keith Sonnier\"), and Serra, to whom Graves was married from 1965 to 1970\\.[Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith \"Roberta Smith\") (October 24, 1995\\), [Nancy Graves, 54, Prolific Post\\-Minimalist Artist](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/24/arts/nancy-graves-54-prolific-post-minimalist-artist.html) *New York Times*. Her work has strong ties to the [Alexander Calder](/wiki/Alexander_Calder \"Alexander Calder\")'s stabiles and to the sculptures of [David Smith](/wiki/David_Smith_%28sculptor%29 \"David Smith (sculptor)\"), with their welded parts and found objects; she collected works by both artists.",
"Her most famous sculpture, *Camels*, was first displayed in the [Whitney Museum of American Art](/wiki/Whitney_Museum_of_American_Art \"Whitney Museum of American Art\"). The sculpture features three separate camels, each made of many materials, among them burlap, wax, fiberglass, and animal skin. Each camel is also painted with acrylics and oil colors to appear realistic. The camels are now stored in the [National Gallery of Canada](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Canada \"National Gallery of Canada\"), and two later \"siblings\" reside in the [Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst](/wiki/Ludwig_Forum_f%C3%BCr_Internationale_Kunst \"Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst\") in [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen \"Aachen\"), Germany. Working in [Fiberglas](/wiki/Fiberglas \"Fiberglas\"), [latex](/wiki/Latex \"Latex\"), marble dust and other unorthodox materials, Graves later moved on to camel skeletons and bones, which she dispersed about the floor or hung from ceilings. In *Variability of Similar Forms* (1970\\), from drawings that Graves made of Pleistocene camel skeletons, she sculpted 36 individual leg bones in various positions, each nearly the height of a man, and arranged them upright in an irregular pattern on a wooden base. In the early 1970s, she made five films. Two of them, *Goulimine, 1970* and *Izy Boukir,* recorded the movement of camels in Morocco, reflecting the influence of [Eadweard Muybridge](/wiki/Eadweard_Muybridge \"Eadweard Muybridge\")'s motion\\-study photography. In 1976, German art collector Peter Ludwig commissioned a wax variation of a 1969 sculpture of camel bones.",
"Graves began showing open\\-form polychrome sculptures in 1980, one prime example being *Trace,* a very large tree whose trunk was made from ribbons of bronze with foliage of steel mesh.Grace Glueck (October 22, 1982\\), [Art: Botanical Bronzes from Nancy Graves](https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/22/arts/art-botanical-bronzes-from-nancy-graves.html) *New York Times*. Also in the early 1980s, she began to produce the works for which she became most widely known: the colorfully painted, playfully disjunctive assemblages of found objects cast in bronze, including plants, mechanical parts, tools, architectural elements, food products and much more.",
"Graves also created a distinctive body of [aerial landscapes](/wiki/Aerial_landscape \"Aerial landscape\"), mostly based on maps of the Moon and similar sources. Below is a link to an example (*VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon*). Author Margret Dreikausen (1985\\) writes extensively of Graves's aerial works as part of a broader discussion of the [aerial view](/wiki/Aerial_view \"Aerial view\") and its importance in modern and contemporary art.",
"Graves also began using the lost wax technique in her later work. She would cast delicate objects in bronze. Then use them to create arrangements. Her color scheme changed over time to bright colors in the 1980s and then shifted to more \"subtle\" colors in the 1990s.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10\\.1093/gao/9781884446054\\.001\\.0001/oao\\-9781884446054\\-e\\-7000034150\\|title\\=Graves, Nancy {{!}} Grove Art\\|website\\=www.oxfordartonline.com\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/gao/9781884446054\\.article.T034150\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-884446\\-05\\-4\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-14}}",
"Some of Graves's other works include:\n* *Goulimine* (film, 1970\\)\n* *Izy Boukir* (film, 1971\\)\n* *VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon* (lithograph, 1972\\)[*VI Maskeyne Da Region of the Moon*](http://magart.rochester.edu/Obj1689?sid=8769&x=151596), Memorial Art Gallery, rochester.edu.\n* *Fragment* (painting, 1977\\)[*Fragment*](http://magart.rochester.edu/Obj413?sid=8769&x=151593) painting, Memorial Art Gallery, rochester.edu.\n* *Wheelabout* (sculpture, 1985\\)[*Wheelabout*](http://themodern.org/f_html/graves.html){{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} sculpture, themodern.org, Nancy Graves.\n* *Hindsight* (sculpture, 1986\\)[*Hindsight*](http://collections.walkerart.org/item/object/580) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411072738/http://collections.walkerart.org/item/object/580 \\|date\\=2008\\-04\\-11 }} sculpture, Walker Art Center.\n* *Immovable Iconography* (sculpture, 1990\\)[*Immovable Iconography*](http://www.kemperart.org/permanent/works/Graves.asp) sculpture, Nancy Graves, Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art.\n* *Footscray* (oil on canvas, paint, and sculpture)\n* *Metaphore \\& Melanomy*, (cast bronze, 1995\\)[Walla Walla Foundry](http://www.wallawallafoundry.com/portfolio/graves.html), Nancy Graves.\n* *Camels, VI, VII, VIII* (wood, steel, burlap, polyurethane, wax, oil paint, 1969\\){{Cite book\\|title\\=Women artists : the Linda Nochlin reader\\|last\\=Linda\\|first\\=Nochlin\\|others\\=Reilly, Maura\\|isbn\\=9780500239292\\|location\\=New York, New York\\|oclc\\=892891670\\|year \\= 2015}}\n* *Fossils* (Plaster, dust, marble dust, acrylic and steel, 1970\\)\n* *Calipers* (Hot\\-rolled steel, 1970\\)\n* *Shaman* (Latex on muslin, wax, steel, copper, aluminum wire, gauze, oil paint, marble dust, and acrylic, 1970\\)\n* *Variability and Repetition of Similar Forms II* (Bronze and COR\\-TEN steel, 1979\\)\n* *Trambulate* (Bronze and carbon steel with polyurethane paint and baked enamel, 1984\\)",
"At the end of her life, Graves was incorporating handblown glass into her sculptures and experimenting with poly\\-optics, a glasslike material that can be cast.",
"Graves worked and lived in [Soho](/wiki/Soho \"Soho\") and in [Beacon, New York](/wiki/Beacon%2C_New_York \"Beacon, New York\"), where she maintained a studio.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early years (1963–73\)
Smith was born and raised in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), United States to a musical family;{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=1997\|edition\=Concise\|isbn\=1\-85227\-745\-9\|page\=1103}} his father was a member of Richmond [Gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music "Gospel music") group [The Harmonizing Four](/wiki/The_Harmonizing_Four "The Harmonizing Four"), and he remembered groups such as the [Swan Silvertones](/wiki/Swan_Silvertones "Swan Silvertones") and the [Soul Stirrers](/wiki/Soul_Stirrers "Soul Stirrers") (featuring a young [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke "Sam Cooke")) as regular visitors to the house when he was a child. He studied [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba "Tuba") and [trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet "Trumpet") in high school and college before receiving a [B.S.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science "Bachelor of Science") in [music education](/wiki/Music_education "Music education") from [Morgan State University](/wiki/Morgan_State_University "Morgan State University") in Baltimore in 1961\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.alumni.morgan.edu/s/1192/16/interior.aspx?sid\=1192\&gid\=1\&pgid\=432\|title\=Lonnie Liston Smith, '61\|website\=Alumni.morgan.edu}} Smith has cited [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") as major influences in his youth. While still a teenager, Smith became well known locally as a backing vocalist as well as pianist in the [Baltimore metropolitan area](/wiki/Baltimore_metropolitan_area "Baltimore metropolitan area"). During this period, he regularly performed with a number of his contemporaries, including [Gary Bartz](/wiki/Gary_Bartz "Gary Bartz") (alto), [Grachan Moncur](/wiki/Grachan_Moncur_III "Grachan Moncur III") (trombone), and Mickey Bass (bass). He also backed a number of [jazz singers](/wiki/Jazz_singing "Jazz singing") (including [Ethel Ennis](/wiki/Ethel_Ennis "Ethel Ennis")) while performing in the house band at Baltimore's [Royal Theater](/wiki/Royal_Theatre_%28Baltimore%29 "Royal Theatre (Baltimore)") shortly after receiving his degree.
In 1963, he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), where he initially played piano in [Betty Carter](/wiki/Betty_Carter "Betty Carter")'s band for a year. Early in 1965, Smith began playing with [Roland Kirk](/wiki/Rahsaan_Roland_Kirk "Rahsaan Roland Kirk"), first recording with his band on *[Here Comes The Whistleman](/wiki/Here_Comes_the_Whistleman "Here Comes the Whistleman")* (Atlantic, 1965\), an album recorded live in New York on March 14, 1965\. A further track from that gig, "Dream", appeared on Roland Kirk and [Al Hibbler](/wiki/Al_Hibbler "Al Hibbler")'s live album *[A Meeting of the Times](/wiki/A_Meeting_of_the_Times "A Meeting of the Times")* (Atlantic, 1972\).
Late in 1965, Smith joined [Art Blakey](/wiki/Art_Blakey "Art Blakey")'s [Jazz Messengers](/wiki/Jazz_Messengers "Jazz Messengers"), sharing the piano position with [Mike Nock](/wiki/Mike_Nock "Mike Nock") and [Keith Jarrett](/wiki/Keith_Jarrett "Keith Jarrett"). The Jazz Messengers, together with Miles Davis' group, were one of the main proving grounds for young up\-and\-coming jazz musicians, experimentally edgy and musically stretching, and both were an ever\-revolving door of young modern jazz musicians as modes and moods rapidly changed during a fresh period of experimentation. Beginning with a live session at [The Five Spot](/wiki/Five_Spot_Caf%C3%A9 "Five Spot Café"), New York City, November 9, 1965,*Village Vanguard Magazine* (November 4, 1965, p. 12; November 11, 1965, p. 14\). Smith's time as a Jazz Messenger was fairly short\-term, only lasting until a three\-gig engagement at [The Village Vanguard](/wiki/The_Village_Vanguard "The Village Vanguard") 26–28 April 1966;{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htm \|title\=Chronology of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers \|website\=Jazzdiscography.com \|access\-date\=2013\-07\-15}} by May 1966 his position was filled by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea "Chick Corea"). No recordings exist of this period.
In May 1967, Smith returned to working with Roland Kirk for the album sessions for *[Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith](/wiki/Now_Please_Don%27t_You_Cry%2C_Beautiful_Edith "Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith")* (Verve, 1967\) before continuing his career as pianist for a year with drummer [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach "Max Roach") (although once again no recordings were made of this lineup).
Following this stint, Smith moved to [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders "Pharoah Sanders")' ensemble early in 1968, a group Sanders had set up on the death of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") the previous year. Fiercely [improvisational](/wiki/Improvisation "Improvisation"), Sanders pushed the band creatively to the boundaries of [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz "Free jazz"), recording three of Sanders' finest recordings: *[Karma](/wiki/Karma_%28Pharoah_Sanders_album%29 "Karma (Pharoah Sanders album)")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records "Impulse Records"), 1969\), *[Jewels of Thought](/wiki/Jewels_of_Thought "Jewels of Thought")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records "Impulse Records"), 1970\) and *[Thembi](/wiki/Thembi "Thembi")* (Impulse, 1971\), together with 1969 recording sessions not released until 1973 as *Izipho Zam* ([Strata East](/wiki/Strata-East_Records "Strata-East Records"), 1973\). It is at this point that Smith began experimenting with [electric keyboards](/wiki/Electric_keyboard "Electric keyboard"):
> On *Thembi*, that was the first time that I ever touched a Fender Rhodes electric piano. We got to the studio in California — [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee "Cecil McBee") had to unpack his bass, the drummer had to set up his drums, Pharoah had to unpack all of his horns. Everybody had something to do, but the piano was just sitting there waiting. I saw this instrument sitting in the corner and I asked the engineer, 'What is that?' He said, 'That's a [Fender Rhodes electric piano](/wiki/Rhodes_piano "Rhodes piano").' I didn't have anything to do, so I started messing with it, checking some of the buttons to see what I could do with different sounds. All of a sudden I started writing a song and everybody ran over and said, 'What is that?' And I said, 'I don't know, I'm just messing around.' Pharoah said, 'Man, we gotta record that. Whatcha gonna call it?' I'd been studying [astral projections](/wiki/Astral_projection "Astral projection") and it sounded like we were floating through space so I said let's call it 'Astral Traveling.' That’s how I got introduced to the electric piano.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jimnewsom.com/PFW2007/040307\-LonnieListonSmith.html \|title\=Lonnie Liston Smith: Cosmic Jazzman \|website\=Jimnewsom.com \|date\=2007\-04\-03 \|access\-date\=2013\-07\-15}}
During this period, Smith also backed Sanders vocalist [Leon Thomas](/wiki/Leon_Thomas "Leon Thomas") on his first album *Spirits Known and Unknown* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records "Flying Dutchman Records"), 1969\).
Having already guested on [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri "Gato Barbieri")'s 1969 album *[The Third World](/wiki/The_Third_World_%28album%29 "The Third World (album)")* (Philips, 1969\), Smith joined Barbieri's band from 1971 to 1973\. Barbieri had by then begun to temper his [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz "Free jazz") excursions of the 1960s with softer [Afro\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban "Afro-Cuban") and South American textures in his music, which would influence Smith's playing into new directions in the following years. Smith played on a number of albums marking this transition, *[Fenix](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 "Fénix (Gato Barbieri album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1971\), the [live album](/wiki/Live_album "Live album") *[El Pampero](/wiki/El_Pampero "El Pampero")* (Flying Dutchman, 1972\), *[Under Fire](/wiki/Under_Fire_%28album%29 "Under Fire (album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\), and *[Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 "Bolivia (Gato Barbieri album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\). One further album, *El Gato* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\), was released after Smith had again moved on; from 1972 he had also taken up the invitation to join [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") band on electric keyboards. Over the next year, during an intense period of studio recording by Davis, various line\-ups laid down a considerable number of sessions, which were later inter\-cut and remixed for final release. Miles Davis insisted that Smith learn to play the organ for the sessions: "Miles gave me two nights to learn how to make music on the thing. Miles liked to introduce new sounds in a surprising way — that's how he produced such innovative, fresh music."{{citation needed\|date\=August 2022}} Smith's contributions appeared on *[On The Corner](/wiki/On_The_Corner "On The Corner")* (Columbia, 1973\) and the track "Ife" on *[Big Fun](/wiki/Big_Fun_%28Miles_Davis_album%29 "Big Fun (Miles Davis album)")* (Columbia, 1974\).
### The Cosmic Echoes and solo work (1973–85\)
While passing through Miles Davis' ever\-changing line\-up, Smith had finally formed his own group, 'Lonnie Liston Smith and the Cosmic Echoes' in 1973, together with his partner in Pharoah Sanders group, [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee "Cecil McBee"), on bass, George Barron ([soprano](/wiki/Soprano "Soprano") and [tenor sax](/wiki/Tenor_sax "Tenor sax")), [Joe Beck](/wiki/Joe_Beck "Joe Beck") (guitar), David Lee, Jr. (drums), [James Mtume](/wiki/James_Mtume "James Mtume") ([percussion](/wiki/Percussion "Percussion")), Sonny Morgan (percussion), [Badal Roy](/wiki/Badal_Roy "Badal Roy") ([tabla](/wiki/Tabla "Tabla") drums), and Geeta Vashi ([tamboura](/wiki/Tanpura "Tanpura")). Blending atmospheric fusion, [soul](/wiki/Soul "Soul") and [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk"), Smith was encouraged by [Bob Thiele](/wiki/Bob_Thiele "Bob Thiele"), the owner of [Flying Dutchman Records](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records "Flying Dutchman Records"), who had produced both [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders "Pharoah Sanders")' and [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri "Gato Barbieri")'s output while Smith had been in their bands, the latter for Thiele's newly formed label. For his debut album, *[Astral Traveling](/wiki/Astral_Travel "Astral Travel")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\), Smith re\-recorded the title song he had composed and played on with the Pharoah Sanders band two years previous. An instrumental album, *Astral Travelling* also contained a re\-arrangement of the [gospel standard](/wiki/Standard_%28music%29 "Standard (music)") *Let Us Go Into the House of the Lord*, which Smith had also previously arranged for Sanders.
{{quote box\|quoted\=1\|quote\=I enjoyed the directness of this at first—piano improvisations striding over solid multi\-percussion, in the spirit of Smith's former leader, \[\[Gato Barbieri]], without the manic harshness. Then I begin to hanker for some harshness. It's not just the strings, which are at least as intelligent as, say, \[\[Alice Coltrane]]'s, and less ubiquitous. It's also the rhythms themselves, serving a purpose so expanded and cosmic that it's not even spiritual anymore, thus rendering their connection to the body irrelevant.\|source\=—Review of ''Expansions'' by ''\[\[Robert Christgau]]'' (1981\){{cite web \|url\=https://www.robertchristgau.com/get\_album.php?id\=11273 \|title\=Consumer Guide Album: Lonnie Liston Smith and the Cosmic Echoes: Expansions \|first\=Robert \|last\=Christgau \|website\=RobertChristgau.com \|access\-date\=November 28, 2023}}\|width\=23%\|align\=right\|style\=padding:8px;}}
The following year Smith's brother, Donald, joined the Cosmic Echoes as vocalist for *Cosmic Funk* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman "Flying Dutchman"), 1974\). Although he remained close to his earlier roots with featured versions of [Wayne Shorter](/wiki/Wayne_Shorter "Wayne Shorter")'s "[Footprints](/wiki/Footprints_%28composition%29 "Footprints (composition)")" and John Coltrane's "[Naima](/wiki/Naima "Naima")" on this album, by now Smith was heading into the smooth [jazz funk](/wiki/Jazz_funk "Jazz funk")/fusion style that would dominate his output from here on, with dreamy vocals and long, spacy instrumental passages underlaid by strong [funky](/wiki/Funky "Funky") [bass\-lines](/wiki/Bass-line "Bass-line") and a distinctive use of light [percussion](/wiki/Percussion "Percussion"), with a message of peace and [tranquillity](/wiki/Tranquillity "Tranquillity") in both the lyrics and song titles. "I was trying to expand the [consciousness](/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness") of humanity" explained Smith in an interview in 2009\.{{YouTube\|8APoJu5d5HQ\|Video Interview with Lonnie}}
This attitude may not have endeared Smith to the hardcore [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz "Free jazz") fans who had appreciated his earlier work, but this new relaxed fusion style proved popular with a cross\-over audience not normally associated with jazz, and the following albums, *Expansions* (Flying Dutchman, 1974\), *Visions of a [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World")* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\) and *Reflections of a Golden Dream* (Flying Dutchman, 1976\) have since become mainstays of the jazz\-funk and chill jazz genres with DJs and audiences worldwide, especially in Europe and Japan. *[Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance")* (RCA, 1977\) continued this crossover fame, and the following year Smith expanded upon his success with a new contract with Columbia Records and two further crossover albums in *Loveland* (Columbia, 1978\) and *Exotic Mysteries* (Columbia, 1978\), the latter containing the single "Space Princess" which became a disco/R\&B hit popular in clubs today in both 7" and remixed 12" versions. "Space Princess" was written by, and featured the bass lines of 16\-year\-old [Marcus Miller](/wiki/Marcus_Miller "Marcus Miller"), who was discovered by Smith and also wrote the track "Night Flower" on *Exotic Mysteries*. A further track from the same album, "Quiet Moments", was to become a mainstay of the smooth jazz genre over the next decade.
After the crossover success of the 1970s, and continuing interest in and discovery of his earlier work by fans of the new "[Quiet Storm](/wiki/Quiet_Storm "Quiet Storm")" late\-night radio/smooth jazz format, Smith moved to Bob Thiele's new label, Doctor Jazz, and had a minor hit in 1983 with "Never Too Late". He also appeared in Marvin Gaye's backing band at the 1980 [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival "Montreux Jazz Festival"), which has since been released on both CD and DVD (Eagle Vision, 2003\). However, public interest slowly waned in his newer material as the decade wore on, and the Cosmic Echoes eventually dissipated around 1976\.
The story of how Smith came to join Bob Thiele at Thiele's new label is told on the LP cover notes to *Dreams of Tomorrow* (1983\) by Leonard Feather. Clearly Smith was at a crossroads. The reuniting with Thiele brought Smith full circle for Thiele was partly responsible for supporting Smith's early work. Thiele's new record label 'Doctor Jazz' (distributed through PRT in the UK) provided the perfect platform for Smith to showcase his new and critically acclaimed work of the early to mid 1980s. For *Dreams of Tomorrow*, Smith enlisted the vocal talents of his younger brother Donald Smith for the album's opener *A Lonely Way to Be* and side two's stunning opening *Never Too Late*. A major musician on the album was Marcus Miller on bass guitar. David Hubbard plays a series of saxophones and flutes on the album, with [Yogi](/wiki/Yogi "Yogi") Horton, [Buddy Williams](/wiki/Buddy_Williams_%28jazz_drummer%29 "Buddy Williams (jazz drummer)") and Steve Thornton leading on drums and percussion. The album relaunched Smith and the 'Doctor Jazz' albums are now considered amongst Smith's finest work. The *Dreams of Tomorrow* sessions were produced by Marcus Miller.
### Later career (1986–present)
In October 1986, he moved closer to his musical roots with *Make Someone Happy* (Doctor Jazz, 1986\), an acoustic session that included new recordings of several jazz standards by the trio of Smith, [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee "Cecil McBee") and [Al Foster](/wiki/Al_Foster "Al Foster"), produced by Bob Thiele. However, despite critical acclaim for this work, Smith found himself without a [recording contract](/wiki/Recording_contract "Recording contract") until the turn of the [decade](/wiki/Decade "Decade"), when the small Startrak label released *Love Goddess* (Startrak, 1990\) and *Magic Lady* (Startrak, 1991\). "I had a lot of [idealistic](/wiki/Idealistic "Idealistic") [concepts](/wiki/Concept "Concept") about music, and about the spiritual message I was trying to get across. But most record companies only care about [demographics](/wiki/Demographics "Demographics") and [bottom line](/wiki/Bottom_line "Bottom line") sales."{{citation needed\|date\=August 2022}} Both of the Startrak albums marked an about turn to the smooth jazz mode of the Cosmic Echoes period, *Love Goddess* featuring vocalist [Phyllis Hyman](/wiki/Phyllis_Hyman "Phyllis Hyman") and saxophonist [Stanley Turrentine](/wiki/Stanley_Turrentine "Stanley Turrentine").
Around this time, the emerging [hip\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop "Hip-hop") movement took an interest in Smith's earlier work, and he found himself working with [rapper](/wiki/Rap "Rap") [Guru](/wiki/Guru_%28rapper%29 "Guru (rapper)"), who was mixing [hip\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop "Hip-hop") with jazz in an [innovative](/wiki/Innovative "Innovative") way. "Guru and the other rappers would tell me how their uncles used to make them listen to me and Miles and [Donald Byrd](/wiki/Donald_Byrd "Donald Byrd") and how they got the message" Smith told Australia's *[Daily Telegraph Mirror](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)")* newspaper in 1995\.*[Daily Telegraph Mirror](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph_Mirror "Daily Telegraph Mirror")*. [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia. July 21, 1995\. Smith appeared on Guru's groundbreaking *[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1](/wiki/Jazzmatazz%2C_Vol._1 "Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1")* album (Chrysalis, 1993\), once again finding a new audience for his earlier work as a result. He had also toured Europe in 1991, but after this short period of activity Smith produced little further work in the 1990s. Despite extensive radio play, appearing on a number of [compilation albums](/wiki/Compilation_album "Compilation album") and being name\-checked and sampled by an increasing number of younger musicians discovering his Cosmic Echoes output, he spent the next few years mainly involved in setting up his own label, Loveland, and it was not until 1998 that Sony International took advantage of his newfound audience by reissuing *Exotic Mysteries* and *Loveland* as a double CD. The same year, he recorded *Transformation* (Loveland, 1998\), once again revisiting the genre he had been most successful in and reuniting with his brother Donald's vocals. For this release he re\-recorded "A Chance For Peace (Give Peace a Chance)" (both as vocal and instrumental versions) and "Expansions" as well as "Space Princess".
Since 1998, he has continued to perform live and tour on a number of occasions, especially in Europe and Japan, where he remains popular with new generations of listeners. He has also spent much of his time teaching at various workshops. In 2002, Sony issued a double album retrospective of his Columbia output, *Explorations: The Columbia Years*, and his compositions remain a feature of jazz fusion orientated radio and CD compilations. The Cosmic Echoes track, "Expansions" has been featured in two videogames: *[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto:Vice_City "Vice City")* and *[Driver: Parallel Lines](/wiki/Driver:Parallel_Lines "Parallel Lines")*, while "A Chance for Peace" featured in *[Grand Theft Auto IV](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_IV "Grand Theft Auto IV")*. He appeared on the Jazz World Stage at [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival "Glastonbury Festival") June 2009\.
In 2023, he released his first new recording in 25 years, “JID017,” on the [Jazz is Dead](/wiki/Jazz_Is_Dead_%28record_label%29 "Jazz Is Dead (record label)") label.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early years (1963–73\\)",
"Smith was born and raised in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), United States to a musical family;{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=1997\\|edition\\=Concise\\|isbn\\=1\\-85227\\-745\\-9\\|page\\=1103}} his father was a member of Richmond [Gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") group [The Harmonizing Four](/wiki/The_Harmonizing_Four \"The Harmonizing Four\"), and he remembered groups such as the [Swan Silvertones](/wiki/Swan_Silvertones \"Swan Silvertones\") and the [Soul Stirrers](/wiki/Soul_Stirrers \"Soul Stirrers\") (featuring a young [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke \"Sam Cooke\")) as regular visitors to the house when he was a child. He studied [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba \"Tuba\") and [trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet \"Trumpet\") in high school and college before receiving a [B.S.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science \"Bachelor of Science\") in [music education](/wiki/Music_education \"Music education\") from [Morgan State University](/wiki/Morgan_State_University \"Morgan State University\") in Baltimore in 1961\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.alumni.morgan.edu/s/1192/16/interior.aspx?sid\\=1192\\&gid\\=1\\&pgid\\=432\\|title\\=Lonnie Liston Smith, '61\\|website\\=Alumni.morgan.edu}} Smith has cited [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker \"Charlie Parker\"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\") as major influences in his youth. While still a teenager, Smith became well known locally as a backing vocalist as well as pianist in the [Baltimore metropolitan area](/wiki/Baltimore_metropolitan_area \"Baltimore metropolitan area\"). During this period, he regularly performed with a number of his contemporaries, including [Gary Bartz](/wiki/Gary_Bartz \"Gary Bartz\") (alto), [Grachan Moncur](/wiki/Grachan_Moncur_III \"Grachan Moncur III\") (trombone), and Mickey Bass (bass). He also backed a number of [jazz singers](/wiki/Jazz_singing \"Jazz singing\") (including [Ethel Ennis](/wiki/Ethel_Ennis \"Ethel Ennis\")) while performing in the house band at Baltimore's [Royal Theater](/wiki/Royal_Theatre_%28Baltimore%29 \"Royal Theatre (Baltimore)\") shortly after receiving his degree.",
"In 1963, he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), where he initially played piano in [Betty Carter](/wiki/Betty_Carter \"Betty Carter\")'s band for a year. Early in 1965, Smith began playing with [Roland Kirk](/wiki/Rahsaan_Roland_Kirk \"Rahsaan Roland Kirk\"), first recording with his band on *[Here Comes The Whistleman](/wiki/Here_Comes_the_Whistleman \"Here Comes the Whistleman\")* (Atlantic, 1965\\), an album recorded live in New York on March 14, 1965\\. A further track from that gig, \"Dream\", appeared on Roland Kirk and [Al Hibbler](/wiki/Al_Hibbler \"Al Hibbler\")'s live album *[A Meeting of the Times](/wiki/A_Meeting_of_the_Times \"A Meeting of the Times\")* (Atlantic, 1972\\).",
"Late in 1965, Smith joined [Art Blakey](/wiki/Art_Blakey \"Art Blakey\")'s [Jazz Messengers](/wiki/Jazz_Messengers \"Jazz Messengers\"), sharing the piano position with [Mike Nock](/wiki/Mike_Nock \"Mike Nock\") and [Keith Jarrett](/wiki/Keith_Jarrett \"Keith Jarrett\"). The Jazz Messengers, together with Miles Davis' group, were one of the main proving grounds for young up\\-and\\-coming jazz musicians, experimentally edgy and musically stretching, and both were an ever\\-revolving door of young modern jazz musicians as modes and moods rapidly changed during a fresh period of experimentation. Beginning with a live session at [The Five Spot](/wiki/Five_Spot_Caf%C3%A9 \"Five Spot Café\"), New York City, November 9, 1965,*Village Vanguard Magazine* (November 4, 1965, p. 12; November 11, 1965, p. 14\\). Smith's time as a Jazz Messenger was fairly short\\-term, only lasting until a three\\-gig engagement at [The Village Vanguard](/wiki/The_Village_Vanguard \"The Village Vanguard\") 26–28 April 1966;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htm \\|title\\=Chronology of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers \\|website\\=Jazzdiscography.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-15}} by May 1966 his position was filled by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea \"Chick Corea\"). No recordings exist of this period.",
"In May 1967, Smith returned to working with Roland Kirk for the album sessions for *[Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith](/wiki/Now_Please_Don%27t_You_Cry%2C_Beautiful_Edith \"Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith\")* (Verve, 1967\\) before continuing his career as pianist for a year with drummer [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach \"Max Roach\") (although once again no recordings were made of this lineup).",
"Following this stint, Smith moved to [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders \"Pharoah Sanders\")' ensemble early in 1968, a group Sanders had set up on the death of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") the previous year. Fiercely [improvisational](/wiki/Improvisation \"Improvisation\"), Sanders pushed the band creatively to the boundaries of [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz \"Free jazz\"), recording three of Sanders' finest recordings: *[Karma](/wiki/Karma_%28Pharoah_Sanders_album%29 \"Karma (Pharoah Sanders album)\")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records \"Impulse Records\"), 1969\\), *[Jewels of Thought](/wiki/Jewels_of_Thought \"Jewels of Thought\")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records \"Impulse Records\"), 1970\\) and *[Thembi](/wiki/Thembi \"Thembi\")* (Impulse, 1971\\), together with 1969 recording sessions not released until 1973 as *Izipho Zam* ([Strata East](/wiki/Strata-East_Records \"Strata-East Records\"), 1973\\). It is at this point that Smith began experimenting with [electric keyboards](/wiki/Electric_keyboard \"Electric keyboard\"):",
"> On *Thembi*, that was the first time that I ever touched a Fender Rhodes electric piano. We got to the studio in California — [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee \"Cecil McBee\") had to unpack his bass, the drummer had to set up his drums, Pharoah had to unpack all of his horns. Everybody had something to do, but the piano was just sitting there waiting. I saw this instrument sitting in the corner and I asked the engineer, 'What is that?' He said, 'That's a [Fender Rhodes electric piano](/wiki/Rhodes_piano \"Rhodes piano\").' I didn't have anything to do, so I started messing with it, checking some of the buttons to see what I could do with different sounds. All of a sudden I started writing a song and everybody ran over and said, 'What is that?' And I said, 'I don't know, I'm just messing around.' Pharoah said, 'Man, we gotta record that. Whatcha gonna call it?' I'd been studying [astral projections](/wiki/Astral_projection \"Astral projection\") and it sounded like we were floating through space so I said let's call it 'Astral Traveling.' That’s how I got introduced to the electric piano.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jimnewsom.com/PFW2007/040307\\-LonnieListonSmith.html \\|title\\=Lonnie Liston Smith: Cosmic Jazzman \\|website\\=Jimnewsom.com \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-15}}",
"During this period, Smith also backed Sanders vocalist [Leon Thomas](/wiki/Leon_Thomas \"Leon Thomas\") on his first album *Spirits Known and Unknown* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records \"Flying Dutchman Records\"), 1969\\).",
"Having already guested on [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri \"Gato Barbieri\")'s 1969 album *[The Third World](/wiki/The_Third_World_%28album%29 \"The Third World (album)\")* (Philips, 1969\\), Smith joined Barbieri's band from 1971 to 1973\\. Barbieri had by then begun to temper his [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz \"Free jazz\") excursions of the 1960s with softer [Afro\\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban \"Afro-Cuban\") and South American textures in his music, which would influence Smith's playing into new directions in the following years. Smith played on a number of albums marking this transition, *[Fenix](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 \"Fénix (Gato Barbieri album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1971\\), the [live album](/wiki/Live_album \"Live album\") *[El Pampero](/wiki/El_Pampero \"El Pampero\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1972\\), *[Under Fire](/wiki/Under_Fire_%28album%29 \"Under Fire (album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\\), and *[Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 \"Bolivia (Gato Barbieri album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\\). One further album, *El Gato* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\\), was released after Smith had again moved on; from 1972 he had also taken up the invitation to join [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\") band on electric keyboards. Over the next year, during an intense period of studio recording by Davis, various line\\-ups laid down a considerable number of sessions, which were later inter\\-cut and remixed for final release. Miles Davis insisted that Smith learn to play the organ for the sessions: \"Miles gave me two nights to learn how to make music on the thing. Miles liked to introduce new sounds in a surprising way — that's how he produced such innovative, fresh music.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}} Smith's contributions appeared on *[On The Corner](/wiki/On_The_Corner \"On The Corner\")* (Columbia, 1973\\) and the track \"Ife\" on *[Big Fun](/wiki/Big_Fun_%28Miles_Davis_album%29 \"Big Fun (Miles Davis album)\")* (Columbia, 1974\\).",
"### The Cosmic Echoes and solo work (1973–85\\)",
"While passing through Miles Davis' ever\\-changing line\\-up, Smith had finally formed his own group, 'Lonnie Liston Smith and the Cosmic Echoes' in 1973, together with his partner in Pharoah Sanders group, [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee \"Cecil McBee\"), on bass, George Barron ([soprano](/wiki/Soprano \"Soprano\") and [tenor sax](/wiki/Tenor_sax \"Tenor sax\")), [Joe Beck](/wiki/Joe_Beck \"Joe Beck\") (guitar), David Lee, Jr. (drums), [James Mtume](/wiki/James_Mtume \"James Mtume\") ([percussion](/wiki/Percussion \"Percussion\")), Sonny Morgan (percussion), [Badal Roy](/wiki/Badal_Roy \"Badal Roy\") ([tabla](/wiki/Tabla \"Tabla\") drums), and Geeta Vashi ([tamboura](/wiki/Tanpura \"Tanpura\")). Blending atmospheric fusion, [soul](/wiki/Soul \"Soul\") and [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\"), Smith was encouraged by [Bob Thiele](/wiki/Bob_Thiele \"Bob Thiele\"), the owner of [Flying Dutchman Records](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records \"Flying Dutchman Records\"), who had produced both [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders \"Pharoah Sanders\")' and [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri \"Gato Barbieri\")'s output while Smith had been in their bands, the latter for Thiele's newly formed label. For his debut album, *[Astral Traveling](/wiki/Astral_Travel \"Astral Travel\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\\), Smith re\\-recorded the title song he had composed and played on with the Pharoah Sanders band two years previous. An instrumental album, *Astral Travelling* also contained a re\\-arrangement of the [gospel standard](/wiki/Standard_%28music%29 \"Standard (music)\") *Let Us Go Into the House of the Lord*, which Smith had also previously arranged for Sanders.",
"{{quote box\\|quoted\\=1\\|quote\\=I enjoyed the directness of this at first—piano improvisations striding over solid multi\\-percussion, in the spirit of Smith's former leader, \\[\\[Gato Barbieri]], without the manic harshness. Then I begin to hanker for some harshness. It's not just the strings, which are at least as intelligent as, say, \\[\\[Alice Coltrane]]'s, and less ubiquitous. It's also the rhythms themselves, serving a purpose so expanded and cosmic that it's not even spiritual anymore, thus rendering their connection to the body irrelevant.\\|source\\=—Review of ''Expansions'' by ''\\[\\[Robert Christgau]]'' (1981\\){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.robertchristgau.com/get\\_album.php?id\\=11273 \\|title\\=Consumer Guide Album: Lonnie Liston Smith and the Cosmic Echoes: Expansions \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Christgau \\|website\\=RobertChristgau.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2023}}\\|width\\=23%\\|align\\=right\\|style\\=padding:8px;}}",
"The following year Smith's brother, Donald, joined the Cosmic Echoes as vocalist for *Cosmic Funk* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman \"Flying Dutchman\"), 1974\\). Although he remained close to his earlier roots with featured versions of [Wayne Shorter](/wiki/Wayne_Shorter \"Wayne Shorter\")'s \"[Footprints](/wiki/Footprints_%28composition%29 \"Footprints (composition)\")\" and John Coltrane's \"[Naima](/wiki/Naima \"Naima\")\" on this album, by now Smith was heading into the smooth [jazz funk](/wiki/Jazz_funk \"Jazz funk\")/fusion style that would dominate his output from here on, with dreamy vocals and long, spacy instrumental passages underlaid by strong [funky](/wiki/Funky \"Funky\") [bass\\-lines](/wiki/Bass-line \"Bass-line\") and a distinctive use of light [percussion](/wiki/Percussion \"Percussion\"), with a message of peace and [tranquillity](/wiki/Tranquillity \"Tranquillity\") in both the lyrics and song titles. \"I was trying to expand the [consciousness](/wiki/Consciousness \"Consciousness\") of humanity\" explained Smith in an interview in 2009\\.{{YouTube\\|8APoJu5d5HQ\\|Video Interview with Lonnie}}",
"This attitude may not have endeared Smith to the hardcore [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz \"Free jazz\") fans who had appreciated his earlier work, but this new relaxed fusion style proved popular with a cross\\-over audience not normally associated with jazz, and the following albums, *Expansions* (Flying Dutchman, 1974\\), *Visions of a [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\\) and *Reflections of a Golden Dream* (Flying Dutchman, 1976\\) have since become mainstays of the jazz\\-funk and chill jazz genres with DJs and audiences worldwide, especially in Europe and Japan. *[Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\")* (RCA, 1977\\) continued this crossover fame, and the following year Smith expanded upon his success with a new contract with Columbia Records and two further crossover albums in *Loveland* (Columbia, 1978\\) and *Exotic Mysteries* (Columbia, 1978\\), the latter containing the single \"Space Princess\" which became a disco/R\\&B hit popular in clubs today in both 7\" and remixed 12\" versions. \"Space Princess\" was written by, and featured the bass lines of 16\\-year\\-old [Marcus Miller](/wiki/Marcus_Miller \"Marcus Miller\"), who was discovered by Smith and also wrote the track \"Night Flower\" on *Exotic Mysteries*. A further track from the same album, \"Quiet Moments\", was to become a mainstay of the smooth jazz genre over the next decade.",
"After the crossover success of the 1970s, and continuing interest in and discovery of his earlier work by fans of the new \"[Quiet Storm](/wiki/Quiet_Storm \"Quiet Storm\")\" late\\-night radio/smooth jazz format, Smith moved to Bob Thiele's new label, Doctor Jazz, and had a minor hit in 1983 with \"Never Too Late\". He also appeared in Marvin Gaye's backing band at the 1980 [Montreux Jazz Festival](/wiki/Montreux_Jazz_Festival \"Montreux Jazz Festival\"), which has since been released on both CD and DVD (Eagle Vision, 2003\\). However, public interest slowly waned in his newer material as the decade wore on, and the Cosmic Echoes eventually dissipated around 1976\\.",
"The story of how Smith came to join Bob Thiele at Thiele's new label is told on the LP cover notes to *Dreams of Tomorrow* (1983\\) by Leonard Feather. Clearly Smith was at a crossroads. The reuniting with Thiele brought Smith full circle for Thiele was partly responsible for supporting Smith's early work. Thiele's new record label 'Doctor Jazz' (distributed through PRT in the UK) provided the perfect platform for Smith to showcase his new and critically acclaimed work of the early to mid 1980s. For *Dreams of Tomorrow*, Smith enlisted the vocal talents of his younger brother Donald Smith for the album's opener *A Lonely Way to Be* and side two's stunning opening *Never Too Late*. A major musician on the album was Marcus Miller on bass guitar. David Hubbard plays a series of saxophones and flutes on the album, with [Yogi](/wiki/Yogi \"Yogi\") Horton, [Buddy Williams](/wiki/Buddy_Williams_%28jazz_drummer%29 \"Buddy Williams (jazz drummer)\") and Steve Thornton leading on drums and percussion. The album relaunched Smith and the 'Doctor Jazz' albums are now considered amongst Smith's finest work. The *Dreams of Tomorrow* sessions were produced by Marcus Miller.",
"### Later career (1986–present)",
"In October 1986, he moved closer to his musical roots with *Make Someone Happy* (Doctor Jazz, 1986\\), an acoustic session that included new recordings of several jazz standards by the trio of Smith, [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee \"Cecil McBee\") and [Al Foster](/wiki/Al_Foster \"Al Foster\"), produced by Bob Thiele. However, despite critical acclaim for this work, Smith found himself without a [recording contract](/wiki/Recording_contract \"Recording contract\") until the turn of the [decade](/wiki/Decade \"Decade\"), when the small Startrak label released *Love Goddess* (Startrak, 1990\\) and *Magic Lady* (Startrak, 1991\\). \"I had a lot of [idealistic](/wiki/Idealistic \"Idealistic\") [concepts](/wiki/Concept \"Concept\") about music, and about the spiritual message I was trying to get across. But most record companies only care about [demographics](/wiki/Demographics \"Demographics\") and [bottom line](/wiki/Bottom_line \"Bottom line\") sales.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}} Both of the Startrak albums marked an about turn to the smooth jazz mode of the Cosmic Echoes period, *Love Goddess* featuring vocalist [Phyllis Hyman](/wiki/Phyllis_Hyman \"Phyllis Hyman\") and saxophonist [Stanley Turrentine](/wiki/Stanley_Turrentine \"Stanley Turrentine\").",
"Around this time, the emerging [hip\\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop \"Hip-hop\") movement took an interest in Smith's earlier work, and he found himself working with [rapper](/wiki/Rap \"Rap\") [Guru](/wiki/Guru_%28rapper%29 \"Guru (rapper)\"), who was mixing [hip\\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop \"Hip-hop\") with jazz in an [innovative](/wiki/Innovative \"Innovative\") way. \"Guru and the other rappers would tell me how their uncles used to make them listen to me and Miles and [Donald Byrd](/wiki/Donald_Byrd \"Donald Byrd\") and how they got the message\" Smith told Australia's *[Daily Telegraph Mirror](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 \"The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\")* newspaper in 1995\\.*[Daily Telegraph Mirror](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph_Mirror \"Daily Telegraph Mirror\")*. [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia. July 21, 1995\\. Smith appeared on Guru's groundbreaking *[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1](/wiki/Jazzmatazz%2C_Vol._1 \"Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1\")* album (Chrysalis, 1993\\), once again finding a new audience for his earlier work as a result. He had also toured Europe in 1991, but after this short period of activity Smith produced little further work in the 1990s. Despite extensive radio play, appearing on a number of [compilation albums](/wiki/Compilation_album \"Compilation album\") and being name\\-checked and sampled by an increasing number of younger musicians discovering his Cosmic Echoes output, he spent the next few years mainly involved in setting up his own label, Loveland, and it was not until 1998 that Sony International took advantage of his newfound audience by reissuing *Exotic Mysteries* and *Loveland* as a double CD. The same year, he recorded *Transformation* (Loveland, 1998\\), once again revisiting the genre he had been most successful in and reuniting with his brother Donald's vocals. For this release he re\\-recorded \"A Chance For Peace (Give Peace a Chance)\" (both as vocal and instrumental versions) and \"Expansions\" as well as \"Space Princess\".",
"Since 1998, he has continued to perform live and tour on a number of occasions, especially in Europe and Japan, where he remains popular with new generations of listeners. He has also spent much of his time teaching at various workshops. In 2002, Sony issued a double album retrospective of his Columbia output, *Explorations: The Columbia Years*, and his compositions remain a feature of jazz fusion orientated radio and CD compilations. The Cosmic Echoes track, \"Expansions\" has been featured in two videogames: *[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto:Vice_City \"Vice City\")* and *[Driver: Parallel Lines](/wiki/Driver:Parallel_Lines \"Parallel Lines\")*, while \"A Chance for Peace\" featured in *[Grand Theft Auto IV](/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_IV \"Grand Theft Auto IV\")*. He appeared on the Jazz World Stage at [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival \"Glastonbury Festival\") June 2009\\.",
"In 2023, he released his first new recording in 25 years, “JID017,” on the [Jazz is Dead](/wiki/Jazz_Is_Dead_%28record_label%29 \"Jazz Is Dead (record label)\") label.",
""
] |
### Early years (1963–73\)
Smith was born and raised in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), United States to a musical family;{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=1997\|edition\=Concise\|isbn\=1\-85227\-745\-9\|page\=1103}} his father was a member of Richmond [Gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music "Gospel music") group [The Harmonizing Four](/wiki/The_Harmonizing_Four "The Harmonizing Four"), and he remembered groups such as the [Swan Silvertones](/wiki/Swan_Silvertones "Swan Silvertones") and the [Soul Stirrers](/wiki/Soul_Stirrers "Soul Stirrers") (featuring a young [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke "Sam Cooke")) as regular visitors to the house when he was a child. He studied [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba "Tuba") and [trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet "Trumpet") in high school and college before receiving a [B.S.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science "Bachelor of Science") in [music education](/wiki/Music_education "Music education") from [Morgan State University](/wiki/Morgan_State_University "Morgan State University") in Baltimore in 1961\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.alumni.morgan.edu/s/1192/16/interior.aspx?sid\=1192\&gid\=1\&pgid\=432\|title\=Lonnie Liston Smith, '61\|website\=Alumni.morgan.edu}} Smith has cited [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") as major influences in his youth. While still a teenager, Smith became well known locally as a backing vocalist as well as pianist in the [Baltimore metropolitan area](/wiki/Baltimore_metropolitan_area "Baltimore metropolitan area"). During this period, he regularly performed with a number of his contemporaries, including [Gary Bartz](/wiki/Gary_Bartz "Gary Bartz") (alto), [Grachan Moncur](/wiki/Grachan_Moncur_III "Grachan Moncur III") (trombone), and Mickey Bass (bass). He also backed a number of [jazz singers](/wiki/Jazz_singing "Jazz singing") (including [Ethel Ennis](/wiki/Ethel_Ennis "Ethel Ennis")) while performing in the house band at Baltimore's [Royal Theater](/wiki/Royal_Theatre_%28Baltimore%29 "Royal Theatre (Baltimore)") shortly after receiving his degree.
In 1963, he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), where he initially played piano in [Betty Carter](/wiki/Betty_Carter "Betty Carter")'s band for a year. Early in 1965, Smith began playing with [Roland Kirk](/wiki/Rahsaan_Roland_Kirk "Rahsaan Roland Kirk"), first recording with his band on *[Here Comes The Whistleman](/wiki/Here_Comes_the_Whistleman "Here Comes the Whistleman")* (Atlantic, 1965\), an album recorded live in New York on March 14, 1965\. A further track from that gig, "Dream", appeared on Roland Kirk and [Al Hibbler](/wiki/Al_Hibbler "Al Hibbler")'s live album *[A Meeting of the Times](/wiki/A_Meeting_of_the_Times "A Meeting of the Times")* (Atlantic, 1972\).
Late in 1965, Smith joined [Art Blakey](/wiki/Art_Blakey "Art Blakey")'s [Jazz Messengers](/wiki/Jazz_Messengers "Jazz Messengers"), sharing the piano position with [Mike Nock](/wiki/Mike_Nock "Mike Nock") and [Keith Jarrett](/wiki/Keith_Jarrett "Keith Jarrett"). The Jazz Messengers, together with Miles Davis' group, were one of the main proving grounds for young up\-and\-coming jazz musicians, experimentally edgy and musically stretching, and both were an ever\-revolving door of young modern jazz musicians as modes and moods rapidly changed during a fresh period of experimentation. Beginning with a live session at [The Five Spot](/wiki/Five_Spot_Caf%C3%A9 "Five Spot Café"), New York City, November 9, 1965,*Village Vanguard Magazine* (November 4, 1965, p. 12; November 11, 1965, p. 14\). Smith's time as a Jazz Messenger was fairly short\-term, only lasting until a three\-gig engagement at [The Village Vanguard](/wiki/The_Village_Vanguard "The Village Vanguard") 26–28 April 1966;{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htm \|title\=Chronology of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers \|website\=Jazzdiscography.com \|access\-date\=2013\-07\-15}} by May 1966 his position was filled by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea "Chick Corea"). No recordings exist of this period.
In May 1967, Smith returned to working with Roland Kirk for the album sessions for *[Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith](/wiki/Now_Please_Don%27t_You_Cry%2C_Beautiful_Edith "Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith")* (Verve, 1967\) before continuing his career as pianist for a year with drummer [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach "Max Roach") (although once again no recordings were made of this lineup).
Following this stint, Smith moved to [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders "Pharoah Sanders")' ensemble early in 1968, a group Sanders had set up on the death of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") the previous year. Fiercely [improvisational](/wiki/Improvisation "Improvisation"), Sanders pushed the band creatively to the boundaries of [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz "Free jazz"), recording three of Sanders' finest recordings: *[Karma](/wiki/Karma_%28Pharoah_Sanders_album%29 "Karma (Pharoah Sanders album)")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records "Impulse Records"), 1969\), *[Jewels of Thought](/wiki/Jewels_of_Thought "Jewels of Thought")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records "Impulse Records"), 1970\) and *[Thembi](/wiki/Thembi "Thembi")* (Impulse, 1971\), together with 1969 recording sessions not released until 1973 as *Izipho Zam* ([Strata East](/wiki/Strata-East_Records "Strata-East Records"), 1973\). It is at this point that Smith began experimenting with [electric keyboards](/wiki/Electric_keyboard "Electric keyboard"):
> On *Thembi*, that was the first time that I ever touched a Fender Rhodes electric piano. We got to the studio in California — [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee "Cecil McBee") had to unpack his bass, the drummer had to set up his drums, Pharoah had to unpack all of his horns. Everybody had something to do, but the piano was just sitting there waiting. I saw this instrument sitting in the corner and I asked the engineer, 'What is that?' He said, 'That's a [Fender Rhodes electric piano](/wiki/Rhodes_piano "Rhodes piano").' I didn't have anything to do, so I started messing with it, checking some of the buttons to see what I could do with different sounds. All of a sudden I started writing a song and everybody ran over and said, 'What is that?' And I said, 'I don't know, I'm just messing around.' Pharoah said, 'Man, we gotta record that. Whatcha gonna call it?' I'd been studying [astral projections](/wiki/Astral_projection "Astral projection") and it sounded like we were floating through space so I said let's call it 'Astral Traveling.' That’s how I got introduced to the electric piano.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jimnewsom.com/PFW2007/040307\-LonnieListonSmith.html \|title\=Lonnie Liston Smith: Cosmic Jazzman \|website\=Jimnewsom.com \|date\=2007\-04\-03 \|access\-date\=2013\-07\-15}}
During this period, Smith also backed Sanders vocalist [Leon Thomas](/wiki/Leon_Thomas "Leon Thomas") on his first album *Spirits Known and Unknown* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records "Flying Dutchman Records"), 1969\).
Having already guested on [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri "Gato Barbieri")'s 1969 album *[The Third World](/wiki/The_Third_World_%28album%29 "The Third World (album)")* (Philips, 1969\), Smith joined Barbieri's band from 1971 to 1973\. Barbieri had by then begun to temper his [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz "Free jazz") excursions of the 1960s with softer [Afro\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban "Afro-Cuban") and South American textures in his music, which would influence Smith's playing into new directions in the following years. Smith played on a number of albums marking this transition, *[Fenix](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 "Fénix (Gato Barbieri album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1971\), the [live album](/wiki/Live_album "Live album") *[El Pampero](/wiki/El_Pampero "El Pampero")* (Flying Dutchman, 1972\), *[Under Fire](/wiki/Under_Fire_%28album%29 "Under Fire (album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\), and *[Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 "Bolivia (Gato Barbieri album)")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\). One further album, *El Gato* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\), was released after Smith had again moved on; from 1972 he had also taken up the invitation to join [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") band on electric keyboards. Over the next year, during an intense period of studio recording by Davis, various line\-ups laid down a considerable number of sessions, which were later inter\-cut and remixed for final release. Miles Davis insisted that Smith learn to play the organ for the sessions: "Miles gave me two nights to learn how to make music on the thing. Miles liked to introduce new sounds in a surprising way — that's how he produced such innovative, fresh music."{{citation needed\|date\=August 2022}} Smith's contributions appeared on *[On The Corner](/wiki/On_The_Corner "On The Corner")* (Columbia, 1973\) and the track "Ife" on *[Big Fun](/wiki/Big_Fun_%28Miles_Davis_album%29 "Big Fun (Miles Davis album)")* (Columbia, 1974\).
|
[
"### Early years (1963–73\\)",
"Smith was born and raised in [Richmond, Virginia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), United States to a musical family;{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=1997\\|edition\\=Concise\\|isbn\\=1\\-85227\\-745\\-9\\|page\\=1103}} his father was a member of Richmond [Gospel music](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") group [The Harmonizing Four](/wiki/The_Harmonizing_Four \"The Harmonizing Four\"), and he remembered groups such as the [Swan Silvertones](/wiki/Swan_Silvertones \"Swan Silvertones\") and the [Soul Stirrers](/wiki/Soul_Stirrers \"Soul Stirrers\") (featuring a young [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke \"Sam Cooke\")) as regular visitors to the house when he was a child. He studied [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba \"Tuba\") and [trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet \"Trumpet\") in high school and college before receiving a [B.S.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science \"Bachelor of Science\") in [music education](/wiki/Music_education \"Music education\") from [Morgan State University](/wiki/Morgan_State_University \"Morgan State University\") in Baltimore in 1961\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.alumni.morgan.edu/s/1192/16/interior.aspx?sid\\=1192\\&gid\\=1\\&pgid\\=432\\|title\\=Lonnie Liston Smith, '61\\|website\\=Alumni.morgan.edu}} Smith has cited [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker \"Charlie Parker\"), [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") and [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\") as major influences in his youth. While still a teenager, Smith became well known locally as a backing vocalist as well as pianist in the [Baltimore metropolitan area](/wiki/Baltimore_metropolitan_area \"Baltimore metropolitan area\"). During this period, he regularly performed with a number of his contemporaries, including [Gary Bartz](/wiki/Gary_Bartz \"Gary Bartz\") (alto), [Grachan Moncur](/wiki/Grachan_Moncur_III \"Grachan Moncur III\") (trombone), and Mickey Bass (bass). He also backed a number of [jazz singers](/wiki/Jazz_singing \"Jazz singing\") (including [Ethel Ennis](/wiki/Ethel_Ennis \"Ethel Ennis\")) while performing in the house band at Baltimore's [Royal Theater](/wiki/Royal_Theatre_%28Baltimore%29 \"Royal Theatre (Baltimore)\") shortly after receiving his degree.",
"In 1963, he moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), where he initially played piano in [Betty Carter](/wiki/Betty_Carter \"Betty Carter\")'s band for a year. Early in 1965, Smith began playing with [Roland Kirk](/wiki/Rahsaan_Roland_Kirk \"Rahsaan Roland Kirk\"), first recording with his band on *[Here Comes The Whistleman](/wiki/Here_Comes_the_Whistleman \"Here Comes the Whistleman\")* (Atlantic, 1965\\), an album recorded live in New York on March 14, 1965\\. A further track from that gig, \"Dream\", appeared on Roland Kirk and [Al Hibbler](/wiki/Al_Hibbler \"Al Hibbler\")'s live album *[A Meeting of the Times](/wiki/A_Meeting_of_the_Times \"A Meeting of the Times\")* (Atlantic, 1972\\).",
"Late in 1965, Smith joined [Art Blakey](/wiki/Art_Blakey \"Art Blakey\")'s [Jazz Messengers](/wiki/Jazz_Messengers \"Jazz Messengers\"), sharing the piano position with [Mike Nock](/wiki/Mike_Nock \"Mike Nock\") and [Keith Jarrett](/wiki/Keith_Jarrett \"Keith Jarrett\"). The Jazz Messengers, together with Miles Davis' group, were one of the main proving grounds for young up\\-and\\-coming jazz musicians, experimentally edgy and musically stretching, and both were an ever\\-revolving door of young modern jazz musicians as modes and moods rapidly changed during a fresh period of experimentation. Beginning with a live session at [The Five Spot](/wiki/Five_Spot_Caf%C3%A9 \"Five Spot Café\"), New York City, November 9, 1965,*Village Vanguard Magazine* (November 4, 1965, p. 12; November 11, 1965, p. 14\\). Smith's time as a Jazz Messenger was fairly short\\-term, only lasting until a three\\-gig engagement at [The Village Vanguard](/wiki/The_Village_Vanguard \"The Village Vanguard\") 26–28 April 1966;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htm \\|title\\=Chronology of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers \\|website\\=Jazzdiscography.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-15}} by May 1966 his position was filled by [Chick Corea](/wiki/Chick_Corea \"Chick Corea\"). No recordings exist of this period.",
"In May 1967, Smith returned to working with Roland Kirk for the album sessions for *[Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith](/wiki/Now_Please_Don%27t_You_Cry%2C_Beautiful_Edith \"Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith\")* (Verve, 1967\\) before continuing his career as pianist for a year with drummer [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach \"Max Roach\") (although once again no recordings were made of this lineup).",
"Following this stint, Smith moved to [Pharoah Sanders](/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders \"Pharoah Sanders\")' ensemble early in 1968, a group Sanders had set up on the death of [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") the previous year. Fiercely [improvisational](/wiki/Improvisation \"Improvisation\"), Sanders pushed the band creatively to the boundaries of [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz \"Free jazz\"), recording three of Sanders' finest recordings: *[Karma](/wiki/Karma_%28Pharoah_Sanders_album%29 \"Karma (Pharoah Sanders album)\")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records \"Impulse Records\"), 1969\\), *[Jewels of Thought](/wiki/Jewels_of_Thought \"Jewels of Thought\")* ([Impulse](/wiki/Impulse_Records \"Impulse Records\"), 1970\\) and *[Thembi](/wiki/Thembi \"Thembi\")* (Impulse, 1971\\), together with 1969 recording sessions not released until 1973 as *Izipho Zam* ([Strata East](/wiki/Strata-East_Records \"Strata-East Records\"), 1973\\). It is at this point that Smith began experimenting with [electric keyboards](/wiki/Electric_keyboard \"Electric keyboard\"):",
"> On *Thembi*, that was the first time that I ever touched a Fender Rhodes electric piano. We got to the studio in California — [Cecil McBee](/wiki/Cecil_McBee \"Cecil McBee\") had to unpack his bass, the drummer had to set up his drums, Pharoah had to unpack all of his horns. Everybody had something to do, but the piano was just sitting there waiting. I saw this instrument sitting in the corner and I asked the engineer, 'What is that?' He said, 'That's a [Fender Rhodes electric piano](/wiki/Rhodes_piano \"Rhodes piano\").' I didn't have anything to do, so I started messing with it, checking some of the buttons to see what I could do with different sounds. All of a sudden I started writing a song and everybody ran over and said, 'What is that?' And I said, 'I don't know, I'm just messing around.' Pharoah said, 'Man, we gotta record that. Whatcha gonna call it?' I'd been studying [astral projections](/wiki/Astral_projection \"Astral projection\") and it sounded like we were floating through space so I said let's call it 'Astral Traveling.' That’s how I got introduced to the electric piano.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jimnewsom.com/PFW2007/040307\\-LonnieListonSmith.html \\|title\\=Lonnie Liston Smith: Cosmic Jazzman \\|website\\=Jimnewsom.com \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-15}}",
"During this period, Smith also backed Sanders vocalist [Leon Thomas](/wiki/Leon_Thomas \"Leon Thomas\") on his first album *Spirits Known and Unknown* ([Flying Dutchman](/wiki/Flying_Dutchman_Records \"Flying Dutchman Records\"), 1969\\).",
"Having already guested on [Gato Barbieri](/wiki/Gato_Barbieri \"Gato Barbieri\")'s 1969 album *[The Third World](/wiki/The_Third_World_%28album%29 \"The Third World (album)\")* (Philips, 1969\\), Smith joined Barbieri's band from 1971 to 1973\\. Barbieri had by then begun to temper his [free jazz](/wiki/Free_jazz \"Free jazz\") excursions of the 1960s with softer [Afro\\-Cuban](/wiki/Afro-Cuban \"Afro-Cuban\") and South American textures in his music, which would influence Smith's playing into new directions in the following years. Smith played on a number of albums marking this transition, *[Fenix](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 \"Fénix (Gato Barbieri album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1971\\), the [live album](/wiki/Live_album \"Live album\") *[El Pampero](/wiki/El_Pampero \"El Pampero\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1972\\), *[Under Fire](/wiki/Under_Fire_%28album%29 \"Under Fire (album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\\), and *[Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia_%28Gato_Barbieri_album%29 \"Bolivia (Gato Barbieri album)\")* (Flying Dutchman, 1973\\). One further album, *El Gato* (Flying Dutchman, 1975\\), was released after Smith had again moved on; from 1972 he had also taken up the invitation to join [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\") band on electric keyboards. Over the next year, during an intense period of studio recording by Davis, various line\\-ups laid down a considerable number of sessions, which were later inter\\-cut and remixed for final release. Miles Davis insisted that Smith learn to play the organ for the sessions: \"Miles gave me two nights to learn how to make music on the thing. Miles liked to introduce new sounds in a surprising way — that's how he produced such innovative, fresh music.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}} Smith's contributions appeared on *[On The Corner](/wiki/On_The_Corner \"On The Corner\")* (Columbia, 1973\\) and the track \"Ife\" on *[Big Fun](/wiki/Big_Fun_%28Miles_Davis_album%29 \"Big Fun (Miles Davis album)\")* (Columbia, 1974\\).",
""
] |
History
-------
### Four\-star positions
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bar:cjcs from:1953 till:$now color:general
bar:cjcs from:1953 till:1957 color:jcs
bar:cjcs from:1970 till:1974 color:jcs
bar:cjcs from:1985 till:1989 color:jcs
bar:cjcs from:2007 till:2011 color:jcs
bar:cjcsusmilrep from:1950 till:1953 color:general text:"CJCS/USMILREP"
bar:vjcs from:1987 till:$now color:general text:"VJCS"
bar:vjcs from:1990 till:1996 color:jcs
bar:vjcs from:2005 till:2007 color:jcs
bar:vjcs from:2011 till:2015 color:jcs
bar:vjcs from:2021 till:$now color:jcs
bar:start\_geographicccmd from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:geographicccmd from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[Unified combatant command\|Geographic combatant commands]]"
bar:cdrusafricom from:2007 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSAFRICOM"
bar:uscinccent from:1983 till:2002 color:general text:"USCINCCENT
bar:cdruscentcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSCENTCOM"
bar:cdruscentcom from:2006 till:2007 color:joint
bar:saceuruscinceur from:1952 till:2002 color:general text:"SACEUR/USCINCEUR"
bar:saceurcdruseucom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"SACEUR/CDRUSEUCOM"
bar:saceurcdruseucom from:2009 till:2013 color:joint
bar:cincpaccincpoa from:1943 till:1947 color:pacific text:"CINCPAC/CINCPOA"
bar:cincpaccincpacflt from:1947 till:1958 color:pacific text:"CINCPAC/CINCPACFLT"
bar:cincpac from: 1958 till: 1983 color:joint text:"CINCPAC"
bar:uscincpac from: 1983 till: 2002 color:joint text:"USCINCPAC"
bar:cdruspacom from: 2002 till: 2018 color:joint text:"CDRUSPACOM"
bar:cdrusindopacom from: 2018 till: $now color:joint text:"CDRUSINDOPACOM"
bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSNORTHCOM/CDRNORAD"
bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2004 till:2007 color:joint
bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2010 till:2011 color:joint
bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2014 till:2016 color:joint
bar:uscincso from:1963 till:1975 color:general text:"USCINCSO"
bar:uscincso from:1983 till:2002 color:general
bar:cdrussouthcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSSOUTHCOM"
bar:cdrussouthcom from:2006 till:2009 color:joint
bar:cdrussouthcom from:2016 till:2021 color:joint
bar:cdrusspacecom2 from:2019 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSSPACECOM"
bar:cinclantcinclantflt from:1947 till:1952 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANT/CINCLANTFLT"
bar:saclantcinclantcinclantflt from:1952 till:1985 color:atlantic text:"SACLANT/CINCLANT/CINCLANTFLT"
bar:saclantuscinclant from:1985 till:1993 color:joint text:"SACLANT/USCINCLANT"
bar:start\_functionalccmd from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:functionalccmd from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[Unified combatant command\|Functional combatant commands]]"
bar:cdruscybercomdirnsaccss from:2010 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSCYBERCOM/DIRNSA/CCSS"
bar:cdruscybercomdirnsaccss from:2014 till:2018 color:joint
bar:uscincsoc from:1987 till:2002 color:general text:"USCINCSOC"
bar:cdrussocom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSSOCOM"
bar:cdrussocom from:2007 till:2014 color:joint
bar:uscincstrat from:1992 till:2002 color:general text:"USCINCSTRAT"
bar:uscincstrat from:1994 till:1996 color:joint
bar:uscincstrat from:1998 till:2002 color:joint
bar:cdrusstratcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSSTRATCOM"
bar:cdrusstratcom from:2002 till:2004 color:joint
bar:cdrusstratcom from:2013 till:2016 color:joint
bar:cdrusstratcom from:2019 till:2022 color:joint
bar:uscinctrans from:1987 till:2002 color:general text:"USCINCTRANS"
bar:cdrustranscom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:"CDRUSTRANSCOM"
bar:saclantuscincacom from:1993 till:1999 color:joint text:"SACLANT/USCINCACOM"
bar:saclantuscincacom from:1994 till:1997 color:general
bar:saclantuscincjfcom from:1999 till:2002 color:general text:"SACLANT/USCINCJFCOM"
bar:saclantuscincjfcom from:1999 till:2000 color:joint
bar:saclantcdrusjfcom from:2002 till:2003 color:joint text:"SACLANT/CDRUSJFCOM"
bar:sactcdrusjfcom from:2003 till:2009 color:general text:"SACT/CDRUSJFCOM"
bar:sactcdrusjfcom from:2003 till:2005 color:joint
bar:cdrusjfcom from:2009 till:2011 color:general text:"CDRUSJFCOM"
bar:start\_multinational from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:multinational from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[combined operations\|Multinational alliances]]"
bar:cincsouth from:1952 till:1983 color:joint text:"CINCSOUTH"
bar:usmilrep from:1953 till:1993 color:general text:"USMILREP"
bar:usmilrep from:1958 till:1960 color:joint
bar:usmilrep from:1965 till:1968 color:joint
bar:usmilrep from:1974 till:1977 color:joint
bar:usmilrep from:1981 till:1982 color:joint
bar:usmilrep from:1987 till:1993 color:joint
bar:start\_intel from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:intel from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[United States Intelligence Community\|Intelligence community]]"
bar:ddciic from:1976 till:1977 color:federal text:"D/DCI/IC"
bar:dci from:1977 till:1981 color:federal text:"DCI"
bar:ddci from:1981 till:1982 color:federal text:"DDCI"
bar:ddci from:1992 till:1995 color:federal
bar:start\_federal from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:federal from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[federal government of the United States\|Other federal government]]"
bar:depnatlsecyadv from:1991 till:1993 color:federal text:"Dep. Natl. Secy. Adv."
bar:start\_shore from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:shore from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[Structure of the United States Navy\|Navy shore establishment]]"
bar:admnavy from:1866 till:1891 color:navy
bar:admnavy from:1899 till:1917 color:navy
bar:chmngenbd from:1887 till:1887 color:none text:"Admiral of Navy"
bar:chmngenbd from:1947 till:1947 color:navy text:"Chmn. Gen. Bd."
bar:cno from:1916 till:1942 color:cno text:"CNO"
bar:cominchcno from:1942 till:1945 color:cno text:"COMINCH/CNO"
bar:cno from:1945 till:$now color:cno
bar:vcno from:1944 till:1948 color:vcno text:"VCNO"
bar:vcno from:1950 till:$now color:vcno
bar:dcominchdcno from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:"DCOMINCH/DCNO"
bar:diropm from:1945 till:1946 color:navy text:"Dir. OPM"
bar:cnm from:1946 till:1946 color:navy text:"CNM"
bar:cnm from:1967 till:1985 color:navy text:"CNM"
bar:spacer\_navsea08
bar:navsea08 from:1973 till:$now color:nuclear text:"NAVSEA 08"
bar:presnwc from:1942 till:1942 color:navy text:"Pres. NWC"
bar:presnwc from:1946 till:1948 color:navy
bar:presnwc from:1994 till:1998 color:navy text:"Supt. USNA"
bar:dcominchdcnocomwestseafron from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:"DCOMINCH/DCNO/COMWESTSEAFRON"
bar:comwestseafron from:1945 till:1946 color:navy text:"COMWESTSEAFRON"
bar:comwestseafroncompacresflt from:1946 till:1947 color:navy text:"COMWESTSEAFRON/COMPACRESFLT"
bar:comeastseafroncomlantresflt from:1946 till:1950 color:navy text:"COMEASTSEAFRON/COMLANTRESFLT"
bar:usnavymilcomuno from:1945 till:1949 color:navy text:"USNAVYMILCOMUNO"
bar:start\_forces from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:forces from:$now till:$now color:none text:"\[\[Structure of the United States Navy\|Navy operating forces]]"
bar:cinclant\_0 from:1915 till:1922 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANT"
bar:cincus from:1922 till:1941 color:atlantic text:"CINCUS"
bar:cominch from:1941 till:1941 color:atlantic text:"COMINCH"
bar:cinclant\_1 from:1941 till:1946 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANT"
bar:cinclantflt\_0 from:1946 till:1947 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANTFLT"
bar:cinclantfltdcinclant from:1985 till:1986 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANTFLT/DCINCLANT"
bar:cinclantflt\_1 from:1986 till:2001 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANTFLT"
bar:cinclantfltcffc from:2001 till:2002 color:atlantic text:"CINCLANTFLT/CFFC"
bar:comlantfltcffc from:2002 till:2006 color:atlantic text:"COMLANTFLT/CFFC"
bar:comusff from:2006 till:$now color:atlantic text:"COMUSFF"
bar:cincpac\_0 from:1915 till:1922 color:pacific text:"CINCPAC"
bar:combatflt from:1922 till:1931 color:pacific text:"COMBATFLT"
bar:combatfor from:1931 till:1941 color:pacific text:"COMBATFOR"
bar:cincpaccincus from:1941 till:1941 color:pacific text:"CINCPAC/CINCUS"
bar:cincpac\_1 from:1941 till:1943 color:pacific text:"CINCPAC"
bar:dcincpacflt from:1957 till:1958 color:pacific text:"DCINCPACFLT"
bar:cincpacflt from:1958 till:2002 color:pacific text:"CINCPACFLT"
bar:compacflt from:2002 till:$now color:pacific text:"COMPACFLT"
bar:cincaf from:1915 till:1942 color:asiatic text:"CINCAF"
bar:comseventhfleet from:1945 till:1945 color:asiatic text:"COMSEVENTHFLEET"
bar:comseventhfleet from:1946 till:1947 color:asiatic
bar:comnavwespac from:1947 till:1948 color:asiatic text:"COMNAVWESPAC"
bar:comnaveur from:1918 till:1919 color:europe text:"COMNAVEUR"
bar:comnaveur from:1942 till:1946 color:europe
bar:comnaveastlantmed from:1946 till:1947 color:europe text:"COMNAVEASTLANTMED"
bar:cincnaveastlantmed from:1947 till:1948 color:europe text:"CINCNAVEASTLANTMED"
bar:cincnelm\_0 from:1948 till:1951 color:europe text:"CINCNELM"
bar:cincsouthcincnelm from:1951 till:1952 color:europe text:"CINCSOUTH/CINCNELM"
bar:cincnelm\_1 from:1954 till:1958 color:europe text:"CINCNELM"
bar:cincnelmcincspecomme from:1958 till:1960 color:europe text:"CINCNELM/CINCSPECOMME"
bar:cincusnaveurcincnelm from:1960 till:1963 color:europe text:"CINCUSNAVEUR/CINCNELM"
bar:cincusnaveur from:1963 till:1977 color:europe text:"CINCUSNAVEUR"
bar:cincusnaveurcincsouth from:1983 till:2002 color:europe text:"CINCUSNAVEUR/CINCSOUTH"
bar:comusnaveurcincsouth from:2002 till:2004 color:europe text:"COMUSNAVEUR/CINCSOUTH"
bar:comusnaveurcomjfcnaples from:2004 till:2009 color:europe text:"COMUSNAVEUR/COMJFC Naples"
bar:comusnaveurcomusnavafcomjfcnaples from:2009 till:$now color:europe text:"COMUSNAVEUR/COMNAVAF/COMJFC Naples"
bar:comsopaccomsopacfor from:1942 till:1944 color:navy text:"COMSOPAC/COMSOPACFOR"
bar:comthirdfleet from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:"COMTHIRDFLEET"
bar:comcenpacfor from:1944 till:1944 color:navy text:"COMCENPACFOR"
bar:comfifthfleet from:1944 till:1946 color:navy text:"COMFIFTHFLEET"
bar:comeighthfleet from:1945 till:1945 color:navy text:"COMEIGHTHFLEET"
bar:comphibpac from:1945 till:1945 color:navy text:"COMPHIBPAC"
}}
### 1866–1941
1. The rank of admiral was created in 1866 to honor the Civil War achievements of [David Farragut](/wiki/David_Farragut "David Farragut"). Upon his death, another Civil War hero, [David D. Porter Jr.](/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter "David Dixon Porter"), succeeded to the title. In 1873, Congress stated that further vacancies in the grade would not be filled, and the rank lapsed with Porter's death in 1890\. Congress revived the rank in 1899 to honor [George Dewey](/wiki/George_Dewey "George Dewey"), stipulating that the grade would again cease to exist upon his death or retirement. In 1903, Dewey was promoted to the unique rank of [Admiral of the Navy](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Navy "Admiral of the Navy"), which during his lifetime was considered to be equivalent to an [admiral of the fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Admiral of the Fleet (United Kingdom)"), but was later declared to be senior to the five\-star grade of [fleet admiral](/wiki/Fleet_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Fleet admiral (United States)").
The Act of 3 March 1915, provided that the commanders in chief of the [Atlantic](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet "U.S. Atlantic Fleet"), [Pacific](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet "U.S. Pacific Fleet"), and [Asiatic](/wiki/U.S._Asiatic_Fleet "U.S. Asiatic Fleet") Fleets would have the rank of admiral while so serving, and their seconds in command the rank of vice admiral. In 1916, the [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations "Chief of Naval Operations") was also made an admiral while so serving, ranking next after the [Admiral of the Navy](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Navy "Admiral of the Navy"). The ranks of admiral and vice admiral were strictly temporary appointments for the duration of an officer's tour in designated billets, and the temporary admiral reverted to his permanent grade of rear admiral immediately upon vacating the office bearing the title.
In 1917, Congress accommodated the Navy's desire to reorganize the fleet by authorizing the President to appoint three admirals and three vice admirals for any six fleet command positions. All fleet command tours lasted one year except for the commander in chief of the [U.S. Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet "United States Fleet"), whose term was sometimes renewed for a second year, and the commander in chief of the [Asiatic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Asiatic_Fleet "U.S. Asiatic Fleet"), whose command was considered a backwater. (The [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations "Chief of Naval Operations") was appointed for four years.) Officers would typically "fleet up" to admiral or vice admiral for their year of fleet command and then revert to rear admiral to mark time until mandatory retirement.
ImageSize \= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10
PlotArea \= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20
AlignBars \= late
Define $start \= 1860
Define $end \= 1950
DateFormat \= yyyy
Period \= from:$start till:$end
TimeAxis \= orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor \= unit:year increment:10 start:$start
Colors \=
```
id:cno value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: CNO
id:cincus value:rgb(0,0.7,0.7) legend: CINCUS
id:battle value:rgb(0,1,0) legend: COMBATFOR
id:atlantic value:rgb(0,0.7,0.7) legend: Atlantic_Fleet
id:pacific value:rgb(0,1,0) legend: Pacific_Fleet
id:asiatic value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0) legend: Asiatic_Fleet
id:europe value:rgb(0,0,1)
id:navy value:rgb(0,0,1) legend: Other_Navy
id:jcs value:rgb(0,0,0) legend: JCS
id:time value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)
id:category value:rgb(0.9,0.9,1)
id:period value:rgb(0.5,0.5,1)
id:none value:rgb(1,1,1)
```
Legend \= orientation:vertical position:right
LineData \=
```
layer:back
width:0.1
color:time
at:1870
at:1880
at:1890
at:1900
at:1910
at:1920
at:1930
at:1940
at:1941
```
BarData \=
```
barset:PM
bar:period_0
bar:period_1
bar:end_period
bar:start_officers
bar:officers
```
```
bar:farragut
bar:porter
bar:dewey
bar:fletcher
bar:howard
bar:cowles
bar:winterhalter
bar:winslow
bar:caperton
bar:benson
bar:mayo
bar:knight
bar:sims
bar:wilson
bar:rodman
bar:gleaves
bar:coontz
bar:strauss
bar:jones
bar:eberle
bar:anderson
bar:washington
bar:robison
bar:williams
bar:hughes
bar:jackson
bar:wiley
bar:bristol
bar:desteiguer
bar:pratt
bar:nulton
bar:mcvay
bar:chase
bar:schofield
bar:taylor
bar:leigh
bar:mcnamee
bar:standley
bar:sellers
bar:reeves
bar:upham
bar:brumby
bar:laning
bar:murfin
bar:leahy
bar:hepburn
bar:yarnell
bar:bloch
bar:kalbfus
bar:hart
bar:richardson
bar:stark
bar:snyder
```
```
bar:end_officers
```
PlotData\=
```
width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till
barset:PM
bar:period_0 from:1860 till:1860 color:none text:"[[American Civil War|Civil War]]"
bar:period_1 from:1861 till:1865 color:period
bar:period_0 from:1897 till:1897 color:none text:"[[Spanish–American War]]"
bar:period_1 from:1898 till:1899 color:period
bar:period_0 from:1916 till:1916 color:none text:"[[World War I]]"
bar:period_1 from:1917 till:1920 color:period
bar:period_0 from:1940 till:1940 color:none text:"[[World War II]]"
bar:period_1 from:1941 till:1945 color:period
bar:start_officers from:$start till:$end color:category
```
```
bar:farragut from: 1866 till: 1870 color:navy text:"[[David Farragut]]"
bar:porter from: 1870 till: 1891 color:navy text:"[[David Dixon Porter|David D. Porter]]"
bar:dewey from: 1899 till: 1917 color:navy text:"[[George Dewey]]"
bar:fletcher from: 1915 till: 1916 color:atlantic text:"[[Frank F. Fletcher]]"
bar:howard from: 1915 till: 1915 color:pacific text:"[[Thomas B. Howard]]"
bar:cowles from: 1915 till: 1915 color:asiatic text:"[[Walter C. Cowles]]"
bar:winterhalter from: 1915 till: 1917 color:asiatic text:"[[Albert G. Winterhalter]]"
bar:winslow from: 1915 till: 1916 color:pacific text:"[[Cameron M. Winslow]]"
bar:caperton from: 1916 till: 1919 color:pacific text:"[[William B. Caperton]]"
bar:benson from: 1916 till: 1919 color:cno text:"[[William S. Benson]]"
bar:mayo from: 1916 till: 1919 color:atlantic
bar:mayo from: 1919 till: 1919 color:cincus text:"[[Henry T. Mayo]]"
bar:knight from: 1917 till: 1918 color:asiatic text:"[[Austin M. Knight]]"
bar:sims from: 1918 till: 1919 color:europe text:"[[William S. Sims]]"
bar:wilson from: 1919 till: 1921 color:atlantic text:"[[Henry B. Wilson Jr.]]"
bar:rodman from: 1919 till: 1921 color:pacific text:"[[Hugh Rodman]]"
bar:gleaves from: 1919 till: 1921 color:asiatic text:"[[Albert Gleaves]]"
bar:coontz from: 1919 till: 1923 color:cno
bar:coontz from: 1923 till: 1925 color:cincus text:"[[Robert E. Coontz]]"
bar:strauss from: 1921 till: 1922 color:asiatic text:"[[Joseph Strauss (admiral)|Joseph Strauss]]"
bar:jones from: 1921 till: 1922 color:atlantic
bar:jones from: 1922 till: 1923 color:cincus text:"[[Hilary P. Jones]]"
bar:eberle from: 1921 till: 1921 color:pacific
bar:eberle from: 1921 till: 1923 color:battle
bar:eberle from: 1923 till: 1927 color:cno text:"[[Edward W. Eberle]]"
bar:anderson from: 1922 till: 1923 color:asiatic text:"[[Edwin A. Anderson]]"
bar:washington from: 1923 till: 1925 color:asiatic text:"[[Thomas Washington]]"
bar:robison from: 1923 till: 1925 color:battle
bar:robison from: 1925 till: 1926 color:cincus text:"[[Samuel S. Robison]]"
bar:williams from: 1925 till: 1927 color:asiatic text:"[[Clarence S. Williams]]"
bar:hughes from: 1925 till: 1926 color:battle
bar:hughes from: 1926 till: 1927 color:cincus
bar:hughes from: 1927 till: 1930 color:cno text:"[[Charles F. Hughes]]"
bar:jackson from: 1926 till: 1927 color:battle text:"[[Richard H. Jackson]]"
bar:wiley from: 1927 till: 1929 color:cincus text:"[[Henry A. Wiley]]"
bar:bristol from: 1927 till: 1929 color:asiatic text:"[[Mark L. Bristol]]"
bar:desteiguer from: 1927 till: 1928 color:battle text:"[[Louis R. de Steiguer]]"
bar:pratt from: 1928 till: 1929 color:battle
bar:pratt from: 1929 till: 1930 color:cincus
bar:pratt from: 1930 till: 1933 color:cno text:"[[William V. Pratt]]"
bar:nulton from: 1929 till: 1930 color:battle text:"[[Louis M. Nulton]]"
bar:mcvay from: 1929 till: 1931 color:asiatic text:"[[Charles B. McVay Jr.]]"
bar:chase from: 1930 till: 1931 color:cincus text:"[[Jehu V. Chase]]"
bar:schofield from: 1930 till: 1931 color:battle
bar:schofield from: 1931 till: 1932 color:cincus text:"[[Frank H. Schofield]]"
bar:taylor from: 1931 till: 1933 color:asiatic text:"[[Montgomery M. Taylor]]"
bar:leigh from: 1931 till: 1932 color:battle
bar:leigh from: 1932 till: 1933 color:cincus text:"[[Richard H. Leigh]]"
bar:mcnamee from: 1932 till: 1933 color:battle text:"[[Luke McNamee]]"
bar:standley from: 1933 till: 1933 color:battle
bar:standley from: 1933 till: 1937 color:cno text:"[[William H. Standley]]"
bar:sellers from: 1933 till: 1934 color:cincus text:"[[David F. Sellers]]"
bar:reeves from: 1933 till: 1934 color:battle
bar:reeves from: 1934 till: 1936 color:cincus text:"[[Joseph M. Reeves]]"
bar:upham from: 1933 till: 1935 color:asiatic text:"[[Frank B. Upham]]"
bar:brumby from: 1934 till: 1935 color:battle text:"[[Frank H. Brumby]]"
bar:laning from: 1935 till: 1936 color:battle text:"[[Harris Laning]]"
bar:murfin from: 1935 till: 1936 color:asiatic text:"[[Orin G. Murfin]]"
bar:leahy from: 1936 till: 1937 color:battle
bar:leahy from: 1937 till: 1939 color:cno
bar:leahy from: 1942 till: 1949 color:jcs text:"[[William D. Leahy]]"
bar:hepburn from: 1936 till: 1938 color:cincus text:"[[Arthur J. Hepburn]]"
bar:yarnell from: 1936 till: 1939 color:asiatic text:"[[Harry E. Yarnell]]"
bar:bloch from: 1937 till: 1938 color:battle
bar:bloch from: 1938 till: 1940 color:cincus text:"[[Claude C. Bloch]]"
bar:kalbfus from: 1938 till: 1939 color:battle text:"[[Edward C. Kalbfus]]"
bar:hart from: 1939 till: 1942 color:asiatic text:"[[Thomas C. Hart]]"
bar:richardson from: 1939 till: 1940 color:battle
bar:richardson from: 1940 till: 1941 color:cincus text:"[[James O. Richardson]]"
bar:stark from: 1939 till: 1942 color:cno
bar:stark from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:"[[Harold R. Stark]]"
bar:snyder from: 1940 till: 1941 color:battle text:"[[Charles P. Snyder (admiral)|Charles P. Snyder]]"
```
### 1941–1991
[thumb\|195px\|Harry B. Harris, the first Asian\-American four\-star admiral, is pinned with his new rank on 16 October 2013](/wiki/File:Promotion_of_Harry_B._Harris_Jr._to_Admiral_131016-N-QF605-016.jpg "Promotion of Harry B. Harris Jr. to Admiral 131016-N-QF605-016.jpg")
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the President was authorized to create as many admirals and vice admirals as he deemed necessary for the duration of the emergency. Most of these new creations retired at the end of the war, having been promoted to reward service in the fleet or headquarters, or to achieve parity with wartime counterparts. Although three\- and four\-star ranks remained temporary appointments, the practice of reverting to a lower grade pending retirement largely halted after 1942, when Congress authorized officers to be retired in the highest grade in which they served on active duty.Act of Congress of 16 July 1942\. The rank of [fleet admiral](/wiki/Fleet_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Fleet admiral (United States)") was created in 1944, and the four officers promoted to that grade were allowed to remain on active duty permanently.
By 1956, the Navy had equilibrated at a total of seven permanent billets bearing four\-star rank: the [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations "Chief of Naval Operations") (CNO); the [Vice Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_Naval_Operations "Vice Chief of Naval Operations") (VCNO), the commanders in chief of the unified commands in the [Pacific](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Command "U.S. Pacific Command") (CINCPAC) and [Atlantic](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command "U.S. Atlantic Command") (CINCLANT); the commander in chief of the [U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet "U.S. Pacific Fleet") (CINCPACFLT); the commander in chief of [U.S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe "U.S. Naval Forces Europe") (CINCNELM) (retitled commander in chief of [U.S. Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe "U.S. Naval Forces Europe") (CINCUSNAVEUR) in 1960\); and the commander in chief of [North Atlantic Treaty Organization](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization "North Atlantic Treaty Organization") (NATO) forces in [Southern Europe](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Southern_Europe "Allied Forces Southern Europe") (CINCSOUTH). In 1965, an eighth billet was added when the [chief of naval material](/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Material "Office of Naval Material") (CNM) was promoted to admiral. Occasionally this count would fluctuate when a Navy officer was selected as the [Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff") (CJCS), as the chairman's four\-star representative to the [NATO Military Committee](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization "North Atlantic Treaty Organization") (USMILREP), or as the [director](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence "Director of Central Intelligence") or [deputy director](/wiki/Deputy_Director_of_Central_Intelligence "Deputy Director of Central Intelligence") of central intelligence; or by special legislation.In 1994, special legislation authorized [Charles R. Larson](/wiki/Charles_R._Larson "Charles R. Larson") to resume the [superintendency](/wiki/List_of_Superintendents_of_the_United_States_Naval_Academy "List of Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy") of the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy"), then a two\-star billet, as a full admiral.
When the long\-serving director of the naval nuclear reactor program, [Hyman G. Rickover](/wiki/Hyman_G._Rickover "Hyman G. Rickover"), was finally compelled to retire in 1982, his successor was promoted to admiral and appointed [director of naval nuclear propulsion](/wiki/Naval_Reactors "Naval Reactors"), institutionalizing the position as a permanent four\-star billet. To compensate, another four\-star billet was eliminated by merging [Allied Forces Southern Europe](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Southern_Europe "Allied Forces Southern Europe") with [U.S. Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe "U.S. Naval Forces Europe"). Similarly, when the [U.S. Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet "U.S. Atlantic Fleet") commander (CINCLANTFLT) was separated from the [Atlantic unified commander](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command "U.S. Atlantic Command") in 1985, the number of four\-star billets was conserved by eliminating the [chief of naval material](/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Material "Office of Naval Material") position. The U.S. Atlantic Fleet was replaced by [U.S. Fleet Forces Command](/wiki/U.S._Fleet_Forces_Command "U.S. Fleet Forces Command") (COMUSFF) in 2006\.
ImageSize \= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10
PlotArea \= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20
AlignBars \= late
Define $start \= 1940
Define $end \= 2000
DateFormat \= yyyy
Period \= from:$start till:$end
TimeAxis \= orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor \= unit:year increment:10 start:$start
Colors \=
```
id:jcs value:rgb(0,0,0) legend: CJCS/VJCS
id:cno value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: CNO
id:vcno value:rgb(0.7,0.7,0.7) legend: VCNO
id:atlantic value:rgb(0,0.7,0.7) legend: Atlantic_Fleet
id:pacific value:rgb(0,1,0) legend: Pacific_Fleet
id:asiatic value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0) legend: Asiatic_Fleet
id:nuclear value:rgb(0,1,1) legend: Nuclear_propulsion
id:navy value:rgb(0,0,1) legend: Other_Navy
id:joint value:rgb(0.7,0,1) legend: Joint_(military)
id:federal value:rgb(1,0,1) legend: Joint_(other)
id:general value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)
id:time value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)
id:category value:rgb(0.9,0.9,1)
id:period value:rgb(0.5,0.5,1)
id:none value:rgb(1,1,1)
```
Legend \= orientation:vertical position:right
LineData \=
```
layer:back
width:0.1
color:time
at:1941
at:1950
at:1960
at:1970
at:1980
at:1990
at:1991
```
BarData \=
```
barset:PM
bar:period_0
bar:period_1
bar:period_2
bar:end_period
bar:start_officers
bar:officers
```
```
bar:leahy
bar:hart
bar:stark
bar:kimmel
bar:king
bar:nimitz
bar:ingersoll
bar:halsey
bar:spruance
bar:ingram
bar:horne
bar:edwards
bar:hewitt
bar:kinkaid
bar:richmondturner
bar:robinson
bar:towers
bar:ramsey
bar:cooke
bar:moreell
bar:mitscher
bar:conolly
bar:blandy
bar:denfeld
bar:radford
bar:sherman
bar:fechteler
bar:carney
bar:mccormick
bar:donaldduncan
bar:stump
bar:wright
bar:cassady
bar:arleighburke
bar:briscoe
bar:boone
bar:felt
bar:curts
bar:hollowayjr
bar:hopwood
bar:russell
bar:brown
bar:dennison
bar:haroldpagesmith
bar:sides
bar:anderson
bar:ricketts
bar:davidmcdonald
bar:griffin
bar:sharp
bar:moorer
bar:rivero
bar:thach
bar:ward
bar:royjohnson
bar:mccain
bar:galantin
bar:holmes
bar:hyland
bar:clarey
bar:wendt
bar:zumwalt
bar:charlesduncan
bar:arnold
bar:cousins
bar:bringle
bar:kidd
bar:colbert
bar:gayler
bar:weisner
bar:hollowayiii
bar:worthbagley
bar:rickover
bar:johnston
bar:shear
bar:weinel
bar:michaelis
bar:davidbagley
bar:stansfieldturner
bar:murphy
bar:hayward
bar:long
bar:davis
bar:whittle
bar:train
bar:watkins
bar:crowe
bar:inman
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bar:williams
bar:kinnear
bar:mckee
bar:foley
bar:wesleymcdonald
bar:hays
bar:white
bar:baggett
bar:lyons
bar:trost
bar:busey
bar:moreau
bar:kelso
bar:hardisty
bar:carter
bar:jeremiah
bar:edney
bar:demars
bar:hogg
bar:howe
bar:larson
bar:jeromejohnson
```
```
bar:end_officers
```
PlotData\=
```
width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till
barset:PM
bar:period_0 from:1941 till:1945 color:period text:"[[World War II]]"
bar:period_1 from:1947 till:1991 color:period text:"[[Cold War]]"
bar:period_2 from:1950 till:1953 color:period text:"[[Korean War]]"
bar:period_2 from:1961 till:1975 color:period text:"[[Vietnam War]]"
bar:period_2 from:1990 till:1991 color:period text:"[[Gulf War]]"
bar:start_officers from:$start till:1991 color:category
```
```
bar:leahy from: 1942 till: 1949 color:jcs text:"[[William D. Leahy]]"
bar:hart from: 1940 till: 1942 color:asiatic text:"[[Thomas C. Hart]]"
bar:stark from: 1940 till: 1942 color:cno
bar:stark from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:"[[Harold R. Stark]]"
bar:kimmel from: 1941 till: 1942 color:pacific text:"[[Husband E. Kimmel]]"
bar:king from: 1941 till: 1942 color:atlantic
bar:king from: 1942 till: 1946 color:cno text:"[[Ernest J. King]]"
bar:nimitz from: 1942 till: 1946 color:pacific
bar:nimitz from: 1946 till: 1948 color:cno text:"[[Chester W. Nimitz]]"
bar:ingersoll from: 1942 till: 1944 color:atlantic
bar:ingersoll from: 1944 till: 1945 color:navy text:"[[Royal E. Ingersoll]]"
bar:halsey from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:"[[William F. Halsey Jr.]]"
bar:spruance from: 1944 till: 1945 color:navy
bar:spruance from: 1945 till: 1946 color:pacific
bar:spruance from: 1946 till: 1948 color:navy text:"[[Raymond A. Spruance]]"
bar:ingram from: 1944 till: 1946 color:atlantic text:"[[Jonas H. Ingram]]"
bar:horne from: 1944 till: 1945 color:vcno text:"[[Frederick J. Horne]]"
bar:edwards from: 1945 till: 1946 color:vcno
bar:edwards from: 1946 till: 1947 color:navy text:"[[Richard S. Edwards Jr.]]"
bar:hewitt from: 1945 till: 1949 color:navy text:"[[H. Kent Hewitt]]"
bar:kinkaid from: 1945 till: 1950 color:navy text:"[[Thomas C. Kinkaid]]"
bar:richmondturner from: 1945 till: 1947 color:navy text:"[[Richmond K. Turner]]"
bar:robinson from: 1945 till: 1946 color:navy text:"[[Samuel M. Robinson]]"
bar:towers from: 1945 till: 1946 color:navy
bar:towers from: 1946 till: 1947 color:pacific text:"[[John H. Towers]]"
bar:ramsey from: 1946 till: 1948 color:vcno
bar:ramsey from: 1948 till: 1949 color:pacific text:"[[DeWitt C. Ramsey]]"
bar:cooke from: 1946 till: 1948 color:asiatic text:"[[Charles M. Cooke Jr.]]"
bar:moreell from: 1946 till: 1946 color:navy text:"[[Ben Moreell]]"
bar:mitscher from: 1946 till: 1947 color:atlantic text:"[[Marc A. Mitscher]]"
bar:conolly from: 1946 till: 1950 color:navy text:"[[Richard L. Conolly]]"
bar:blandy from: 1947 till: 1950 color:atlantic text:"[[William H.P. Blandy]]"
bar:denfeld from: 1947 till: 1948 color:pacific
bar:denfeld from: 1948 till: 1949 color:cno text:"[[Louis E. Denfeld]]"
bar:radford from: 1949 till: 1953 color:pacific
bar:radford from: 1953 till: 1957 color:jcs text:"[[Arthur W. Radford]]"
bar:sherman from: 1949 till: 1951 color:cno text:"[[Forrest P. Sherman]]"
bar:fechteler from: 1950 till: 1951 color:atlantic
bar:fechteler from: 1951 till: 1953 color:cno
bar:fechteler from: 1953 till: 1956 color:joint text:"[[William M. Fechteler]]"
bar:carney from: 1950 till: 1952 color:navy
bar:carney from: 1952 till: 1953 color:joint
bar:carney from: 1953 till: 1955 color:cno text:"[[Robert B. Carney]]"
bar:mccormick from: 1950 till: 1951 color:vcno
bar:mccormick from: 1951 till: 1954 color:atlantic text:"[[Lynde D. McCormick]]"
bar:donaldduncan from: 1951 till: 1956 color:vcno text:"[[Donald B. Duncan]]"
bar:stump from: 1953 till: 1958 color:pacific text:"[[Felix B. Stump]]"
bar:wright from: 1954 till: 1960 color:atlantic text:"[[Jerauld Wright]]"
bar:cassady from: 1954 till: 1956 color:navy text:"[[John H. Cassady]]"
bar:arleighburke from: 1955 till: 1961 color:cno text:"[[Arleigh A. Burke]]"
bar:briscoe from: 1956 till: 1959 color:joint text:"[[Robert P. Briscoe]]"
bar:boone from: 1956 till: 1958 color:navy
bar:boone from: 1958 till: 1960 color:joint text:"[[Walter F. Boone]]"
bar:felt from: 1956 till: 1958 color:vcno
bar:felt from: 1958 till: 1964 color:joint text:"[[Harry D. Felt]]"
bar:curts from: 1957 till: 1958 color:pacific text:"[[Maurice E. Curts]]"
bar:hollowayjr from: 1958 till: 1959 color:navy text:"[[James L. Holloway Jr.]]"
bar:hopwood from: 1958 till: 1960 color:pacific text:"[[Herbert G. Hopwood]]"
bar:russell from: 1958 till: 1961 color:vcno
bar:russell from: 1961 till: 1965 color:joint text:"[[James S. Russell]]"
bar:brown from: 1959 till: 1961 color:joint text:"[[Charles R. Brown]]"
bar:dennison from: 1959 till: 1960 color:navy
bar:dennison from: 1960 till: 1963 color:atlantic text:"[[Robert L. Dennison]]"
bar:haroldpagesmith from: 1960 till: 1963 color:navy
bar:haroldpagesmith from: 1963 till: 1965 color:atlantic text:"[[Harold Page Smith]]"
bar:sides from: 1960 till: 1963 color:pacific text:"[[John H. Sides]]"
bar:anderson from: 1961 till: 1963 color:cno text:"[[George W. Anderson Jr.]]"
bar:ricketts from: 1961 till: 1964 color:vcno text:"[[Claude V. Ricketts]]"
bar:davidmcdonald from: 1963 till: 1963 color:navy
bar:davidmcdonald from: 1963 till: 1967 color:cno text:"[[David L. McDonald]]"
bar:griffin from: 1963 till: 1965 color:navy
bar:griffin from: 1965 till: 1968 color:joint text:"[[Charles D. Griffin]]"
bar:sharp from: 1963 till: 1964 color:pacific
bar:sharp from: 1964 till: 1968 color:joint text:"[[U.S. Grant Sharp Jr.]]"
bar:moorer from: 1964 till: 1965 color:pacific
bar:moorer from: 1965 till: 1967 color:atlantic
bar:moorer from: 1967 till: 1970 color:cno
bar:moorer from: 1970 till: 1974 color:jcs text:"[[Thomas H. Moorer]]"
bar:rivero from: 1964 till: 1968 color:vcno
bar:rivero from: 1968 till: 1972 color:joint text:"[[Horacio Rivero Jr.]]"
bar:thach from: 1965 till: 1967 color:navy text:"[[John S. Thach]]"
bar:ward from: 1965 till: 1968 color:joint text:"[[Alfred G. Ward]]"
bar:royjohnson from: 1965 till: 1967 color:pacific text:"[[Roy L. Johnson]]"
bar:mccain from: 1967 till: 1968 color:navy
bar:mccain from: 1968 till: 1972 color:joint text:"[[John S. McCain Jr.]]"
bar:galantin from: 1967 till: 1970 color:navy text:"[[Ignatius J. Galantin]]"
bar:holmes from: 1967 till: 1970 color:atlantic text:"[[Ephraim P. Holmes]]"
bar:hyland from: 1967 till: 1970 color:pacific text:"[[John J. Hyland Jr.]]"
bar:clarey from: 1968 till: 1970 color:vcno
bar:clarey from: 1970 till: 1973 color:pacific text:"[[Bernard A. Clarey]]"
bar:wendt from: 1968 till: 1971 color:navy text:"[[Waldemar F. A. Wendt]]"
bar:zumwalt from: 1970 till: 1974 color:cno text:"[[Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.]]"
bar:charlesduncan from: 1970 till: 1972 color:atlantic text:"[[Charles K. Duncan]]"
bar:arnold from: 1970 till: 1971 color:navy text:"[[Jackson D. Arnold]]"
bar:cousins from: 1970 till: 1972 color:vcno
bar:cousins from: 1972 till: 1975 color:atlantic text:"[[Ralph W. Cousins]]"
bar:bringle from: 1971 till: 1973 color:navy text:"[[William F. Bringle]]"
bar:kidd from: 1971 till: 1975 color:navy
bar:kidd from: 1975 till: 1978 color:atlantic text:"[[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]]"
bar:colbert from: 1972 till: 1973 color:joint text:"[[Richard G. Colbert]]"
bar:gayler from: 1972 till: 1976 color:joint text:"[[Noel A.M. Gayler]]"
bar:weisner from: 1972 till: 1973 color:vcno
bar:weisner from: 1973 till: 1976 color:pacific
bar:weisner from: 1976 till: 1979 color:joint text:"[[Maurice F. Weisner]]"
bar:hollowayiii from: 1973 till: 1974 color:vcno
bar:hollowayiii from: 1974 till: 1978 color:cno text:"[[James L. Holloway III]]"
bar:worthbagley from: 1973 till: 1974 color:navy
bar:worthbagley from: 1974 till: 1975 color:vcno text:"[[Worth H. Bagley]]"
bar:rickover from: 1973 till: 1982 color:nuclear text:"[[Hyman G. Rickover]]"
bar:johnston from: 1973 till: 1975 color:joint text:"[[Means Johnston Jr.]]"
bar:shear from: 1974 till: 1975 color:navy
bar:shear from: 1975 till: 1977 color:vcno
bar:shear from: 1977 till: 1980 color:joint text:"[[Harold E. Shear]]"
bar:weinel from: 1974 till: 1977 color:joint text:"[[John P. Weinel]]"
bar:michaelis from: 1975 till: 1978 color:navy text:"[[Frederick H. Michaelis]]"
bar:davidbagley from: 1975 till: 1977 color:navy text:"[[David H. Bagley]]"
bar:stansfieldturner from: 1975 till: 1977 color:joint
bar:stansfieldturner from: 1977 till: 1979 color:federal text:"[[Stansfield Turner]]"
bar:murphy from: 1976 till: 1977 color:federal text:"[[Daniel Murphy (admiral)|Daniel J. Murphy]]"
bar:hayward from: 1976 till: 1978 color:pacific
bar:hayward from: 1978 till: 1982 color:cno text:"[[Thomas B. Hayward]]"
bar:long from: 1977 till: 1979 color:vcno
bar:long from: 1979 till: 1983 color:joint text:"[[Robert L. J. Long]]"
bar:davis from: 1978 till: 1981 color:pacific text:"[[Donald C. Davis]]"
bar:whittle from: 1978 till: 1981 color:navy text:"[[Alfred J. Whittle Jr.]]"
bar:train from: 1978 till: 1982 color:atlantic text:"[[Harry D. Train II]]"
bar:watkins from: 1979 till: 1981 color:vcno
bar:watkins from: 1981 till: 1982 color:pacific
bar:watkins from: 1982 till: 1986 color:cno text:"[[James D. Watkins]]"
bar:crowe from: 1980 till: 1985 color:joint
bar:crowe from: 1985 till: 1989 color:jcs text:"[[William J. Crowe Jr.]]"
bar:inman from: 1981 till: 1982 color:federal text:"[[Bobby R. Inman]]"
bar:small from: 1981 till: 1983 color:vcno
bar:small from: 1983 till: 1985 color:navy text:"[[William N. Small]]"
bar:williams from: 1981 till: 1983 color:navy text:"[[John G. Williams Jr.]]"
bar:kinnear from: 1981 till: 1982 color:joint text:"[[George E. R. Kinnear II]]"
bar:mckee from: 1982 till: 1988 color:nuclear text:"[[Kinnaird R. McKee]]"
bar:foley from: 1982 till: 1985 color:pacific text:"[[Sylvester R. Foley Jr.]]"
bar:wesleymcdonald from: 1982 till: 1985 color:atlantic text:"[[Wesley L. McDonald]]"
bar:hays from: 1983 till: 1985 color:vcno
bar:hays from: 1985 till: 1988 color:joint text:"[[Ronald J. Hays]]"
bar:white from: 1983 till: 1985 color:navy text:"[[Steven A. White]]"
bar:baggett from: 1985 till: 1988 color:joint text:"[[Lee Baggett Jr.]]"
bar:lyons from: 1985 till: 1987 color:pacific text:"[[James A. Lyons Jr.]]"
bar:trost from: 1985 till: 1986 color:atlantic
bar:trost from: 1986 till: 1990 color:cno text:"[[Carlisle A. H. Trost]]"
bar:busey from: 1985 till: 1987 color:vcno
bar:busey from: 1987 till: 1989 color:navy text:"[[James B. Busey IV]]"
bar:moreau from: 1985 till: 1986 color:navy text:"[[Arthur S. Moreau Jr.]]"
bar:kelso from: 1986 till: 1988 color:atlantic
bar:kelso from: 1988 till: 1990 color:joint
bar:kelso from: 1990 till: 1994 color:cno text:"[[Frank B. Kelso II]]"
bar:hardisty from: 1987 till: 1988 color:vcno
bar:hardisty from: 1988 till: 1991 color:joint text:"[[Huntington Hardisty]]"
bar:carter from: 1987 till: 1988 color:joint
bar:carter from: 1988 till: 1991 color:atlantic text:"[[Powell F. Carter Jr.]]"
bar:jeremiah from: 1987 till: 1990 color:pacific
bar:jeremiah from: 1990 till: 1994 color:jcs text:"[[David E. Jeremiah]]"
bar:edney from: 1988 till: 1990 color:vcno
bar:edney from: 1990 till: 1992 color:joint text:"[[Leon A. Edney]]"
bar:demars from: 1988 till: 1996 color:nuclear text:"[[Bruce DeMars]]"
bar:hogg from: 1988 till: 1991 color:joint text:"[[James R. Hogg]]"
bar:howe from: 1989 till: 1991 color:navy
bar:howe from: 1991 till: 1992 color:federal text:"[[Jonathan T. Howe]]"
bar:larson from: 1990 till: 1991 color:pacific
bar:larson from: 1991 till: 1994 color:joint
bar:larson from: 1994 till: 1998 color:navy text:"[[Charles R. Larson]]"
bar:jeromejohnson from: 1990 till: 1992 color:vcno text:"[[Jerome L. Johnson]]"
```
### 1991–present
With the end of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), [U.S. Atlantic Command](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command "U.S. Atlantic Command") was repurposed as the joint force trainer, becoming [U.S. Joint Forces Command](/wiki/U.S._Joint_Forces_Command "U.S. Joint Forces Command") in 1999\. The change in mission cost the Navy its traditional monopoly over that command, which has since rotated among all the services, but the Navy made up the difference through repeated appointments to other [combatant commands](/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command "Unified Combatant Command") and to the [vice chairmanship of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff "Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff") (VJCS). All military commanders in chief were retitled "Commanders" in 2002, when the title of "Commander in Chief" was reserved solely to the President of the United States.
{{\#tag:timeline\|
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AlignBars \= late
Define $start \= 1990
Define $now \= {{CURRENTYEAR}}
Define $end \= 2050
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ScaleMajor \= unit:year increment:10 start:$start
Colors \=
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id:vcno value:rgb(0\.7,0\.7,0\.7\) legend: VCNO
id:atlantic value:rgb(0,0\.7,0\.7\) legend: Atlantic\_Fleet
id:pacific value:rgb(0,1,0\) legend: Pacific\_Fleet
id:asiatic value:rgb(0\.9,0\.9,0\) legend: Asiatic\_Fleet
id:nuclear value:rgb(0,1,1\) legend: Nuclear\_propulsion
id:navy value:rgb(0,0,1\) legend: Other\_Navy
id:joint value:rgb(0\.7,0,1\) legend: Joint\_(military)
id:federal value:rgb(1,0,1\) legend: Joint\_(other)
id:general value:rgb(0\.9,0\.9,0\.9\)
id:time value:rgb(0\.9,0\.9,0\.9\)
id:category value:rgb(0\.9,0\.9,1\)
id:period value:rgb(0\.5,0\.5,1\)
id:none value:rgb(1,1,1\)
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LineData \=
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color:time
at:1991
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at:$now
BarData \=
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bar:paparo
bar:caudle
bar:munsch
bar:franchetti
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bar:koehler
bar:end\_officers
PlotData\=
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barset:PM
bar:period\_0 from:2001 till:2021 color:period text:"\[\[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021\)\|Afghanistan War]]"
bar:period\_1 from:2003 till:2011 color:period text:"\[\[Iraq War]]"
bar:start\_officers from:$start till:$now color:category
bar:kelso from: $start till: 1994 color:cno text:"\[\[Frank B. Kelso II]]"
bar:jeremiah from: $start till: 1994 color:jcs text:"\[\[David E. Jeremiah]]"
bar:edney from: $start till: 1992 color:joint text:"\[\[Leon A. Edney]]"
bar:demars from: $start till: 1996 color:nuclear text:"\[\[Bruce DeMars]]"
bar:howe from: $start till: 1991 color:navy
bar:howe from: 1991 till: 1992 color:federal text:"\[\[Jonathan T. Howe]]"
bar:larson from: $start till: 1991 color:pacific
bar:larson from: 1991 till: 1994 color:joint
bar:larson from: 1994 till: 1998 color:navy text:"\[\[Charles R. Larson]]"
bar:jeromejohnson from: $start till: 1992 color:vcno text:"\[\[Jerome L. Johnson]]"
bar:miller from: 1991 till: 1992 color:atlantic
bar:miller from: 1992 till: 1994 color:joint text:"\[\[Paul David Miller\|Paul D. Miller]]"
bar:williamsmith from: 1991 till: 1993 color:joint text:"\[\[William D. Smith]]"
bar:kelly from: 1991 till: 1994 color:pacific text:"\[\[Robert J. Kelly]]"
bar:boorda from: 1992 till: 1994 color:navy
bar:boorda from: 1994 till: 1996 color:cno text:"\[\[Jeremy M. Boorda]]"
bar:studeman from: 1992 till: 1995 color:federal text:"\[\[William O. Studeman]]"
bar:arthur from: 1992 till: 1995 color:vcno text:"\[\[Stanley R. Arthur]]"
bar:mauz from: 1992 till: 1994 color:atlantic text:"\[\[Henry H. Mauz Jr.]]"
bar:chiles from: 1994 till: 1996 color:joint text:"\[\[Henry G. Chiles Jr.]]"
bar:owens from: 1994 till: 1996 color:jcs text:"\[\[William A. Owens]]"
bar:leightonsmith from: 1994 till: 1996 color:navy text:"\[\[Leighton W. Smith Jr.]]"
bar:macke from: 1994 till: 1996 color:joint text:"\[\[Richard C. Macke]]"
bar:zlatoper from: 1994 till: 1996 color:pacific text:"\[\[Ronald J. Zlatoper]]"
bar:flanagan from: 1994 till: 1996 color:atlantic text:"\[\[William J. Flanagan Jr.]]"
bar:prueher from: 1995 till: 1996 color:vcno
bar:prueher from: 1996 till: 1999 color:joint text:"\[\[Joseph W. Prueher]]"
bar:jayjohnson from: 1996 till: 1996 color:vcno
bar:jayjohnson from: 1996 till: 2000 color:cno text:"\[\[Jay L. Johnson]]"
bar:lopez from: 1996 till: 1998 color:navy text:"\[\[Thomas J. Lopez]]"
bar:bowman from: 1996 till: 2004 color:nuclear text:"\[\[Frank Bowman\|Frank L. Bowman]]"
bar:gehman from: 1996 till: 1997 color:vcno
bar:gehman from: 1997 till: 2000 color:joint text:"\[\[Harold W. Gehman Jr.]]"
bar:clemins from: 1997 till: 1999 color:pacific text:"\[\[Archie R. Clemins]]"
bar:reason from: 1997 till: 1999 color:atlantic text:"\[\[J. Paul Reason]]"
bar:pilling from: 1997 till: 2000 color:vcno text:"\[\[Donald L. Pilling]]"
bar:mies from: 1998 till: 2001 color:joint text:"\[\[Richard W. Mies]]"
bar:abbot from: 1998 till: 2000 color:joint text:"\[\[Charles S. Abbot]]"
bar:ellis from: 1999 till: 2001 color:navy
bar:ellis from: 2001 till: 2004 color:joint text:"\[\[James O. Ellis]]"
bar:blair from: 1999 till: 2002 color:joint text:"\[\[Dennis Blair (U.S. Navy officer)\|Dennis C. Blair]]"
bar:clark from: 1999 till: 2000 color:atlantic
bar:clark from: 2000 till: 2005 color:cno text:"\[\[Vernon E. Clark]]"
bar:fargo from: 1999 till: 2002 color:pacific
bar:fargo from: 2002 till: 2005 color:joint text:"\[\[Thomas B. Fargo]]"
bar:natter from: 2000 till: 2003 color:atlantic text:"\[\[Robert J. Natter]]"
bar:fallon from: 2000 till: 2003 color:vcno
bar:fallon from: 2003 till: 2005 color:atlantic
bar:fallon from: 2005 till: 2008 color:joint text:"\[\[William J. Fallon]]"
bar:gregoryjohnson from: 2001 till: 2004 color:navy text:"\[\[Gregory G. Johnson]]"
bar:doran from: 2002 till: 2005 color:pacific text:"\[\[Walter F. Doran]]"
bar:giambastiani from: 2002 till: 2005 color:joint
bar:giambastiani from: 2005 till: 2007 color:jcs text:"\[\[Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr.]]"
bar:mullen from: 2003 till: 2004 color:vcno
bar:mullen from: 2004 till: 2005 color:navy
bar:mullen from: 2005 till: 2007 color:cno
bar:mullen from: 2007 till: 2011 color:jcs text:"\[\[Michael Mullen\|Michael G. Mullen]]"
bar:nathman from: 2004 till: 2005 color:vcno
bar:nathman from: 2005 till: 2007 color:atlantic text:"\[\[John B. Nathman]]"
bar:keating from: 2004 till: 2009 color:joint text:"\[\[Timothy J. Keating]]"
bar:donald from: 2004 till: 2012 color:nuclear text:"\[\[Kirkland H. Donald]]"
bar:willard from: 2005 till: 2007 color:vcno
bar:willard from: 2007 till: 2009 color:pacific
bar:willard from: 2009 till: 2012 color:joint text:"\[\[Robert F. Willard]]"
bar:ulrich from: 2005 till: 2007 color:navy text:"\[\[Henry G. Ulrich III]]"
bar:roughead from: 2005 till: 2007 color:pacific
bar:roughead from: 2007 till: 2007 color:atlantic
bar:roughead from: 2007 till: 2011 color:cno text:"\[\[Gary Roughead]]"
bar:stavridis from: 2006 till: 2013 color:joint text:"\[\[James G. Stavridis]]"
bar:walsh from: 2007 till: 2009 color:vcno
bar:walsh from: 2009 till: 2012 color:pacific text:"\[\[Patrick M. Walsh]]"
bar:olson from: 2007 till: 2011 color:joint text:"\[\[Eric T. Olson]]"
bar:greenert from: 2007 till: 2009 color:atlantic
bar:greenert from: 2009 till: 2011 color:vcno
bar:greenert from: 2011 till: 2015 color:cno text:"\[\[Jonathan W. Greenert]]"
bar:fitzgerald from: 2007 till: 2010 color:navy text:"\[\[Mark P. Fitzgerald]]"
bar:harvey from: 2009 till: 2012 color:atlantic text:"\[\[John C. Harvey Jr.]]"
bar:winnefeld from: 2010 till: 2011 color:joint
bar:winnefeld from: 2011 till: 2015 color:jcs text:"\[\[James A. Winnefeld Jr.]]"
bar:locklear from: 2010 till: 2012 color:navy
bar:locklear from: 2012 till: 2015 color:joint text:"\[\[Samuel J. Locklear\|Samuel J. Locklear III]]"
bar:mcraven from: 2011 till: 2014 color:joint text:"\[\[William H. McRaven]]"
bar:ferguson from: 2011 till: 2014 color:vcno
bar:ferguson from: 2014 till: 2016 color:navy text:"\[\[Mark E. Ferguson III]]"
bar:haney from: 2012 till: 2013 color:pacific
bar:haney from: 2013 till: 2016 color:joint text:"\[\[Cecil D. Haney]]"
bar:clingan from: 2012 till: 2014 color:navy text:"\[\[Bruce W. Clingan]]"
bar:gortney from: 2012 till: 2014 color:atlantic
bar:gortney from: 2014 till: 2016 color:joint text:"\[\[William E. Gortney]]"
bar:richardson from: 2012 till: 2015 color:nuclear
bar:richardson from: 2015 till: 2019 color:cno text:"\[\[John M. Richardson (admiral)\|John M. Richardson]]"
bar:harris from: 2013 till: 2015 color:pacific
bar:harris from: 2015 till: 2018 color:joint text:"\[\[Harry B. Harris Jr.]]"
bar:rogers from: 2014 till: 2018 color:joint text:"\[\[Michael S. Rogers]]"
bar:michellehoward from: 2014 till: 2016 color:vcno
bar:michellehoward from: 2016 till: 2017 color:navy text:"\[\[Michelle J. Howard]]"
bar:davidson from: 2014 till: 2018 color:atlantic
bar:davidson from: 2018 till: 2021 color:joint text:"\[\[Philip S. Davidson]]"
bar:swift from: 2015 till: 2018 color:pacific text:"\[\[Scott H. Swift]]"
bar:caldwell from: 2015 till: 2024 color:nuclear text:"\[\[James F. Caldwell Jr.]]"
bar:tidd from: 2016 till: 2018 color:joint text:"\[\[Kurt W. Tidd]]"
bar:moran from: 2016 till: 2019 color:vcno text:"\[\[William F. Moran (admiral)\|William F. Moran]]"
bar:foggo from: 2017 till: 2020 color:navy text:"\[\[James G. Foggo III]]"
bar:grady from: 2018 till: 2021 color:atlantic
bar:grady from: 2021 till: $now color:jcs text:"\[\[Christopher W. Grady]]"
bar:aquilino from: 2018 till: 2021 color:pacific
bar:aquilino from: 2021 till: 2024 color:joint text:"\[\[John C. Aquilino]]"
bar:faller from: 2018 till: 2021 color:joint text:"\[\[Craig S. Faller]]"
bar:robertburke from: 2019 till: 2020 color:vcno
bar:robertburke from: 2020 till: 2022 color:navy text:"\[\[Robert P. Burke]]"
bar:gilday from: 2019 till: 2023 color:cno text:"\[\[Michael M. Gilday]]"
bar:richard from: 2019 till: 2022 color:joint text:"\[\[Charles A. Richard]]"
bar:lescher from: 2020 till: 2022 color:vcno text:"\[\[William K. Lescher]]"
bar:paparo from: 2021 till: 2024 color:pacific
bar:paparo from: 2024 till: $now color:joint text:"\[\[Samuel Paparo\|Samuel J. Paparo Jr.]]"
bar:caudle from: 2021 till: $now color:atlantic text:"\[\[Daryl Caudle\|Daryl L. Caudle]]"
bar:munsch from: 2022 till: $now color:navy text:"\[\[Stuart B. Munsch]]"
bar:franchetti from: 2022 till: 2023 color:vcno
bar:franchetti from: 2023 till: $now color:cno text:"\[\[Lisa Franchetti\|Lisa M. Franchetti]]"
bar:kilby from: 2024 till: $now color:vcno text:"\[\[James Kilby\|James W. Kilby]]"
bar:houston from: 2024 till: $now color:nuclear text:"\[\[William J. Houston]]"
bar:koehler from: 2024 till: $now color:pacific text:"\[\[Stephen Koehler\|Stephen T. Koehler]]"
}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Four\\-star positions",
"{{\\#tag:timeline\\|\nImageSize \\= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10\nPlotArea \\= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars \\= late",
"Define $start \\= 1860\nDefine $now \\= {{CURRENTYEAR}}\nDefine $end \\= 2040",
"DateFormat \\= yyyy\nPeriod \\= from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis \\= orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor \\= unit:year increment:10 start:$start",
"Colors \\=\n id:jcs value:rgb(0,0,0\\) legend: CJCS/VJCS\n id:cno value:rgb(1,0,0\\) legend: CNO\n id:vcno value:rgb(0\\.7,0\\.7,0\\.7\\) legend: VCNO\n id:atlantic value:rgb(0,0\\.7,0\\.7\\) legend: Atlantic\\_Fleet\n id:pacific value:rgb(0,1,0\\) legend: Pacific\\_Fleet\n id:asiatic value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\) legend: Asiatic\\_Fleet\n id:nuclear value:rgb(0,1,1\\) legend: Nuclear\\_propulsion\n id:europe value:rgb(0,0,1\\)\n id:navy value:rgb(0,0,1\\) legend: Other\\_Navy\n id:joint value:rgb(0\\.7,0,1\\) legend: Joint\\_(military)\n id:federal value:rgb(1,0,1\\) legend: Joint\\_(other)\n id:general value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\.9\\)\n id:time value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\.9\\)\n id:category value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,1\\)\n id:period value:rgb(0\\.5,0\\.5,1\\)\n id:none value:rgb(1,1,1\\)",
"Legend \\= orientation:vertical position:right",
"\\# Vertical decade lines\nLineData \\=\n layer:back\n width:0\\.1\n color:time\n at:1860\n at:1870\n at:1880\n at:1890\n at:1900\n at:1910\n at:1920\n at:1930\n at:1940\n at:1950\n at:1960\n at:1970\n at:1980\n at:1990\n at:2000\n at:2010\n at:2020\n at:$now",
"BarData \\=\n barset:PM\n bar:period\\_0\n bar:period\\_1\n bar:period\\_2\n bar:period\\_3\n bar:end\\_period",
"bar:start\\_jcs\n bar:jcs\n bar:cofscinc\n bar:cjcs\n bar:cjcsusmilrep\n bar:vjcs\n bar:end\\_cjcs",
"bar:start\\_geographicccmd\n bar:geographicccmd\n bar:spacer\\_usafricom\n bar:cdrusafricom\n bar:spacer\\_uscentcom\n bar:uscinccent\n bar:cdruscentcom\n bar:spacer\\_useucom\n bar:saceuruscinceur\n bar:saceurcdruseucom\n bar:spacer\\_usindopacom\n bar:cincpaccincpoa\n bar:cincpaccincpacflt\n bar:cincpac\n bar:uscincpac\n bar:cdruspacom\n bar:cdrusindopacom\n bar:spacer\\_usnorthcom\n bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad\n bar:spacer\\_ussouthcom\n bar:uscincso\n bar:cdrussouthcom\n bar:spacer\\_usspacecom2\n bar:cdrusspacecom2\n bar:cinclantcinclantflt\n bar:saclantcinclantcinclantflt\n bar:saclantuscinclant\n bar:end\\_geographicccmd",
"bar:start\\_functionalccmd\n bar:functionalccmd\n bar:spacer\\_uscybercom\n bar:cdruscybercomdirnsaccss\n bar:spacer\\_ussocom\n bar:uscincsoc\n bar:cdrussocom\n bar:spacer\\_usstratcom\n bar:uscincstrat\n bar:cdrusstratcom\n bar:spacer\\_ustranscom\n bar:uscinctrans\n bar:cdrustranscom\n bar:spacer\\_usjfcom\n bar:saclantuscincacom\n bar:saclantuscincjfcom\n bar:saclantcdrusjfcom\n bar:sactcdrusjfcom\n bar:cdrusjfcom\n bar:end\\_functional\\_ccmd",
"bar:start\\_multinational\n bar:multinational\n bar:cincsouth\n bar:spacer\\_usmilrep\n bar:usmilrep\n bar:end\\_multinational",
"bar:start\\_intel\n bar:intel\n bar:ddciic\n bar:dci\n bar:ddci\n bar:end\\_intel",
"bar:start\\_federal\n bar:federal\n bar:spacer\\_depnatlsecyadv\n bar:depnatlsecyadv\n bar:end\\_federal",
"bar:start\\_shore\n bar:shore\n bar:admnavy\n bar:chmngenbd\n bar:spacer\\_cno\n bar:cno\n bar:cominchcno\n bar:vcno\n bar:dcominchdcno\n bar:spacer\\_diropm\n bar:diropm\n bar:cnm\n bar:spacer\\_navsea08\n bar:navsea08\n bar:spacer\\_presnwc\n bar:presnwc\n bar:spacer\\_dcominchdcnocomwestseafron\n bar:dcominchdcnocomwestseafron\n bar:comwestseafron\n bar:comwestseafroncompacresflt\n bar:spacer\\_comeastseafroncomlantresflt\n bar:comeastseafroncomlantresflt\n bar:spacer\\_usnavymilcomuno\n bar:usnavymilcomuno\n bar:end\\_shore",
"bar:start\\_forces\n bar:forces\n bar:cinclant\\_0\n bar:cincus\n bar:cominch\n bar:cinclant\\_1\n bar:cinclantflt\\_0\n bar:cinclantfltdcinclant\n bar:cinclantflt\\_1\n bar:cinclantfltcffc\n bar:comlantfltcffc\n bar:comusff\n bar:cincpac\\_0\n bar:combatflt\n bar:combatfor\n bar:cincpaccincus\n bar:cincpac\\_1\n bar:dcincpacflt\n bar:cincpacflt\n bar:compacflt\n bar:spacer\\_cincaf\n bar:cincaf\n bar:comseventhfleet\n bar:comnavwespac\n bar:spacer\\_comnaveur\n bar:comnaveur\n bar:comnaveastlantmed\n bar:cincnaveastlantmed\n bar:cincnelm\\_0\n bar:cincsouthcincnelm\n bar:cincnelm\\_1\n bar:cincnelmcincspecomme\n bar:cincusnaveurcincnelm\n bar:cincusnaveur\n bar:cincusnaveurcincsouth\n bar:comusnaveurcincsouth\n bar:comusnaveurcomjfcnaples\n bar:comusnaveurcomusnavafcomjfcnaples\n bar:spacer\\_comsopaccomsopacfor\n bar:comsopaccomsopacfor\n bar:comthirdfleet\n bar:spacer\\_comcenpacfor\n bar:comcenpacfor\n bar:comfifthfleet\n bar:spacer\\_comeighthfleet\n bar:comeighthfleet\n bar:spacer\\_comphibpac\n bar:comphibpac\n bar:end\\_forces",
"PlotData\\=\n width:6 align:right fontsize:S shift:(0,\\-4\\) anchor:from\n barset:PM",
"bar:period\\_1 from:1861 till:1865 color:period\n bar:period\\_1 from:1879 till:1879 color:none text:\"\\[\\[American Civil War\\|Civil War]]\"\n bar:period\\_3 from:1898 till:1899 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Spanish–American War]]\"\n bar:period\\_1 from:1917 till:1920 color:period text:\"\\[\\[World War I]]\"\n bar:period\\_1 from:1941 till:1945 color:period text:\"\\[\\[World War II]]\"\n bar:period\\_0 from:1947 till:1991 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Cold War]]\"\n bar:period\\_2 from:1950 till:1953 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Korean War]]\"\n bar:period\\_3 from:1961 till:1975 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Vietnam War]]\"\n bar:period\\_1 from:1990 till:1991 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Gulf War]]\"\n bar:period\\_2 from:2001 till:2021 color:period text:\"\\[\\[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021\\)\\|Afghanistan War]]\"\n bar:period\\_3 from:2003 till:2011 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Iraq War]]\"",
"bar:start\\_jcs from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:jcs from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]\"\n bar:cofscinc from:1942 till:1949 color:jcs text:\"COFS CINC\"\n bar:cjcs from:1949 till:1950 color:general text:\"CJCS\"\n bar:cjcs from:1953 till:$now color:general\n bar:cjcs from:1953 till:1957 color:jcs\n bar:cjcs from:1970 till:1974 color:jcs\n bar:cjcs from:1985 till:1989 color:jcs\n bar:cjcs from:2007 till:2011 color:jcs\n bar:cjcsusmilrep from:1950 till:1953 color:general text:\"CJCS/USMILREP\"\n bar:vjcs from:1987 till:$now color:general text:\"VJCS\"\n bar:vjcs from:1990 till:1996 color:jcs\n bar:vjcs from:2005 till:2007 color:jcs\n bar:vjcs from:2011 till:2015 color:jcs\n bar:vjcs from:2021 till:$now color:jcs",
"bar:start\\_geographicccmd from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:geographicccmd from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[Unified combatant command\\|Geographic combatant commands]]\"\n bar:cdrusafricom from:2007 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSAFRICOM\"\n bar:uscinccent from:1983 till:2002 color:general text:\"USCINCCENT\n bar:cdruscentcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSCENTCOM\"\n bar:cdruscentcom from:2006 till:2007 color:joint\n bar:saceuruscinceur from:1952 till:2002 color:general text:\"SACEUR/USCINCEUR\"\n bar:saceurcdruseucom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"SACEUR/CDRUSEUCOM\"\n bar:saceurcdruseucom from:2009 till:2013 color:joint\n bar:cincpaccincpoa from:1943 till:1947 color:pacific text:\"CINCPAC/CINCPOA\"\n bar:cincpaccincpacflt from:1947 till:1958 color:pacific text:\"CINCPAC/CINCPACFLT\"\n bar:cincpac from: 1958 till: 1983 color:joint text:\"CINCPAC\"\n bar:uscincpac from: 1983 till: 2002 color:joint text:\"USCINCPAC\"\n bar:cdruspacom from: 2002 till: 2018 color:joint text:\"CDRUSPACOM\"\n bar:cdrusindopacom from: 2018 till: $now color:joint text:\"CDRUSINDOPACOM\"\n bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSNORTHCOM/CDRNORAD\"\n bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2004 till:2007 color:joint\n bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2010 till:2011 color:joint\n bar:cdrusnorthcomcdrnorad from:2014 till:2016 color:joint\n bar:uscincso from:1963 till:1975 color:general text:\"USCINCSO\"\n bar:uscincso from:1983 till:2002 color:general\n bar:cdrussouthcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSSOUTHCOM\"\n bar:cdrussouthcom from:2006 till:2009 color:joint\n bar:cdrussouthcom from:2016 till:2021 color:joint\n bar:cdrusspacecom2 from:2019 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSSPACECOM\"\n bar:cinclantcinclantflt from:1947 till:1952 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANT/CINCLANTFLT\"\n bar:saclantcinclantcinclantflt from:1952 till:1985 color:atlantic text:\"SACLANT/CINCLANT/CINCLANTFLT\"\n bar:saclantuscinclant from:1985 till:1993 color:joint text:\"SACLANT/USCINCLANT\"",
"bar:start\\_functionalccmd from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:functionalccmd from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[Unified combatant command\\|Functional combatant commands]]\"\n bar:cdruscybercomdirnsaccss from:2010 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSCYBERCOM/DIRNSA/CCSS\"\n bar:cdruscybercomdirnsaccss from:2014 till:2018 color:joint\n bar:uscincsoc from:1987 till:2002 color:general text:\"USCINCSOC\"\n bar:cdrussocom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSSOCOM\"\n bar:cdrussocom from:2007 till:2014 color:joint\n bar:uscincstrat from:1992 till:2002 color:general text:\"USCINCSTRAT\"\n bar:uscincstrat from:1994 till:1996 color:joint\n bar:uscincstrat from:1998 till:2002 color:joint\n bar:cdrusstratcom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSSTRATCOM\"\n bar:cdrusstratcom from:2002 till:2004 color:joint\n bar:cdrusstratcom from:2013 till:2016 color:joint\n bar:cdrusstratcom from:2019 till:2022 color:joint\n bar:uscinctrans from:1987 till:2002 color:general text:\"USCINCTRANS\"\n bar:cdrustranscom from:2002 till:$now color:general text:\"CDRUSTRANSCOM\"\n bar:saclantuscincacom from:1993 till:1999 color:joint text:\"SACLANT/USCINCACOM\"\n bar:saclantuscincacom from:1994 till:1997 color:general\n bar:saclantuscincjfcom from:1999 till:2002 color:general text:\"SACLANT/USCINCJFCOM\"\n bar:saclantuscincjfcom from:1999 till:2000 color:joint\n bar:saclantcdrusjfcom from:2002 till:2003 color:joint text:\"SACLANT/CDRUSJFCOM\"\n bar:sactcdrusjfcom from:2003 till:2009 color:general text:\"SACT/CDRUSJFCOM\"\n bar:sactcdrusjfcom from:2003 till:2005 color:joint\n bar:cdrusjfcom from:2009 till:2011 color:general text:\"CDRUSJFCOM\"",
"bar:start\\_multinational from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:multinational from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[combined operations\\|Multinational alliances]]\"\n bar:cincsouth from:1952 till:1983 color:joint text:\"CINCSOUTH\"\n bar:usmilrep from:1953 till:1993 color:general text:\"USMILREP\"\n bar:usmilrep from:1958 till:1960 color:joint\n bar:usmilrep from:1965 till:1968 color:joint\n bar:usmilrep from:1974 till:1977 color:joint\n bar:usmilrep from:1981 till:1982 color:joint\n bar:usmilrep from:1987 till:1993 color:joint",
"bar:start\\_intel from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:intel from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[United States Intelligence Community\\|Intelligence community]]\"\n bar:ddciic from:1976 till:1977 color:federal text:\"D/DCI/IC\"\n bar:dci from:1977 till:1981 color:federal text:\"DCI\"\n bar:ddci from:1981 till:1982 color:federal text:\"DDCI\"\n bar:ddci from:1992 till:1995 color:federal",
"bar:start\\_federal from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:federal from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[federal government of the United States\\|Other federal government]]\"\n bar:depnatlsecyadv from:1991 till:1993 color:federal text:\"Dep. Natl. Secy. Adv.\"",
"bar:start\\_shore from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:shore from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[Structure of the United States Navy\\|Navy shore establishment]]\"\n bar:admnavy from:1866 till:1891 color:navy\n bar:admnavy from:1899 till:1917 color:navy\n bar:chmngenbd from:1887 till:1887 color:none text:\"Admiral of Navy\"\n bar:chmngenbd from:1947 till:1947 color:navy text:\"Chmn. Gen. Bd.\"\n bar:cno from:1916 till:1942 color:cno text:\"CNO\"\n bar:cominchcno from:1942 till:1945 color:cno text:\"COMINCH/CNO\"\n bar:cno from:1945 till:$now color:cno\n bar:vcno from:1944 till:1948 color:vcno text:\"VCNO\"\n bar:vcno from:1950 till:$now color:vcno\n bar:dcominchdcno from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:\"DCOMINCH/DCNO\"\n bar:diropm from:1945 till:1946 color:navy text:\"Dir. OPM\"\n bar:cnm from:1946 till:1946 color:navy text:\"CNM\"\n bar:cnm from:1967 till:1985 color:navy text:\"CNM\"\n bar:spacer\\_navsea08\n bar:navsea08 from:1973 till:$now color:nuclear text:\"NAVSEA 08\"\n bar:presnwc from:1942 till:1942 color:navy text:\"Pres. NWC\"\n bar:presnwc from:1946 till:1948 color:navy\n bar:presnwc from:1994 till:1998 color:navy text:\"Supt. USNA\"\n bar:dcominchdcnocomwestseafron from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:\"DCOMINCH/DCNO/COMWESTSEAFRON\"\n bar:comwestseafron from:1945 till:1946 color:navy text:\"COMWESTSEAFRON\"\n bar:comwestseafroncompacresflt from:1946 till:1947 color:navy text:\"COMWESTSEAFRON/COMPACRESFLT\"\n bar:comeastseafroncomlantresflt from:1946 till:1950 color:navy text:\"COMEASTSEAFRON/COMLANTRESFLT\"\n bar:usnavymilcomuno from:1945 till:1949 color:navy text:\"USNAVYMILCOMUNO\"",
"bar:start\\_forces from:$start till:$now color:category\n bar:forces from:$now till:$now color:none text:\"\\[\\[Structure of the United States Navy\\|Navy operating forces]]\"\n bar:cinclant\\_0 from:1915 till:1922 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANT\"\n bar:cincus from:1922 till:1941 color:atlantic text:\"CINCUS\"\n bar:cominch from:1941 till:1941 color:atlantic text:\"COMINCH\"\n bar:cinclant\\_1 from:1941 till:1946 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANT\"\n bar:cinclantflt\\_0 from:1946 till:1947 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANTFLT\"\n bar:cinclantfltdcinclant from:1985 till:1986 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANTFLT/DCINCLANT\"\n bar:cinclantflt\\_1 from:1986 till:2001 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANTFLT\"\n bar:cinclantfltcffc from:2001 till:2002 color:atlantic text:\"CINCLANTFLT/CFFC\"\n bar:comlantfltcffc from:2002 till:2006 color:atlantic text:\"COMLANTFLT/CFFC\"\n bar:comusff from:2006 till:$now color:atlantic text:\"COMUSFF\"\n bar:cincpac\\_0 from:1915 till:1922 color:pacific text:\"CINCPAC\"\n bar:combatflt from:1922 till:1931 color:pacific text:\"COMBATFLT\"\n bar:combatfor from:1931 till:1941 color:pacific text:\"COMBATFOR\"\n bar:cincpaccincus from:1941 till:1941 color:pacific text:\"CINCPAC/CINCUS\"\n bar:cincpac\\_1 from:1941 till:1943 color:pacific text:\"CINCPAC\"\n bar:dcincpacflt from:1957 till:1958 color:pacific text:\"DCINCPACFLT\"\n bar:cincpacflt from:1958 till:2002 color:pacific text:\"CINCPACFLT\"\n bar:compacflt from:2002 till:$now color:pacific text:\"COMPACFLT\"\n bar:cincaf from:1915 till:1942 color:asiatic text:\"CINCAF\"\n bar:comseventhfleet from:1945 till:1945 color:asiatic text:\"COMSEVENTHFLEET\"\n bar:comseventhfleet from:1946 till:1947 color:asiatic\n bar:comnavwespac from:1947 till:1948 color:asiatic text:\"COMNAVWESPAC\"\n bar:comnaveur from:1918 till:1919 color:europe text:\"COMNAVEUR\"\n bar:comnaveur from:1942 till:1946 color:europe\n bar:comnaveastlantmed from:1946 till:1947 color:europe text:\"COMNAVEASTLANTMED\"\n bar:cincnaveastlantmed from:1947 till:1948 color:europe text:\"CINCNAVEASTLANTMED\"\n bar:cincnelm\\_0 from:1948 till:1951 color:europe text:\"CINCNELM\"\n bar:cincsouthcincnelm from:1951 till:1952 color:europe text:\"CINCSOUTH/CINCNELM\"\n bar:cincnelm\\_1 from:1954 till:1958 color:europe text:\"CINCNELM\"\n bar:cincnelmcincspecomme from:1958 till:1960 color:europe text:\"CINCNELM/CINCSPECOMME\"\n bar:cincusnaveurcincnelm from:1960 till:1963 color:europe text:\"CINCUSNAVEUR/CINCNELM\"\n bar:cincusnaveur from:1963 till:1977 color:europe text:\"CINCUSNAVEUR\"\n bar:cincusnaveurcincsouth from:1983 till:2002 color:europe text:\"CINCUSNAVEUR/CINCSOUTH\"\n bar:comusnaveurcincsouth from:2002 till:2004 color:europe text:\"COMUSNAVEUR/CINCSOUTH\"\n bar:comusnaveurcomjfcnaples from:2004 till:2009 color:europe text:\"COMUSNAVEUR/COMJFC Naples\"\n bar:comusnaveurcomusnavafcomjfcnaples from:2009 till:$now color:europe text:\"COMUSNAVEUR/COMNAVAF/COMJFC Naples\"\n bar:comsopaccomsopacfor from:1942 till:1944 color:navy text:\"COMSOPAC/COMSOPACFOR\"\n bar:comthirdfleet from:1944 till:1945 color:navy text:\"COMTHIRDFLEET\"\n bar:comcenpacfor from:1944 till:1944 color:navy text:\"COMCENPACFOR\"\n bar:comfifthfleet from:1944 till:1946 color:navy text:\"COMFIFTHFLEET\"\n bar:comeighthfleet from:1945 till:1945 color:navy text:\"COMEIGHTHFLEET\"\n bar:comphibpac from:1945 till:1945 color:navy text:\"COMPHIBPAC\"",
"}}\n### 1866–1941",
"1. The rank of admiral was created in 1866 to honor the Civil War achievements of [David Farragut](/wiki/David_Farragut \"David Farragut\"). Upon his death, another Civil War hero, [David D. Porter Jr.](/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter \"David Dixon Porter\"), succeeded to the title. In 1873, Congress stated that further vacancies in the grade would not be filled, and the rank lapsed with Porter's death in 1890\\. Congress revived the rank in 1899 to honor [George Dewey](/wiki/George_Dewey \"George Dewey\"), stipulating that the grade would again cease to exist upon his death or retirement. In 1903, Dewey was promoted to the unique rank of [Admiral of the Navy](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Navy \"Admiral of the Navy\"), which during his lifetime was considered to be equivalent to an [admiral of the fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Admiral of the Fleet (United Kingdom)\"), but was later declared to be senior to the five\\-star grade of [fleet admiral](/wiki/Fleet_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Fleet admiral (United States)\").",
"The Act of 3 March 1915, provided that the commanders in chief of the [Atlantic](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet \"U.S. Atlantic Fleet\"), [Pacific](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"U.S. Pacific Fleet\"), and [Asiatic](/wiki/U.S._Asiatic_Fleet \"U.S. Asiatic Fleet\") Fleets would have the rank of admiral while so serving, and their seconds in command the rank of vice admiral. In 1916, the [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations \"Chief of Naval Operations\") was also made an admiral while so serving, ranking next after the [Admiral of the Navy](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Navy \"Admiral of the Navy\"). The ranks of admiral and vice admiral were strictly temporary appointments for the duration of an officer's tour in designated billets, and the temporary admiral reverted to his permanent grade of rear admiral immediately upon vacating the office bearing the title.",
"In 1917, Congress accommodated the Navy's desire to reorganize the fleet by authorizing the President to appoint three admirals and three vice admirals for any six fleet command positions. All fleet command tours lasted one year except for the commander in chief of the [U.S. Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet \"United States Fleet\"), whose term was sometimes renewed for a second year, and the commander in chief of the [Asiatic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Asiatic_Fleet \"U.S. Asiatic Fleet\"), whose command was considered a backwater. (The [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations \"Chief of Naval Operations\") was appointed for four years.) Officers would typically \"fleet up\" to admiral or vice admiral for their year of fleet command and then revert to rear admiral to mark time until mandatory retirement.",
"",
"ImageSize \\= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10\nPlotArea \\= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars \\= late",
"Define $start \\= 1860\nDefine $end \\= 1950\nDateFormat \\= yyyy\nPeriod \\= from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis \\= orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor \\= unit:year increment:10 start:$start\nColors \\=",
"```\nid:cno \tvalue:rgb(1,0,0)\tlegend: CNO\nid:cincus\tvalue:rgb(0,0.7,0.7)\tlegend: CINCUS\nid:battle\tvalue:rgb(0,1,0)\tlegend: COMBATFOR\nid:atlantic\tvalue:rgb(0,0.7,0.7)\tlegend: Atlantic_Fleet\nid:pacific\tvalue:rgb(0,1,0)\tlegend: Pacific_Fleet\nid:asiatic\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,0)\tlegend: Asiatic_Fleet\nid:europe\tvalue:rgb(0,0,1)\nid:navy\tvalue:rgb(0,0,1)\tlegend: Other_Navy\nid:jcs \tvalue:rgb(0,0,0)\tlegend: JCS\nid:time\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)\nid:category\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,1)\nid:period\tvalue:rgb(0.5,0.5,1)\nid:none\tvalue:rgb(1,1,1)",
"```",
"Legend \\= orientation:vertical position:right\nLineData \\=",
"```\n layer:back\n width:0.1\n color:time\n at:1870\n at:1880\n at:1890\n at:1900\n at:1910\n at:1920\n at:1930\n at:1940\n at:1941",
"```",
"BarData \\=",
"```\nbarset:PM\nbar:period_0\nbar:period_1\nbar:end_period\nbar:start_officers\nbar:officers",
"```",
"```\nbar:farragut\nbar:porter\nbar:dewey\nbar:fletcher\nbar:howard\nbar:cowles\nbar:winterhalter\nbar:winslow\nbar:caperton\nbar:benson\nbar:mayo\nbar:knight\nbar:sims\nbar:wilson\nbar:rodman\nbar:gleaves\nbar:coontz\nbar:strauss\nbar:jones\nbar:eberle\nbar:anderson\nbar:washington\nbar:robison\nbar:williams\nbar:hughes\nbar:jackson\nbar:wiley\nbar:bristol\nbar:desteiguer\nbar:pratt\nbar:nulton\nbar:mcvay\nbar:chase\nbar:schofield\nbar:taylor\nbar:leigh\nbar:mcnamee\nbar:standley\nbar:sellers\nbar:reeves\nbar:upham\nbar:brumby\nbar:laning\nbar:murfin\nbar:leahy\nbar:hepburn\nbar:yarnell\nbar:bloch\nbar:kalbfus\nbar:hart\nbar:richardson\nbar:stark\nbar:snyder",
"```",
"```\nbar:end_officers",
"```",
"PlotData\\=",
"```\nwidth:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till\nbarset:PM\nbar:period_0\tfrom:1860 till:1860\tcolor:none\ttext:\"[[American Civil War|Civil War]]\"\nbar:period_1\tfrom:1861 till:1865\tcolor:period\nbar:period_0\tfrom:1897 till:1897\tcolor:none\ttext:\"[[Spanish–American War]]\"\nbar:period_1\tfrom:1898 till:1899\tcolor:period\nbar:period_0\tfrom:1916 till:1916\tcolor:none\ttext:\"[[World War I]]\"\nbar:period_1\tfrom:1917 till:1920\tcolor:period\nbar:period_0\tfrom:1940 till:1940\tcolor:none\ttext:\"[[World War II]]\"\nbar:period_1\tfrom:1941 till:1945\tcolor:period\nbar:start_officers\tfrom:$start till:$end\tcolor:category",
"```",
"```\nbar:farragut from: 1866 till: 1870 color:navy text:\"[[David Farragut]]\"\nbar:porter from: 1870 till: 1891 color:navy text:\"[[David Dixon Porter|David D. Porter]]\"\nbar:dewey from: 1899 till: 1917 color:navy text:\"[[George Dewey]]\"\nbar:fletcher from: 1915 till: 1916 color:atlantic text:\"[[Frank F. Fletcher]]\"\nbar:howard from: 1915 till: 1915 color:pacific text:\"[[Thomas B. Howard]]\"\nbar:cowles from: 1915 till: 1915 color:asiatic text:\"[[Walter C. Cowles]]\"\nbar:winterhalter from: 1915 till: 1917 color:asiatic text:\"[[Albert G. Winterhalter]]\"\nbar:winslow from: 1915 till: 1916 color:pacific text:\"[[Cameron M. Winslow]]\"\nbar:caperton from: 1916 till: 1919 color:pacific text:\"[[William B. Caperton]]\"\nbar:benson from: 1916 till: 1919 color:cno text:\"[[William S. Benson]]\"\nbar:mayo from: 1916 till: 1919 color:atlantic\nbar:mayo from: 1919 till: 1919 color:cincus text:\"[[Henry T. Mayo]]\"\nbar:knight from: 1917 till: 1918 color:asiatic text:\"[[Austin M. Knight]]\"\nbar:sims from: 1918 till: 1919 color:europe text:\"[[William S. Sims]]\"\nbar:wilson from: 1919 till: 1921 color:atlantic text:\"[[Henry B. Wilson Jr.]]\"\nbar:rodman from: 1919 till: 1921 color:pacific text:\"[[Hugh Rodman]]\"\nbar:gleaves from: 1919 till: 1921 color:asiatic text:\"[[Albert Gleaves]]\"\nbar:coontz from: 1919 till: 1923 color:cno\nbar:coontz from: 1923 till: 1925 color:cincus text:\"[[Robert E. Coontz]]\"\nbar:strauss from: 1921 till: 1922 color:asiatic text:\"[[Joseph Strauss (admiral)|Joseph Strauss]]\"\nbar:jones from: 1921 till: 1922 color:atlantic\nbar:jones from: 1922 till: 1923 color:cincus text:\"[[Hilary P. Jones]]\"\nbar:eberle from: 1921 till: 1921 color:pacific\nbar:eberle from: 1921 till: 1923 color:battle\nbar:eberle from: 1923 till: 1927 color:cno text:\"[[Edward W. Eberle]]\"\nbar:anderson from: 1922 till: 1923 color:asiatic text:\"[[Edwin A. Anderson]]\"\nbar:washington from: 1923 till: 1925 color:asiatic text:\"[[Thomas Washington]]\"\nbar:robison from: 1923 till: 1925 color:battle\nbar:robison from: 1925 till: 1926 color:cincus text:\"[[Samuel S. Robison]]\"\nbar:williams from: 1925 till: 1927 color:asiatic text:\"[[Clarence S. Williams]]\"\nbar:hughes from: 1925 till: 1926 color:battle\nbar:hughes from: 1926 till: 1927 color:cincus\nbar:hughes from: 1927 till: 1930 color:cno text:\"[[Charles F. Hughes]]\"\nbar:jackson from: 1926 till: 1927 color:battle text:\"[[Richard H. Jackson]]\"\nbar:wiley from: 1927 till: 1929 color:cincus text:\"[[Henry A. Wiley]]\"\nbar:bristol from: 1927 till: 1929 color:asiatic text:\"[[Mark L. Bristol]]\"\nbar:desteiguer from: 1927 till: 1928 color:battle text:\"[[Louis R. de Steiguer]]\"\nbar:pratt from: 1928 till: 1929 color:battle\nbar:pratt from: 1929 till: 1930 color:cincus\nbar:pratt from: 1930 till: 1933 color:cno text:\"[[William V. Pratt]]\"\nbar:nulton from: 1929 till: 1930 color:battle text:\"[[Louis M. Nulton]]\"\nbar:mcvay from: 1929 till: 1931 color:asiatic text:\"[[Charles B. McVay Jr.]]\"\nbar:chase from: 1930 till: 1931 color:cincus text:\"[[Jehu V. Chase]]\"\nbar:schofield from: 1930 till: 1931 color:battle\nbar:schofield from: 1931 till: 1932 color:cincus text:\"[[Frank H. Schofield]]\"\nbar:taylor from: 1931 till: 1933 color:asiatic text:\"[[Montgomery M. Taylor]]\"\nbar:leigh from: 1931 till: 1932 color:battle\nbar:leigh from: 1932 till: 1933 color:cincus text:\"[[Richard H. Leigh]]\"\nbar:mcnamee from: 1932 till: 1933 color:battle text:\"[[Luke McNamee]]\"\nbar:standley from: 1933 till: 1933 color:battle\nbar:standley from: 1933 till: 1937 color:cno text:\"[[William H. Standley]]\"\nbar:sellers from: 1933 till: 1934 color:cincus text:\"[[David F. Sellers]]\"\nbar:reeves from: 1933 till: 1934 color:battle\nbar:reeves from: 1934 till: 1936 color:cincus text:\"[[Joseph M. Reeves]]\"\nbar:upham from: 1933 till: 1935 color:asiatic text:\"[[Frank B. Upham]]\"\nbar:brumby from: 1934 till: 1935 color:battle text:\"[[Frank H. Brumby]]\"\nbar:laning from: 1935 till: 1936 color:battle text:\"[[Harris Laning]]\"\nbar:murfin from: 1935 till: 1936 color:asiatic text:\"[[Orin G. Murfin]]\"\nbar:leahy from: 1936 till: 1937 color:battle\nbar:leahy from: 1937 till: 1939 color:cno\nbar:leahy from: 1942 till: 1949 color:jcs text:\"[[William D. Leahy]]\"\nbar:hepburn from: 1936 till: 1938 color:cincus text:\"[[Arthur J. Hepburn]]\"\nbar:yarnell from: 1936 till: 1939 color:asiatic text:\"[[Harry E. Yarnell]]\"\nbar:bloch from: 1937 till: 1938 color:battle\nbar:bloch from: 1938 till: 1940 color:cincus text:\"[[Claude C. Bloch]]\"\nbar:kalbfus from: 1938 till: 1939 color:battle text:\"[[Edward C. Kalbfus]]\"\nbar:hart from: 1939 till: 1942 color:asiatic text:\"[[Thomas C. Hart]]\"\nbar:richardson from: 1939 till: 1940 color:battle\nbar:richardson from: 1940 till: 1941 color:cincus text:\"[[James O. Richardson]]\"\nbar:stark from: 1939 till: 1942 color:cno\nbar:stark from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:\"[[Harold R. Stark]]\"\nbar:snyder from: 1940 till: 1941 color:battle text:\"[[Charles P. Snyder (admiral)|Charles P. Snyder]]\"",
"```",
"### 1941–1991",
"[thumb\\|195px\\|Harry B. Harris, the first Asian\\-American four\\-star admiral, is pinned with his new rank on 16 October 2013](/wiki/File:Promotion_of_Harry_B._Harris_Jr._to_Admiral_131016-N-QF605-016.jpg \"Promotion of Harry B. Harris Jr. to Admiral 131016-N-QF605-016.jpg\")",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the President was authorized to create as many admirals and vice admirals as he deemed necessary for the duration of the emergency. Most of these new creations retired at the end of the war, having been promoted to reward service in the fleet or headquarters, or to achieve parity with wartime counterparts. Although three\\- and four\\-star ranks remained temporary appointments, the practice of reverting to a lower grade pending retirement largely halted after 1942, when Congress authorized officers to be retired in the highest grade in which they served on active duty.Act of Congress of 16 July 1942\\. The rank of [fleet admiral](/wiki/Fleet_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Fleet admiral (United States)\") was created in 1944, and the four officers promoted to that grade were allowed to remain on active duty permanently.",
"By 1956, the Navy had equilibrated at a total of seven permanent billets bearing four\\-star rank: the [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations \"Chief of Naval Operations\") (CNO); the [Vice Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_Naval_Operations \"Vice Chief of Naval Operations\") (VCNO), the commanders in chief of the unified commands in the [Pacific](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Command \"U.S. Pacific Command\") (CINCPAC) and [Atlantic](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command \"U.S. Atlantic Command\") (CINCLANT); the commander in chief of the [U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"U.S. Pacific Fleet\") (CINCPACFLT); the commander in chief of [U.S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe \"U.S. Naval Forces Europe\") (CINCNELM) (retitled commander in chief of [U.S. Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe \"U.S. Naval Forces Europe\") (CINCUSNAVEUR) in 1960\\); and the commander in chief of [North Atlantic Treaty Organization](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization \"North Atlantic Treaty Organization\") (NATO) forces in [Southern Europe](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Southern_Europe \"Allied Forces Southern Europe\") (CINCSOUTH). In 1965, an eighth billet was added when the [chief of naval material](/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Material \"Office of Naval Material\") (CNM) was promoted to admiral. Occasionally this count would fluctuate when a Navy officer was selected as the [Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\") (CJCS), as the chairman's four\\-star representative to the [NATO Military Committee](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization \"North Atlantic Treaty Organization\") (USMILREP), or as the [director](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence \"Director of Central Intelligence\") or [deputy director](/wiki/Deputy_Director_of_Central_Intelligence \"Deputy Director of Central Intelligence\") of central intelligence; or by special legislation.In 1994, special legislation authorized [Charles R. Larson](/wiki/Charles_R._Larson \"Charles R. Larson\") to resume the [superintendency](/wiki/List_of_Superintendents_of_the_United_States_Naval_Academy \"List of Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy\") of the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\"), then a two\\-star billet, as a full admiral.",
"When the long\\-serving director of the naval nuclear reactor program, [Hyman G. Rickover](/wiki/Hyman_G._Rickover \"Hyman G. Rickover\"), was finally compelled to retire in 1982, his successor was promoted to admiral and appointed [director of naval nuclear propulsion](/wiki/Naval_Reactors \"Naval Reactors\"), institutionalizing the position as a permanent four\\-star billet. To compensate, another four\\-star billet was eliminated by merging [Allied Forces Southern Europe](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Southern_Europe \"Allied Forces Southern Europe\") with [U.S. Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/U.S._Naval_Forces_Europe \"U.S. Naval Forces Europe\"). Similarly, when the [U.S. Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet \"U.S. Atlantic Fleet\") commander (CINCLANTFLT) was separated from the [Atlantic unified commander](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command \"U.S. Atlantic Command\") in 1985, the number of four\\-star billets was conserved by eliminating the [chief of naval material](/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Material \"Office of Naval Material\") position. The U.S. Atlantic Fleet was replaced by [U.S. Fleet Forces Command](/wiki/U.S._Fleet_Forces_Command \"U.S. Fleet Forces Command\") (COMUSFF) in 2006\\.",
"",
"ImageSize \\= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10\nPlotArea \\= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars \\= late",
"Define $start \\= 1940\nDefine $end \\= 2000\nDateFormat \\= yyyy\nPeriod \\= from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis \\= orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor \\= unit:year increment:10 start:$start\nColors \\=",
"```\nid:jcs \tvalue:rgb(0,0,0)\tlegend: CJCS/VJCS\nid:cno \tvalue:rgb(1,0,0)\tlegend: CNO\nid:vcno \tvalue:rgb(0.7,0.7,0.7)\tlegend: VCNO\nid:atlantic\tvalue:rgb(0,0.7,0.7)\tlegend: Atlantic_Fleet\nid:pacific\tvalue:rgb(0,1,0)\tlegend: Pacific_Fleet\nid:asiatic\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,0)\tlegend: Asiatic_Fleet\nid:nuclear\tvalue:rgb(0,1,1)\tlegend: Nuclear_propulsion\nid:navy\tvalue:rgb(0,0,1)\tlegend: Other_Navy\nid:joint\tvalue:rgb(0.7,0,1)\tlegend: Joint_(military)\nid:federal\tvalue:rgb(1,0,1)\tlegend: Joint_(other)\nid:general\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)\nid:time\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)\nid:category\tvalue:rgb(0.9,0.9,1)\nid:period\tvalue:rgb(0.5,0.5,1)\nid:none\tvalue:rgb(1,1,1)",
"```",
"Legend \\= orientation:vertical position:right\nLineData \\=",
"```\n layer:back\n width:0.1\n color:time\n at:1941\n at:1950\n at:1960\n at:1970\n at:1980\n at:1990\n at:1991",
"```",
"BarData \\=",
"```\nbarset:PM\nbar:period_0\nbar:period_1\nbar:period_2\nbar:end_period\nbar:start_officers\nbar:officers",
"```",
"```\nbar:leahy\nbar:hart\nbar:stark\nbar:kimmel\nbar:king\nbar:nimitz\nbar:ingersoll\nbar:halsey\nbar:spruance\nbar:ingram\nbar:horne\nbar:edwards\nbar:hewitt\nbar:kinkaid\nbar:richmondturner\nbar:robinson\nbar:towers\nbar:ramsey\nbar:cooke\nbar:moreell\nbar:mitscher\nbar:conolly\nbar:blandy\nbar:denfeld\nbar:radford\nbar:sherman\nbar:fechteler\nbar:carney\nbar:mccormick\nbar:donaldduncan\nbar:stump\nbar:wright\nbar:cassady\nbar:arleighburke\nbar:briscoe\nbar:boone\nbar:felt\nbar:curts\nbar:hollowayjr\nbar:hopwood\nbar:russell\nbar:brown\nbar:dennison\nbar:haroldpagesmith\nbar:sides\nbar:anderson\nbar:ricketts\nbar:davidmcdonald\nbar:griffin\nbar:sharp\nbar:moorer\nbar:rivero\nbar:thach\nbar:ward\nbar:royjohnson\nbar:mccain\nbar:galantin\nbar:holmes\nbar:hyland\nbar:clarey\nbar:wendt\nbar:zumwalt\nbar:charlesduncan\nbar:arnold\nbar:cousins\nbar:bringle\nbar:kidd\nbar:colbert\nbar:gayler\nbar:weisner\nbar:hollowayiii\nbar:worthbagley\nbar:rickover\nbar:johnston\nbar:shear\nbar:weinel\nbar:michaelis\nbar:davidbagley\nbar:stansfieldturner\nbar:murphy\nbar:hayward\nbar:long\nbar:davis\nbar:whittle\nbar:train\nbar:watkins\nbar:crowe\nbar:inman\nbar:small\nbar:williams\nbar:kinnear\nbar:mckee\nbar:foley\nbar:wesleymcdonald\nbar:hays\nbar:white\nbar:baggett\nbar:lyons\nbar:trost\nbar:busey\nbar:moreau\nbar:kelso\nbar:hardisty\nbar:carter\nbar:jeremiah\nbar:edney\nbar:demars\nbar:hogg\nbar:howe\nbar:larson\nbar:jeromejohnson",
"```",
"```\nbar:end_officers",
"```",
"PlotData\\=",
"```\nwidth:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till\nbarset:PM\nbar:period_0\tfrom:1941 till:1945\tcolor:period\ttext:\"[[World War II]]\"\nbar:period_1\tfrom:1947 till:1991\tcolor:period\ttext:\"[[Cold War]]\"\nbar:period_2\tfrom:1950 till:1953\tcolor:period\ttext:\"[[Korean War]]\"\nbar:period_2\tfrom:1961 till:1975\tcolor:period\ttext:\"[[Vietnam War]]\"\nbar:period_2\tfrom:1990 till:1991\tcolor:period\ttext:\"[[Gulf War]]\"\nbar:start_officers\tfrom:$start till:1991\tcolor:category",
"```",
"```\nbar:leahy from: 1942 till: 1949 color:jcs text:\"[[William D. Leahy]]\"\nbar:hart from: 1940 till: 1942 color:asiatic text:\"[[Thomas C. Hart]]\"\nbar:stark from: 1940 till: 1942 color:cno\nbar:stark from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:\"[[Harold R. Stark]]\"\nbar:kimmel from: 1941 till: 1942 color:pacific text:\"[[Husband E. Kimmel]]\"\nbar:king from: 1941 till: 1942 color:atlantic\nbar:king from: 1942 till: 1946 color:cno text:\"[[Ernest J. King]]\"\nbar:nimitz from: 1942 till: 1946 color:pacific\nbar:nimitz from: 1946 till: 1948 color:cno text:\"[[Chester W. Nimitz]]\"\nbar:ingersoll from: 1942 till: 1944 color:atlantic\nbar:ingersoll from: 1944 till: 1945 color:navy text:\"[[Royal E. Ingersoll]]\"\nbar:halsey from: 1942 till: 1945 color:navy text:\"[[William F. Halsey Jr.]]\"\nbar:spruance from: 1944 till: 1945 color:navy\nbar:spruance from: 1945 till: 1946 color:pacific\nbar:spruance from: 1946 till: 1948 color:navy text:\"[[Raymond A. Spruance]]\"\nbar:ingram from: 1944 till: 1946 color:atlantic text:\"[[Jonas H. Ingram]]\"\nbar:horne from: 1944 till: 1945 color:vcno text:\"[[Frederick J. Horne]]\"\nbar:edwards from: 1945 till: 1946 color:vcno\nbar:edwards from: 1946 till: 1947 color:navy text:\"[[Richard S. Edwards Jr.]]\"\nbar:hewitt from: 1945 till: 1949 color:navy text:\"[[H. Kent Hewitt]]\"\nbar:kinkaid from: 1945 till: 1950 color:navy text:\"[[Thomas C. Kinkaid]]\"\nbar:richmondturner from: 1945 till: 1947 color:navy text:\"[[Richmond K. Turner]]\"\nbar:robinson from: 1945 till: 1946 color:navy text:\"[[Samuel M. Robinson]]\"\nbar:towers from: 1945 till: 1946 color:navy\nbar:towers from: 1946 till: 1947 color:pacific text:\"[[John H. Towers]]\"\nbar:ramsey from: 1946 till: 1948 color:vcno\nbar:ramsey from: 1948 till: 1949 color:pacific text:\"[[DeWitt C. Ramsey]]\"\nbar:cooke from: 1946 till: 1948 color:asiatic text:\"[[Charles M. Cooke Jr.]]\"\nbar:moreell from: 1946 till: 1946 color:navy text:\"[[Ben Moreell]]\"\nbar:mitscher from: 1946 till: 1947 color:atlantic text:\"[[Marc A. Mitscher]]\"\nbar:conolly from: 1946 till: 1950 color:navy text:\"[[Richard L. Conolly]]\"\nbar:blandy from: 1947 till: 1950 color:atlantic text:\"[[William H.P. Blandy]]\"\nbar:denfeld from: 1947 till: 1948 color:pacific\nbar:denfeld from: 1948 till: 1949 color:cno text:\"[[Louis E. Denfeld]]\"\nbar:radford from: 1949 till: 1953 color:pacific\nbar:radford from: 1953 till: 1957 color:jcs text:\"[[Arthur W. Radford]]\"\nbar:sherman from: 1949 till: 1951 color:cno text:\"[[Forrest P. Sherman]]\"\nbar:fechteler from: 1950 till: 1951 color:atlantic\nbar:fechteler from: 1951 till: 1953 color:cno\nbar:fechteler from: 1953 till: 1956 color:joint text:\"[[William M. Fechteler]]\"\nbar:carney from: 1950 till: 1952 color:navy\nbar:carney from: 1952 till: 1953 color:joint\nbar:carney from: 1953 till: 1955 color:cno text:\"[[Robert B. Carney]]\"\nbar:mccormick from: 1950 till: 1951 color:vcno\nbar:mccormick from: 1951 till: 1954 color:atlantic text:\"[[Lynde D. McCormick]]\"\nbar:donaldduncan from: 1951 till: 1956 color:vcno text:\"[[Donald B. Duncan]]\"\nbar:stump from: 1953 till: 1958 color:pacific text:\"[[Felix B. Stump]]\"\nbar:wright from: 1954 till: 1960 color:atlantic text:\"[[Jerauld Wright]]\"\nbar:cassady from: 1954 till: 1956 color:navy text:\"[[John H. Cassady]]\"\nbar:arleighburke from: 1955 till: 1961 color:cno text:\"[[Arleigh A. Burke]]\"\nbar:briscoe from: 1956 till: 1959 color:joint text:\"[[Robert P. Briscoe]]\"\nbar:boone from: 1956 till: 1958 color:navy\nbar:boone from: 1958 till: 1960 color:joint text:\"[[Walter F. Boone]]\"\nbar:felt from: 1956 till: 1958 color:vcno\nbar:felt from: 1958 till: 1964 color:joint text:\"[[Harry D. Felt]]\"\nbar:curts from: 1957 till: 1958 color:pacific text:\"[[Maurice E. Curts]]\"\nbar:hollowayjr from: 1958 till: 1959 color:navy text:\"[[James L. Holloway Jr.]]\"\nbar:hopwood from: 1958 till: 1960 color:pacific text:\"[[Herbert G. Hopwood]]\"\nbar:russell from: 1958 till: 1961 color:vcno\nbar:russell from: 1961 till: 1965 color:joint text:\"[[James S. Russell]]\"\nbar:brown from: 1959 till: 1961 color:joint text:\"[[Charles R. Brown]]\"\nbar:dennison from: 1959 till: 1960 color:navy\nbar:dennison from: 1960 till: 1963 color:atlantic text:\"[[Robert L. Dennison]]\"\nbar:haroldpagesmith from: 1960 till: 1963 color:navy\nbar:haroldpagesmith from: 1963 till: 1965 color:atlantic text:\"[[Harold Page Smith]]\"\nbar:sides from: 1960 till: 1963 color:pacific text:\"[[John H. Sides]]\"\nbar:anderson from: 1961 till: 1963 color:cno text:\"[[George W. Anderson Jr.]]\"\nbar:ricketts from: 1961 till: 1964 color:vcno text:\"[[Claude V. Ricketts]]\"\nbar:davidmcdonald from: 1963 till: 1963 color:navy\nbar:davidmcdonald from: 1963 till: 1967 color:cno text:\"[[David L. McDonald]]\"\nbar:griffin from: 1963 till: 1965 color:navy\nbar:griffin from: 1965 till: 1968 color:joint text:\"[[Charles D. Griffin]]\"\nbar:sharp from: 1963 till: 1964 color:pacific\nbar:sharp from: 1964 till: 1968 color:joint text:\"[[U.S. Grant Sharp Jr.]]\"\nbar:moorer from: 1964 till: 1965 color:pacific\nbar:moorer from: 1965 till: 1967 color:atlantic\nbar:moorer from: 1967 till: 1970 color:cno\nbar:moorer from: 1970 till: 1974 color:jcs text:\"[[Thomas H. Moorer]]\"\nbar:rivero from: 1964 till: 1968 color:vcno\nbar:rivero from: 1968 till: 1972 color:joint text:\"[[Horacio Rivero Jr.]]\"\nbar:thach from: 1965 till: 1967 color:navy text:\"[[John S. Thach]]\"\nbar:ward from: 1965 till: 1968 color:joint text:\"[[Alfred G. Ward]]\"\nbar:royjohnson from: 1965 till: 1967 color:pacific text:\"[[Roy L. Johnson]]\"\nbar:mccain from: 1967 till: 1968 color:navy\nbar:mccain from: 1968 till: 1972 color:joint text:\"[[John S. McCain Jr.]]\"\nbar:galantin from: 1967 till: 1970 color:navy text:\"[[Ignatius J. Galantin]]\"\nbar:holmes from: 1967 till: 1970 color:atlantic text:\"[[Ephraim P. Holmes]]\"\nbar:hyland from: 1967 till: 1970 color:pacific text:\"[[John J. Hyland Jr.]]\"\nbar:clarey from: 1968 till: 1970 color:vcno\nbar:clarey from: 1970 till: 1973 color:pacific text:\"[[Bernard A. Clarey]]\"\nbar:wendt from: 1968 till: 1971 color:navy text:\"[[Waldemar F. A. Wendt]]\"\nbar:zumwalt from: 1970 till: 1974 color:cno text:\"[[Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.]]\"\nbar:charlesduncan from: 1970 till: 1972 color:atlantic text:\"[[Charles K. Duncan]]\"\nbar:arnold from: 1970 till: 1971 color:navy text:\"[[Jackson D. Arnold]]\"\nbar:cousins from: 1970 till: 1972 color:vcno\nbar:cousins from: 1972 till: 1975 color:atlantic text:\"[[Ralph W. Cousins]]\"\nbar:bringle from: 1971 till: 1973 color:navy text:\"[[William F. Bringle]]\"\nbar:kidd from: 1971 till: 1975 color:navy\nbar:kidd from: 1975 till: 1978 color:atlantic text:\"[[Isaac C. Kidd Jr.]]\"\nbar:colbert from: 1972 till: 1973 color:joint text:\"[[Richard G. Colbert]]\"\nbar:gayler from: 1972 till: 1976 color:joint text:\"[[Noel A.M. Gayler]]\"\nbar:weisner from: 1972 till: 1973 color:vcno\nbar:weisner from: 1973 till: 1976 color:pacific\nbar:weisner from: 1976 till: 1979 color:joint text:\"[[Maurice F. Weisner]]\"\nbar:hollowayiii from: 1973 till: 1974 color:vcno\nbar:hollowayiii from: 1974 till: 1978 color:cno text:\"[[James L. Holloway III]]\"\nbar:worthbagley from: 1973 till: 1974 color:navy\nbar:worthbagley from: 1974 till: 1975 color:vcno text:\"[[Worth H. Bagley]]\"\nbar:rickover from: 1973 till: 1982 color:nuclear text:\"[[Hyman G. Rickover]]\"\nbar:johnston from: 1973 till: 1975 color:joint text:\"[[Means Johnston Jr.]]\"\nbar:shear from: 1974 till: 1975 color:navy\nbar:shear from: 1975 till: 1977 color:vcno\nbar:shear from: 1977 till: 1980 color:joint text:\"[[Harold E. Shear]]\"\nbar:weinel from: 1974 till: 1977 color:joint text:\"[[John P. Weinel]]\"\nbar:michaelis from: 1975 till: 1978 color:navy text:\"[[Frederick H. Michaelis]]\"\nbar:davidbagley from: 1975 till: 1977 color:navy text:\"[[David H. Bagley]]\"\nbar:stansfieldturner from: 1975 till: 1977 color:joint\nbar:stansfieldturner from: 1977 till: 1979 color:federal text:\"[[Stansfield Turner]]\"\nbar:murphy from: 1976 till: 1977 color:federal text:\"[[Daniel Murphy (admiral)|Daniel J. Murphy]]\"\nbar:hayward from: 1976 till: 1978 color:pacific\nbar:hayward from: 1978 till: 1982 color:cno text:\"[[Thomas B. Hayward]]\"\nbar:long from: 1977 till: 1979 color:vcno\nbar:long from: 1979 till: 1983 color:joint text:\"[[Robert L. J. Long]]\"\nbar:davis from: 1978 till: 1981 color:pacific text:\"[[Donald C. Davis]]\"\nbar:whittle from: 1978 till: 1981 color:navy text:\"[[Alfred J. Whittle Jr.]]\"\nbar:train from: 1978 till: 1982 color:atlantic text:\"[[Harry D. Train II]]\"\nbar:watkins from: 1979 till: 1981 color:vcno\nbar:watkins from: 1981 till: 1982 color:pacific\nbar:watkins from: 1982 till: 1986 color:cno text:\"[[James D. Watkins]]\"\nbar:crowe from: 1980 till: 1985 color:joint\nbar:crowe from: 1985 till: 1989 color:jcs text:\"[[William J. Crowe Jr.]]\"\nbar:inman from: 1981 till: 1982 color:federal text:\"[[Bobby R. Inman]]\"\nbar:small from: 1981 till: 1983 color:vcno\nbar:small from: 1983 till: 1985 color:navy text:\"[[William N. Small]]\"\nbar:williams from: 1981 till: 1983 color:navy text:\"[[John G. Williams Jr.]]\"\nbar:kinnear from: 1981 till: 1982 color:joint text:\"[[George E. R. Kinnear II]]\"\nbar:mckee from: 1982 till: 1988 color:nuclear text:\"[[Kinnaird R. McKee]]\"\nbar:foley from: 1982 till: 1985 color:pacific text:\"[[Sylvester R. Foley Jr.]]\"\nbar:wesleymcdonald from: 1982 till: 1985 color:atlantic text:\"[[Wesley L. McDonald]]\"\nbar:hays from: 1983 till: 1985 color:vcno\nbar:hays from: 1985 till: 1988 color:joint text:\"[[Ronald J. Hays]]\"\nbar:white from: 1983 till: 1985 color:navy text:\"[[Steven A. White]]\"\nbar:baggett from: 1985 till: 1988 color:joint text:\"[[Lee Baggett Jr.]]\"\nbar:lyons from: 1985 till: 1987 color:pacific text:\"[[James A. Lyons Jr.]]\"\nbar:trost from: 1985 till: 1986 color:atlantic\nbar:trost from: 1986 till: 1990 color:cno text:\"[[Carlisle A. H. Trost]]\"\nbar:busey from: 1985 till: 1987 color:vcno\nbar:busey from: 1987 till: 1989 color:navy text:\"[[James B. Busey IV]]\"\nbar:moreau from: 1985 till: 1986 color:navy text:\"[[Arthur S. Moreau Jr.]]\"\nbar:kelso from: 1986 till: 1988 color:atlantic\nbar:kelso from: 1988 till: 1990 color:joint\nbar:kelso from: 1990 till: 1994 color:cno text:\"[[Frank B. Kelso II]]\"\nbar:hardisty from: 1987 till: 1988 color:vcno\nbar:hardisty from: 1988 till: 1991 color:joint text:\"[[Huntington Hardisty]]\"\nbar:carter from: 1987 till: 1988 color:joint\nbar:carter from: 1988 till: 1991 color:atlantic text:\"[[Powell F. Carter Jr.]]\"\nbar:jeremiah from: 1987 till: 1990 color:pacific\nbar:jeremiah from: 1990 till: 1994 color:jcs text:\"[[David E. Jeremiah]]\"\nbar:edney from: 1988 till: 1990 color:vcno\nbar:edney from: 1990 till: 1992 color:joint text:\"[[Leon A. Edney]]\"\nbar:demars from: 1988 till: 1996 color:nuclear text:\"[[Bruce DeMars]]\"\nbar:hogg from: 1988 till: 1991 color:joint text:\"[[James R. Hogg]]\"\nbar:howe from: 1989 till: 1991 color:navy\nbar:howe from: 1991 till: 1992 color:federal text:\"[[Jonathan T. Howe]]\"\nbar:larson from: 1990 till: 1991 color:pacific\nbar:larson from: 1991 till: 1994 color:joint\nbar:larson from: 1994 till: 1998 color:navy text:\"[[Charles R. Larson]]\"\nbar:jeromejohnson from: 1990 till: 1992 color:vcno text:\"[[Jerome L. Johnson]]\"",
"```",
"### 1991–present",
"With the end of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), [U.S. Atlantic Command](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Command \"U.S. Atlantic Command\") was repurposed as the joint force trainer, becoming [U.S. Joint Forces Command](/wiki/U.S._Joint_Forces_Command \"U.S. Joint Forces Command\") in 1999\\. The change in mission cost the Navy its traditional monopoly over that command, which has since rotated among all the services, but the Navy made up the difference through repeated appointments to other [combatant commands](/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command \"Unified Combatant Command\") and to the [vice chairmanship of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\") (VJCS). All military commanders in chief were retitled \"Commanders\" in 2002, when the title of \"Commander in Chief\" was reserved solely to the President of the United States.",
"{{\\#tag:timeline\\|\nImageSize \\= width:800 height:auto barincrement:10\nPlotArea \\= top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars \\= late",
"Define $start \\= 1990\nDefine $now \\= {{CURRENTYEAR}}\nDefine $end \\= 2050",
"DateFormat \\= yyyy\nPeriod \\= from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis \\= orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor \\= unit:year increment:10 start:$start",
"Colors \\=\n id:jcs value:rgb(0,0,0\\) legend: CJCS/VJCS\n id:cno value:rgb(1,0,0\\) legend: CNO\n id:vcno value:rgb(0\\.7,0\\.7,0\\.7\\) legend: VCNO\n id:atlantic value:rgb(0,0\\.7,0\\.7\\) legend: Atlantic\\_Fleet\n id:pacific value:rgb(0,1,0\\) legend: Pacific\\_Fleet\n id:asiatic value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\) legend: Asiatic\\_Fleet\n id:nuclear value:rgb(0,1,1\\) legend: Nuclear\\_propulsion\n id:navy value:rgb(0,0,1\\) legend: Other\\_Navy\n id:joint value:rgb(0\\.7,0,1\\) legend: Joint\\_(military)\n id:federal value:rgb(1,0,1\\) legend: Joint\\_(other)\n id:general value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\.9\\)\n id:time value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,0\\.9\\)\n id:category value:rgb(0\\.9,0\\.9,1\\)\n id:period value:rgb(0\\.5,0\\.5,1\\)\n id:none value:rgb(1,1,1\\)",
"Legend \\= orientation:vertical position:right",
"LineData \\=\n layer:back\n width:0\\.1\n color:time\n at:1991\n at:2000\n at:2010\n at:2020\n at:$now",
"BarData \\=\n barset:PM\n bar:period\\_0\n bar:period\\_1\n bar:end\\_period\n bar:start\\_officers\n bar:officers",
"bar:kelso\n bar:jeremiah\n bar:edney\n bar:demars\n bar:howe\n bar:larson\n bar:jeromejohnson\n bar:miller\n bar:williamsmith\n bar:kelly\n bar:boorda\n bar:studeman\n bar:arthur\n bar:mauz\n bar:chiles\n bar:owens\n bar:leightonsmith\n bar:macke\n bar:zlatoper\n bar:flanagan\n bar:prueher\n bar:jayjohnson\n bar:lopez\n bar:bowman\n bar:gehman\n bar:clemins\n bar:reason\n bar:pilling\n bar:mies\n bar:abbot\n bar:ellis\n bar:blair\n bar:clark\n bar:fargo\n bar:natter\n bar:fallon\n bar:gregoryjohnson\n bar:doran\n bar:giambastiani\n bar:mullen\n bar:nathman\n bar:keating\n bar:donald\n bar:willard\n bar:ulrich\n bar:roughead\n bar:stavridis\n bar:walsh\n bar:olson\n bar:greenert\n bar:fitzgerald\n bar:harvey\n bar:winnefeld\n bar:locklear\n bar:mcraven\n bar:ferguson\n bar:haney\n bar:clingan\n bar:gortney\n bar:richardson\n bar:harris\n bar:rogers\n bar:michellehoward\n bar:davidson\n bar:swift\n bar:caldwell\n bar:tidd\n bar:moran\n bar:foggo\n bar:grady\n bar:aquilino\n bar:faller\n bar:robertburke\n bar:gilday\n bar:richard\n bar:lescher\n bar:paparo\n bar:caudle\n bar:munsch\n bar:franchetti\n bar:kilby\n bar:houston\n bar:koehler",
"bar:end\\_officers",
"PlotData\\=\n width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,\\-4\\) anchor:till\n barset:PM\n bar:period\\_0 from:2001 till:2021 color:period text:\"\\[\\[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021\\)\\|Afghanistan War]]\"\n bar:period\\_1 from:2003 till:2011 color:period text:\"\\[\\[Iraq War]]\"\n bar:start\\_officers from:$start till:$now color:category",
"bar:kelso from: $start till: 1994 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Frank B. Kelso II]]\"\n bar:jeremiah from: $start till: 1994 color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[David E. Jeremiah]]\"\n bar:edney from: $start till: 1992 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Leon A. Edney]]\"\n bar:demars from: $start till: 1996 color:nuclear text:\"\\[\\[Bruce DeMars]]\"\n bar:howe from: $start till: 1991 color:navy\n bar:howe from: 1991 till: 1992 color:federal text:\"\\[\\[Jonathan T. Howe]]\"\n bar:larson from: $start till: 1991 color:pacific\n bar:larson from: 1991 till: 1994 color:joint\n bar:larson from: 1994 till: 1998 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Charles R. Larson]]\"\n bar:jeromejohnson from: $start till: 1992 color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[Jerome L. Johnson]]\"\n bar:miller from: 1991 till: 1992 color:atlantic\n bar:miller from: 1992 till: 1994 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Paul David Miller\\|Paul D. Miller]]\"\n bar:williamsmith from: 1991 till: 1993 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[William D. Smith]]\"\n bar:kelly from: 1991 till: 1994 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Robert J. Kelly]]\"\n bar:boorda from: 1992 till: 1994 color:navy\n bar:boorda from: 1994 till: 1996 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Jeremy M. Boorda]]\"\n bar:studeman from: 1992 till: 1995 color:federal text:\"\\[\\[William O. Studeman]]\"\n bar:arthur from: 1992 till: 1995 color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[Stanley R. Arthur]]\"\n bar:mauz from: 1992 till: 1994 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[Henry H. Mauz Jr.]]\"\n bar:chiles from: 1994 till: 1996 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Henry G. Chiles Jr.]]\"\n bar:owens from: 1994 till: 1996 color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[William A. Owens]]\"\n bar:leightonsmith from: 1994 till: 1996 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Leighton W. Smith Jr.]]\"\n bar:macke from: 1994 till: 1996 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Richard C. Macke]]\"\n bar:zlatoper from: 1994 till: 1996 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Ronald J. Zlatoper]]\"\n bar:flanagan from: 1994 till: 1996 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[William J. Flanagan Jr.]]\"\n bar:prueher from: 1995 till: 1996 color:vcno\n bar:prueher from: 1996 till: 1999 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Joseph W. Prueher]]\"\n bar:jayjohnson from: 1996 till: 1996 color:vcno\n bar:jayjohnson from: 1996 till: 2000 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Jay L. Johnson]]\"\n bar:lopez from: 1996 till: 1998 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Thomas J. Lopez]]\"\n bar:bowman from: 1996 till: 2004 color:nuclear text:\"\\[\\[Frank Bowman\\|Frank L. Bowman]]\"\n bar:gehman from: 1996 till: 1997 color:vcno\n bar:gehman from: 1997 till: 2000 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Harold W. Gehman Jr.]]\"\n bar:clemins from: 1997 till: 1999 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Archie R. Clemins]]\"\n bar:reason from: 1997 till: 1999 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[J. Paul Reason]]\"\n bar:pilling from: 1997 till: 2000 color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[Donald L. Pilling]]\"\n bar:mies from: 1998 till: 2001 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Richard W. Mies]]\"\n bar:abbot from: 1998 till: 2000 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Charles S. Abbot]]\"\n bar:ellis from: 1999 till: 2001 color:navy\n bar:ellis from: 2001 till: 2004 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[James O. Ellis]]\"\n bar:blair from: 1999 till: 2002 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Dennis Blair (U.S. Navy officer)\\|Dennis C. Blair]]\"\n bar:clark from: 1999 till: 2000 color:atlantic\n bar:clark from: 2000 till: 2005 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Vernon E. Clark]]\"\n bar:fargo from: 1999 till: 2002 color:pacific\n bar:fargo from: 2002 till: 2005 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Thomas B. Fargo]]\"\n bar:natter from: 2000 till: 2003 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[Robert J. Natter]]\"\n bar:fallon from: 2000 till: 2003 color:vcno\n bar:fallon from: 2003 till: 2005 color:atlantic\n bar:fallon from: 2005 till: 2008 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[William J. Fallon]]\"\n bar:gregoryjohnson from: 2001 till: 2004 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Gregory G. Johnson]]\"\n bar:doran from: 2002 till: 2005 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Walter F. Doran]]\"\n bar:giambastiani from: 2002 till: 2005 color:joint\n bar:giambastiani from: 2005 till: 2007 color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr.]]\"\n bar:mullen from: 2003 till: 2004 color:vcno\n bar:mullen from: 2004 till: 2005 color:navy\n bar:mullen from: 2005 till: 2007 color:cno\n bar:mullen from: 2007 till: 2011 color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[Michael Mullen\\|Michael G. Mullen]]\"\n bar:nathman from: 2004 till: 2005 color:vcno\n bar:nathman from: 2005 till: 2007 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[John B. Nathman]]\"\n bar:keating from: 2004 till: 2009 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Timothy J. Keating]]\"\n bar:donald from: 2004 till: 2012 color:nuclear text:\"\\[\\[Kirkland H. Donald]]\"\n bar:willard from: 2005 till: 2007 color:vcno\n bar:willard from: 2007 till: 2009 color:pacific\n bar:willard from: 2009 till: 2012 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Robert F. Willard]]\"\n bar:ulrich from: 2005 till: 2007 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Henry G. Ulrich III]]\"\n bar:roughead from: 2005 till: 2007 color:pacific\n bar:roughead from: 2007 till: 2007 color:atlantic\n bar:roughead from: 2007 till: 2011 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Gary Roughead]]\"\n bar:stavridis from: 2006 till: 2013 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[James G. Stavridis]]\"\n bar:walsh from: 2007 till: 2009 color:vcno\n bar:walsh from: 2009 till: 2012 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Patrick M. Walsh]]\"\n bar:olson from: 2007 till: 2011 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Eric T. Olson]]\"\n bar:greenert from: 2007 till: 2009 color:atlantic\n bar:greenert from: 2009 till: 2011 color:vcno\n bar:greenert from: 2011 till: 2015 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Jonathan W. Greenert]]\"\n bar:fitzgerald from: 2007 till: 2010 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Mark P. Fitzgerald]]\"\n bar:harvey from: 2009 till: 2012 color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[John C. Harvey Jr.]]\"\n bar:winnefeld from: 2010 till: 2011 color:joint\n bar:winnefeld from: 2011 till: 2015 color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[James A. Winnefeld Jr.]]\"\n bar:locklear from: 2010 till: 2012 color:navy\n bar:locklear from: 2012 till: 2015 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Samuel J. Locklear\\|Samuel J. Locklear III]]\"\n bar:mcraven from: 2011 till: 2014 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[William H. McRaven]]\"\n bar:ferguson from: 2011 till: 2014 color:vcno\n bar:ferguson from: 2014 till: 2016 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Mark E. Ferguson III]]\"\n bar:haney from: 2012 till: 2013 color:pacific\n bar:haney from: 2013 till: 2016 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Cecil D. Haney]]\"\n bar:clingan from: 2012 till: 2014 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Bruce W. Clingan]]\"\n bar:gortney from: 2012 till: 2014 color:atlantic\n bar:gortney from: 2014 till: 2016 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[William E. Gortney]]\"\n bar:richardson from: 2012 till: 2015 color:nuclear\n bar:richardson from: 2015 till: 2019 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[John M. Richardson (admiral)\\|John M. Richardson]]\"\n bar:harris from: 2013 till: 2015 color:pacific\n bar:harris from: 2015 till: 2018 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Harry B. Harris Jr.]]\"\n bar:rogers from: 2014 till: 2018 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Michael S. Rogers]]\"\n bar:michellehoward from: 2014 till: 2016 color:vcno\n bar:michellehoward from: 2016 till: 2017 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Michelle J. Howard]]\"\n bar:davidson from: 2014 till: 2018 color:atlantic\n bar:davidson from: 2018 till: 2021 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Philip S. Davidson]]\"\n bar:swift from: 2015 till: 2018 color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Scott H. Swift]]\"\n bar:caldwell from: 2015 till: 2024 color:nuclear text:\"\\[\\[James F. Caldwell Jr.]]\"\n bar:tidd from: 2016 till: 2018 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Kurt W. Tidd]]\"\n bar:moran from: 2016 till: 2019 color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[William F. Moran (admiral)\\|William F. Moran]]\"\n bar:foggo from: 2017 till: 2020 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[James G. Foggo III]]\"\n bar:grady from: 2018 till: 2021 color:atlantic \n bar:grady from: 2021 till: $now color:jcs text:\"\\[\\[Christopher W. Grady]]\"\n bar:aquilino from: 2018 till: 2021 color:pacific\n bar:aquilino from: 2021 till: 2024 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[John C. Aquilino]]\"\n bar:faller from: 2018 till: 2021 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Craig S. Faller]]\"\n bar:robertburke from: 2019 till: 2020 color:vcno\n bar:robertburke from: 2020 till: 2022 color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Robert P. Burke]]\"\n bar:gilday from: 2019 till: 2023 color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Michael M. Gilday]]\"\n bar:richard from: 2019 till: 2022 color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Charles A. Richard]]\"\n bar:lescher from: 2020 till: 2022 color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[William K. Lescher]]\"\n bar:paparo from: 2021 till: 2024 color:pacific \n bar:paparo from: 2024 till: $now color:joint text:\"\\[\\[Samuel Paparo\\|Samuel J. Paparo Jr.]]\"\n bar:caudle from: 2021 till: $now color:atlantic text:\"\\[\\[Daryl Caudle\\|Daryl L. Caudle]]\"\n bar:munsch from: 2022 till: $now color:navy text:\"\\[\\[Stuart B. Munsch]]\"\n bar:franchetti from: 2022 till: 2023 color:vcno \n bar:franchetti from: 2023 till: $now color:cno text:\"\\[\\[Lisa Franchetti\\|Lisa M. Franchetti]]\"\n bar:kilby from: 2024 till: $now color:vcno text:\"\\[\\[James Kilby\\|James W. Kilby]]\"\n bar:houston from: 2024 till: $now color:nuclear text:\"\\[\\[William J. Houston]]\"\n bar:koehler from: 2024 till: $now color:pacific text:\"\\[\\[Stephen Koehler\\|Stephen T. Koehler]]\"",
"}}"
] |
Plot
----
Sometime in the early 21st century, [Jason Voorhees](/wiki/Jason_Voorhees "Jason Voorhees") is successfully captured by the [United States government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States") and held at the Crystal Lake Research Facility led by government scientist [Rowan LaFontaine](/wiki/Rowan_LaFontaine "Rowan LaFontaine").
In 2010, after numerous failed attempts to kill Jason, Rowan suggests putting him in [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics "Cryogenics") stasis. Dr. Wimmer and Sergeant Marcus arrive with soldiers, hoping to further research Jason's ability to heal from lethal wounds, as they believe it involves rapid cellular regeneration that can be replicated. Jason breaks free of his restraints and murders the soldiers and Dr. Wimmer. Rowan lures him into a cryogenic pod and activates it, but he ruptures the pod with his [machete](/wiki/Machete "Machete"), stabbing her in the abdomen. Cryogenic fluid spills into the sealed room, freezing them both.
In the year 2455, about 445 years later,{{efn\|This is incorrectly stated in the movie as being 455 years later due to when this movie was filmed, which was in 2000, despite the opening taking place in 2010 and thus this detail being overlooked.}} Earth has become too polluted to support life and humans have moved to a new planet, Earth II. On a field trip to Earth I, Professor Brandon Lowe, his [android](/wiki/Android_%28robot%29 "Android (robot)") companion KM\-14, intern Adrienne Thomas, and students Tsunaron, Janessa, Azrael, Kinsa, Waylander, and Stoney explore the abandoned Crystal Lake Research Facility, finding the frozen Jason and Rowan. They bring them aboard their spaceship, the *Grendel*, and revive Rowan while leaving Jason in the morgue, believing he is dead.
Adrienne is ordered to dissect Jason's body but Rowan warns Lowe of the danger, revealing Jason's nature and superhuman abilities and how over a two\-year\-period since 2008, she and her team tried everything to kill Jason but to no avail. Lowe, who is in serious debt, calls his financial backer Dieter Perez on the nearby space station *Solaris*. Perez recognizes Jason's name and notes his body could interest a collector. While Stoney and Kinsa have sex, Jason awakens and attacks Adrienne, freezing her face with [liquid nitrogen](/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen "Liquid nitrogen") before smashing her head to pieces on a counter. Jason takes a machete\-shaped surgical tool and kills Stoney in front of Kinsa.
Sergeant Brodski leads a group of soldiers to attack Jason who interrupts a projected holographic game, breaking Azrael's back and bashing crewman Dallas's skull in. He tries to attack engineer Crutch, but Brodski and his soldiers arrive. After Brodski splits up his team, Jason kills them one by one. Lowe orders pilot Lou to dock at *Solaris*. Jason kills Lou and the ship crashes through *Solaris*, destroying it and killing everyone aboard. Jason breaks into the lab, reclaims his machete and decapitates Lowe. With the *Grendel* crippled, the survivors head for a shuttle while Tsunaron upgrades KM\-14\. After crew member Crutch is electrocuted by Jason, Kinsa panics and attempts to escape on her own, but forgets to release the shuttle's fuel line, causing it to crash into the ship and explode. Tsunaron reappears with an upgraded KM\-14 who wields weapons and combat skills to stand a better chance against Jason.
After Jason has his right arm, left leg, right ribs, and part of his head blasted off by KM\-14, his body is knocked into a [nanite](/wiki/Nanotechnology "Nanotechnology")\-equipped medical station. The survivors send a distress call, then set explosive charges to separate the ship's undamaged pontoon from the main section. The medical station nanites rebuild Jason, who becomes a [cyborg](/wiki/Cyborg "Cyborg"). With his new strength, Jason easily defeats KM\-14 by punching her head off. As Tsunaron recovers her still\-functioning head, Jason is stopped by Waylander, who sacrifices himself by setting off the charges while the others escape. Jason survives and punches a hole through the hull, causing Janessa to die in the [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum_pump "Vacuum pump"). A power failure with the docking door forces Brodski to go outside in an [EVA](/wiki/Extravehicular_activity "Extravehicular activity") suit to fix it.
To distract Jason, a [holographic simulation](/wiki/Virtual_reality "Virtual reality") of Camp Crystal Lake is created with two virtual teenage girls. After killing them, Jason realizes the deception just as the door is fixed. Still in his EVA suit, Brodski confronts Jason so the rest can escape. As they leave, the pontoon explodes, propelling Jason at high speed towards the survivors; Brodski intercepts Jason's space flight and maneuvers them both toward Earth II's atmosphere, where they are both incinerated on [atmospheric entry](/wiki/Atmospheric_entry "Atmospheric entry"). Tsunaron, Rowan, and KM\-14 escape as Tsunaron assures KM\-14 she will have a new body.
On Earth II, a pair of teenagers are by a lake when they see what they believe is a [falling star](/wiki/Meteoroid "Meteoroid"). The teenagers go to investigate as Jason's charred mask sinks to the bottom of the lake.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Sometime in the early 21st century, [Jason Voorhees](/wiki/Jason_Voorhees \"Jason Voorhees\") is successfully captured by the [United States government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\") and held at the Crystal Lake Research Facility led by government scientist [Rowan LaFontaine](/wiki/Rowan_LaFontaine \"Rowan LaFontaine\").",
"In 2010, after numerous failed attempts to kill Jason, Rowan suggests putting him in [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics \"Cryogenics\") stasis. Dr. Wimmer and Sergeant Marcus arrive with soldiers, hoping to further research Jason's ability to heal from lethal wounds, as they believe it involves rapid cellular regeneration that can be replicated. Jason breaks free of his restraints and murders the soldiers and Dr. Wimmer. Rowan lures him into a cryogenic pod and activates it, but he ruptures the pod with his [machete](/wiki/Machete \"Machete\"), stabbing her in the abdomen. Cryogenic fluid spills into the sealed room, freezing them both.",
"In the year 2455, about 445 years later,{{efn\\|This is incorrectly stated in the movie as being 455 years later due to when this movie was filmed, which was in 2000, despite the opening taking place in 2010 and thus this detail being overlooked.}} Earth has become too polluted to support life and humans have moved to a new planet, Earth II. On a field trip to Earth I, Professor Brandon Lowe, his [android](/wiki/Android_%28robot%29 \"Android (robot)\") companion KM\\-14, intern Adrienne Thomas, and students Tsunaron, Janessa, Azrael, Kinsa, Waylander, and Stoney explore the abandoned Crystal Lake Research Facility, finding the frozen Jason and Rowan. They bring them aboard their spaceship, the *Grendel*, and revive Rowan while leaving Jason in the morgue, believing he is dead.",
"Adrienne is ordered to dissect Jason's body but Rowan warns Lowe of the danger, revealing Jason's nature and superhuman abilities and how over a two\\-year\\-period since 2008, she and her team tried everything to kill Jason but to no avail. Lowe, who is in serious debt, calls his financial backer Dieter Perez on the nearby space station *Solaris*. Perez recognizes Jason's name and notes his body could interest a collector. While Stoney and Kinsa have sex, Jason awakens and attacks Adrienne, freezing her face with [liquid nitrogen](/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen \"Liquid nitrogen\") before smashing her head to pieces on a counter. Jason takes a machete\\-shaped surgical tool and kills Stoney in front of Kinsa.",
"Sergeant Brodski leads a group of soldiers to attack Jason who interrupts a projected holographic game, breaking Azrael's back and bashing crewman Dallas's skull in. He tries to attack engineer Crutch, but Brodski and his soldiers arrive. After Brodski splits up his team, Jason kills them one by one. Lowe orders pilot Lou to dock at *Solaris*. Jason kills Lou and the ship crashes through *Solaris*, destroying it and killing everyone aboard. Jason breaks into the lab, reclaims his machete and decapitates Lowe. With the *Grendel* crippled, the survivors head for a shuttle while Tsunaron upgrades KM\\-14\\. After crew member Crutch is electrocuted by Jason, Kinsa panics and attempts to escape on her own, but forgets to release the shuttle's fuel line, causing it to crash into the ship and explode. Tsunaron reappears with an upgraded KM\\-14 who wields weapons and combat skills to stand a better chance against Jason.",
"After Jason has his right arm, left leg, right ribs, and part of his head blasted off by KM\\-14, his body is knocked into a [nanite](/wiki/Nanotechnology \"Nanotechnology\")\\-equipped medical station. The survivors send a distress call, then set explosive charges to separate the ship's undamaged pontoon from the main section. The medical station nanites rebuild Jason, who becomes a [cyborg](/wiki/Cyborg \"Cyborg\"). With his new strength, Jason easily defeats KM\\-14 by punching her head off. As Tsunaron recovers her still\\-functioning head, Jason is stopped by Waylander, who sacrifices himself by setting off the charges while the others escape. Jason survives and punches a hole through the hull, causing Janessa to die in the [vacuum](/wiki/Vacuum_pump \"Vacuum pump\"). A power failure with the docking door forces Brodski to go outside in an [EVA](/wiki/Extravehicular_activity \"Extravehicular activity\") suit to fix it.",
"To distract Jason, a [holographic simulation](/wiki/Virtual_reality \"Virtual reality\") of Camp Crystal Lake is created with two virtual teenage girls. After killing them, Jason realizes the deception just as the door is fixed. Still in his EVA suit, Brodski confronts Jason so the rest can escape. As they leave, the pontoon explodes, propelling Jason at high speed towards the survivors; Brodski intercepts Jason's space flight and maneuvers them both toward Earth II's atmosphere, where they are both incinerated on [atmospheric entry](/wiki/Atmospheric_entry \"Atmospheric entry\"). Tsunaron, Rowan, and KM\\-14 escape as Tsunaron assures KM\\-14 she will have a new body.",
"On Earth II, a pair of teenagers are by a lake when they see what they believe is a [falling star](/wiki/Meteoroid \"Meteoroid\"). The teenagers go to investigate as Jason's charred mask sinks to the bottom of the lake.",
""
] |
Career
------
After passing the bar Dana Seetahal worked as a State Prosecutor from 1980 to 1987\. She prosecuted cases in the magistrates’ courts and later in the High Court. She performed as a Magistrate for one year from 1987 to 1988 but preferred prosecuting. As a magistrate she tried chiefly criminal cases at the summary level and presided at Juvenile Court. Acted as a coroner in inquests and conducted preliminary inquiries in indictable trials.
In 1988 she returned as a Senior State Prosecutor and from 1988 to 1991 she acted as assistant director of Public Prosecutions (DPP). She prosecuted indictable cases (felonies) at the High Court and appeared for the State in criminal matters at the Court of Appeal. Advised the Police and other government departments on criminal matters. Lectured to the police, state and non\-governmental organizations, such as Rotary Clubs.
She became a Course Director and Senior Lecturer at Hugh Wooding Law School from 1995 to 2007\. She taught and did research in the courses of Criminal Practice \& Procedure, the Law of Evidence for ten Caribbean jurisdictions \& Legal Drafting.
She was first appointed to Parliament in April 2002 as an Independent Senator in the 7th Republican Parliament. She was again appointed an Independent Senator in the 8th and 9th Parliaments (October 2002 to April 2010\). She was not re\-appointed to the 10th Parliament.
In January 2006 she was made a [Senior Counsel](/wiki/Senior_Counsel "Senior Counsel") ("took silk").{{cite web\|url\=http://guardian.co.tt/byline\-authors/dana\-seetahal\|title\=Dana Seetahal \| The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper\|publisher\=guardian.co.tt\|access\-date\=16 November 2014\|archive\-date\=29 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129031715/http://www.guardian.co.tt/byline\-authors/dana\-seetahal\|url\-status\=dead}} Her first contribution in the Senate was on The Appropriation Bill, 2003 on 28 October 2002\. As a Senior Counsel in Private Practice she acted as Defence counsel appearing in criminal appellate and trial cases, Special Prosecutor for the State in a variety of matters, public law matters, consultancies in criminal matters, negotiation.
In 2008 she opened her own private chambers "El Dorado Chambers" located in Port of Spain, Trinidad, comprising 3 other lawyers and students.
She wrote a weekly column for the Saturday Express, having previously written for "The Guardian", both local newspaper in Trinidad and Tobago.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"After passing the bar Dana Seetahal worked as a State Prosecutor from 1980 to 1987\\. She prosecuted cases in the magistrates’ courts and later in the High Court. She performed as a Magistrate for one year from 1987 to 1988 but preferred prosecuting. As a magistrate she tried chiefly criminal cases at the summary level and presided at Juvenile Court. Acted as a coroner in inquests and conducted preliminary inquiries in indictable trials.",
"In 1988 she returned as a Senior State Prosecutor and from 1988 to 1991 she acted as assistant director of Public Prosecutions (DPP). She prosecuted indictable cases (felonies) at the High Court and appeared for the State in criminal matters at the Court of Appeal. Advised the Police and other government departments on criminal matters. Lectured to the police, state and non\\-governmental organizations, such as Rotary Clubs.",
"She became a Course Director and Senior Lecturer at Hugh Wooding Law School from 1995 to 2007\\. She taught and did research in the courses of Criminal Practice \\& Procedure, the Law of Evidence for ten Caribbean jurisdictions \\& Legal Drafting.",
"She was first appointed to Parliament in April 2002 as an Independent Senator in the 7th Republican Parliament. She was again appointed an Independent Senator in the 8th and 9th Parliaments (October 2002 to April 2010\\). She was not re\\-appointed to the 10th Parliament.",
"In January 2006 she was made a [Senior Counsel](/wiki/Senior_Counsel \"Senior Counsel\") (\"took silk\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://guardian.co.tt/byline\\-authors/dana\\-seetahal\\|title\\=Dana Seetahal \\| The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper\\|publisher\\=guardian.co.tt\\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129031715/http://www.guardian.co.tt/byline\\-authors/dana\\-seetahal\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Her first contribution in the Senate was on The Appropriation Bill, 2003 on 28 October 2002\\. As a Senior Counsel in Private Practice she acted as Defence counsel appearing in criminal appellate and trial cases, Special Prosecutor for the State in a variety of matters, public law matters, consultancies in criminal matters, negotiation.",
"In 2008 she opened her own private chambers \"El Dorado Chambers\" located in Port of Spain, Trinidad, comprising 3 other lawyers and students.",
"She wrote a weekly column for the Saturday Express, having previously written for \"The Guardian\", both local newspaper in Trinidad and Tobago.",
""
] |
Career
------
Snow spent much of his time on [missions](/wiki/Mission_%28LDS_Church%29 "Mission (LDS Church)"), primarily in Pennsylvania. He later served a mission to [Salem, Massachusetts](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts "Salem, Massachusetts"), where he baptized several converts, including Nathaniel Ashby, a man with whom he shared a duplex when they both resided in [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois "Nauvoo, Illinois").Larson, Karl Andrew. *Erastus Snow: The Life of a Missionary and Pioneer for the Early Mormon Church* (Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1971\) p. 80\.
In April 1839, at age 20, Snow successfully petitioned the jailers at [Liberty Jail](/wiki/Liberty_Jail "Liberty Jail") to move [Joseph Smith](/wiki/Joseph_Smith "Joseph Smith") (founder of the [Latter Day Saint movement](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement "Latter Day Saint movement")) and the prisoners accompanying him to a different location. He was subsequently appointed a member of the [high council](/wiki/High_council_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "High council (Latter Day Saints)") of the church. In 1845, Snow received his [endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Mormonism%29 "Endowment (Mormonism)") in the [Nauvoo Temple](/wiki/Nauvoo_Temple "Nauvoo Temple"). Over the course of his life, Snow served a total of sixteen missions to [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England"), [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), southern [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"), and [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"). Writer George M. McCune has said of Snow: "He prevailed in debates over the Book of Mormon and healed and converted many during his life".
Snow was in the first [Mormon pioneer](/wiki/Mormon_pioneer "Mormon pioneer") company to journey to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley "Salt Lake Valley"). He and Orson Pratt were the first two Mormons to enter the Valley,[Allen, James B.](/wiki/James_B._Allen_%28historian%29 "James B. Allen (historian)") and [Glen M. Leonard](/wiki/Glen_M._Leonard "Glen M. Leonard"). *[The Story of the Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Latter-day_Saints "The Story of the Latter-day Saints")* (2d ed.) pp. 256\-57\. completing the journey on July 21, 1847\. In October 1848, Snow began serving in the presidency of the [Salt Lake](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City "Salt Lake City") [Stake](/wiki/Stake_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Stake (Latter Day Saints)").
On February 12, 1849, Snow was ordained a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. On the same day, [Charles C. Rich](/wiki/Charles_C._Rich "Charles C. Rich"), [Lorenzo Snow](/wiki/Lorenzo_Snow "Lorenzo Snow"),Erastus Snow and Lorenzo Snow were only distantly related and did not know one another until they both became Latter Day Saints. and [Franklin D. Richards](/wiki/Franklin_D._Richards_%28Mormon_apostle%29 "Franklin D. Richards (Mormon apostle)") were ordained.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} Snow served in this capacity until his death in 1888\.
[thumb\|left\|200px\|The grave marker of Erastus Snow](/wiki/Image:ErastusSnowGrave.jpg "ErastusSnowGrave.jpg")
At the October 1849 [general conference](/wiki/General_Conference_%28LDS_Church%29 "General Conference (LDS Church)"), Snow was assigned to lead a mission to Scandinavia. He had as a companion a Danish convert, [Peter O. Hansen](/wiki/Peter_O._Hansen "Peter O. Hansen"), who had joined the church in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"). They focused most of their efforts in Denmark, but another convert had joined them, [John E. Forsgren](/wiki/John_E._Forsgren "John E. Forsgren"), who preached in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden").*Deseret Morning News Church Almanac*, p. 319\.{{full citation needed\|date\=June 2016}}Mulder, William, *Homeward to Zion* (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957\).
While serving as a missionary in Denmark, Snow baptized the first [Icelanders](/wiki/Icelanders "Icelanders") to join the church, ordained them to the [priesthood](/wiki/Priesthood_%28LDS_Church%29 "Priesthood (LDS Church)"), and sent them to Iceland to preach.Larson, Karl Andrew, *Erastus Snow: The Life of a Missionary and Pioneer for the Early Mormon Church* (Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1971\) p. 225\. Before the end of his mission, Snow began the publication of a church periodical in [Danish](/wiki/Danish_language "Danish language").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}}
In 1853, Snow was elected to the House of Representatives in the [Utah territorial legislature](/wiki/Utah_Territorial_Legislative_Assembly "Utah Territorial Legislative Assembly"). Later in the 1850s, Snow served as the presiding church authority in the [midwestern United States](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States"), using St. Louis, Missouri as his headquarters.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} While in Missouri, Snow edited the periodical *St. Louis Luminary*. He returned to the [Utah Territory](/wiki/Utah_Territory "Utah Territory") in 1857 and engaged in farming.
In 1860, Snow went with Orson Pratt on a mission to the Eastern states. By the time they reached the Eastern United States, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") had been elected president. With the impending war, they were able to convince many church members to move to Utah Territory. Much of this migration happened in 1861, after the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") had begun.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}}
After returning to Utah in 1861, Snow was made the apostle in charge of the southern Utah Mormon settlements. He lived in [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah "St. George, Utah").{{Cite book\|title\=All That Was Promised\|last\=Yorgason\|first\=Blaine M.\|publisher\=Deseret Book\|year\=2013\|isbn\=9781609073671\|location\=Salt Lake City\|pages\=77–96}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Snow spent much of his time on [missions](/wiki/Mission_%28LDS_Church%29 \"Mission (LDS Church)\"), primarily in Pennsylvania. He later served a mission to [Salem, Massachusetts](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts \"Salem, Massachusetts\"), where he baptized several converts, including Nathaniel Ashby, a man with whom he shared a duplex when they both resided in [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois \"Nauvoo, Illinois\").Larson, Karl Andrew. *Erastus Snow: The Life of a Missionary and Pioneer for the Early Mormon Church* (Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1971\\) p. 80\\.",
"In April 1839, at age 20, Snow successfully petitioned the jailers at [Liberty Jail](/wiki/Liberty_Jail \"Liberty Jail\") to move [Joseph Smith](/wiki/Joseph_Smith \"Joseph Smith\") (founder of the [Latter Day Saint movement](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement \"Latter Day Saint movement\")) and the prisoners accompanying him to a different location. He was subsequently appointed a member of the [high council](/wiki/High_council_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"High council (Latter Day Saints)\") of the church. In 1845, Snow received his [endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Mormonism%29 \"Endowment (Mormonism)\") in the [Nauvoo Temple](/wiki/Nauvoo_Temple \"Nauvoo Temple\"). Over the course of his life, Snow served a total of sixteen missions to [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\"), [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\"), southern [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"), and [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"). Writer George M. McCune has said of Snow: \"He prevailed in debates over the Book of Mormon and healed and converted many during his life\".",
"Snow was in the first [Mormon pioneer](/wiki/Mormon_pioneer \"Mormon pioneer\") company to journey to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley \"Salt Lake Valley\"). He and Orson Pratt were the first two Mormons to enter the Valley,[Allen, James B.](/wiki/James_B._Allen_%28historian%29 \"James B. Allen (historian)\") and [Glen M. Leonard](/wiki/Glen_M._Leonard \"Glen M. Leonard\"). *[The Story of the Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Latter-day_Saints \"The Story of the Latter-day Saints\")* (2d ed.) pp. 256\\-57\\. completing the journey on July 21, 1847\\. In October 1848, Snow began serving in the presidency of the [Salt Lake](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City \"Salt Lake City\") [Stake](/wiki/Stake_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Stake (Latter Day Saints)\").",
"On February 12, 1849, Snow was ordained a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. On the same day, [Charles C. Rich](/wiki/Charles_C._Rich \"Charles C. Rich\"), [Lorenzo Snow](/wiki/Lorenzo_Snow \"Lorenzo Snow\"),Erastus Snow and Lorenzo Snow were only distantly related and did not know one another until they both became Latter Day Saints. and [Franklin D. Richards](/wiki/Franklin_D._Richards_%28Mormon_apostle%29 \"Franklin D. Richards (Mormon apostle)\") were ordained.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} Snow served in this capacity until his death in 1888\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|The grave marker of Erastus Snow](/wiki/Image:ErastusSnowGrave.jpg \"ErastusSnowGrave.jpg\")",
"At the October 1849 [general conference](/wiki/General_Conference_%28LDS_Church%29 \"General Conference (LDS Church)\"), Snow was assigned to lead a mission to Scandinavia. He had as a companion a Danish convert, [Peter O. Hansen](/wiki/Peter_O._Hansen \"Peter O. Hansen\"), who had joined the church in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"). They focused most of their efforts in Denmark, but another convert had joined them, [John E. Forsgren](/wiki/John_E._Forsgren \"John E. Forsgren\"), who preached in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\").*Deseret Morning News Church Almanac*, p. 319\\.{{full citation needed\\|date\\=June 2016}}Mulder, William, *Homeward to Zion* (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957\\).",
"While serving as a missionary in Denmark, Snow baptized the first [Icelanders](/wiki/Icelanders \"Icelanders\") to join the church, ordained them to the [priesthood](/wiki/Priesthood_%28LDS_Church%29 \"Priesthood (LDS Church)\"), and sent them to Iceland to preach.Larson, Karl Andrew, *Erastus Snow: The Life of a Missionary and Pioneer for the Early Mormon Church* (Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, 1971\\) p. 225\\. Before the end of his mission, Snow began the publication of a church periodical in [Danish](/wiki/Danish_language \"Danish language\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}}",
"In 1853, Snow was elected to the House of Representatives in the [Utah territorial legislature](/wiki/Utah_Territorial_Legislative_Assembly \"Utah Territorial Legislative Assembly\"). Later in the 1850s, Snow served as the presiding church authority in the [midwestern United States](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\"), using St. Louis, Missouri as his headquarters.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} While in Missouri, Snow edited the periodical *St. Louis Luminary*. He returned to the [Utah Territory](/wiki/Utah_Territory \"Utah Territory\") in 1857 and engaged in farming.",
"In 1860, Snow went with Orson Pratt on a mission to the Eastern states. By the time they reached the Eastern United States, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") had been elected president. With the impending war, they were able to convince many church members to move to Utah Territory. Much of this migration happened in 1861, after the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") had begun.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}}",
"After returning to Utah in 1861, Snow was made the apostle in charge of the southern Utah Mormon settlements. He lived in [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah \"St. George, Utah\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=All That Was Promised\\|last\\=Yorgason\\|first\\=Blaine M.\\|publisher\\=Deseret Book\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=9781609073671\\|location\\=Salt Lake City\\|pages\\=77–96}}",
""
] |
Brief history
-------------
The Band can trace its history back to 1886 when William Thomas, a young farmer from the Salisbury area moved to [Maidenhead](/wiki/Maidenhead "Maidenhead") and became the first Bandmaster of Maidenhead Citadel Band.
On 25 June 1892, 18 members of Maidenhead Band were arrested during an open\-air meeting as they "unlawfully obstructed the free passage of the Highway by standing together for the space of twenty minutes." Bandmaster William Thomas took responsibility for the Band's actions and was sentenced to several months manual labour in [Reading Gaol](/wiki/HM_Prison_Reading "HM Prison Reading").
In more recent times the size of the Band has fluctuated but has experienced a revival under the leadership of the current Bandmaster Stuart Hall, who is also a member of the [International Staff Band](/wiki/International_Staff_Band "International Staff Band").
The Band is possibly now the biggest it has ever been with many young players still entering from the junior sections.
Over the years Maidenhead Band has contributed many players to the Salvation Army's "Premier" Staff Bands. To date five Maidenhead Bandsmen have been members of Salvation Army Staff Bands; three in the [International Staff Band](/wiki/International_Staff_Band "International Staff Band"), one in the [Melbourne Staff Band](/wiki/Melbourne_Staff_Band "Melbourne Staff Band") and two in the German Staff Band.
|
[
"Brief history\n-------------",
"The Band can trace its history back to 1886 when William Thomas, a young farmer from the Salisbury area moved to [Maidenhead](/wiki/Maidenhead \"Maidenhead\") and became the first Bandmaster of Maidenhead Citadel Band.",
"On 25 June 1892, 18 members of Maidenhead Band were arrested during an open\\-air meeting as they \"unlawfully obstructed the free passage of the Highway by standing together for the space of twenty minutes.\" Bandmaster William Thomas took responsibility for the Band's actions and was sentenced to several months manual labour in [Reading Gaol](/wiki/HM_Prison_Reading \"HM Prison Reading\").",
"In more recent times the size of the Band has fluctuated but has experienced a revival under the leadership of the current Bandmaster Stuart Hall, who is also a member of the [International Staff Band](/wiki/International_Staff_Band \"International Staff Band\").",
"The Band is possibly now the biggest it has ever been with many young players still entering from the junior sections.",
"Over the years Maidenhead Band has contributed many players to the Salvation Army's \"Premier\" Staff Bands. To date five Maidenhead Bandsmen have been members of Salvation Army Staff Bands; three in the [International Staff Band](/wiki/International_Staff_Band \"International Staff Band\"), one in the [Melbourne Staff Band](/wiki/Melbourne_Staff_Band \"Melbourne Staff Band\") and two in the German Staff Band.",
""
] |
Life
----
Arsenius Apostolius was born about 1468 in [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") and in 1492 he moved to Italy{{r\|Bietenholz}}. He was the son of [Michael Apostolius](/wiki/Michael_Apostolius "Michael Apostolius") and grandson of Theodosius, count of Corinth (*Theodosios Komis Korinthios*). His first name of birth is Aristobulus (Ἀριστόβουλος) and he took the name of Arsenius at the moment of his adherence to the episcopate (which led earlier authors into the error of distinguishing two "brothers", Aristobulus and Arsenius.{{in lang\|it}} M. Pratesi, ["Apostolio, Asenio (Aristobulo)"](http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/arsenio-aristobulo-apostolio_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/), *Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani*, vol. 3, 1961\.
Like his father, Apostolius was reduced to poverty after the [Fall of Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople "Fall of Constantinople") to the [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks "Ottoman Turks") (1453\), and he earned his living by copying manuscripts: about fifty are attributed to him, of which only three are dated, the oldest being from 31 March 1489\. A contract signed in Crete in April 1492 shows him collaborating with [Janus Lascaris](/wiki/Janus_Lascaris "Janus Lascaris") in his quest for Greek manuscripts for the library of [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici "Lorenzo de' Medici"), being then deacon. He resided at that period in Florence, according to an allusion which he made in a later letter. When [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius "Aldus Manutius") began his Greek impressions in 1495, he was one of his first collaborators with [Marcus Musurus](/wiki/Marcus_Musurus "Marcus Musurus"): he composed an [epigram](/wiki/Epigram "Epigram") of four verses (called Thesaurus Cornucopiæ and horti Adonis) for a volume of Greek grammarians from the aldine presses in 1496\. About the same time, an edition of [Theodore Prodromus](/wiki/Theodore_Prodromus "Theodore Prodromus")' *Galeomyomachy*, published by the same press, without date, contains a preface signed by him. But soon afterwards he quarreled with the printer and a lawsuit ensued.
In 1506 the [Roman Curia](/wiki/Roman_Curia "Roman Curia") appointed Arsenius as [Eastern Rite](/wiki/Byzantine_Rite "Byzantine Rite") bishop of [Monemvasia](/wiki/Monemvasia "Monemvasia"), at that time part of the [regions subjected](/wiki/Stato_da_Mar "Stato da Mar") to the [Venetian Republic](/wiki/Venetian_Republic "Venetian Republic"). Arsenius declared himself in [communion](/wiki/Full_communion "Full communion") both with the [Patriarch of Constantinople](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople "Patriarch of Constantinople") and with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church").{{r\|Janin}} This position was untenable for the Church of Constantinople and [Patriarch Pachomius I of Constantinople](/wiki/Patriarch_Pachomius_I_of_Constantinople "Patriarch Pachomius I of Constantinople") invited Arsenius to abdicate. The issue went on for more than two years until June 1509, when Pachomius [excommunicated](/wiki/Excommunicate "Excommunicate") Arsenius, who retired to Venice.{{r\|Fedalto2}}
In Venice Arsenius became a friend of [Erasmus of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_of_Rotterdam "Erasmus of Rotterdam") and collaborated with [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius "Aldus Manutius").
A few years later, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X "Pope Leo X") named Marcus Musurus in his place, who died before he joined his siege. Apostolius later returned to Malvoisie, where he was surely in 1527\.
In 1521 he was the head of a Greek college then founded in Florence, but was no more here in February 1525 when an edition of [Aristophanes](/wiki/Aristophanes "Aristophanes") by Antonio Franchini came out by the [Giunti](/wiki/Giunti_%28printers%29 "Giunti (printers)")'s Florentine print. A preface was the contribution made by Apostolios to the work evoking his stay in the Greek college of the city in the past.
On March 30, 1534, in Venice, he was appointed by the [Council of Ten](/wiki/Council_of_Ten "Council of Ten"), with the support of the Holy See, preacher of the [San Giorgio dei Greci](/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci "San Giorgio dei Greci") church, but he again saw to arise an hostility of his compatriots to all Catholic priests appointed there. He died four years later, and was buried in the church, where one of his nephews had him raise a tomb.\[The Greeks of Venice had received the right to build their own church in the city by a decree of the Council of Ten of 30 April 1514 (approved by Pope Leo X). Then land was acquired, and a provisional construction permitted the celebration of the first office on 4 March 1527\. The present church of San Giorgio dei Greci was built between 1539 and 1573\. Arsène Apostolios knew only the provisional building.]{{r\|Bietenholz}}
He wrote several prefaces to editions of ancient authors with which he was associated. He also published a collection of [apophthegms](/wiki/Maxim_%28philosophy%29 "Maxim (philosophy)") of philosophers, generals, orators, and poets, drawn from the Ἰωνιά (his field of violets) of his father Michael, which he published in Rome in 1519, completed by [Zacharias Calliergi](/wiki/Zacharias_Calliergi "Zacharias Calliergi"). The volume also contains a small dialogue of its composition, between a bibliophile, a bookseller and the book personified. Many, then, simply attributed the collection to him (Christian Waltz reproduced it in Stuttgart in 1832 under the title Ἀρσενίου Ἰωνιά / Arsenii Violetum). He also left letters. Several texts, including a choice of letters, can be found in the Hellenic Bibliography of Émile Legrand (Paris, 1885\).
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Arsenius Apostolius was born about 1468 in [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") and in 1492 he moved to Italy{{r\\|Bietenholz}}. He was the son of [Michael Apostolius](/wiki/Michael_Apostolius \"Michael Apostolius\") and grandson of Theodosius, count of Corinth (*Theodosios Komis Korinthios*). His first name of birth is Aristobulus (Ἀριστόβουλος) and he took the name of Arsenius at the moment of his adherence to the episcopate (which led earlier authors into the error of distinguishing two \"brothers\", Aristobulus and Arsenius.{{in lang\\|it}} M. Pratesi, [\"Apostolio, Asenio (Aristobulo)\"](http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/arsenio-aristobulo-apostolio_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/), *Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani*, vol. 3, 1961\\.",
"Like his father, Apostolius was reduced to poverty after the [Fall of Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople \"Fall of Constantinople\") to the [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks \"Ottoman Turks\") (1453\\), and he earned his living by copying manuscripts: about fifty are attributed to him, of which only three are dated, the oldest being from 31 March 1489\\. A contract signed in Crete in April 1492 shows him collaborating with [Janus Lascaris](/wiki/Janus_Lascaris \"Janus Lascaris\") in his quest for Greek manuscripts for the library of [Lorenzo de' Medici](/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici \"Lorenzo de' Medici\"), being then deacon. He resided at that period in Florence, according to an allusion which he made in a later letter. When [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius \"Aldus Manutius\") began his Greek impressions in 1495, he was one of his first collaborators with [Marcus Musurus](/wiki/Marcus_Musurus \"Marcus Musurus\"): he composed an [epigram](/wiki/Epigram \"Epigram\") of four verses (called Thesaurus Cornucopiæ and horti Adonis) for a volume of Greek grammarians from the aldine presses in 1496\\. About the same time, an edition of [Theodore Prodromus](/wiki/Theodore_Prodromus \"Theodore Prodromus\")' *Galeomyomachy*, published by the same press, without date, contains a preface signed by him. But soon afterwards he quarreled with the printer and a lawsuit ensued.",
"In 1506 the [Roman Curia](/wiki/Roman_Curia \"Roman Curia\") appointed Arsenius as [Eastern Rite](/wiki/Byzantine_Rite \"Byzantine Rite\") bishop of [Monemvasia](/wiki/Monemvasia \"Monemvasia\"), at that time part of the [regions subjected](/wiki/Stato_da_Mar \"Stato da Mar\") to the [Venetian Republic](/wiki/Venetian_Republic \"Venetian Republic\"). Arsenius declared himself in [communion](/wiki/Full_communion \"Full communion\") both with the [Patriarch of Constantinople](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople \"Patriarch of Constantinople\") and with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\").{{r\\|Janin}} This position was untenable for the Church of Constantinople and [Patriarch Pachomius I of Constantinople](/wiki/Patriarch_Pachomius_I_of_Constantinople \"Patriarch Pachomius I of Constantinople\") invited Arsenius to abdicate. The issue went on for more than two years until June 1509, when Pachomius [excommunicated](/wiki/Excommunicate \"Excommunicate\") Arsenius, who retired to Venice.{{r\\|Fedalto2}}",
"In Venice Arsenius became a friend of [Erasmus of Rotterdam](/wiki/Erasmus_of_Rotterdam \"Erasmus of Rotterdam\") and collaborated with [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius \"Aldus Manutius\").",
"A few years later, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") named Marcus Musurus in his place, who died before he joined his siege. Apostolius later returned to Malvoisie, where he was surely in 1527\\.",
"In 1521 he was the head of a Greek college then founded in Florence, but was no more here in February 1525 when an edition of [Aristophanes](/wiki/Aristophanes \"Aristophanes\") by Antonio Franchini came out by the [Giunti](/wiki/Giunti_%28printers%29 \"Giunti (printers)\")'s Florentine print. A preface was the contribution made by Apostolios to the work evoking his stay in the Greek college of the city in the past.",
"On March 30, 1534, in Venice, he was appointed by the [Council of Ten](/wiki/Council_of_Ten \"Council of Ten\"), with the support of the Holy See, preacher of the [San Giorgio dei Greci](/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci \"San Giorgio dei Greci\") church, but he again saw to arise an hostility of his compatriots to all Catholic priests appointed there. He died four years later, and was buried in the church, where one of his nephews had him raise a tomb.\\[The Greeks of Venice had received the right to build their own church in the city by a decree of the Council of Ten of 30 April 1514 (approved by Pope Leo X). Then land was acquired, and a provisional construction permitted the celebration of the first office on 4 March 1527\\. The present church of San Giorgio dei Greci was built between 1539 and 1573\\. Arsène Apostolios knew only the provisional building.]{{r\\|Bietenholz}}",
"He wrote several prefaces to editions of ancient authors with which he was associated. He also published a collection of [apophthegms](/wiki/Maxim_%28philosophy%29 \"Maxim (philosophy)\") of philosophers, generals, orators, and poets, drawn from the Ἰωνιά (his field of violets) of his father Michael, which he published in Rome in 1519, completed by [Zacharias Calliergi](/wiki/Zacharias_Calliergi \"Zacharias Calliergi\"). The volume also contains a small dialogue of its composition, between a bibliophile, a bookseller and the book personified. Many, then, simply attributed the collection to him (Christian Waltz reproduced it in Stuttgart in 1832 under the title Ἀρσενίου Ἰωνιά / Arsenii Violetum). He also left letters. Several texts, including a choice of letters, can be found in the Hellenic Bibliography of Émile Legrand (Paris, 1885\\).",
""
] |
Military career
---------------
After graduating in 1994, Hordiichuk began his military service in the Khmelnytsky region's city of [Iziaslav](/wiki/Iziaslav%2C_Ukraine "Iziaslav, Ukraine") with the [161st Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/161st_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 "161st Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)") of the [Ukrainian Armed Forces](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine "Armed Forces of Ukraine"). He held several positions in the mechanized forces: deputy commander of a mechanized battalion, commander of a separate tank battalion, commander of a tank line battalion, reconnaissance platoon, and mechanized company.
Captain Hordiichuk first served as the deputy commander of a brigade in 2002, and then as the commander of the [8th Special Forces Regiment](/wiki/Special_Operations_Forces_%28Ukraine%29 "Special Operations Forces (Ukraine)") from 2003 to 2008\. He was part of the multinational contingent stationed in the [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") from May to December 2010\. He worked in the [General Staff of the Ukrainian Armed Forces](/wiki/General_Staff_of_the_Ukrainian_Armed_Forces "General Staff of the Ukrainian Armed Forces") and in [Defense Intelligence](/wiki/Main_Directorate_of_Intelligence_%28Ukraine%29 "Main Directorate of Intelligence (Ukraine)") in April 2014\.
### Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion
{{Main\|Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion}}
Throughout the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas "War in Donbas"), [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") Hordiichuk participated in several operations inside the [ATO zone](/wiki/Joint_Forces_Operation_%28Ukraine%29 "Joint Forces Operation (Ukraine)"). Leading a Special Forces unit, he oversaw the capture of the [Savur\-Mohyla](/wiki/Savur-Mohyla "Savur-Mohyla") strategic point while carrying out operations in the enemy's rear. Following the capture of the hill and the installation of the observation station, Russian [artillery spotters](/wiki/Artillery_observer "Artillery observer") completely shut off all Ukrainian [military transportation](/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management "Military supply-chain management") in the "D" sector.
[left\|thumb\|Ruins on the Savur\-Mohyla in 2014](/wiki/File:2014._%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_05.jpg "2014. Саур-Могила 05.jpg")
On 12 August 2014, the 14\-man scout group Krym of Hordiichuk broke into the hill's positions, gained possession of the hilltop observation post, and started carrying out combat duties including as spotting artillery fire. Russian tanks, separatists, and artillery were used in large quantities to defeat the Ukrainian unit. Due to enemy artillery attacks, communication channels were rendered inoperable. While communication was not very effective, [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") communication was feasible in certain parts of the hill.
Heavy artillery was directing its concentrated fire towards the Hordiichuk's group. Almost every day, the enemy's soldiers attempted to storm the hill. Although the scouts' lives were spared by [bunkers](/wiki/Bunker "Bunker"), they suffered serious contusions from explosions that left the military crippled. Hordiichuk himself was also often scolded, yet he remained in his role. There were generally only [firearms](/wiki/Firearm "Firearm") and [grenade launchers](/wiki/Grenade_launcher "Grenade launcher") available, although occasionally artillery assistance was used to repel day attacks. Six attempts were made by separatists to take Savur\-Mohyla by night. The defenders of the hill survived many close\-quarters assaults.
Colonel Peter Potekhin led a party of volunteer reconnaissance officers that came to assist on 18 August. The [25th Airborne Brigade](/wiki/25th_Airborne_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 "25th Airborne Brigade (Ukraine)") consists of these seven soldiers. Colonel Hordiichuk received assistance from a number of additional volunteers who joined the group. These included combatants from the 4th Company of the [42nd Territorial Defence Battalion](/wiki/42nd_Territorial_Defence_Battalion_%27Rukh_Oporu%27_%28Ukraine%29 "42nd Territorial Defence Battalion 'Rukh Oporu' (Ukraine)") in the [Kirovohrad Oblast](/wiki/Kirovohrad_Oblast "Kirovohrad Oblast"), who were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel O. Melnychenko, artillery adjusters, [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle "Infantry fighting vehicle") from the [28th Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/28th_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 "28th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)"), and [armoured personnel carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier "Armoured personnel carrier") from the [3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Separate_Special_Purpose_Regiment_%28Ukraine%29 "3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment (Ukraine)") arrived with brand\-new communication apparatus.
Following the arrival of the reinforcement, Hordiichuk rotated; the Krym group withdrew. With his hand injured, he remained on the hill, carried out combat duties, and kept the enemy informed of his whereabouts. The order to leave the hill was received on the evening of 24 August. By then, it was evident that the hill was surrounded tightly.{{Cite web \|title\=Рівненський обласний краєзнавчий музей \|url\=http://museum.rv.gov.ua/news/2020/05/24/geroj\-ukrayini\-igor\-volodimirovich\-gordijchuk/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=museum.rv.gov.ua}} Russian separatists rendered inoperable the vehicle of the 3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment, which had broken through it to transfer the injured personnel.
Hordiichuk issued the order to leave Savur\-Mohyla at night of 25 August. After 12 days and nights of nonstop fighting, the Ukrainian scouts departed from the hill that had been excavated by shells. They were able to sneak around {{Convert\|60\|km}} past the enemy's line and join Ukrainian forces close to [Mnohopillia](/wiki/Ilovaisk_urban_hromada "Ilovaisk urban hromada"). Scouts set out to make a breakthrough in an attempt to escape the encirclement on 29 August, accompanied by all forces from Ukraine.
When Hordiichuk and Sergeant Serhii Stehar were moving on the truck, artillery and [mortar fire](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)") started, causing a body explosion and setting the automobile on fire. The escorts were unable to approach because of the enemy's heavy fire; Hordiichuk managed to escape on his own. Without a helmet, a bullet fragment ripped a chunk of bone from his skull on the back of his head, injuring him. After ripping off the bandage and attempting to lead the battle, the colonel passed out from [blood loss](/wiki/Bleeding "Bleeding"). Russian paratroopers seized Hordiichuk, Stegar, and numerous more combatants. He was left behind when the detainees were hauled away, and it was forbidden to assist him because they said he would die very soon.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-11\-11 \|title\=Игорь Гордийчук Герой Украины – история реабилитации генерал\-майора – Институт вертебрологии и реабилитации \|url\=http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\-gordiychuk\-geroy\-ukrainy\-reabilitatsiiya\-general\-mayora.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=ivr.ua \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=11 November 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111195544/http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\-gordiychuk\-geroy\-ukrainy\-reabilitatsiiya\-general\-mayora.html \|url\-status\=dead }} After lying on the battlefield for two days, he was discovered by [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement") workers, who took him immediately to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital.
### Rehabilitation
[thumb\|Hordiichuk and [Andrii Kovalchuk](/wiki/Andrii_Kovalchuk "Andrii Kovalchuk") in 2016Colonel](/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%96_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.jpg "Гордійчук і Полторак.jpg") Hordiichuk, paralyzed and suffering from the worst kind of [traumatic brain injury](/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury "Traumatic brain injury"), was brought unconscious to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital in [Dnipro](/wiki/Dnipro "Dnipro") and subsequently to the National Military Medical Clinical Center in Kyiv. A horrific head wound not only caused [paralysis](/wiki/Paralysis "Paralysis") ([hemiparesis](/wiki/Hemiparesis "Hemiparesis")) but also a blood infection ([sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis "Sepsis")). He suffered from a dangerously elevated [body temperature](/wiki/Thermoregulation "Thermoregulation") for several weeks, which was only alleviated by being placed in a [medical coma](/wiki/Coma "Coma") and not by medication.
Hordiichuk regained consciousness, but his left arm and leg were totally paralyzed, and he lost control of his body. At the [Walter Reed National Military Medical Center](/wiki/Walter_Reed_National_Military_Medical_Center "Walter Reed National Military Medical Center") in the United States, Colonel Hordiichuk received the expert care he sorely needed. Here, he learnt to move again despite the excruciating pain under the tight supervision of qualified rehabilitation specialists. Although the American rehabilitation program was successful, complete healing remained a long way off.
Hordiichuk had many operations and therapy in the United States and Ukraine after the injury.{{Cite web \|last\=Вадим \|first\=Лубчак \|date\=2019\-10\-18 \|title\=Defender Of Ukraine: Major General Hordiichuk \|url\=https://uatv.ua/en/defender\-ukraine\-major\-general\-hordiichuk/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=Freedom \|language\=en\-US}} His recuperation was aided by the expert work of American rehabilitologists at first, and currently by specialists from the Institute of Vertebrology and Rehabilitation's Kyiv Center for Strengthening the Spine and Joints. His family had to deal with the challenge of carrying out the challenging reconstruction process once they returned to Ukraine. There are no dedicated veteran's rehabilitation programs in Ukraine, so his only option was to attend classes at [sanatoriums](/wiki/Sanatorium "Sanatorium") and [public hospitals](/wiki/Public_hospital "Public hospital"). Experts offered their services at no cost to assist him in living a full life again.
### Later career
Colonel Hordiichuk successfully completed all of the tests of luck, undertook a number of difficult and protracted treatment courses, and in April 2016, he rejoined the ranks.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-04\-27 \|title\=БОРІТЬСЯ ДО КІНЦЯ, НЕМОЖЛИВОГО В ЖИТТІ НЕМАЄ! ГЕРОЙ УКРАЇНИ ПОЛКОВНИК ГЕНШТАБУ ІГОР ГОРДІЙЧУК ПРИСТУПИВ ДО ВИКОНАННЯ ОБОВ'ЯЗКІВ НАЧАЛЬНИКА ВІЙСЬКОВОГО ЛІЦЕЮ ІМЕНІ БОГУНА \|url\=http://ua.censor.net.ua/resonance/386412/boritsya\_do\_kintsya\_nemojlyvogo\_v\_jytti\_nemaye\_geroyi\_ukrayiny\_polkovnyk\_genshtabu\_igor\_gordiyichuk \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=ua.censor.net.ua \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=1 May 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501190611/http://ua.censor.net.ua/resonance/386412/boritsya\_do\_kintsya\_nemojlyvogo\_v\_jytti\_nemaye\_geroyi\_ukrayiny\_polkovnyk\_genshtabu\_igor\_gordiyichuk \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Furthermore, as per the directive from the [Minister of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Ukraine%29 "Ministry of Defence (Ukraine)") [Stepan Poltorak](/wiki/Stepan_Poltorak "Stepan Poltorak"), he was named [Ivan Bohun Military High School](/wiki/Ivan_Bohun_Military_High_School "Ivan Bohun Military High School") during his recuperation.{{Cite web \|title\=The Hero of Ukraine Ihor Hordiichuk took up duties of the Chief of Kyiv Military Lyceum named after Ivan Bohun \|url\=https://gur.gov.ua/en/content/heroi\-ukrainy\-ihor\-hordiichuk\-prystupyv\-do\-vykonannia\-oboviazkiv\-nachalnyka\-kyivskoho\-viiskovoho\-litseiu\-imeni\-ivana\-bohuna \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=gur.gov.ua}}{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-10\-21 \|title\=«Сумрак». Що пережив Герой оборони Савур\-Могили Ігор Гордійчук \|url\=https://rubryka.com/article/igor\-gordijchuk/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=rubryka.com \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=21 October 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151450/https://rubryka.com/article/igor\-gordijchuk/ \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Hordiichuk would be in charge of the high school from 26 April 2016 to 3 October 2023\.{{Cite web \|title\=Герой України генерал\-майор Ігор Гордійчук попрощався з Бойовим Прапором Київського військового ліцею \|url\=https://armyinform.com.ua/2023/10/24/geroj\-ukrayiny\-general\-major\-igor\-gordijchuk\-poproshhavsya\-z\-bojovym\-praporom\-kyyivskogo\-vijskovogo\-liczeyu/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=armyinform.com.ua \|language\=uk}} His dismissal was referred to as [treason](/wiki/Treason "Treason") and disrespect on the [online community](/wiki/Online_community "Online community") in response to this decision. On 7 November, he was moved to the position of deputy head of the National Defence University of Ukraine.{{Cite news \|last\=Свобода \|first\=Радіо \|date\=2023\-11\-06 \|title\=Ігоря Гордійчука призначили заступником начальника Національного університету оборони \|url\=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/news\-hordiychuk\-litsey\-bohuna\-pryznachennya\-pidvyshchennya/32673593\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|work\=www.radiosvoboda.org \|language\=uk}} He held a private conversation with Ukrainian Defense Minister [Rustem Umierov](/wiki/Rustem_Umerov "Rustem Umerov") during their meeting.{{Cite web \|last1\=Кузьменко \|first1\=Юлія \|last2\=Коломієць \|first2\=Дарина \|date\=2023\-11\-06 \|title\=Героя України Ігоря Гордійчука підвищили. Він більше не керуватиме ліцеєм Богуна \|url\=https://suspilne.media/611127\-geroa\-ukraini\-igora\-gordijcuka\-pidvisili\-vin\-bilse\-ne\-keruvatime\-liceem\-boguna/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=suspilne.media}}
In a 2018 interview, Hordiichuk stated that his primary adversaries are deceit, bribery, and corruption in addition to being set an example for and eliminating the traditional ways. A statue honoring Russian commander [Alexander Suvorov](/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov "Alexander Suvorov") was taken down from the courtyard of the IvanIvan Bohun Military High School in January 2019 at the behest of the institution's chief, Major General Hordiichuk, and the cadet community. He became the [director general](/wiki/Director_general "Director general") of the National Museum of the Revolution of Dignity (Maidan Museum). He stated in a 2023 interview:{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2023\-12\-08 \|title\="Maidan: Birth of a Dream. The First Battle": a large exhibition about the Revolution of Dignity opened on the tenth anniversary of Euromaidan \|url\=https://www.maidanmuseum.org/en/node/2692 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=www.maidanmuseum.org \|language\=en}}
{{Cquote
\| quote \= I am proud to have been one of the few officers who convinced everyone in uniform, the Armed Forces, that we should be with the people. We realized that this was a difficult path, but we had no alternative. If there had been no \[\[Revolution of Dignity\|Maidan]], I am not sure if we would have been able to survive. We are grateful to our military, they are doing the hardest work – the victory depends on the girls and boys on the front line
\| author \= Ihor Hordiichuk
\| source \= \[https://www.maidanmuseum.org/en/node/2692 Maidan Museum]
}}
|
[
"Military career\n---------------",
"After graduating in 1994, Hordiichuk began his military service in the Khmelnytsky region's city of [Iziaslav](/wiki/Iziaslav%2C_Ukraine \"Iziaslav, Ukraine\") with the [161st Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/161st_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 \"161st Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)\") of the [Ukrainian Armed Forces](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine \"Armed Forces of Ukraine\"). He held several positions in the mechanized forces: deputy commander of a mechanized battalion, commander of a separate tank battalion, commander of a tank line battalion, reconnaissance platoon, and mechanized company.",
"Captain Hordiichuk first served as the deputy commander of a brigade in 2002, and then as the commander of the [8th Special Forces Regiment](/wiki/Special_Operations_Forces_%28Ukraine%29 \"Special Operations Forces (Ukraine)\") from 2003 to 2008\\. He was part of the multinational contingent stationed in the [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") from May to December 2010\\. He worked in the [General Staff of the Ukrainian Armed Forces](/wiki/General_Staff_of_the_Ukrainian_Armed_Forces \"General Staff of the Ukrainian Armed Forces\") and in [Defense Intelligence](/wiki/Main_Directorate_of_Intelligence_%28Ukraine%29 \"Main Directorate of Intelligence (Ukraine)\") in April 2014\\.",
"### Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion",
"{{Main\\|Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion}}\nThroughout the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas \"War in Donbas\"), [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") Hordiichuk participated in several operations inside the [ATO zone](/wiki/Joint_Forces_Operation_%28Ukraine%29 \"Joint Forces Operation (Ukraine)\"). Leading a Special Forces unit, he oversaw the capture of the [Savur\\-Mohyla](/wiki/Savur-Mohyla \"Savur-Mohyla\") strategic point while carrying out operations in the enemy's rear. Following the capture of the hill and the installation of the observation station, Russian [artillery spotters](/wiki/Artillery_observer \"Artillery observer\") completely shut off all Ukrainian [military transportation](/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management \"Military supply-chain management\") in the \"D\" sector.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Ruins on the Savur\\-Mohyla in 2014](/wiki/File:2014._%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_05.jpg \"2014. Саур-Могила 05.jpg\")\nOn 12 August 2014, the 14\\-man scout group Krym of Hordiichuk broke into the hill's positions, gained possession of the hilltop observation post, and started carrying out combat duties including as spotting artillery fire. Russian tanks, separatists, and artillery were used in large quantities to defeat the Ukrainian unit. Due to enemy artillery attacks, communication channels were rendered inoperable. While communication was not very effective, [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") communication was feasible in certain parts of the hill.",
"Heavy artillery was directing its concentrated fire towards the Hordiichuk's group. Almost every day, the enemy's soldiers attempted to storm the hill. Although the scouts' lives were spared by [bunkers](/wiki/Bunker \"Bunker\"), they suffered serious contusions from explosions that left the military crippled. Hordiichuk himself was also often scolded, yet he remained in his role. There were generally only [firearms](/wiki/Firearm \"Firearm\") and [grenade launchers](/wiki/Grenade_launcher \"Grenade launcher\") available, although occasionally artillery assistance was used to repel day attacks. Six attempts were made by separatists to take Savur\\-Mohyla by night. The defenders of the hill survived many close\\-quarters assaults.",
"Colonel Peter Potekhin led a party of volunteer reconnaissance officers that came to assist on 18 August. The [25th Airborne Brigade](/wiki/25th_Airborne_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 \"25th Airborne Brigade (Ukraine)\") consists of these seven soldiers. Colonel Hordiichuk received assistance from a number of additional volunteers who joined the group. These included combatants from the 4th Company of the [42nd Territorial Defence Battalion](/wiki/42nd_Territorial_Defence_Battalion_%27Rukh_Oporu%27_%28Ukraine%29 \"42nd Territorial Defence Battalion 'Rukh Oporu' (Ukraine)\") in the [Kirovohrad Oblast](/wiki/Kirovohrad_Oblast \"Kirovohrad Oblast\"), who were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel O. Melnychenko, artillery adjusters, [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle \"Infantry fighting vehicle\") from the [28th Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/28th_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 \"28th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)\"), and [armoured personnel carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier \"Armoured personnel carrier\") from the [3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Separate_Special_Purpose_Regiment_%28Ukraine%29 \"3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment (Ukraine)\") arrived with brand\\-new communication apparatus.",
"Following the arrival of the reinforcement, Hordiichuk rotated; the Krym group withdrew. With his hand injured, he remained on the hill, carried out combat duties, and kept the enemy informed of his whereabouts. The order to leave the hill was received on the evening of 24 August. By then, it was evident that the hill was surrounded tightly.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Рівненський обласний краєзнавчий музей \\|url\\=http://museum.rv.gov.ua/news/2020/05/24/geroj\\-ukrayini\\-igor\\-volodimirovich\\-gordijchuk/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=museum.rv.gov.ua}} Russian separatists rendered inoperable the vehicle of the 3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment, which had broken through it to transfer the injured personnel.",
"Hordiichuk issued the order to leave Savur\\-Mohyla at night of 25 August. After 12 days and nights of nonstop fighting, the Ukrainian scouts departed from the hill that had been excavated by shells. They were able to sneak around {{Convert\\|60\\|km}} past the enemy's line and join Ukrainian forces close to [Mnohopillia](/wiki/Ilovaisk_urban_hromada \"Ilovaisk urban hromada\"). Scouts set out to make a breakthrough in an attempt to escape the encirclement on 29 August, accompanied by all forces from Ukraine.",
"When Hordiichuk and Sergeant Serhii Stehar were moving on the truck, artillery and [mortar fire](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\") started, causing a body explosion and setting the automobile on fire. The escorts were unable to approach because of the enemy's heavy fire; Hordiichuk managed to escape on his own. Without a helmet, a bullet fragment ripped a chunk of bone from his skull on the back of his head, injuring him. After ripping off the bandage and attempting to lead the battle, the colonel passed out from [blood loss](/wiki/Bleeding \"Bleeding\"). Russian paratroopers seized Hordiichuk, Stegar, and numerous more combatants. He was left behind when the detainees were hauled away, and it was forbidden to assist him because they said he would die very soon.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-11\\-11 \\|title\\=Игорь Гордийчук Герой Украины – история реабилитации генерал\\-майора – Институт вертебрологии и реабилитации \\|url\\=http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\\-gordiychuk\\-geroy\\-ukrainy\\-reabilitatsiiya\\-general\\-mayora.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=ivr.ua \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=11 November 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111195544/http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\\-gordiychuk\\-geroy\\-ukrainy\\-reabilitatsiiya\\-general\\-mayora.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} After lying on the battlefield for two days, he was discovered by [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement \"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\") workers, who took him immediately to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital.",
"### Rehabilitation",
"[thumb\\|Hordiichuk and [Andrii Kovalchuk](/wiki/Andrii_Kovalchuk \"Andrii Kovalchuk\") in 2016Colonel](/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%96_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.jpg \"Гордійчук і Полторак.jpg\") Hordiichuk, paralyzed and suffering from the worst kind of [traumatic brain injury](/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury \"Traumatic brain injury\"), was brought unconscious to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital in [Dnipro](/wiki/Dnipro \"Dnipro\") and subsequently to the National Military Medical Clinical Center in Kyiv. A horrific head wound not only caused [paralysis](/wiki/Paralysis \"Paralysis\") ([hemiparesis](/wiki/Hemiparesis \"Hemiparesis\")) but also a blood infection ([sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis \"Sepsis\")). He suffered from a dangerously elevated [body temperature](/wiki/Thermoregulation \"Thermoregulation\") for several weeks, which was only alleviated by being placed in a [medical coma](/wiki/Coma \"Coma\") and not by medication.",
"Hordiichuk regained consciousness, but his left arm and leg were totally paralyzed, and he lost control of his body. At the [Walter Reed National Military Medical Center](/wiki/Walter_Reed_National_Military_Medical_Center \"Walter Reed National Military Medical Center\") in the United States, Colonel Hordiichuk received the expert care he sorely needed. Here, he learnt to move again despite the excruciating pain under the tight supervision of qualified rehabilitation specialists. Although the American rehabilitation program was successful, complete healing remained a long way off.",
"Hordiichuk had many operations and therapy in the United States and Ukraine after the injury.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Вадим \\|first\\=Лубчак \\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-18 \\|title\\=Defender Of Ukraine: Major General Hordiichuk \\|url\\=https://uatv.ua/en/defender\\-ukraine\\-major\\-general\\-hordiichuk/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Freedom \\|language\\=en\\-US}} His recuperation was aided by the expert work of American rehabilitologists at first, and currently by specialists from the Institute of Vertebrology and Rehabilitation's Kyiv Center for Strengthening the Spine and Joints. His family had to deal with the challenge of carrying out the challenging reconstruction process once they returned to Ukraine. There are no dedicated veteran's rehabilitation programs in Ukraine, so his only option was to attend classes at [sanatoriums](/wiki/Sanatorium \"Sanatorium\") and [public hospitals](/wiki/Public_hospital \"Public hospital\"). Experts offered their services at no cost to assist him in living a full life again.",
"### Later career",
"Colonel Hordiichuk successfully completed all of the tests of luck, undertook a number of difficult and protracted treatment courses, and in April 2016, he rejoined the ranks.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-27 \\|title\\=БОРІТЬСЯ ДО КІНЦЯ, НЕМОЖЛИВОГО В ЖИТТІ НЕМАЄ! ГЕРОЙ УКРАЇНИ ПОЛКОВНИК ГЕНШТАБУ ІГОР ГОРДІЙЧУК ПРИСТУПИВ ДО ВИКОНАННЯ ОБОВ'ЯЗКІВ НАЧАЛЬНИКА ВІЙСЬКОВОГО ЛІЦЕЮ ІМЕНІ БОГУНА \\|url\\=http://ua.censor.net.ua/resonance/386412/boritsya\\_do\\_kintsya\\_nemojlyvogo\\_v\\_jytti\\_nemaye\\_geroyi\\_ukrayiny\\_polkovnyk\\_genshtabu\\_igor\\_gordiyichuk \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=ua.censor.net.ua \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=1 May 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501190611/http://ua.censor.net.ua/resonance/386412/boritsya\\_do\\_kintsya\\_nemojlyvogo\\_v\\_jytti\\_nemaye\\_geroyi\\_ukrayiny\\_polkovnyk\\_genshtabu\\_igor\\_gordiyichuk \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Furthermore, as per the directive from the [Minister of Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Ukraine%29 \"Ministry of Defence (Ukraine)\") [Stepan Poltorak](/wiki/Stepan_Poltorak \"Stepan Poltorak\"), he was named [Ivan Bohun Military High School](/wiki/Ivan_Bohun_Military_High_School \"Ivan Bohun Military High School\") during his recuperation.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Hero of Ukraine Ihor Hordiichuk took up duties of the Chief of Kyiv Military Lyceum named after Ivan Bohun \\|url\\=https://gur.gov.ua/en/content/heroi\\-ukrainy\\-ihor\\-hordiichuk\\-prystupyv\\-do\\-vykonannia\\-oboviazkiv\\-nachalnyka\\-kyivskoho\\-viiskovoho\\-litseiu\\-imeni\\-ivana\\-bohuna \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=gur.gov.ua}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-21 \\|title\\=«Сумрак». Що пережив Герой оборони Савур\\-Могили Ігор Гордійчук \\|url\\=https://rubryka.com/article/igor\\-gordijchuk/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=rubryka.com \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151450/https://rubryka.com/article/igor\\-gordijchuk/ \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Hordiichuk would be in charge of the high school from 26 April 2016 to 3 October 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Герой України генерал\\-майор Ігор Гордійчук попрощався з Бойовим Прапором Київського військового ліцею \\|url\\=https://armyinform.com.ua/2023/10/24/geroj\\-ukrayiny\\-general\\-major\\-igor\\-gordijchuk\\-poproshhavsya\\-z\\-bojovym\\-praporom\\-kyyivskogo\\-vijskovogo\\-liczeyu/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=armyinform.com.ua \\|language\\=uk}} His dismissal was referred to as [treason](/wiki/Treason \"Treason\") and disrespect on the [online community](/wiki/Online_community \"Online community\") in response to this decision. On 7 November, he was moved to the position of deputy head of the National Defence University of Ukraine.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Свобода \\|first\\=Радіо \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Ігоря Гордійчука призначили заступником начальника Національного університету оборони \\|url\\=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/news\\-hordiychuk\\-litsey\\-bohuna\\-pryznachennya\\-pidvyshchennya/32673593\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|work\\=www.radiosvoboda.org \\|language\\=uk}} He held a private conversation with Ukrainian Defense Minister [Rustem Umierov](/wiki/Rustem_Umerov \"Rustem Umerov\") during their meeting.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Кузьменко \\|first1\\=Юлія \\|last2\\=Коломієць \\|first2\\=Дарина \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Героя України Ігоря Гордійчука підвищили. Він більше не керуватиме ліцеєм Богуна \\|url\\=https://suspilne.media/611127\\-geroa\\-ukraini\\-igora\\-gordijcuka\\-pidvisili\\-vin\\-bilse\\-ne\\-keruvatime\\-liceem\\-boguna/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=suspilne.media}}",
"In a 2018 interview, Hordiichuk stated that his primary adversaries are deceit, bribery, and corruption in addition to being set an example for and eliminating the traditional ways. A statue honoring Russian commander [Alexander Suvorov](/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov \"Alexander Suvorov\") was taken down from the courtyard of the IvanIvan Bohun Military High School in January 2019 at the behest of the institution's chief, Major General Hordiichuk, and the cadet community. He became the [director general](/wiki/Director_general \"Director general\") of the National Museum of the Revolution of Dignity (Maidan Museum). He stated in a 2023 interview:{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=\"Maidan: Birth of a Dream. The First Battle\": a large exhibition about the Revolution of Dignity opened on the tenth anniversary of Euromaidan \\|url\\=https://www.maidanmuseum.org/en/node/2692 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=www.maidanmuseum.org \\|language\\=en}}",
"{{Cquote\n\\| quote \\= I am proud to have been one of the few officers who convinced everyone in uniform, the Armed Forces, that we should be with the people. We realized that this was a difficult path, but we had no alternative. If there had been no \\[\\[Revolution of Dignity\\|Maidan]], I am not sure if we would have been able to survive. We are grateful to our military, they are doing the hardest work – the victory depends on the girls and boys on the front line\n\\| author \\= Ihor Hordiichuk\n\\| source \\= \\[https://www.maidanmuseum.org/en/node/2692 Maidan Museum]\n}}",
""
] |
### Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion
{{Main\|Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion}}
Throughout the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas "War in Donbas"), [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") Hordiichuk participated in several operations inside the [ATO zone](/wiki/Joint_Forces_Operation_%28Ukraine%29 "Joint Forces Operation (Ukraine)"). Leading a Special Forces unit, he oversaw the capture of the [Savur\-Mohyla](/wiki/Savur-Mohyla "Savur-Mohyla") strategic point while carrying out operations in the enemy's rear. Following the capture of the hill and the installation of the observation station, Russian [artillery spotters](/wiki/Artillery_observer "Artillery observer") completely shut off all Ukrainian [military transportation](/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management "Military supply-chain management") in the "D" sector.
[left\|thumb\|Ruins on the Savur\-Mohyla in 2014](/wiki/File:2014._%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_05.jpg "2014. Саур-Могила 05.jpg")
On 12 August 2014, the 14\-man scout group Krym of Hordiichuk broke into the hill's positions, gained possession of the hilltop observation post, and started carrying out combat duties including as spotting artillery fire. Russian tanks, separatists, and artillery were used in large quantities to defeat the Ukrainian unit. Due to enemy artillery attacks, communication channels were rendered inoperable. While communication was not very effective, [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") communication was feasible in certain parts of the hill.
Heavy artillery was directing its concentrated fire towards the Hordiichuk's group. Almost every day, the enemy's soldiers attempted to storm the hill. Although the scouts' lives were spared by [bunkers](/wiki/Bunker "Bunker"), they suffered serious contusions from explosions that left the military crippled. Hordiichuk himself was also often scolded, yet he remained in his role. There were generally only [firearms](/wiki/Firearm "Firearm") and [grenade launchers](/wiki/Grenade_launcher "Grenade launcher") available, although occasionally artillery assistance was used to repel day attacks. Six attempts were made by separatists to take Savur\-Mohyla by night. The defenders of the hill survived many close\-quarters assaults.
Colonel Peter Potekhin led a party of volunteer reconnaissance officers that came to assist on 18 August. The [25th Airborne Brigade](/wiki/25th_Airborne_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 "25th Airborne Brigade (Ukraine)") consists of these seven soldiers. Colonel Hordiichuk received assistance from a number of additional volunteers who joined the group. These included combatants from the 4th Company of the [42nd Territorial Defence Battalion](/wiki/42nd_Territorial_Defence_Battalion_%27Rukh_Oporu%27_%28Ukraine%29 "42nd Territorial Defence Battalion 'Rukh Oporu' (Ukraine)") in the [Kirovohrad Oblast](/wiki/Kirovohrad_Oblast "Kirovohrad Oblast"), who were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel O. Melnychenko, artillery adjusters, [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle "Infantry fighting vehicle") from the [28th Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/28th_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 "28th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)"), and [armoured personnel carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier "Armoured personnel carrier") from the [3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Separate_Special_Purpose_Regiment_%28Ukraine%29 "3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment (Ukraine)") arrived with brand\-new communication apparatus.
Following the arrival of the reinforcement, Hordiichuk rotated; the Krym group withdrew. With his hand injured, he remained on the hill, carried out combat duties, and kept the enemy informed of his whereabouts. The order to leave the hill was received on the evening of 24 August. By then, it was evident that the hill was surrounded tightly.{{Cite web \|title\=Рівненський обласний краєзнавчий музей \|url\=http://museum.rv.gov.ua/news/2020/05/24/geroj\-ukrayini\-igor\-volodimirovich\-gordijchuk/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=museum.rv.gov.ua}} Russian separatists rendered inoperable the vehicle of the 3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment, which had broken through it to transfer the injured personnel.
Hordiichuk issued the order to leave Savur\-Mohyla at night of 25 August. After 12 days and nights of nonstop fighting, the Ukrainian scouts departed from the hill that had been excavated by shells. They were able to sneak around {{Convert\|60\|km}} past the enemy's line and join Ukrainian forces close to [Mnohopillia](/wiki/Ilovaisk_urban_hromada "Ilovaisk urban hromada"). Scouts set out to make a breakthrough in an attempt to escape the encirclement on 29 August, accompanied by all forces from Ukraine.
When Hordiichuk and Sergeant Serhii Stehar were moving on the truck, artillery and [mortar fire](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)") started, causing a body explosion and setting the automobile on fire. The escorts were unable to approach because of the enemy's heavy fire; Hordiichuk managed to escape on his own. Without a helmet, a bullet fragment ripped a chunk of bone from his skull on the back of his head, injuring him. After ripping off the bandage and attempting to lead the battle, the colonel passed out from [blood loss](/wiki/Bleeding "Bleeding"). Russian paratroopers seized Hordiichuk, Stegar, and numerous more combatants. He was left behind when the detainees were hauled away, and it was forbidden to assist him because they said he would die very soon.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-11\-11 \|title\=Игорь Гордийчук Герой Украины – история реабилитации генерал\-майора – Институт вертебрологии и реабилитации \|url\=http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\-gordiychuk\-geroy\-ukrainy\-reabilitatsiiya\-general\-mayora.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=ivr.ua \|language\=uk \|archive\-date\=11 November 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111195544/http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\-gordiychuk\-geroy\-ukrainy\-reabilitatsiiya\-general\-mayora.html \|url\-status\=dead }} After lying on the battlefield for two days, he was discovered by [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement") workers, who took him immediately to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital.
|
[
"### Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion",
"{{Main\\|Battle in Shakhtarsk Raion}}\nThroughout the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas \"War in Donbas\"), [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") Hordiichuk participated in several operations inside the [ATO zone](/wiki/Joint_Forces_Operation_%28Ukraine%29 \"Joint Forces Operation (Ukraine)\"). Leading a Special Forces unit, he oversaw the capture of the [Savur\\-Mohyla](/wiki/Savur-Mohyla \"Savur-Mohyla\") strategic point while carrying out operations in the enemy's rear. Following the capture of the hill and the installation of the observation station, Russian [artillery spotters](/wiki/Artillery_observer \"Artillery observer\") completely shut off all Ukrainian [military transportation](/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management \"Military supply-chain management\") in the \"D\" sector.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Ruins on the Savur\\-Mohyla in 2014](/wiki/File:2014._%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_05.jpg \"2014. Саур-Могила 05.jpg\")\nOn 12 August 2014, the 14\\-man scout group Krym of Hordiichuk broke into the hill's positions, gained possession of the hilltop observation post, and started carrying out combat duties including as spotting artillery fire. Russian tanks, separatists, and artillery were used in large quantities to defeat the Ukrainian unit. Due to enemy artillery attacks, communication channels were rendered inoperable. While communication was not very effective, [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") communication was feasible in certain parts of the hill.",
"Heavy artillery was directing its concentrated fire towards the Hordiichuk's group. Almost every day, the enemy's soldiers attempted to storm the hill. Although the scouts' lives were spared by [bunkers](/wiki/Bunker \"Bunker\"), they suffered serious contusions from explosions that left the military crippled. Hordiichuk himself was also often scolded, yet he remained in his role. There were generally only [firearms](/wiki/Firearm \"Firearm\") and [grenade launchers](/wiki/Grenade_launcher \"Grenade launcher\") available, although occasionally artillery assistance was used to repel day attacks. Six attempts were made by separatists to take Savur\\-Mohyla by night. The defenders of the hill survived many close\\-quarters assaults.",
"Colonel Peter Potekhin led a party of volunteer reconnaissance officers that came to assist on 18 August. The [25th Airborne Brigade](/wiki/25th_Airborne_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 \"25th Airborne Brigade (Ukraine)\") consists of these seven soldiers. Colonel Hordiichuk received assistance from a number of additional volunteers who joined the group. These included combatants from the 4th Company of the [42nd Territorial Defence Battalion](/wiki/42nd_Territorial_Defence_Battalion_%27Rukh_Oporu%27_%28Ukraine%29 \"42nd Territorial Defence Battalion 'Rukh Oporu' (Ukraine)\") in the [Kirovohrad Oblast](/wiki/Kirovohrad_Oblast \"Kirovohrad Oblast\"), who were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel O. Melnychenko, artillery adjusters, [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle \"Infantry fighting vehicle\") from the [28th Mechanized Brigade](/wiki/28th_Mechanized_Brigade_%28Ukraine%29 \"28th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)\"), and [armoured personnel carrier](/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier \"Armoured personnel carrier\") from the [3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment](/wiki/3rd_Separate_Special_Purpose_Regiment_%28Ukraine%29 \"3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment (Ukraine)\") arrived with brand\\-new communication apparatus.",
"Following the arrival of the reinforcement, Hordiichuk rotated; the Krym group withdrew. With his hand injured, he remained on the hill, carried out combat duties, and kept the enemy informed of his whereabouts. The order to leave the hill was received on the evening of 24 August. By then, it was evident that the hill was surrounded tightly.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Рівненський обласний краєзнавчий музей \\|url\\=http://museum.rv.gov.ua/news/2020/05/24/geroj\\-ukrayini\\-igor\\-volodimirovich\\-gordijchuk/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=museum.rv.gov.ua}} Russian separatists rendered inoperable the vehicle of the 3rd Separate Special Purpose Regiment, which had broken through it to transfer the injured personnel.",
"Hordiichuk issued the order to leave Savur\\-Mohyla at night of 25 August. After 12 days and nights of nonstop fighting, the Ukrainian scouts departed from the hill that had been excavated by shells. They were able to sneak around {{Convert\\|60\\|km}} past the enemy's line and join Ukrainian forces close to [Mnohopillia](/wiki/Ilovaisk_urban_hromada \"Ilovaisk urban hromada\"). Scouts set out to make a breakthrough in an attempt to escape the encirclement on 29 August, accompanied by all forces from Ukraine.",
"When Hordiichuk and Sergeant Serhii Stehar were moving on the truck, artillery and [mortar fire](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\") started, causing a body explosion and setting the automobile on fire. The escorts were unable to approach because of the enemy's heavy fire; Hordiichuk managed to escape on his own. Without a helmet, a bullet fragment ripped a chunk of bone from his skull on the back of his head, injuring him. After ripping off the bandage and attempting to lead the battle, the colonel passed out from [blood loss](/wiki/Bleeding \"Bleeding\"). Russian paratroopers seized Hordiichuk, Stegar, and numerous more combatants. He was left behind when the detainees were hauled away, and it was forbidden to assist him because they said he would die very soon.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-11\\-11 \\|title\\=Игорь Гордийчук Герой Украины – история реабилитации генерал\\-майора – Институт вертебрологии и реабилитации \\|url\\=http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\\-gordiychuk\\-geroy\\-ukrainy\\-reabilitatsiiya\\-general\\-mayora.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=ivr.ua \\|language\\=uk \\|archive\\-date\\=11 November 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111195544/http://ivr.ua/institut/institut/blog/igor\\-gordiychuk\\-geroy\\-ukrainy\\-reabilitatsiiya\\-general\\-mayora.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} After lying on the battlefield for two days, he was discovered by [Red Cross](/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement \"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\") workers, who took him immediately to the Mechnikov Clinical Regional Hospital.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the town of Oakey Oaks, "Chicken Little" Cluck rings the school bell and warns everyone to run for their lives. This sends the town into a panic. Eventually, the Head of the Fire Department calms down enough to ask him what is going on. He explains that the sky is falling because a piece of it had fallen on his head when he was sitting under the big oak tree in the town square; however, he cannot find the piece. His father, Buck "Ace" Cluck, who was once a high school baseball star, assumes that it was just an acorn that had fallen off the tree and had hit him on the head, making Chicken Little the laughingstock of the town.
A year later, Chicken Little has become infamous in the town for being prone to ruin everything accidentally. His only friends are other outcasts: Abby Mallard (nicknamed "Ugly Duckling"), Runt (a cowardly pig), and Fish Out of Water (who wears a helmet full of tap water). Chicken Little joins his school's baseball team to recover his reputation and his father's pride but is made last until the ninth inning of the last game. He hits the ball and makes it past first, second, and third bases but is met at home plate by the outfielders. He tries sliding onto the home plate but is touched by the ball. While it is presumed he lost the game, the umpire brushes away the dust to reveal Chicken Little's foot is touching home plate, thus declaring him safe and the game won; Chicken Little is hailed as a hero for winning the pennant.
Later that night back at home, Chicken Little is hit on the head yet again by the same "piece of the sky" — only to find out that it is not that, but rather a panel that blends into the background (which would thereby explain why Chicken Little could not find it last time). He calls his friends over to help figure out what it is.
When Fish pushes a button on the back of the hexagon, it flies into the sky, taking him with it. It turns out to be part of the camouflage of an invisible UFO piloted by two aliens. Chicken Little, Abby and Runt rescue Fish, and discover that the aliens are heading to Earth. The two aliens attack the group, chasing them through a cornfield. They rush back to the school, where Chicken Little rings the bell to warn everyone, but the aliens escape, leaving an orange alien child behind. No one believes the story of the alien invasion and Chicken Little's reputation is ruined again. The next morning, he and his friends discover the orange alien named Kirby, and minutes later, a fleet of alien ships descend on the town and start what appears to be an invasion. The invasion, however, is actually a misunderstanding, as the two aliens are looking for their lost child and attack only out of concern. As the aliens rampage throughout Oakey Oaks, supposedly vaporizing everything in their path, Chicken Little realizes he must return Kirby to his parents to save the planet.
In the invasion, Buck, having regained his pride and trust in his son, defends him from the aliens until they get "vaporized." The aliens, however, are not actually vaporizing people but teleporting them aboard the UFO. It turns out the aliens were touring Earth and came across the town for its acorns. Their ship has broken camo panels that fell and hit Chicken Little on the head. After everything is explained, the apologetic aliens return everything to normal, and everyone is grateful for Chicken Little's efforts to save the town.
Another year later, Chicken Little, Buck, his friends and the citizens of Oakey Oaks watch an in\-universe movie depicting a fanciful retelling of the events that transpired, portraying Chicken Little as an action hero named Ace.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the town of Oakey Oaks, \"Chicken Little\" Cluck rings the school bell and warns everyone to run for their lives. This sends the town into a panic. Eventually, the Head of the Fire Department calms down enough to ask him what is going on. He explains that the sky is falling because a piece of it had fallen on his head when he was sitting under the big oak tree in the town square; however, he cannot find the piece. His father, Buck \"Ace\" Cluck, who was once a high school baseball star, assumes that it was just an acorn that had fallen off the tree and had hit him on the head, making Chicken Little the laughingstock of the town.",
"A year later, Chicken Little has become infamous in the town for being prone to ruin everything accidentally. His only friends are other outcasts: Abby Mallard (nicknamed \"Ugly Duckling\"), Runt (a cowardly pig), and Fish Out of Water (who wears a helmet full of tap water). Chicken Little joins his school's baseball team to recover his reputation and his father's pride but is made last until the ninth inning of the last game. He hits the ball and makes it past first, second, and third bases but is met at home plate by the outfielders. He tries sliding onto the home plate but is touched by the ball. While it is presumed he lost the game, the umpire brushes away the dust to reveal Chicken Little's foot is touching home plate, thus declaring him safe and the game won; Chicken Little is hailed as a hero for winning the pennant.",
"Later that night back at home, Chicken Little is hit on the head yet again by the same \"piece of the sky\" — only to find out that it is not that, but rather a panel that blends into the background (which would thereby explain why Chicken Little could not find it last time). He calls his friends over to help figure out what it is.",
"When Fish pushes a button on the back of the hexagon, it flies into the sky, taking him with it. It turns out to be part of the camouflage of an invisible UFO piloted by two aliens. Chicken Little, Abby and Runt rescue Fish, and discover that the aliens are heading to Earth. The two aliens attack the group, chasing them through a cornfield. They rush back to the school, where Chicken Little rings the bell to warn everyone, but the aliens escape, leaving an orange alien child behind. No one believes the story of the alien invasion and Chicken Little's reputation is ruined again. The next morning, he and his friends discover the orange alien named Kirby, and minutes later, a fleet of alien ships descend on the town and start what appears to be an invasion. The invasion, however, is actually a misunderstanding, as the two aliens are looking for their lost child and attack only out of concern. As the aliens rampage throughout Oakey Oaks, supposedly vaporizing everything in their path, Chicken Little realizes he must return Kirby to his parents to save the planet.",
"In the invasion, Buck, having regained his pride and trust in his son, defends him from the aliens until they get \"vaporized.\" The aliens, however, are not actually vaporizing people but teleporting them aboard the UFO. It turns out the aliens were touring Earth and came across the town for its acorns. Their ship has broken camo panels that fell and hit Chicken Little on the head. After everything is explained, the apologetic aliens return everything to normal, and everyone is grateful for Chicken Little's efforts to save the town.",
"Another year later, Chicken Little, Buck, his friends and the citizens of Oakey Oaks watch an in\\-universe movie depicting a fanciful retelling of the events that transpired, portraying Chicken Little as an action hero named Ace.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Retired [vet](/wiki/Veterinarian "Veterinarian") Amandus ([Dieter Hallervorden](/wiki/Dieter_Hallervorden "Dieter Hallervorden")) suffers from [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease"). A speech he holds at his wife Margarete's funeral reveals his deteriorating mental state. When his son Niko ([Til Schweiger](/wiki/Til_Schweiger "Til Schweiger")) and his granddaughter Tilda ([Emma Schweiger](/wiki/Emma_Schweiger "Emma Schweiger")) visit him, they see that he can no longer live on his own because of his mental condition. Niko convinces Amandus to move into his house near [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg").
Niko is married to Sarah ([Jeanette Hain](/wiki/Jeanette_Hain "Jeanette Hain")), but their marriage is in danger because his wife has a romance with her boss Serge ([Jan Josef Liefers](/wiki/Jan_Josef_Liefers "Jan Josef Liefers")). Amandus's presence in the household causes disputes between Niko and Sarah. For example, Amandus nearly causes a fire in the kitchen while trying to bake a cake, which Sarah only prevents in the nick of time.
While Amandus's mental state continues to degrade, a summer fête is thrown in the garden. Because of his disease, Amandus causes a disaster which leads to Sarah moving out. Niko now believes that moving his father to a [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") has become inevitable, however his daughter Tilda does not think that this is the way Amandus should be treated. Instead, she wants to travel to [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") with her grandfather, where he and his wife Margarete had spent their honeymoon. Tilda is told by her [paediatrician](/wiki/Paediatrician "Paediatrician") Dr. Ehlers ([Tilo Prückner](/wiki/Tilo_Pr%C3%BCckner "Tilo Prückner")) that visiting places the sick person knows well can help living with the disease. They start their trip by car, but soon get into a car crash which is caused by Amandus ignoring a red traffic light. Tilda then decides that they should go by train, which also fails when Amandus accidentally leaves the train. Tilda pulls the [emergency brake](/wiki/Emergency_brake_%28train%29 "Emergency brake (train)") to stop the train and runs after him. The police are now searching for them, so they hide in a toilet cabin. In the evening, the janitor Erdal ([Fahri Yardim](/wiki/Fahri_Yardim "Fahri Yardim")) finds them and helps the two continue their journey to Venice. Going by a sheep lorry, they get stopped by the police but manage to flee before they get caught, and find shelter in a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery"). The Mother Superior ([Claudia Michelsen](/wiki/Claudia_Michelsen "Claudia Michelsen")) is so touched by their story that she drives Tilda and Amandus to Venice.
Niko and Sarah also arrive in Venice, looking for Tilda and Amandus. They check into the same hotel as Niko and Sarah, but they don't notice each other. Amandus leaves the hotel at night. Tilda notices in the morning, goes looking for him, and finds him sitting on a bench. It is revealed that while on honeymoon in Venice, Amandus had sat on that bench with his wife Margarete. His condition has advanced so far that he forgets he has a granddaughter, so he doesn't recognise Tilda. At that moment, Niko and Sarah find Tilda and Amandus, and the four travel back to Hamburg.
Sarah decides to [stop working](/wiki/Career_break "Career break") so that she can take care of Amandus. The marriage of Niko and Sarah is saved when Sarah gives birth to a baby boy nine months later, whom they name after his grandfather. Amandus spends his remaining days contently with his family, and dies of cardiac failure in Tilda's presence. At the funeral, Tilda lies in the grass and looks to the sky, because Amandus had promised he would protect her from heaven.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Retired [vet](/wiki/Veterinarian \"Veterinarian\") Amandus ([Dieter Hallervorden](/wiki/Dieter_Hallervorden \"Dieter Hallervorden\")) suffers from [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\"). A speech he holds at his wife Margarete's funeral reveals his deteriorating mental state. When his son Niko ([Til Schweiger](/wiki/Til_Schweiger \"Til Schweiger\")) and his granddaughter Tilda ([Emma Schweiger](/wiki/Emma_Schweiger \"Emma Schweiger\")) visit him, they see that he can no longer live on his own because of his mental condition. Niko convinces Amandus to move into his house near [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\").",
"Niko is married to Sarah ([Jeanette Hain](/wiki/Jeanette_Hain \"Jeanette Hain\")), but their marriage is in danger because his wife has a romance with her boss Serge ([Jan Josef Liefers](/wiki/Jan_Josef_Liefers \"Jan Josef Liefers\")). Amandus's presence in the household causes disputes between Niko and Sarah. For example, Amandus nearly causes a fire in the kitchen while trying to bake a cake, which Sarah only prevents in the nick of time.",
"While Amandus's mental state continues to degrade, a summer fête is thrown in the garden. Because of his disease, Amandus causes a disaster which leads to Sarah moving out. Niko now believes that moving his father to a [retirement home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") has become inevitable, however his daughter Tilda does not think that this is the way Amandus should be treated. Instead, she wants to travel to [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") with her grandfather, where he and his wife Margarete had spent their honeymoon. Tilda is told by her [paediatrician](/wiki/Paediatrician \"Paediatrician\") Dr. Ehlers ([Tilo Prückner](/wiki/Tilo_Pr%C3%BCckner \"Tilo Prückner\")) that visiting places the sick person knows well can help living with the disease. They start their trip by car, but soon get into a car crash which is caused by Amandus ignoring a red traffic light. Tilda then decides that they should go by train, which also fails when Amandus accidentally leaves the train. Tilda pulls the [emergency brake](/wiki/Emergency_brake_%28train%29 \"Emergency brake (train)\") to stop the train and runs after him. The police are now searching for them, so they hide in a toilet cabin. In the evening, the janitor Erdal ([Fahri Yardim](/wiki/Fahri_Yardim \"Fahri Yardim\")) finds them and helps the two continue their journey to Venice. Going by a sheep lorry, they get stopped by the police but manage to flee before they get caught, and find shelter in a [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\"). The Mother Superior ([Claudia Michelsen](/wiki/Claudia_Michelsen \"Claudia Michelsen\")) is so touched by their story that she drives Tilda and Amandus to Venice.",
"Niko and Sarah also arrive in Venice, looking for Tilda and Amandus. They check into the same hotel as Niko and Sarah, but they don't notice each other. Amandus leaves the hotel at night. Tilda notices in the morning, goes looking for him, and finds him sitting on a bench. It is revealed that while on honeymoon in Venice, Amandus had sat on that bench with his wife Margarete. His condition has advanced so far that he forgets he has a granddaughter, so he doesn't recognise Tilda. At that moment, Niko and Sarah find Tilda and Amandus, and the four travel back to Hamburg.",
"Sarah decides to [stop working](/wiki/Career_break \"Career break\") so that she can take care of Amandus. The marriage of Niko and Sarah is saved when Sarah gives birth to a baby boy nine months later, whom they name after his grandfather. Amandus spends his remaining days contently with his family, and dies of cardiac failure in Tilda's presence. At the funeral, Tilda lies in the grass and looks to the sky, because Amandus had promised he would protect her from heaven.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Bandits of Bhind\-Morena and Chambal
The dacoity have had a large impact in the [Bhind](/wiki/Bhind "Bhind") and [Morena](/wiki/Morena "Morena") of [Chambal](/wiki/Chambal_Division "Chambal Division") regions in [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh"), [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan"), [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana "Haryana") and [Uttar Pradesh](/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh") in north\-central India.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/02/dacoit\-highway\-robbers\-in\-india/ \|title\=Trekking India's wild north, where bandits ruled \|author\=Paul Salopek \|work\=National Geographic \|date\=6 February 2019 \|access\-date\=7 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124421/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/02/dacoit\-highway\-robbers\-in\-india/ \|archive\-date\=9 February 2019 \|url\-status\=dead }} The exact reasons for the emergence of dacoity in the Chambal valley have been disputed. Most explanations have suggested feudal exploitation as the cause that provoked many people in this region to take arms. The area was also underdeveloped and poor, so banditry posed great economic incentives. However, the fact that many gangs operating in this valley were composed of higher castes and wealthy people appears to suggest that feudalism may only be a partial explanation of dacoity in Chambal Valley (Bhaduri, 1972; Khan, 1981; Jatar, 1980; Katare, 1972\). Furthermore, traditional honour codes and [blood feuds](/wiki/Blood_feud "Blood feud") would drive some into criminality.
In Chambal, India, organized crime controlled much of the countryside from the time of the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj") up to the early 2000s, with the police offering high rewards for the most notorious bandit chiefs. The criminals regularly targeted local businesses, though they preferred to kidnap wealthy people and demand ransom from their relatives \- cutting off fingers, noses, and ears to pressure them into paying high sums. Many dacoity also posed as [social bandits](/wiki/Social_bandit "Social bandit") toward the local poor, paying medical bills and funding weddings. One ex\-dacoit described his criminal past by claiming that "I was a rebel. I fought injustice." Following intense anti\-banditry campaigns by the Indian Police, highway robbery was almost completely eradicated in the early 2000s. Nevertheless, Chambal is still popularly believed to be unsafe and bandit\-infested by many Indians. One police officer noted that the fading of dacoity was also due to social changes, as few young people were any longer willing to endure the harsh life of highway robbers in the countryside. Instead, they prefer to join crime groups in the city, where life is easier.
### Dacoits in Bengal
While thugs and dacoits operating in northern and central India are more popularly known and referenced in books, films, and academic journals, a significant number of accounts also come from Bengal. Writing about the dacoits of Bengal, the colonial official CH Keighly mentions the “great difference between gangs of hereditary dacoits or thugs in other parts of India and the dacoits of Bengal”.{{Cite journal \|last\=Das \|first\=Suranjan \|date\=26 April 2016 \|title\=Behind the Blackened Faces: The 19th Century Bengali Dacoits \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40276503 \|journal\=Economic and Political Weekly \|volume\=42 \|issue\=35 \|pages\=3573–3579 \|jstor\=40276503 \|via\=JSTOR}} It is notable that, unlike the rest of India, dacoits in Bengal did not come from a particular social class, caste, or creed.
#### The Gangs of Nadia and Hooghly
Dacoit gangs in Nadia and Hooghly were mainly known for their ceremonial practices before the night of dacoity. Before setting off for their mission, the members would assemble to perform “kalipuja” led by the Sirdar (leader). The dacoits would form a straight line, and a pot of liquor, torches, and weapons to be used in the dacoity would be laid down in a clear space. The Sirdar would then dip his finger in oil and touch the forehead of all the dacoits, making them promise never to confess. Even during the raid, when dacoits opened chests and discovered a good fortune, they would shout “Kali, Jai Kali”.
#### Dacoits of Birbhum
Dacoity was prevalent in 19th century West Bengal. One of the gangs, led by a charismatic leader named Bhabani Pathak, was known for its loyalty to their leader. After the British captured Bhabani, the inner workings and social factors that led to the construction of this gang were revealed. Leaders such as Bhabani were known as Sirdars and had a symbiotic relationship with their followers. Among other benefits, a Sirdar would lend loans to members and provide them protection. This allowed for the formation of a special bond between Sirdar and his followers, which meant that cases of desertion and exiting the gang were virtually unheard of.
#### Tales of Burdwan
In Burdwan, dacoities were heavily planned, and considerable thought was put into their seamless execution. Sirdars in Burdwan employed several informants who kept them updated about prospective targets. When a target was finalized, the Sirdar and relevant gang members were constantly made aware of his whereabouts. The informants were always on the lookout for wealthy business people and kept a close watch on those who exchanged bank notes of considerable value or received a shipment of merchandise they would store in their houses.
### Other dacoity
The term is also applied, according to the *[OED](/wiki/OED "OED")*, to "pirates who formerly infested the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") between [Calcutta](/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata") and [Burhampore](/wiki/Baharampur "Baharampur")".
Dacoits existed in Burma as well—[Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling "Rudyard Kipling")'s fictional Private Mulvaney hunted Burmese dacoits in "[The Taking of Lungtungpen](/wiki/The_Taking_of_Lungtungpen "The Taking of Lungtungpen")." [Sax Rohmer](/wiki/Sax_Rohmer "Sax Rohmer") 's criminal mastermind [Dr. Fu Manchu](/wiki/Fu_Manchu "Fu Manchu") also employed Burmese dacoits as his [henchmen](/wiki/Henchmen "Henchmen").
Indian police forces use "Known Dacoit" (K.D.) as a label to classify criminals.
### Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Act
Introduced in 1836, the suppression acts brought about several legislative measures, including establishing special courts, authorization for using rewards for informants, and the power to arrest suspects.{{Cite journal \|last\=Singha \|first\=Radhika \|date\=1993 \|title\='Providential' Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/312879 \|journal\=Modern Asian Studies \|volume\=27 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=83–146 \|doi\=10\.1017/S0026749X00016085 \|jstor\=312879 \|s2cid\=145536132 \|issn\=0026\-749X}} The suppression acts marked the beginning of active British intervention in policing and law enforcement in Indian society. These acts were known to be authoritarian and further deepened the uneven power dynamic between the British and the Indians.
### British Portrayal of Crime in India
The British often saw Indians as primitive, violent, and unruly, and this often acted as a justification for colonization and further consolidated their “civilization mission” pretext. The practice of [thuggee](/wiki/Thuggee "Thuggee") and dacoity was seen in a similar Eurocentric light without understanding the local context. An orientalist view of such activities was portrayed in the rest of the world to account for several repressive legislative measures that the British took. Under this punitive approach, several innocent individuals fell prey to false suspicion and were incriminated.{{Cite journal \|last\=Brown \|first\=Mark \|date\=2002 \|title\=CRIME, GOVERNANCE AND THE COMPANY RAJ: The Discovery of Thuggee \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23638761 \|journal\=The British Journal of Criminology \|volume\=42 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=77–95 \|doi\=10\.1093/bjc/42\.1\.77 \|jstor\=23638761 \|issn\=0007\-0955}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Bandits of Bhind\\-Morena and Chambal",
"The dacoity have had a large impact in the [Bhind](/wiki/Bhind \"Bhind\") and [Morena](/wiki/Morena \"Morena\") of [Chambal](/wiki/Chambal_Division \"Chambal Division\") regions in [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh \"Madhya Pradesh\"), [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan \"Rajasthan\"), [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana \"Haryana\") and [Uttar Pradesh](/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh \"Uttar Pradesh\") in north\\-central India.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/02/dacoit\\-highway\\-robbers\\-in\\-india/ \\|title\\=Trekking India's wild north, where bandits ruled \\|author\\=Paul Salopek \\|work\\=National Geographic \\|date\\=6 February 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124421/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/02/dacoit\\-highway\\-robbers\\-in\\-india/ \\|archive\\-date\\=9 February 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The exact reasons for the emergence of dacoity in the Chambal valley have been disputed. Most explanations have suggested feudal exploitation as the cause that provoked many people in this region to take arms. The area was also underdeveloped and poor, so banditry posed great economic incentives. However, the fact that many gangs operating in this valley were composed of higher castes and wealthy people appears to suggest that feudalism may only be a partial explanation of dacoity in Chambal Valley (Bhaduri, 1972; Khan, 1981; Jatar, 1980; Katare, 1972\\). Furthermore, traditional honour codes and [blood feuds](/wiki/Blood_feud \"Blood feud\") would drive some into criminality.",
"In Chambal, India, organized crime controlled much of the countryside from the time of the [British Raj](/wiki/British_Raj \"British Raj\") up to the early 2000s, with the police offering high rewards for the most notorious bandit chiefs. The criminals regularly targeted local businesses, though they preferred to kidnap wealthy people and demand ransom from their relatives \\- cutting off fingers, noses, and ears to pressure them into paying high sums. Many dacoity also posed as [social bandits](/wiki/Social_bandit \"Social bandit\") toward the local poor, paying medical bills and funding weddings. One ex\\-dacoit described his criminal past by claiming that \"I was a rebel. I fought injustice.\" Following intense anti\\-banditry campaigns by the Indian Police, highway robbery was almost completely eradicated in the early 2000s. Nevertheless, Chambal is still popularly believed to be unsafe and bandit\\-infested by many Indians. One police officer noted that the fading of dacoity was also due to social changes, as few young people were any longer willing to endure the harsh life of highway robbers in the countryside. Instead, they prefer to join crime groups in the city, where life is easier.",
"### Dacoits in Bengal",
"While thugs and dacoits operating in northern and central India are more popularly known and referenced in books, films, and academic journals, a significant number of accounts also come from Bengal. Writing about the dacoits of Bengal, the colonial official CH Keighly mentions the “great difference between gangs of hereditary dacoits or thugs in other parts of India and the dacoits of Bengal”.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Das \\|first\\=Suranjan \\|date\\=26 April 2016 \\|title\\=Behind the Blackened Faces: The 19th Century Bengali Dacoits \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40276503 \\|journal\\=Economic and Political Weekly \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=35 \\|pages\\=3573–3579 \\|jstor\\=40276503 \\|via\\=JSTOR}} It is notable that, unlike the rest of India, dacoits in Bengal did not come from a particular social class, caste, or creed.",
"#### The Gangs of Nadia and Hooghly",
"Dacoit gangs in Nadia and Hooghly were mainly known for their ceremonial practices before the night of dacoity. Before setting off for their mission, the members would assemble to perform “kalipuja” led by the Sirdar (leader). The dacoits would form a straight line, and a pot of liquor, torches, and weapons to be used in the dacoity would be laid down in a clear space. The Sirdar would then dip his finger in oil and touch the forehead of all the dacoits, making them promise never to confess. Even during the raid, when dacoits opened chests and discovered a good fortune, they would shout “Kali, Jai Kali”.",
"#### Dacoits of Birbhum",
"Dacoity was prevalent in 19th century West Bengal. One of the gangs, led by a charismatic leader named Bhabani Pathak, was known for its loyalty to their leader. After the British captured Bhabani, the inner workings and social factors that led to the construction of this gang were revealed. Leaders such as Bhabani were known as Sirdars and had a symbiotic relationship with their followers. Among other benefits, a Sirdar would lend loans to members and provide them protection. This allowed for the formation of a special bond between Sirdar and his followers, which meant that cases of desertion and exiting the gang were virtually unheard of.",
"#### Tales of Burdwan",
"In Burdwan, dacoities were heavily planned, and considerable thought was put into their seamless execution. Sirdars in Burdwan employed several informants who kept them updated about prospective targets. When a target was finalized, the Sirdar and relevant gang members were constantly made aware of his whereabouts. The informants were always on the lookout for wealthy business people and kept a close watch on those who exchanged bank notes of considerable value or received a shipment of merchandise they would store in their houses.",
"### Other dacoity",
"The term is also applied, according to the *[OED](/wiki/OED \"OED\")*, to \"pirates who formerly infested the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges \"Ganges\") between [Calcutta](/wiki/Kolkata \"Kolkata\") and [Burhampore](/wiki/Baharampur \"Baharampur\")\".",
"Dacoits existed in Burma as well—[Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\")'s fictional Private Mulvaney hunted Burmese dacoits in \"[The Taking of Lungtungpen](/wiki/The_Taking_of_Lungtungpen \"The Taking of Lungtungpen\").\" [Sax Rohmer](/wiki/Sax_Rohmer \"Sax Rohmer\") 's criminal mastermind [Dr. Fu Manchu](/wiki/Fu_Manchu \"Fu Manchu\") also employed Burmese dacoits as his [henchmen](/wiki/Henchmen \"Henchmen\").",
"Indian police forces use \"Known Dacoit\" (K.D.) as a label to classify criminals.",
"### Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Act",
"Introduced in 1836, the suppression acts brought about several legislative measures, including establishing special courts, authorization for using rewards for informants, and the power to arrest suspects.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Singha \\|first\\=Radhika \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\='Providential' Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/312879 \\|journal\\=Modern Asian Studies \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=83–146 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0026749X00016085 \\|jstor\\=312879 \\|s2cid\\=145536132 \\|issn\\=0026\\-749X}} The suppression acts marked the beginning of active British intervention in policing and law enforcement in Indian society. These acts were known to be authoritarian and further deepened the uneven power dynamic between the British and the Indians.",
"### British Portrayal of Crime in India",
"The British often saw Indians as primitive, violent, and unruly, and this often acted as a justification for colonization and further consolidated their “civilization mission” pretext. The practice of [thuggee](/wiki/Thuggee \"Thuggee\") and dacoity was seen in a similar Eurocentric light without understanding the local context. An orientalist view of such activities was portrayed in the rest of the world to account for several repressive legislative measures that the British took. Under this punitive approach, several innocent individuals fell prey to false suspicion and were incriminated.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=2002 \\|title\\=CRIME, GOVERNANCE AND THE COMPANY RAJ: The Discovery of Thuggee \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23638761 \\|journal\\=The British Journal of Criminology \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=77–95 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/bjc/42\\.1\\.77 \\|jstor\\=23638761 \\|issn\\=0007\\-0955}}",
""
] |
In popular culture
------------------
### Dacoit films
As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various [Hindi films](/wiki/Hindi_films "Hindi films") made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in [Hindi Film Industry](/wiki/Hindi_Film_Industry "Hindi Film Industry").{{cite news \|url\=https://outofedenwalk.nationalgeographic.org:443/articles/2019\-02\-last\-dacoits/ \|date\=6 February 2019 \|title\=Outlaw Trails \|first\=Paul \|last\=Salopek \|publisher\=\[\[National Geographic Society]] \|quote\=They have grown up on news accounts and Bollywood movies about the remote Chambal, a vast badland at the northern heart of their country: a no\-go zone of lumpy hills and silty rivers infested with thugs, robbers, murderers, gangsters—with infamous highwaymen called dacoits. \|access\-date\=13 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002744/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out\-of\-eden\-walk/articles/2019\-02\-last\-dacoits/ \|archive\-date\=14 February 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} The genre began with [Mehboob Khan](/wiki/Mehboob_Khan "Mehboob Khan")'s *[Aurat](/wiki/Aurat_%281940_film%29 "Aurat (1940 film)")* (1940\), which he remade as *[Mother India](/wiki/Mother_India "Mother India")* (1957\). *Mother India* received an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with [Dilip Kumar](/wiki/Dilip_Kumar "Dilip Kumar")'s *[Gunga Jumna](/wiki/Gunga_Jumna "Gunga Jumna")* (1961\).{{cite book\|last\=Teo\|first\=Stephen\|title\=Eastern Westerns: Film and Genre Outside and Inside Hollywood\|date\=2017\|publisher\=\[\[Taylor \& Francis]]\|isbn\=9781317592266\|page\=122\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA122\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130151204/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA122\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-30\|url\-status\=live}} Other popular films in this genre included [Raj Kapoor](/wiki/Raj_Kapoor "Raj Kapoor")’s *[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai](/wiki/Jis_Desh_Mein_Ganga_Behti_Hai "Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai")* (1961\) and [Moni Bhattacharjee](/wiki/Moni_Bhattacharjee "Moni Bhattacharjee")'s *[Mujhe Jeene Do](/wiki/Mujhe_Jeene_Do "Mujhe Jeene Do")* (1963\).{{cite magazine\|title\=The Real Life Hero\|url\=http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\-REAL\-LIFE\-HERO/318575/\|date\=Jun 6, 2008\|magazine\=\[\[Screen (magazine)\|Screen]]\|access\-date\=1 October 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100303083722/http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\-REAL\-LIFE\-HERO/318575/\|archive\-date\=3 March 2010\|url\-status\=dead}}
Pakistani actor [Akmal Khan](/wiki/Akmal_Khan "Akmal Khan") had two dacoit films, *[Malangi](/wiki/Malangi "Malangi")* (1965\) and *[Imam Din Gohavia](/wiki/Imam_Din_Gohavia "Imam Din Gohavia")* (1967\). Other films in this genre included *[Khote Sikkay](/wiki/Khote_Sikkay "Khote Sikkay")* (1973\), *[Mera Gaon Mera Desh](/wiki/Mera_Gaon_Mera_Desh "Mera Gaon Mera Desh")* (1971\), and *[Kuchhe Dhaage](/wiki/Kuchhe_Dhaage "Kuchhe Dhaage")* (1973\) both by [Raj Khosla](/wiki/Raj_Khosla "Raj Khosla").
The most famous dacoit film is *[Sholay](/wiki/Sholay "Sholay")* (1975\), written by [Salim–Javed](/wiki/Salim%E2%80%93Javed "Salim–Javed"), and starring [Dharmendra](/wiki/Dharmendra "Dharmendra"), [Amitabh Bachchan](/wiki/Amitabh_Bachchan "Amitabh Bachchan"), and [Amjad Khan](/wiki/Amjad_Khan_%28actor%29 "Amjad Khan (actor)") as the dacoit character [Gabbar Singh](/wiki/Gabbar_Singh_%28character%29 "Gabbar Singh (character)"). It was a [masala film](/wiki/Masala_film "Masala film") that combined the dacoit film conventions of *Mother India* and *Gunga Jumna* with that of [Spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western "Spaghetti Western"), spawning the "Dacoit Western" genre, also known as the "Curry Western" genre. The film also borrowed elements from [Akira Kurosawa](/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa "Akira Kurosawa")'s *[Seven Samurai](/wiki/Seven_Samurai "Seven Samurai")*.{{cite news\|title\=G. P. Sippy, Indian Filmmaker Whose ''Sholay'' Was a Bollywood Hit, Dies at 93 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2011 \|first\=Haresh \|last\=Pandya \|date\=27 December 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828135232/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \|archive\-date\=28 August 2011 }} *Sholay* became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including *[Ganga Ki Saugandh](/wiki/Ganga_Ki_Saugandh "Ganga Ki Saugandh")* (1978\), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan.
An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is *[Bandit Queen](/wiki/Bandit_Queen "Bandit Queen")* (1994\).
The Tamil movie starring [Karthi](/wiki/Karthi "Karthi"), *[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru](/wiki/Theeran_Adhigaaram_Ondru "Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru")* (2017\) deals elaborately with bandits. The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005\. Director [Vinoth](/wiki/H._Vinoth "H. Vinoth") did a two\-year research about bandits to develop the script.
A related genre of crime films are [Mumbai underworld films](/wiki/Mumbai_underworld_films "Mumbai underworld films").
### Other media
Bengali novel *[Devi Chowdhurani](/wiki/Devi_Chaudhurani "Devi Chaudhurani")* by author [Bankim Chandra Chatterjee](/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chatterjee "Bankim Chandra Chatterjee") in 1867\.
Bengali poem *[Birpurush](/wiki/Birpurush_%28poem%29 "Birpurush (poem)")* by [Rabindranath Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore "Rabindranath Tagore") in 1903\.
A Hindi novel named *Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity* (1977\) was written by [Surender Mohan Pathak](/wiki/Surender_Mohan_Pathak "Surender Mohan Pathak"); it was translated as *[The 65 Lakh Heist](/wiki/The_65_Lakh_Heist "The 65 Lakh Heist")*.
Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in *[Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties](/wiki/Age_of_Empires_III:Asian_Dynasties "Asian Dynasties")*.
They frequently appeared in the French language *[Bob Morane](/wiki/Bob_Morane "Bob Morane")* series of novels by [Henri Vernes](/wiki/Henri_Vernes "Henri Vernes"), principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu.
|
[
"In popular culture\n------------------",
"### Dacoit films",
"As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various [Hindi films](/wiki/Hindi_films \"Hindi films\") made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in [Hindi Film Industry](/wiki/Hindi_Film_Industry \"Hindi Film Industry\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://outofedenwalk.nationalgeographic.org:443/articles/2019\\-02\\-last\\-dacoits/ \\|date\\=6 February 2019 \\|title\\=Outlaw Trails \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Salopek \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Geographic Society]] \\|quote\\=They have grown up on news accounts and Bollywood movies about the remote Chambal, a vast badland at the northern heart of their country: a no\\-go zone of lumpy hills and silty rivers infested with thugs, robbers, murderers, gangsters—with infamous highwaymen called dacoits. \\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002744/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out\\-of\\-eden\\-walk/articles/2019\\-02\\-last\\-dacoits/ \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The genre began with [Mehboob Khan](/wiki/Mehboob_Khan \"Mehboob Khan\")'s *[Aurat](/wiki/Aurat_%281940_film%29 \"Aurat (1940 film)\")* (1940\\), which he remade as *[Mother India](/wiki/Mother_India \"Mother India\")* (1957\\). *Mother India* received an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with [Dilip Kumar](/wiki/Dilip_Kumar \"Dilip Kumar\")'s *[Gunga Jumna](/wiki/Gunga_Jumna \"Gunga Jumna\")* (1961\\).{{cite book\\|last\\=Teo\\|first\\=Stephen\\|title\\=Eastern Westerns: Film and Genre Outside and Inside Hollywood\\|date\\=2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Taylor \\& Francis]]\\|isbn\\=9781317592266\\|page\\=122\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA122\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130151204/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA122\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Other popular films in this genre included [Raj Kapoor](/wiki/Raj_Kapoor \"Raj Kapoor\")’s *[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai](/wiki/Jis_Desh_Mein_Ganga_Behti_Hai \"Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai\")* (1961\\) and [Moni Bhattacharjee](/wiki/Moni_Bhattacharjee \"Moni Bhattacharjee\")'s *[Mujhe Jeene Do](/wiki/Mujhe_Jeene_Do \"Mujhe Jeene Do\")* (1963\\).{{cite magazine\\|title\\=The Real Life Hero\\|url\\=http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\\-REAL\\-LIFE\\-HERO/318575/\\|date\\=Jun 6, 2008\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Screen (magazine)\\|Screen]]\\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100303083722/http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\\-REAL\\-LIFE\\-HERO/318575/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Pakistani actor [Akmal Khan](/wiki/Akmal_Khan \"Akmal Khan\") had two dacoit films, *[Malangi](/wiki/Malangi \"Malangi\")* (1965\\) and *[Imam Din Gohavia](/wiki/Imam_Din_Gohavia \"Imam Din Gohavia\")* (1967\\). Other films in this genre included *[Khote Sikkay](/wiki/Khote_Sikkay \"Khote Sikkay\")* (1973\\), *[Mera Gaon Mera Desh](/wiki/Mera_Gaon_Mera_Desh \"Mera Gaon Mera Desh\")* (1971\\), and *[Kuchhe Dhaage](/wiki/Kuchhe_Dhaage \"Kuchhe Dhaage\")* (1973\\) both by [Raj Khosla](/wiki/Raj_Khosla \"Raj Khosla\").",
"The most famous dacoit film is *[Sholay](/wiki/Sholay \"Sholay\")* (1975\\), written by [Salim–Javed](/wiki/Salim%E2%80%93Javed \"Salim–Javed\"), and starring [Dharmendra](/wiki/Dharmendra \"Dharmendra\"), [Amitabh Bachchan](/wiki/Amitabh_Bachchan \"Amitabh Bachchan\"), and [Amjad Khan](/wiki/Amjad_Khan_%28actor%29 \"Amjad Khan (actor)\") as the dacoit character [Gabbar Singh](/wiki/Gabbar_Singh_%28character%29 \"Gabbar Singh (character)\"). It was a [masala film](/wiki/Masala_film \"Masala film\") that combined the dacoit film conventions of *Mother India* and *Gunga Jumna* with that of [Spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western \"Spaghetti Western\"), spawning the \"Dacoit Western\" genre, also known as the \"Curry Western\" genre. The film also borrowed elements from [Akira Kurosawa](/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa \"Akira Kurosawa\")'s *[Seven Samurai](/wiki/Seven_Samurai \"Seven Samurai\")*.{{cite news\\|title\\=G. P. Sippy, Indian Filmmaker Whose ''Sholay'' Was a Bollywood Hit, Dies at 93 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2011 \\|first\\=Haresh \\|last\\=Pandya \\|date\\=27 December 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828135232/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2011 }} *Sholay* became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including *[Ganga Ki Saugandh](/wiki/Ganga_Ki_Saugandh \"Ganga Ki Saugandh\")* (1978\\), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan.",
"An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is *[Bandit Queen](/wiki/Bandit_Queen \"Bandit Queen\")* (1994\\).",
"The Tamil movie starring [Karthi](/wiki/Karthi \"Karthi\"), *[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru](/wiki/Theeran_Adhigaaram_Ondru \"Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru\")* (2017\\) deals elaborately with bandits. The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005\\. Director [Vinoth](/wiki/H._Vinoth \"H. Vinoth\") did a two\\-year research about bandits to develop the script.",
"A related genre of crime films are [Mumbai underworld films](/wiki/Mumbai_underworld_films \"Mumbai underworld films\").",
"### Other media",
"Bengali novel *[Devi Chowdhurani](/wiki/Devi_Chaudhurani \"Devi Chaudhurani\")* by author [Bankim Chandra Chatterjee](/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chatterjee \"Bankim Chandra Chatterjee\") in 1867\\.",
"Bengali poem *[Birpurush](/wiki/Birpurush_%28poem%29 \"Birpurush (poem)\")* by [Rabindranath Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore \"Rabindranath Tagore\") in 1903\\.",
"A Hindi novel named *Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity* (1977\\) was written by [Surender Mohan Pathak](/wiki/Surender_Mohan_Pathak \"Surender Mohan Pathak\"); it was translated as *[The 65 Lakh Heist](/wiki/The_65_Lakh_Heist \"The 65 Lakh Heist\")*.",
"Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in *[Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties](/wiki/Age_of_Empires_III:Asian_Dynasties \"Asian Dynasties\")*.",
"They frequently appeared in the French language *[Bob Morane](/wiki/Bob_Morane \"Bob Morane\")* series of novels by [Henri Vernes](/wiki/Henri_Vernes \"Henri Vernes\"), principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu.",
""
] |
### Dacoit films
As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various [Hindi films](/wiki/Hindi_films "Hindi films") made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in [Hindi Film Industry](/wiki/Hindi_Film_Industry "Hindi Film Industry").{{cite news \|url\=https://outofedenwalk.nationalgeographic.org:443/articles/2019\-02\-last\-dacoits/ \|date\=6 February 2019 \|title\=Outlaw Trails \|first\=Paul \|last\=Salopek \|publisher\=\[\[National Geographic Society]] \|quote\=They have grown up on news accounts and Bollywood movies about the remote Chambal, a vast badland at the northern heart of their country: a no\-go zone of lumpy hills and silty rivers infested with thugs, robbers, murderers, gangsters—with infamous highwaymen called dacoits. \|access\-date\=13 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002744/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out\-of\-eden\-walk/articles/2019\-02\-last\-dacoits/ \|archive\-date\=14 February 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} The genre began with [Mehboob Khan](/wiki/Mehboob_Khan "Mehboob Khan")'s *[Aurat](/wiki/Aurat_%281940_film%29 "Aurat (1940 film)")* (1940\), which he remade as *[Mother India](/wiki/Mother_India "Mother India")* (1957\). *Mother India* received an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with [Dilip Kumar](/wiki/Dilip_Kumar "Dilip Kumar")'s *[Gunga Jumna](/wiki/Gunga_Jumna "Gunga Jumna")* (1961\).{{cite book\|last\=Teo\|first\=Stephen\|title\=Eastern Westerns: Film and Genre Outside and Inside Hollywood\|date\=2017\|publisher\=\[\[Taylor \& Francis]]\|isbn\=9781317592266\|page\=122\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA122\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130151204/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA122\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-30\|url\-status\=live}} Other popular films in this genre included [Raj Kapoor](/wiki/Raj_Kapoor "Raj Kapoor")’s *[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai](/wiki/Jis_Desh_Mein_Ganga_Behti_Hai "Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai")* (1961\) and [Moni Bhattacharjee](/wiki/Moni_Bhattacharjee "Moni Bhattacharjee")'s *[Mujhe Jeene Do](/wiki/Mujhe_Jeene_Do "Mujhe Jeene Do")* (1963\).{{cite magazine\|title\=The Real Life Hero\|url\=http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\-REAL\-LIFE\-HERO/318575/\|date\=Jun 6, 2008\|magazine\=\[\[Screen (magazine)\|Screen]]\|access\-date\=1 October 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100303083722/http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\-REAL\-LIFE\-HERO/318575/\|archive\-date\=3 March 2010\|url\-status\=dead}}
Pakistani actor [Akmal Khan](/wiki/Akmal_Khan "Akmal Khan") had two dacoit films, *[Malangi](/wiki/Malangi "Malangi")* (1965\) and *[Imam Din Gohavia](/wiki/Imam_Din_Gohavia "Imam Din Gohavia")* (1967\). Other films in this genre included *[Khote Sikkay](/wiki/Khote_Sikkay "Khote Sikkay")* (1973\), *[Mera Gaon Mera Desh](/wiki/Mera_Gaon_Mera_Desh "Mera Gaon Mera Desh")* (1971\), and *[Kuchhe Dhaage](/wiki/Kuchhe_Dhaage "Kuchhe Dhaage")* (1973\) both by [Raj Khosla](/wiki/Raj_Khosla "Raj Khosla").
The most famous dacoit film is *[Sholay](/wiki/Sholay "Sholay")* (1975\), written by [Salim–Javed](/wiki/Salim%E2%80%93Javed "Salim–Javed"), and starring [Dharmendra](/wiki/Dharmendra "Dharmendra"), [Amitabh Bachchan](/wiki/Amitabh_Bachchan "Amitabh Bachchan"), and [Amjad Khan](/wiki/Amjad_Khan_%28actor%29 "Amjad Khan (actor)") as the dacoit character [Gabbar Singh](/wiki/Gabbar_Singh_%28character%29 "Gabbar Singh (character)"). It was a [masala film](/wiki/Masala_film "Masala film") that combined the dacoit film conventions of *Mother India* and *Gunga Jumna* with that of [Spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western "Spaghetti Western"), spawning the "Dacoit Western" genre, also known as the "Curry Western" genre. The film also borrowed elements from [Akira Kurosawa](/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa "Akira Kurosawa")'s *[Seven Samurai](/wiki/Seven_Samurai "Seven Samurai")*.{{cite news\|title\=G. P. Sippy, Indian Filmmaker Whose ''Sholay'' Was a Bollywood Hit, Dies at 93 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=23 February 2011 \|first\=Haresh \|last\=Pandya \|date\=27 December 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828135232/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \|archive\-date\=28 August 2011 }} *Sholay* became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including *[Ganga Ki Saugandh](/wiki/Ganga_Ki_Saugandh "Ganga Ki Saugandh")* (1978\), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan.
An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is *[Bandit Queen](/wiki/Bandit_Queen "Bandit Queen")* (1994\).
The Tamil movie starring [Karthi](/wiki/Karthi "Karthi"), *[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru](/wiki/Theeran_Adhigaaram_Ondru "Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru")* (2017\) deals elaborately with bandits. The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005\. Director [Vinoth](/wiki/H._Vinoth "H. Vinoth") did a two\-year research about bandits to develop the script.
A related genre of crime films are [Mumbai underworld films](/wiki/Mumbai_underworld_films "Mumbai underworld films").
|
[
"### Dacoit films",
"As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various [Hindi films](/wiki/Hindi_films \"Hindi films\") made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in [Hindi Film Industry](/wiki/Hindi_Film_Industry \"Hindi Film Industry\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://outofedenwalk.nationalgeographic.org:443/articles/2019\\-02\\-last\\-dacoits/ \\|date\\=6 February 2019 \\|title\\=Outlaw Trails \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Salopek \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Geographic Society]] \\|quote\\=They have grown up on news accounts and Bollywood movies about the remote Chambal, a vast badland at the northern heart of their country: a no\\-go zone of lumpy hills and silty rivers infested with thugs, robbers, murderers, gangsters—with infamous highwaymen called dacoits. \\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002744/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out\\-of\\-eden\\-walk/articles/2019\\-02\\-last\\-dacoits/ \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The genre began with [Mehboob Khan](/wiki/Mehboob_Khan \"Mehboob Khan\")'s *[Aurat](/wiki/Aurat_%281940_film%29 \"Aurat (1940 film)\")* (1940\\), which he remade as *[Mother India](/wiki/Mother_India \"Mother India\")* (1957\\). *Mother India* received an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with [Dilip Kumar](/wiki/Dilip_Kumar \"Dilip Kumar\")'s *[Gunga Jumna](/wiki/Gunga_Jumna \"Gunga Jumna\")* (1961\\).{{cite book\\|last\\=Teo\\|first\\=Stephen\\|title\\=Eastern Westerns: Film and Genre Outside and Inside Hollywood\\|date\\=2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Taylor \\& Francis]]\\|isbn\\=9781317592266\\|page\\=122\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA122\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130151204/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pi8lDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA122\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Other popular films in this genre included [Raj Kapoor](/wiki/Raj_Kapoor \"Raj Kapoor\")’s *[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai](/wiki/Jis_Desh_Mein_Ganga_Behti_Hai \"Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai\")* (1961\\) and [Moni Bhattacharjee](/wiki/Moni_Bhattacharjee \"Moni Bhattacharjee\")'s *[Mujhe Jeene Do](/wiki/Mujhe_Jeene_Do \"Mujhe Jeene Do\")* (1963\\).{{cite magazine\\|title\\=The Real Life Hero\\|url\\=http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\\-REAL\\-LIFE\\-HERO/318575/\\|date\\=Jun 6, 2008\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Screen (magazine)\\|Screen]]\\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100303083722/http://www.screenindia.com/news/THE\\-REAL\\-LIFE\\-HERO/318575/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Pakistani actor [Akmal Khan](/wiki/Akmal_Khan \"Akmal Khan\") had two dacoit films, *[Malangi](/wiki/Malangi \"Malangi\")* (1965\\) and *[Imam Din Gohavia](/wiki/Imam_Din_Gohavia \"Imam Din Gohavia\")* (1967\\). Other films in this genre included *[Khote Sikkay](/wiki/Khote_Sikkay \"Khote Sikkay\")* (1973\\), *[Mera Gaon Mera Desh](/wiki/Mera_Gaon_Mera_Desh \"Mera Gaon Mera Desh\")* (1971\\), and *[Kuchhe Dhaage](/wiki/Kuchhe_Dhaage \"Kuchhe Dhaage\")* (1973\\) both by [Raj Khosla](/wiki/Raj_Khosla \"Raj Khosla\").",
"The most famous dacoit film is *[Sholay](/wiki/Sholay \"Sholay\")* (1975\\), written by [Salim–Javed](/wiki/Salim%E2%80%93Javed \"Salim–Javed\"), and starring [Dharmendra](/wiki/Dharmendra \"Dharmendra\"), [Amitabh Bachchan](/wiki/Amitabh_Bachchan \"Amitabh Bachchan\"), and [Amjad Khan](/wiki/Amjad_Khan_%28actor%29 \"Amjad Khan (actor)\") as the dacoit character [Gabbar Singh](/wiki/Gabbar_Singh_%28character%29 \"Gabbar Singh (character)\"). It was a [masala film](/wiki/Masala_film \"Masala film\") that combined the dacoit film conventions of *Mother India* and *Gunga Jumna* with that of [Spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western \"Spaghetti Western\"), spawning the \"Dacoit Western\" genre, also known as the \"Curry Western\" genre. The film also borrowed elements from [Akira Kurosawa](/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa \"Akira Kurosawa\")'s *[Seven Samurai](/wiki/Seven_Samurai \"Seven Samurai\")*.{{cite news\\|title\\=G. P. Sippy, Indian Filmmaker Whose ''Sholay'' Was a Bollywood Hit, Dies at 93 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2011 \\|first\\=Haresh \\|last\\=Pandya \\|date\\=27 December 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828135232/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/arts/27Sippy.html \\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2011 }} *Sholay* became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including *[Ganga Ki Saugandh](/wiki/Ganga_Ki_Saugandh \"Ganga Ki Saugandh\")* (1978\\), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan.",
"An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is *[Bandit Queen](/wiki/Bandit_Queen \"Bandit Queen\")* (1994\\).",
"The Tamil movie starring [Karthi](/wiki/Karthi \"Karthi\"), *[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru](/wiki/Theeran_Adhigaaram_Ondru \"Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru\")* (2017\\) deals elaborately with bandits. The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005\\. Director [Vinoth](/wiki/H._Vinoth \"H. Vinoth\") did a two\\-year research about bandits to develop the script.",
"A related genre of crime films are [Mumbai underworld films](/wiki/Mumbai_underworld_films \"Mumbai underworld films\").",
""
] |
### Other media
Bengali novel *[Devi Chowdhurani](/wiki/Devi_Chaudhurani "Devi Chaudhurani")* by author [Bankim Chandra Chatterjee](/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chatterjee "Bankim Chandra Chatterjee") in 1867\.
Bengali poem *[Birpurush](/wiki/Birpurush_%28poem%29 "Birpurush (poem)")* by [Rabindranath Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore "Rabindranath Tagore") in 1903\.
A Hindi novel named *Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity* (1977\) was written by [Surender Mohan Pathak](/wiki/Surender_Mohan_Pathak "Surender Mohan Pathak"); it was translated as *[The 65 Lakh Heist](/wiki/The_65_Lakh_Heist "The 65 Lakh Heist")*.
Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in *[Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties](/wiki/Age_of_Empires_III:Asian_Dynasties "Asian Dynasties")*.
They frequently appeared in the French language *[Bob Morane](/wiki/Bob_Morane "Bob Morane")* series of novels by [Henri Vernes](/wiki/Henri_Vernes "Henri Vernes"), principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu.
|
[
"### Other media",
"Bengali novel *[Devi Chowdhurani](/wiki/Devi_Chaudhurani \"Devi Chaudhurani\")* by author [Bankim Chandra Chatterjee](/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chatterjee \"Bankim Chandra Chatterjee\") in 1867\\.",
"Bengali poem *[Birpurush](/wiki/Birpurush_%28poem%29 \"Birpurush (poem)\")* by [Rabindranath Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore \"Rabindranath Tagore\") in 1903\\.",
"A Hindi novel named *Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity* (1977\\) was written by [Surender Mohan Pathak](/wiki/Surender_Mohan_Pathak \"Surender Mohan Pathak\"); it was translated as *[The 65 Lakh Heist](/wiki/The_65_Lakh_Heist \"The 65 Lakh Heist\")*.",
"Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in *[Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties](/wiki/Age_of_Empires_III:Asian_Dynasties \"Asian Dynasties\")*.",
"They frequently appeared in the French language *[Bob Morane](/wiki/Bob_Morane \"Bob Morane\")* series of novels by [Henri Vernes](/wiki/Henri_Vernes \"Henri Vernes\"), principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu.",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1954, the [Representative](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines "House of Representatives of the Philippines") of the Second District of Negros Occidental, Carlos A. Hilado authored a bill creating the first trade\-technical school in the province, the Negros Occidental School of Arts and Trades in the then [town](/wiki/Town "Town") of Talisay.
In 1984,{{cite web \|title\=Carlos Hilado Memorial State College \|url\=http://www.eskwelahan.net/news/?p\=1165 \|access\-date\=2008\-05\-16 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317013308/http://www.eskwelahan.net/news/?p\=1165 \|archive\-date\=2008\-03\-17 }} Paglaum State College was established by virtue of *Batas Pambansa* No. 477, which caused the merger of three educational institutions in the province of Negros Occidental: Negros Occidental School of Arts and Trades in Talisay, Provincial Community College in Fortune Towne, [Bacolod City](/wiki/Bacolod "Bacolod"), and the Bacolod City National Trade School in Alijis, Bacolod City. *Paglaum* is a [Hiligaynon](/wiki/Hiligaynon_language "Hiligaynon language") word which means "hope".
In 1994, by virtue of Republic Act (RA) no. 7707 authored by Representative Jose Carlos V. Lacson, Paglaum State College was renamed Carlos Hilado Memorial State College in honor of Congressman Carlos A. Hilado.
On November 24, 2000, Carlos Hilado Memorial State College acquired another satellite campus with the integration of the Negros Occidental School of Fisheries in [Binalbagan, Negros Occidental](/wiki/Binalbagan%2C_Negros_Occidental "Binalbagan, Negros Occidental") into the state college.
In 2018, the family of then [E.B. Magalona](/wiki/E.B._Magalona "E.B. Magalona") vice mayor Robert F. Acaling donated a 3\-hectare lot in Barangay Alicante, EB Magalona, to serve as a Research and Extension Center of the university and named it the Jesús Fermin Research and Extension Center. In the same year, Carmen Agricultural Development Inc. also donated a 3\-hectare lot in Barangay San Jose, Binalbagan.
On April 26, 2019, Carlos Hilado Memorial State College was converted into a state university as per law filed by Representatives Greg Gasataya of Bacolod, [Albee Benitez](/wiki/Albee_Benitez "Albee Benitez") of the Third District of Negros Occidental, and Bebot Mirasol of the Fifth District of Negros Occidental, by virtue of Republic Act (RA) no. 11336, which was sponsored by Senator [Bam Aquino](/wiki/Bam_Aquino "Bam Aquino").
On April 19, 2022, the school officially changed its name to Carlos Hilado State University after the [Commission on Higher Education](/wiki/Commission_on_Higher_Education_%28Philippines%29 "Commission on Higher Education (Philippines)") en banc approved the conversion of the school and all its satellite campuses in Bacolod City and Municipality of Binalbagan through Resolution 209–2022 after having been found compliant with the requirements for conversion as stipulated in Section 21 of RA 11336\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1172498\|title\=NegOcc state college officially becomes university\|last\=Guadalquiver\|first\=Nanette\|date\=April 19, 2022\|work\=\[\[Philippine News Agency]]}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1954, the [Representative](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines \"House of Representatives of the Philippines\") of the Second District of Negros Occidental, Carlos A. Hilado authored a bill creating the first trade\\-technical school in the province, the Negros Occidental School of Arts and Trades in the then [town](/wiki/Town \"Town\") of Talisay.",
"In 1984,{{cite web \\|title\\=Carlos Hilado Memorial State College \\|url\\=http://www.eskwelahan.net/news/?p\\=1165 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317013308/http://www.eskwelahan.net/news/?p\\=1165 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-17 }} Paglaum State College was established by virtue of *Batas Pambansa* No. 477, which caused the merger of three educational institutions in the province of Negros Occidental: Negros Occidental School of Arts and Trades in Talisay, Provincial Community College in Fortune Towne, [Bacolod City](/wiki/Bacolod \"Bacolod\"), and the Bacolod City National Trade School in Alijis, Bacolod City. *Paglaum* is a [Hiligaynon](/wiki/Hiligaynon_language \"Hiligaynon language\") word which means \"hope\".",
"In 1994, by virtue of Republic Act (RA) no. 7707 authored by Representative Jose Carlos V. Lacson, Paglaum State College was renamed Carlos Hilado Memorial State College in honor of Congressman Carlos A. Hilado.",
"On November 24, 2000, Carlos Hilado Memorial State College acquired another satellite campus with the integration of the Negros Occidental School of Fisheries in [Binalbagan, Negros Occidental](/wiki/Binalbagan%2C_Negros_Occidental \"Binalbagan, Negros Occidental\") into the state college.",
"In 2018, the family of then [E.B. Magalona](/wiki/E.B._Magalona \"E.B. Magalona\") vice mayor Robert F. Acaling donated a 3\\-hectare lot in Barangay Alicante, EB Magalona, to serve as a Research and Extension Center of the university and named it the Jesús Fermin Research and Extension Center. In the same year, Carmen Agricultural Development Inc. also donated a 3\\-hectare lot in Barangay San Jose, Binalbagan.",
"On April 26, 2019, Carlos Hilado Memorial State College was converted into a state university as per law filed by Representatives Greg Gasataya of Bacolod, [Albee Benitez](/wiki/Albee_Benitez \"Albee Benitez\") of the Third District of Negros Occidental, and Bebot Mirasol of the Fifth District of Negros Occidental, by virtue of Republic Act (RA) no. 11336, which was sponsored by Senator [Bam Aquino](/wiki/Bam_Aquino \"Bam Aquino\").",
"On April 19, 2022, the school officially changed its name to Carlos Hilado State University after the [Commission on Higher Education](/wiki/Commission_on_Higher_Education_%28Philippines%29 \"Commission on Higher Education (Philippines)\") en banc approved the conversion of the school and all its satellite campuses in Bacolod City and Municipality of Binalbagan through Resolution 209–2022 after having been found compliant with the requirements for conversion as stipulated in Section 21 of RA 11336\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1172498\\|title\\=NegOcc state college officially becomes university\\|last\\=Guadalquiver\\|first\\=Nanette\\|date\\=April 19, 2022\\|work\\=\\[\\[Philippine News Agency]]}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Oswald and a big [beagle](/wiki/Beagle "Beagle") are at a cinema watching a documentary about explorers who travel in hot air balloons. The documentary consists of footage of real\-life balloonist [Auguste Piccard](/wiki/Auguste_Piccard "Auguste Piccard").{{cite web
\|url\=http://lantz.goldenagecartoons.com/1934\.html
\|title\=The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia: 1934
\|accessdate\=2011\-06\-03
\|publisher\=The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia}} Oswald is amazed and after the show decides to become a balloonist himself.
At a fairground, a large crowd gathers to see Oswald take off in his balloon. The balloon is a large [hot water bottle](/wiki/Hot_water_bottle "Hot water bottle") and the carriage is a [pot\-bellied stove](/wiki/Pot-bellied_stove "Pot-bellied stove"). Oswald invites the big beagle, who is in the crowd, to join him. The beagle refuses, but as the balloon rises, its anchor snags his pants and pulls them off. Embarrassed, he grabs the anchor and flies away with Oswald.
Oswald's balloon rapidly ascends and goes so far that they reach interplanetary space. They pass through the "Milky Way", populated by bottles of milk, and finally crash land on the planet Mars, much of which seems related to the "martial" topic of war. They see a giant sipping "Nitro Soup" and eating bombs. Oswald and the big beagle flee, only to unknowingly run into the bore of a huge cannon. The cannon shoots them airborne and they land in the giant's soup bowl.
The giant recognizes them as Earthlings, and picks them up with his spoon and tries to eat them. After several attempts which they evade, they fall into a salt shaker. The giant puts the lid on the shaker, trapping them, and then calls for a dance. A variety of animate implements of war then put on a dance, including guns, rockets and gas masks. While the giant is distracted, Oswald and the beagle rock the salt shaker back and forth until they turn it upside down. By putting their legs through the shaker's holes, they are able run. They run into a pitcher, breaking the shaker, at which the giant notices their escape and grabs them.
The pair then find that the whole affair was a dream, as they awaken back in the now\-empty cinema, with the janitor shaking them awake. Nevertheless, they are still frightened and run out of the cinema in a panic, to the bewilderment of the janitor.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Oswald and a big [beagle](/wiki/Beagle \"Beagle\") are at a cinema watching a documentary about explorers who travel in hot air balloons. The documentary consists of footage of real\\-life balloonist [Auguste Piccard](/wiki/Auguste_Piccard \"Auguste Piccard\").{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://lantz.goldenagecartoons.com/1934\\.html\n\\|title\\=The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia: 1934\n\\|accessdate\\=2011\\-06\\-03\n\\|publisher\\=The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia}} Oswald is amazed and after the show decides to become a balloonist himself.",
"At a fairground, a large crowd gathers to see Oswald take off in his balloon. The balloon is a large [hot water bottle](/wiki/Hot_water_bottle \"Hot water bottle\") and the carriage is a [pot\\-bellied stove](/wiki/Pot-bellied_stove \"Pot-bellied stove\"). Oswald invites the big beagle, who is in the crowd, to join him. The beagle refuses, but as the balloon rises, its anchor snags his pants and pulls them off. Embarrassed, he grabs the anchor and flies away with Oswald.",
"Oswald's balloon rapidly ascends and goes so far that they reach interplanetary space. They pass through the \"Milky Way\", populated by bottles of milk, and finally crash land on the planet Mars, much of which seems related to the \"martial\" topic of war. They see a giant sipping \"Nitro Soup\" and eating bombs. Oswald and the big beagle flee, only to unknowingly run into the bore of a huge cannon. The cannon shoots them airborne and they land in the giant's soup bowl.",
"The giant recognizes them as Earthlings, and picks them up with his spoon and tries to eat them. After several attempts which they evade, they fall into a salt shaker. The giant puts the lid on the shaker, trapping them, and then calls for a dance. A variety of animate implements of war then put on a dance, including guns, rockets and gas masks. While the giant is distracted, Oswald and the beagle rock the salt shaker back and forth until they turn it upside down. By putting their legs through the shaker's holes, they are able run. They run into a pitcher, breaking the shaker, at which the giant notices their escape and grabs them.",
"The pair then find that the whole affair was a dream, as they awaken back in the now\\-empty cinema, with the janitor shaking them awake. Nevertheless, they are still frightened and run out of the cinema in a panic, to the bewilderment of the janitor.",
""
] |
Summary
-------
*City Life* continues the very long tradition of [city\-building](/wiki/City-building_game "City-building game") and [construction and management games](/wiki/Construction_and_management_simulation_games "Construction and management simulation games") that was originally started by *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28video_game%29 "Utopia (video game)")* from developer [Don Daglow](/wiki/Don_Daglow "Don Daglow") and [Will Wright](/wiki/Will_Wright_%28game_designer%29 "Will Wright (game designer)")'s *[SimCity](/wiki/SimCity "SimCity")* series by allowing the player to customize their urban city's roads, buildings, finances, ordinances and much more. *City Life* utilizes a [three dimensional](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics "3D computer graphics") [game engine](/wiki/Game_engine "Game engine") in displaying cities, and also includes the requirement to satisfy six different [socioeconomic](/wiki/Socioeconomic "Socioeconomic") groups within the city, an essential part of gameplay. The six groups include the [Elites](/wiki/Elite "Elite"), [Suits](/wiki/White-collar_worker "White-collar worker"), [Radical Chics](/wiki/Radical_chic "Radical chic"), [Fringe](/wiki/Working_class "Working class"), [Blue collars](/wiki/Blue-collar_worker "Blue-collar worker") and [Have\-Nots](/wiki/Proletarian "Proletarian").
### Socioeconomic classes
[250px\|left\|thumb\|Diagram of the relationships between the classes in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:City_Life_Class_Diagram.svg "City Life Class Diagram.svg")
The game classifies city residents into six socioeconomic classes, which are depicted in a circle. Clockwise from the top are Elites, Suits, Blue Collars, Have\-Nots, Fringes, and Radical Chics. Each class can tolerate the two adjacent to it, but is hostile towards the three across the circle. Further, the income generated by businesses focusing on each class is indicated by its height on the circle, Have\-Nots generating the least and Elites generating the most. Lastly, the left side of the circle favors education while the right side favors safety (e.g. police and fire department coverage). The higher classes are of course more demanding. When a city is founded, only Fringes, Have\-Nots, and Blue Collars will settle there. The Suits must be attracted by having good conditions for the Blue Collars, the Radical Chics are attracted by good conditions for the Fringes, and the Elites are attracted by good conditions for both the Suits and the Radical Chics. Due to the literal class warfare, if classes that dislike each other live near each other, they will start riots and make complaints. Much of the gameplay focuses on arranging a city so that this will not occur.
Every business will employ a specific mix of classes; the earlier, less profitable buildings may employ only one class, e.g. six fringe, but later buildings require a mix of several classes to reach their full potential. Thus, a successful city must manage a population of each of the classes.
[thumb\|right\|A city in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:Citylife_screen01.jpg "Citylife screen01.jpg")
As their name implies, the Elites are the most powerful and wealthiest segment of the population. However, they are also the most demanding of the six, requiring quality services in sectors like education, safety, leisure, and environment. Elites are usually attracted to a city by "evolving" from either the Radical Chic or Suit groups. Most of their employment will derive from jobs in the private industry (i.e. private clinics and private colleges,) as well as jobs in large financial institutions. They are, by far, the most lucrative socialculture of the six.
The Radical Chics are ranked among the higher income groups and are as lucrative as the Suits. They are very close to the artistic and creative world and have liberal views and dispositions. Employment for Radical Chics derive from jobs in designing (i.e. clothing and interior spaces,) researching, and cosmetic surgery. Radical Chics get attracted to a city by "evolving" from Fringes. This group favors services in education and retail.
The Suits are a wealthy community whom conduct business transactions within industries. Suits are attracted to a city by "evolving" from Blue Collars. They demand quality services in safety and healthcare among others. Their employment will derive from jobs in financial advising, auditing, accounting, and stock trading.
The Fringes are [artists](/wiki/Artist "Artist") who have low incomes (slightly lower than that of Blue Collars) and are usually fans of cultural activities. They also lean towards liberal views of the world. Fringes are naturally attracted to any city with available housing, though under certain circumstances, they will "evolve" from Have\-Nots. They demand good retail services and adequate educational services. Employment for the Fringes derives primarily from clothing workshops, wood companies, and paranormal activities (i.e. wraith hunters and extraterrestrial landing sites.)
The Blue Collars work in the manufacturing and "dirty" energy industries of the city and have revenues close to that of the Fringes (they are slightly more lucrative, but their workplaces generate more pollution) They represent working class families with traditional values. Blue Collars will usually be attracted to a city with available housing, but under certain circumstances will "evolve" from Have\-Nots. They demand good services for healthcare and decent services for safety. Employment for Blue Collars is usually found in manufacturing, private investigating, fishing companies, and oil derricks/platforms.
The Have\-Not community is the working poor, who are too focused on meeting the most basic needs to concern themselves with the clashing values of the Fringes and Blue Collars. They are the lowest on the scale of power and wealth. Have\-Nots do not demand any services at all. In fact, they are content with having nothing more than a house and a job. Unlike Fringes and Blue Collars, Have\-Nots are not too easily attracted to a city. In order for them to appear, the player will usually have to create a district focusing primarily on Have\-Not jobs and leisure activities. It is also possible to attract Have\-Nots by having Fringes and Blue Collars "devolve" into Have\-Nots. This is achieved when Fringes and Blue Collars remain unemployed for a certain amount of time.
### Economy
*City Life* has a simple economy. Each building has infrastructure costs which are paid by the city to the business, including fixed costs and costs which are related to the number of employees a building requires. Roads, bridges, parks and monuments also count as buildings in this way. Buildings also have indirect costs with regards the energy they consume and waste they produce. Buildings which represent businesses also generate income which is taxed and is paid back to the city. Therefore, the monthly budget for the city (i.e. for the player) is calculated by taking the taxed income and subtracting the infrastructure costs for each building. For example, the basic industrial building has $50 of fixed infrastructure costs and generates up to $100 in revenue tax per worker. When staffed with 3 workers the net profit for the city is thus $250 per month.
However, profits from business are not guaranteed at a fixed rate. For example, building a vegan restaurant in a city with a low population of Radical Chics will result in less than maximum income. Similarly, a casino won't turn maximum profit until there are Elites. In this way, the game forces the player to partially develop the richer communities in order to make their larger businesses viable.
Energy and waste in City Life are also considered a kind of income. Energy or waste management that the city provides for itself is cheaper than buying those services externally. Any surplus energy can be sold for profit, as can excess waste management. For example, a power station generates 5100 points of energy. If the city uses only 3100 energy, then the remaining 2000 energy will be sold and is counted as monthly profit. Incidentally this makes the power station one of the best initial industries for a city since it provides work for Blue Collar and profits are much larger than other industrial businesses.
|
[
"Summary\n-------",
"*City Life* continues the very long tradition of [city\\-building](/wiki/City-building_game \"City-building game\") and [construction and management games](/wiki/Construction_and_management_simulation_games \"Construction and management simulation games\") that was originally started by *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28video_game%29 \"Utopia (video game)\")* from developer [Don Daglow](/wiki/Don_Daglow \"Don Daglow\") and [Will Wright](/wiki/Will_Wright_%28game_designer%29 \"Will Wright (game designer)\")'s *[SimCity](/wiki/SimCity \"SimCity\")* series by allowing the player to customize their urban city's roads, buildings, finances, ordinances and much more. *City Life* utilizes a [three dimensional](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics \"3D computer graphics\") [game engine](/wiki/Game_engine \"Game engine\") in displaying cities, and also includes the requirement to satisfy six different [socioeconomic](/wiki/Socioeconomic \"Socioeconomic\") groups within the city, an essential part of gameplay. The six groups include the [Elites](/wiki/Elite \"Elite\"), [Suits](/wiki/White-collar_worker \"White-collar worker\"), [Radical Chics](/wiki/Radical_chic \"Radical chic\"), [Fringe](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\"), [Blue collars](/wiki/Blue-collar_worker \"Blue-collar worker\") and [Have\\-Nots](/wiki/Proletarian \"Proletarian\").",
"### Socioeconomic classes",
"[250px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Diagram of the relationships between the classes in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:City_Life_Class_Diagram.svg \"City Life Class Diagram.svg\")",
"The game classifies city residents into six socioeconomic classes, which are depicted in a circle. Clockwise from the top are Elites, Suits, Blue Collars, Have\\-Nots, Fringes, and Radical Chics. Each class can tolerate the two adjacent to it, but is hostile towards the three across the circle. Further, the income generated by businesses focusing on each class is indicated by its height on the circle, Have\\-Nots generating the least and Elites generating the most. Lastly, the left side of the circle favors education while the right side favors safety (e.g. police and fire department coverage). The higher classes are of course more demanding. When a city is founded, only Fringes, Have\\-Nots, and Blue Collars will settle there. The Suits must be attracted by having good conditions for the Blue Collars, the Radical Chics are attracted by good conditions for the Fringes, and the Elites are attracted by good conditions for both the Suits and the Radical Chics. Due to the literal class warfare, if classes that dislike each other live near each other, they will start riots and make complaints. Much of the gameplay focuses on arranging a city so that this will not occur.",
"Every business will employ a specific mix of classes; the earlier, less profitable buildings may employ only one class, e.g. six fringe, but later buildings require a mix of several classes to reach their full potential. Thus, a successful city must manage a population of each of the classes.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A city in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:Citylife_screen01.jpg \"Citylife screen01.jpg\")\nAs their name implies, the Elites are the most powerful and wealthiest segment of the population. However, they are also the most demanding of the six, requiring quality services in sectors like education, safety, leisure, and environment. Elites are usually attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from either the Radical Chic or Suit groups. Most of their employment will derive from jobs in the private industry (i.e. private clinics and private colleges,) as well as jobs in large financial institutions. They are, by far, the most lucrative socialculture of the six.",
"The Radical Chics are ranked among the higher income groups and are as lucrative as the Suits. They are very close to the artistic and creative world and have liberal views and dispositions. Employment for Radical Chics derive from jobs in designing (i.e. clothing and interior spaces,) researching, and cosmetic surgery. Radical Chics get attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from Fringes. This group favors services in education and retail.",
"The Suits are a wealthy community whom conduct business transactions within industries. Suits are attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from Blue Collars. They demand quality services in safety and healthcare among others. Their employment will derive from jobs in financial advising, auditing, accounting, and stock trading.",
"The Fringes are [artists](/wiki/Artist \"Artist\") who have low incomes (slightly lower than that of Blue Collars) and are usually fans of cultural activities. They also lean towards liberal views of the world. Fringes are naturally attracted to any city with available housing, though under certain circumstances, they will \"evolve\" from Have\\-Nots. They demand good retail services and adequate educational services. Employment for the Fringes derives primarily from clothing workshops, wood companies, and paranormal activities (i.e. wraith hunters and extraterrestrial landing sites.)",
"The Blue Collars work in the manufacturing and \"dirty\" energy industries of the city and have revenues close to that of the Fringes (they are slightly more lucrative, but their workplaces generate more pollution) They represent working class families with traditional values. Blue Collars will usually be attracted to a city with available housing, but under certain circumstances will \"evolve\" from Have\\-Nots. They demand good services for healthcare and decent services for safety. Employment for Blue Collars is usually found in manufacturing, private investigating, fishing companies, and oil derricks/platforms.",
"The Have\\-Not community is the working poor, who are too focused on meeting the most basic needs to concern themselves with the clashing values of the Fringes and Blue Collars. They are the lowest on the scale of power and wealth. Have\\-Nots do not demand any services at all. In fact, they are content with having nothing more than a house and a job. Unlike Fringes and Blue Collars, Have\\-Nots are not too easily attracted to a city. In order for them to appear, the player will usually have to create a district focusing primarily on Have\\-Not jobs and leisure activities. It is also possible to attract Have\\-Nots by having Fringes and Blue Collars \"devolve\" into Have\\-Nots. This is achieved when Fringes and Blue Collars remain unemployed for a certain amount of time.",
"### Economy",
"*City Life* has a simple economy. Each building has infrastructure costs which are paid by the city to the business, including fixed costs and costs which are related to the number of employees a building requires. Roads, bridges, parks and monuments also count as buildings in this way. Buildings also have indirect costs with regards the energy they consume and waste they produce. Buildings which represent businesses also generate income which is taxed and is paid back to the city. Therefore, the monthly budget for the city (i.e. for the player) is calculated by taking the taxed income and subtracting the infrastructure costs for each building. For example, the basic industrial building has $50 of fixed infrastructure costs and generates up to $100 in revenue tax per worker. When staffed with 3 workers the net profit for the city is thus $250 per month.",
"However, profits from business are not guaranteed at a fixed rate. For example, building a vegan restaurant in a city with a low population of Radical Chics will result in less than maximum income. Similarly, a casino won't turn maximum profit until there are Elites. In this way, the game forces the player to partially develop the richer communities in order to make their larger businesses viable.",
"Energy and waste in City Life are also considered a kind of income. Energy or waste management that the city provides for itself is cheaper than buying those services externally. Any surplus energy can be sold for profit, as can excess waste management. For example, a power station generates 5100 points of energy. If the city uses only 3100 energy, then the remaining 2000 energy will be sold and is counted as monthly profit. Incidentally this makes the power station one of the best initial industries for a city since it provides work for Blue Collar and profits are much larger than other industrial businesses.",
""
] |
### Socioeconomic classes
[250px\|left\|thumb\|Diagram of the relationships between the classes in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:City_Life_Class_Diagram.svg "City Life Class Diagram.svg")
The game classifies city residents into six socioeconomic classes, which are depicted in a circle. Clockwise from the top are Elites, Suits, Blue Collars, Have\-Nots, Fringes, and Radical Chics. Each class can tolerate the two adjacent to it, but is hostile towards the three across the circle. Further, the income generated by businesses focusing on each class is indicated by its height on the circle, Have\-Nots generating the least and Elites generating the most. Lastly, the left side of the circle favors education while the right side favors safety (e.g. police and fire department coverage). The higher classes are of course more demanding. When a city is founded, only Fringes, Have\-Nots, and Blue Collars will settle there. The Suits must be attracted by having good conditions for the Blue Collars, the Radical Chics are attracted by good conditions for the Fringes, and the Elites are attracted by good conditions for both the Suits and the Radical Chics. Due to the literal class warfare, if classes that dislike each other live near each other, they will start riots and make complaints. Much of the gameplay focuses on arranging a city so that this will not occur.
Every business will employ a specific mix of classes; the earlier, less profitable buildings may employ only one class, e.g. six fringe, but later buildings require a mix of several classes to reach their full potential. Thus, a successful city must manage a population of each of the classes.
[thumb\|right\|A city in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:Citylife_screen01.jpg "Citylife screen01.jpg")
As their name implies, the Elites are the most powerful and wealthiest segment of the population. However, they are also the most demanding of the six, requiring quality services in sectors like education, safety, leisure, and environment. Elites are usually attracted to a city by "evolving" from either the Radical Chic or Suit groups. Most of their employment will derive from jobs in the private industry (i.e. private clinics and private colleges,) as well as jobs in large financial institutions. They are, by far, the most lucrative socialculture of the six.
The Radical Chics are ranked among the higher income groups and are as lucrative as the Suits. They are very close to the artistic and creative world and have liberal views and dispositions. Employment for Radical Chics derive from jobs in designing (i.e. clothing and interior spaces,) researching, and cosmetic surgery. Radical Chics get attracted to a city by "evolving" from Fringes. This group favors services in education and retail.
The Suits are a wealthy community whom conduct business transactions within industries. Suits are attracted to a city by "evolving" from Blue Collars. They demand quality services in safety and healthcare among others. Their employment will derive from jobs in financial advising, auditing, accounting, and stock trading.
The Fringes are [artists](/wiki/Artist "Artist") who have low incomes (slightly lower than that of Blue Collars) and are usually fans of cultural activities. They also lean towards liberal views of the world. Fringes are naturally attracted to any city with available housing, though under certain circumstances, they will "evolve" from Have\-Nots. They demand good retail services and adequate educational services. Employment for the Fringes derives primarily from clothing workshops, wood companies, and paranormal activities (i.e. wraith hunters and extraterrestrial landing sites.)
The Blue Collars work in the manufacturing and "dirty" energy industries of the city and have revenues close to that of the Fringes (they are slightly more lucrative, but their workplaces generate more pollution) They represent working class families with traditional values. Blue Collars will usually be attracted to a city with available housing, but under certain circumstances will "evolve" from Have\-Nots. They demand good services for healthcare and decent services for safety. Employment for Blue Collars is usually found in manufacturing, private investigating, fishing companies, and oil derricks/platforms.
The Have\-Not community is the working poor, who are too focused on meeting the most basic needs to concern themselves with the clashing values of the Fringes and Blue Collars. They are the lowest on the scale of power and wealth. Have\-Nots do not demand any services at all. In fact, they are content with having nothing more than a house and a job. Unlike Fringes and Blue Collars, Have\-Nots are not too easily attracted to a city. In order for them to appear, the player will usually have to create a district focusing primarily on Have\-Not jobs and leisure activities. It is also possible to attract Have\-Nots by having Fringes and Blue Collars "devolve" into Have\-Nots. This is achieved when Fringes and Blue Collars remain unemployed for a certain amount of time.
|
[
"### Socioeconomic classes",
"[250px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Diagram of the relationships between the classes in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:City_Life_Class_Diagram.svg \"City Life Class Diagram.svg\")",
"The game classifies city residents into six socioeconomic classes, which are depicted in a circle. Clockwise from the top are Elites, Suits, Blue Collars, Have\\-Nots, Fringes, and Radical Chics. Each class can tolerate the two adjacent to it, but is hostile towards the three across the circle. Further, the income generated by businesses focusing on each class is indicated by its height on the circle, Have\\-Nots generating the least and Elites generating the most. Lastly, the left side of the circle favors education while the right side favors safety (e.g. police and fire department coverage). The higher classes are of course more demanding. When a city is founded, only Fringes, Have\\-Nots, and Blue Collars will settle there. The Suits must be attracted by having good conditions for the Blue Collars, the Radical Chics are attracted by good conditions for the Fringes, and the Elites are attracted by good conditions for both the Suits and the Radical Chics. Due to the literal class warfare, if classes that dislike each other live near each other, they will start riots and make complaints. Much of the gameplay focuses on arranging a city so that this will not occur.",
"Every business will employ a specific mix of classes; the earlier, less profitable buildings may employ only one class, e.g. six fringe, but later buildings require a mix of several classes to reach their full potential. Thus, a successful city must manage a population of each of the classes.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A city in *City Life*.](/wiki/Image:Citylife_screen01.jpg \"Citylife screen01.jpg\")\nAs their name implies, the Elites are the most powerful and wealthiest segment of the population. However, they are also the most demanding of the six, requiring quality services in sectors like education, safety, leisure, and environment. Elites are usually attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from either the Radical Chic or Suit groups. Most of their employment will derive from jobs in the private industry (i.e. private clinics and private colleges,) as well as jobs in large financial institutions. They are, by far, the most lucrative socialculture of the six.",
"The Radical Chics are ranked among the higher income groups and are as lucrative as the Suits. They are very close to the artistic and creative world and have liberal views and dispositions. Employment for Radical Chics derive from jobs in designing (i.e. clothing and interior spaces,) researching, and cosmetic surgery. Radical Chics get attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from Fringes. This group favors services in education and retail.",
"The Suits are a wealthy community whom conduct business transactions within industries. Suits are attracted to a city by \"evolving\" from Blue Collars. They demand quality services in safety and healthcare among others. Their employment will derive from jobs in financial advising, auditing, accounting, and stock trading.",
"The Fringes are [artists](/wiki/Artist \"Artist\") who have low incomes (slightly lower than that of Blue Collars) and are usually fans of cultural activities. They also lean towards liberal views of the world. Fringes are naturally attracted to any city with available housing, though under certain circumstances, they will \"evolve\" from Have\\-Nots. They demand good retail services and adequate educational services. Employment for the Fringes derives primarily from clothing workshops, wood companies, and paranormal activities (i.e. wraith hunters and extraterrestrial landing sites.)",
"The Blue Collars work in the manufacturing and \"dirty\" energy industries of the city and have revenues close to that of the Fringes (they are slightly more lucrative, but their workplaces generate more pollution) They represent working class families with traditional values. Blue Collars will usually be attracted to a city with available housing, but under certain circumstances will \"evolve\" from Have\\-Nots. They demand good services for healthcare and decent services for safety. Employment for Blue Collars is usually found in manufacturing, private investigating, fishing companies, and oil derricks/platforms.",
"The Have\\-Not community is the working poor, who are too focused on meeting the most basic needs to concern themselves with the clashing values of the Fringes and Blue Collars. They are the lowest on the scale of power and wealth. Have\\-Nots do not demand any services at all. In fact, they are content with having nothing more than a house and a job. Unlike Fringes and Blue Collars, Have\\-Nots are not too easily attracted to a city. In order for them to appear, the player will usually have to create a district focusing primarily on Have\\-Not jobs and leisure activities. It is also possible to attract Have\\-Nots by having Fringes and Blue Collars \"devolve\" into Have\\-Nots. This is achieved when Fringes and Blue Collars remain unemployed for a certain amount of time.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation
Founding members [Gunnar Madsen](/wiki/Gunnar_Madsen "Gunnar Madsen") and Matthew Stull decided to form an a cappella group when they left their jobs as deliverers of [singing telegrams](/wiki/Singing_telegram "Singing telegram") in San Francisco.The Bobs at "Primarily A Cappella" [singers.com](http://www.singers.com/bobs.html). Accessed 2010 January 14\.
Members of the group are always credited with "Bob" as their middle name. The name is often described as an acronym for "[Best of Breed](/wiki/Best_of_Breed "Best of Breed")", an award given out at [dog shows](/wiki/Conformation_show "Conformation show").Mentioned in the Review of "My I'm Large" at Signers.com <http://www.singers.com/item/Bobs/My_I_m_Large/2451c/>, accessed 2018 June 14\. Another story that the Bobs give is the name was shortened from "The Oral Bobs" in the first months the group performed together.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2017}}
### Approach and notable performances
Instead of singing more traditional [doo\-wop](/wiki/Doo-wop "Doo-wop") songs, The Bobs started out with original arrangements of their own songs and songs like "[Helter Skelter](/wiki/Helter_Skelter_%28song%29 "Helter Skelter (song)")" and "[Psycho Killer](/wiki/Psycho_Killer "Psycho Killer")". Although two of their albums are dominated by songs written by others, the overwhelming majority of their repertoire is original, with songs discussing a diverse array of humorous subjects.
The Bobs have broken with a cappella tradition several times by including instruments. The majority of the 1995 album *Plugged* is backed by toy drums. *Plugged* also made heavy use of studio equipment to make the voices sound more like [guitars](/wiki/Guitar "Guitar") and [bass guitars](/wiki/Bass_guitar "Bass guitar"). *Coaster* includes a rock rhythm section on one song. *Rhapsody in Bob* features their arrangement of Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" with pianist [Bob Malone](/wiki/Bob_Malone "Bob Malone") playing most of the original piano concerto as The Bobs become a vocal orchestra. But this original "band without instruments" usually uses just their mouths, hands, feet and "other body parts".
Several anniversary concerts were held in Berkeley, California in January 2006 to celebrate the 25th Anniversary of the Bobs.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2017}} These concerts featured seven of the eight singers who have ever been in the band.
The Bobs gave their final performance on October 21, 2017, at [The Barns](/wiki/Wolf_Trap_National_Park_for_the_Performing_Arts "Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts") at [Wolf Trap, Virginia](/wiki/Wolf_Trap%2C_Virginia "Wolf Trap, Virginia"). It was broadcast live at [Acaville.org](http://Acaville.org).
### Soundtrack contributions
The Bobs performed "Psycho Killer" on the revival of *[The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Smothers_Brothers_Comedy_Hour "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour")* in 1988\.
The Bobs supplied the opening music for the documentary "I'm from Hollywood" starring inter\-gender wrestling champion [Andy Kaufman](/wiki/Andy_Kaufman "Andy Kaufman"), directed by Lynne Margulies and Joe Orr. The song was played at the beginning of the Kaufman [biopic](/wiki/Biopic "Biopic"), *[Man on the Moon](/wiki/Man_on_the_Moon_%28film%29 "Man on the Moon (film)")*
The Bobs' recording of the Jimmy Cliff/Guilly Bright song "Sittin' In Limbo" was featured in the 1991 movie *[Cool As Ice](/wiki/Cool_As_Ice "Cool As Ice")*.
The Bobs' recording of the song "[Barbara Ann](/wiki/Barbara_Ann "Barbara Ann")" was used in the 1993 movie *[Surf Ninjas](/wiki/Surf_Ninjas "Surf Ninjas")*.
In the 1995 [Jason Alexander](/wiki/Jason_Alexander "Jason Alexander") movie *[For Better or Worse](/wiki/For_Better_or_Worse_%28film%29 "For Better or Worse (film)")*, the Bobs performed most of the soundtrack, including the background music that occasionally interacted with the story. During the 1995 [Emmys](/wiki/Emmy_Award "Emmy Award") they performed a medley of television themes with Alexander.
In 1996, the Bobs performed several original songs and provided the character voices for the online video game *[Castle Infinity](/wiki/Castle_Infinity "Castle Infinity")*.
### Recognition
Their arrangement of "Helter Skelter" was nominated for a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award") in 1984\.1984 Grammy award nomination, Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices, Richard Greene, Gunnar Madsen \- Helter Skelter (The Bobs) [LA Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times"), ["The Envelope" awards database](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/factsheets/awardsdb/env-awards-db-landing,0,3713019.htmlstory), accessed 2010 Jan 13\.
A documentary about the group, called *Sign My Snarling Movie: 25 Years of The Bobs* was released in summer 2007\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation",
"Founding members [Gunnar Madsen](/wiki/Gunnar_Madsen \"Gunnar Madsen\") and Matthew Stull decided to form an a cappella group when they left their jobs as deliverers of [singing telegrams](/wiki/Singing_telegram \"Singing telegram\") in San Francisco.The Bobs at \"Primarily A Cappella\" [singers.com](http://www.singers.com/bobs.html). Accessed 2010 January 14\\.",
"Members of the group are always credited with \"Bob\" as their middle name. The name is often described as an acronym for \"[Best of Breed](/wiki/Best_of_Breed \"Best of Breed\")\", an award given out at [dog shows](/wiki/Conformation_show \"Conformation show\").Mentioned in the Review of \"My I'm Large\" at Signers.com <http://www.singers.com/item/Bobs/My_I_m_Large/2451c/>, accessed 2018 June 14\\. Another story that the Bobs give is the name was shortened from \"The Oral Bobs\" in the first months the group performed together.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}}",
"### Approach and notable performances",
"Instead of singing more traditional [doo\\-wop](/wiki/Doo-wop \"Doo-wop\") songs, The Bobs started out with original arrangements of their own songs and songs like \"[Helter Skelter](/wiki/Helter_Skelter_%28song%29 \"Helter Skelter (song)\")\" and \"[Psycho Killer](/wiki/Psycho_Killer \"Psycho Killer\")\". Although two of their albums are dominated by songs written by others, the overwhelming majority of their repertoire is original, with songs discussing a diverse array of humorous subjects.",
"The Bobs have broken with a cappella tradition several times by including instruments. The majority of the 1995 album *Plugged* is backed by toy drums. *Plugged* also made heavy use of studio equipment to make the voices sound more like [guitars](/wiki/Guitar \"Guitar\") and [bass guitars](/wiki/Bass_guitar \"Bass guitar\"). *Coaster* includes a rock rhythm section on one song. *Rhapsody in Bob* features their arrangement of Gershwin's \"Rhapsody in Blue\" with pianist [Bob Malone](/wiki/Bob_Malone \"Bob Malone\") playing most of the original piano concerto as The Bobs become a vocal orchestra. But this original \"band without instruments\" usually uses just their mouths, hands, feet and \"other body parts\".",
"Several anniversary concerts were held in Berkeley, California in January 2006 to celebrate the 25th Anniversary of the Bobs.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}} These concerts featured seven of the eight singers who have ever been in the band.",
"The Bobs gave their final performance on October 21, 2017, at [The Barns](/wiki/Wolf_Trap_National_Park_for_the_Performing_Arts \"Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts\") at [Wolf Trap, Virginia](/wiki/Wolf_Trap%2C_Virginia \"Wolf Trap, Virginia\"). It was broadcast live at [Acaville.org](http://Acaville.org).",
"### Soundtrack contributions",
"The Bobs performed \"Psycho Killer\" on the revival of *[The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Smothers_Brothers_Comedy_Hour \"The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour\")* in 1988\\.\nThe Bobs supplied the opening music for the documentary \"I'm from Hollywood\" starring inter\\-gender wrestling champion [Andy Kaufman](/wiki/Andy_Kaufman \"Andy Kaufman\"), directed by Lynne Margulies and Joe Orr. The song was played at the beginning of the Kaufman [biopic](/wiki/Biopic \"Biopic\"), *[Man on the Moon](/wiki/Man_on_the_Moon_%28film%29 \"Man on the Moon (film)\")*",
"The Bobs' recording of the Jimmy Cliff/Guilly Bright song \"Sittin' In Limbo\" was featured in the 1991 movie *[Cool As Ice](/wiki/Cool_As_Ice \"Cool As Ice\")*.",
"The Bobs' recording of the song \"[Barbara Ann](/wiki/Barbara_Ann \"Barbara Ann\")\" was used in the 1993 movie *[Surf Ninjas](/wiki/Surf_Ninjas \"Surf Ninjas\")*.",
"In the 1995 [Jason Alexander](/wiki/Jason_Alexander \"Jason Alexander\") movie *[For Better or Worse](/wiki/For_Better_or_Worse_%28film%29 \"For Better or Worse (film)\")*, the Bobs performed most of the soundtrack, including the background music that occasionally interacted with the story. During the 1995 [Emmys](/wiki/Emmy_Award \"Emmy Award\") they performed a medley of television themes with Alexander.",
"In 1996, the Bobs performed several original songs and provided the character voices for the online video game *[Castle Infinity](/wiki/Castle_Infinity \"Castle Infinity\")*.",
"### Recognition",
"Their arrangement of \"Helter Skelter\" was nominated for a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") in 1984\\.1984 Grammy award nomination, Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices, Richard Greene, Gunnar Madsen \\- Helter Skelter (The Bobs) [LA Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\"), [\"The Envelope\" awards database](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/factsheets/awardsdb/env-awards-db-landing,0,3713019.htmlstory), accessed 2010 Jan 13\\.",
"A documentary about the group, called *Sign My Snarling Movie: 25 Years of The Bobs* was released in summer 2007\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Twenty\-six years after the events of [the first film](/wiki/Good_Burger "Good Burger"), Dexter Reed has quit Good Burger in the hopes of becoming a successful entrepreneur, but his ideas turn out to be failures. His latest invention, a spray that can make any material flame\-retardant, backfires as he attempts to showcase the material on his own house in a demonstration for investors, including [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban "Mark Cuban"), that ends up burning it down. Left without a home and business, Dexter looks to move in with his sister Charlotte, but she refuses as she is one of his investors. He then calls Ed, who still works at Good Burger and agrees to let him stay at his home.
Dexter visits Good Burger to find numerous new employees: twins Cindy and Mindy; the elderly Ruth; Ed's son Ed 2, who looks and acts exactly like Ed; and Dexter's niece Mia, Charlotte's daughter who wants nothing to do with Dexter. The restaurant has a new manager named Mr. Jensen. In addition to working as the cashier, Ed is now the owner due to his love of the restaurant. The only familiar employee is Fizz, whom Ed had accidentally left in the freezer for 22 years and is thawed out. At Ed's home, Dexter meets Ed's family: his wife Edie and their numerous other children who look like Ed and are named after condiments. Dexter is shocked to find that Roxanne, who previously tried to seduce Ed for the recipe for his sauce for Mondo Burger, now works as their nanny.
Dexter decides to work at Good Burger again while considering his next entrepreneurial venture. When he pitches his permanent ice idea to Mia, she laughs it off. Meanwhile, Ed has been hounded by Cecil McNevin, a lawyer for the conglomerate MegaCorp, to turn Good Burger into a global franchise, but Ed is uncertain. MegaCorp sends a pair of goons to force Ed into signing the agreement, but Ed's natural clumsiness gets them hurt. Cecil tries to appeal to Dexter, explaining their intent is to expand Good Burger but not to take it away from Ed and are planning to give the employees big raises. Dexter considers it based on the financial benefit and then brings Ed to lunch with Cecil to explain the deal and they both agree to sign.
At the franchise launch party, Cecil reveals that the flagship store is being shut down with their employees being fired as mandated by the contract, which Dexter and Ed had failed to read before signing. With everyone turning against Dexter, he takes Ed to MegaCorp headquarters to demand they reinstate the flagship restaurant and rehire the employees. They meet with the CEO Katt Bozwell, the sister of former Mondo Burger owner Kurt Bozwell who wants revenge on Good Burger after sending Kurt away to prison. She is planning to rebrand the restaurant Mega Good Burger and has plans to replace all employees with robot versions of Ed. After destroying the Good Burger car, MegaCorp sends them home in a self\-driving delivery car which Katt sends out of control to get rid of them. Dexter forces the car to drive in a circle until it runs out of power.
Lamenting his failures, Dexter gets Ed to rally the Good Burger employees to stop the launch of Mega Good Burger. They plan to infiltrate MegaCorp headquarters so Mia, a computer expert, can shut down the machines before the launch. While Dexter, Ed, and Mia infiltrate the building, the other employees create a distraction, but their ruse is discovered. Dexter and Ed get separated from Mia and find the control room while Mia is trapped on a conveyor belt. Dexter goes off to find Mia, leaving Ed to shut down the restaurants. Dexter saves Mia, but they are captured and taken to the control room where Ed is also taken. As Katt gives the first demonstration on national television, the robotic Ed throws food at her, followed by the other machines shooting food at everyone at every location around the world, due to Ed reprogramming the machines to go haywire.
In the aftermath, MegaCorp is shut down and Ed is given back ownership of the original Good Burger. Charlotte comes to visit Dexter and Mia and Dexter is allowed to apologize to her. Ed and Ed 2 reveal to Dexter that they figured out how to make permanent ice and Good Burger successfully sells it to Mark Cuban, making $10,000,000\.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Twenty\\-six years after the events of [the first film](/wiki/Good_Burger \"Good Burger\"), Dexter Reed has quit Good Burger in the hopes of becoming a successful entrepreneur, but his ideas turn out to be failures. His latest invention, a spray that can make any material flame\\-retardant, backfires as he attempts to showcase the material on his own house in a demonstration for investors, including [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban \"Mark Cuban\"), that ends up burning it down. Left without a home and business, Dexter looks to move in with his sister Charlotte, but she refuses as she is one of his investors. He then calls Ed, who still works at Good Burger and agrees to let him stay at his home.",
"Dexter visits Good Burger to find numerous new employees: twins Cindy and Mindy; the elderly Ruth; Ed's son Ed 2, who looks and acts exactly like Ed; and Dexter's niece Mia, Charlotte's daughter who wants nothing to do with Dexter. The restaurant has a new manager named Mr. Jensen. In addition to working as the cashier, Ed is now the owner due to his love of the restaurant. The only familiar employee is Fizz, whom Ed had accidentally left in the freezer for 22 years and is thawed out. At Ed's home, Dexter meets Ed's family: his wife Edie and their numerous other children who look like Ed and are named after condiments. Dexter is shocked to find that Roxanne, who previously tried to seduce Ed for the recipe for his sauce for Mondo Burger, now works as their nanny.",
"Dexter decides to work at Good Burger again while considering his next entrepreneurial venture. When he pitches his permanent ice idea to Mia, she laughs it off. Meanwhile, Ed has been hounded by Cecil McNevin, a lawyer for the conglomerate MegaCorp, to turn Good Burger into a global franchise, but Ed is uncertain. MegaCorp sends a pair of goons to force Ed into signing the agreement, but Ed's natural clumsiness gets them hurt. Cecil tries to appeal to Dexter, explaining their intent is to expand Good Burger but not to take it away from Ed and are planning to give the employees big raises. Dexter considers it based on the financial benefit and then brings Ed to lunch with Cecil to explain the deal and they both agree to sign.",
"At the franchise launch party, Cecil reveals that the flagship store is being shut down with their employees being fired as mandated by the contract, which Dexter and Ed had failed to read before signing. With everyone turning against Dexter, he takes Ed to MegaCorp headquarters to demand they reinstate the flagship restaurant and rehire the employees. They meet with the CEO Katt Bozwell, the sister of former Mondo Burger owner Kurt Bozwell who wants revenge on Good Burger after sending Kurt away to prison. She is planning to rebrand the restaurant Mega Good Burger and has plans to replace all employees with robot versions of Ed. After destroying the Good Burger car, MegaCorp sends them home in a self\\-driving delivery car which Katt sends out of control to get rid of them. Dexter forces the car to drive in a circle until it runs out of power.",
"Lamenting his failures, Dexter gets Ed to rally the Good Burger employees to stop the launch of Mega Good Burger. They plan to infiltrate MegaCorp headquarters so Mia, a computer expert, can shut down the machines before the launch. While Dexter, Ed, and Mia infiltrate the building, the other employees create a distraction, but their ruse is discovered. Dexter and Ed get separated from Mia and find the control room while Mia is trapped on a conveyor belt. Dexter goes off to find Mia, leaving Ed to shut down the restaurants. Dexter saves Mia, but they are captured and taken to the control room where Ed is also taken. As Katt gives the first demonstration on national television, the robotic Ed throws food at her, followed by the other machines shooting food at everyone at every location around the world, due to Ed reprogramming the machines to go haywire.",
"In the aftermath, MegaCorp is shut down and Ed is given back ownership of the original Good Burger. Charlotte comes to visit Dexter and Mia and Dexter is allowed to apologize to her. Ed and Ed 2 reveal to Dexter that they figured out how to make permanent ice and Good Burger successfully sells it to Mark Cuban, making $10,000,000\\.",
""
] |
Results
-------
The ruling National Democratic Party won in convincing fashion, and had secured victory early in the night solely on the basis of the district seats (results for the at\-large seats take longer to count and normally only come in the next day). In the event, the NDP won all four at\-large seats as well to complete a [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory"), becoming the first party to win back\-to\-back elections in the British Virgin Islands since the Virgin Islands Party achieved the feat in the [1999 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1999 "British Virgin Islands general election, 1999"). The NDP's margin of victory (9 seats) and share of the total votes cast (60\.2%) [were both records for an election](/wiki/Elections_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands%23Electoral_milestones_and_feats "Elections in the British Virgin Islands#Electoral milestones and feats").
The NDP held on to all four of the at\-large positions, comfortably holding off the challenge from the VIP and independent candidate Dancia Penn. Myron Walwyn's 5,777 votes in the at\-large seats set a record for the highest number of votes for an at\-large candidate, as did his 16\.0% of the votes cast.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bviplatinum.com/news.php?articleId\=1433823622\|title\=Update: NDP Retains Gov't in Landslide Victory; Walwyn Gets Highest At\-Large Votes in History\|publisher\=BVI Platinum\|date\=9 June 2015\|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|archive\-date\=11 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611165934/http://www.bviplatinum.com/news.php?articleId\=1433823622\|url\-status\=dead}}
{{Election results
\|image\=\[\[File:Iles Vierges britanniques Assemblee 2015\.svg]]
\|firstround\=District\|secondround\=At\-large
\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=5725\|seats1\=7\|votes1\_2\=21523\|seats1\_2\=4\|totseats1\=11\|sc1\=\+2
\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=2828\|seats2\=2\|votes2\_2\=10771\|seats2\_2\=0\|totseats2\=2\|sc2\=–2
\|party3\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes3\=317\|seats3\=0\|votes3\_2\=1521\|seats3\_2\=0\|totseats3\=0\|sc3\=New\|color3\=\#FFD700
\|party4\=People's Coalition Movement\|votes4\_2\=308\|seats4\_2\=0\|totseats4\=0\|sc4\=New
\|party5\=Independents\|votes5\=271\|seats5\=0\|votes5\_2\=1956\|seats5\_2\=0\|totseats5\=0\|sc5\=0
\|row6\=Speaker and Attorney General\|totseats6\=2\|sc6\=0
\|valid2\=9170
\|invalid\=99\|invalid2\=120
\|total\_sc\=0
\|electorate\=13585\|electorate2\=13585
\|source\=\[http://www.bvi.gov.vg/sites/default/files/resources/2015%20TERRITORIAL%20DISTRICT%20RESULTS.pdf Election Centre], \[http://www.bvi.gov.vg/sites/default/files/resources/2015%20LOCAL%20DISTRICT%20RESULTS.pdf Election Centre]
}}
### District seats
{{Election results
\|caption\=1st District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Andrew Fahie]]'''\|party1\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes1\=652
\|cand2\=Shaina Mary Ann Smith\|party2\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes2\=277
\|cand3\=Preston P. H. Stoutt\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=68
\|invalid\=11
\|electorate\=1479
}}
Incumbent Andrew Fahie successfully defended his first district seat, his fifth successive general election victory. The first district seat has now been in VIP hands since the [1971 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1971 "British Virgin Islands general election, 1971"). Shania Smith and Preston Stoutt each lost their second consecutive attempt to be elected to the House of Assembly.
{{Election results
\|caption\=2nd District
\|cand1\='''Melvin M. Turnbull'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=600
\|cand2\=Elford W. Parsons\|party2\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes2\=290\|color2\=\#FFD700
\|cand3\=Rajah Smith\|party3\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes3\=25
\|invalid\=2
\|electorate\=1387
}}
Political newcomer Melvin "Mitch" Turnbull Jr. comfortably won the second district seat from a field that consisted of three candidates contesting their first election. Longtime second district representative, Alvin Christopher, elected to stand at\-large.
{{Election results
\|caption\=3rd District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Julian Fraser]]'''\|party1\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes1\=596
\|cand2\=Kevin C. Smith\|party2\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes2\=561
\|invalid\=23
\|electorate\=1620
}}
Incumbent and VIP party leader [Julian Fraser](/wiki/Julian_Fraser "Julian Fraser") successfully defended his seat with a narrow victory over Kevin "OJ" Smith for the second consecutive election, and for Fraser's fifth consecutive general election victory.
{{Election results
\|caption\=4th District
\|cand1\='''Mark H. Vanterpool'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=717
\|cand2\=Joann Romney\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=151
\|invalid\=20
\|electorate\=1358
}}
Incumbent Mark Vanterpool successfully defended his seat, crushing political newcomer JoAnne "Roxie" Romney.
{{Election results
\|caption\=5th District
\|cand1\='''Delores Christopher'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=590
\|cand2\=Zoe Walcott\-McMillan\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=399
\|cand3\=Shabazz Abdul\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=23
\|invalid\=5
\|electorate\=1607
}}
Incumbent Delores Christopher successfully defended her seat, comfortably defeating Zoe Walcott\-McMillan (who lost her third consecutive election) and independent candidate Abdul Shabazz.
{{Election results
\|caption\=6th District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Alvera Maduro\-Caines]]'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=765
\|cand2\=Elvis J. Harrigan\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=237
\|cand3\=Dion Jennings\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=43
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1641
}}
Incumbent Alvera Maduro\-Caines won the sixth district seat, easily defeating former legislator Elvis "Juggy" Harrigan (who lost his second consecutive election), and newcomer Dion Jennings.
{{Election results
\|caption\=7th District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Kedrick Pickering]]'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=607
\|cand2\=Oleanvine Pickering\-Maynard\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=199
\|invalid\=2
\|electorate\=1272
}}
Incumbent and Deputy Premier [Kedrick Pickering](/wiki/Kedrick_Pickering "Kedrick Pickering") easily defended his seat in the seventh district against newcomer Oleanvine Pickering\-Maynard.
{{Election results
\|caption\=8th District
\|cand1\='''Marlon A. Penn'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=937
\|cand2\=McLloyd Owen Walters\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=185
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1587
}}
Incumbent Marlon Penn successfully defended his seat in the eight district, crushing newcomer McLloyd Walters. Penn's 943 votes were a record for a district seat in a British Virgin Islands election.
{{Election results
\|caption\=9th District
\|cand1\='''Hubert O'Neal'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=671
\|cand2\=Elton Sprauve\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=384
\|cand3\=Albert Wheatley\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=63
\|cand4\=Stephanie Faulkner\-Williams\|party4\=Independent\|votes4\=37
\|cand5\=Vernon Vanterpool\|party5\=Independent\|votes5\=37
\|cand6\=Faye Reese\|party6\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes6\=27\|color6\=\#FFD700
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1634
}}
Contesting his sixth general election (and fifth in the same district), Hubert O'Neal overcame a crowded field, and finally for the first time won the ninth district seat formerly occupied by the now\-retired Ralph O'Neal for the preceding 40 years.
### At\-large seats
{{Election results
\|cand1\='''\[\[Myron Walwyn]]'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=5777
\|cand2\='''\[\[Orlando Smith]]'''\|party2\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes2\=5753
\|cand3\='''Ronnie W. Skelton'''\|party3\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes3\=5333
\|cand4\='''Archibald C. Christian'''\|party4\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes4\=4660
\|cand5\=Karl Dawson\|party5\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes5\=3420
\|cand6\=Irene Penn\-O'Neal\|party6\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes6\=2905
\|cand7\=\[\[Sharie De Castro]]\|party7\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes7\=2676
\|cand8\=\[\[Dancia Penn]]\|party8\=Independent\|votes8\=1837
\|cand9\=Charmaine Rosan\-Bunbury\|party9\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes9\=1770
\|cand10\=\[\[Alvin Christopher]]\|party10\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes10\=894\|color10\=\#FFD700
\|cand11\=\[\[Natalio Wheatley]]\|party11\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes11\=470\|color11\=\#FFD700
\|cand12\=Khoy Smith\|party12\=People's Coalition Movement\|votes12\=158
\|cand13\=Lorie A. Rymer\|party13\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes13\=157\|color13\=\#FFD700
\|cand14\=Rawle Richard Hannibald\|party14\=Independent\|votes14\=119
\|cand15\=Edmund Gregory Maduro\|party15\=People's Coalition Movement\|votes15\=86
\|cand16\=Ishmael Brathwaite\|party16\=People's Coalition Movement\|votes16\=64
\|valid\=9170
\|invalid\=120
\|electorate\=13585
}}
|
[
"Results\n-------",
"The ruling National Democratic Party won in convincing fashion, and had secured victory early in the night solely on the basis of the district seats (results for the at\\-large seats take longer to count and normally only come in the next day). In the event, the NDP won all four at\\-large seats as well to complete a [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory \"Landslide victory\"), becoming the first party to win back\\-to\\-back elections in the British Virgin Islands since the Virgin Islands Party achieved the feat in the [1999 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1999 \"British Virgin Islands general election, 1999\"). The NDP's margin of victory (9 seats) and share of the total votes cast (60\\.2%) [were both records for an election](/wiki/Elections_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands%23Electoral_milestones_and_feats \"Elections in the British Virgin Islands#Electoral milestones and feats\").",
"The NDP held on to all four of the at\\-large positions, comfortably holding off the challenge from the VIP and independent candidate Dancia Penn. Myron Walwyn's 5,777 votes in the at\\-large seats set a record for the highest number of votes for an at\\-large candidate, as did his 16\\.0% of the votes cast.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bviplatinum.com/news.php?articleId\\=1433823622\\|title\\=Update: NDP Retains Gov't in Landslide Victory; Walwyn Gets Highest At\\-Large Votes in History\\|publisher\\=BVI Platinum\\|date\\=9 June 2015\\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=11 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611165934/http://www.bviplatinum.com/news.php?articleId\\=1433823622\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"{{Election results\n\\|image\\=\\[\\[File:Iles Vierges britanniques Assemblee 2015\\.svg]]\n\\|firstround\\=District\\|secondround\\=At\\-large\n\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=5725\\|seats1\\=7\\|votes1\\_2\\=21523\\|seats1\\_2\\=4\\|totseats1\\=11\\|sc1\\=\\+2\n\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=2828\\|seats2\\=2\\|votes2\\_2\\=10771\\|seats2\\_2\\=0\\|totseats2\\=2\\|sc2\\=–2\n\\|party3\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes3\\=317\\|seats3\\=0\\|votes3\\_2\\=1521\\|seats3\\_2\\=0\\|totseats3\\=0\\|sc3\\=New\\|color3\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|party4\\=People's Coalition Movement\\|votes4\\_2\\=308\\|seats4\\_2\\=0\\|totseats4\\=0\\|sc4\\=New\n\\|party5\\=Independents\\|votes5\\=271\\|seats5\\=0\\|votes5\\_2\\=1956\\|seats5\\_2\\=0\\|totseats5\\=0\\|sc5\\=0\n\\|row6\\=Speaker and Attorney General\\|totseats6\\=2\\|sc6\\=0\n\\|valid2\\=9170\n\\|invalid\\=99\\|invalid2\\=120\n\\|total\\_sc\\=0\n\\|electorate\\=13585\\|electorate2\\=13585\n\\|source\\=\\[http://www.bvi.gov.vg/sites/default/files/resources/2015%20TERRITORIAL%20DISTRICT%20RESULTS.pdf Election Centre], \\[http://www.bvi.gov.vg/sites/default/files/resources/2015%20LOCAL%20DISTRICT%20RESULTS.pdf Election Centre]\n}}",
"### District seats",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=1st District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Andrew Fahie]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes1\\=652\n\\|cand2\\=Shaina Mary Ann Smith\\|party2\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes2\\=277\n\\|cand3\\=Preston P. H. Stoutt\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=68\n\\|invalid\\=11\n\\|electorate\\=1479\n}}",
"Incumbent Andrew Fahie successfully defended his first district seat, his fifth successive general election victory. The first district seat has now been in VIP hands since the [1971 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1971 \"British Virgin Islands general election, 1971\"). Shania Smith and Preston Stoutt each lost their second consecutive attempt to be elected to the House of Assembly.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=2nd District\n\\|cand1\\='''Melvin M. Turnbull'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=600\n\\|cand2\\=Elford W. Parsons\\|party2\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes2\\=290\\|color2\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|cand3\\=Rajah Smith\\|party3\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes3\\=25\n\\|invalid\\=2\n\\|electorate\\=1387\n}}",
"Political newcomer Melvin \"Mitch\" Turnbull Jr. comfortably won the second district seat from a field that consisted of three candidates contesting their first election. Longtime second district representative, Alvin Christopher, elected to stand at\\-large.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=3rd District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Julian Fraser]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes1\\=596\n\\|cand2\\=Kevin C. Smith\\|party2\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes2\\=561\n\\|invalid\\=23\n\\|electorate\\=1620\n}}",
"Incumbent and VIP party leader [Julian Fraser](/wiki/Julian_Fraser \"Julian Fraser\") successfully defended his seat with a narrow victory over Kevin \"OJ\" Smith for the second consecutive election, and for Fraser's fifth consecutive general election victory.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=4th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Mark H. Vanterpool'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=717\n\\|cand2\\=Joann Romney\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=151\n\\|invalid\\=20\n\\|electorate\\=1358\n}}",
"Incumbent Mark Vanterpool successfully defended his seat, crushing political newcomer JoAnne \"Roxie\" Romney.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=5th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Delores Christopher'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=590\n\\|cand2\\=Zoe Walcott\\-McMillan\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=399\n\\|cand3\\=Shabazz Abdul\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=23\n\\|invalid\\=5\n\\|electorate\\=1607\n}}",
"Incumbent Delores Christopher successfully defended her seat, comfortably defeating Zoe Walcott\\-McMillan (who lost her third consecutive election) and independent candidate Abdul Shabazz.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=6th District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Alvera Maduro\\-Caines]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=765\n\\|cand2\\=Elvis J. Harrigan\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=237\n\\|cand3\\=Dion Jennings\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=43\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1641\n}}",
"Incumbent Alvera Maduro\\-Caines won the sixth district seat, easily defeating former legislator Elvis \"Juggy\" Harrigan (who lost his second consecutive election), and newcomer Dion Jennings.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=7th District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Kedrick Pickering]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=607\n\\|cand2\\=Oleanvine Pickering\\-Maynard\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=199\n\\|invalid\\=2\n\\|electorate\\=1272\n}}",
"Incumbent and Deputy Premier [Kedrick Pickering](/wiki/Kedrick_Pickering \"Kedrick Pickering\") easily defended his seat in the seventh district against newcomer Oleanvine Pickering\\-Maynard.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=8th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Marlon A. Penn'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=937\n\\|cand2\\=McLloyd Owen Walters\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=185\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1587\n}}",
"Incumbent Marlon Penn successfully defended his seat in the eight district, crushing newcomer McLloyd Walters. Penn's 943 votes were a record for a district seat in a British Virgin Islands election.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=9th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Hubert O'Neal'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=671\n\\|cand2\\=Elton Sprauve\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=384\n\\|cand3\\=Albert Wheatley\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=63\n\\|cand4\\=Stephanie Faulkner\\-Williams\\|party4\\=Independent\\|votes4\\=37\n\\|cand5\\=Vernon Vanterpool\\|party5\\=Independent\\|votes5\\=37\n\\|cand6\\=Faye Reese\\|party6\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes6\\=27\\|color6\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1634\n}}",
"Contesting his sixth general election (and fifth in the same district), Hubert O'Neal overcame a crowded field, and finally for the first time won the ninth district seat formerly occupied by the now\\-retired Ralph O'Neal for the preceding 40 years.",
"### At\\-large seats",
"{{Election results\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Myron Walwyn]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=5777\n\\|cand2\\='''\\[\\[Orlando Smith]]'''\\|party2\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes2\\=5753\n\\|cand3\\='''Ronnie W. Skelton'''\\|party3\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes3\\=5333\n\\|cand4\\='''Archibald C. Christian'''\\|party4\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes4\\=4660\n\\|cand5\\=Karl Dawson\\|party5\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes5\\=3420\n\\|cand6\\=Irene Penn\\-O'Neal\\|party6\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes6\\=2905\n\\|cand7\\=\\[\\[Sharie De Castro]]\\|party7\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes7\\=2676\n\\|cand8\\=\\[\\[Dancia Penn]]\\|party8\\=Independent\\|votes8\\=1837\n\\|cand9\\=Charmaine Rosan\\-Bunbury\\|party9\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes9\\=1770\n\\|cand10\\=\\[\\[Alvin Christopher]]\\|party10\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes10\\=894\\|color10\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|cand11\\=\\[\\[Natalio Wheatley]]\\|party11\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes11\\=470\\|color11\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|cand12\\=Khoy Smith\\|party12\\=People's Coalition Movement\\|votes12\\=158\n\\|cand13\\=Lorie A. Rymer\\|party13\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes13\\=157\\|color13\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|cand14\\=Rawle Richard Hannibald\\|party14\\=Independent\\|votes14\\=119\n\\|cand15\\=Edmund Gregory Maduro\\|party15\\=People's Coalition Movement\\|votes15\\=86\n\\|cand16\\=Ishmael Brathwaite\\|party16\\=People's Coalition Movement\\|votes16\\=64\n\\|valid\\=9170\n\\|invalid\\=120\n\\|electorate\\=13585\n}}",
""
] |
### District seats
{{Election results
\|caption\=1st District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Andrew Fahie]]'''\|party1\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes1\=652
\|cand2\=Shaina Mary Ann Smith\|party2\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes2\=277
\|cand3\=Preston P. H. Stoutt\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=68
\|invalid\=11
\|electorate\=1479
}}
Incumbent Andrew Fahie successfully defended his first district seat, his fifth successive general election victory. The first district seat has now been in VIP hands since the [1971 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1971 "British Virgin Islands general election, 1971"). Shania Smith and Preston Stoutt each lost their second consecutive attempt to be elected to the House of Assembly.
{{Election results
\|caption\=2nd District
\|cand1\='''Melvin M. Turnbull'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=600
\|cand2\=Elford W. Parsons\|party2\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes2\=290\|color2\=\#FFD700
\|cand3\=Rajah Smith\|party3\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes3\=25
\|invalid\=2
\|electorate\=1387
}}
Political newcomer Melvin "Mitch" Turnbull Jr. comfortably won the second district seat from a field that consisted of three candidates contesting their first election. Longtime second district representative, Alvin Christopher, elected to stand at\-large.
{{Election results
\|caption\=3rd District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Julian Fraser]]'''\|party1\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes1\=596
\|cand2\=Kevin C. Smith\|party2\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes2\=561
\|invalid\=23
\|electorate\=1620
}}
Incumbent and VIP party leader [Julian Fraser](/wiki/Julian_Fraser "Julian Fraser") successfully defended his seat with a narrow victory over Kevin "OJ" Smith for the second consecutive election, and for Fraser's fifth consecutive general election victory.
{{Election results
\|caption\=4th District
\|cand1\='''Mark H. Vanterpool'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=717
\|cand2\=Joann Romney\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=151
\|invalid\=20
\|electorate\=1358
}}
Incumbent Mark Vanterpool successfully defended his seat, crushing political newcomer JoAnne "Roxie" Romney.
{{Election results
\|caption\=5th District
\|cand1\='''Delores Christopher'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=590
\|cand2\=Zoe Walcott\-McMillan\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=399
\|cand3\=Shabazz Abdul\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=23
\|invalid\=5
\|electorate\=1607
}}
Incumbent Delores Christopher successfully defended her seat, comfortably defeating Zoe Walcott\-McMillan (who lost her third consecutive election) and independent candidate Abdul Shabazz.
{{Election results
\|caption\=6th District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Alvera Maduro\-Caines]]'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=765
\|cand2\=Elvis J. Harrigan\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=237
\|cand3\=Dion Jennings\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=43
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1641
}}
Incumbent Alvera Maduro\-Caines won the sixth district seat, easily defeating former legislator Elvis "Juggy" Harrigan (who lost his second consecutive election), and newcomer Dion Jennings.
{{Election results
\|caption\=7th District
\|cand1\='''\[\[Kedrick Pickering]]'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=607
\|cand2\=Oleanvine Pickering\-Maynard\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=199
\|invalid\=2
\|electorate\=1272
}}
Incumbent and Deputy Premier [Kedrick Pickering](/wiki/Kedrick_Pickering "Kedrick Pickering") easily defended his seat in the seventh district against newcomer Oleanvine Pickering\-Maynard.
{{Election results
\|caption\=8th District
\|cand1\='''Marlon A. Penn'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=937
\|cand2\=McLloyd Owen Walters\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=185
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1587
}}
Incumbent Marlon Penn successfully defended his seat in the eight district, crushing newcomer McLloyd Walters. Penn's 943 votes were a record for a district seat in a British Virgin Islands election.
{{Election results
\|caption\=9th District
\|cand1\='''Hubert O'Neal'''\|party1\=\[\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\|National Democratic Party]]\|votes1\=671
\|cand2\=Elton Sprauve\|party2\=\[\[Virgin Islands Party]]\|votes2\=384
\|cand3\=Albert Wheatley\|party3\=Independent\|votes3\=63
\|cand4\=Stephanie Faulkner\-Williams\|party4\=Independent\|votes4\=37
\|cand5\=Vernon Vanterpool\|party5\=Independent\|votes5\=37
\|cand6\=Faye Reese\|party6\=\[\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\|People's Empowerment Party]]\|votes6\=27\|color6\=\#FFD700
\|invalid\=12
\|electorate\=1634
}}
Contesting his sixth general election (and fifth in the same district), Hubert O'Neal overcame a crowded field, and finally for the first time won the ninth district seat formerly occupied by the now\-retired Ralph O'Neal for the preceding 40 years.
|
[
"### District seats",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=1st District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Andrew Fahie]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes1\\=652\n\\|cand2\\=Shaina Mary Ann Smith\\|party2\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes2\\=277\n\\|cand3\\=Preston P. H. Stoutt\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=68\n\\|invalid\\=11\n\\|electorate\\=1479\n}}",
"Incumbent Andrew Fahie successfully defended his first district seat, his fifth successive general election victory. The first district seat has now been in VIP hands since the [1971 general election](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_general_election%2C_1971 \"British Virgin Islands general election, 1971\"). Shania Smith and Preston Stoutt each lost their second consecutive attempt to be elected to the House of Assembly.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=2nd District\n\\|cand1\\='''Melvin M. Turnbull'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=600\n\\|cand2\\=Elford W. Parsons\\|party2\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes2\\=290\\|color2\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|cand3\\=Rajah Smith\\|party3\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes3\\=25\n\\|invalid\\=2\n\\|electorate\\=1387\n}}",
"Political newcomer Melvin \"Mitch\" Turnbull Jr. comfortably won the second district seat from a field that consisted of three candidates contesting their first election. Longtime second district representative, Alvin Christopher, elected to stand at\\-large.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=3rd District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Julian Fraser]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes1\\=596\n\\|cand2\\=Kevin C. Smith\\|party2\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes2\\=561\n\\|invalid\\=23\n\\|electorate\\=1620\n}}",
"Incumbent and VIP party leader [Julian Fraser](/wiki/Julian_Fraser \"Julian Fraser\") successfully defended his seat with a narrow victory over Kevin \"OJ\" Smith for the second consecutive election, and for Fraser's fifth consecutive general election victory.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=4th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Mark H. Vanterpool'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=717\n\\|cand2\\=Joann Romney\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=151\n\\|invalid\\=20\n\\|electorate\\=1358\n}}",
"Incumbent Mark Vanterpool successfully defended his seat, crushing political newcomer JoAnne \"Roxie\" Romney.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=5th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Delores Christopher'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=590\n\\|cand2\\=Zoe Walcott\\-McMillan\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=399\n\\|cand3\\=Shabazz Abdul\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=23\n\\|invalid\\=5\n\\|electorate\\=1607\n}}",
"Incumbent Delores Christopher successfully defended her seat, comfortably defeating Zoe Walcott\\-McMillan (who lost her third consecutive election) and independent candidate Abdul Shabazz.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=6th District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Alvera Maduro\\-Caines]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=765\n\\|cand2\\=Elvis J. Harrigan\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=237\n\\|cand3\\=Dion Jennings\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=43\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1641\n}}",
"Incumbent Alvera Maduro\\-Caines won the sixth district seat, easily defeating former legislator Elvis \"Juggy\" Harrigan (who lost his second consecutive election), and newcomer Dion Jennings.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=7th District\n\\|cand1\\='''\\[\\[Kedrick Pickering]]'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=607\n\\|cand2\\=Oleanvine Pickering\\-Maynard\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=199\n\\|invalid\\=2\n\\|electorate\\=1272\n}}",
"Incumbent and Deputy Premier [Kedrick Pickering](/wiki/Kedrick_Pickering \"Kedrick Pickering\") easily defended his seat in the seventh district against newcomer Oleanvine Pickering\\-Maynard.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=8th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Marlon A. Penn'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=937\n\\|cand2\\=McLloyd Owen Walters\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=185\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1587\n}}",
"Incumbent Marlon Penn successfully defended his seat in the eight district, crushing newcomer McLloyd Walters. Penn's 943 votes were a record for a district seat in a British Virgin Islands election.",
"{{Election results\n\\|caption\\=9th District\n\\|cand1\\='''Hubert O'Neal'''\\|party1\\=\\[\\[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|National Democratic Party]]\\|votes1\\=671\n\\|cand2\\=Elton Sprauve\\|party2\\=\\[\\[Virgin Islands Party]]\\|votes2\\=384\n\\|cand3\\=Albert Wheatley\\|party3\\=Independent\\|votes3\\=63\n\\|cand4\\=Stephanie Faulkner\\-Williams\\|party4\\=Independent\\|votes4\\=37\n\\|cand5\\=Vernon Vanterpool\\|party5\\=Independent\\|votes5\\=37\n\\|cand6\\=Faye Reese\\|party6\\=\\[\\[People's Empowerment Party (British Virgin Islands)\\|People's Empowerment Party]]\\|votes6\\=27\\|color6\\=\\#FFD700\n\\|invalid\\=12\n\\|electorate\\=1634\n}}",
"Contesting his sixth general election (and fifth in the same district), Hubert O'Neal overcame a crowded field, and finally for the first time won the ninth district seat formerly occupied by the now\\-retired Ralph O'Neal for the preceding 40 years.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1796 constitution
Tennessee held a convention in 1796 to frame their first constitution.{{cite book \|last1\=Jameson \|first1\=John Alexander \|title\=The Constitutional Convention: Its History, Powers, and Modes of Proceeding \|date\=1867 \|publisher\=C. Scribner \|isbn\=978\-0\-608\-41706\-6 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\_Constitutional\_Convention/YI0\_AAAAIAAJ?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Constitutional\+convention\+Tennessee\+1796\&pg\=PA162\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}} The original Tennessee state constitution was not submitted to the voters for approval, but it was approved by [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress "US Congress"), in conjunction with the resolution admitting Tennessee as a state. It went into effect on June 1, 1796, when Tennessee entered the Union.
The first constitution was widely criticized as giving the executive, presumably a full\-time [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee "Governor of Tennessee"), insufficient authority, and investing too much authority in the legislature a part\-time body. That was cited as a primary reason for its replacement.
The 1796 constitution also did not create a state supreme court, providing only for "such superior and inferior courts" as the legislature should create, with judges elected by the legislature for indefinite terms.[Tennessee Supreme Court](http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1359), *[Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture](/wiki/Tennessee_Encyclopedia_of_History_and_Culture "Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture")*
In spite of its shortcomings, the original document had its admirers. [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") described Tennessee's as the "least imperfect and most republican of the state constitutions."[Tennessee Constitution of 1796](http://teva.contentdm.oclc.org/landmarkdocs/files/90.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724135036/http://teva.contentdm.oclc.org/landmarkdocs/files/90\.php \|date\=2011\-07\-24 }}, Tennessee's Landmark Documents, Tennessee Virtual Archive.
### 1835 constitution
[thumb\|right\|The second version of the Tennessee State Constitution was adopted in 1835\.](/wiki/File:Tennessee_Constitution_of_1835.jpg "Tennessee Constitution of 1835.jpg")
The second Tennessee State Constitution, adopted in 1835, resulted from a state constitutional convention that convened in Nashville on May 19, 1834, with 60 delegates in attendance. William Carter, of [Carter County](/wiki/Carter_County%2C_Tennessee "Carter County, Tennessee"), presided over the 1834 convention.
Antislavery interests petitioned the convention to abolish [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States"), which was rejected by the convention delegates. The constitution adopted increased opportunities for citizens to engage in the political process, but it limited suffrage to white males. Similarly to other southern states, such as Virginia, it [disfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era "Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era") [free black](/wiki/Free_black "Free black") men, who had had the right to vote under the 1796 constitution. That followed fears raised by [Nat Turner's Rebellion](/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion "Nat Turner's Rebellion") in 1831\.
The second constitution provided for a [state supreme court](/wiki/State_supreme_court "State supreme court"), with three judges, with one judge from each grand division of the state. Judges were required to be at least 35 years old and would serve 12\-year terms.
The constitution was ratified by voters in March 1835, receiving 42,666 votes for it and 17,691 against it.[The Tennessee Constitution of 1834; Historical Note](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/founding_docs/33662_HistNote.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113041526/http://www.tn.gov/tsla/founding\_docs/33662\_HistNote.pdf \|date\=2012\-01\-13 }}, [Tennessee State Library and Archives](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Library_and_Archives "Tennessee State Library and Archives") website, accessed May 30, 2011
### 1870 constitution
The [Tennessee General Assembly](/wiki/Tennessee_General_Assembly "Tennessee General Assembly"), on November 15, 1869, called for an election to be held in December 1869 for two purposes: to determine if a [constitutional convention](/wiki/Constitutional_convention_%28political_meeting%29 "Constitutional convention (political meeting)") should be called to amend or replace the 1835 constitution and to elect delegates to that convention if the voters determined that it was to be held. The voters decided for the convention, which began on January 10, 1870\. The convention adjourned on February 23, 1870, after adopting the constitution and recommending its approval by the voters in a [special election](/wiki/Special_election "Special election"), which was conducted on March 26, 1870\.
The third document was largely written as a response to the requirement for all ex\-[Confederates](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") to adopt new constitutions explicitly banning [slavery](/wiki/Slavery "Slavery"). It contains many provisions that are verbatim holdovers from the two predecessor documents. It is considerably longer than the federal constitution but is not particularly long by the standards of [state constitutions](/wiki/State_constitution_%28United_States%29 "State constitution (United States)"). This 1870 document stood unamended until 1953, which, according to the [Tennessee Blue Book](/wiki/Tennessee_Blue_Book "Tennessee Blue Book"), was the longest period that any such document had remained in effect without amendment anywhere in the world.
{{Anchor\|Conventions}}
Tennessee held limited constitutional conventions in 1953, 1959, 1965, 1971, and 1977\.{{cite book \|last1\=Vile \|first1\=John R. \|last2\=Byrnes \|first2\=Mark E. \|title\=Tennessee Government and Politics: Democracy in the Volunteer State \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Vanderbilt University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8265\-1318\-2 \|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Tennessee\_Government\_and\_Politics/IMYHkwB5uHAC?hl\=en\&gbpv\=1\&dq\=Constitutional\+convention\+Tennessee\+1953\+1959\+1965\+1971\&pg\=PA24\&printsec\=frontcover \|language\=en}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1796 constitution",
"Tennessee held a convention in 1796 to frame their first constitution.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jameson \\|first1\\=John Alexander \\|title\\=The Constitutional Convention: Its History, Powers, and Modes of Proceeding \\|date\\=1867 \\|publisher\\=C. Scribner \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-608\\-41706\\-6 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The\\_Constitutional\\_Convention/YI0\\_AAAAIAAJ?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Constitutional\\+convention\\+Tennessee\\+1796\\&pg\\=PA162\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}} The original Tennessee state constitution was not submitted to the voters for approval, but it was approved by [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress \"US Congress\"), in conjunction with the resolution admitting Tennessee as a state. It went into effect on June 1, 1796, when Tennessee entered the Union.",
"The first constitution was widely criticized as giving the executive, presumably a full\\-time [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee \"Governor of Tennessee\"), insufficient authority, and investing too much authority in the legislature a part\\-time body. That was cited as a primary reason for its replacement.",
"The 1796 constitution also did not create a state supreme court, providing only for \"such superior and inferior courts\" as the legislature should create, with judges elected by the legislature for indefinite terms.[Tennessee Supreme Court](http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1359), *[Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture](/wiki/Tennessee_Encyclopedia_of_History_and_Culture \"Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture\")*",
"In spite of its shortcomings, the original document had its admirers. [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") described Tennessee's as the \"least imperfect and most republican of the state constitutions.\"[Tennessee Constitution of 1796](http://teva.contentdm.oclc.org/landmarkdocs/files/90.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724135036/http://teva.contentdm.oclc.org/landmarkdocs/files/90\\.php \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-24 }}, Tennessee's Landmark Documents, Tennessee Virtual Archive.",
"### 1835 constitution",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The second version of the Tennessee State Constitution was adopted in 1835\\.](/wiki/File:Tennessee_Constitution_of_1835.jpg \"Tennessee Constitution of 1835.jpg\")\nThe second Tennessee State Constitution, adopted in 1835, resulted from a state constitutional convention that convened in Nashville on May 19, 1834, with 60 delegates in attendance. William Carter, of [Carter County](/wiki/Carter_County%2C_Tennessee \"Carter County, Tennessee\"), presided over the 1834 convention.",
"Antislavery interests petitioned the convention to abolish [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\"), which was rejected by the convention delegates. The constitution adopted increased opportunities for citizens to engage in the political process, but it limited suffrage to white males. Similarly to other southern states, such as Virginia, it [disfranchised](/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era \"Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era\") [free black](/wiki/Free_black \"Free black\") men, who had had the right to vote under the 1796 constitution. That followed fears raised by [Nat Turner's Rebellion](/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion \"Nat Turner's Rebellion\") in 1831\\.",
"The second constitution provided for a [state supreme court](/wiki/State_supreme_court \"State supreme court\"), with three judges, with one judge from each grand division of the state. Judges were required to be at least 35 years old and would serve 12\\-year terms.",
"The constitution was ratified by voters in March 1835, receiving 42,666 votes for it and 17,691 against it.[The Tennessee Constitution of 1834; Historical Note](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/founding_docs/33662_HistNote.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113041526/http://www.tn.gov/tsla/founding\\_docs/33662\\_HistNote.pdf \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-13 }}, [Tennessee State Library and Archives](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Library_and_Archives \"Tennessee State Library and Archives\") website, accessed May 30, 2011",
"### 1870 constitution",
"The [Tennessee General Assembly](/wiki/Tennessee_General_Assembly \"Tennessee General Assembly\"), on November 15, 1869, called for an election to be held in December 1869 for two purposes: to determine if a [constitutional convention](/wiki/Constitutional_convention_%28political_meeting%29 \"Constitutional convention (political meeting)\") should be called to amend or replace the 1835 constitution and to elect delegates to that convention if the voters determined that it was to be held. The voters decided for the convention, which began on January 10, 1870\\. The convention adjourned on February 23, 1870, after adopting the constitution and recommending its approval by the voters in a [special election](/wiki/Special_election \"Special election\"), which was conducted on March 26, 1870\\.",
"The third document was largely written as a response to the requirement for all ex\\-[Confederates](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") to adopt new constitutions explicitly banning [slavery](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\"). It contains many provisions that are verbatim holdovers from the two predecessor documents. It is considerably longer than the federal constitution but is not particularly long by the standards of [state constitutions](/wiki/State_constitution_%28United_States%29 \"State constitution (United States)\"). This 1870 document stood unamended until 1953, which, according to the [Tennessee Blue Book](/wiki/Tennessee_Blue_Book \"Tennessee Blue Book\"), was the longest period that any such document had remained in effect without amendment anywhere in the world.",
"{{Anchor\\|Conventions}}\nTennessee held limited constitutional conventions in 1953, 1959, 1965, 1971, and 1977\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Vile \\|first1\\=John R. \\|last2\\=Byrnes \\|first2\\=Mark E. \\|title\\=Tennessee Government and Politics: Democracy in the Volunteer State \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Vanderbilt University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8265\\-1318\\-2 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Tennessee\\_Government\\_and\\_Politics/IMYHkwB5uHAC?hl\\=en\\&gbpv\\=1\\&dq\\=Constitutional\\+convention\\+Tennessee\\+1953\\+1959\\+1965\\+1971\\&pg\\=PA24\\&printsec\\=frontcover \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Main provisions
---------------
The constitution's [preamble](/wiki/Preamble "Preamble") is much longer than its counterpart in the federal Constitution. Much of that length is devoted to justifying the authority behind the new constitution: that the new constitution was created under the authority of the constitution of 1835, which was itself created under the authority of the 1796 convention.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.capitol.tn.gov/about/docs/tn\-constitution.pdf\|title\=The Constitution of the State of Tennessee\|last\=Office of the Chief Clerk of the Senate\|date\=November 4, 2014\|website\=www.tn.gov}}
### Declaration of Rights
Article I, is Tennessee's [bill of rights](/wiki/Bill_of_rights "Bill of rights"). It mimics many of the [US Bill of Rights](/wiki/US_Bill_of_Rights "US Bill of Rights"), but the provisions describing them are generally much lengthier. The provisions in this article state:
{{quote\|
'''ARTICLE I.'''
Declaration of Rights.
'''Section 1\.''' That all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are
founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; for the
advancement of those ends they have at all times, an unalienable and indefeasible right
to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.
'''Section 2\.''' That government being instituted for the common benefit, the doctrine of
nonresistance against arbitrary power and oppression is absurd, slavish, and destructive
of the good and happiness of mankind.
'''Section 3\.''' That all men have a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty
God according to the dictates of their own conscience; that no man can of right be
compelled to attend, erect, or support any place of worship or to maintain any minister
against his consent; that no human authority can, in any case whatever, control or
interfere with the rights of conscience; and that no preference shall ever be given, by
law, to any religious establishment or mode of worship.
'''Section 4\.''' That no political or religious test, other than an oath to support the
Constitution of the United States and of this state, shall ever be required as a
qualification to any office or public trust under this state.
'''Section 5\.''' The elections shall be free and equal, and the right of suffrage, as
hereinafter declared, shall never be denied to any person entitled thereto, except upon a
conviction by a jury of some infamous crime, previously ascertained and declared by
law, and judgment thereon by court of competent jurisdiction.
'''Section 6\.''' That the right of trial by jury shall remain inviolate, and no religious or
political test shall ever be required as a qualification for jurors.
'''Section 7\.''' That the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and
possessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures; and that general warrants,
whereby an officer may be commanded to search suspected places, without evidence of
the fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, whose offences are
not particularly described and supported by evidence, are dangerous to liberty, and ought
not be granted.
'''Section 8\.''' That no man shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold,
liberties or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed or deprived of
his life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.
'''Section 9\.''' That in all criminal prosecutions, the accused hath the right to be heard by
himself and his counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him,
and to have a copy thereof, to meet the witnesses face to face, to have compulsory
process for obtaining witnesses in his favor and in prosecutions by indictment or
presentment, a speedy public trial, by an impartial jury of the county in which the crime
shall have been committed and shall not be compelled to give evidence against himself.
'''Section 10\.''' That no person shall, for the same offense, be twice put in jeopardy of
life or limb.
'''Section 11\.''' That laws made for the punishment of acts committed previous to the
existence of such laws, and by them only declared criminal, are contrary to the principles
of a free government; wherefore no ex post facto law shall be made.
'''Section 12\.''' That no conviction shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate.
The estate of such persons as shall destroy their own lives shall descend or vest as in
case of natural death. If any person is killed by casualty, there shall be no forfeiture in
consequence thereof.
'''Section 13\.''' That no person arrested and confined in jail shall be treated with
unnecessary rigor.
'''Section 14\.''' That no person shall be put to answer any criminal charge but by
presentment, indictment, or impeachment.
'''Section 15\.''' That all prisoners shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, unless for
capital offenses, when the proof is evident, or the presumption is great. And the privilege of
the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebellion or
invasion, the General Assembly shall declare that public safety requires it.
'''Section 16\.''' That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
'''Section 17\.''' That all courts shall be open; and every man, for an injury done him in
his lands, goods, person or reputation, shall have remedy by due course of law, and
right and justice administered without sale, denial, or delay. Suits may be brought
against the state in such manner and in such courts as the Legislature may by law
direct.
'''Section 18\.''' The Legislature shall pass no law authorizing imprisonment for debt in
civil cases.
'''Section 19\.''' That the printing press shall be free to every person to examine the
proceedings of the Legislature; or of any branch or officer of the government, and no law
shall ever be made to restrain the right thereof. The free communication of thoughts and
opinions, is one of the invaluable rights of man, and every citizen may freely speak, write,
and print on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty. But in
prosecutions for the publication of papers investigating the official conduct of officers, or
men in public capacity, the truth thereof may be given in evidence; and in all indictments
for libel, the jury shall have a right to determine the law and the facts, under the direction
of the court, as in other criminal cases.
'''Section 20\.''' That no retrospective law, or law impairing the obligations of contracts,
shall be made.
'''Section 21\.''' That no man's particular services shall be demanded, or property taken,
or applied to public use, without the consent of his representatives, or without just
compensation being made, therefore.
'''Section 22\.''' That perpetuities and monopolies are contrary to the genius of a free
state, and shall not be allowed.
'''Section 23\.''' That the citizens have a right, in a peaceable manner, to assemble
together for their common good, to instruct their representatives, and to apply to those
invested with the powers of government for redress of grievances or other proper
purposes, by address or remonstrance.
'''Section 24\.''' That sure and certain defense of a free people is a well regulated
militia; and, as standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to freedom, they ought to
be avoided as far as the circumstances and safety of the community will admit; and that
in all cases, the military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil authority.
'''Section 25\.''' That no citizen of this state, except such as are employed in the army of
the United States, or militia in actual service, shall be subjected to punishment under the
martial or military law. That martial law, in the sense of the unrestricted power of military
officers, or others, to dispose of the persons, liberties, or property of the citizen, is
inconsistent with the principles of free government, and is not confided to any
department of the government of this state.
'''Section 26\.''' That the citizens of this state have a right to keep and to bear arms for
their common defense; but the Legislature shall have power, by law, to regulate the
wearing of arms with a view to prevent crime.
'''Section 27\.''' That no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without
the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law.
'''Section 28\.''' That no citizen of this state be compelled to bear arms, provided he will
pay an equivalent, to be ascertained by law.
'''Section 29\.''' That an equal participation in the free navigation of the Mississippi is
one of the inherent rights of the citizens of this state; it can not, therefore, be conceded to
any prince, potentate, power, person, or persons whatever.
'''Section 30\.''' That no hereditary emoluments, privileges, or honors, shall ever be
granted or conferred in this state.
'''Section 31\.''' That the limits and boundaries of this state be ascertained, it is declared
they are as hereafter mentioned, that is to say: Beginning on the extreme height of the
Stone Mountain, at the place where the line of Virginia intersects it, in latitude thirty\-six
degrees and thirty minutes north; running thence along the extreme height of the said
mountain, to the place where Watauga River breaks through it; thence a direct course to
the top of the Yellow Mountain, where Bright's road crosses the same; thence along the
ridge of said mountain, between the waters of Doe river and the waters of Rock Creek, to
the place where the road crosses the Iron Mountain; from thence along the extreme
height of said mountain, to the place where Nolichucky River runs through the same;
thence to the top of the Bald Mountain; thence along the extreme height of said
mountain to the Painted Rock on French Broad river; thence along the highest ridge of
said mountain, to the place where it is called the Great Iron or Smoky Mountain; thence
along the extreme height of said mountain to the place where it is called Unicoi or Unaka
Mountain, between the Indian towns of Cowee and Old Chota; thence along the main
ridge of the said mountain to the southern boundary of this state, as described in the act
of cession of North Carolina to the United States of America and that all the territory,
lands and waters lying west of said line, as before mentioned, and contained within the
chartered limits of the state of North Carolina are within the boundaries and limits of this
state, over which the people have the right to exercise sovereignty and the right of
soil, so far as is consistent with the Constitution of the United States, recognizing the
Articles of Confederation, the Bill of Rights and Constitution of North Carolina, the
cession act of the said state, and the ordinance of Congress for the government of the
territory north west of Ohio; provided, nothing herein contained shall extend to affect the
claim or claims of individuals to any part of the soil, which is recognized to them by the
aforesaid cession act; And provided also, that the limits and jurisdiction of this state shall
extend to any other land and territory now acquired, or that may hereafter be acquired,
by compact or agreement with other states, or otherwise, although such land and
territory are not included within the boundaries herein before designated.
'''Section 32\.''' That the erection of safe prisons, the inspection of prisons, and the
humane treatment of prisoners, shall be provided for.
'''Section 33\.''' That slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime,
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, are forever prohibited in this state.
'''Section 34\.''' The General Assembly shall make no law recognizing the right of
property in man.
'''Section 35\.''' To preserve and protect the rights of victims of crime to justice and due
process, victims shall be entitled to the following basic rights:
(a) The right to confer with the prosecution.
(b) The right to be free from intimidation, harassment and abuse throughout the
criminal justice system.
(c) The right to be present at all proceedings where the defendant has the right to be
present.
(d) The right to be heard, when relevant, at all critical stages of the criminal justice
process as defined by the General Assembly.
(e) The right to be informed of all proceedings and of the release, transfer, or escape
of the accused or convicted person.
(f) The right to a speedy trial or disposition and a prompt and final conclusion of the
case after the conviction or sentence.
(g) The right to restitution from the offender.
(h) The right to be informed of each of the rights established for victims.
The General Assembly has the authority to enact substantive and procedural laws to
define, implement, preserve, and protect the rights guaranteed to victims by this section.
'''Section 36\.''' Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or
requires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected
state representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statutes regarding
abortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or
incest or when necessary to save the life of the mother.
}}
Sections 16 and 27 are among those directly copied from the federal Constitution. Section 8 closely follows the wording of the [Magna Carta](/wiki/Magna_Carta "Magna Carta").
The article's provisions regarding slavery are also significant, as they both prohibit slavery in the same manner as the [Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") and forbid the legislature from making any "law recognizing the right of property in man." Some construe the latter provision as prohibiting any form of [indentured servitude](/wiki/Indentured_servant "Indentured servant").
#### Less usual declarations
Besides the more common rights, a few other rights are enumerated:
* Citizens are granted "an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper" (Section 1\).
* [Imprisonment for civil debt](/wiki/Debtor%27s_prison "Debtor's prison") may not be carried out (Section 18\).
* [Martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law") may never be declared (Section 25\)
* Anyone may travel on the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River"), and the right to do so may not be sold to or barred from anyone (Section 29\).
### Separation of powers
{{quote\|
'''Section 2\.'''
Article II of the constitution reads that \[\[Separation of powers\|the powers of the government shall be divided into three distinct
departments]]: legislative, executive, and judicial. It is explicit that: No person or persons belonging to one of these departments shall exercise any of the powers properly belonging to either of the others, something considered implicit in the federal constitution or inferred by its interpreters (Sections 1 and 2\).
}}
#### Legislative branch
The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch "Legislative branch") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate "Tennessee Senate") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house "Lower house") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives") (Section 3\).
The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census "US Census"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims "Reynolds v. Sims")* (Section 4\).
The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).
The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).
The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 "Election Day (United States)"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\).
Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens "US citizens"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a "trustee of a literary institution" (Section 10\).
Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress "Contempt of Congress") their proceedings (Section 14\).
The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\-germane material, and no caption can include the words "and for other purposes" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no "[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill "Omnibus spending bill")" bills.
Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 "Bond (finance)") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\).
Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.
For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum "Referendum") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations "Statute of limitations"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War").
#### Executive branch
Article III allows the governor to serve a two\-year term, which was superseded by 1953 amendments. The [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch "Executive branch") is empowered with a [line\-item veto](/wiki/Line-item_veto "Line-item veto"), but a majority of all members in each house may override the veto, which is the same vote required to enact the bill initially. The governor is the head of the state [militia](/wiki/Militia "Militia"), but he may not exercise that power unless the General Assembly authorizes him to do so when "the public safety requires it" (Section 5\).
There are twenty\-two departments that operate under the executive branch; the departments are:{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\-blue\-book\|title\=Tennessee Blue Book {{!}} Tennessee Secretary of State\|website\=www.sos.tn.gov\|access\-date\=March 24, 2019\|archive\-date\=March 23, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323233013/https://sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\-blue\-book\|url\-status\=dead}}
* Department of Agriculture
* Department of Children's Services
* Department of Commerce and Insurance
* Department of Correction
* Department of Economic and Community Development
* Department of Education
* Department of Environment and Conservation
* Department of Finance and Administration
* Department of Financial Institutions
* Department of General Services
* Department of Health
* Department of Human Resources
* Department of Human Services
* Department of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
* Department of Labor and Workforce Development
* Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services
* Department of Military
* Department of Revenue
* Department of Safety and Homeland Security
* Department of Tourist Development
* Department of Transportation
* Department of Veterans Services
#### Judicial branch
Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch "Judicial branch"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity "Court of equity") courts, and others to be "ordained and established" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") (Section 1\).
The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee "Knoxville, Tennessee"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee "Jackson, Tennessee"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 "Grand Divisions (Tennessee)") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee "East Tennessee"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee "Middle Tennessee"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee "West Tennessee")) (Section 2\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan").
The court then appoints the state "[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee "Attorney General of Tennessee") and Reporter" for an eight\-year term (Section 5\).
The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\).
Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the number of senators "sworn to try the impeachment," which may be less than a "constitutional" supermajority (Article V).
Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact "Trial of fact") in the state's ordinary courts.
|
[
"Main provisions\n---------------",
"The constitution's [preamble](/wiki/Preamble \"Preamble\") is much longer than its counterpart in the federal Constitution. Much of that length is devoted to justifying the authority behind the new constitution: that the new constitution was created under the authority of the constitution of 1835, which was itself created under the authority of the 1796 convention.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.capitol.tn.gov/about/docs/tn\\-constitution.pdf\\|title\\=The Constitution of the State of Tennessee\\|last\\=Office of the Chief Clerk of the Senate\\|date\\=November 4, 2014\\|website\\=www.tn.gov}}",
"### Declaration of Rights",
"Article I, is Tennessee's [bill of rights](/wiki/Bill_of_rights \"Bill of rights\"). It mimics many of the [US Bill of Rights](/wiki/US_Bill_of_Rights \"US Bill of Rights\"), but the provisions describing them are generally much lengthier. The provisions in this article state:",
"{{quote\\|\n'''ARTICLE I.'''\nDeclaration of Rights.",
"'''Section 1\\.''' That all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are\nfounded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; for the\nadvancement of those ends they have at all times, an unalienable and indefeasible right\nto alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.",
"'''Section 2\\.''' That government being instituted for the common benefit, the doctrine of\nnonresistance against arbitrary power and oppression is absurd, slavish, and destructive\nof the good and happiness of mankind.",
"'''Section 3\\.''' That all men have a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty\nGod according to the dictates of their own conscience; that no man can of right be\ncompelled to attend, erect, or support any place of worship or to maintain any minister\nagainst his consent; that no human authority can, in any case whatever, control or\ninterfere with the rights of conscience; and that no preference shall ever be given, by\nlaw, to any religious establishment or mode of worship.",
"'''Section 4\\.''' That no political or religious test, other than an oath to support the\nConstitution of the United States and of this state, shall ever be required as a\nqualification to any office or public trust under this state.",
"'''Section 5\\.''' The elections shall be free and equal, and the right of suffrage, as\nhereinafter declared, shall never be denied to any person entitled thereto, except upon a\nconviction by a jury of some infamous crime, previously ascertained and declared by\nlaw, and judgment thereon by court of competent jurisdiction.",
"'''Section 6\\.''' That the right of trial by jury shall remain inviolate, and no religious or\npolitical test shall ever be required as a qualification for jurors.",
"'''Section 7\\.''' That the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and\npossessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures; and that general warrants,\nwhereby an officer may be commanded to search suspected places, without evidence of\nthe fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, whose offences are\nnot particularly described and supported by evidence, are dangerous to liberty, and ought\nnot be granted.",
"'''Section 8\\.''' That no man shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold,\nliberties or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed or deprived of\nhis life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.",
"'''Section 9\\.''' That in all criminal prosecutions, the accused hath the right to be heard by\nhimself and his counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him,\nand to have a copy thereof, to meet the witnesses face to face, to have compulsory\nprocess for obtaining witnesses in his favor and in prosecutions by indictment or\npresentment, a speedy public trial, by an impartial jury of the county in which the crime\nshall have been committed and shall not be compelled to give evidence against himself.",
"'''Section 10\\.''' That no person shall, for the same offense, be twice put in jeopardy of\nlife or limb.",
"'''Section 11\\.''' That laws made for the punishment of acts committed previous to the\nexistence of such laws, and by them only declared criminal, are contrary to the principles\nof a free government; wherefore no ex post facto law shall be made.",
"'''Section 12\\.''' That no conviction shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate.\nThe estate of such persons as shall destroy their own lives shall descend or vest as in\ncase of natural death. If any person is killed by casualty, there shall be no forfeiture in\nconsequence thereof.",
"'''Section 13\\.''' That no person arrested and confined in jail shall be treated with\nunnecessary rigor.",
"'''Section 14\\.''' That no person shall be put to answer any criminal charge but by\npresentment, indictment, or impeachment.",
"'''Section 15\\.''' That all prisoners shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, unless for\ncapital offenses, when the proof is evident, or the presumption is great. And the privilege of\nthe writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebellion or\ninvasion, the General Assembly shall declare that public safety requires it.",
"'''Section 16\\.''' That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,\nnor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.",
"'''Section 17\\.''' That all courts shall be open; and every man, for an injury done him in\nhis lands, goods, person or reputation, shall have remedy by due course of law, and\nright and justice administered without sale, denial, or delay. Suits may be brought\nagainst the state in such manner and in such courts as the Legislature may by law\ndirect.",
"'''Section 18\\.''' The Legislature shall pass no law authorizing imprisonment for debt in\ncivil cases.",
"'''Section 19\\.''' That the printing press shall be free to every person to examine the\nproceedings of the Legislature; or of any branch or officer of the government, and no law\nshall ever be made to restrain the right thereof. The free communication of thoughts and\nopinions, is one of the invaluable rights of man, and every citizen may freely speak, write,\nand print on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty. But in\nprosecutions for the publication of papers investigating the official conduct of officers, or\nmen in public capacity, the truth thereof may be given in evidence; and in all indictments\nfor libel, the jury shall have a right to determine the law and the facts, under the direction\nof the court, as in other criminal cases.",
"'''Section 20\\.''' That no retrospective law, or law impairing the obligations of contracts,\nshall be made.",
"'''Section 21\\.''' That no man's particular services shall be demanded, or property taken,\nor applied to public use, without the consent of his representatives, or without just\ncompensation being made, therefore.",
"'''Section 22\\.''' That perpetuities and monopolies are contrary to the genius of a free\nstate, and shall not be allowed.",
"'''Section 23\\.''' That the citizens have a right, in a peaceable manner, to assemble\ntogether for their common good, to instruct their representatives, and to apply to those\ninvested with the powers of government for redress of grievances or other proper\npurposes, by address or remonstrance.",
"'''Section 24\\.''' That sure and certain defense of a free people is a well regulated\nmilitia; and, as standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to freedom, they ought to\nbe avoided as far as the circumstances and safety of the community will admit; and that\nin all cases, the military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil authority.",
"'''Section 25\\.''' That no citizen of this state, except such as are employed in the army of\nthe United States, or militia in actual service, shall be subjected to punishment under the\nmartial or military law. That martial law, in the sense of the unrestricted power of military\nofficers, or others, to dispose of the persons, liberties, or property of the citizen, is\ninconsistent with the principles of free government, and is not confided to any\ndepartment of the government of this state.",
"'''Section 26\\.''' That the citizens of this state have a right to keep and to bear arms for\ntheir common defense; but the Legislature shall have power, by law, to regulate the\nwearing of arms with a view to prevent crime.",
"'''Section 27\\.''' That no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without\nthe consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law.",
"'''Section 28\\.''' That no citizen of this state be compelled to bear arms, provided he will\npay an equivalent, to be ascertained by law.",
"'''Section 29\\.''' That an equal participation in the free navigation of the Mississippi is\none of the inherent rights of the citizens of this state; it can not, therefore, be conceded to\nany prince, potentate, power, person, or persons whatever.",
"'''Section 30\\.''' That no hereditary emoluments, privileges, or honors, shall ever be\ngranted or conferred in this state.",
"'''Section 31\\.''' That the limits and boundaries of this state be ascertained, it is declared\nthey are as hereafter mentioned, that is to say: Beginning on the extreme height of the\nStone Mountain, at the place where the line of Virginia intersects it, in latitude thirty\\-six\ndegrees and thirty minutes north; running thence along the extreme height of the said\nmountain, to the place where Watauga River breaks through it; thence a direct course to\nthe top of the Yellow Mountain, where Bright's road crosses the same; thence along the\nridge of said mountain, between the waters of Doe river and the waters of Rock Creek, to\nthe place where the road crosses the Iron Mountain; from thence along the extreme\nheight of said mountain, to the place where Nolichucky River runs through the same;\nthence to the top of the Bald Mountain; thence along the extreme height of said\nmountain to the Painted Rock on French Broad river; thence along the highest ridge of\nsaid mountain, to the place where it is called the Great Iron or Smoky Mountain; thence\nalong the extreme height of said mountain to the place where it is called Unicoi or Unaka\nMountain, between the Indian towns of Cowee and Old Chota; thence along the main\nridge of the said mountain to the southern boundary of this state, as described in the act\nof cession of North Carolina to the United States of America and that all the territory,\nlands and waters lying west of said line, as before mentioned, and contained within the\nchartered limits of the state of North Carolina are within the boundaries and limits of this\nstate, over which the people have the right to exercise sovereignty and the right of\nsoil, so far as is consistent with the Constitution of the United States, recognizing the\nArticles of Confederation, the Bill of Rights and Constitution of North Carolina, the\ncession act of the said state, and the ordinance of Congress for the government of the\nterritory north west of Ohio; provided, nothing herein contained shall extend to affect the\nclaim or claims of individuals to any part of the soil, which is recognized to them by the\naforesaid cession act; And provided also, that the limits and jurisdiction of this state shall\nextend to any other land and territory now acquired, or that may hereafter be acquired,\nby compact or agreement with other states, or otherwise, although such land and\nterritory are not included within the boundaries herein before designated.",
"'''Section 32\\.''' That the erection of safe prisons, the inspection of prisons, and the\nhumane treatment of prisoners, shall be provided for.",
"'''Section 33\\.''' That slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime,\nwhereof the party shall have been duly convicted, are forever prohibited in this state.",
"'''Section 34\\.''' The General Assembly shall make no law recognizing the right of\nproperty in man.",
"'''Section 35\\.''' To preserve and protect the rights of victims of crime to justice and due\nprocess, victims shall be entitled to the following basic rights:\n(a) The right to confer with the prosecution.\n(b) The right to be free from intimidation, harassment and abuse throughout the\ncriminal justice system.\n(c) The right to be present at all proceedings where the defendant has the right to be\npresent.\n(d) The right to be heard, when relevant, at all critical stages of the criminal justice\nprocess as defined by the General Assembly.\n(e) The right to be informed of all proceedings and of the release, transfer, or escape\nof the accused or convicted person.\n(f) The right to a speedy trial or disposition and a prompt and final conclusion of the\ncase after the conviction or sentence.\n(g) The right to restitution from the offender.\n(h) The right to be informed of each of the rights established for victims.\nThe General Assembly has the authority to enact substantive and procedural laws to\ndefine, implement, preserve, and protect the rights guaranteed to victims by this section.",
"'''Section 36\\.''' Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or\nrequires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected\nstate representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statutes regarding\nabortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or\nincest or when necessary to save the life of the mother.\n}}",
"Sections 16 and 27 are among those directly copied from the federal Constitution. Section 8 closely follows the wording of the [Magna Carta](/wiki/Magna_Carta \"Magna Carta\").",
"The article's provisions regarding slavery are also significant, as they both prohibit slavery in the same manner as the [Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") and forbid the legislature from making any \"law recognizing the right of property in man.\" Some construe the latter provision as prohibiting any form of [indentured servitude](/wiki/Indentured_servant \"Indentured servant\").",
"#### Less usual declarations",
"Besides the more common rights, a few other rights are enumerated:",
"* Citizens are granted \"an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper\" (Section 1\\).\n* [Imprisonment for civil debt](/wiki/Debtor%27s_prison \"Debtor's prison\") may not be carried out (Section 18\\).\n* [Martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\") may never be declared (Section 25\\)\n* Anyone may travel on the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\"), and the right to do so may not be sold to or barred from anyone (Section 29\\).",
"### Separation of powers",
"{{quote\\|\n'''Section 2\\.'''\nArticle II of the constitution reads that \\[\\[Separation of powers\\|the powers of the government shall be divided into three distinct \ndepartments]]: legislative, executive, and judicial. It is explicit that: No person or persons belonging to one of these departments shall exercise any of the powers properly belonging to either of the others, something considered implicit in the federal constitution or inferred by its interpreters (Sections 1 and 2\\).\n}}",
"#### Legislative branch",
"The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch \"Legislative branch\") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate \"Tennessee Senate\") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house \"Lower house\") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") (Section 3\\).",
"The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census \"US Census\"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims \"Reynolds v. Sims\")* (Section 4\\).",
"The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).",
"The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).",
"The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 \"Election Day (United States)\"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\\).",
"Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens \"US citizens\"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a \"trustee of a literary institution\" (Section 10\\).",
"Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress \"Contempt of Congress\") their proceedings (Section 14\\).",
"The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\\-germane material, and no caption can include the words \"and for other purposes\" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no \"[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill \"Omnibus spending bill\")\" bills.",
"Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 \"Bond (finance)\") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\\).",
"Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.",
"For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum \"Referendum\") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations \"Statute of limitations\"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\").",
"#### Executive branch",
"Article III allows the governor to serve a two\\-year term, which was superseded by 1953 amendments. The [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch \"Executive branch\") is empowered with a [line\\-item veto](/wiki/Line-item_veto \"Line-item veto\"), but a majority of all members in each house may override the veto, which is the same vote required to enact the bill initially. The governor is the head of the state [militia](/wiki/Militia \"Militia\"), but he may not exercise that power unless the General Assembly authorizes him to do so when \"the public safety requires it\" (Section 5\\).",
"There are twenty\\-two departments that operate under the executive branch; the departments are:{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\\-blue\\-book\\|title\\=Tennessee Blue Book {{!}} Tennessee Secretary of State\\|website\\=www.sos.tn.gov\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=March 23, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323233013/https://sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\\-blue\\-book\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* Department of Agriculture\n* Department of Children's Services\n* Department of Commerce and Insurance\n* Department of Correction\n* Department of Economic and Community Development\n* Department of Education\n* Department of Environment and Conservation\n* Department of Finance and Administration\n* Department of Financial Institutions\n* Department of General Services\n* Department of Health\n* Department of Human Resources\n* Department of Human Services\n* Department of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities\n* Department of Labor and Workforce Development\n* Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services\n* Department of Military\n* Department of Revenue\n* Department of Safety and Homeland Security\n* Department of Tourist Development\n* Department of Transportation\n* Department of Veterans Services",
"#### Judicial branch",
"Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch \"Judicial branch\"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity \"Court of equity\") courts, and others to be \"ordained and established\" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") (Section 1\\).",
"The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee \"Jackson, Tennessee\"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 \"Grand Divisions (Tennessee)\") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee \"East Tennessee\"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee \"Middle Tennessee\"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee \"West Tennessee\")) (Section 2\\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\").",
"The court then appoints the state \"[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee \"Attorney General of Tennessee\") and Reporter\" for an eight\\-year term (Section 5\\).",
"The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\\).",
"Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the number of senators \"sworn to try the impeachment,\" which may be less than a \"constitutional\" supermajority (Article V).",
"Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact \"Trial of fact\") in the state's ordinary courts.",
""
] |
### Separation of powers
{{quote\|
'''Section 2\.'''
Article II of the constitution reads that \[\[Separation of powers\|the powers of the government shall be divided into three distinct
departments]]: legislative, executive, and judicial. It is explicit that: No person or persons belonging to one of these departments shall exercise any of the powers properly belonging to either of the others, something considered implicit in the federal constitution or inferred by its interpreters (Sections 1 and 2\).
}}
#### Legislative branch
The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch "Legislative branch") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate "Tennessee Senate") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house "Lower house") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives") (Section 3\).
The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census "US Census"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims "Reynolds v. Sims")* (Section 4\).
The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).
The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).
The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 "Election Day (United States)"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\).
Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens "US citizens"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a "trustee of a literary institution" (Section 10\).
Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress "Contempt of Congress") their proceedings (Section 14\).
The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\-germane material, and no caption can include the words "and for other purposes" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no "[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill "Omnibus spending bill")" bills.
Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 "Bond (finance)") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\).
Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.
For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum "Referendum") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations "Statute of limitations"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War").
#### Executive branch
Article III allows the governor to serve a two\-year term, which was superseded by 1953 amendments. The [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch "Executive branch") is empowered with a [line\-item veto](/wiki/Line-item_veto "Line-item veto"), but a majority of all members in each house may override the veto, which is the same vote required to enact the bill initially. The governor is the head of the state [militia](/wiki/Militia "Militia"), but he may not exercise that power unless the General Assembly authorizes him to do so when "the public safety requires it" (Section 5\).
There are twenty\-two departments that operate under the executive branch; the departments are:{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\-blue\-book\|title\=Tennessee Blue Book {{!}} Tennessee Secretary of State\|website\=www.sos.tn.gov\|access\-date\=March 24, 2019\|archive\-date\=March 23, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323233013/https://sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\-blue\-book\|url\-status\=dead}}
* Department of Agriculture
* Department of Children's Services
* Department of Commerce and Insurance
* Department of Correction
* Department of Economic and Community Development
* Department of Education
* Department of Environment and Conservation
* Department of Finance and Administration
* Department of Financial Institutions
* Department of General Services
* Department of Health
* Department of Human Resources
* Department of Human Services
* Department of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
* Department of Labor and Workforce Development
* Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services
* Department of Military
* Department of Revenue
* Department of Safety and Homeland Security
* Department of Tourist Development
* Department of Transportation
* Department of Veterans Services
#### Judicial branch
Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch "Judicial branch"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity "Court of equity") courts, and others to be "ordained and established" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") (Section 1\).
The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee "Knoxville, Tennessee"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee "Jackson, Tennessee"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 "Grand Divisions (Tennessee)") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee "East Tennessee"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee "Middle Tennessee"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee "West Tennessee")) (Section 2\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan").
The court then appoints the state "[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee "Attorney General of Tennessee") and Reporter" for an eight\-year term (Section 5\).
The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\).
Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the number of senators "sworn to try the impeachment," which may be less than a "constitutional" supermajority (Article V).
Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact "Trial of fact") in the state's ordinary courts.
|
[
"### Separation of powers",
"{{quote\\|\n'''Section 2\\.'''\nArticle II of the constitution reads that \\[\\[Separation of powers\\|the powers of the government shall be divided into three distinct \ndepartments]]: legislative, executive, and judicial. It is explicit that: No person or persons belonging to one of these departments shall exercise any of the powers properly belonging to either of the others, something considered implicit in the federal constitution or inferred by its interpreters (Sections 1 and 2\\).\n}}",
"#### Legislative branch",
"The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch \"Legislative branch\") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate \"Tennessee Senate\") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house \"Lower house\") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") (Section 3\\).",
"The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census \"US Census\"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims \"Reynolds v. Sims\")* (Section 4\\).",
"The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).",
"The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).",
"The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 \"Election Day (United States)\"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\\).",
"Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens \"US citizens\"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a \"trustee of a literary institution\" (Section 10\\).",
"Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress \"Contempt of Congress\") their proceedings (Section 14\\).",
"The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\\-germane material, and no caption can include the words \"and for other purposes\" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no \"[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill \"Omnibus spending bill\")\" bills.",
"Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 \"Bond (finance)\") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\\).",
"Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.",
"For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum \"Referendum\") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations \"Statute of limitations\"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\").",
"#### Executive branch",
"Article III allows the governor to serve a two\\-year term, which was superseded by 1953 amendments. The [executive branch](/wiki/Executive_branch \"Executive branch\") is empowered with a [line\\-item veto](/wiki/Line-item_veto \"Line-item veto\"), but a majority of all members in each house may override the veto, which is the same vote required to enact the bill initially. The governor is the head of the state [militia](/wiki/Militia \"Militia\"), but he may not exercise that power unless the General Assembly authorizes him to do so when \"the public safety requires it\" (Section 5\\).",
"There are twenty\\-two departments that operate under the executive branch; the departments are:{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\\-blue\\-book\\|title\\=Tennessee Blue Book {{!}} Tennessee Secretary of State\\|website\\=www.sos.tn.gov\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=March 23, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323233013/https://sos.tn.gov/content/tennessee\\-blue\\-book\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* Department of Agriculture\n* Department of Children's Services\n* Department of Commerce and Insurance\n* Department of Correction\n* Department of Economic and Community Development\n* Department of Education\n* Department of Environment and Conservation\n* Department of Finance and Administration\n* Department of Financial Institutions\n* Department of General Services\n* Department of Health\n* Department of Human Resources\n* Department of Human Services\n* Department of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities\n* Department of Labor and Workforce Development\n* Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services\n* Department of Military\n* Department of Revenue\n* Department of Safety and Homeland Security\n* Department of Tourist Development\n* Department of Transportation\n* Department of Veterans Services",
"#### Judicial branch",
"Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch \"Judicial branch\"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity \"Court of equity\") courts, and others to be \"ordained and established\" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") (Section 1\\).",
"The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee \"Jackson, Tennessee\"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 \"Grand Divisions (Tennessee)\") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee \"East Tennessee\"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee \"Middle Tennessee\"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee \"West Tennessee\")) (Section 2\\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\").",
"The court then appoints the state \"[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee \"Attorney General of Tennessee\") and Reporter\" for an eight\\-year term (Section 5\\).",
"The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\\).",
"Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the number of senators \"sworn to try the impeachment,\" which may be less than a \"constitutional\" supermajority (Article V).",
"Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact \"Trial of fact\") in the state's ordinary courts.",
""
] |
#### Legislative branch
The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch "Legislative branch") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate "Tennessee Senate") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house "Lower house") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives") (Section 3\).
The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census "US Census"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims "Reynolds v. Sims")* (Section 4\).
The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).
The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).
The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 "Election Day (United States)"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\).
Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens "US citizens"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a "trustee of a literary institution" (Section 10\).
Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress "Contempt of Congress") their proceedings (Section 14\).
The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\-germane material, and no caption can include the words "and for other purposes" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no "[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill "Omnibus spending bill")" bills.
Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 "Bond (finance)") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\).
Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.
For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum "Referendum") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations "Statute of limitations"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War").
|
[
"#### Legislative branch",
"The [lawmaking power](/wiki/Legislative_branch \"Legislative branch\") of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\") is the [Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_Senate \"Tennessee Senate\") and the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house \"Lower house\") is the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") (Section 3\\).",
"The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the [US Census](/wiki/US_Census \"US Census\"); however the General Assembly can always use other, non\\-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under *[Reynolds v. Sims](/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims \"Reynolds v. Sims\")* (Section 4\\).",
"The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single\\-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).",
"The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).",
"The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the [first Tuesday after the first Monday](/wiki/Election_Day_%28United_States%29 \"Election Day (United States)\"), and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7\\).",
"Representatives have to be 21 years old, [US citizens](/wiki/US_citizens \"US citizens\"), state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9\\). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a \"trustee of a literary institution\" (Section 10\\).",
"Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who [disrupts](/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress \"Contempt of Congress\") their proceedings (Section 14\\).",
"The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17\\). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non\\-germane material, and no caption can include the words \"and for other purposes\" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no \"[omnibus](/wiki/Omnibus_spending_bill \"Omnibus spending bill\")\" bills.",
"Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 \"Bond (finance)\") on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33\\) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25\\).",
"Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.",
"For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a [referendum](/wiki/Referendum \"Referendum\") was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three\\-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any [statute of limitations](/wiki/Statute_of_limitations \"Statute of limitations\"), as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\").",
""
] |
#### Judicial branch
Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch "Judicial branch"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity "Court of equity") courts, and others to be "ordained and established" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") (Section 1\).
The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee "Nashville, Tennessee"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee "Knoxville, Tennessee"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee "Jackson, Tennessee"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 "Grand Divisions (Tennessee)") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee "East Tennessee"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee "Middle Tennessee"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee "West Tennessee")) (Section 2\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan").
The court then appoints the state "[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee "Attorney General of Tennessee") and Reporter" for an eight\-year term (Section 5\).
The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\).
Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority "Supermajority") of the number of senators "sworn to try the impeachment," which may be less than a "constitutional" supermajority (Article V).
Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact "Trial of fact") in the state's ordinary courts.
|
[
"#### Judicial branch",
"Article VI creates the [judiciary](/wiki/Judicial_branch \"Judicial branch\"), with the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), the [Chancery](/wiki/Court_of_equity \"Court of equity\") courts, and others to be \"ordained and established\" as deemed necessary as well as [justices of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") (Section 1\\).",
"The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville%2C_Tennessee \"Nashville, Tennessee\"), [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\"), and [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee \"Jackson, Tennessee\"). Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's [Grand Divisions](/wiki/Grand_Divisions_%28Tennessee%29 \"Grand Divisions (Tennessee)\") ([East Tennessee](/wiki/East_Tennessee \"East Tennessee\"), [Middle Tennessee](/wiki/Middle_Tennessee \"Middle Tennessee\"), and [West Tennessee](/wiki/West_Tennessee \"West Tennessee\")) (Section 2\\). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4\\), but that has been changed to the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\").",
"The court then appoints the state \"[Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Tennessee \"Attorney General of Tennessee\") and Reporter\" for an eight\\-year term (Section 5\\).",
"The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6\\).",
"Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two\\-thirds [supermajority](/wiki/Supermajority \"Supermajority\") of the number of senators \"sworn to try the impeachment,\" which may be less than a \"constitutional\" supermajority (Article V).",
"Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate [trial of fact](/wiki/Trial_of_fact \"Trial of fact\") in the state's ordinary courts.",
""
] |
Other provisions
----------------
The constitution has several provisions that are unusual for a state constitution. It mandates only three constitutional officers other than governor: the [secretary of state](/wiki/Tennessee_Secretary_of_State "Tennessee Secretary of State"), state treasurer, and [comptroller](/wiki/Comptroller "Comptroller"), who are elected by the General Assembly, not the voters as is far more common. Tennessee is the only state other than [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") and, arguably, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") in which the governor is the sole office holder elected statewide (the [Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_Jersey "Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey") is elected as part of a ticket alongside the governor).
The governor's designated successor is the [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 "Speaker (politics)") of the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate "Tennessee State Senate"), elected from among its membership, a provision now found in the constitutions of only a few other states; most now have a full\-time [lieutenant governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant governor (United States)"). (The office is referred to as [Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Tennessee "Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee") in subsequent statutory law, but not in the constitution.)
[General elections](/wiki/General_election "General election") for state offices were moved to make them simultaneous with federal elections (November in even\-numbered years), with elections for county and judicial offices to be held in August of even\-numbered years; that later became the traditional date for [primary elections](/wiki/Partisan_primary "Partisan primary") for the statewide offices to be held as well so that the day on which, for example, a [sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff "Sheriff") was elected would be the same day as the primary election for governor would be held.
Other provisions included are the procedure for the establishment of new counties and the recognition of three counties previously established by the legislature, in contravention of provisions of the previous constitution. New counties would carry a pro\-rata share of the indebtedness of the county or counties from which they were being formed, preventing the formation of new counties as a way of areas getting out from under debt that they had previously incurred.
(That provision nonetheless incited a spate of new counties; ten were established in the next decade, but none have been since, and one of those established was subsequently abolished, and the provisions are such that would make the establishment of any further counties beyond those extremely difficult and unlikely.)
Some current agendas of the era were reflected, as there were provisions allowing county seats to be moved in two counties with only a majority vote of the populace, but a [two\-thirds majority](/wiki/Two-thirds_majority "Two-thirds majority") was required in all others. A county line adjustment between two counties was made between two existing counties, and special provisions made for counties whose formation was already planned at the time as well as for settling definitively the status of others that had already been created without strict adherence to the provisions for the creation of new counties contained in the previous constitution.
There were also provisions forbidding [interracial marriages](/wiki/Interracial_marriage "Interracial marriage") and [integrated](/wiki/Racial_integration "Racial integration") schools, allowing for a [poll tax](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 "Poll tax (United States)"), preventing [interest](/wiki/Interest "Interest") over 10% from being charged on loans and making this [usury](/wiki/Usury "Usury") *per se*. All four provisions have been either subsequently formally removed or otherwise invalidated by [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") decisions and are no longer enforced. Whether the prohibition of former [duelists](/wiki/Dueling "Dueling") from holding office is valid has apparently not been tested.
### Militia
The state's militia is governed by Article VIII, which specifies that all officers are to be elected by those subject to service within their groupings and as the legislature directs (Section 1\) but that the governor will appoint his [staff officers](/wiki/Staff_officer "Staff officer"), who, in turn, appoints their staff officers (Section 2\). The legislature is also directed to exempt religious [conscientious objectors](/wiki/Conscientious_objector "Conscientious objector") (Section 3\).
### Disqualifications
Article IX lists three groups of people who are barred from various privileges:
* [Ministers](/wiki/Minister_of_religion "Minister of religion") of any religion may not sit as legislators because they "ought not be diverted from the great duties of their functions" (Section 1\).
* [Atheists](/wiki/Atheist "Atheist") may not perform any office in the government, but Section 4 of Article I, banning any religious test for any "office of public trust", would make this impossible to enforce (Section 2\).
* Any person involved in a [duel](/wiki/Duel "Duel") may not hold any "honor or profit" under the state's government and is liable to be punished otherwise (Section 3\).
The restrictions on ministers and atheists have been deemed to be unenforceable due to the interpretations of the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") with regard to the [First](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution") and the [Fourteenth Amendments](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") to the [United States Constitution](/wiki/United_States_Constitution "United States Constitution").
**Impeachment**
Article V of the Tennessee Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach (Section 1\). Impeachment is when an office holder's actions are called into question, so therefore, they face the chances of being removed from office. The process of impeachment it is tried in the Senate, and all senators must be sworn under oath. The chief justice of the Supreme Court presides overall all trials of impeachment unless he is on trial, then the senior associate judge will rule over the court. The office holder can not be convicted without a two\-thirds or majority rule from the Senate (Section 2\). The House of Representatives must choose three members to prosecute impeachments. Impeachments can not be tried until the Legislature has adjourned *sine die,* then the Senate can try the impeachment (Section 3\). The governor, Supreme Court Judges, inferior court judges, chancellors, attorneys of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and secretary of state are all liable to impeachment if the House of Representative believe they have committed a crime that calls for disqualification or removal from office, but judgement can only be removal of office and disqualification to hold any office after impeachment. The party must be prosecuted to the full extent of the law, and the Legislature has the power to remove penalties imposed on anyone disqualified from filling office by impeachment (Section 4\). Justices of the peace, and other civil officers are also liable for indictments in such courts as the Legislature may direct, and if convicted of impeachment they must be removed from office by said court, and will be subject to other punishment as asserted by law (Section 5\).
|
[
"Other provisions\n----------------",
"The constitution has several provisions that are unusual for a state constitution. It mandates only three constitutional officers other than governor: the [secretary of state](/wiki/Tennessee_Secretary_of_State \"Tennessee Secretary of State\"), state treasurer, and [comptroller](/wiki/Comptroller \"Comptroller\"), who are elected by the General Assembly, not the voters as is far more common. Tennessee is the only state other than [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") and, arguably, [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") in which the governor is the sole office holder elected statewide (the [Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_Jersey \"Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey\") is elected as part of a ticket alongside the governor).",
"The governor's designated successor is the [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 \"Speaker (politics)\") of the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate \"Tennessee State Senate\"), elected from among its membership, a provision now found in the constitutions of only a few other states; most now have a full\\-time [lieutenant governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant governor (United States)\"). (The office is referred to as [Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Tennessee \"Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee\") in subsequent statutory law, but not in the constitution.)",
"[General elections](/wiki/General_election \"General election\") for state offices were moved to make them simultaneous with federal elections (November in even\\-numbered years), with elections for county and judicial offices to be held in August of even\\-numbered years; that later became the traditional date for [primary elections](/wiki/Partisan_primary \"Partisan primary\") for the statewide offices to be held as well so that the day on which, for example, a [sheriff](/wiki/Sheriff \"Sheriff\") was elected would be the same day as the primary election for governor would be held.",
"Other provisions included are the procedure for the establishment of new counties and the recognition of three counties previously established by the legislature, in contravention of provisions of the previous constitution. New counties would carry a pro\\-rata share of the indebtedness of the county or counties from which they were being formed, preventing the formation of new counties as a way of areas getting out from under debt that they had previously incurred.",
"(That provision nonetheless incited a spate of new counties; ten were established in the next decade, but none have been since, and one of those established was subsequently abolished, and the provisions are such that would make the establishment of any further counties beyond those extremely difficult and unlikely.)",
"Some current agendas of the era were reflected, as there were provisions allowing county seats to be moved in two counties with only a majority vote of the populace, but a [two\\-thirds majority](/wiki/Two-thirds_majority \"Two-thirds majority\") was required in all others. A county line adjustment between two counties was made between two existing counties, and special provisions made for counties whose formation was already planned at the time as well as for settling definitively the status of others that had already been created without strict adherence to the provisions for the creation of new counties contained in the previous constitution.",
"There were also provisions forbidding [interracial marriages](/wiki/Interracial_marriage \"Interracial marriage\") and [integrated](/wiki/Racial_integration \"Racial integration\") schools, allowing for a [poll tax](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 \"Poll tax (United States)\"), preventing [interest](/wiki/Interest \"Interest\") over 10% from being charged on loans and making this [usury](/wiki/Usury \"Usury\") *per se*. All four provisions have been either subsequently formally removed or otherwise invalidated by [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") decisions and are no longer enforced. Whether the prohibition of former [duelists](/wiki/Dueling \"Dueling\") from holding office is valid has apparently not been tested.",
"### Militia",
"The state's militia is governed by Article VIII, which specifies that all officers are to be elected by those subject to service within their groupings and as the legislature directs (Section 1\\) but that the governor will appoint his [staff officers](/wiki/Staff_officer \"Staff officer\"), who, in turn, appoints their staff officers (Section 2\\). The legislature is also directed to exempt religious [conscientious objectors](/wiki/Conscientious_objector \"Conscientious objector\") (Section 3\\).",
"### Disqualifications",
"Article IX lists three groups of people who are barred from various privileges:",
"* [Ministers](/wiki/Minister_of_religion \"Minister of religion\") of any religion may not sit as legislators because they \"ought not be diverted from the great duties of their functions\" (Section 1\\).\n* [Atheists](/wiki/Atheist \"Atheist\") may not perform any office in the government, but Section 4 of Article I, banning any religious test for any \"office of public trust\", would make this impossible to enforce (Section 2\\).\n* Any person involved in a [duel](/wiki/Duel \"Duel\") may not hold any \"honor or profit\" under the state's government and is liable to be punished otherwise (Section 3\\).",
"The restrictions on ministers and atheists have been deemed to be unenforceable due to the interpretations of the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") with regard to the [First](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\") and the [Fourteenth Amendments](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") to the [United States Constitution](/wiki/United_States_Constitution \"United States Constitution\").",
"**Impeachment**",
"Article V of the Tennessee Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach (Section 1\\). Impeachment is when an office holder's actions are called into question, so therefore, they face the chances of being removed from office. The process of impeachment it is tried in the Senate, and all senators must be sworn under oath. The chief justice of the Supreme Court presides overall all trials of impeachment unless he is on trial, then the senior associate judge will rule over the court. The office holder can not be convicted without a two\\-thirds or majority rule from the Senate (Section 2\\). The House of Representatives must choose three members to prosecute impeachments. Impeachments can not be tried until the Legislature has adjourned *sine die,* then the Senate can try the impeachment (Section 3\\). The governor, Supreme Court Judges, inferior court judges, chancellors, attorneys of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and secretary of state are all liable to impeachment if the House of Representative believe they have committed a crime that calls for disqualification or removal from office, but judgement can only be removal of office and disqualification to hold any office after impeachment. The party must be prosecuted to the full extent of the law, and the Legislature has the power to remove penalties imposed on anyone disqualified from filling office by impeachment (Section 4\\). Justices of the peace, and other civil officers are also liable for indictments in such courts as the Legislature may direct, and if convicted of impeachment they must be removed from office by said court, and will be subject to other punishment as asserted by law (Section 5\\).",
""
] |
Amendments
----------
### First amendments
The record length of time for going unamended ended in 1953\. In 1952, the legislature called for a convention, and the voters approved it. Voters then approved the recommended amendments. The most noticeable change in the 1953 amendments was a lengthening of the governor's term from two to four years, but no governor could succeed himself anymore. (Until it was subsequently amended again, in 1978, the provision was to establish what critics derisively called "leapfrog government.")
Another provision allowed for the consolidation of a county government with the government of a county's main city, in the four largest counties.
The convention also established precedents that later proved useful. Since no one who served in the 1870 convention, which wrote the constitution, was still alive, many administrative measures had to be decided, such as what rules the convention would function under temporarily until it was organized and adopted its own permanent rules and how a chair was to be elected.
Also, the constitution was decided to be compiled in a manner similar to statutory law, unlike the federal constitution. Thus, that amendments actually replace the language that they alter in the document, and future publications would have amendments integrated into the text rather than appended to it as "Amendment I," "Amendment II," etc. Thus, someone reading the text of the state constitution can, absent a strong historical background, sometimes be confused as to the provisions that are those of the original document and the ones that are the result of later amendment, but some amendments declare themselves to be such within the text of their provisions.
That does prevent a reader of the current constitution from being confused by encountering obsolete provisions that have since been changed and not reading on to the end of the document to establish that fact, which is sometimes done to the federal constitution by those wishing to obscure its current provisions, such as those who assert that the document considers slaves as three\-fifths of a person, which has not applied since the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") but is still in the text of the early part of the document. The amendment changes that are not encountered until much later in the text.
Further amendments to the state constitution were proposed and then adopted at conventions, held in 1959 and 1965\. Among the most notable are for the establishment of [home rule](/wiki/Home_rule "Home rule") by counties that chose to adopt a charter so they can function in many ways similar to municipalities.
The amendments also allowed legislators to receive a salary besides expense money and extended the terms of state senators from two years to four, but only half of its membership is elected every two years. Another important change was that the frequency of scheduled sessions of the legislature and thus the budget cycle was altered from biennial to annual, but the General Assembly is still limited to a total of fifteen organizational days and ninety legislative days every two year. Sessions extending that time and special sessions extending beyond twenty legislative days result in the legislature being unable to continue to receive its expense *per diem*.
The poll tax provisions, already rendered moot, were removed. The 1971 convention, dominated by longtime Tennessee [politician](/wiki/Politician "Politician") [Clifford Allen](/wiki/Clifford_Allen "Clifford Allen"), was limited to the establishment of a new system of [property tax](/wiki/Property_tax "Property tax") assessments.
### 1977 convention and aftermath
The 1977 convention was the broadest call since the original writing of the constitution, in 1870\. It was called in part to remove long\-unenforceable provisions such as those banning interracial marriage and school [desegregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") but primarily at the behest of banking interests to remove the 10% cap on interest, which was becoming very problematic in the economic environment of the time. (It had long been circumvented by smaller lenders such as finance companies with tactics such as administration fees, service charges, and payment fees, with tacit legislative approval.)
This convention proved to be very long and contentious and even lasted nearly twice as long as the original one that wrote the 1870 constitution. There were major fights over the adoption of the permanent rules and over who would be the permanent chair. Although that seemed to bode ill, once the convention got on track, it accomplished what many legal scholars see as being a record of largely solid achievement.
A major change was the proposal that the governor could now succeed himself once. A two\-term governor was also not barred from any future service in that office in the way that a two\-term US President is by the [Twenty\-second Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution") for life, only from a third *consecutive* term.
Any county and its principal city could vote to consolidate themselves into one "[metropolitan government](/wiki/Consolidated_city-county "Consolidated city-county")". Only three counties have done so: Nashville and Davidson County; Hartsville and Trousdale County; Lynchburg and Moore County.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nlc.org/list\-of\-consolidated\-city\-county\-governments\|title \= You've hit one of our potholes}}
Minor other changes included the elimination of the necessity of each county having the archaic (at least for urban counties) offices of [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") and cattle ranger. (The provision for rangers was routinely widely ignored; but not the one mandating constables.) The provision limiting sheriffs to three consecutive two\-year terms was replaced with one allowing sheriffs an unlimited number of consecutive four\-year terms. That provision was called by some wags the "Fate Thomas Amendment", as it seemed to have been passed largely at the behest at the then hugely popular sheriff and [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss "Political boss") of [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee "Davidson County, Tennessee"), who was otherwise about to be term\-limited out of office but achieved re\-election under the provisions of the amendment. Eventually, Thomas served federal time for corruption\-related offenses.
Some in the [mass media](/wiki/Mass_media "Mass media") derided the convention as having gone out of control, but the primary public reaction was one of apathy. The primary controversy within the convention once it began its actual work, as opposed to its early difficulties, was over a judicial amendment that would have made the state attorney general an office elected by statewide popular vote rather than retaining selection by the Supreme Court, and it would have also eliminated the requirement for the Supreme Court to meet in Knoxville and Jackson, where a new and elaborate building for it had just been completed. Another important provision of the proposed amendment was to repeal the 1870 Constitution's requirement that all judges "shall be elected" in favor of a provision stating that "Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals shall be appointed by the Governor from three nominees recommended... by the Appellate Court Nominating Commission.... The name of each justice and judge seeking retention shall be submitted to the qualified voters for retention or rejection... at the expiration of each six year term."
The voters, in a special election held March 7, 1978, solely to ratify the amendments proposed by the convention, voted to remove the archaic provisions and the usury cap and to accept the changes regarding the governor's terms and metropolitan government, but they narrowly turned down the judicial amendment, marking the first time that an amendment put to the voters by a convention had been defeated. Of the 13 proposed amendments, only that one was rejected by the voters.
No further conventions have been held since 1977, but they have been frequently proposed, in part because of the recent spate of state fiscal crises. Some have proposed conventions to determine conclusively whether or not the Tennessee Constitution allows a general, broad\-based [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax "Income tax") on wages. It has been suggested by several observers that one reason against the General Assembly requesting future conventions is that they do not desire to create potential new rivals for themselves; as the members themselves cannot be delegates to the convention, in calling for a convention, they are creating a potential new set of politicians campaigning in their same districts and addressing some of the same issues. That occurred to an extent after the 1977 convention, which launched the career, among others, of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer") [Steve Cohen](/wiki/Steve_Cohen_%28politician%29 "Steve Cohen (politician)"), who was [vice president](/wiki/Vice_president "Vice president") of the convention and later became a prominent [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism "Progressivism") [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") in the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate "Tennessee State Senate"), until 2006, when he was elected [U.S. Representative](/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives "US House of Representatives") from the [Ninth District](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_9th_congressional_district "Tennessee's 9th congressional district").
### Recent amendments
Beginning in the 1990s, amendments were placed on the ballot without a convention being held, using, for the first time, the provisions that allow the General Assembly to propose amendments directly.
In 1998, voters were asked about two amendments. One was the [Victims' Rights Amendment](/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment "Victims' Rights Amendment"), which required prosecutors to stay in touch with [crime](/wiki/Crime "Crime") victims and their families, to explain to them how purported offenses involving them were to be prosecuted, and to notify them when persons who had committed crimes against them were being scheduled for [parole](/wiki/Parole "Parole") or release, among other provisions. The other amendment removed the word "comfortable" from the requirements for minimum standards for [prisons](/wiki/Prison "Prison"). Both of these amendments passed by overwhelming margins in an election marked by a very light turnout. The amendments represented the first changes to the constitution in 20 years.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
In 2002, the legislature again proposed two amendments. The first proposal passed, repealing a constitutional ban on all [lotteries](/wiki/Tennessee_Lottery "Tennessee Lottery"). The ban had been a carryover from the 1835 document and was widely regarded as a tribute not only to [religious](/wiki/Religion "Religion") [fundamentalism](/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism "Christian fundamentalism") but also to the influence of [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson "Andrew Jackson"), a known lottery opponent, who was in no way averse to other forms of gambling, especially that regarding [horse racing](/wiki/Horse_racing "Horse racing"). The amendment established the current state lottery.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
The other amendment on the 2002 ballot, pushed for by the [Tennessee Municipal League](/wiki/Tennessee_Municipal_League "Tennessee Municipal League") (TML), would have eliminated a constitutional provision that set $50 (a large sum in 1870 when the provision was enacted) as the maximum allowable fine for violation of a municipal ordinance. Instead, it would have allowed the legislature to set limits on the fines that municipalities could enact. However, after putting much effort into getting the legislature to put this amendment onto the ballot, the TML put little effort into winning voter approval, and the proposal was largely overlooked during the public debate over the high\-profile lottery amendment. Many voters were unaware of the proposal until they were confronted with it on the ballot and so may have turned it down for that reason. It became the first amendment put forward by the General Assembly to be defeated at the polls; it was, other than the proposed 1978 judicial amendment, the only one ever defeated.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
In 2006, two additional amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution were passed. The [Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment](/wiki/Tennessee_Marriage_Protection_Amendment "Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment") specifies that only marriages between a man and a woman can be legally recognized in the state of Tennessee. The amendment was approved by 81% of Tennesseans participating in the vote, which was 30\.91% of eligible voters that year. A second amendment, authorizing the legislature to enact legislation allowing counties and municipalities to exempt people over 65 from property tax increases, was approved by 83% of voters.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
In 2007, the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives") unanimously passed a resolution calling for an amendment to establish the right to hunt, [fish](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"), and harvest game "subject to reasonable rules and regulations," but the State Senate did not act on the measure during the 2007 legislative session.[Bill information for HJR0108, 105th General Assembly](http://www.legislature.state.tn.us/bills/currentga/asp/WebBillInfo/BillCompanionInfo.aspx?billnumber=HJR0108) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428015752/http://www.legislature.state.tn.us/bills/currentga/asp/WebBillInfo/BillCompanionInfo.aspx?BillNumber\=HJR0108 \|date\=2007\-04\-28 }}, Tennessee General Assembly website, accessed January 7, 2008\. The [Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency](/wiki/Tennessee_Wildlife_Resources_Agency "Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency") (TWRA) had raised objections to an earlier version of the measure, which had the backing of the [National Rifle Association](/wiki/National_Rifle_Association "National Rifle Association"). The TWRA was concerned that the proposal would prevent it from continuing its regulation of hunting and fishing methods as well as efforts to manage fish and game populations.[Lawmakers want amendment shielding hunting rights](http://www.tennessean.com/government/archives/05/01/65916563.shtml?Element_ID=65916563), by Matt Gouras; [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press") story published in *[The Tennessean](/wiki/The_Tennessean "The Tennessean")* May 21, 2005[Bill would make hunting, fishing a protected right in Tennessee](http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?BRD=1211&dept_id=169689&newsid=14570049&PAG=461&rfi=9) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111050451/http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?brd\=1211 \|date\=2008\-01\-11 }} by Stan Voit, *The Mountain Press*, May 23, 2005\.
In 2010, 90% of voters approved the following: "The citizens of this state shall have the personal right to hunt and fish, subject to reasonable regulations and restrictions prescribed by law. The recognition of this right does not abrogate any private or public property rights, nor does it limit the state's power to regulate commercial activity. Traditional manners and means may be used to take non\-threatened species."{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
In 2014, voters approved this amendment: "Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or requires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected state representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statues regarding abortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or incest or when necessary to save the life of the mother."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2014/nov/04/all\-four\-tennessees\-constitutional\-amendments\-pass/272593/\|title\=All four of Tennessee's constitutional amendments pass\|website\=timesfreepress.com\|date\=5 November 2014 }} This amendment overturns a 2000 Tennessee Supreme Court ruling, *Planned Parenthood v. Sundquist*.
As well, a ban on income tax being levied against earned income (as opposed to interest and dividends, which are [still subject to income tax](/wiki/Hall_income_tax "Hall income tax")); a change in the judiciary selection/retention process to make the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") explicitly constitutional; and allowing veterans organizations to host gambling fundraisers all passed in 2014\.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
The [2022 Tennessee Amendment 1](/wiki/2022_Tennessee_Amendment_1 "2022 Tennessee Amendment 1"), also known as the "Right\-to\-Work Amendment", is a [right\-to\-work law](/wiki/Right-to-work_law "Right-to-work law") amendment that was passed in 2022\. The amendment added language to the constitution to make it illegal, along as a constitutional right, for workplaces to require mandatory [labor union](/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States "Labor unions in the United States") membership for employees as a condition for employment.{{Cite web \|title\=Tennessee State Constitution \|url\=https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/pub/2023%20TN%20Constitution.pdf}}
|
[
"Amendments\n----------",
"### First amendments",
"The record length of time for going unamended ended in 1953\\. In 1952, the legislature called for a convention, and the voters approved it. Voters then approved the recommended amendments. The most noticeable change in the 1953 amendments was a lengthening of the governor's term from two to four years, but no governor could succeed himself anymore. (Until it was subsequently amended again, in 1978, the provision was to establish what critics derisively called \"leapfrog government.\")",
"Another provision allowed for the consolidation of a county government with the government of a county's main city, in the four largest counties.",
"The convention also established precedents that later proved useful. Since no one who served in the 1870 convention, which wrote the constitution, was still alive, many administrative measures had to be decided, such as what rules the convention would function under temporarily until it was organized and adopted its own permanent rules and how a chair was to be elected.",
"Also, the constitution was decided to be compiled in a manner similar to statutory law, unlike the federal constitution. Thus, that amendments actually replace the language that they alter in the document, and future publications would have amendments integrated into the text rather than appended to it as \"Amendment I,\" \"Amendment II,\" etc. Thus, someone reading the text of the state constitution can, absent a strong historical background, sometimes be confused as to the provisions that are those of the original document and the ones that are the result of later amendment, but some amendments declare themselves to be such within the text of their provisions.",
"That does prevent a reader of the current constitution from being confused by encountering obsolete provisions that have since been changed and not reading on to the end of the document to establish that fact, which is sometimes done to the federal constitution by those wishing to obscure its current provisions, such as those who assert that the document considers slaves as three\\-fifths of a person, which has not applied since the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") but is still in the text of the early part of the document. The amendment changes that are not encountered until much later in the text.",
"Further amendments to the state constitution were proposed and then adopted at conventions, held in 1959 and 1965\\. Among the most notable are for the establishment of [home rule](/wiki/Home_rule \"Home rule\") by counties that chose to adopt a charter so they can function in many ways similar to municipalities.",
"The amendments also allowed legislators to receive a salary besides expense money and extended the terms of state senators from two years to four, but only half of its membership is elected every two years. Another important change was that the frequency of scheduled sessions of the legislature and thus the budget cycle was altered from biennial to annual, but the General Assembly is still limited to a total of fifteen organizational days and ninety legislative days every two year. Sessions extending that time and special sessions extending beyond twenty legislative days result in the legislature being unable to continue to receive its expense *per diem*.",
"The poll tax provisions, already rendered moot, were removed. The 1971 convention, dominated by longtime Tennessee [politician](/wiki/Politician \"Politician\") [Clifford Allen](/wiki/Clifford_Allen \"Clifford Allen\"), was limited to the establishment of a new system of [property tax](/wiki/Property_tax \"Property tax\") assessments.",
"### 1977 convention and aftermath",
"The 1977 convention was the broadest call since the original writing of the constitution, in 1870\\. It was called in part to remove long\\-unenforceable provisions such as those banning interracial marriage and school [desegregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\") but primarily at the behest of banking interests to remove the 10% cap on interest, which was becoming very problematic in the economic environment of the time. (It had long been circumvented by smaller lenders such as finance companies with tactics such as administration fees, service charges, and payment fees, with tacit legislative approval.)",
"This convention proved to be very long and contentious and even lasted nearly twice as long as the original one that wrote the 1870 constitution. There were major fights over the adoption of the permanent rules and over who would be the permanent chair. Although that seemed to bode ill, once the convention got on track, it accomplished what many legal scholars see as being a record of largely solid achievement.",
"A major change was the proposal that the governor could now succeed himself once. A two\\-term governor was also not barred from any future service in that office in the way that a two\\-term US President is by the [Twenty\\-second Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution\") for life, only from a third *consecutive* term.",
"Any county and its principal city could vote to consolidate themselves into one \"[metropolitan government](/wiki/Consolidated_city-county \"Consolidated city-county\")\". Only three counties have done so: Nashville and Davidson County; Hartsville and Trousdale County; Lynchburg and Moore County.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nlc.org/list\\-of\\-consolidated\\-city\\-county\\-governments\\|title \\= You've hit one of our potholes}}",
"Minor other changes included the elimination of the necessity of each county having the archaic (at least for urban counties) offices of [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") and cattle ranger. (The provision for rangers was routinely widely ignored; but not the one mandating constables.) The provision limiting sheriffs to three consecutive two\\-year terms was replaced with one allowing sheriffs an unlimited number of consecutive four\\-year terms. That provision was called by some wags the \"Fate Thomas Amendment\", as it seemed to have been passed largely at the behest at the then hugely popular sheriff and [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss \"Political boss\") of [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee \"Davidson County, Tennessee\"), who was otherwise about to be term\\-limited out of office but achieved re\\-election under the provisions of the amendment. Eventually, Thomas served federal time for corruption\\-related offenses.",
"Some in the [mass media](/wiki/Mass_media \"Mass media\") derided the convention as having gone out of control, but the primary public reaction was one of apathy. The primary controversy within the convention once it began its actual work, as opposed to its early difficulties, was over a judicial amendment that would have made the state attorney general an office elected by statewide popular vote rather than retaining selection by the Supreme Court, and it would have also eliminated the requirement for the Supreme Court to meet in Knoxville and Jackson, where a new and elaborate building for it had just been completed. Another important provision of the proposed amendment was to repeal the 1870 Constitution's requirement that all judges \"shall be elected\" in favor of a provision stating that \"Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals shall be appointed by the Governor from three nominees recommended... by the Appellate Court Nominating Commission.... The name of each justice and judge seeking retention shall be submitted to the qualified voters for retention or rejection... at the expiration of each six year term.\"",
"The voters, in a special election held March 7, 1978, solely to ratify the amendments proposed by the convention, voted to remove the archaic provisions and the usury cap and to accept the changes regarding the governor's terms and metropolitan government, but they narrowly turned down the judicial amendment, marking the first time that an amendment put to the voters by a convention had been defeated. Of the 13 proposed amendments, only that one was rejected by the voters.",
"No further conventions have been held since 1977, but they have been frequently proposed, in part because of the recent spate of state fiscal crises. Some have proposed conventions to determine conclusively whether or not the Tennessee Constitution allows a general, broad\\-based [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax \"Income tax\") on wages. It has been suggested by several observers that one reason against the General Assembly requesting future conventions is that they do not desire to create potential new rivals for themselves; as the members themselves cannot be delegates to the convention, in calling for a convention, they are creating a potential new set of politicians campaigning in their same districts and addressing some of the same issues. That occurred to an extent after the 1977 convention, which launched the career, among others, of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\") [Steve Cohen](/wiki/Steve_Cohen_%28politician%29 \"Steve Cohen (politician)\"), who was [vice president](/wiki/Vice_president \"Vice president\") of the convention and later became a prominent [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism \"Progressivism\") [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") in the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate \"Tennessee State Senate\"), until 2006, when he was elected [U.S. Representative](/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives \"US House of Representatives\") from the [Ninth District](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_9th_congressional_district \"Tennessee's 9th congressional district\").",
"### Recent amendments",
"Beginning in the 1990s, amendments were placed on the ballot without a convention being held, using, for the first time, the provisions that allow the General Assembly to propose amendments directly.",
"In 1998, voters were asked about two amendments. One was the [Victims' Rights Amendment](/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment \"Victims' Rights Amendment\"), which required prosecutors to stay in touch with [crime](/wiki/Crime \"Crime\") victims and their families, to explain to them how purported offenses involving them were to be prosecuted, and to notify them when persons who had committed crimes against them were being scheduled for [parole](/wiki/Parole \"Parole\") or release, among other provisions. The other amendment removed the word \"comfortable\" from the requirements for minimum standards for [prisons](/wiki/Prison \"Prison\"). Both of these amendments passed by overwhelming margins in an election marked by a very light turnout. The amendments represented the first changes to the constitution in 20 years.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"In 2002, the legislature again proposed two amendments. The first proposal passed, repealing a constitutional ban on all [lotteries](/wiki/Tennessee_Lottery \"Tennessee Lottery\"). The ban had been a carryover from the 1835 document and was widely regarded as a tribute not only to [religious](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\") [fundamentalism](/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism \"Christian fundamentalism\") but also to the influence of [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\"), a known lottery opponent, who was in no way averse to other forms of gambling, especially that regarding [horse racing](/wiki/Horse_racing \"Horse racing\"). The amendment established the current state lottery.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"The other amendment on the 2002 ballot, pushed for by the [Tennessee Municipal League](/wiki/Tennessee_Municipal_League \"Tennessee Municipal League\") (TML), would have eliminated a constitutional provision that set $50 (a large sum in 1870 when the provision was enacted) as the maximum allowable fine for violation of a municipal ordinance. Instead, it would have allowed the legislature to set limits on the fines that municipalities could enact. However, after putting much effort into getting the legislature to put this amendment onto the ballot, the TML put little effort into winning voter approval, and the proposal was largely overlooked during the public debate over the high\\-profile lottery amendment. Many voters were unaware of the proposal until they were confronted with it on the ballot and so may have turned it down for that reason. It became the first amendment put forward by the General Assembly to be defeated at the polls; it was, other than the proposed 1978 judicial amendment, the only one ever defeated.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"In 2006, two additional amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution were passed. The [Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment](/wiki/Tennessee_Marriage_Protection_Amendment \"Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment\") specifies that only marriages between a man and a woman can be legally recognized in the state of Tennessee. The amendment was approved by 81% of Tennesseans participating in the vote, which was 30\\.91% of eligible voters that year. A second amendment, authorizing the legislature to enact legislation allowing counties and municipalities to exempt people over 65 from property tax increases, was approved by 83% of voters.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"In 2007, the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") unanimously passed a resolution calling for an amendment to establish the right to hunt, [fish](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\"), and harvest game \"subject to reasonable rules and regulations,\" but the State Senate did not act on the measure during the 2007 legislative session.[Bill information for HJR0108, 105th General Assembly](http://www.legislature.state.tn.us/bills/currentga/asp/WebBillInfo/BillCompanionInfo.aspx?billnumber=HJR0108) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428015752/http://www.legislature.state.tn.us/bills/currentga/asp/WebBillInfo/BillCompanionInfo.aspx?BillNumber\\=HJR0108 \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-28 }}, Tennessee General Assembly website, accessed January 7, 2008\\. The [Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency](/wiki/Tennessee_Wildlife_Resources_Agency \"Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency\") (TWRA) had raised objections to an earlier version of the measure, which had the backing of the [National Rifle Association](/wiki/National_Rifle_Association \"National Rifle Association\"). The TWRA was concerned that the proposal would prevent it from continuing its regulation of hunting and fishing methods as well as efforts to manage fish and game populations.[Lawmakers want amendment shielding hunting rights](http://www.tennessean.com/government/archives/05/01/65916563.shtml?Element_ID=65916563), by Matt Gouras; [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\") story published in *[The Tennessean](/wiki/The_Tennessean \"The Tennessean\")* May 21, 2005[Bill would make hunting, fishing a protected right in Tennessee](http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?BRD=1211&dept_id=169689&newsid=14570049&PAG=461&rfi=9) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111050451/http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?brd\\=1211 \\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-11 }} by Stan Voit, *The Mountain Press*, May 23, 2005\\.",
"In 2010, 90% of voters approved the following: \"The citizens of this state shall have the personal right to hunt and fish, subject to reasonable regulations and restrictions prescribed by law. The recognition of this right does not abrogate any private or public property rights, nor does it limit the state's power to regulate commercial activity. Traditional manners and means may be used to take non\\-threatened species.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"In 2014, voters approved this amendment: \"Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or requires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected state representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statues regarding abortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or incest or when necessary to save the life of the mother.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2014/nov/04/all\\-four\\-tennessees\\-constitutional\\-amendments\\-pass/272593/\\|title\\=All four of Tennessee's constitutional amendments pass\\|website\\=timesfreepress.com\\|date\\=5 November 2014 }} This amendment overturns a 2000 Tennessee Supreme Court ruling, *Planned Parenthood v. Sundquist*.",
"As well, a ban on income tax being levied against earned income (as opposed to interest and dividends, which are [still subject to income tax](/wiki/Hall_income_tax \"Hall income tax\")); a change in the judiciary selection/retention process to make the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") explicitly constitutional; and allowing veterans organizations to host gambling fundraisers all passed in 2014\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"The [2022 Tennessee Amendment 1](/wiki/2022_Tennessee_Amendment_1 \"2022 Tennessee Amendment 1\"), also known as the \"Right\\-to\\-Work Amendment\", is a [right\\-to\\-work law](/wiki/Right-to-work_law \"Right-to-work law\") amendment that was passed in 2022\\. The amendment added language to the constitution to make it illegal, along as a constitutional right, for workplaces to require mandatory [labor union](/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States \"Labor unions in the United States\") membership for employees as a condition for employment.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tennessee State Constitution \\|url\\=https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/pub/2023%20TN%20Constitution.pdf}}",
""
] |
### First amendments
The record length of time for going unamended ended in 1953\. In 1952, the legislature called for a convention, and the voters approved it. Voters then approved the recommended amendments. The most noticeable change in the 1953 amendments was a lengthening of the governor's term from two to four years, but no governor could succeed himself anymore. (Until it was subsequently amended again, in 1978, the provision was to establish what critics derisively called "leapfrog government.")
Another provision allowed for the consolidation of a county government with the government of a county's main city, in the four largest counties.
The convention also established precedents that later proved useful. Since no one who served in the 1870 convention, which wrote the constitution, was still alive, many administrative measures had to be decided, such as what rules the convention would function under temporarily until it was organized and adopted its own permanent rules and how a chair was to be elected.
Also, the constitution was decided to be compiled in a manner similar to statutory law, unlike the federal constitution. Thus, that amendments actually replace the language that they alter in the document, and future publications would have amendments integrated into the text rather than appended to it as "Amendment I," "Amendment II," etc. Thus, someone reading the text of the state constitution can, absent a strong historical background, sometimes be confused as to the provisions that are those of the original document and the ones that are the result of later amendment, but some amendments declare themselves to be such within the text of their provisions.
That does prevent a reader of the current constitution from being confused by encountering obsolete provisions that have since been changed and not reading on to the end of the document to establish that fact, which is sometimes done to the federal constitution by those wishing to obscure its current provisions, such as those who assert that the document considers slaves as three\-fifths of a person, which has not applied since the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") but is still in the text of the early part of the document. The amendment changes that are not encountered until much later in the text.
Further amendments to the state constitution were proposed and then adopted at conventions, held in 1959 and 1965\. Among the most notable are for the establishment of [home rule](/wiki/Home_rule "Home rule") by counties that chose to adopt a charter so they can function in many ways similar to municipalities.
The amendments also allowed legislators to receive a salary besides expense money and extended the terms of state senators from two years to four, but only half of its membership is elected every two years. Another important change was that the frequency of scheduled sessions of the legislature and thus the budget cycle was altered from biennial to annual, but the General Assembly is still limited to a total of fifteen organizational days and ninety legislative days every two year. Sessions extending that time and special sessions extending beyond twenty legislative days result in the legislature being unable to continue to receive its expense *per diem*.
The poll tax provisions, already rendered moot, were removed. The 1971 convention, dominated by longtime Tennessee [politician](/wiki/Politician "Politician") [Clifford Allen](/wiki/Clifford_Allen "Clifford Allen"), was limited to the establishment of a new system of [property tax](/wiki/Property_tax "Property tax") assessments.
|
[
"### First amendments",
"The record length of time for going unamended ended in 1953\\. In 1952, the legislature called for a convention, and the voters approved it. Voters then approved the recommended amendments. The most noticeable change in the 1953 amendments was a lengthening of the governor's term from two to four years, but no governor could succeed himself anymore. (Until it was subsequently amended again, in 1978, the provision was to establish what critics derisively called \"leapfrog government.\")",
"Another provision allowed for the consolidation of a county government with the government of a county's main city, in the four largest counties.",
"The convention also established precedents that later proved useful. Since no one who served in the 1870 convention, which wrote the constitution, was still alive, many administrative measures had to be decided, such as what rules the convention would function under temporarily until it was organized and adopted its own permanent rules and how a chair was to be elected.",
"Also, the constitution was decided to be compiled in a manner similar to statutory law, unlike the federal constitution. Thus, that amendments actually replace the language that they alter in the document, and future publications would have amendments integrated into the text rather than appended to it as \"Amendment I,\" \"Amendment II,\" etc. Thus, someone reading the text of the state constitution can, absent a strong historical background, sometimes be confused as to the provisions that are those of the original document and the ones that are the result of later amendment, but some amendments declare themselves to be such within the text of their provisions.",
"That does prevent a reader of the current constitution from being confused by encountering obsolete provisions that have since been changed and not reading on to the end of the document to establish that fact, which is sometimes done to the federal constitution by those wishing to obscure its current provisions, such as those who assert that the document considers slaves as three\\-fifths of a person, which has not applied since the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") but is still in the text of the early part of the document. The amendment changes that are not encountered until much later in the text.",
"Further amendments to the state constitution were proposed and then adopted at conventions, held in 1959 and 1965\\. Among the most notable are for the establishment of [home rule](/wiki/Home_rule \"Home rule\") by counties that chose to adopt a charter so they can function in many ways similar to municipalities.",
"The amendments also allowed legislators to receive a salary besides expense money and extended the terms of state senators from two years to four, but only half of its membership is elected every two years. Another important change was that the frequency of scheduled sessions of the legislature and thus the budget cycle was altered from biennial to annual, but the General Assembly is still limited to a total of fifteen organizational days and ninety legislative days every two year. Sessions extending that time and special sessions extending beyond twenty legislative days result in the legislature being unable to continue to receive its expense *per diem*.",
"The poll tax provisions, already rendered moot, were removed. The 1971 convention, dominated by longtime Tennessee [politician](/wiki/Politician \"Politician\") [Clifford Allen](/wiki/Clifford_Allen \"Clifford Allen\"), was limited to the establishment of a new system of [property tax](/wiki/Property_tax \"Property tax\") assessments.",
""
] |
### 1977 convention and aftermath
The 1977 convention was the broadest call since the original writing of the constitution, in 1870\. It was called in part to remove long\-unenforceable provisions such as those banning interracial marriage and school [desegregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") but primarily at the behest of banking interests to remove the 10% cap on interest, which was becoming very problematic in the economic environment of the time. (It had long been circumvented by smaller lenders such as finance companies with tactics such as administration fees, service charges, and payment fees, with tacit legislative approval.)
This convention proved to be very long and contentious and even lasted nearly twice as long as the original one that wrote the 1870 constitution. There were major fights over the adoption of the permanent rules and over who would be the permanent chair. Although that seemed to bode ill, once the convention got on track, it accomplished what many legal scholars see as being a record of largely solid achievement.
A major change was the proposal that the governor could now succeed himself once. A two\-term governor was also not barred from any future service in that office in the way that a two\-term US President is by the [Twenty\-second Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution") for life, only from a third *consecutive* term.
Any county and its principal city could vote to consolidate themselves into one "[metropolitan government](/wiki/Consolidated_city-county "Consolidated city-county")". Only three counties have done so: Nashville and Davidson County; Hartsville and Trousdale County; Lynchburg and Moore County.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nlc.org/list\-of\-consolidated\-city\-county\-governments\|title \= You've hit one of our potholes}}
Minor other changes included the elimination of the necessity of each county having the archaic (at least for urban counties) offices of [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") and cattle ranger. (The provision for rangers was routinely widely ignored; but not the one mandating constables.) The provision limiting sheriffs to three consecutive two\-year terms was replaced with one allowing sheriffs an unlimited number of consecutive four\-year terms. That provision was called by some wags the "Fate Thomas Amendment", as it seemed to have been passed largely at the behest at the then hugely popular sheriff and [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss "Political boss") of [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee "Davidson County, Tennessee"), who was otherwise about to be term\-limited out of office but achieved re\-election under the provisions of the amendment. Eventually, Thomas served federal time for corruption\-related offenses.
Some in the [mass media](/wiki/Mass_media "Mass media") derided the convention as having gone out of control, but the primary public reaction was one of apathy. The primary controversy within the convention once it began its actual work, as opposed to its early difficulties, was over a judicial amendment that would have made the state attorney general an office elected by statewide popular vote rather than retaining selection by the Supreme Court, and it would have also eliminated the requirement for the Supreme Court to meet in Knoxville and Jackson, where a new and elaborate building for it had just been completed. Another important provision of the proposed amendment was to repeal the 1870 Constitution's requirement that all judges "shall be elected" in favor of a provision stating that "Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals shall be appointed by the Governor from three nominees recommended... by the Appellate Court Nominating Commission.... The name of each justice and judge seeking retention shall be submitted to the qualified voters for retention or rejection... at the expiration of each six year term."
The voters, in a special election held March 7, 1978, solely to ratify the amendments proposed by the convention, voted to remove the archaic provisions and the usury cap and to accept the changes regarding the governor's terms and metropolitan government, but they narrowly turned down the judicial amendment, marking the first time that an amendment put to the voters by a convention had been defeated. Of the 13 proposed amendments, only that one was rejected by the voters.
No further conventions have been held since 1977, but they have been frequently proposed, in part because of the recent spate of state fiscal crises. Some have proposed conventions to determine conclusively whether or not the Tennessee Constitution allows a general, broad\-based [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax "Income tax") on wages. It has been suggested by several observers that one reason against the General Assembly requesting future conventions is that they do not desire to create potential new rivals for themselves; as the members themselves cannot be delegates to the convention, in calling for a convention, they are creating a potential new set of politicians campaigning in their same districts and addressing some of the same issues. That occurred to an extent after the 1977 convention, which launched the career, among others, of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer") [Steve Cohen](/wiki/Steve_Cohen_%28politician%29 "Steve Cohen (politician)"), who was [vice president](/wiki/Vice_president "Vice president") of the convention and later became a prominent [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism "Progressivism") [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") in the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate "Tennessee State Senate"), until 2006, when he was elected [U.S. Representative](/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives "US House of Representatives") from the [Ninth District](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_9th_congressional_district "Tennessee's 9th congressional district").
|
[
"### 1977 convention and aftermath",
"The 1977 convention was the broadest call since the original writing of the constitution, in 1870\\. It was called in part to remove long\\-unenforceable provisions such as those banning interracial marriage and school [desegregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\") but primarily at the behest of banking interests to remove the 10% cap on interest, which was becoming very problematic in the economic environment of the time. (It had long been circumvented by smaller lenders such as finance companies with tactics such as administration fees, service charges, and payment fees, with tacit legislative approval.)",
"This convention proved to be very long and contentious and even lasted nearly twice as long as the original one that wrote the 1870 constitution. There were major fights over the adoption of the permanent rules and over who would be the permanent chair. Although that seemed to bode ill, once the convention got on track, it accomplished what many legal scholars see as being a record of largely solid achievement.",
"A major change was the proposal that the governor could now succeed himself once. A two\\-term governor was also not barred from any future service in that office in the way that a two\\-term US President is by the [Twenty\\-second Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution\") for life, only from a third *consecutive* term.",
"Any county and its principal city could vote to consolidate themselves into one \"[metropolitan government](/wiki/Consolidated_city-county \"Consolidated city-county\")\". Only three counties have done so: Nashville and Davidson County; Hartsville and Trousdale County; Lynchburg and Moore County.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nlc.org/list\\-of\\-consolidated\\-city\\-county\\-governments\\|title \\= You've hit one of our potholes}}",
"Minor other changes included the elimination of the necessity of each county having the archaic (at least for urban counties) offices of [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") and cattle ranger. (The provision for rangers was routinely widely ignored; but not the one mandating constables.) The provision limiting sheriffs to three consecutive two\\-year terms was replaced with one allowing sheriffs an unlimited number of consecutive four\\-year terms. That provision was called by some wags the \"Fate Thomas Amendment\", as it seemed to have been passed largely at the behest at the then hugely popular sheriff and [political boss](/wiki/Political_boss \"Political boss\") of [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee \"Davidson County, Tennessee\"), who was otherwise about to be term\\-limited out of office but achieved re\\-election under the provisions of the amendment. Eventually, Thomas served federal time for corruption\\-related offenses.",
"Some in the [mass media](/wiki/Mass_media \"Mass media\") derided the convention as having gone out of control, but the primary public reaction was one of apathy. The primary controversy within the convention once it began its actual work, as opposed to its early difficulties, was over a judicial amendment that would have made the state attorney general an office elected by statewide popular vote rather than retaining selection by the Supreme Court, and it would have also eliminated the requirement for the Supreme Court to meet in Knoxville and Jackson, where a new and elaborate building for it had just been completed. Another important provision of the proposed amendment was to repeal the 1870 Constitution's requirement that all judges \"shall be elected\" in favor of a provision stating that \"Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals shall be appointed by the Governor from three nominees recommended... by the Appellate Court Nominating Commission.... The name of each justice and judge seeking retention shall be submitted to the qualified voters for retention or rejection... at the expiration of each six year term.\"",
"The voters, in a special election held March 7, 1978, solely to ratify the amendments proposed by the convention, voted to remove the archaic provisions and the usury cap and to accept the changes regarding the governor's terms and metropolitan government, but they narrowly turned down the judicial amendment, marking the first time that an amendment put to the voters by a convention had been defeated. Of the 13 proposed amendments, only that one was rejected by the voters.",
"No further conventions have been held since 1977, but they have been frequently proposed, in part because of the recent spate of state fiscal crises. Some have proposed conventions to determine conclusively whether or not the Tennessee Constitution allows a general, broad\\-based [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax \"Income tax\") on wages. It has been suggested by several observers that one reason against the General Assembly requesting future conventions is that they do not desire to create potential new rivals for themselves; as the members themselves cannot be delegates to the convention, in calling for a convention, they are creating a potential new set of politicians campaigning in their same districts and addressing some of the same issues. That occurred to an extent after the 1977 convention, which launched the career, among others, of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\") [attorney](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\") [Steve Cohen](/wiki/Steve_Cohen_%28politician%29 \"Steve Cohen (politician)\"), who was [vice president](/wiki/Vice_president \"Vice president\") of the convention and later became a prominent [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism \"Progressivism\") [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") in the [Tennessee State Senate](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Senate \"Tennessee State Senate\"), until 2006, when he was elected [U.S. Representative](/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives \"US House of Representatives\") from the [Ninth District](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_9th_congressional_district \"Tennessee's 9th congressional district\").",
""
] |
Game summaries
--------------
### King
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Whitehead (left tackle), Montague (left guard), Savage (center), Benedict (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Rives (right end), Peake (quarterback), Huddle (left halfback), Davis (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Engleby, Harvey, Henderson, Macon, Moore, Robertson, Treakle and Vaughan\-Lloyd.
The starting lineup for King was: George King (left end), Smith (left tackle), Newland (left guard), Wood (center), Graham (right guard), Kincaid (right tackle), Lee (right end), Burrows (quarterback), Caldwell (left halfback), Fain (right halfback), Davidson (fullback).
### Randolph–Macon
### Hampden–Sydney
{{AFB game box start
\| Title \= '''Hampden–Sydney vs. VPI'''
\| Visitor \= \[\[Hampden–Sydney Tigers\|HS]]
\| Host \= '''VPI'''
\| V1 \= 0\| V2 \= 0\| V3 \= 0\| V4 \= 0
\| H1 \= 7\| H2 \= 6\| H3 \= 0\| H4 \= 9
\| Date \= October 10, 1914
\| Location \= \[\[Miles Field (Virginia Tech)\|Miles Field]]
\[\[Blacksburg, Virginia\|Blacksburg, VA]]
\| StartTime \=
\| ElapsedTime \=
\| Attendance \=
\| Weather \=
\| Referee \=
}}
{{AFB game box end}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Rives (left end), Oppenheimer (left tackle), Benedict (left guard), Montague (center), Williams (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Cottrell (right end), Peake (quarterback), Funkhouser (left halfback), Moore (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Davis, Engleby, Gregory, Harvey, Huddle, Macon, Savage, Somerville, Taylor, Treakle and Vaughan\-Lloyd.
The starting lineup for Hampden–Sydney was: P. C. Adams (left end), Robert Guthrie (left tackle), Robert Warwick (left guard), Marvin Bowling (center), R. B. Thompson (right guard), John Shackelford (right tackle), Frank Massie (right end), Walter Thurman (quarterback), A. B. Driver (left halfback), Peyton Palmore (right halfback), Perkins (fullback).
### West Virginia Wesleyan
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Oppenheimer (left guard), Savage (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Powell (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Moore (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Funkhouser, Gregory, Macon, Montague, Rives and Somerville.
The starting lineup for West Virginia Wesleyan was: W. Guy Morrison (left end), Herbert Withers (left tackle), Everett Morgan (left guard), William Singleton (center), Harry Vance (right guard), [John Kellison](/wiki/John_Kellison "John Kellison") (right tackle), James Heavener (right end), Harry Stansbury (quarterback), O. Shumaker (left halfback), R. Worth Shumaker (right halfback), William Jacobs (fullback). The substitutes were: Charles Allen and Bobbitt.
### Roanoke
{{AFB game box start
\| Title \= '''Roanoke vs. VPI'''
\| Visitor \= '''\[\[Roanoke Maroons\#Football\|Roanoke]]'''
\| Host \= '''VPI'''
\| V1 \= 0\| V2 \= 7\| V3 \= 0\| V4 \= 0
\| H1 \= 0\| H2 \= 7\| H3 \= 0\| H4 \= 0
\| Date \= October 24, 1914
\| Location \= \[\[Miles Field (Virginia Tech)\|Miles Field]]
\[\[Blacksburg, Virginia\|Blacksburg, VA]]
\| StartTime \=
\| ElapsedTime \=
\| Attendance \=
\| Weather \= "slippery"
\| Referee \= Miles
}}
{{AFB game box end}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Moore (left tackle), Benedict (left guard), Montague (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Huddle (fullback). The substitutes were: Cottrell, Engleby, Harvey, Macon, Perry, Rives, Sanders, Somerville and Vaughan\-Lloyd.
The starting lineup for Roanoke was: Harman (left end), S. L. Bonham (left tackle), Roe (left guard), O'Flaherty (center), Kellenger (right guard), R. H. Duncan (right tackle), Harman (right end), Douglas Bunting (quarterback), Hoffman (left halfback), Krieger (right halfback), J. H. Bonham (fullback).
### Washington and Lee
{{AFB game box start
\| Title \= '''Washington \& Lee vs. VPI'''
\| Visitor \= '''\[\[1914 Washington and Lee Generals football team\|W\&L]]'''
\| Host \= VPI
\| V1 \= 0\| V2 \= 7\| V3 \= 0\| V4 \= 0
\| H1 \= 6\| H2 \= 0\| H3 \= 0\| H4 \= 0
\| Date \= October 31, 1914
\| Location \= Fair Grounds
\[\[Roanoke, Virginia\|Roanoke, VA]]
\| StartTime \= 3:00 p.m.
\| ElapsedTime \=
\| Attendance \= 5,000
\| Weather \=
\| Referee \= \[\[Jack Gass]]
}}
{{AFB game box end}}
{{See also\|1914 Washington and Lee Generals football team}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Caffee (left tackle), Cottrell (left guard), Montague (center), Williams (right guard), Benedict (right tackle), Vaughan\-Lloyd (right end), Peake (quarterback), Macon (left halfback), Huddle (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Dixon, Engleby, Funkhouser, Graves, Gregory, Oppenheimer and Rives.
The starting lineup for Washington and Lee was: I. R. Simms (left end), [Ted Shultz](/wiki/Ted_Shultz "Ted Shultz") (left tackle), B. D. Bryan (left guard), [Al Pierotti](/wiki/Al_Pierotti "Al Pierotti") (center), F. B. Scarry (right guard), [Buck Miles](/wiki/Buck_Miles "Buck Miles") (right tackle), John Harrison (right end), John Gallagher (quarterback), [Harry "Cy" Young](/wiki/Harry_Young_%28American_football%29 "Harry Young (American football)") (left halfback), [Fred Sweetland](/wiki/Fred_Sweetland "Fred Sweetland") (right halfback), Raymond Beuhring (fullback). The substitutes were: F. M. Dingwall, [Edward Donahue](/wiki/Edward_Donahue "Edward Donahue"), Joseph Milner and William Smith.
### Marshall
{{See also\|1914 Marshall Thundering Herd football team}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Moore (left guard), Henderson (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Tyree (right end), Terry (quarterback), Davis (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Campbell, Cottrell, Dixon, Engleby, Gregory, Harvey, Hill, Huddle, Logan, Macon, Oppenheimer, Rives, Vaughan\-Lloyd and Williams.
The starting lineup for Marshall was: Yeater (left end), Boner (left tackle), Shepherd (left guard), Callilion (center), Groves (right guard), Ramsey (right tackle), Miller (right end), Nagles (quarterback), Reefer (left halfback), Cundiff (right halfback), Lawrence (fullback).
### North Carolina A\&M
{{AFB game box start
\| Title \= '''North Carolina A\&M vs. VPI'''
\| Visitor \= \[\[1914 North Carolina A\&M Aggies football team\|NC A\&M]]
\| Host \= '''VPI'''
\| V1 \= 0\| V2 \= 0\| V3 \= 0\| V4 \= 0
\| H1 \= 0\| H2 \= 0\| H3 \= 3\| H4 \= 0
\| Date \= November 14, 1914
\| Location \= Fair Grounds
\[\[Roanoke, Virginia\|Roanoke, VA]]
\| StartTime \= 3:00 p.m.
\| ElapsedTime \=
\| Attendance \= 400
\| Weather \= "soaking rain"
\| Referee \= \[\[Jack Gass]]
}}
{{AFB game box end}}
{{See also\|1914 North Carolina A\&M Aggies football team}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Rives (left end), A. P. Moore (left tackle), Williams (left guard), Henderson (center), A. B. Moore (right guard), Benedict (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Funkhouser (left halfback), Macon (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Dixon, Harvey, Oppenheimer and Terry.
The starting lineup for North Carolina A\&M was: J. E. McDougall (left end), Herman Winston (left tackle), Charles Proffitt (left guard), R. A. Plyler (center), R. C. Young (right guard), C. C. Cooke (right tackle), Clem Seifert (right end), C. E. Van Brocklin (quarterback), Wallace Riddick (left halfback), W.F. Townsend (right halfback), P. G. Tenney (fullback). The substitutes were: J. V. Champion and N. S. Sharp.
### VMI
{{AFB game box start
\| Title \= '''VMI vs. VPI'''
\| Visitor \= \[\[1914 VMI Keydets football team\|VMI]]
\| Host \= '''VPI'''
\| V1 \= 0\| V2 \= 0\| V3 \= 0\| V4 \= 0
\| H1 \= 0\| H2 \= 0\| H3 \= 0\| H4 \= 3
\| Date \= November 26, 1914
\| Location \= Fair Grounds
\[\[Roanoke, Virginia\|Roanoke, VA]]
\| StartTime \= 3:00 p.m.
\| ElapsedTime \=
\| Attendance \= 5,000\-7,000
\| Weather \= "ideal"
\| Referee \= Land (Navy)
}}
{{AFB game box end}}
{{See also\|1914 VMI Keydets football team}}
The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Moore (left guard), Henderson (center), Williams (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Gregory, Harvey, Huddle, Macon, Rives and Terry.
The starting lineup for VMI was: Thomas Arms (left end), John Pitts (left tackle), Vernon Somers (left guard), Oscar Beasley (center), Claude Cammer (right guard), McCormick (right tackle), Nathaniel Massie (right end), James Nelms (quarterback), Andrew Holderby (left halfback), James Bain (right halfback), Laurence Oakes (fullback). The substitutes were: Carlos Fetterolf, [Mose Goodman](/wiki/Mose_Goodman "Mose Goodman"), Sterling Heflin, Winfred Kidd, Peyton Marshall and William Speed.
|
[
"Game summaries\n--------------",
"### King",
"The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Whitehead (left tackle), Montague (left guard), Savage (center), Benedict (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Rives (right end), Peake (quarterback), Huddle (left halfback), Davis (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Engleby, Harvey, Henderson, Macon, Moore, Robertson, Treakle and Vaughan\\-Lloyd.",
"The starting lineup for King was: George King (left end), Smith (left tackle), Newland (left guard), Wood (center), Graham (right guard), Kincaid (right tackle), Lee (right end), Burrows (quarterback), Caldwell (left halfback), Fain (right halfback), Davidson (fullback).",
"### Randolph–Macon",
"### Hampden–Sydney",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\| Title \\= '''Hampden–Sydney vs. VPI'''\n\\| Visitor \\= \\[\\[Hampden–Sydney Tigers\\|HS]]\n\\| Host \\= '''VPI'''\n\\| V1 \\= 0\\| V2 \\= 0\\| V3 \\= 0\\| V4 \\= 0\n\\| H1 \\= 7\\| H2 \\= 6\\| H3 \\= 0\\| H4 \\= 9\n\\| Date \\= October 10, 1914\n\\| Location \\= \\[\\[Miles Field (Virginia Tech)\\|Miles Field]] \n\\[\\[Blacksburg, Virginia\\|Blacksburg, VA]]\n\\| StartTime \\= \n\\| ElapsedTime \\=\n\\| Attendance \\= \n\\| Weather \\=\n\\| Referee \\= \n}}\n{{AFB game box end}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Rives (left end), Oppenheimer (left tackle), Benedict (left guard), Montague (center), Williams (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Cottrell (right end), Peake (quarterback), Funkhouser (left halfback), Moore (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Davis, Engleby, Gregory, Harvey, Huddle, Macon, Savage, Somerville, Taylor, Treakle and Vaughan\\-Lloyd.",
"The starting lineup for Hampden–Sydney was: P. C. Adams (left end), Robert Guthrie (left tackle), Robert Warwick (left guard), Marvin Bowling (center), R. B. Thompson (right guard), John Shackelford (right tackle), Frank Massie (right end), Walter Thurman (quarterback), A. B. Driver (left halfback), Peyton Palmore (right halfback), Perkins (fullback).",
"### West Virginia Wesleyan",
"The starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Oppenheimer (left guard), Savage (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Powell (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Moore (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Funkhouser, Gregory, Macon, Montague, Rives and Somerville.",
"The starting lineup for West Virginia Wesleyan was: W. Guy Morrison (left end), Herbert Withers (left tackle), Everett Morgan (left guard), William Singleton (center), Harry Vance (right guard), [John Kellison](/wiki/John_Kellison \"John Kellison\") (right tackle), James Heavener (right end), Harry Stansbury (quarterback), O. Shumaker (left halfback), R. Worth Shumaker (right halfback), William Jacobs (fullback). The substitutes were: Charles Allen and Bobbitt.",
"### Roanoke",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\| Title \\= '''Roanoke vs. VPI'''\n\\| Visitor \\= '''\\[\\[Roanoke Maroons\\#Football\\|Roanoke]]'''\n\\| Host \\= '''VPI'''\n\\| V1 \\= 0\\| V2 \\= 7\\| V3 \\= 0\\| V4 \\= 0\n\\| H1 \\= 0\\| H2 \\= 7\\| H3 \\= 0\\| H4 \\= 0\n\\| Date \\= October 24, 1914\n\\| Location \\= \\[\\[Miles Field (Virginia Tech)\\|Miles Field]] \n\\[\\[Blacksburg, Virginia\\|Blacksburg, VA]]\n\\| StartTime \\= \n\\| ElapsedTime \\=\n\\| Attendance \\= \n\\| Weather \\= \"slippery\"\n\\| Referee \\= Miles\n}}\n{{AFB game box end}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Moore (left tackle), Benedict (left guard), Montague (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Huddle (fullback). The substitutes were: Cottrell, Engleby, Harvey, Macon, Perry, Rives, Sanders, Somerville and Vaughan\\-Lloyd.",
"The starting lineup for Roanoke was: Harman (left end), S. L. Bonham (left tackle), Roe (left guard), O'Flaherty (center), Kellenger (right guard), R. H. Duncan (right tackle), Harman (right end), Douglas Bunting (quarterback), Hoffman (left halfback), Krieger (right halfback), J. H. Bonham (fullback).",
"### Washington and Lee",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\| Title \\= '''Washington \\& Lee vs. VPI'''\n\\| Visitor \\= '''\\[\\[1914 Washington and Lee Generals football team\\|W\\&L]]'''\n\\| Host \\= VPI\n\\| V1 \\= 0\\| V2 \\= 7\\| V3 \\= 0\\| V4 \\= 0\n\\| H1 \\= 6\\| H2 \\= 0\\| H3 \\= 0\\| H4 \\= 0\n\\| Date \\= October 31, 1914\n\\| Location \\= Fair Grounds \n\\[\\[Roanoke, Virginia\\|Roanoke, VA]]\n\\| StartTime \\= 3:00 p.m.\n\\| ElapsedTime \\=\n\\| Attendance \\= 5,000\n\\| Weather \\= \n\\| Referee \\= \\[\\[Jack Gass]]\n}}\n{{AFB game box end}}\n{{See also\\|1914 Washington and Lee Generals football team}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Caffee (left tackle), Cottrell (left guard), Montague (center), Williams (right guard), Benedict (right tackle), Vaughan\\-Lloyd (right end), Peake (quarterback), Macon (left halfback), Huddle (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Dixon, Engleby, Funkhouser, Graves, Gregory, Oppenheimer and Rives.",
"The starting lineup for Washington and Lee was: I. R. Simms (left end), [Ted Shultz](/wiki/Ted_Shultz \"Ted Shultz\") (left tackle), B. D. Bryan (left guard), [Al Pierotti](/wiki/Al_Pierotti \"Al Pierotti\") (center), F. B. Scarry (right guard), [Buck Miles](/wiki/Buck_Miles \"Buck Miles\") (right tackle), John Harrison (right end), John Gallagher (quarterback), [Harry \"Cy\" Young](/wiki/Harry_Young_%28American_football%29 \"Harry Young (American football)\") (left halfback), [Fred Sweetland](/wiki/Fred_Sweetland \"Fred Sweetland\") (right halfback), Raymond Beuhring (fullback). The substitutes were: F. M. Dingwall, [Edward Donahue](/wiki/Edward_Donahue \"Edward Donahue\"), Joseph Milner and William Smith.",
"### Marshall",
"{{See also\\|1914 Marshall Thundering Herd football team}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Moore (left guard), Henderson (center), Treakle (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Tyree (right end), Terry (quarterback), Davis (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Campbell, Cottrell, Dixon, Engleby, Gregory, Harvey, Hill, Huddle, Logan, Macon, Oppenheimer, Rives, Vaughan\\-Lloyd and Williams.",
"The starting lineup for Marshall was: Yeater (left end), Boner (left tackle), Shepherd (left guard), Callilion (center), Groves (right guard), Ramsey (right tackle), Miller (right end), Nagles (quarterback), Reefer (left halfback), Cundiff (right halfback), Lawrence (fullback).",
"### North Carolina A\\&M",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\| Title \\= '''North Carolina A\\&M vs. VPI'''\n\\| Visitor \\= \\[\\[1914 North Carolina A\\&M Aggies football team\\|NC A\\&M]]\n\\| Host \\= '''VPI'''\n\\| V1 \\= 0\\| V2 \\= 0\\| V3 \\= 0\\| V4 \\= 0\n\\| H1 \\= 0\\| H2 \\= 0\\| H3 \\= 3\\| H4 \\= 0\n\\| Date \\= November 14, 1914\n\\| Location \\= Fair Grounds \n\\[\\[Roanoke, Virginia\\|Roanoke, VA]]\n\\| StartTime \\= 3:00 p.m.\n\\| ElapsedTime \\=\n\\| Attendance \\= 400\n\\| Weather \\= \"soaking rain\"\n\\| Referee \\= \\[\\[Jack Gass]]\n}}\n{{AFB game box end}}\n{{See also\\|1914 North Carolina A\\&M Aggies football team}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Rives (left end), A. P. Moore (left tackle), Williams (left guard), Henderson (center), A. B. Moore (right guard), Benedict (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Funkhouser (left halfback), Macon (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Dixon, Harvey, Oppenheimer and Terry.",
"The starting lineup for North Carolina A\\&M was: J. E. McDougall (left end), Herman Winston (left tackle), Charles Proffitt (left guard), R. A. Plyler (center), R. C. Young (right guard), C. C. Cooke (right tackle), Clem Seifert (right end), C. E. Van Brocklin (quarterback), Wallace Riddick (left halfback), W.F. Townsend (right halfback), P. G. Tenney (fullback). The substitutes were: J. V. Champion and N. S. Sharp.",
"### VMI",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\| Title \\= '''VMI vs. VPI'''\n\\| Visitor \\= \\[\\[1914 VMI Keydets football team\\|VMI]]\n\\| Host \\= '''VPI'''\n\\| V1 \\= 0\\| V2 \\= 0\\| V3 \\= 0\\| V4 \\= 0\n\\| H1 \\= 0\\| H2 \\= 0\\| H3 \\= 0\\| H4 \\= 3\n\\| Date \\= November 26, 1914\n\\| Location \\= Fair Grounds \n\\[\\[Roanoke, Virginia\\|Roanoke, VA]]\n\\| StartTime \\= 3:00 p.m.\n\\| ElapsedTime \\=\n\\| Attendance \\= 5,000\\-7,000\n\\| Weather \\= \"ideal\"\n\\| Referee \\= Land (Navy)\n}}\n{{AFB game box end}}\n{{See also\\|1914 VMI Keydets football team}}\nThe starting lineup for VPI was: Taylor (left end), Benedict (left tackle), Moore (left guard), Henderson (center), Williams (right guard), Caffee (right tackle), Franklin (right end), Peake (quarterback), Dixon (left halfback), Funkhouser (right halfback), Sanders (fullback). The substitutes were: Gregory, Harvey, Huddle, Macon, Rives and Terry.",
"The starting lineup for VMI was: Thomas Arms (left end), John Pitts (left tackle), Vernon Somers (left guard), Oscar Beasley (center), Claude Cammer (right guard), McCormick (right tackle), Nathaniel Massie (right end), James Nelms (quarterback), Andrew Holderby (left halfback), James Bain (right halfback), Laurence Oakes (fullback). The substitutes were: Carlos Fetterolf, [Mose Goodman](/wiki/Mose_Goodman \"Mose Goodman\"), Sterling Heflin, Winfred Kidd, Peyton Marshall and William Speed.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
He was born **Walter Stanley Scuffham** in [Kingston upon Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull "Kingston upon Hull"), East Yorkshire, England. His father died when the youngster was aged four, and using his childhood nickname of Don he later adopted his stepfather's surname, becoming for a while **Don Bennett**.
He spent ten years in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"), leaving at 25 years old with ambitions to become a professional singer. By 1960, after settling in London, he was signed to [Parlophone](/wiki/Parlophone "Parlophone") by [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin "George Martin") who produced his debut single, "Paintbox Lover". His stay with the label was short\-lived, and he was signed by Joe Meek to [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") in 1961\. He was renamed **Don Charles** to avoid potential confusion with [Tony Bennett](/wiki/Tony_Bennett "Tony Bennett"), and released his biggest seller "Walk With Me My Angel" in January 1962\. Written by [Geoff Goddard](/wiki/Geoff_Goddard "Geoff Goddard"), and produced by Meek, the single just made the Top 40 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart"). Not that he knew it at the time, but lack of further [chart](/wiki/Record_chart "Record chart") activity, would leave Charles with the [one\-hit wonder](/wiki/One-hit_wonder "One-hit wonder") tag. He appeared on several teen based television programmes, and released a [cover version](/wiki/Cover_version "Cover version") of [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King "Ben E. King")'s [B\-side](/wiki/A-side_and_B-side "A-side and B-side") "The Hermit of Misty Mountain" in 1962, and the [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") influenced novelty "It's My Way of Loving You" the same year.
Ill fortune followed when the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") refused to play his 1963 follow\-up "Angel of Love". This was because of the 'death song' styled [lyric](/wiki/Lyrics "Lyrics"), "Everyone has an angel of love/Way up in the heavens above". This, combined with the all\-pervading appearance of [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles"), dealt a hammer blow to his career. The hastily released "Heart's Ice Cold" failed to find any buyers, and when Meek fell out with Decca, he took Charles with him to [HMV](/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice "His Master's Voice").
Charles released seven singles for HMV between 1963 and 1966, which included "Tower Tall", "Big Talk from a Little Man" (written by [Alan Klein](/wiki/Alan_Klein "Alan Klein")) and "Dream on Little Dreamer", but commercial success continued to elude him. In 1965, Charles produced The Tornados' numbers, "Space Walk" and "Goodbye Joe". In an unusual move Charles returned to Parlophone in 1967, and released the [Northern soul](/wiki/Northern_soul "Northern soul") favourite, "Bring Your Love to Me", and several other unsuccessful singles. He then retired from the [music industry](/wiki/Music_industry "Music industry"), except for a brief return using a derivation of his birth name as Sgt. Will Scuffham, releasing in 1970 on MCA UK "And They All Came Marching Home" and "[Lili Marleen](/wiki/Lili_Marleen "Lili Marleen")".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.45cat.com/record/mk5030 \|title\=Sgt. Will Scuffham \- And They All Came Marching Home / Lilli Marlene \- MCA \|publisher\=45cat \|date\= \|access\-date\=2014\-03\-21}} He had been encouraged to release a pseudo\-military pop song after his friend [Rolf Harris](/wiki/Rolf_Harris "Rolf Harris") had a success with "[Two Little Boys](/wiki/Two_Little_Boys "Two Little Boys")". At that time he also jointly bought a [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub") in Malta with Rolf Harris. When that venture fell flat, Charles became a used car salesman and, in 1989, he penned a successful book based upon his experiences, entitled *How to Buy a Used Car (And Save Money)*.
Charles was a keen and gifted amateur photographer and undertook a large number of portraits of local people, both famous and not so well known in the [Primrose Hill](/wiki/Primrose_Hill "Primrose Hill") area, where he lived in the 1960s and 1970s.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2014}}
Four times married with five daughters, Charles died in December 2005, in [Herstmonceux](/wiki/Herstmonceux "Herstmonceux"), [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex "East Sussex"), less than a week away from his 72nd birthday.
He is not to be confused with another Don Charles, a [Scandinavian](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia")\-based record producer behind the musical recording project [the Singing Dogs](/wiki/The_Singing_Dogs "The Singing Dogs").
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"He was born **Walter Stanley Scuffham** in [Kingston upon Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull \"Kingston upon Hull\"), East Yorkshire, England. His father died when the youngster was aged four, and using his childhood nickname of Don he later adopted his stepfather's surname, becoming for a while **Don Bennett**.",
"He spent ten years in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"), leaving at 25 years old with ambitions to become a professional singer. By 1960, after settling in London, he was signed to [Parlophone](/wiki/Parlophone \"Parlophone\") by [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin \"George Martin\") who produced his debut single, \"Paintbox Lover\". His stay with the label was short\\-lived, and he was signed by Joe Meek to [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") in 1961\\. He was renamed **Don Charles** to avoid potential confusion with [Tony Bennett](/wiki/Tony_Bennett \"Tony Bennett\"), and released his biggest seller \"Walk With Me My Angel\" in January 1962\\. Written by [Geoff Goddard](/wiki/Geoff_Goddard \"Geoff Goddard\"), and produced by Meek, the single just made the Top 40 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\"). Not that he knew it at the time, but lack of further [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\") activity, would leave Charles with the [one\\-hit wonder](/wiki/One-hit_wonder \"One-hit wonder\") tag. He appeared on several teen based television programmes, and released a [cover version](/wiki/Cover_version \"Cover version\") of [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King \"Ben E. King\")'s [B\\-side](/wiki/A-side_and_B-side \"A-side and B-side\") \"The Hermit of Misty Mountain\" in 1962, and the [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") influenced novelty \"It's My Way of Loving You\" the same year.",
"Ill fortune followed when the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") refused to play his 1963 follow\\-up \"Angel of Love\". This was because of the 'death song' styled [lyric](/wiki/Lyrics \"Lyrics\"), \"Everyone has an angel of love/Way up in the heavens above\". This, combined with the all\\-pervading appearance of [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\"), dealt a hammer blow to his career. The hastily released \"Heart's Ice Cold\" failed to find any buyers, and when Meek fell out with Decca, he took Charles with him to [HMV](/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice \"His Master's Voice\").",
"Charles released seven singles for HMV between 1963 and 1966, which included \"Tower Tall\", \"Big Talk from a Little Man\" (written by [Alan Klein](/wiki/Alan_Klein \"Alan Klein\")) and \"Dream on Little Dreamer\", but commercial success continued to elude him. In 1965, Charles produced The Tornados' numbers, \"Space Walk\" and \"Goodbye Joe\". In an unusual move Charles returned to Parlophone in 1967, and released the [Northern soul](/wiki/Northern_soul \"Northern soul\") favourite, \"Bring Your Love to Me\", and several other unsuccessful singles. He then retired from the [music industry](/wiki/Music_industry \"Music industry\"), except for a brief return using a derivation of his birth name as Sgt. Will Scuffham, releasing in 1970 on MCA UK \"And They All Came Marching Home\" and \"[Lili Marleen](/wiki/Lili_Marleen \"Lili Marleen\")\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.45cat.com/record/mk5030 \\|title\\=Sgt. Will Scuffham \\- And They All Came Marching Home / Lilli Marlene \\- MCA \\|publisher\\=45cat \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-21}} He had been encouraged to release a pseudo\\-military pop song after his friend [Rolf Harris](/wiki/Rolf_Harris \"Rolf Harris\") had a success with \"[Two Little Boys](/wiki/Two_Little_Boys \"Two Little Boys\")\". At that time he also jointly bought a [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\") in Malta with Rolf Harris. When that venture fell flat, Charles became a used car salesman and, in 1989, he penned a successful book based upon his experiences, entitled *How to Buy a Used Car (And Save Money)*.",
"Charles was a keen and gifted amateur photographer and undertook a large number of portraits of local people, both famous and not so well known in the [Primrose Hill](/wiki/Primrose_Hill \"Primrose Hill\") area, where he lived in the 1960s and 1970s.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2014}}",
"Four times married with five daughters, Charles died in December 2005, in [Herstmonceux](/wiki/Herstmonceux \"Herstmonceux\"), [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex \"East Sussex\"), less than a week away from his 72nd birthday.",
"He is not to be confused with another Don Charles, a [Scandinavian](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\")\\-based record producer behind the musical recording project [the Singing Dogs](/wiki/The_Singing_Dogs \"The Singing Dogs\").",
""
] |
Recording artist
----------------
While studying classical composition at the [Birmingham Conservatoire](/wiki/Birmingham_Conservatoire "Birmingham Conservatoire"), Moray released the home\-recorded *I Am Jim Moray* EP.{{cite news \|last1\=Irwin \|first1\=Colin \|title\=Rap, grime and the hurdy\-gurdy \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/jul/16/folk.culture \|access\-date\=8 June 2023 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=16 July 2008}} During 2002 he appeared at the [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival "Glastonbury Festival") and the [Cambridge Folk Festival](/wiki/Cambridge_Folk_Festival "Cambridge Folk Festival") gaining notice in the music press. A nomination for the "Horizon Award" at the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards "BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards") 2003 followed before he began work on his first full\-length album, *[Sweet England](/wiki/Sweet_England "Sweet England")*. The album was recorded in his bedroom while completing his final year of study. *Sweet England* was released in June 2003 on his own [Niblick Is A Giraffe](/wiki/Niblick_Is_A_Giraffe "Niblick Is A Giraffe") record label.
At the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards "BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards") in 2004 he was presented with the Album of the Year Award for *Sweet England* and the Horizon Award for best newcomer. He was also nominated twice in the Best Traditional Song category for *[Early One Morning](/wiki/Early_One_Morning "Early One Morning")* and *[Lord Bateman](/wiki/Young_Beichan "Young Beichan")*.{{Cite web\|title\=FATEA \- Home\|url\=http://www.fatea\-records.co.uk/magazine/reviews/JimMoray/\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-20\|website\=www.fatea\-records.co.uk}}
Moray recorded and released the single *Sprig of Thyme* in May 2004, and in the autumn appeared on the [Oysterband](/wiki/Oysterband "Oysterband")'s *Big Session Volume 1* album. This gained yet more Folk Award nominations in 2005, including one for *Cuckoo's Nest*, which was sung, produced and mixed by Moray.
After a long gestation period, Moray's eponymous second album was released on 1 May 2006\. Moving away from the electronic sound of *Sweet England* it features a more orchestral sound and denser song structures.
On 6 July 2007, *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")* featured *Sweet England* in its "Cult Classic" series, affirming its impact and influence on the modern folk scene.
Jim Moray's third album, *Low Culture*, was released on 14 July 2008\. On this album Jim makes use of African [kora](/wiki/Kora_%28instrument%29 "Kora (instrument)"), the [melodeon](/wiki/Diatonic_button_accordion "Diatonic button accordion") and [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin "Mandolin") and [mbira](/wiki/Mbira "Mbira") thumb\-piano. *Low Culture* won the [fRoots](/wiki/FRoots "FRoots") Critics Poll Album of the Year 2008 and was also the *[MOJO](/wiki/Mojo_%28magazine%29 "Mojo (magazine)")* Folk Album of the Year 2008\. It was also nominated for the Album of the Year Award in the BBC Folk Awards 2009\.
On 1 February 2010 it was announced that Jim Moray's fourth album *In Modern History* would be given away as a [covermount](/wiki/Covermount "Covermount") CD with the June edition of *[Songlines](/wiki/Songlines_%28magazine%29 "Songlines (magazine)")* magazine, with a street date of 30 April 2010\. It was also announced that the album would be available in a deluxe box set and standard editions on 7 June 2010\.
Moray's fifth studio album *Skulk* was released on Bandcamp with no build\-up or warning in January 2012 going straight to number 1 on the Bandcamp chart. It received a full release on 9 April 2012\. Moray received three nominations in the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards "BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards") for Best Album, Folk Singer of the Year and Best Traditional Track (for Lord Douglas), winning the latter category.
Along with singer and guitarist [Sam Carter](/wiki/Sam_Carter_%28musician%29 "Sam Carter (musician)"), in 2014 Moray launched a new band named False Lights to play traditional music with electric instruments. Their album Salvor, produced by Moray, was released in February 2015 and they announced headline shows at Folk East, Trowbridge Village Pump and Homegrown festivals.
Moray's sixth album *Upcetera* was released on September the 30th 2016, featuring orchestral arrangements blended with electric rhythm section, electronic soundscapes and, on several tracks, [viol](/wiki/Viol "Viol") played by Damon Albarn and Nico Muhly collaborator Liam Byrne. It was nominated for Best Album and Best Original Track for *Sounds Of Earth* at the 2017 [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards "BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards"), at which he also performed the opening track *Fair Margaret And Sweet William*.
On Moray's seventh album *The Outlander* he explored a more stripped down style of playing and arranging influenced by the [British folk revival](/wiki/British_folk_revival "British folk revival") of the 1960s and 70s and featuring [Bellowhead](/wiki/Bellowhead "Bellowhead") fiddle player [Sam Sweeney](/wiki/Sam_Sweeney "Sam Sweeney") on six tracks. It was released on 11 October 2019 and was Moray's first album to be released on vinyl as well as CD and download.
In February 2023 Moray entered [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios "Abbey Road Studios") to re\-record songs from across his career to celebrate 21 years of recording and performing. These recordings were released as *Beflean* in November 2023, and named as Tradfolk.co's album of the year. {{cite web \|url\=https://tradfolk.co/music/reviews/folk\-album\-of\-the\-year\-2023/ \|title\=Albums of the year 2023 \|website\=Tradfolk \|date\=28 Dec 2023}}
Moray has spoken of receiving abuse online because he wants folk music to become more mainstream.
|
[
"Recording artist\n----------------",
"While studying classical composition at the [Birmingham Conservatoire](/wiki/Birmingham_Conservatoire \"Birmingham Conservatoire\"), Moray released the home\\-recorded *I Am Jim Moray* EP.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Irwin \\|first1\\=Colin \\|title\\=Rap, grime and the hurdy\\-gurdy \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/jul/16/folk.culture \\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2023 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=16 July 2008}} During 2002 he appeared at the [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival \"Glastonbury Festival\") and the [Cambridge Folk Festival](/wiki/Cambridge_Folk_Festival \"Cambridge Folk Festival\") gaining notice in the music press. A nomination for the \"Horizon Award\" at the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards \"BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards\") 2003 followed before he began work on his first full\\-length album, *[Sweet England](/wiki/Sweet_England \"Sweet England\")*. The album was recorded in his bedroom while completing his final year of study. *Sweet England* was released in June 2003 on his own [Niblick Is A Giraffe](/wiki/Niblick_Is_A_Giraffe \"Niblick Is A Giraffe\") record label.",
"At the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards \"BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards\") in 2004 he was presented with the Album of the Year Award for *Sweet England* and the Horizon Award for best newcomer. He was also nominated twice in the Best Traditional Song category for *[Early One Morning](/wiki/Early_One_Morning \"Early One Morning\")* and *[Lord Bateman](/wiki/Young_Beichan \"Young Beichan\")*.{{Cite web\\|title\\=FATEA \\- Home\\|url\\=http://www.fatea\\-records.co.uk/magazine/reviews/JimMoray/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-20\\|website\\=www.fatea\\-records.co.uk}}",
"Moray recorded and released the single *Sprig of Thyme* in May 2004, and in the autumn appeared on the [Oysterband](/wiki/Oysterband \"Oysterband\")'s *Big Session Volume 1* album. This gained yet more Folk Award nominations in 2005, including one for *Cuckoo's Nest*, which was sung, produced and mixed by Moray.",
"After a long gestation period, Moray's eponymous second album was released on 1 May 2006\\. Moving away from the electronic sound of *Sweet England* it features a more orchestral sound and denser song structures.",
"On 6 July 2007, *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")* featured *Sweet England* in its \"Cult Classic\" series, affirming its impact and influence on the modern folk scene.",
"Jim Moray's third album, *Low Culture*, was released on 14 July 2008\\. On this album Jim makes use of African [kora](/wiki/Kora_%28instrument%29 \"Kora (instrument)\"), the [melodeon](/wiki/Diatonic_button_accordion \"Diatonic button accordion\") and [mandolin](/wiki/Mandolin \"Mandolin\") and [mbira](/wiki/Mbira \"Mbira\") thumb\\-piano. *Low Culture* won the [fRoots](/wiki/FRoots \"FRoots\") Critics Poll Album of the Year 2008 and was also the *[MOJO](/wiki/Mojo_%28magazine%29 \"Mojo (magazine)\")* Folk Album of the Year 2008\\. It was also nominated for the Album of the Year Award in the BBC Folk Awards 2009\\.",
"On 1 February 2010 it was announced that Jim Moray's fourth album *In Modern History* would be given away as a [covermount](/wiki/Covermount \"Covermount\") CD with the June edition of *[Songlines](/wiki/Songlines_%28magazine%29 \"Songlines (magazine)\")* magazine, with a street date of 30 April 2010\\. It was also announced that the album would be available in a deluxe box set and standard editions on 7 June 2010\\.",
"Moray's fifth studio album *Skulk* was released on Bandcamp with no build\\-up or warning in January 2012 going straight to number 1 on the Bandcamp chart. It received a full release on 9 April 2012\\. Moray received three nominations in the [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards \"BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards\") for Best Album, Folk Singer of the Year and Best Traditional Track (for Lord Douglas), winning the latter category.",
"Along with singer and guitarist [Sam Carter](/wiki/Sam_Carter_%28musician%29 \"Sam Carter (musician)\"), in 2014 Moray launched a new band named False Lights to play traditional music with electric instruments. Their album Salvor, produced by Moray, was released in February 2015 and they announced headline shows at Folk East, Trowbridge Village Pump and Homegrown festivals.",
"Moray's sixth album *Upcetera* was released on September the 30th 2016, featuring orchestral arrangements blended with electric rhythm section, electronic soundscapes and, on several tracks, [viol](/wiki/Viol \"Viol\") played by Damon Albarn and Nico Muhly collaborator Liam Byrne. It was nominated for Best Album and Best Original Track for *Sounds Of Earth* at the 2017 [BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2_Folk_Awards \"BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards\"), at which he also performed the opening track *Fair Margaret And Sweet William*.",
"On Moray's seventh album *The Outlander* he explored a more stripped down style of playing and arranging influenced by the [British folk revival](/wiki/British_folk_revival \"British folk revival\") of the 1960s and 70s and featuring [Bellowhead](/wiki/Bellowhead \"Bellowhead\") fiddle player [Sam Sweeney](/wiki/Sam_Sweeney \"Sam Sweeney\") on six tracks. It was released on 11 October 2019 and was Moray's first album to be released on vinyl as well as CD and download.",
"In February 2023 Moray entered [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios \"Abbey Road Studios\") to re\\-record songs from across his career to celebrate 21 years of recording and performing. These recordings were released as *Beflean* in November 2023, and named as Tradfolk.co's album of the year. {{cite web \\|url\\=https://tradfolk.co/music/reviews/folk\\-album\\-of\\-the\\-year\\-2023/ \\|title\\=Albums of the year 2023 \\|website\\=Tradfolk \\|date\\=28 Dec 2023}}",
"Moray has spoken of receiving abuse online because he wants folk music to become more mainstream.",
""
] |
Producer
--------
Aside from all of his own albums Moray has produced other artists, initially from his own studio in Bristol profiled in a [Sound on Sound](/wiki/Sound_on_Sound "Sound on Sound") feature in 2006\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/aug06/articles/jimmoray.htm \| title\=Jim Moray: Folk Music For The 21st Century \| publisher\=Sound on Sound \| date\=August 2006 \| accessdate\=26 February 2013 \| author\=Sam Inglis}}
Moray produced and mixed the track "The Cuckoo's Nest" for the Oysterband Big Session in 2004\. This was a live album, recorded over two nights, featuring a similar line\-up to the tour he took part in in 2003\. The track was nominated in the BBC Folk Awards that year.{{Cite web\|title\=BBC \- Radio 2 \- Folk and Acoustic \- Folk Awards\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/folk/folkawards2005/nominations.shtml\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-20\|website\=www.bbc.co.uk}}
During 2005 Moray produced and performed on James Raynard's debut album *Strange Histories*, released in September 2005 on [One Little Indian](/wiki/One_Little_Indian "One Little Indian") records.
In 2008 he wrote and produced the song *The Wishfulness Waltz* for his sister [Jackie Oates](/wiki/Jackie_Oates "Jackie Oates")' second album *The Violet Hour*, as well as playing all the instruments on the track. He subsequently produced and mixed her third album *Hyperboreans* which was released in September 2009 and nominated for three BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards (including best album), and *MOJO* magazine's top folk albums of 2009\. In 2015 he produced and mixed her sixth album "The Spyglass And The Herringbone" as well as co\-writing the majority of the tracks.
Moray produced and mixed the debut album *Roodumdah* by Kent\-based folk\-rock band Wheeler Street in autumn 2008\. In 2010 he produced and mixed *Find The Lady* by Belshazzar's Feast.
In 2014 he produced and mixed the second album by singer and songwriter Maz O'Connor, *This Willowed Light*. They worked together again on her third album *The Longing Kind*. In the same period he also produced the debut album by London folk band Tir Eolas, *Stories Sung, Truths Told*.
Moray produced *Salvor*, the debut album by False Lights – his collaboration with Sam Carter, in 2015\.{{Cite news\|last\=Denselow\|first\=Robin\|date\=2015\-01\-29\|title\=False Lights: Salvor review – Jim Moray and Sam Carter's remarkable new electric band\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=The Guardian\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/jan/29/false\-lights\-salvor\-review\-jim\-moray\-sam\-carter\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-20\|issn\=0261\-3077}} The band released *Harmonograph*, a second album also produced by Moray in 2018\.
Moray produced [Art Brut](/wiki/Art_Brut "Art Brut")'s fifth album [Wham! Bang! Pow! Let's Rock Out!](/wiki/Wham%21_Bang%21_Pow%21_Let%27s_Rock_Out%21 "Wham! Bang! Pow! Let's Rock Out!"), after previously collaborating with lead singer [Eddie Argos](/wiki/Eddie_Argos "Eddie Argos") on the lo\-fi musical *The Islanders* at the Edinburgh Fringe in 2013\. The album was released by Alcopop! Records in 2018\.
In 2023 he began working with electro\-folk singer and musician Frankie Archer, who had previously cited his work as an influence.{{cite web \| url\=https://tradfolk.co/news/frankie\-archer\-lucy\-wan/ \| title\=Frankie Archer takes on 'Lucy Wan' as her next single \| publisher\=Tradfolk \|date\=25 August 2023}} He co\-produced (with Archer) and mixed her EP *Never So Red* in late 2023\.
Moray produced, mixed and performed on [Blair Dunlop](/wiki/Blair_Dunlop "Blair Dunlop")'s fifth studio album *Out Of The Rain* in 2024\.
|
[
"Producer\n--------",
"Aside from all of his own albums Moray has produced other artists, initially from his own studio in Bristol profiled in a [Sound on Sound](/wiki/Sound_on_Sound \"Sound on Sound\") feature in 2006\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/aug06/articles/jimmoray.htm \\| title\\=Jim Moray: Folk Music For The 21st Century \\| publisher\\=Sound on Sound \\| date\\=August 2006 \\| accessdate\\=26 February 2013 \\| author\\=Sam Inglis}}\nMoray produced and mixed the track \"The Cuckoo's Nest\" for the Oysterband Big Session in 2004\\. This was a live album, recorded over two nights, featuring a similar line\\-up to the tour he took part in in 2003\\. The track was nominated in the BBC Folk Awards that year.{{Cite web\\|title\\=BBC \\- Radio 2 \\- Folk and Acoustic \\- Folk Awards\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/folk/folkawards2005/nominations.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-20\\|website\\=www.bbc.co.uk}}",
"During 2005 Moray produced and performed on James Raynard's debut album *Strange Histories*, released in September 2005 on [One Little Indian](/wiki/One_Little_Indian \"One Little Indian\") records.",
"In 2008 he wrote and produced the song *The Wishfulness Waltz* for his sister [Jackie Oates](/wiki/Jackie_Oates \"Jackie Oates\")' second album *The Violet Hour*, as well as playing all the instruments on the track. He subsequently produced and mixed her third album *Hyperboreans* which was released in September 2009 and nominated for three BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards (including best album), and *MOJO* magazine's top folk albums of 2009\\. In 2015 he produced and mixed her sixth album \"The Spyglass And The Herringbone\" as well as co\\-writing the majority of the tracks.",
"Moray produced and mixed the debut album *Roodumdah* by Kent\\-based folk\\-rock band Wheeler Street in autumn 2008\\. In 2010 he produced and mixed *Find The Lady* by Belshazzar's Feast.",
"In 2014 he produced and mixed the second album by singer and songwriter Maz O'Connor, *This Willowed Light*. They worked together again on her third album *The Longing Kind*. In the same period he also produced the debut album by London folk band Tir Eolas, *Stories Sung, Truths Told*.",
"Moray produced *Salvor*, the debut album by False Lights – his collaboration with Sam Carter, in 2015\\.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Denselow\\|first\\=Robin\\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-29\\|title\\=False Lights: Salvor review – Jim Moray and Sam Carter's remarkable new electric band\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/jan/29/false\\-lights\\-salvor\\-review\\-jim\\-moray\\-sam\\-carter\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-20\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} The band released *Harmonograph*, a second album also produced by Moray in 2018\\.",
"Moray produced [Art Brut](/wiki/Art_Brut \"Art Brut\")'s fifth album [Wham! Bang! Pow! Let's Rock Out!](/wiki/Wham%21_Bang%21_Pow%21_Let%27s_Rock_Out%21 \"Wham! Bang! Pow! Let's Rock Out!\"), after previously collaborating with lead singer [Eddie Argos](/wiki/Eddie_Argos \"Eddie Argos\") on the lo\\-fi musical *The Islanders* at the Edinburgh Fringe in 2013\\. The album was released by Alcopop! Records in 2018\\.",
"In 2023 he began working with electro\\-folk singer and musician Frankie Archer, who had previously cited his work as an influence.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://tradfolk.co/news/frankie\\-archer\\-lucy\\-wan/ \\| title\\=Frankie Archer takes on 'Lucy Wan' as her next single \\| publisher\\=Tradfolk \\|date\\=25 August 2023}} He co\\-produced (with Archer) and mixed her EP *Never So Red* in late 2023\\.",
"Moray produced, mixed and performed on [Blair Dunlop](/wiki/Blair_Dunlop \"Blair Dunlop\")'s fifth studio album *Out Of The Rain* in 2024\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Dance and solo career (1955–1958\)
D'Agostin and his partner Judi Stein were the 1955 Al Jarvis dance champions and won $1,000 in prize money, topping thousands of competitors, originally performing on Al Jarvis' [KABC\-TV](/wiki/KABC-TV "KABC-TV") teenage contest shows *Make Believe Ballroom* and *Hi Jinx*.Independent Press\-Telegram from Long Beach, California. Feb. 19, 1956 page 25\.{{Cite journal \|last\=Bigsby \|first\=Evelyn \|date\=March 25, 1955 \|title\=Al Jarvis Defends Teenagers \|url\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-Radio\-Life/50s/55/TV\-Radio\-Life\-1955\-03\-25\.pdf\#search\=%22judi%20stein%22 \|journal\=TV\-Radio Life \|pages\=4–5 \|via\=World Radio History}}{{Cite web \|title\=Vintage Al Jarvis TV Show Hi Jinx Dance Trophy Presented by Pepsodent {{!}} \#1823338843 \|url\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/vintage\-al\-jarvis\-tv\-show\-hi\-jinx\-1823338843 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-29 \|website\=Worthpoint \|language\=en}}
D'Agostin appeared in minor dancing roles in films, *[Eighteen and Anxious](/wiki/Eighteen_and_Anxious "Eighteen and Anxious")* (1957\), and *[Hot Rod Gang](/wiki/Hot_Rod_Gang "Hot Rod Gang")* (1958\), as well as utilising his music abilities for the role of a pianist in *[Earth Vs. the Spider](/wiki/Earth_vs._the_Spider "Earth vs. the Spider")* (1958\). He also was a dance editor and journalist, writing dance columns for two of the first teen magazines, *Dig* and *[Modern Teen](/wiki/Modern_Teen "Modern Teen")* from 1955–58\.{{Cite journal \|last\=D'Agostin \|first\=Dick \|date\=December 1955 \|title\=How to Rock and Roll \|url\=https://picclick.co.uk/Rare\-Rockabilly\-Dec\-1955\-Magazine\-Dick\-D\-agostin\-George\-404892745698\.html\#\&gid\=1\&pid\=2 \|journal\=Dig Magazine \|pages\=18}}{{Cite journal \|last\=D'Agostin \|first\=Dick \|date\=June 1957 \|title\=Ray Anthony's Calypso Dance \|url\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/june\-1957\-modern\-teen\-magazine\-tab\-4621914496 \|journal\=Modern Teen \|pages\=24–25 \|via\=Worthpoint}}
As a solo artist, D'Agostin released two singles on [Accent Records](/wiki/Accent_Records_%28US%29 "Accent Records (US)"),{{Cite web \|title\=Accent Records \- Discography \|url\=http://www.gragroup.com/accent/discography1950s45rpm.html \|access\-date\=May 30, 2024 \|website\=GRA Group}} "What Gave You The Idea?" b/w "I'm Your Daddy\-O" and "Mean Mean Woman" b/w "Come On" from 1956–57\.{{Cite web \|title\=D'Agostin, Dick {{!}} RCS Search Results \|url\=https://rcs\-discography.com/rcs/search.php?type\=acode\&key\=dago1000 \|access\-date\=May 26, 2024 \|website\=Rockin' Country Style Discography}}
### Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers (1958–1960\)
Dick D'Agostin and The Swingers were a [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") band signed to [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records "Dot Records"), composed of drummer Gene Riggio, lead guitarist Dave Oster, saxophonist [Paul Kaufman](/wiki/Paul_Kaufman "Paul Kaufman"), bassist [Wayne Messick](/wiki/Wayne_Messick "Wayne Messick"), and rhythm guitarist Larry D'Agostin. The Swingers were founded by disc jockey and manager [Earl McDaniel](/wiki/Earl_McDaniel_%28DJ%29 "Earl McDaniel (DJ)").{{Cite web \|date\=February 2, 2011 \|title\=Dick D'Agostin \|url\=https://www.rocknroll\-schallplatten\-forum.de/topic.php?t\=6712 \|access\-date\=May 28, 2024 \|website\=rocknroll\-schallplatten\-forum.de}}
They released two singles in 1958, "Nancy Lynne" b/w "Afraid to Take a Chance", and "Night Walk" b/w "Give Me You". Their debut song "Nancy Lynne" was a minor hit,{{Cite book \|last\=Accardi \|first\=Joseph J. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Lh0dTnwuAmAC\&dq\=dick\+d'agostin\&pg\=PA42 \|title\=Beloit's Club Pop House \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-7385\-5209\-5 \|language\=en}} with D'Agostin's piano sound being compared to the style of [Jerry Lee Lewis](/wiki/Jerry_Lee_Lewis "Jerry Lee Lewis"). Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers also had a minor appearance in [Bert I. Gordon](/wiki/Bert_I._Gordon "Bert I. Gordon")'s horror film, *[Earth Vs. the Spider](/wiki/Earth_vs._the_Spider "Earth vs. the Spider")* (1958\), performing as a high school band.
In 1958, [Eddie Cochran](/wiki/Eddie_Cochran "Eddie Cochran") formed a backing band for his Canadian tour and were named The Hollywood Swingers, a reference to D'Agostin's band. Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers eventually became Cochran's touring band.{{Cite news \|date\=July 10, 1959 \|title\=Eddie Cochran Johnny Horton ad \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-kansas\-city\-times\-eddie\-cochran\-john/9487711/ \|access\-date\=May 29, 2024 \|work\=The Kansas City Times \|pages\=34}} In 1959, The Swingers line\-up consisted of [muti\-instrumentalist](/wiki/Multi-instrumentalist "Multi-instrumentalist") and pianist D'Agostin, saxophonist Paul Kaufman, rhythm guitarist Larry D'Agostin, drummer Gene Riggio, and pianist [Jim Stivers](/wiki/Jim_Stivers "Jim Stivers") (briefly on bass) following the departure of bassist [Connie 'Guybo' Smith](/wiki/Connie_%27Guybo%27_Smith "Connie 'Guybo' Smith") from the band.{{Cite book \|last\=Collis \|first\=John \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cemVUgQv0rMC \|title\=Gene Vincent \& Eddie Cochran \|date\=August 19, 2011 \|publisher\=Random House \|isbn\=978\-0\-7535\-4783\-0 \|language\=en}}
On February 7, 1959, Cochran performed live on *[Town Hall Party](/wiki/Town_Hall_Party "Town Hall Party")* with Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers. Cochran played "[C'mon, Everybody](/wiki/C%27mon_Everybody "C'mon Everybody")", "Have I Told You Lately That I Love You", "Don't Blame It On Me", "[Summertime Blues](/wiki/Summertime_Blues "Summertime Blues")", "School Days", [Gene Autry](/wiki/Gene_Autry "Gene Autry")'s "[Be Honest With Me](/wiki/Be_Honest_with_Me "Be Honest with Me")", and "Money Honey". There was a brief interview segment on the show, in which D'Agostin and his drummer Gene Riggio were introduced.["Town Hall party TV show 1959 starring Eddie Cochran."](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8sLAFNOApU) *YouTube*. February 7, 1959\. Retrieved May 25, 2024\.
In 1959, The Swingers released their third single "It's You" b/w "I Let You Go", on [Liberty Records](/wiki/Liberty_Records "Liberty Records") (Cochran's label). D'Agostin was useful as a multi\-instrumentalist, and played piano on the recording of Cochran's song "[Boll Weevil](/wiki/Boll_Weevil_%28song%29 "Boll Weevil (song)")". D'Agostin also worked as a session musician for other American artists, such as [Freddy Cannon](/wiki/Freddy_Cannon "Freddy Cannon"), [Jan and Dean](/wiki/Jan_and_Dean "Jan and Dean"), [Bobby Vee](/wiki/Bobby_Vee "Bobby Vee"), [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke "Sam Cooke"), [Johnny Otis](/wiki/Johnny_Otis "Johnny Otis"), [Ritchie Valens](/wiki/Ritchie_Valens "Ritchie Valens"), [Jack Scott](/wiki/Jack_Scott_%28singer%29 "Jack Scott (singer)"), [Lou Rawls](/wiki/Lou_Rawls "Lou Rawls"), and [Big Jay McNeely](/wiki/Big_Jay_McNeely "Big Jay McNeely"). He recorded at [Gold Star Studios](/wiki/Gold_Star_Studios "Gold Star Studios"), in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles"), [California](/wiki/California "California").
In mid\-1959, D'Agostin received his call\-up papers and was enlisted into the U.S. Army. He was stationed at [Fort Ord](/wiki/Fort_Ord "Fort Ord"), California. After the time spent in the military and the sudden, untimely death of Eddie Cochran, D'Agostin departed from the music scene.
{{Quote\|text\=The guy I worked with the most, and liked the best, was Eddie \[Cochran]...part of the reason I sort of drifted off from the business was when he died...I was on the recording of "Boll Weevil" \- I played piano on that...There were numerous times when I played on a session \[and] I really didn't know what they were until I heard them on the radio. There were a lot of us \[musicians] that hung around Goldstar because there was always something going on. All we would hear is perhaps a rhythm track or something, and we would add our part to it.\|author\=Dick D'Agostin\|title\=Gene Vincent \& Eddie Cochran\|source\=John Collis (2011\)}}
### Live performances
* On June 28, 1958, Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers performed at the [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California "Long Beach, California") Drive\-in, headlining with Jan and Dean and Diane Maxwell.{{Cite book \|last\=Moore \|first\=Mark A. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XTPECwAAQBAJ\&dq\=dick\+d'agostin\&pg\=PA38 \|title\=The Jan \& Dean Record: A Chronology of Studio Sessions, Live Performances and Chart Positions \|date\=March 3, 2016 \|publisher\=McFarland \|isbn\=978\-0\-7864\-9812\-3 \|pages\=38 \|language\=en}}
* On February 7, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed live on the *Town Hall Party* TV broadcast.
* On March 13, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed at the Wewoka Civic Centre on Don Wallace's [WKY](/wiki/WKY "WKY") Teen Hop in [Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma "Wewoka, Oklahoma"), [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma").{{Cite web \|title\=EDDIE COCHRAN Live Original Vintage Photos March 1959 {{!}} \#4663513823 \|url\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/eddie\-cochran\-live\-original\-vintage\-4663513823 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-01 \|website\=Worthpoint \|language\=en}}{{Cite news \|date\=March 3, 1959 \|title\=Hop Attracts 500 Teens \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-wewoka\-daily\-times/128563056/ \|access\-date\=June 1, 2024 \|work\=The Wewoka Daily Times \|pages\=3}}
* On July 12, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed at the [Memorial Building](/wiki/Memorial_Building_%28Topeka%2C_Kansas%29 "Memorial Building (Topeka, Kansas)") in [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Kansas "Kansas City, Kansas"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas").
* On January 1–3, 1960, Dick D'Agostin \& The Swingers performed for the *20th Show of Stars* at [Hilo Civic Auditorium](/wiki/Ho%CA%BBolulu_Park "Hoʻolulu Park") in [Honolulu](/wiki/Honolulu "Honolulu"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii").{{Cite web \|title\=Freddy Cannon Vintage Concert Poster from Old Civic Auditorium, Jan 1, 1960 at Wolfgang's \|url\=https://www.wolfgangs.com/posters/freddy\-cannon/poster/OCI600101\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-01 \|website\=Wolfgang's \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=DICK D'AGOSTIN Autograph Hand Signed Inscribed Photo Print 1959 HILO CIVIC HI {{!}} \#4687102456 \|url\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/dick\-agostin\-autograph\-hand\-signed\-4687102456 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-01 \|website\=Worthpoint \|language\=en}}
### Later years
Throughout the 1960s, D'Agostin worked as a session musician in the recording studios. He briefly returned to the music scene, becoming a [folk](/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music") duo with his brother, known as Dick and Larry D'Agostin. They performed around [Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard "Sunset Boulevard"), Los Angeles from 1963–1965\.{{Cite news \|date\=December 22, 1963 \|title\=Dick and Larry D'Agostin \|url\=https://latimes.newspapers.com/image/381532824/?match\=2\&terms\=Dick%20D%27Agostin \|work\=The Los Angeles Times \|pages\=232}}{{Cite news \|date\=August 29, 1965 \|title\=Dick and Larry D'Agostin \|url\=https://latimes.newspapers.com/image/382268207/?match\=1\&terms\=Dick%20D%27Agostin \|work\=The Los Angeles Times \|pages\=515}}
Later in life, D'Agostin worked for 23 years as a social worker and supervising probation officer at the [Los Angeles County Probation Department](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Probation_Department "Los Angeles County Probation Department"). He worked and operated from the youth detention centre at [Central Juvenile Hall](/wiki/Central_Juvenile_Hall "Central Juvenile Hall").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Dance and solo career (1955–1958\\)",
"D'Agostin and his partner Judi Stein were the 1955 Al Jarvis dance champions and won $1,000 in prize money, topping thousands of competitors, originally performing on Al Jarvis' [KABC\\-TV](/wiki/KABC-TV \"KABC-TV\") teenage contest shows *Make Believe Ballroom* and *Hi Jinx*.Independent Press\\-Telegram from Long Beach, California. Feb. 19, 1956 page 25\\.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Bigsby \\|first\\=Evelyn \\|date\\=March 25, 1955 \\|title\\=Al Jarvis Defends Teenagers \\|url\\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-Radio\\-Life/50s/55/TV\\-Radio\\-Life\\-1955\\-03\\-25\\.pdf\\#search\\=%22judi%20stein%22 \\|journal\\=TV\\-Radio Life \\|pages\\=4–5 \\|via\\=World Radio History}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Vintage Al Jarvis TV Show Hi Jinx Dance Trophy Presented by Pepsodent {{!}} \\#1823338843 \\|url\\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/vintage\\-al\\-jarvis\\-tv\\-show\\-hi\\-jinx\\-1823338843 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-29 \\|website\\=Worthpoint \\|language\\=en}}",
"D'Agostin appeared in minor dancing roles in films, *[Eighteen and Anxious](/wiki/Eighteen_and_Anxious \"Eighteen and Anxious\")* (1957\\), and *[Hot Rod Gang](/wiki/Hot_Rod_Gang \"Hot Rod Gang\")* (1958\\), as well as utilising his music abilities for the role of a pianist in *[Earth Vs. the Spider](/wiki/Earth_vs._the_Spider \"Earth vs. the Spider\")* (1958\\). He also was a dance editor and journalist, writing dance columns for two of the first teen magazines, *Dig* and *[Modern Teen](/wiki/Modern_Teen \"Modern Teen\")* from 1955–58\\.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=D'Agostin \\|first\\=Dick \\|date\\=December 1955 \\|title\\=How to Rock and Roll \\|url\\=https://picclick.co.uk/Rare\\-Rockabilly\\-Dec\\-1955\\-Magazine\\-Dick\\-D\\-agostin\\-George\\-404892745698\\.html\\#\\&gid\\=1\\&pid\\=2 \\|journal\\=Dig Magazine \\|pages\\=18}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=D'Agostin \\|first\\=Dick \\|date\\=June 1957 \\|title\\=Ray Anthony's Calypso Dance \\|url\\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/june\\-1957\\-modern\\-teen\\-magazine\\-tab\\-4621914496 \\|journal\\=Modern Teen \\|pages\\=24–25 \\|via\\=Worthpoint}}",
"As a solo artist, D'Agostin released two singles on [Accent Records](/wiki/Accent_Records_%28US%29 \"Accent Records (US)\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Accent Records \\- Discography \\|url\\=http://www.gragroup.com/accent/discography1950s45rpm.html \\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2024 \\|website\\=GRA Group}} \"What Gave You The Idea?\" b/w \"I'm Your Daddy\\-O\" and \"Mean Mean Woman\" b/w \"Come On\" from 1956–57\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=D'Agostin, Dick {{!}} RCS Search Results \\|url\\=https://rcs\\-discography.com/rcs/search.php?type\\=acode\\&key\\=dago1000 \\|access\\-date\\=May 26, 2024 \\|website\\=Rockin' Country Style Discography}}",
"### Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers (1958–1960\\)",
"Dick D'Agostin and The Swingers were a [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") band signed to [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records \"Dot Records\"), composed of drummer Gene Riggio, lead guitarist Dave Oster, saxophonist [Paul Kaufman](/wiki/Paul_Kaufman \"Paul Kaufman\"), bassist [Wayne Messick](/wiki/Wayne_Messick \"Wayne Messick\"), and rhythm guitarist Larry D'Agostin. The Swingers were founded by disc jockey and manager [Earl McDaniel](/wiki/Earl_McDaniel_%28DJ%29 \"Earl McDaniel (DJ)\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=February 2, 2011 \\|title\\=Dick D'Agostin \\|url\\=https://www.rocknroll\\-schallplatten\\-forum.de/topic.php?t\\=6712 \\|access\\-date\\=May 28, 2024 \\|website\\=rocknroll\\-schallplatten\\-forum.de}}",
"They released two singles in 1958, \"Nancy Lynne\" b/w \"Afraid to Take a Chance\", and \"Night Walk\" b/w \"Give Me You\". Their debut song \"Nancy Lynne\" was a minor hit,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Accardi \\|first\\=Joseph J. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Lh0dTnwuAmAC\\&dq\\=dick\\+d'agostin\\&pg\\=PA42 \\|title\\=Beloit's Club Pop House \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7385\\-5209\\-5 \\|language\\=en}} with D'Agostin's piano sound being compared to the style of [Jerry Lee Lewis](/wiki/Jerry_Lee_Lewis \"Jerry Lee Lewis\"). Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers also had a minor appearance in [Bert I. Gordon](/wiki/Bert_I._Gordon \"Bert I. Gordon\")'s horror film, *[Earth Vs. the Spider](/wiki/Earth_vs._the_Spider \"Earth vs. the Spider\")* (1958\\), performing as a high school band.",
"In 1958, [Eddie Cochran](/wiki/Eddie_Cochran \"Eddie Cochran\") formed a backing band for his Canadian tour and were named The Hollywood Swingers, a reference to D'Agostin's band. Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers eventually became Cochran's touring band.{{Cite news \\|date\\=July 10, 1959 \\|title\\=Eddie Cochran Johnny Horton ad \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-kansas\\-city\\-times\\-eddie\\-cochran\\-john/9487711/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2024 \\|work\\=The Kansas City Times \\|pages\\=34}} In 1959, The Swingers line\\-up consisted of [muti\\-instrumentalist](/wiki/Multi-instrumentalist \"Multi-instrumentalist\") and pianist D'Agostin, saxophonist Paul Kaufman, rhythm guitarist Larry D'Agostin, drummer Gene Riggio, and pianist [Jim Stivers](/wiki/Jim_Stivers \"Jim Stivers\") (briefly on bass) following the departure of bassist [Connie 'Guybo' Smith](/wiki/Connie_%27Guybo%27_Smith \"Connie 'Guybo' Smith\") from the band.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Collis \\|first\\=John \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cemVUgQv0rMC \\|title\\=Gene Vincent \\& Eddie Cochran \\|date\\=August 19, 2011 \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7535\\-4783\\-0 \\|language\\=en}}",
"On February 7, 1959, Cochran performed live on *[Town Hall Party](/wiki/Town_Hall_Party \"Town Hall Party\")* with Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers. Cochran played \"[C'mon, Everybody](/wiki/C%27mon_Everybody \"C'mon Everybody\")\", \"Have I Told You Lately That I Love You\", \"Don't Blame It On Me\", \"[Summertime Blues](/wiki/Summertime_Blues \"Summertime Blues\")\", \"School Days\", [Gene Autry](/wiki/Gene_Autry \"Gene Autry\")'s \"[Be Honest With Me](/wiki/Be_Honest_with_Me \"Be Honest with Me\")\", and \"Money Honey\". There was a brief interview segment on the show, in which D'Agostin and his drummer Gene Riggio were introduced.[\"Town Hall party TV show 1959 starring Eddie Cochran.\"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8sLAFNOApU) *YouTube*. February 7, 1959\\. Retrieved May 25, 2024\\.",
"In 1959, The Swingers released their third single \"It's You\" b/w \"I Let You Go\", on [Liberty Records](/wiki/Liberty_Records \"Liberty Records\") (Cochran's label). D'Agostin was useful as a multi\\-instrumentalist, and played piano on the recording of Cochran's song \"[Boll Weevil](/wiki/Boll_Weevil_%28song%29 \"Boll Weevil (song)\")\". D'Agostin also worked as a session musician for other American artists, such as [Freddy Cannon](/wiki/Freddy_Cannon \"Freddy Cannon\"), [Jan and Dean](/wiki/Jan_and_Dean \"Jan and Dean\"), [Bobby Vee](/wiki/Bobby_Vee \"Bobby Vee\"), [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke \"Sam Cooke\"), [Johnny Otis](/wiki/Johnny_Otis \"Johnny Otis\"), [Ritchie Valens](/wiki/Ritchie_Valens \"Ritchie Valens\"), [Jack Scott](/wiki/Jack_Scott_%28singer%29 \"Jack Scott (singer)\"), [Lou Rawls](/wiki/Lou_Rawls \"Lou Rawls\"), and [Big Jay McNeely](/wiki/Big_Jay_McNeely \"Big Jay McNeely\"). He recorded at [Gold Star Studios](/wiki/Gold_Star_Studios \"Gold Star Studios\"), in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\").",
"In mid\\-1959, D'Agostin received his call\\-up papers and was enlisted into the U.S. Army. He was stationed at [Fort Ord](/wiki/Fort_Ord \"Fort Ord\"), California. After the time spent in the military and the sudden, untimely death of Eddie Cochran, D'Agostin departed from the music scene.",
"{{Quote\\|text\\=The guy I worked with the most, and liked the best, was Eddie \\[Cochran]...part of the reason I sort of drifted off from the business was when he died...I was on the recording of \"Boll Weevil\" \\- I played piano on that...There were numerous times when I played on a session \\[and] I really didn't know what they were until I heard them on the radio. There were a lot of us \\[musicians] that hung around Goldstar because there was always something going on. All we would hear is perhaps a rhythm track or something, and we would add our part to it.\\|author\\=Dick D'Agostin\\|title\\=Gene Vincent \\& Eddie Cochran\\|source\\=John Collis (2011\\)}}",
"### Live performances",
"* On June 28, 1958, Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers performed at the [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California \"Long Beach, California\") Drive\\-in, headlining with Jan and Dean and Diane Maxwell.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Moore \\|first\\=Mark A. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XTPECwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=dick\\+d'agostin\\&pg\\=PA38 \\|title\\=The Jan \\& Dean Record: A Chronology of Studio Sessions, Live Performances and Chart Positions \\|date\\=March 3, 2016 \\|publisher\\=McFarland \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7864\\-9812\\-3 \\|pages\\=38 \\|language\\=en}}\n* On February 7, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed live on the *Town Hall Party* TV broadcast.\n* On March 13, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed at the Wewoka Civic Centre on Don Wallace's [WKY](/wiki/WKY \"WKY\") Teen Hop in [Wewoka](/wiki/Wewoka%2C_Oklahoma \"Wewoka, Oklahoma\"), [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=EDDIE COCHRAN Live Original Vintage Photos March 1959 {{!}} \\#4663513823 \\|url\\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/eddie\\-cochran\\-live\\-original\\-vintage\\-4663513823 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-01 \\|website\\=Worthpoint \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=March 3, 1959 \\|title\\=Hop Attracts 500 Teens \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-wewoka\\-daily\\-times/128563056/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2024 \\|work\\=The Wewoka Daily Times \\|pages\\=3}}\n* On July 12, 1959, The Swingers with Cochran performed at the [Memorial Building](/wiki/Memorial_Building_%28Topeka%2C_Kansas%29 \"Memorial Building (Topeka, Kansas)\") in [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Kansas \"Kansas City, Kansas\"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\").\n* On January 1–3, 1960, Dick D'Agostin \\& The Swingers performed for the *20th Show of Stars* at [Hilo Civic Auditorium](/wiki/Ho%CA%BBolulu_Park \"Hoʻolulu Park\") in [Honolulu](/wiki/Honolulu \"Honolulu\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Freddy Cannon Vintage Concert Poster from Old Civic Auditorium, Jan 1, 1960 at Wolfgang's \\|url\\=https://www.wolfgangs.com/posters/freddy\\-cannon/poster/OCI600101\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-01 \\|website\\=Wolfgang's \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=DICK D'AGOSTIN Autograph Hand Signed Inscribed Photo Print 1959 HILO CIVIC HI {{!}} \\#4687102456 \\|url\\=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/dick\\-agostin\\-autograph\\-hand\\-signed\\-4687102456 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-01 \\|website\\=Worthpoint \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Later years",
"Throughout the 1960s, D'Agostin worked as a session musician in the recording studios. He briefly returned to the music scene, becoming a [folk](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\") duo with his brother, known as Dick and Larry D'Agostin. They performed around [Sunset Boulevard](/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard \"Sunset Boulevard\"), Los Angeles from 1963–1965\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=December 22, 1963 \\|title\\=Dick and Larry D'Agostin \\|url\\=https://latimes.newspapers.com/image/381532824/?match\\=2\\&terms\\=Dick%20D%27Agostin \\|work\\=The Los Angeles Times \\|pages\\=232}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=August 29, 1965 \\|title\\=Dick and Larry D'Agostin \\|url\\=https://latimes.newspapers.com/image/382268207/?match\\=1\\&terms\\=Dick%20D%27Agostin \\|work\\=The Los Angeles Times \\|pages\\=515}}",
"Later in life, D'Agostin worked for 23 years as a social worker and supervising probation officer at the [Los Angeles County Probation Department](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Probation_Department \"Los Angeles County Probation Department\"). He worked and operated from the youth detention centre at [Central Juvenile Hall](/wiki/Central_Juvenile_Hall \"Central Juvenile Hall\").",
""
] |
Style
-----
His works are a multiplicity of his talents and styles. He was a master of the older [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") style and of the newer Baroque style.
Zumaya, an exceptional composer from the New Spain in the 18th century, demonstrated versatility in both pseudo\-Renaissance vocal polyphony and Baroque stylings. While his Latin motets and hymns often featured free imitative counterpoint, his Alma Redemptoris mater creatively paraphrased plainchant, and his Lamentations for Holy Saturday incorporated the Spanish Lamentation tone. What distinguishes Zumaya is his bold harmonic exploration, particularly in his use of augmented and diminished chords, as well as secondary dominants. His Baroque compositions are marked by energetic motivic activity, intricate instrumental figuration, and lively harmonic progressions. In the villancico Celebren, seemingly unassuming motifs emerge in the accompaniment, gradually intertwining in complex ways to generate a sense of continuous advancement.
In 1711, the new Viceroy of New Spain, Don Fernando de Alencastre Noroña y Silva, Duke of Linares, a devotee of Italian opera, commissioned Zumaya to translate Italian libretti and write new music for them. The libretto of the first, *La Parténope* survives in the [Biblioteca Nacional de Mexico](/wiki/National_Library_of_Mexico "National Library of Mexico") in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City "Mexico City"), though the music has been lost.
The *Hieremiae Prophetae Lamentationes* is a [Gregorian](/wiki/Gregorian_chant "Gregorian chant")\-style antiquated notational piece.
Zumaya authored the charmingly jolly *Sol\-fa de Pedro* (Peter's Solfeggio) in 1715 during the examinations to select the Chapel Master at Mexico City's cathedral.
Zumaya's other famous piece, *Celebren Publiquen*, shows his ability to handle the [polychoral](/wiki/Polychoral "Polychoral") sound of the high Baroque era. With his distribution of the choral resources into two choirs of unequal size, he copied the style that was favoured by the Spanish and Mexican choral schools in the early 18th century. The rich textures and instrumental writing reflect Zumaya's "modern" style and are at the opposite end of the spectrum from his anachronistic Renaissance settings.
Zumaya's recessional *Angelicas Milicias* presents his ability to superbly combine the Baroque orchestra and choir to create a sublime and stately piece in honor of the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary "Virgin Mary"). The interludio *Albricias Mortales* is done in much the same style as *Angelicas Milicias*.
|
[
"Style\n-----",
"His works are a multiplicity of his talents and styles. He was a master of the older [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") style and of the newer Baroque style.",
"Zumaya, an exceptional composer from the New Spain in the 18th century, demonstrated versatility in both pseudo\\-Renaissance vocal polyphony and Baroque stylings. While his Latin motets and hymns often featured free imitative counterpoint, his Alma Redemptoris mater creatively paraphrased plainchant, and his Lamentations for Holy Saturday incorporated the Spanish Lamentation tone. What distinguishes Zumaya is his bold harmonic exploration, particularly in his use of augmented and diminished chords, as well as secondary dominants. His Baroque compositions are marked by energetic motivic activity, intricate instrumental figuration, and lively harmonic progressions. In the villancico Celebren, seemingly unassuming motifs emerge in the accompaniment, gradually intertwining in complex ways to generate a sense of continuous advancement.",
"In 1711, the new Viceroy of New Spain, Don Fernando de Alencastre Noroña y Silva, Duke of Linares, a devotee of Italian opera, commissioned Zumaya to translate Italian libretti and write new music for them. The libretto of the first, *La Parténope* survives in the [Biblioteca Nacional de Mexico](/wiki/National_Library_of_Mexico \"National Library of Mexico\") in [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\"), though the music has been lost.",
"The *Hieremiae Prophetae Lamentationes* is a [Gregorian](/wiki/Gregorian_chant \"Gregorian chant\")\\-style antiquated notational piece.",
"Zumaya authored the charmingly jolly *Sol\\-fa de Pedro* (Peter's Solfeggio) in 1715 during the examinations to select the Chapel Master at Mexico City's cathedral.",
"Zumaya's other famous piece, *Celebren Publiquen*, shows his ability to handle the [polychoral](/wiki/Polychoral \"Polychoral\") sound of the high Baroque era. With his distribution of the choral resources into two choirs of unequal size, he copied the style that was favoured by the Spanish and Mexican choral schools in the early 18th century. The rich textures and instrumental writing reflect Zumaya's \"modern\" style and are at the opposite end of the spectrum from his anachronistic Renaissance settings.",
"Zumaya's recessional *Angelicas Milicias* presents his ability to superbly combine the Baroque orchestra and choir to create a sublime and stately piece in honor of the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary \"Virgin Mary\"). The interludio *Albricias Mortales* is done in much the same style as *Angelicas Milicias*.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The [title character](/wiki/Title_character "Title character") Ken Park (nicknamed "Krap Nek": his name [spelled and pronounced backward](/wiki/Anagram "Anagram")), is a teenager skateboarding across [Visalia, California](/wiki/Visalia%2C_California "Visalia, California"). He arrives at a skate park, where he casually sets up a [camcorder](/wiki/Camcorder "Camcorder"), smiles, and shoots himself in the temple with a handgun. His death is used to bookend the film, which follows the lives of four other teenagers who knew him.
Shawn is the most stable of the four main characters. Throughout the story, he has an ongoing sexual relationship with his girlfriend's mother Rhonda, whom he tells that he fantasizes about being with while having sex with her daughter, Hannah. He casually socializes with their family, the rest of whom are completely unaware of the affair.
Claude fends off physical and emotional abuse from his alcoholic father, who detests him for not being masculine enough, all while he tries to care for his pregnant mother, who makes little to no attempt at defending him. However, after coming home drunk one night, he attempts to perform [oral sex](/wiki/Oral_sex "Oral sex") on Claude, prompting the boy to run away from home.
Peaches is a girl who lives alone with her obsessive and highly\-religious father, who fixates on her as the innocent embodiment of her deceased mother. When he catches her having sex with her boyfriend Curtis – whom she has playfully tied to her bed – he beats the boy and savagely disciplines her, then forces her to participate in a quasi\-[incestuous](/wiki/Incestuous "Incestuous") wedding ritual with him.
Tate is an unstable and sadistic adolescent living with his grandparents, whom he resents and abuses verbally. He engages in [autoerotic asphyxiation](/wiki/Erotic_asphyxiation "Erotic asphyxiation") while masturbating to a video of a woman playing tennis. He eventually [kills his grandparents](/wiki/Senicide "Senicide"), in retaliation for petty grievances, and finds that it arouses him sexually. He records himself on his tape recorder so that the police will know how and why he did it, puts his grandfather's dentures in his mouth, lies naked in his bed, and falls asleep; eventually being found and promptly arrested.
The film cuts frequently between these subplots, with no overlap of characters or events until the end, when Shawn, Claude, and Peaches meet and have a [threesome](/wiki/Threesome "Threesome"). In a game of "who am I?" afterward, they refer to an unnamed person they know who is now dead. The film cuts to a [title screen](/wiki/Title_screen "Title screen"), followed by a flashback to before the opening scene. Ken has impregnated his girlfriend and taken a menial job. At the skate park, they discuss whether to abort the pregnancy, and she asks Ken rhetorically if he is glad his mother did not abort him; he does not answer.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The [title character](/wiki/Title_character \"Title character\") Ken Park (nicknamed \"Krap Nek\": his name [spelled and pronounced backward](/wiki/Anagram \"Anagram\")), is a teenager skateboarding across [Visalia, California](/wiki/Visalia%2C_California \"Visalia, California\"). He arrives at a skate park, where he casually sets up a [camcorder](/wiki/Camcorder \"Camcorder\"), smiles, and shoots himself in the temple with a handgun. His death is used to bookend the film, which follows the lives of four other teenagers who knew him.",
"Shawn is the most stable of the four main characters. Throughout the story, he has an ongoing sexual relationship with his girlfriend's mother Rhonda, whom he tells that he fantasizes about being with while having sex with her daughter, Hannah. He casually socializes with their family, the rest of whom are completely unaware of the affair.",
"Claude fends off physical and emotional abuse from his alcoholic father, who detests him for not being masculine enough, all while he tries to care for his pregnant mother, who makes little to no attempt at defending him. However, after coming home drunk one night, he attempts to perform [oral sex](/wiki/Oral_sex \"Oral sex\") on Claude, prompting the boy to run away from home.",
"Peaches is a girl who lives alone with her obsessive and highly\\-religious father, who fixates on her as the innocent embodiment of her deceased mother. When he catches her having sex with her boyfriend Curtis – whom she has playfully tied to her bed – he beats the boy and savagely disciplines her, then forces her to participate in a quasi\\-[incestuous](/wiki/Incestuous \"Incestuous\") wedding ritual with him.",
"Tate is an unstable and sadistic adolescent living with his grandparents, whom he resents and abuses verbally. He engages in [autoerotic asphyxiation](/wiki/Erotic_asphyxiation \"Erotic asphyxiation\") while masturbating to a video of a woman playing tennis. He eventually [kills his grandparents](/wiki/Senicide \"Senicide\"), in retaliation for petty grievances, and finds that it arouses him sexually. He records himself on his tape recorder so that the police will know how and why he did it, puts his grandfather's dentures in his mouth, lies naked in his bed, and falls asleep; eventually being found and promptly arrested.",
"The film cuts frequently between these subplots, with no overlap of characters or events until the end, when Shawn, Claude, and Peaches meet and have a [threesome](/wiki/Threesome \"Threesome\"). In a game of \"who am I?\" afterward, they refer to an unnamed person they know who is now dead. The film cuts to a [title screen](/wiki/Title_screen \"Title screen\"), followed by a flashback to before the opening scene. Ken has impregnated his girlfriend and taken a menial job. At the skate park, they discuss whether to abort the pregnancy, and she asks Ken rhetorically if he is glad his mother did not abort him; he does not answer.",
""
] |
Types
-----
Multi\-mode fibers are described by their core and [cladding](/wiki/Cladding_%28fiber_optics%29 "Cladding (fiber optics)") diameters. Thus, 62\.5/125 μm multi\-mode fiber has a core size of 62\.5 micrometres (μm) and a cladding diameter of 125 μm. The transition between the core and cladding can be sharp, which is called a [step\-index profile](/wiki/Step-index_profile "Step-index profile"), or a gradual transition, which is called a [graded\-index profile](/wiki/Graded-index_profile "Graded-index profile"). The two types have different dispersion characteristics and thus different effective propagation distances.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.fia\-online.co.uk/pdf/Guide/L3814\.pdf \| title \= Optical Fibers Explained \| author \= British FibreOptic Industry Association \| access\-date\=Apr 9, 2011}} Multi\-mode fibers may be constructed with either [graded](/wiki/Graded-index_fiber "Graded-index fiber") or [step\-index profile](/wiki/Step-index_profile "Step-index profile").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wildpackets.com/resources/compendium/fiber\_optics/overview \|title\=Fiber Optics Overview \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-23}}
In addition, multi\-mode fibers are described using a system of classification determined by the [ISO 11801](/wiki/ISO_11801 "ISO 11801") standard — OM1, OM2, and OM3 — which is based on the [modal bandwidth](/wiki/Modal_bandwidth "Modal bandwidth") of the multi\-mode fiber. OM4 (defined in TIA\-492\-AAAD) was finalized in August 2009,{{cite web
\| url \= http://www.tiaonline.org/standards/committees/files/tr\-42/tr4212\-aug09\-280809115115\.pdf \| title \= Meeting Report \#14
\| publisher \= Telecommunications Industry Association
}} and was published by the end of 2009 by the [TIA](/wiki/Telecommunications_Industry_Association "Telecommunications Industry Association").{{cite web
\| title \= Next generation fiber arrives
\| url \= http://www.cnsmagazine.com/issues/story.aspx?aid\=1000355010
\| first \= Paul \| last \= Kish \| date \= 2010\-01\-01
\| work \= \# Cabling Networking Systems \| publisher \= Business Information Group
}} OM4 cable supports 125 m links at 40 and 100 Gbit/s. The letters *OM* stand for 'optical multi\-mode'.
For many years 62\.5/125 μm (OM1\) and conventional 50/125 μm multi\-mode fiber (OM2\) were widely deployed in premises applications. These fibers easily support applications ranging from [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet "Ethernet") (10 Mbit/s) to [gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet "Gigabit Ethernet") (1 Gbit/s) and, because of their relatively large core size, were ideal for use with LED transmitters. Newer deployments often use laser\-optimized 50/125 μm multi\-mode fiber (OM3\). Fibers that meet this designation provide sufficient bandwidth to support [10 Gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet "10 Gigabit Ethernet") up to 300 meters. Optical fiber manufacturers have greatly refined their manufacturing process since that standard was issued and cables can be made that support 10 GbE up to 400 meters. Laser optimized multi\-mode fiber (LOMMF) is designed for use with 850 nm VCSELs.
Older FDDI grade, OM1, and OM2 fiber can be used for 10 Gigabit Ethernet through 10GBASE\-LRM. This requires the SFP\+ interface to support electronic dispersion compensation (EDC) however, so not all switches, routers and other equipment can use these SFP\+ modules.
The migration to LOMMF/OM3 has occurred as users upgrade to higher speed networks. LEDs have a maximum modulation rate of 622 Mbit/s {{Citation needed\|date\=November 2019}} because they cannot be turned on/off fast enough to support higher bandwidth applications. VCSELs are capable of modulation over 10 Gbit/s and are used in many high speed networks.
Some 200 and 400 Gigabit Ethernet speeds (e.g. [400GBASE\-SR4\.2](/wiki/Terabit_Ethernet%23802.3cm_project "Terabit Ethernet#802.3cm project")) use [wavelength\-division multiplexing](/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing "Wavelength-division multiplexing") (WDM) even for multi\-mode fiberIEEE 802\.3 Clause 150 which is outside the specification for OM4 and lower. In 2017, OM5 has been standardized by TIA and ISO for WDM MMF, specifying not only a minimum modal bandwidth for 850 nm but a curve spanning from 850 to 953 nm.
Cables can sometimes be distinguished by jacket color: for 62\.5/125 μm (OM1\) and 50/125 μm (OM2\), orange jackets are recommended, while [aqua](/wiki/Aqua_%28color%29 "Aqua (color)") is recommended for 50/125 μm "laser optimized" OM3 and OM4 fiber. Some fiber vendors use violet for "OM4\+". OM5 is officially colored [lime green](/wiki/Lime_green "Lime green").
VCSEL power profiles, along with variations in fiber uniformity, can cause modal dispersion which is measured by differential modal delay (DMD). Modal dispersion is caused by the different speeds of the individual modes in a light pulse. The net effect causes the light pulse to spread over distance, introducing [intersymbol interference](/wiki/Intersymbol_interference "Intersymbol interference"). The greater the length, the greater the modal dispersion. To combat modal dispersion, LOMMF is manufactured in a way that eliminates variations in the fiber which could affect the speed that a light pulse can travel. The [refractive index profile](/wiki/Refractive_index_profile "Refractive index profile") is enhanced for VCSEL transmission and to prevent pulse spreading. As a result, the fibers maintain signal integrity over longer distances, thereby maximizing the bandwidth.
### Comparison
| \+ Minimum reach{{efn\|''Reach'' means maximum length, the ''minimum'' reach is the length that is guaranteed to work when within specifications.}} of Ethernet variants over multi\-mode fiber |
| --- |
| Jacket color and category
Minimum [modal bandwidth](/wiki/Modal_bandwidth "Modal bandwidth")850 / 953 / 1300 nm{{efn\|OFL Over\-Filled Launch for 850/953 nm / EMB Effective Modal Bandwidth for 1310 nm}} |
Fast Ethernet 100BASE\-FX |
1 Gb (1000 Mb) Ethernet 1000BASE\-SX |
1 Gb (1000 Mb) Ethernet 1000BASE\-LX |
[10 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet "10 Gigabit Ethernet") 10GBASE\-SR |
10 Gb Ethernet 10GBASE\-LRM (requires EDC) |
[25 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/25_Gigabit_Ethernet "25 Gigabit Ethernet") 25GBASE\-SR |
[40 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/40_Gigabit_Ethernet "40 Gigabit Ethernet") 40GBASE\-SWDM4 |
40 Gb Ethernet 40GBASE\-SR4 |
[100 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/100_Gigabit_Ethernet "100 Gigabit Ethernet") 100GBASE\-SR10 |
| FDDI (62\.5/125\) | 160 / – / 500 MHz·km |
2000 m{{cite web \| url \= http://www.hp.com/rnd/pdfs/100FXtechbrief.pdf \| title \= 100BASE\-FX Technical Brief \| author \= Hewlett\-Packard Development Company, L.P. \| year \= 2007 \| access\-date \= Nov 20, 2012 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121009212203/http://www.hp.com/rnd/pdfs/100FXtechbrief.pdf \| archive\-date \= 2012\-10\-09 }} |
220 mIEEE 802\.3\-2012 Clause 38\.3 |
550 mIEEE 802\.3 *38\.4 PMD to MDI optical specifications for 1000BASE\-LX* ([mode\-conditioning patch cord](/wiki/Mode-conditioning_patch_cord "Mode-conditioning patch cord") required){{cite web \| url \= http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/interfaces\_modules/transceiver\_modules/installation/note/OL\_19329\.html \| title\=Cisco Mode\-Conditioning Patch Cord Installation Note \| author\=Cisco Systems, Inc \| year\=2009 \|access\-date\=Feb 20, 2015}}As with all multi\-mode fiber connections, the MMF segment of the patch cord should match the type of fiber in the cable plant (Clause 38\.11\.4\). |
26 m{{cite web \| url \= http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/collateral/interfaces\-modules/10\-gigabit\-modules/product\_data\_sheet0900aecd801f92aa.html \|title \= Cisco 10GBASE X2 Modules Data Sheet \| publisher \= Cisco \| access\-date \= June 23, 2015}} |
220 m{{cite web \| url \= https://www.cbo\-it.de/en/knowledge/135\-what\-is\-a\-10gbase\-lrm\-transceiver\-and\-why\-do\-i\-need\-it.html \| title \= What is a 10GBASE\-LRM transceiver and why do I need it? \| publisher \= CBO GmbH \| access\-date \= December 3, 2019}} |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
| OM1 (62\.5/125\) | 200 / – / 500 MHz·km |
275 m |
33 m |
220 m |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
| OM2 (50/125\) | 500 / – / 500 MHz·km |
550 m |
82 m |
220 m |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
Not supported |
| | OM3 (50/125\) \*Laser Optimized\* | 1500 / – / 500 MHz·km | 550 m (No mode\-conditioning patch cord should be used.) | 300 m | 220 m | 70 m | 240m{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.finisar.com/optical\-transceivers/ftl4s1qe1c\|title\=40GE SWDM4 QSFP\+ Optical Transceiver {{!}} Finisar Corporation\|website\=www.finisar.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-06}} Duplex LC | 100 m (330 m QSFP\+ eSR4) | 100 m |
| | OM4 (50/125\) \*Laser Optimized\* | 3500 / – / 500 MHz·km | 400 m{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ieee802\.org/3/ \|title\=IEEE 802\.3 \|access\-date\=31 October 2014}}
\>220 m |
100 m |
350m
Duplex LC
150 m
(550 m QSFP\+ eSR4{{cite web \|url\=http://csmedia.corning.com/CableSystems/%5CResource\_Documents%5Cwhitepapers\_rl%5CLAN\-1556\-AEN.pdf \|access\-date\=14 August 2013 \|title\=40G Extended Reach with Corning Cable Systems OM3/OM4 Connectivity with the Avago 40G QSFP\+ eSR4 Transceiver \|year\=2013 \|publisher\=Corning}})
150 m
| | OM5 (50/125\) "Wideband multi\-mode" for short\-wave [WDM](/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing "Wavelength-division multiplexing"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.tiaonline.org/press\-release/tia\-updates\-data\-center\-cabling\-standard\-to\-keep\-pace\-with\-rapid\-technology\-advancements/ \|title\=TIA Updates Data Center Cabling Standard to Keep Pace with Rapid Technology Advancements \|publisher\=TIA \|date\=2017\-08\-09 \|access\-date\=2018\-08\-27}} | 3500 / 1850 / 500 MHz·km | \>220 m | 100 m |
{{notelist}}
|
[
"Types\n-----",
"Multi\\-mode fibers are described by their core and [cladding](/wiki/Cladding_%28fiber_optics%29 \"Cladding (fiber optics)\") diameters. Thus, 62\\.5/125 μm multi\\-mode fiber has a core size of 62\\.5 micrometres (μm) and a cladding diameter of 125 μm. The transition between the core and cladding can be sharp, which is called a [step\\-index profile](/wiki/Step-index_profile \"Step-index profile\"), or a gradual transition, which is called a [graded\\-index profile](/wiki/Graded-index_profile \"Graded-index profile\"). The two types have different dispersion characteristics and thus different effective propagation distances.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.fia\\-online.co.uk/pdf/Guide/L3814\\.pdf \\| title \\= Optical Fibers Explained \\| author \\= British FibreOptic Industry Association \\| access\\-date\\=Apr 9, 2011}} Multi\\-mode fibers may be constructed with either [graded](/wiki/Graded-index_fiber \"Graded-index fiber\") or [step\\-index profile](/wiki/Step-index_profile \"Step-index profile\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wildpackets.com/resources/compendium/fiber\\_optics/overview \\|title\\=Fiber Optics Overview \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-23}}",
"In addition, multi\\-mode fibers are described using a system of classification determined by the [ISO 11801](/wiki/ISO_11801 \"ISO 11801\") standard — OM1, OM2, and OM3 — which is based on the [modal bandwidth](/wiki/Modal_bandwidth \"Modal bandwidth\") of the multi\\-mode fiber. OM4 (defined in TIA\\-492\\-AAAD) was finalized in August 2009,{{cite web\n \\| url \\= http://www.tiaonline.org/standards/committees/files/tr\\-42/tr4212\\-aug09\\-280809115115\\.pdf \\| title \\= Meeting Report \\#14 \n \\| publisher \\= Telecommunications Industry Association\n}} and was published by the end of 2009 by the [TIA](/wiki/Telecommunications_Industry_Association \"Telecommunications Industry Association\").{{cite web\n \\| title \\= Next generation fiber arrives\n \\| url \\= http://www.cnsmagazine.com/issues/story.aspx?aid\\=1000355010\n \\| first \\= Paul \\| last \\= Kish \\| date \\= 2010\\-01\\-01\n \\| work \\= \\# Cabling Networking Systems \\| publisher \\= Business Information Group\n}} OM4 cable supports 125 m links at 40 and 100 Gbit/s. The letters *OM* stand for 'optical multi\\-mode'.",
"For many years 62\\.5/125 μm (OM1\\) and conventional 50/125 μm multi\\-mode fiber (OM2\\) were widely deployed in premises applications. These fibers easily support applications ranging from [Ethernet](/wiki/Ethernet \"Ethernet\") (10 Mbit/s) to [gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet \"Gigabit Ethernet\") (1 Gbit/s) and, because of their relatively large core size, were ideal for use with LED transmitters. Newer deployments often use laser\\-optimized 50/125 μm multi\\-mode fiber (OM3\\). Fibers that meet this designation provide sufficient bandwidth to support [10 Gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet \"10 Gigabit Ethernet\") up to 300 meters. Optical fiber manufacturers have greatly refined their manufacturing process since that standard was issued and cables can be made that support 10 GbE up to 400 meters. Laser optimized multi\\-mode fiber (LOMMF) is designed for use with 850 nm VCSELs.",
"Older FDDI grade, OM1, and OM2 fiber can be used for 10 Gigabit Ethernet through 10GBASE\\-LRM. This requires the SFP\\+ interface to support electronic dispersion compensation (EDC) however, so not all switches, routers and other equipment can use these SFP\\+ modules.",
"The migration to LOMMF/OM3 has occurred as users upgrade to higher speed networks. LEDs have a maximum modulation rate of 622 Mbit/s {{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2019}} because they cannot be turned on/off fast enough to support higher bandwidth applications. VCSELs are capable of modulation over 10 Gbit/s and are used in many high speed networks.",
"Some 200 and 400 Gigabit Ethernet speeds (e.g. [400GBASE\\-SR4\\.2](/wiki/Terabit_Ethernet%23802.3cm_project \"Terabit Ethernet#802.3cm project\")) use [wavelength\\-division multiplexing](/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing \"Wavelength-division multiplexing\") (WDM) even for multi\\-mode fiberIEEE 802\\.3 Clause 150 which is outside the specification for OM4 and lower. In 2017, OM5 has been standardized by TIA and ISO for WDM MMF, specifying not only a minimum modal bandwidth for 850 nm but a curve spanning from 850 to 953 nm.",
"Cables can sometimes be distinguished by jacket color: for 62\\.5/125 μm (OM1\\) and 50/125 μm (OM2\\), orange jackets are recommended, while [aqua](/wiki/Aqua_%28color%29 \"Aqua (color)\") is recommended for 50/125 μm \"laser optimized\" OM3 and OM4 fiber. Some fiber vendors use violet for \"OM4\\+\". OM5 is officially colored [lime green](/wiki/Lime_green \"Lime green\").",
"VCSEL power profiles, along with variations in fiber uniformity, can cause modal dispersion which is measured by differential modal delay (DMD). Modal dispersion is caused by the different speeds of the individual modes in a light pulse. The net effect causes the light pulse to spread over distance, introducing [intersymbol interference](/wiki/Intersymbol_interference \"Intersymbol interference\"). The greater the length, the greater the modal dispersion. To combat modal dispersion, LOMMF is manufactured in a way that eliminates variations in the fiber which could affect the speed that a light pulse can travel. The [refractive index profile](/wiki/Refractive_index_profile \"Refractive index profile\") is enhanced for VCSEL transmission and to prevent pulse spreading. As a result, the fibers maintain signal integrity over longer distances, thereby maximizing the bandwidth.",
"### Comparison",
"",
"| \\+ Minimum reach{{efn\\|''Reach'' means maximum length, the ''minimum'' reach is the length that is guaranteed to work when within specifications.}} of Ethernet variants over multi\\-mode fiber |\n| --- |\n| Jacket color and category",
"Minimum [modal bandwidth](/wiki/Modal_bandwidth \"Modal bandwidth\")850 / 953 / 1300 nm{{efn\\|OFL Over\\-Filled Launch for 850/953 nm / EMB Effective Modal Bandwidth for 1310 nm}} |\n Fast Ethernet 100BASE\\-FX |\n 1 Gb (1000 Mb) Ethernet 1000BASE\\-SX |\n 1 Gb (1000 Mb) Ethernet 1000BASE\\-LX |\n [10 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet \"10 Gigabit Ethernet\") 10GBASE\\-SR |\n 10 Gb Ethernet 10GBASE\\-LRM (requires EDC) |\n [25 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/25_Gigabit_Ethernet \"25 Gigabit Ethernet\") 25GBASE\\-SR |\n [40 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/40_Gigabit_Ethernet \"40 Gigabit Ethernet\") 40GBASE\\-SWDM4 |\n 40 Gb Ethernet 40GBASE\\-SR4 |\n [100 Gb Ethernet](/wiki/100_Gigabit_Ethernet \"100 Gigabit Ethernet\") 100GBASE\\-SR10 |\n| FDDI (62\\.5/125\\) | 160 / – / 500 MHz·km |\n 2000 m{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.hp.com/rnd/pdfs/100FXtechbrief.pdf \\| title \\= 100BASE\\-FX Technical Brief \\| author \\= Hewlett\\-Packard Development Company, L.P. \\| year \\= 2007 \\| access\\-date \\= Nov 20, 2012 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121009212203/http://www.hp.com/rnd/pdfs/100FXtechbrief.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-10\\-09 }} |\n 220 mIEEE 802\\.3\\-2012 Clause 38\\.3 |\n 550 mIEEE 802\\.3 *38\\.4 PMD to MDI optical specifications for 1000BASE\\-LX* ([mode\\-conditioning patch cord](/wiki/Mode-conditioning_patch_cord \"Mode-conditioning patch cord\") required){{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/interfaces\\_modules/transceiver\\_modules/installation/note/OL\\_19329\\.html \\| title\\=Cisco Mode\\-Conditioning Patch Cord Installation Note \\| author\\=Cisco Systems, Inc \\| year\\=2009 \\|access\\-date\\=Feb 20, 2015}}As with all multi\\-mode fiber connections, the MMF segment of the patch cord should match the type of fiber in the cable plant (Clause 38\\.11\\.4\\). |\n 26 m{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/collateral/interfaces\\-modules/10\\-gigabit\\-modules/product\\_data\\_sheet0900aecd801f92aa.html \\|title \\= Cisco 10GBASE X2 Modules Data Sheet \\| publisher \\= Cisco \\| access\\-date \\= June 23, 2015}} |\n 220 m{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.cbo\\-it.de/en/knowledge/135\\-what\\-is\\-a\\-10gbase\\-lrm\\-transceiver\\-and\\-why\\-do\\-i\\-need\\-it.html \\| title \\= What is a 10GBASE\\-LRM transceiver and why do I need it? \\| publisher \\= CBO GmbH \\| access\\-date \\= December 3, 2019}} |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n| OM1 (62\\.5/125\\) | 200 / – / 500 MHz·km |\n 275 m |\n 33 m |\n 220 m |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n| OM2 (50/125\\) | 500 / – / 500 MHz·km |\n 550 m |\n 82 m |\n 220 m |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n Not supported |\n| | OM3 (50/125\\) \\*Laser Optimized\\* | 1500 / – / 500 MHz·km | 550 m (No mode\\-conditioning patch cord should be used.) | 300 m | 220 m | 70 m | 240m{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.finisar.com/optical\\-transceivers/ftl4s1qe1c\\|title\\=40GE SWDM4 QSFP\\+ Optical Transceiver {{!}} Finisar Corporation\\|website\\=www.finisar.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-06}} Duplex LC | 100 m (330 m QSFP\\+ eSR4) | 100 m |\n| | OM4 (50/125\\) \\*Laser Optimized\\* | 3500 / – / 500 MHz·km | 400 m{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ieee802\\.org/3/ \\|title\\=IEEE 802\\.3 \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2014}}",
"\\>220 m |\n 100 m |\n 350m\nDuplex LC",
"150 m \n(550 m QSFP\\+ eSR4{{cite web \\|url\\=http://csmedia.corning.com/CableSystems/%5CResource\\_Documents%5Cwhitepapers\\_rl%5CLAN\\-1556\\-AEN.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2013 \\|title\\=40G Extended Reach with Corning Cable Systems OM3/OM4 Connectivity with the Avago 40G QSFP\\+ eSR4 Transceiver \\|year\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Corning}})",
"150 m",
"| | OM5 (50/125\\) \"Wideband multi\\-mode\" for short\\-wave [WDM](/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing \"Wavelength-division multiplexing\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tiaonline.org/press\\-release/tia\\-updates\\-data\\-center\\-cabling\\-standard\\-to\\-keep\\-pace\\-with\\-rapid\\-technology\\-advancements/ \\|title\\=TIA Updates Data Center Cabling Standard to Keep Pace with Rapid Technology Advancements \\|publisher\\=TIA \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-27}} | 3500 / 1850 / 500 MHz·km | \\>220 m | 100 m |",
"{{notelist}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Born in London, Fuest served his national service in post\-war Germany with the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"), air\-lifting coal over the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall "Berlin Wall"), after which he attended [Wimbledon](/wiki/Wimbledon_School_of_Art "Wimbledon School of Art") and [Hornsey Schools of Art](/wiki/Hornsey_School_of_Art "Hornsey School of Art"). For a period, he lectured at [Southampton College of Art](/wiki/Southampton_College_of_Art "Southampton College of Art"). Fuest also spent time as a drummer in a warm\-up band for [Chris Barber](/wiki/Chris_Barber "Chris Barber") and [George Melly](/wiki/George_Melly "George Melly").{{citation needed\|date\=February 2021}}
In the early sixties, he designed sets for television programmes such as *[ITV Play of the Week](/wiki/ITV_Play_of_the_Week "ITV Play of the Week")* and *[Armchair Theatre](/wiki/Armchair_Theatre "Armchair Theatre")*. It was whilst working on the first season of *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 "The Avengers (TV series)")* for director [Peter Hammond](/wiki/Peter_Hammond_%28actor%29 "Peter Hammond (actor)") that Fuest developed an enthusiasm for directing. Fuest later admitted (on a DVD commentary for the *Avengers* episode "Game") that Hammond's visual style proved a major influence, and opened him up to the stylistic possibilities of film and TV.*The Avengers* – Series 6, Episode "Game", Optimum releasing, DVD Commentary 2010
In 1965, he contributed material to the [Peter Cook](/wiki/Peter_Cook "Peter Cook") and [Dudley Moore](/wiki/Dudley_Moore "Dudley Moore") comedy sketch show *[Not Only... But Also](/wiki/Not_Only..._But_Also "Not Only... But Also")*.
His first film was *[Just Like a Woman](/wiki/Just_like_a_Woman_%281967_film%29 "Just like a Woman (1967 film)")* (1967\), which he also wrote, starring [Wendy Craig](/wiki/Wendy_Craig "Wendy Craig"). His work on the film brought him to the attention of *Avengers* producer [Albert Fennell](/wiki/Albert_Fennell "Albert Fennell"), who offered him the chance to direct episodes; returning to the show, he directed seven episodes in total: "My Wildest Dream", "Game", "They Keep Killing Steed", "The Rotters", "Take Me to Your Leader", "Pandora" and "Take Over". When the series was later revived as *[The New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 "The New Avengers (TV series)")*, Fuest was invited back to direct two more episodes, namely "The Midas Touch" and "The Tale of the Big Why".
In further television work, Fuest handled productions on both sides of the Atlantic, including *[Revenge of the Stepford Wives](/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Stepford_Wives "Revenge of the Stepford Wives")*, *[ABC Weekend Special](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_Special "ABC Weekend Special")*, *[ABC Afterschool Specials](/wiki/ABC_Afterschool_Specials "ABC Afterschool Specials")*, *[The Doombolt Chase](/wiki/The_Doombolt_Chase "The Doombolt Chase")*, *[C.A.T.S. Eyes](/wiki/C.A.T.S._Eyes "C.A.T.S. Eyes"),* *[Worlds Beyond](/wiki/Worlds_Beyond_%28TV_series%29 "Worlds Beyond (TV series)")* and [*The Optimist*](/wiki/The_Optimist_%28TV_series%29 "The Optimist (TV series)")
Fuest's later films feature strong [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy "Black comedy") elements, including [cult](/wiki/Cult_film "Cult film") favorites *[The Abominable Dr. Phibes](/wiki/The_Abominable_Dr._Phibes "The Abominable Dr. Phibes")* (1971\), *[Dr. Phibes Rises Again](/wiki/Dr._Phibes_Rises_Again "Dr. Phibes Rises Again")* (1972\) (which he co\-wrote), and *[The Final Programme](/wiki/The_Final_Programme_%28film%29 "The Final Programme (film)")* (also known as *The Last Days of Man on Earth*; 1973\). In addition to directing *The Final Programme*, he also wrote the screenplay and designed the sets.
His other films include *[And Soon the Darkness](/wiki/And_Soon_the_Darkness_%281970_film%29 "And Soon the Darkness (1970 film)")* (1970\), a suspense [thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28genre%29 "Thriller (genre)") written by *Avengers* writers [Brian Clemens](/wiki/Brian_Clemens "Brian Clemens") and [Terry Nation](/wiki/Terry_Nation "Terry Nation"), and *[The Devil's Rain](/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Rain_%28film%29 "The Devil's Rain (film)")* (1975\), a horror film shot in Mexico. The latter movie received such scathing reviews{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/devils\_rain/ \|title\=The Devil's Rain \|accessdate\=2007\-07\-15 \|publisher\=Rotten Tomatoes}} it may have ended his career,Fuest, Robert. *The Devil's Rain* [DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD"), Dark Sky, 2006, [audio commentary](/wiki/Audio_commentary "Audio commentary"). as Fuest immediately thereafter found himself relegated to directing fairly anonymous [television](/wiki/Television "Television") work. His only subsequent theatrical release was *[Aphrodite](/wiki/Aphrodite_%28film%29 "Aphrodite (film)")* (1982\), a [softcore sex](/wiki/Softcore_pornography "Softcore pornography") movie filmed in Greece.
During his retirement, he focused on his passion for painting (he had exhibited at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy "Royal Academy") since 1951\) and also lectured at the [London International Film School](/wiki/London_International_Film_School "London International Film School").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Born in London, Fuest served his national service in post\\-war Germany with the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"), air\\-lifting coal over the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall \"Berlin Wall\"), after which he attended [Wimbledon](/wiki/Wimbledon_School_of_Art \"Wimbledon School of Art\") and [Hornsey Schools of Art](/wiki/Hornsey_School_of_Art \"Hornsey School of Art\"). For a period, he lectured at [Southampton College of Art](/wiki/Southampton_College_of_Art \"Southampton College of Art\"). Fuest also spent time as a drummer in a warm\\-up band for [Chris Barber](/wiki/Chris_Barber \"Chris Barber\") and [George Melly](/wiki/George_Melly \"George Melly\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2021}}",
"In the early sixties, he designed sets for television programmes such as *[ITV Play of the Week](/wiki/ITV_Play_of_the_Week \"ITV Play of the Week\")* and *[Armchair Theatre](/wiki/Armchair_Theatre \"Armchair Theatre\")*. It was whilst working on the first season of *[The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 \"The Avengers (TV series)\")* for director [Peter Hammond](/wiki/Peter_Hammond_%28actor%29 \"Peter Hammond (actor)\") that Fuest developed an enthusiasm for directing. Fuest later admitted (on a DVD commentary for the *Avengers* episode \"Game\") that Hammond's visual style proved a major influence, and opened him up to the stylistic possibilities of film and TV.*The Avengers* – Series 6, Episode \"Game\", Optimum releasing, DVD Commentary 2010",
"In 1965, he contributed material to the [Peter Cook](/wiki/Peter_Cook \"Peter Cook\") and [Dudley Moore](/wiki/Dudley_Moore \"Dudley Moore\") comedy sketch show *[Not Only... But Also](/wiki/Not_Only..._But_Also \"Not Only... But Also\")*.",
"His first film was *[Just Like a Woman](/wiki/Just_like_a_Woman_%281967_film%29 \"Just like a Woman (1967 film)\")* (1967\\), which he also wrote, starring [Wendy Craig](/wiki/Wendy_Craig \"Wendy Craig\"). His work on the film brought him to the attention of *Avengers* producer [Albert Fennell](/wiki/Albert_Fennell \"Albert Fennell\"), who offered him the chance to direct episodes; returning to the show, he directed seven episodes in total: \"My Wildest Dream\", \"Game\", \"They Keep Killing Steed\", \"The Rotters\", \"Take Me to Your Leader\", \"Pandora\" and \"Take Over\". When the series was later revived as *[The New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 \"The New Avengers (TV series)\")*, Fuest was invited back to direct two more episodes, namely \"The Midas Touch\" and \"The Tale of the Big Why\".",
"In further television work, Fuest handled productions on both sides of the Atlantic, including *[Revenge of the Stepford Wives](/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Stepford_Wives \"Revenge of the Stepford Wives\")*, *[ABC Weekend Special](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_Special \"ABC Weekend Special\")*, *[ABC Afterschool Specials](/wiki/ABC_Afterschool_Specials \"ABC Afterschool Specials\")*, *[The Doombolt Chase](/wiki/The_Doombolt_Chase \"The Doombolt Chase\")*, *[C.A.T.S. Eyes](/wiki/C.A.T.S._Eyes \"C.A.T.S. Eyes\"),* *[Worlds Beyond](/wiki/Worlds_Beyond_%28TV_series%29 \"Worlds Beyond (TV series)\")* and [*The Optimist*](/wiki/The_Optimist_%28TV_series%29 \"The Optimist (TV series)\")",
"Fuest's later films feature strong [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\") elements, including [cult](/wiki/Cult_film \"Cult film\") favorites *[The Abominable Dr. Phibes](/wiki/The_Abominable_Dr._Phibes \"The Abominable Dr. Phibes\")* (1971\\), *[Dr. Phibes Rises Again](/wiki/Dr._Phibes_Rises_Again \"Dr. Phibes Rises Again\")* (1972\\) (which he co\\-wrote), and *[The Final Programme](/wiki/The_Final_Programme_%28film%29 \"The Final Programme (film)\")* (also known as *The Last Days of Man on Earth*; 1973\\). In addition to directing *The Final Programme*, he also wrote the screenplay and designed the sets.",
"His other films include *[And Soon the Darkness](/wiki/And_Soon_the_Darkness_%281970_film%29 \"And Soon the Darkness (1970 film)\")* (1970\\), a suspense [thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28genre%29 \"Thriller (genre)\") written by *Avengers* writers [Brian Clemens](/wiki/Brian_Clemens \"Brian Clemens\") and [Terry Nation](/wiki/Terry_Nation \"Terry Nation\"), and *[The Devil's Rain](/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Rain_%28film%29 \"The Devil's Rain (film)\")* (1975\\), a horror film shot in Mexico. The latter movie received such scathing reviews{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/devils\\_rain/ \\|title\\=The Devil's Rain \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-07\\-15 \\|publisher\\=Rotten Tomatoes}} it may have ended his career,Fuest, Robert. *The Devil's Rain* [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\"), Dark Sky, 2006, [audio commentary](/wiki/Audio_commentary \"Audio commentary\"). as Fuest immediately thereafter found himself relegated to directing fairly anonymous [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") work. His only subsequent theatrical release was *[Aphrodite](/wiki/Aphrodite_%28film%29 \"Aphrodite (film)\")* (1982\\), a [softcore sex](/wiki/Softcore_pornography \"Softcore pornography\") movie filmed in Greece.",
"During his retirement, he focused on his passion for painting (he had exhibited at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy \"Royal Academy\") since 1951\\) and also lectured at the [London International Film School](/wiki/London_International_Film_School \"London International Film School\").",
""
] |
Collaborations
--------------
### Steinway \& Sons
When he performed at an international press launch event for the Prince William–Kate Middleton royal wedding, a chance meeting with piano technician Ulrich Gerhartz led to his relationship with [Steinway \& Sons](/wiki/Steinway_%26_Sons "Steinway & Sons"). He continues to the present day as a [Steinway \& Sons](/wiki/Steinway_%26_Sons "Steinway & Sons") Global Ambassador.
In 2018, as a Steinway \& Sons Global Ambassador, he recorded original piano arrangements of classic popular and musical theater songs for Steinway's self\-playing Spirio piano.{{Cite web\|title\= Steinway Artist Dominic Ferris announces lives shows in London \|url\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/pianist\-dominic\-ferris\-records\-original\-piano\-arrangements\-for/ \|website\=Pianist Magazine \|date\=3 August 2018\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
### The Piano Brothers
Since 2014 Ferris and Indonesian pianist/composer [Elwin Hendrijanto](/wiki/Elwin_Hendrijanto "Elwin Hendrijanto"), who met during their studies at the Royal College of Music, have performed as The Piano Brothers.{{Cite web\|title\= Indonesian, English pianists collaborate in Steinway and sons\` piano launching \|url\=https://en.antaranews.com/news/93351/indonesian\-english\-pianists\-collaborate\-in\-steinway\-and\-sons\-piano\-launching \|website\=Antara News \|date\=25 March 2014\| accessdate\=16 July 2024}} On their international concert tours they combine classical music, musical theatre, their own arrangements of popular songs such as [Coldplay](/wiki/Coldplay "Coldplay")'s "[Viva La Vida](/wiki/Viva_la_Vida "Viva la Vida")" and [Adele](/wiki/Adele "Adele")’s "[Rolling in the Deep](/wiki/Rolling_in_the_Deep "Rolling in the Deep")," songbook numbers, and compositions of their own such as "Ballade for Steinway." The duo collaborated with the London Symphony Orchestra in 2019 on a recording at [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios "Abbey Road Studios") of their symphonic arrangement of [Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28band%29 "Muse (band)")'s hit "[Uprising](/wiki/Uprising_%28song%29 "Uprising (song)")"{{Cite web\|title\= The Piano Brothers announce their only 2019 UK show \|url\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/the\-piano\-brothers\-announce\-their\-only\-2019\-uk\-show/ \|author\= Ellie Palmer \|website\=Pianist Magazine \|date\=2 September 2019\| accessdate\=16 July 2024}} and perform internationally.
### Ferris \& Milnes
In 2015 Ferris formed a second duo, joining with Martin Milnes as musical theatre double act Ferris \& Milnes.
They duo undertook performance feats such as "31 West End musicals in under 10 minutes" and the complete works of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber "Andrew Lloyd Webber") in seven minutes, and performed a [George Gershwin](/wiki/George_Gershwin "George Gershwin") medley at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center"). They performed their tribute "33 Sondheim Numbers in 5 Minutes"{{Cite web\|title\= The Daily Distraction: Ferris and Milnes Perform 33 Sondheim Numbers in 5 Minutes \|url\=https://playbill.com/article/the\-daily\-distraction\-ferris\-and\-milnes\-perform\-33\-sondheim\-numbers\-in\-5\-minutes \|website\=Playbill \|author\=Dan Meyer \|date\=26 May 2020\| accessdate\=15 July 2024}} at the [Stephen Sondheim](/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim "Stephen Sondheim") 85th Birthday Gala at [Theatre Royal, Drury Lane](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Drury_Lane "Theatre Royal, Drury Lane") in 2015\.{{Cite web\|title\= Hey, Old Friends! – An 85th Birthday Tribute to Stephen Sondheim – Theatre Royal Drury Lane \|url\=https://musicaltheatrereview.com/hey\-old\-friends\-an\-85th\-birthday\-tribute\-to\-stephen\-sondheim\-theatre\-royal\-drury\-lane/ \|website\=Musical Theatre Review \|date\=26 October 2015\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
### Other recording collaborations
Ferris has collaborated on recordings with performers such as [Shirley Bassey](/wiki/Shirley_Bassey "Shirley Bassey"), [Jonathan Antoine](/wiki/Jonathan_Antoine "Jonathan Antoine"), [Alfie Boe](/wiki/Alfie_Boe "Alfie Boe"), [Michael Ball](/wiki/Michael_Ball "Michael Ball"), and [Kerry Ellis](/wiki/Kerry_Ellis "Kerry Ellis"), many with producer [Nick Patrick](/wiki/Nick_Patrick_%28record_producer%29 "Nick Patrick (record producer)"), and on symphonic albums with the [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Royal Philharmonic Orchestra") performing music of [Elvis Presley](/wiki/Elvis_Presley "Elvis Presley"), [Roy Orbison](/wiki/Roy_Orbison "Roy Orbison"), and [The Beach Boys](/wiki/The_Beach_Boys "The Beach Boys") and orchestrating and arranging for the Orbison and Beach Boys albums.{{Cite web\|title\= Dominic Ferris Collaborates with Dame Shirley Bassey on New album \|url\=https://theatreweekly.com/dominic\-ferris\-collaborates\-with\-dame\-shirley\-bassey\-on\-new\-album/ \|website\=Theatre Weekly \|date\=6 November 2020\| accessdate\=15 July 2024}}
In 2015 Ferris recorded piano tracks for the Elvis Presley symphonic album *If I Can Dream* with the [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Royal Philharmonic Orchestra").{{Cite web\|title\= Preview – Dominic Ferris – Me and My Piano \|url\=https://musicaltheatrereview.com/preview\-dominic\-ferris\-me\-and\-my\-piano/ \|website\=Musical Theatre Review \|date\=14 May 2019\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
In 2018 he worked with [James Bowen](/wiki/James_Bowen_%28author%29 "James Bowen (author)") and his cat Bob, subject of the book and film *[A Street Cat Named Bob](/wiki/A_Street_Cat_Named_Bob_%28film%29 "A Street Cat Named Bob (film)")*, to produce and co\-write a charity single.{{Cite web\|title\= Sussex musician pays tribute to 'A Street Cat Named Bob' pet \|url\=https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/18523384\.sussex\-musician\-pays\-tribute\-a\-street\-cat\-named\-bob\-pet/
\|author\= Rose Lock \|website\=The Argus \|date\=17 June 2020\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
Ferris worked with Dame [Shirley Bassey](/wiki/Shirley_Bassey "Shirley Bassey") as pianist on her 2020 [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") album *I Owe It All To You*.
He produced a video for the Official London Theatre’s YouTube channel titled "We'll Meet Again" that featured West End stars including Alfie Boe and [Hannah Waddingham](/wiki/Hannah_Waddingham "Hannah Waddingham") and most prominently, [Dame Vera Lynn](/wiki/Dame_Vera_Lynn "Dame Vera Lynn") extending a message of hope and love during the COVID\-19 pandemic lockdowns.{{Cite web\| title\= Theatres receive message of support from our Dame Vera \|url\=https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/18406411\.theatres\-receive\-message\-support\-dame\-vera/ \|author\=Kim Mayo \|website\=The Argus \|date\=27 April 2020\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
In 2023 Ferris began working with Luca Brugnoli, a 2022 BBC Young Chorister of the Year finalist, producing, performing on, and co\-writing two songs for Brugnoli's 2024 debut mainstream album *Through My Eyes*.{{Cite news\|title\= NEWS: Kerry Ellis to Perform with Dominic Ferris at Live at Zedel \|url\=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/whats\-on/arts\-and\-entertainment/acclaimed\-west\-sussex\-singer\-releases\-debut\-album\-4617664 \|author\=Eva Mason \|website\=Sussex Express \|date\=6 May 2024\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}}
### Other live collaborations
In 2017 he toured as assistant musical director and pianist with the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra's "Elvis Presley: If I Can Dream" UK arena tour, and with the [Memphis Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Memphis_Symphony_Orchestra "Memphis Symphony Orchestra") for the USA anniversary tour. The latter included a performance at Graceland with [Priscilla Presley](/wiki/Priscilla_Presley "Priscilla Presley") for the Elvis 40th Anniversary Celebrations.
In May and June 2021 he performed his solo show "Piano Player to the Stars" in London,{{Cite web\|title\= Steinway Artist Dominic Ferris announces lives shows in London \|url\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/steinway\-artist\-dominic\-ferris\-announces\-lives\-shows\-in\-london/ \|website\=Pianist Magazine \|author\=Ellie Palmer \|date\=20 March 2021\| accessdate\=9 August 2024}} and in August performed at the [Royal Festival Hall](/wiki/Royal_Festival_Hall "Royal Festival Hall") in a series of concerts celebrating the 50th anniversary of [Mike Oldfield](/wiki/Mike_Oldfield "Mike Oldfield")'s *[Tubular Bells](/wiki/Tubular_Bells "Tubular Bells")* album.{{Cite web\|title\= Shoreham pianist joins Tubular Bells 50th anniversary concert \|url\=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/whats\-on/arts\-and\-entertainment/shoreham\-pianist\-joins\-tubular\-bells\-50th\-anniversary\-concert\-3333572 \|website\=Sussex Express \|author\=Phil Hewitt \|date\=6 August 2021\| accessdate\=10 September 2024}}
|
[
"Collaborations\n--------------",
"### Steinway \\& Sons",
"When he performed at an international press launch event for the Prince William–Kate Middleton royal wedding, a chance meeting with piano technician Ulrich Gerhartz led to his relationship with [Steinway \\& Sons](/wiki/Steinway_%26_Sons \"Steinway & Sons\"). He continues to the present day as a [Steinway \\& Sons](/wiki/Steinway_%26_Sons \"Steinway & Sons\") Global Ambassador.",
"In 2018, as a Steinway \\& Sons Global Ambassador, he recorded original piano arrangements of classic popular and musical theater songs for Steinway's self\\-playing Spirio piano.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Steinway Artist Dominic Ferris announces lives shows in London \\|url\\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/pianist\\-dominic\\-ferris\\-records\\-original\\-piano\\-arrangements\\-for/ \\|website\\=Pianist Magazine \\|date\\=3 August 2018\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"### The Piano Brothers",
"Since 2014 Ferris and Indonesian pianist/composer [Elwin Hendrijanto](/wiki/Elwin_Hendrijanto \"Elwin Hendrijanto\"), who met during their studies at the Royal College of Music, have performed as The Piano Brothers.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Indonesian, English pianists collaborate in Steinway and sons\\` piano launching \\|url\\=https://en.antaranews.com/news/93351/indonesian\\-english\\-pianists\\-collaborate\\-in\\-steinway\\-and\\-sons\\-piano\\-launching \\|website\\=Antara News \\|date\\=25 March 2014\\| accessdate\\=16 July 2024}} On their international concert tours they combine classical music, musical theatre, their own arrangements of popular songs such as [Coldplay](/wiki/Coldplay \"Coldplay\")'s \"[Viva La Vida](/wiki/Viva_la_Vida \"Viva la Vida\")\" and [Adele](/wiki/Adele \"Adele\")’s \"[Rolling in the Deep](/wiki/Rolling_in_the_Deep \"Rolling in the Deep\"),\" songbook numbers, and compositions of their own such as \"Ballade for Steinway.\" The duo collaborated with the London Symphony Orchestra in 2019 on a recording at [Abbey Road Studios](/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios \"Abbey Road Studios\") of their symphonic arrangement of [Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28band%29 \"Muse (band)\")'s hit \"[Uprising](/wiki/Uprising_%28song%29 \"Uprising (song)\")\"{{Cite web\\|title\\= The Piano Brothers announce their only 2019 UK show \\|url\\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/the\\-piano\\-brothers\\-announce\\-their\\-only\\-2019\\-uk\\-show/ \\|author\\= Ellie Palmer \\|website\\=Pianist Magazine \\|date\\=2 September 2019\\| accessdate\\=16 July 2024}} and perform internationally.",
"### Ferris \\& Milnes",
"In 2015 Ferris formed a second duo, joining with Martin Milnes as musical theatre double act Ferris \\& Milnes.",
"They duo undertook performance feats such as \"31 West End musicals in under 10 minutes\" and the complete works of [Andrew Lloyd Webber](/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber \"Andrew Lloyd Webber\") in seven minutes, and performed a [George Gershwin](/wiki/George_Gershwin \"George Gershwin\") medley at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\"). They performed their tribute \"33 Sondheim Numbers in 5 Minutes\"{{Cite web\\|title\\= The Daily Distraction: Ferris and Milnes Perform 33 Sondheim Numbers in 5 Minutes \\|url\\=https://playbill.com/article/the\\-daily\\-distraction\\-ferris\\-and\\-milnes\\-perform\\-33\\-sondheim\\-numbers\\-in\\-5\\-minutes \\|website\\=Playbill \\|author\\=Dan Meyer \\|date\\=26 May 2020\\| accessdate\\=15 July 2024}} at the [Stephen Sondheim](/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim \"Stephen Sondheim\") 85th Birthday Gala at [Theatre Royal, Drury Lane](/wiki/Theatre_Royal%2C_Drury_Lane \"Theatre Royal, Drury Lane\") in 2015\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Hey, Old Friends! – An 85th Birthday Tribute to Stephen Sondheim – Theatre Royal Drury Lane \\|url\\=https://musicaltheatrereview.com/hey\\-old\\-friends\\-an\\-85th\\-birthday\\-tribute\\-to\\-stephen\\-sondheim\\-theatre\\-royal\\-drury\\-lane/ \\|website\\=Musical Theatre Review \\|date\\=26 October 2015\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"### Other recording collaborations",
"Ferris has collaborated on recordings with performers such as [Shirley Bassey](/wiki/Shirley_Bassey \"Shirley Bassey\"), [Jonathan Antoine](/wiki/Jonathan_Antoine \"Jonathan Antoine\"), [Alfie Boe](/wiki/Alfie_Boe \"Alfie Boe\"), [Michael Ball](/wiki/Michael_Ball \"Michael Ball\"), and [Kerry Ellis](/wiki/Kerry_Ellis \"Kerry Ellis\"), many with producer [Nick Patrick](/wiki/Nick_Patrick_%28record_producer%29 \"Nick Patrick (record producer)\"), and on symphonic albums with the [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Royal Philharmonic Orchestra\") performing music of [Elvis Presley](/wiki/Elvis_Presley \"Elvis Presley\"), [Roy Orbison](/wiki/Roy_Orbison \"Roy Orbison\"), and [The Beach Boys](/wiki/The_Beach_Boys \"The Beach Boys\") and orchestrating and arranging for the Orbison and Beach Boys albums.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Dominic Ferris Collaborates with Dame Shirley Bassey on New album \\|url\\=https://theatreweekly.com/dominic\\-ferris\\-collaborates\\-with\\-dame\\-shirley\\-bassey\\-on\\-new\\-album/ \\|website\\=Theatre Weekly \\|date\\=6 November 2020\\| accessdate\\=15 July 2024}}",
"In 2015 Ferris recorded piano tracks for the Elvis Presley symphonic album *If I Can Dream* with the [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Royal Philharmonic Orchestra\").{{Cite web\\|title\\= Preview – Dominic Ferris – Me and My Piano \\|url\\=https://musicaltheatrereview.com/preview\\-dominic\\-ferris\\-me\\-and\\-my\\-piano/ \\|website\\=Musical Theatre Review \\|date\\=14 May 2019\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"In 2018 he worked with [James Bowen](/wiki/James_Bowen_%28author%29 \"James Bowen (author)\") and his cat Bob, subject of the book and film *[A Street Cat Named Bob](/wiki/A_Street_Cat_Named_Bob_%28film%29 \"A Street Cat Named Bob (film)\")*, to produce and co\\-write a charity single.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Sussex musician pays tribute to 'A Street Cat Named Bob' pet \\|url\\=https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/18523384\\.sussex\\-musician\\-pays\\-tribute\\-a\\-street\\-cat\\-named\\-bob\\-pet/\n \\|author\\= Rose Lock \\|website\\=The Argus \\|date\\=17 June 2020\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"Ferris worked with Dame [Shirley Bassey](/wiki/Shirley_Bassey \"Shirley Bassey\") as pianist on her 2020 [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") album *I Owe It All To You*.",
"He produced a video for the Official London Theatre’s YouTube channel titled \"We'll Meet Again\" that featured West End stars including Alfie Boe and [Hannah Waddingham](/wiki/Hannah_Waddingham \"Hannah Waddingham\") and most prominently, [Dame Vera Lynn](/wiki/Dame_Vera_Lynn \"Dame Vera Lynn\") extending a message of hope and love during the COVID\\-19 pandemic lockdowns.{{Cite web\\| title\\= Theatres receive message of support from our Dame Vera \\|url\\=https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/18406411\\.theatres\\-receive\\-message\\-support\\-dame\\-vera/ \\|author\\=Kim Mayo \\|website\\=The Argus \\|date\\=27 April 2020\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"In 2023 Ferris began working with Luca Brugnoli, a 2022 BBC Young Chorister of the Year finalist, producing, performing on, and co\\-writing two songs for Brugnoli's 2024 debut mainstream album *Through My Eyes*.{{Cite news\\|title\\= NEWS: Kerry Ellis to Perform with Dominic Ferris at Live at Zedel \\|url\\=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/whats\\-on/arts\\-and\\-entertainment/acclaimed\\-west\\-sussex\\-singer\\-releases\\-debut\\-album\\-4617664 \\|author\\=Eva Mason \\|website\\=Sussex Express \\|date\\=6 May 2024\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}}",
"### Other live collaborations",
"In 2017 he toured as assistant musical director and pianist with the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra's \"Elvis Presley: If I Can Dream\" UK arena tour, and with the [Memphis Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Memphis_Symphony_Orchestra \"Memphis Symphony Orchestra\") for the USA anniversary tour. The latter included a performance at Graceland with [Priscilla Presley](/wiki/Priscilla_Presley \"Priscilla Presley\") for the Elvis 40th Anniversary Celebrations.",
"In May and June 2021 he performed his solo show \"Piano Player to the Stars\" in London,{{Cite web\\|title\\= Steinway Artist Dominic Ferris announces lives shows in London \\|url\\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/news/steinway\\-artist\\-dominic\\-ferris\\-announces\\-lives\\-shows\\-in\\-london/ \\|website\\=Pianist Magazine \\|author\\=Ellie Palmer \\|date\\=20 March 2021\\| accessdate\\=9 August 2024}} and in August performed at the [Royal Festival Hall](/wiki/Royal_Festival_Hall \"Royal Festival Hall\") in a series of concerts celebrating the 50th anniversary of [Mike Oldfield](/wiki/Mike_Oldfield \"Mike Oldfield\")'s *[Tubular Bells](/wiki/Tubular_Bells \"Tubular Bells\")* album.{{Cite web\\|title\\= Shoreham pianist joins Tubular Bells 50th anniversary concert \\|url\\=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/whats\\-on/arts\\-and\\-entertainment/shoreham\\-pianist\\-joins\\-tubular\\-bells\\-50th\\-anniversary\\-concert\\-3333572 \\|website\\=Sussex Express \\|author\\=Phil Hewitt \\|date\\=6 August 2021\\| accessdate\\=10 September 2024}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 182
\|1920\= 135
\|1930\= 187
\|1940\= 131
\|1950\= 168
\|1960\= 171
\|1970\= 178
\|1980\= 169
\|1990\= 134
\|2000\= 139
\|2010\= 105
\|2020\= 112
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:46\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 105 people, 55 households, and 30 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|318\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 67 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|203\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 95\.2% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.9% of the population.
There were 55 households, of which 10\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 1\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45\.5% were non\-families. 43\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.91 and the average family size was 2\.63\.
The median age in the town was 53\.8 years. 6\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 11\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 15\.4% were from 25 to 44; 37\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 29\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 52\.4% male and 47\.6% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 139 people, 56 households, and 38 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|425\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 69 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|211\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\.24% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.72% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 5\.04% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.44% of the population.
There were 56 households, out of which 26\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\.1% were non\-families. 32\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.48 and the average family size was 3\.16\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24\.5% under the age of 18, 8\.6% from 18 to 24, 22\.3% from 25 to 44, 23\.7% from 45 to 64, and 20\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 110\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $31,125, and the median income for a family was $32,321\. Males had a median income of $25,313 versus $17,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $15,348\. There were 9\.3% of families and 13\.9% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 18\.2% of under eighteens and none of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 182\n\\|1920\\= 135\n\\|1930\\= 187\n\\|1940\\= 131\n\\|1950\\= 168\n\\|1960\\= 171\n\\|1970\\= 178\n\\|1980\\= 169\n\\|1990\\= 134\n\\|2000\\= 139\n\\|2010\\= 105\n\\|2020\\= 112\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:46\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 105 people, 55 households, and 30 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|318\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 67 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|203\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 95\\.2% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.9% of the population.",
"There were 55 households, of which 10\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 1\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45\\.5% were non\\-families. 43\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.91 and the average family size was 2\\.63\\.",
"The median age in the town was 53\\.8 years. 6\\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 11\\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 15\\.4% were from 25 to 44; 37\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 29\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 52\\.4% male and 47\\.6% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 139 people, 56 households, and 38 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|425\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 69 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|211\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\\.24% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.72% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 5\\.04% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.44% of the population.",
"There were 56 households, out of which 26\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.1% were non\\-families. 32\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.48 and the average family size was 3\\.16\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 24\\.5% under the age of 18, 8\\.6% from 18 to 24, 22\\.3% from 25 to 44, 23\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 110\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\\.4 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $31,125, and the median income for a family was $32,321\\. Males had a median income of $25,313 versus $17,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $15,348\\. There were 9\\.3% of families and 13\\.9% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 18\\.2% of under eighteens and none of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Types of Commons
----------------
### Complete Open Commons
Spectrum Commons Theory although conceptually tries to focus on functioning as a completely free and open environment, facts points to this idea as flawed. Complete open commons, is a regime under which anyone has access to an unowned resource without limitation; no one controls access to the resource under open access. As previously mentioned however, in order for a commons to be viable, someone must control the resource and set orderly sharing rules to govern its use. While it is true that access to a commons can be open, this does not mean there is no central rule\-setting authority.
Complete open commons is not a feasible regime for spectrum because, as a scarce resource, it will be subject to tragedy. Even given new spectrum\-sharing technologies, a controller is still needed because these technologies require standards setting and enforcement in order to function.
### Market Based Commons
Economists, who have long been skeptical about the ability of government agencies to allocate resources efficiently by “picking winners,” have preponderantly favored a market approach to the allocation of resources generally, and to the allocation of the spectrum in particular. As early as 1959, Ronald Coase wrote that spectrum was a fixed factor of production, like land or labor, and should be treated in the same way, with its use determined by the pricing system and awarded to the highest bidder. Coase concluded that government allocation of spectrum\-use rights was not necessary to prevent interference and that, in fact, by preempting market allocation of spectrum, regulation was the source of extreme inefficiency.
Economists since Coase have favored a market\-based approach if there is profit to be made from the charge of an entrance fee to such a park, then private enterprise and the profit motive can be relied upon to lead firms to carry out the necessary arrangements. And if entry into the commons is sufficiently beneficial to the entrants, there will indeed be profits to be made by giving them the opportunity to do so.
### Supercommons
Another way to expand on the Spectrum Commons Theory is looking at it as a supercommons. As Werbach points out, a supercommons can operate alongside the property and commons regimes, which are just different configurations of usage rights associated with spectrum. In other words, the commons would be the baseline, with property encompassed within it, rather than the reverse. [Bandwidth](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 "Bandwidth (signal processing)") would not need to be infinite to justify a fundamental reconceptualization of the spectrum debate. Even with real\-world scarcity and transaction\-cost constraints, a default rule allowing unfettered wireless communication would most effectively balance interests to maximize capacity.
The initial legal rule for this spectrum should be universal access. Anyone would be permitted to transmit anywhere, at any time, in any manner, so long as they did not impose an excessive burden on others.
|
[
"Types of Commons\n----------------",
"### Complete Open Commons",
"Spectrum Commons Theory although conceptually tries to focus on functioning as a completely free and open environment, facts points to this idea as flawed. Complete open commons, is a regime under which anyone has access to an unowned resource without limitation; no one controls access to the resource under open access. As previously mentioned however, in order for a commons to be viable, someone must control the resource and set orderly sharing rules to govern its use. While it is true that access to a commons can be open, this does not mean there is no central rule\\-setting authority.",
"Complete open commons is not a feasible regime for spectrum because, as a scarce resource, it will be subject to tragedy. Even given new spectrum\\-sharing technologies, a controller is still needed because these technologies require standards setting and enforcement in order to function.",
"### Market Based Commons",
"Economists, who have long been skeptical about the ability of government agencies to allocate resources efficiently by “picking winners,” have preponderantly favored a market approach to the allocation of resources generally, and to the allocation of the spectrum in particular. As early as 1959, Ronald Coase wrote that spectrum was a fixed factor of production, like land or labor, and should be treated in the same way, with its use determined by the pricing system and awarded to the highest bidder. Coase concluded that government allocation of spectrum\\-use rights was not necessary to prevent interference and that, in fact, by preempting market allocation of spectrum, regulation was the source of extreme inefficiency.",
"Economists since Coase have favored a market\\-based approach if there is profit to be made from the charge of an entrance fee to such a park, then private enterprise and the profit motive can be relied upon to lead firms to carry out the necessary arrangements. And if entry into the commons is sufficiently beneficial to the entrants, there will indeed be profits to be made by giving them the opportunity to do so.",
"### Supercommons",
"Another way to expand on the Spectrum Commons Theory is looking at it as a supercommons. As Werbach points out, a supercommons can operate alongside the property and commons regimes, which are just different configurations of usage rights associated with spectrum. In other words, the commons would be the baseline, with property encompassed within it, rather than the reverse. [Bandwidth](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28signal_processing%29 \"Bandwidth (signal processing)\") would not need to be infinite to justify a fundamental reconceptualization of the spectrum debate. Even with real\\-world scarcity and transaction\\-cost constraints, a default rule allowing unfettered wireless communication would most effectively balance interests to maximize capacity.\nThe initial legal rule for this spectrum should be universal access. Anyone would be permitted to transmit anywhere, at any time, in any manner, so long as they did not impose an excessive burden on others.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early settlement
[thumb\|left\|Map of Corydon from 1876 atlas](/wiki/File:Map_of_Corydon%2C_Indiana_from_1876_atlas.png "Map of Corydon, Indiana from 1876 atlas.png")
During the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") captured the surrounding area of what became the town of Corydon from the [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain"), bringing it under the control of the fledgling United States government.Griffin, p. 8 The first American settlers entered Harrison County in 1792 and included the families of [Harvey Heth](/wiki/Harvey_Heth "Harvey Heth") and [Squire Boone](/wiki/Squire_Boone "Squire Boone"), who settled south of Corydon, and [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington "Dennis Pennington") and the Harbisons, who settled east of Corydon.Griffin, p. 9 The region was in the midst of the [Northwest Indian War](/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War "Northwest Indian War") during that period and the families were forced by Native Americans to leave the region and return to Kentucky. The families returned to the area in 1800 following the creation of the Indiana territory.
The territorial government completed the land survey of what would become Corydon in 1807, and the first official land purchases occurred in April of that year.Griffin, p. 11 In 1803, Edward Smith and his family became the first Americans to settle in what would become Corydon. Following the completion of the 1807 land survey, he purchased the tract of land he had already been living on; at that time his family were the only recorded inhabitants of the future site of the town. He purchased land at the edge of a fertile valley near a large spring, which is the site of the present\-day [Harrison County](/wiki/Harrison_County%2C_Indiana "Harrison County, Indiana") fairgrounds. [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison "William Henry Harrison"), the first [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Indiana "Governor of Indiana") of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory "Indiana Territory") and a future president of the United States, often stopped to rest at the Smith's home while travelling to and from [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Vincennes, Indiana"), the territorial capital.Griffin, p. 15
In 1804 Harrison purchased a tract of land where Big Indian Creek and Little Indian Creek join to become Indian Creek and decided to build a town on the site.Griffin, p. 14 Harrison built a two\-story home in the town, but sold it in 1809\.Griffin, p. 156 The town gets its name from "[The Pastoral Elegy](/wiki/Pastoral_Elegy_%28hymn%29 "Pastoral Elegy (hymn)")," a [hymn](/wiki/Hymn "Hymn") that celebrates the death of a shepherd named Corydon.{{cite book \|author1\=Robert M. Taylor Jr. \|author2\=Errol Wayne Stevens \|author3\=Mary Ann Ponder \|author4\=Paul Brockman \|title\=Indiana: A New Historical Guide \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Society \|year\=1992 \|location\=Indianapolis \|page\=169 \|isbn\=0871950499}} Tradition says that Harrison asked Edward Smith's daughter, Jenny, to name the town and she chose the name from Harrison's favorite [hymn](/wiki/Hymn "Hymn"), "The Pastoral Elegy."{{cite book \|author\=Works Project Administration, Federal Writers' Project \|title\=Indiana. A Guide to the Hoosier State \|year\=1947 \|publisher\=US History Publishers \|series\=American Guide Series \|page\=181 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=8iFZ90Uw3jEC \|isbn\=1\-60354\-013\-X}}
Harrison sold the town site to [Harvey Heth](/wiki/Harvey_Heth "Harvey Heth") in 1807\. Corydon's official founding date of 1808 commemorates the year when Heth, a U.S. government surveyor and landowner, platted the town. Heth donated the town square for public use and sold individual lots to settlers and the territorial government. When Harrison County was established in 1808, Corydon became its county seat of government. The town originally consisted of 185 lots. In 1809 Corydon was connected by road to Doup's Ferry, {{convert\|15\|mi\|km}} to the south at [Mauck's Port](/wiki/Mauckport%2C_Indiana "Mauckport, Indiana"), providing access to the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") for trade.Griffin, p. 17 The first county courthouse was built at the northwest corner of the town at the summit of High Street.
Corydon quickly grew into one of the most important early settlements in Indiana, in large part due to the political successes of its early inhabitants and as one of the main stops on the only land route to the territorial capital of Vincennes. During the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), Corydon sent a mounted militia company nicknamed the [Yellow Jackets](/wiki/Yellow_Jackets_%28Indiana%29 "Yellow Jackets (Indiana)") to support the territorial army. The company fought in the [Battle of Tippecanoe](/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe "Battle of Tippecanoe"), where it suffered more casualties than any other unit.Griffin, p. 35
### Territorial capital (1813–1816\)
{{See also\| History of Indiana\|Corydon Historic District}}
[thumb\|[Old Capitol Building](/wiki/Corydon_Historic_District%23Old_Capitol "Corydon Historic District#Old Capitol") in downtown Corydon\|alt\=](/wiki/File:Corydon_old_capital.jpg "Corydon old capital.jpg")
Corydon became the second capital of the Indiana Territory on May 1, 1813, when it was relocated from [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Vincennes, Indiana") in [Knox County](/wiki/Knox_County%2C_Indiana "Knox County, Indiana"). Opponents of [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison "William Henry Harrison"), the former territorial governor, wanted to move the capital away from his political stronghold in Knox County. Supporters of the move felt that relocation of the territorial capital to the east would provide a more centralized location for its citizens, especially after its western portion was reorganized to form the [Illinois Territory](/wiki/Illinois_Territory "Illinois Territory") in 1809\.{{cite book \|editor\=John D. Barnhart and Dorothy L. Riker \|title\=Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \|series\=The History of Indiana \|volume\=I \|year\=1971 \|location\=Indianapolis \|page\=355}}
Corydon competed with [Charlestown](/wiki/Charlestown%2C_Indiana "Charlestown, Indiana"), [Clarksville](/wiki/Clarksville%2C_Indiana "Clarksville, Indiana"), [Lawrenceburg](/wiki/Lawrenceburg%2C_Indiana "Lawrenceburg, Indiana"), [Madison](/wiki/Madison%2C_Indiana "Madison, Indiana"), and [Jeffersonville](/wiki/Jeffersonville%2C_Indiana "Jeffersonville, Indiana") to become the new territorial capital.{{cite book \|author\=Ray E. Boomhower \|title\=Destination Indiana: Travels Through Hoosier History \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Society \|year\=2000 \|location\=Indianapolis \|page\=15 \|isbn\=0871951479}} [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington "Dennis Pennington"), a Harrison County representative and the speaker of the territorial legislature's lower house, helped secure the town's selection during the 1813 session of the Indiana Territory's general assembly. Pennington pointed out that Corydon would be an ideal location. The Harrison County court had approved a design for a new county courthouse on Corydon's public square in 1811 and it could be used as an assembly building for the territorial legislature. Pennington supervised construction of the limestone courthouse, which was nearly completed when Indiana's first state legislature convened at Corydon in 1816\.Boomhower, p. 17\.The limestone for the courthouse came from a nearby quarry. See {{cite book \|author\=D. F. Lemmon \|title\=The Ancient Capital of the State of Indiana, Corydon, Harrison County \|publisher\=Ledger Company \|location\=New Albany, IN \|year\=1891 \|page\=7 \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/ancientcapitalof00lemm\#page/n3/mode/2up}} Prior to 1816, the territorial legislature met in the original county courthouse on High Street.Griffin, p. 18
[Paul and Susannah Mitchem](/wiki/Paul_and_Susannah_Mitchem "Paul and Susannah Mitchem") became Quakers and immigrated to Harrison County from [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") in 1814, bringing with them 107 slaves whom they freed after arriving. Most of the former slaves then settled around the town of Corydon.{{Cite book \|last\=Wonning \|first\=Paul R. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1rhTCwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA145 \|title\=Guide to Indiana's Historic Sites \- South Central Edition: Road Trips in South Central Indiana \|publisher\=Mossy Feet Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-310\-39072\-2 \|pages\=145}}{{Cite web \|title\=Early Black Settlements by County: Harrison County \|url\=https://indianahistory.org/research/research\-materials/early\-black\-settlements/early\-black\-settlements\-by\-county/ \|access\-date\=February 14, 2022 \|website\=Indiana Historical Society \|language\=en\-US}} Although some of the former slaves left, the group became one of the largest communities of free blacks in the state.{{cite book \|author\=Dick, Otis Amanda \|title\=Corydon:Images of America \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing \|isbn\=0\-7385\-6050\-2 \|page\=34}}
### Constitutional convention, 1816
{{Main\|Constitution of Indiana}}
On April 19, 1816, President [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison "James Madison") signed an [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act "Enabling Act") that provided for the election of delegates to a convention at Corydon to consider statehood for Indiana. Forty\-three delegates, including five men from Harrison County, convened June 10–29, 1816, to draft Indiana's first state [constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiana "Constitution of Indiana")."The Setting for the Convention, " in {{cite journal \|editor\=Pamela J. Bennett \|title\=Indiana Statehood \|journal\=The Indiana Historian \|page\=6 \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau \|location\=Indianapolis \|date\=September 1999}}Harrison County's delegates were John Boone, [Davis Floyd](/wiki/Davis_Floyd "Davis Floyd"), Daniel C. Lane, [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington "Dennis Pennington"), and Patrick Shields. See Barnhart and Riker, pp. 441–42\. The preamble of the constitution acknowledges the site of the historic gathering: "We the Representatives of the people of the Territory of Indiana, in Convention met, at Corydon, on Monday the tenth day of June in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and sixteen,..."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.in.gov/icpr/2778\.htm \|title\=Full Text Of The 1816 Constitution \|publisher\=State of Indiana \|access\-date\=October 24, 2014}}
The delegates met in an unfinished log cabin near the Harrison County courthouse, which had not yet been completed; due to cramped conditions and the summer heat, the men often sought refuge outside under a giant [elm tree](/wiki/Elm_tree "Elm tree"), later named the Constitution Elm. Although the tree was lost to Dutch Elm Disease in 1825, a portion of its trunk has been preserved, surrounded by a [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") memorial built by the WPA during the Great Depression in the 1930s.{{cite book \|author\=Earl L. Conn \|title\=My Indiana: 101 Places to See \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Society \|year\=2006 \|location\=Indianapolis \|page\=204 \|isbn\=978\-0\-87195\-195\-3}}{{cite book \|author\=Frederick P. Griffin \|title\=The Story of Indiana's Constitution Elm, Corydon, Indiana, June 1816 \|publisher\=General Print Company \|year\=1974 \|location\=Corydon, IN \|pages\=10–13 \|oclc\=3901490}} See also {{cite book \|author\=William P. McLauchlan \|title\=The Indiana State Constitution: A Reference Guide \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|series\=Reference Guides to the State Constitutions of the United States \|volume\=26 \|year\=1996 \|location\=Westport, CT \|page\=2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a\-RQI0gEscUC\&pg\=PA1 \|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-29208\-8}}{{cite web \|url\=http://centerforhistory.org/learn\-history/indiana\-history/indiana\-the\-nineteenth\-state\-1816 \|title\=Indiana History: Indiana, the Nineteenth State (1816\) \|publisher\=Center for History \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027053723/http://centerforhistory.org/learn\-history/indiana\-history/indiana\-the\-nineteenth\-state\-1816 \|archive\-date\=October 27, 2012}} The delegates completed their work in nineteen days, adjourning on June 29, 1816, when the newly signed state constitution went into effect.Barnhart and Riker, p. 460\. As outlined in Article XI, Section 11, of the constitution of 1816: "Corydon, in Harrison County shall be the seat of Government of the state of Indiana, until the year eighteen hundred and twenty\-five, and until removed by law."{{cite web \|title\=Constitution of 1816: Article XI \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau \|url\=http://www.in.gov/history/2872\.htm \|access\-date\=August 3, 2016}}
Corydon's selection as the capital led to rapid growth of the town and a housing shortage. There were only three taverns for visitor lodging in 1813\. A fourth and much larger tavern, the [Kintner House Tavern](/wiki/Kintner_House_Hotel "Kintner House Hotel"), opened in 1819\. Many officials, including three successive Governors, and their staff moved to Corydon and built large homes in the town. The town hosted meetings from national officials, including an 1819 visit by United States President [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe "James Monroe") and [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson "Andrew Jackson").Griffin, p. 33
### State capital (1816–1825\)
[thumb\|upright\|The Constitution Elm as seen in the summer of 2006](/wiki/File:Constitution_Elm.JPG "Constitution Elm.JPG")
On November 4, 1816, the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly "Indiana General Assembly") met for the first time at Corydon under the new constitution and state government."The Final Steps to Statehood," Bennett, *The Indiana Historian*, pp. 10–11\. President James Madison signed the congressional resolution admitting Indiana as the nineteenth state in the Union on December 11, 1816, and Corydon began a new era as the first state capital of Indiana.Lemmon, p. 5\.
The Harrison County courthouse, now known as the Old Capitol, served as Indiana's [first state capitol](/wiki/Indiana_first_capitol_building "Indiana first capitol building") building. It housed state government offices from 1816 until 1825\. Several other historic structures in Corydon date from the early statehood era, including the Governor's Mansion and the Old Treasury Building (Indiana's first state office building), which were built in 1817, and the Colonel Thomas Lloyd Posey home, among others.Colonel Posey was the son of [Thomas Posey](/wiki/Thomas_Posey "Thomas Posey"), the [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Indiana "Governor of Indiana") of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory "Indiana Territory") from 1813 until 1816\. See Griffin, pp. 19–21\.{{cite web \|title\=Corydon Capitol: About Corydon Capitol State Historic Site \|publisher\=Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites \|url\=http://www.indianamuseum.org/corydon\-capital\-state\-historic\-site \|access\-date\=August 8, 2016}} Corydon's Grand Masonic Lodge, the first in the state, was built in 1819\.{{cite book \|last1\=McDonald \|first1\=Daniel \|title\=A History of Freemasonry in Indiana from 1806 to 1898 \|date\=1898 \|publisher\=The Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons of the State of Indiana \|location\=Indianapolis, IN \|url\=http://mlmindiana.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/11/HistoryofFreemasryIndiana\_McDonald.pdf \|access\-date\=August 8, 2021}}
During the years Corydon served as a territorial and state capital, it was home to a number of politicians; notable residents during this time included [Davis Floyd](/wiki/Davis_Floyd "Davis Floyd"), a prominent local politician; two governors of Indiana, [Jonathan Jennings](/wiki/Jonathan_Jennings "Jonathan Jennings") and [Ratliff Boon](/wiki/Ratliff_Boon "Ratliff Boon") (the state's first and second governors, respectively); [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington "Dennis Pennington"), the first Speaker of the [Indiana Senate](/wiki/Indiana_Senate "Indiana Senate"); and [William Hendricks](/wiki/William_Hendricks "William Hendricks"), Indiana's first [U. S. Representative](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives"), its third governor, and a [U.S. Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate").Gugin, p. 54
The state constitution's provision making Corydon the seat of state government was not a popular one, especially among the citizens of rival towns. Others expressed concern that the town's geographic location in the extreme southern part of Indiana would become inconvenient as the state's population center shifted northward; however, Dennis Pennington and other Harrison County representatives to the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly "Indiana General Assembly") successfully resisted attempts to move the seat of government from Corydon until 1825\.Barnhart and Riker, p. 461–63\."The Constitution of 1816," Bennett, *The Indiana Historian*, p. 12\.{{cite book \|author\=Charles Kettleborough \|title\=Constitution Making in Indiana: A Source Book of Constitutional Documents, with Historical Introduction and Critical Notes \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Commission \|series\=Indiana Historical Collections \|volume\=1 \|year\=1930 \|location\=Indianapolis \|pages\=118, 138–39 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1UUpAAAAYAAJ\&q\=Constitution\+Making\+in\+Indiana \|oclc\=3654268}} Governor Hendricks signed a legislative bill in 1824 to move the state capital to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis "Indianapolis"),{{cite book \|editor\=Linda C. Gugin \|editor2\=James E. St. Clair \|title\=The Governors of Indiana \|year\=2006 \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau and Indiana Historical Society Press \|location\=Indianapolis \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780871951960/page/57 57] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780871951960/page/57 \|isbn\=0871951967 \|url\-access\=registration}} effective January 10, 1825\.{{cite book \|author\=Donald F. Carmony \|title\=Indiana, 1816–1850: The Pioneer Era \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \|series\=The History of Indiana \|volume\=I \|year\=1998 \|location\=Indianapolis \|pages\=112–13 \|isbn\=0871951258}}
### Post\-capital period
After the seat of state government moved to Indianapolis in 1825, Corydon continued its role as the seat of county government and a market town for the surrounding agricultural area.{{cite web \|url\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html \|title\=Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) \|publisher\=Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology \|format\=Searchable database \|access\-date\=April 1, 2016}} Includes {{cite web \|url\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/202b8/N/Corydon\_HD\_Boundary\_Increase\_Harrison\_CO\_Nom.pdf \|title\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District (Boundary Increase) \|access\-date\=April 1, 2016 \|author\=Mary Ellen Gadsky \|date\=June 1988}} In 1826 a new County Clerk's office was constructed which remained the principal county office until 1848\. During the early days of the town, Big Indian Creek and Little Indian Creek were both used for drinking water, bathing, and sewage, which resulted in a [cholera](/wiki/Cholera "Cholera") outbreak in 1832\. Following the outbreak, the town only used the creeks for bathing and multiple wells were dug for drinking water. In 1836, the town began spreading gravel on the roads, which had been dirt roads before.Griffin, p. 23
During 1848, a new two\-story federal style brick office building was constructed on the east side of the county courthouse. This second office building remained in use until 1881\.Griffin, p. 19 On September 11–14, 1860, the first annual county fair was held on Corydon's {{convert\|36\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} fairgrounds. It has been an annual event since 1860, making it the longest consecutive\-running annual county fair in the state.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.clarionnews.net/Articles\-News\-i\-2013\-07\-10\-226220\.114125\-154th\-Harrison\-County\-Fair\-begins\-Sunday.html \|title\=154th Harrison County Fair begins Sunday \|newspaper\=Clarion News \|date\=July 10, 2013 \|access\-date\=October 24, 2014}} See also {{cite web \|url\=http://www.corydondemocrat.com/Articles\-News\-i\-2012\-08\-07\-225097\.114125\-Fair\-abuzz\-with\-activities.html \|title\=Fair A\-Buzz With Activities \|author\=Alan Stewart \|work\=The Corydon Democrat}} The fairgrounds, established in the southwest corner of town, are bordered on the south and west by a large ridge that served as a natural grandstand until the first grandstand was built, circa 1910\.Works Projects Administration, Federal Writers' Project, p. 184\.
### Battle of Corydon (1863\)
{{Main\|Battle of Corydon}}
[thumb\|Battle of Corydon Memorial Park](/wiki/File:Corydon_Battlefield_entrance.jpg "Corydon Battlefield entrance.jpg")
During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), Corydon was the site of the only "official pitched battle" fought in Indiana. On July 9, 1863, [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army") [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_General "Brigadier General") [John Hunt Morgan](/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan "John Hunt Morgan")'s cavalry of more than 2,000 men crossed the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") into Indiana to begin what is known as "[Morgan's Raid](/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid "Morgan's Raid")". The Confederate troops opposed about 450 members of a hastily assembled home guard at the [Battle of Corydon](/wiki/Battle_of_Corydon "Battle of Corydon") outside of town, but the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Union (American Civil War)") forces were quickly defeated and the town surrendered.Taylor, et al., pp. 169, 171\.
Corydon was sacked in retaliation for Union looting in Kentucky, the town's treasury of $690 was seized, and the inmates of the local jail were released. General Morgan demanded $600 to $700 in ransom from each mill and shop owner to keep their buildings from being burned. Tradition says one Corydon miller overpaid by $200; Morgan promptly returned it to him.{{cite book \|author\=Shelby Foote \|title\=The Civil War: A Narrative, Red River to Appomattox \|publisher\=Random House \|volume\=III \|year\=1974 \|location\=New York \|isbn\=0\-394\-46512\-1 \|url\-access\=registration \|url\=https://archive.org/details/redrivertoappoma00foot}}Works Project Administration, Federal Writers' Project, pp. 181–82\.
### Post\-Civil War Period
[right\|thumb\|Corydon in 1896, looking southward from Walnut Street](/wiki/File:Corydon_in_1896.jpg "Corydon in 1896.jpg")
In 1871 local journalists began to bring the condition of the first Indiana statehouse to public attention. The building had become filthy and infested with fleas and other pests such that many people refused to enter it. Their campaign proved successful, and in 1873 the building was given a major renovation. The walls and ceilings were replastered, a new staircase and furnishings were installed, and the building was thoroughly cleaned.
In 1881 the county began construction of its third office building after demolishing the prior building. The building was completed in June 1882 and remained in use until 1929\. The state of Indiana purchased the 1816 courthouse to preserve as a state historic site following the move.Griffin, p. 24 Beginning in 1882, the [Louisville, New Albany and Corydon Railroad](/wiki/Louisville%2C_New_Albany_and_Corydon_Railroad "Louisville, New Albany and Corydon Railroad"), an {{convert\|8\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} spur of the [Southern Railway](/wiki/Southern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 "Southern Railway (U.S.)"), connected Corydon to other towns in the region. Southern Railroad's main line ran across northern Harrison County at [Crandall](/wiki/Crandall%2C_Indiana "Crandall, Indiana"), and remained open to passenger traffic until 1996\. As of 2008, the line was owned by [Lucas Oil](/wiki/Lucas_Oil "Lucas Oil"). A major fire broke out in 1871, in which the Kintner House Tavern was destroyed, along with the entire block from Cherry to Beaver Streets. The county jail also burned in the blaze. A second major fire broke out in Corydon on April 20, 1883, in the west end of Corydon; seven businesses, stables, and multiple homes were destroyed. The fire would have spread further, but it slowed as it spread through a lumber yard containing only freshly cut timber that did not burn easily. This allowed the townspeople to get the upper hand and extinguish the fire, but most of the western portion of the town was burned. It was not until 1922 that all the lots were rebuilt.Griffin, p. 25
[left\|thumb\|Corydon's Old West Bridge in 1889](/wiki/File:Corydon_in_old_west_bridage.jpg "Corydon in old west bridage.jpg")
In 1889 an attempted murder in Corydon resulted in a lynching. A mob of 150 mounted men, led by twenty masked [Indiana white cap](/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps "Indiana White Caps") vigilantes, arrived at the county jail and demanded the release into their custody of two men (James Devin and Charles Tennyson) being held on charges of attempted murder. The leaders of the group demanded the keys to the jail, threatening to burn down the town if they were refused; after the sheriff refused to hand over the keys, the mob used hammers to knock down the jail doors and removed the two alleged assailants. The two men were dragged to the old Western Bridge, where they were hanged.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BJpuAAAAMAAJ\&q\=corydon%20Devin%20and%20Tennyson\&pg\=PP1 \|title\=Indiana's Birthplace: A History of Harrison County, Indiana \|author\=William H. Roose \|year\=1911 \|publisher\=The Tribune Company, Printers \|location\=New Albany, Indiana \|page\=62}}{{cite news \|title\=Strung to the Bridge, Corydon's MurderersLynched \|url\=https://newspapers.library.in.gov/cgi\-bin/indiana?a\=d\&d\=ISST18890619\.1\.4 \|access\-date\=April 17, 2016 \|newspaper\=Indiana State Sentinel \|date\=June 19, 1889}}
In 1917 the state of Indiana purchased the historic capitol building with the goal of restoring it. The Federal\-style building opened as a state memorial in 1929–30; it is a part of the Corydon Capitol State Historic Site. The Harrison County government also used the former statehouse until a new, three\-story county courthouse was completed in 1929, located on the north side of the original 1816 courthouse.Taylor, et al., p. 170\.Boomhower, p. 21\.
In 1960 a fire destroyed much of the Harrison County Fairgrounds, including its grandstand. A replacement grandstand was acquired from the minor league baseball team at [Parkway Field](/wiki/Parkway_Field "Parkway Field") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky"), is still in use.Griffin, p. 36
In 1969 Corydon\-born environmental historian [Samuel P. Hays](/wiki/Samuel_P._Hays "Samuel P. Hays") donated the {{convert\|311\|acre\|hectare\|adj\=on}} [Hayswood Nature Reserve](/wiki/Hayswood_Nature_Reserve "Hayswood Nature Reserve") to the county. Known as Hayswood Park, it is the county's second largest nature reserve.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2016}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.harrisoncountyparks.com/parks/hayswood\-nature\-reserve\#about \|title\=Hayswood Nature Reserve \- Harrison County Parks, Indiana \|website\=www.harrisoncountyparks.com \|access\-date\=February 23, 2019}}
In 1973 a portion of Corydon's downtown area was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") as the [Corydon Historic District](/wiki/Corydon_Historic_District "Corydon Historic District"). Initially, the district included major sites dating from the period when Corydon was a territorial and state capital: the Old Capitol/Harrison County Courthouse building, the Governor Hendricks' Headquarters, Constitution Elm, the first state office building, the [Kintner\-McGrain House](/wiki/Kintner-McGrain_House "Kintner-McGrain House") (Cedar Glade), and the Posey House, among others. In 1989 the historic district's boundary was increased to include [The Kintner House Inn](/wiki/Kintner_House_Hotel "Kintner House Hotel"), among other commercial and residential buildings.{{cite web \|url\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html \|title\=Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) \|publisher\=Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology \|format\=Searchable database \|access\-date\=August 8, 2016}} Includes {{cite web \|url\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon\_HD\_Harrison\_CO\_Nom.pdf \|title\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District \|access\-date\=April 1, 2016 \|author\=Frederick Porter Griffin \|date\=December 1972}}{{NRISref\|version\=2010a}}
In 2008 Corydon celebrated its bicentennial anniversary with a year\-long series of events that included the unveiling of a $200,000 bronze statue of Honorable [Frank O'Bannon](/wiki/Frank_O%27Bannon "Frank O'Bannon"), the late governor of Indiana and a former citizen of Corydon.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.clarionnews.net/Articles\-i\-2008\-06\-11\-206909\.114125\_Corydon\_celebrates\_200\_years.html \|title\=Corydon celebrates 200 years \|author\=Jo Ann Spieth\-Saylor \|newspaper\=Clarion News \|date\=June 11, 2008 \|access\-date\=October 24, 2014}}
A local attraction in Corydon was [Butt Drugs](/wiki/Butt_Drugs "Butt Drugs"), a drugstore known for its unique name, service, and merchandise. The store opened in 1952 and closed in 2023\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.wlky.com/article/indiana\-pharmacy\-butt\-drugs\-closing\-corydon/43720888 \|title\=Indiana pharmacy Butt Drugs closing after 71 years in business \|publisher\=WLKY \|date\=April 27, 2023 \|access\-date\=April 25, 2024 \|author\=Haley Cawthon}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early settlement",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Map of Corydon from 1876 atlas](/wiki/File:Map_of_Corydon%2C_Indiana_from_1876_atlas.png \"Map of Corydon, Indiana from 1876 atlas.png\")",
"During the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"), [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") captured the surrounding area of what became the town of Corydon from the [British](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain \"Kingdom of Great Britain\"), bringing it under the control of the fledgling United States government.Griffin, p. 8 The first American settlers entered Harrison County in 1792 and included the families of [Harvey Heth](/wiki/Harvey_Heth \"Harvey Heth\") and [Squire Boone](/wiki/Squire_Boone \"Squire Boone\"), who settled south of Corydon, and [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington \"Dennis Pennington\") and the Harbisons, who settled east of Corydon.Griffin, p. 9 The region was in the midst of the [Northwest Indian War](/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War \"Northwest Indian War\") during that period and the families were forced by Native Americans to leave the region and return to Kentucky. The families returned to the area in 1800 following the creation of the Indiana territory.",
"The territorial government completed the land survey of what would become Corydon in 1807, and the first official land purchases occurred in April of that year.Griffin, p. 11 In 1803, Edward Smith and his family became the first Americans to settle in what would become Corydon. Following the completion of the 1807 land survey, he purchased the tract of land he had already been living on; at that time his family were the only recorded inhabitants of the future site of the town. He purchased land at the edge of a fertile valley near a large spring, which is the site of the present\\-day [Harrison County](/wiki/Harrison_County%2C_Indiana \"Harrison County, Indiana\") fairgrounds. [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison \"William Henry Harrison\"), the first [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Indiana \"Governor of Indiana\") of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory \"Indiana Territory\") and a future president of the United States, often stopped to rest at the Smith's home while travelling to and from [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Vincennes, Indiana\"), the territorial capital.Griffin, p. 15",
"In 1804 Harrison purchased a tract of land where Big Indian Creek and Little Indian Creek join to become Indian Creek and decided to build a town on the site.Griffin, p. 14 Harrison built a two\\-story home in the town, but sold it in 1809\\.Griffin, p. 156 The town gets its name from \"[The Pastoral Elegy](/wiki/Pastoral_Elegy_%28hymn%29 \"Pastoral Elegy (hymn)\"),\" a [hymn](/wiki/Hymn \"Hymn\") that celebrates the death of a shepherd named Corydon.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Robert M. Taylor Jr. \\|author2\\=Errol Wayne Stevens \\|author3\\=Mary Ann Ponder \\|author4\\=Paul Brockman \\|title\\=Indiana: A New Historical Guide \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Society \\|year\\=1992 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|page\\=169 \\|isbn\\=0871950499}} Tradition says that Harrison asked Edward Smith's daughter, Jenny, to name the town and she chose the name from Harrison's favorite [hymn](/wiki/Hymn \"Hymn\"), \"The Pastoral Elegy.\"{{cite book \\|author\\=Works Project Administration, Federal Writers' Project \\|title\\=Indiana. A Guide to the Hoosier State \\|year\\=1947 \\|publisher\\=US History Publishers \\|series\\=American Guide Series \\|page\\=181 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=8iFZ90Uw3jEC \\|isbn\\=1\\-60354\\-013\\-X}}",
"Harrison sold the town site to [Harvey Heth](/wiki/Harvey_Heth \"Harvey Heth\") in 1807\\. Corydon's official founding date of 1808 commemorates the year when Heth, a U.S. government surveyor and landowner, platted the town. Heth donated the town square for public use and sold individual lots to settlers and the territorial government. When Harrison County was established in 1808, Corydon became its county seat of government. The town originally consisted of 185 lots. In 1809 Corydon was connected by road to Doup's Ferry, {{convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}} to the south at [Mauck's Port](/wiki/Mauckport%2C_Indiana \"Mauckport, Indiana\"), providing access to the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") for trade.Griffin, p. 17 The first county courthouse was built at the northwest corner of the town at the summit of High Street.",
"Corydon quickly grew into one of the most important early settlements in Indiana, in large part due to the political successes of its early inhabitants and as one of the main stops on the only land route to the territorial capital of Vincennes. During the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), Corydon sent a mounted militia company nicknamed the [Yellow Jackets](/wiki/Yellow_Jackets_%28Indiana%29 \"Yellow Jackets (Indiana)\") to support the territorial army. The company fought in the [Battle of Tippecanoe](/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe \"Battle of Tippecanoe\"), where it suffered more casualties than any other unit.Griffin, p. 35",
"### Territorial capital (1813–1816\\)",
"{{See also\\| History of Indiana\\|Corydon Historic District}}\n[thumb\\|[Old Capitol Building](/wiki/Corydon_Historic_District%23Old_Capitol \"Corydon Historic District#Old Capitol\") in downtown Corydon\\|alt\\=](/wiki/File:Corydon_old_capital.jpg \"Corydon old capital.jpg\")",
"Corydon became the second capital of the Indiana Territory on May 1, 1813, when it was relocated from [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Vincennes, Indiana\") in [Knox County](/wiki/Knox_County%2C_Indiana \"Knox County, Indiana\"). Opponents of [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison \"William Henry Harrison\"), the former territorial governor, wanted to move the capital away from his political stronghold in Knox County. Supporters of the move felt that relocation of the territorial capital to the east would provide a more centralized location for its citizens, especially after its western portion was reorganized to form the [Illinois Territory](/wiki/Illinois_Territory \"Illinois Territory\") in 1809\\.{{cite book \\|editor\\=John D. Barnhart and Dorothy L. Riker \\|title\\=Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \\|series\\=The History of Indiana \\|volume\\=I \\|year\\=1971 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|page\\=355}}",
"Corydon competed with [Charlestown](/wiki/Charlestown%2C_Indiana \"Charlestown, Indiana\"), [Clarksville](/wiki/Clarksville%2C_Indiana \"Clarksville, Indiana\"), [Lawrenceburg](/wiki/Lawrenceburg%2C_Indiana \"Lawrenceburg, Indiana\"), [Madison](/wiki/Madison%2C_Indiana \"Madison, Indiana\"), and [Jeffersonville](/wiki/Jeffersonville%2C_Indiana \"Jeffersonville, Indiana\") to become the new territorial capital.{{cite book \\|author\\=Ray E. Boomhower \\|title\\=Destination Indiana: Travels Through Hoosier History \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Society \\|year\\=2000 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|page\\=15 \\|isbn\\=0871951479}} [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington \"Dennis Pennington\"), a Harrison County representative and the speaker of the territorial legislature's lower house, helped secure the town's selection during the 1813 session of the Indiana Territory's general assembly. Pennington pointed out that Corydon would be an ideal location. The Harrison County court had approved a design for a new county courthouse on Corydon's public square in 1811 and it could be used as an assembly building for the territorial legislature. Pennington supervised construction of the limestone courthouse, which was nearly completed when Indiana's first state legislature convened at Corydon in 1816\\.Boomhower, p. 17\\.The limestone for the courthouse came from a nearby quarry. See {{cite book \\|author\\=D. F. Lemmon \\|title\\=The Ancient Capital of the State of Indiana, Corydon, Harrison County \\|publisher\\=Ledger Company \\|location\\=New Albany, IN \\|year\\=1891 \\|page\\=7 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/ancientcapitalof00lemm\\#page/n3/mode/2up}} Prior to 1816, the territorial legislature met in the original county courthouse on High Street.Griffin, p. 18",
"[Paul and Susannah Mitchem](/wiki/Paul_and_Susannah_Mitchem \"Paul and Susannah Mitchem\") became Quakers and immigrated to Harrison County from [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") in 1814, bringing with them 107 slaves whom they freed after arriving. Most of the former slaves then settled around the town of Corydon.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wonning \\|first\\=Paul R. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1rhTCwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA145 \\|title\\=Guide to Indiana's Historic Sites \\- South Central Edition: Road Trips in South Central Indiana \\|publisher\\=Mossy Feet Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-310\\-39072\\-2 \\|pages\\=145}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Early Black Settlements by County: Harrison County \\|url\\=https://indianahistory.org/research/research\\-materials/early\\-black\\-settlements/early\\-black\\-settlements\\-by\\-county/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2022 \\|website\\=Indiana Historical Society \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Although some of the former slaves left, the group became one of the largest communities of free blacks in the state.{{cite book \\|author\\=Dick, Otis Amanda \\|title\\=Corydon:Images of America \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing \\|isbn\\=0\\-7385\\-6050\\-2 \\|page\\=34}}",
"### Constitutional convention, 1816",
"{{Main\\|Constitution of Indiana}}\nOn April 19, 1816, President [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison \"James Madison\") signed an [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act \"Enabling Act\") that provided for the election of delegates to a convention at Corydon to consider statehood for Indiana. Forty\\-three delegates, including five men from Harrison County, convened June 10–29, 1816, to draft Indiana's first state [constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiana \"Constitution of Indiana\").\"The Setting for the Convention, \" in {{cite journal \\|editor\\=Pamela J. Bennett \\|title\\=Indiana Statehood \\|journal\\=The Indiana Historian \\|page\\=6 \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|date\\=September 1999}}Harrison County's delegates were John Boone, [Davis Floyd](/wiki/Davis_Floyd \"Davis Floyd\"), Daniel C. Lane, [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington \"Dennis Pennington\"), and Patrick Shields. See Barnhart and Riker, pp. 441–42\\. The preamble of the constitution acknowledges the site of the historic gathering: \"We the Representatives of the people of the Territory of Indiana, in Convention met, at Corydon, on Monday the tenth day of June in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and sixteen,...\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.in.gov/icpr/2778\\.htm \\|title\\=Full Text Of The 1816 Constitution \\|publisher\\=State of Indiana \\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2014}}",
"The delegates met in an unfinished log cabin near the Harrison County courthouse, which had not yet been completed; due to cramped conditions and the summer heat, the men often sought refuge outside under a giant [elm tree](/wiki/Elm_tree \"Elm tree\"), later named the Constitution Elm. Although the tree was lost to Dutch Elm Disease in 1825, a portion of its trunk has been preserved, surrounded by a [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") memorial built by the WPA during the Great Depression in the 1930s.{{cite book \\|author\\=Earl L. Conn \\|title\\=My Indiana: 101 Places to See \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Society \\|year\\=2006 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|page\\=204 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87195\\-195\\-3}}{{cite book \\|author\\=Frederick P. Griffin \\|title\\=The Story of Indiana's Constitution Elm, Corydon, Indiana, June 1816 \\|publisher\\=General Print Company \\|year\\=1974 \\|location\\=Corydon, IN \\|pages\\=10–13 \\|oclc\\=3901490}} See also {{cite book \\|author\\=William P. McLauchlan \\|title\\=The Indiana State Constitution: A Reference Guide \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|series\\=Reference Guides to the State Constitutions of the United States \\|volume\\=26 \\|year\\=1996 \\|location\\=Westport, CT \\|page\\=2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a\\-RQI0gEscUC\\&pg\\=PA1 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-29208\\-8}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://centerforhistory.org/learn\\-history/indiana\\-history/indiana\\-the\\-nineteenth\\-state\\-1816 \\|title\\=Indiana History: Indiana, the Nineteenth State (1816\\) \\|publisher\\=Center for History \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027053723/http://centerforhistory.org/learn\\-history/indiana\\-history/indiana\\-the\\-nineteenth\\-state\\-1816 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 27, 2012}} The delegates completed their work in nineteen days, adjourning on June 29, 1816, when the newly signed state constitution went into effect.Barnhart and Riker, p. 460\\. As outlined in Article XI, Section 11, of the constitution of 1816: \"Corydon, in Harrison County shall be the seat of Government of the state of Indiana, until the year eighteen hundred and twenty\\-five, and until removed by law.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Constitution of 1816: Article XI \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau \\|url\\=http://www.in.gov/history/2872\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=August 3, 2016}}",
"Corydon's selection as the capital led to rapid growth of the town and a housing shortage. There were only three taverns for visitor lodging in 1813\\. A fourth and much larger tavern, the [Kintner House Tavern](/wiki/Kintner_House_Hotel \"Kintner House Hotel\"), opened in 1819\\. Many officials, including three successive Governors, and their staff moved to Corydon and built large homes in the town. The town hosted meetings from national officials, including an 1819 visit by United States President [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe \"James Monroe\") and [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\").Griffin, p. 33",
"### State capital (1816–1825\\)",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Constitution Elm as seen in the summer of 2006](/wiki/File:Constitution_Elm.JPG \"Constitution Elm.JPG\")\nOn November 4, 1816, the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly \"Indiana General Assembly\") met for the first time at Corydon under the new constitution and state government.\"The Final Steps to Statehood,\" Bennett, *The Indiana Historian*, pp. 10–11\\. President James Madison signed the congressional resolution admitting Indiana as the nineteenth state in the Union on December 11, 1816, and Corydon began a new era as the first state capital of Indiana.Lemmon, p. 5\\.",
"The Harrison County courthouse, now known as the Old Capitol, served as Indiana's [first state capitol](/wiki/Indiana_first_capitol_building \"Indiana first capitol building\") building. It housed state government offices from 1816 until 1825\\. Several other historic structures in Corydon date from the early statehood era, including the Governor's Mansion and the Old Treasury Building (Indiana's first state office building), which were built in 1817, and the Colonel Thomas Lloyd Posey home, among others.Colonel Posey was the son of [Thomas Posey](/wiki/Thomas_Posey \"Thomas Posey\"), the [governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Indiana \"Governor of Indiana\") of the [Indiana Territory](/wiki/Indiana_Territory \"Indiana Territory\") from 1813 until 1816\\. See Griffin, pp. 19–21\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Corydon Capitol: About Corydon Capitol State Historic Site \\|publisher\\=Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites \\|url\\=http://www.indianamuseum.org/corydon\\-capital\\-state\\-historic\\-site \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2016}} Corydon's Grand Masonic Lodge, the first in the state, was built in 1819\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=McDonald \\|first1\\=Daniel \\|title\\=A History of Freemasonry in Indiana from 1806 to 1898 \\|date\\=1898 \\|publisher\\=The Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons of the State of Indiana \\|location\\=Indianapolis, IN \\|url\\=http://mlmindiana.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/11/HistoryofFreemasryIndiana\\_McDonald.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2021}}",
"During the years Corydon served as a territorial and state capital, it was home to a number of politicians; notable residents during this time included [Davis Floyd](/wiki/Davis_Floyd \"Davis Floyd\"), a prominent local politician; two governors of Indiana, [Jonathan Jennings](/wiki/Jonathan_Jennings \"Jonathan Jennings\") and [Ratliff Boon](/wiki/Ratliff_Boon \"Ratliff Boon\") (the state's first and second governors, respectively); [Dennis Pennington](/wiki/Dennis_Pennington \"Dennis Pennington\"), the first Speaker of the [Indiana Senate](/wiki/Indiana_Senate \"Indiana Senate\"); and [William Hendricks](/wiki/William_Hendricks \"William Hendricks\"), Indiana's first [U. S. Representative](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\"), its third governor, and a [U.S. Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\").Gugin, p. 54",
"The state constitution's provision making Corydon the seat of state government was not a popular one, especially among the citizens of rival towns. Others expressed concern that the town's geographic location in the extreme southern part of Indiana would become inconvenient as the state's population center shifted northward; however, Dennis Pennington and other Harrison County representatives to the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly \"Indiana General Assembly\") successfully resisted attempts to move the seat of government from Corydon until 1825\\.Barnhart and Riker, p. 461–63\\.\"The Constitution of 1816,\" Bennett, *The Indiana Historian*, p. 12\\.{{cite book \\|author\\=Charles Kettleborough \\|title\\=Constitution Making in Indiana: A Source Book of Constitutional Documents, with Historical Introduction and Critical Notes \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Commission \\|series\\=Indiana Historical Collections \\|volume\\=1 \\|year\\=1930 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|pages\\=118, 138–39 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1UUpAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=Constitution\\+Making\\+in\\+Indiana \\|oclc\\=3654268}} Governor Hendricks signed a legislative bill in 1824 to move the state capital to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis \"Indianapolis\"),{{cite book \\|editor\\=Linda C. Gugin \\|editor2\\=James E. St. Clair \\|title\\=The Governors of Indiana \\|year\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau and Indiana Historical Society Press \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780871951960/page/57 57] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780871951960/page/57 \\|isbn\\=0871951967 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}} effective January 10, 1825\\.{{cite book \\|author\\=Donald F. Carmony \\|title\\=Indiana, 1816–1850: The Pioneer Era \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \\|series\\=The History of Indiana \\|volume\\=I \\|year\\=1998 \\|location\\=Indianapolis \\|pages\\=112–13 \\|isbn\\=0871951258}}",
"### Post\\-capital period",
"After the seat of state government moved to Indianapolis in 1825, Corydon continued its role as the seat of county government and a market town for the surrounding agricultural area.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html \\|title\\=Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) \\|publisher\\=Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology \\|format\\=Searchable database \\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2016}} Includes {{cite web \\|url\\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/202b8/N/Corydon\\_HD\\_Boundary\\_Increase\\_Harrison\\_CO\\_Nom.pdf \\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District (Boundary Increase) \\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2016 \\|author\\=Mary Ellen Gadsky \\|date\\=June 1988}} In 1826 a new County Clerk's office was constructed which remained the principal county office until 1848\\. During the early days of the town, Big Indian Creek and Little Indian Creek were both used for drinking water, bathing, and sewage, which resulted in a [cholera](/wiki/Cholera \"Cholera\") outbreak in 1832\\. Following the outbreak, the town only used the creeks for bathing and multiple wells were dug for drinking water. In 1836, the town began spreading gravel on the roads, which had been dirt roads before.Griffin, p. 23",
"During 1848, a new two\\-story federal style brick office building was constructed on the east side of the county courthouse. This second office building remained in use until 1881\\.Griffin, p. 19 On September 11–14, 1860, the first annual county fair was held on Corydon's {{convert\\|36\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} fairgrounds. It has been an annual event since 1860, making it the longest consecutive\\-running annual county fair in the state.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.clarionnews.net/Articles\\-News\\-i\\-2013\\-07\\-10\\-226220\\.114125\\-154th\\-Harrison\\-County\\-Fair\\-begins\\-Sunday.html \\|title\\=154th Harrison County Fair begins Sunday \\|newspaper\\=Clarion News \\|date\\=July 10, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2014}} See also {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corydondemocrat.com/Articles\\-News\\-i\\-2012\\-08\\-07\\-225097\\.114125\\-Fair\\-abuzz\\-with\\-activities.html \\|title\\=Fair A\\-Buzz With Activities \\|author\\=Alan Stewart \\|work\\=The Corydon Democrat}} The fairgrounds, established in the southwest corner of town, are bordered on the south and west by a large ridge that served as a natural grandstand until the first grandstand was built, circa 1910\\.Works Projects Administration, Federal Writers' Project, p. 184\\.",
"### Battle of Corydon (1863\\)",
"{{Main\\|Battle of Corydon}}\n[thumb\\|Battle of Corydon Memorial Park](/wiki/File:Corydon_Battlefield_entrance.jpg \"Corydon Battlefield entrance.jpg\")",
"During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), Corydon was the site of the only \"official pitched battle\" fought in Indiana. On July 9, 1863, [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\") [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_General \"Brigadier General\") [John Hunt Morgan](/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan \"John Hunt Morgan\")'s cavalry of more than 2,000 men crossed the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") into Indiana to begin what is known as \"[Morgan's Raid](/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid \"Morgan's Raid\")\". The Confederate troops opposed about 450 members of a hastily assembled home guard at the [Battle of Corydon](/wiki/Battle_of_Corydon \"Battle of Corydon\") outside of town, but the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Union (American Civil War)\") forces were quickly defeated and the town surrendered.Taylor, et al., pp. 169, 171\\.",
"Corydon was sacked in retaliation for Union looting in Kentucky, the town's treasury of $690 was seized, and the inmates of the local jail were released. General Morgan demanded $600 to $700 in ransom from each mill and shop owner to keep their buildings from being burned. Tradition says one Corydon miller overpaid by $200; Morgan promptly returned it to him.{{cite book \\|author\\=Shelby Foote \\|title\\=The Civil War: A Narrative, Red River to Appomattox \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|volume\\=III \\|year\\=1974 \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=0\\-394\\-46512\\-1 \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/redrivertoappoma00foot}}Works Project Administration, Federal Writers' Project, pp. 181–82\\.",
"### Post\\-Civil War Period",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Corydon in 1896, looking southward from Walnut Street](/wiki/File:Corydon_in_1896.jpg \"Corydon in 1896.jpg\")",
"In 1871 local journalists began to bring the condition of the first Indiana statehouse to public attention. The building had become filthy and infested with fleas and other pests such that many people refused to enter it. Their campaign proved successful, and in 1873 the building was given a major renovation. The walls and ceilings were replastered, a new staircase and furnishings were installed, and the building was thoroughly cleaned.",
"In 1881 the county began construction of its third office building after demolishing the prior building. The building was completed in June 1882 and remained in use until 1929\\. The state of Indiana purchased the 1816 courthouse to preserve as a state historic site following the move.Griffin, p. 24 Beginning in 1882, the [Louisville, New Albany and Corydon Railroad](/wiki/Louisville%2C_New_Albany_and_Corydon_Railroad \"Louisville, New Albany and Corydon Railroad\"), an {{convert\\|8\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} spur of the [Southern Railway](/wiki/Southern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 \"Southern Railway (U.S.)\"), connected Corydon to other towns in the region. Southern Railroad's main line ran across northern Harrison County at [Crandall](/wiki/Crandall%2C_Indiana \"Crandall, Indiana\"), and remained open to passenger traffic until 1996\\. As of 2008, the line was owned by [Lucas Oil](/wiki/Lucas_Oil \"Lucas Oil\"). A major fire broke out in 1871, in which the Kintner House Tavern was destroyed, along with the entire block from Cherry to Beaver Streets. The county jail also burned in the blaze. A second major fire broke out in Corydon on April 20, 1883, in the west end of Corydon; seven businesses, stables, and multiple homes were destroyed. The fire would have spread further, but it slowed as it spread through a lumber yard containing only freshly cut timber that did not burn easily. This allowed the townspeople to get the upper hand and extinguish the fire, but most of the western portion of the town was burned. It was not until 1922 that all the lots were rebuilt.Griffin, p. 25",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Corydon's Old West Bridge in 1889](/wiki/File:Corydon_in_old_west_bridage.jpg \"Corydon in old west bridage.jpg\")\nIn 1889 an attempted murder in Corydon resulted in a lynching. A mob of 150 mounted men, led by twenty masked [Indiana white cap](/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps \"Indiana White Caps\") vigilantes, arrived at the county jail and demanded the release into their custody of two men (James Devin and Charles Tennyson) being held on charges of attempted murder. The leaders of the group demanded the keys to the jail, threatening to burn down the town if they were refused; after the sheriff refused to hand over the keys, the mob used hammers to knock down the jail doors and removed the two alleged assailants. The two men were dragged to the old Western Bridge, where they were hanged.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BJpuAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=corydon%20Devin%20and%20Tennyson\\&pg\\=PP1 \\|title\\=Indiana's Birthplace: A History of Harrison County, Indiana \\|author\\=William H. Roose \\|year\\=1911 \\|publisher\\=The Tribune Company, Printers \\|location\\=New Albany, Indiana \\|page\\=62}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Strung to the Bridge, Corydon's MurderersLynched \\|url\\=https://newspapers.library.in.gov/cgi\\-bin/indiana?a\\=d\\&d\\=ISST18890619\\.1\\.4 \\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2016 \\|newspaper\\=Indiana State Sentinel \\|date\\=June 19, 1889}}",
"In 1917 the state of Indiana purchased the historic capitol building with the goal of restoring it. The Federal\\-style building opened as a state memorial in 1929–30; it is a part of the Corydon Capitol State Historic Site. The Harrison County government also used the former statehouse until a new, three\\-story county courthouse was completed in 1929, located on the north side of the original 1816 courthouse.Taylor, et al., p. 170\\.Boomhower, p. 21\\.",
"In 1960 a fire destroyed much of the Harrison County Fairgrounds, including its grandstand. A replacement grandstand was acquired from the minor league baseball team at [Parkway Field](/wiki/Parkway_Field \"Parkway Field\") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\"), is still in use.Griffin, p. 36",
"In 1969 Corydon\\-born environmental historian [Samuel P. Hays](/wiki/Samuel_P._Hays \"Samuel P. Hays\") donated the {{convert\\|311\\|acre\\|hectare\\|adj\\=on}} [Hayswood Nature Reserve](/wiki/Hayswood_Nature_Reserve \"Hayswood Nature Reserve\") to the county. Known as Hayswood Park, it is the county's second largest nature reserve.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2016}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.harrisoncountyparks.com/parks/hayswood\\-nature\\-reserve\\#about \\|title\\=Hayswood Nature Reserve \\- Harrison County Parks, Indiana \\|website\\=www.harrisoncountyparks.com \\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2019}}",
"In 1973 a portion of Corydon's downtown area was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") as the [Corydon Historic District](/wiki/Corydon_Historic_District \"Corydon Historic District\"). Initially, the district included major sites dating from the period when Corydon was a territorial and state capital: the Old Capitol/Harrison County Courthouse building, the Governor Hendricks' Headquarters, Constitution Elm, the first state office building, the [Kintner\\-McGrain House](/wiki/Kintner-McGrain_House \"Kintner-McGrain House\") (Cedar Glade), and the Posey House, among others. In 1989 the historic district's boundary was increased to include [The Kintner House Inn](/wiki/Kintner_House_Hotel \"Kintner House Hotel\"), among other commercial and residential buildings.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html \\|title\\=Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) \\|publisher\\=Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology \\|format\\=Searchable database \\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2016}} Includes {{cite web \\|url\\=https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon\\_HD\\_Harrison\\_CO\\_Nom.pdf \\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District \\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2016 \\|author\\=Frederick Porter Griffin \\|date\\=December 1972}}{{NRISref\\|version\\=2010a}}",
"In 2008 Corydon celebrated its bicentennial anniversary with a year\\-long series of events that included the unveiling of a $200,000 bronze statue of Honorable [Frank O'Bannon](/wiki/Frank_O%27Bannon \"Frank O'Bannon\"), the late governor of Indiana and a former citizen of Corydon.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.clarionnews.net/Articles\\-i\\-2008\\-06\\-11\\-206909\\.114125\\_Corydon\\_celebrates\\_200\\_years.html \\|title\\=Corydon celebrates 200 years \\|author\\=Jo Ann Spieth\\-Saylor \\|newspaper\\=Clarion News \\|date\\=June 11, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2014}}",
"A local attraction in Corydon was [Butt Drugs](/wiki/Butt_Drugs \"Butt Drugs\"), a drugstore known for its unique name, service, and merchandise. The store opened in 1952 and closed in 2023\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.wlky.com/article/indiana\\-pharmacy\\-butt\\-drugs\\-closing\\-corydon/43720888 \\|title\\=Indiana pharmacy Butt Drugs closing after 71 years in business \\|publisher\\=WLKY \\|date\\=April 27, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2024 \\|author\\=Haley Cawthon}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1850\= 462
\|1870\= 747
\|1880\= 763
\|1890\= 880
\|1900\= 1610
\|1910\= 1703
\|1920\= 1785
\|1930\= 2009
\|1940\= 1865
\|1950\= 1944
\|1960\= 2701
\|1970\= 2719
\|1980\= 2724
\|1990\= 2661
\|2000\= 2715
\|2010\= 3122
\|2020\= 3153
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html \|title\=Census of Population and Housing \|publisher\=Census.gov \|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the census{{cite web \|title\=U.S. Census website \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=December 11, 2012}} of 2010, there were 3,122 people, 1,341 households, and 716 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|1892\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 1,491 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|903\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.6% of the population.
There were 1,341 households, of which 26\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35\.6% were married couples living together, 11\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46\.6% were non\-families. 41\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.14 and the average family size was 2\.88\.
The median age in the town was 40\.8 years. 20\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\.9% were from 25 to 44; 22\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 23\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 45\.6% male and 54\.4% female.
### 2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,715 people, 1,171 households, and 674 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|1,708\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,271 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|799\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\.27% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.41% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.11% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.04% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.85% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.18% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.88% of the population.
There were 1,171 households, out of which 25\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\.4% were married couples living together, 13\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42\.4% were non\-families. 37\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.17 and the average family size was 2\.81\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 20\.1% under the age of 18, 10\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\.7% from 45 to 64, and 24\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\.2 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $33,823, and the median income for a family was $41,630\. Males had a median income of $29,159 versus $21,699 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,740\. About 9\.8% of families and 10\.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15\.2% of those under age 18 and 14\.3% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1850\\= 462\n\\|1870\\= 747\n\\|1880\\= 763\n\\|1890\\= 880\n\\|1900\\= 1610\n\\|1910\\= 1703\n\\|1920\\= 1785\n\\|1930\\= 2009\n\\|1940\\= 1865\n\\|1950\\= 1944\n\\|1960\\= 2701\n\\|1970\\= 2719\n\\|1980\\= 2724\n\\|1990\\= 2661\n\\|2000\\= 2715\n\\|2010\\= 3122\n\\|2020\\= 3153\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html \\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing \\|publisher\\=Census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the census{{cite web \\|title\\=U.S. Census website \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 11, 2012}} of 2010, there were 3,122 people, 1,341 households, and 716 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|1892\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 1,491 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|903\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.9% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.6% of the population.",
"There were 1,341 households, of which 26\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35\\.6% were married couples living together, 11\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46\\.6% were non\\-families. 41\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.14 and the average family size was 2\\.88\\.",
"The median age in the town was 40\\.8 years. 20\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 22\\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 23\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 45\\.6% male and 54\\.4% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the census of 2000, there were 2,715 people, 1,171 households, and 674 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|1,708\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,271 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|799\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\\.27% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.41% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.11% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.04% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.85% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.18% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.88% of the population.",
"There were 1,171 households, out of which 25\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\\.4% were married couples living together, 13\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42\\.4% were non\\-families. 37\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.17 and the average family size was 2\\.81\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 20\\.1% under the age of 18, 10\\.2% from 18 to 24, 24\\.3% from 25 to 44, 20\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 24\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80\\.2 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $33,823, and the median income for a family was $41,630\\. Males had a median income of $29,159 versus $21,699 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,740\\. About 9\\.8% of families and 10\\.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15\\.2% of those under age 18 and 14\\.3% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Grammar
-------
### Sentence structure
The most widespread sentence structure seems to be Subject→Verb→Object, however, the use of Verb→Object→Subject has been documented as well. Personal pronouns come before the verb. Prepositions such as “what” (Nding: *yara*), “where” (Nding: *ča*) and “who” (Nding: *abura*) come at the beginning of the sentence. Important is the fact that the noun doesn’t change, no matter its usage, e.g. the noun being a subject/an object/when it comes together with a preposition, has no influence on its form.
### Nouns
Nouns seem to be mostly voiceless, but when they become adjectives, they usually (but not always) become voiced, e.g. *p* becomes *b*, *tj* becomes *dj*.
#### Genus
Gender of a noun is signaled in Nding through prefixes. For more information, see the paragraph below.
#### Plural forms
The plural form is created through a change of the initial sound of the noun and it depends on the gender\-bound prefix, that the noun possesses. That can mean a change of the prefix or a change of the final position of the word. The before\-mentioned categories stand at the core of Meinhof’s plural form classification. First, I’ll talk about the prefix\-changing building of the plural form. There are the following subcategories of these nouns, according to Meinhof:
1. sing. *b*\- pl. *y*\- (e.g. sing. *baà* pl. *ya* \[eng. a man]) and sing. *p*\- pl. – (e.g. sing. *pali* pl. *ali* \[eng. a pot])
2. sing. *dj*\- *tj*\- *t*\- pl. *m*\- (e.g. sing. *tino* pl. *mino* \[eng. a rock, stone])
3. sing. *t*\- pl. *r*\- or *n*\-
4. sing. *g*\- or – pl. *ṅ*\- (attention! sing. *ṅu\-* pl. *ṅa*\-)
5. sing. *tje*\- and – pl. *kā*\-
6. sing. *k*\- pl. –
Now, the other type of plural form, created by a change of the final position, is categorized in the following way:
1. sing. \-*ak* or \-*k* pl. *a*\- or –
Oftentimes vowel changes appear in plural forms too, e.g. *nu**dru**ba* pl. *nu**duru**ba* \[eng. rabbit].
Plural forms can also change their stems and be irregular, e.g. sing. *bwai* pl. *tje* \[eng. cow/cows].
### Adjectives
The information and data gathered on the topic of adjectives are very limited, and according to Seligmann, in Nding they would be usually replaced with a verbal construction, e.g. instead of saying “no mountain is greater than Eliri” it would be literally translated as “no mountain surpasses Eliri”\= *ko ma keñe Dayo**.*
The initial sound of an adjective adapts to the initial sound of the noun, to which it refers to, and they change in their plural forms accordingly. Meinhof divided the adjectival noun\-dependent prefixes into 3 categories:
1. sing. *b*\- and *p*\- pl. *y*\- or – (e.g. \-*abuya* \[eng. full]→ sing. ***p**ali **b**abuya* pl. *ali **y**abuya* \[eng. a full pot/full pots])
2. sing. \-*ōte* \[eng. good] (e.g. sing. ***tj**alaṅga **dj**ōte* pl. ***m**alanga **m**ōte* \[eng. a good leg/good legs]). Here one can also notice how the *tj*\- and *dj*\- prefixes have the same, beforementioned plural prefix form *m*\-
3. \-*akonda* \[eng. broken] (e.g. sing. ***g**uri **k**akonda* pl. ***n**uri **n**akonda/e*). Attention to exceptions; As one can see, the adjective and the noun in the singular form don’t fit exactly (*g* and *k*) but in the plural, they both start with the same letter (*n*)
### Grammatical Cases (Kasus)
The genitive seems very rare and almost non\-existent in the Nding language, however, when it is used, it is put at the end of the phrase unit, just like in Bantu, e.g. *ba bura bá Dayo* \[eng. an Eliri man/a man from Eliri].
### Numerals
| \+Numerals in Nding | Numeral | Nding translation |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | *elle* |
| 2 | *eta* |
| 3 | *etak* |
| 4 | *yibinik* |
| 5 | *tjebiṅgela* |
| 6 | *menayelle* |
| 7 | *menayeta* |
| 8 | *menayélak* |
| 9 | *menayíbinik* |
| 10 | *yemeńunok* |
| 11 | *yemeńunok* *menayella* |
| 20 | *yemenyalok yemenyalok* |
The numerals 1,2 and 3 with connection to the \-*mena* (see numbers 6, 7, 8\) gain an initial sound \-*y*. It is being theorized, that \-*mena* means something like “add”. Additionally, the number 10 (*yemeńunok*) and the repeated *"yemenyalok"* in the number 20, are thought to be the same word (*ń→ny* and *u→a*).
### Pronouns
#### Personal pronouns
Normal personal pronouns: *aṅi* (I), *aṅo* (you), *aṅo* (he), *arnaṅo* (we), *ata* (they).
Personal pronouns before the verb: *ńi/ṅi/ni* (I), *aṅo* (you), *aṅo* (he), *ṅori/ari* (we), *ṅorno/ano* (you pl.), *ṅota*/*ӑtӑ* (she).
Personal pronouns can also conjoin with the verbs and act as suffixes; thus, indicating the subject of the action: \-*ia/i* (I), \-*wa/o* (you), \-*wa/oba* (he), \-*uria/\-ori* (we), \-*ota/\-ata* (you pl.), \-*una/\-ata* (she). When that happens, the stem of the word can change (esp. the vowels *a, o, u* have a tendency to swap). Nevertheless, there are many ambiguities and contradictions in the data about personal pronouns, so there are still many problems with finding a clear pattern.
#### Possessive pronouns
Personal pronouns: *i/iṅ/ńe* (my/mine), \-*a* (your/yours), \-*oba* (his), \-*ori* (our), \-*ono/\-ai* (your/yours), \-*ano/\-ota* (her).
#### Interrogative pronouns
*Interrogative pronouns: abura* (who), *bi* or *yara* (what), *tja* (where).
### Verbs
#### Verbal suffixes
See the paragraph above on personal pronouns.
#### Negation
Negation is accomplished by the use of a post\-position *ma/nā/nӑ*.
#### Imperative form
The information about the imperative form is also somewhat unclear, but as one sees in the following example, it has been observed, that there is surely a difference between an imperative in a singular form and in the plural (a suffix \-*ano* is gained in the plural): *ŭṅo!* (you go!) *uṅano!* (pl. you go!).
#### Conjugation of the verb "to have"
| \+Conjugation of the verb "to have" | Pronoun \[eng.] | Nding | Translation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| I | *bāno/banŏ* | "I have" |
| you | *banŏē* | "you have" |
| he | *banŏē* | "he has" |
| we | *gari* | "we have" |
| you (pl.) | *andona* | "you (pl.) have" |
| they | *ano* *andona* | "they have" |
#### Past tense
Exemplary conjugation of a phrase "to break a stick": *koñi guri* (I broke a stick), *koño guri* (you broke…), *koñoba guri* (he broke…), *koñori guri* (we broke..), *koñata guri* (you \[pl.] broke…), *koñata guri* (they broke..).
### Adverbs
Adverbs: *nĕnna* (here), *tegu* (yesterday).
### (Pre\- and post\-)positions
Postpositions: *ma/nā/nӑ* (used for negation).
Prepositions: *ra* („in“ in a sense, when someone is asking for a location of something), *ba* („to“), *an* („from“), *nā* („at/on“), *tuko* („outside“), *tuka* („at/on“ in a sense, when someone asks about location), *djeta* (“far from”), *noṅgotjon* (“close to”), *tenyagan* (“under”), *ti/tiaritjo* (“in the middle of”).
|
[
"Grammar\n-------",
"### Sentence structure",
"The most widespread sentence structure seems to be Subject→Verb→Object, however, the use of Verb→Object→Subject has been documented as well. Personal pronouns come before the verb. Prepositions such as “what” (Nding: *yara*), “where” (Nding: *ča*) and “who” (Nding: *abura*) come at the beginning of the sentence. Important is the fact that the noun doesn’t change, no matter its usage, e.g. the noun being a subject/an object/when it comes together with a preposition, has no influence on its form.",
"### Nouns",
"Nouns seem to be mostly voiceless, but when they become adjectives, they usually (but not always) become voiced, e.g. *p* becomes *b*, *tj* becomes *dj*.",
"#### Genus",
"Gender of a noun is signaled in Nding through prefixes. For more information, see the paragraph below.",
"#### Plural forms",
"The plural form is created through a change of the initial sound of the noun and it depends on the gender\\-bound prefix, that the noun possesses. That can mean a change of the prefix or a change of the final position of the word. The before\\-mentioned categories stand at the core of Meinhof’s plural form classification. First, I’ll talk about the prefix\\-changing building of the plural form. There are the following subcategories of these nouns, according to Meinhof:",
"1. sing. *b*\\- pl. *y*\\- (e.g. sing. *baà* pl. *ya* \\[eng. a man]) and sing. *p*\\- pl. – (e.g. sing. *pali* pl. *ali* \\[eng. a pot])\n2. sing. *dj*\\- *tj*\\- *t*\\- pl. *m*\\- (e.g. sing. *tino* pl. *mino* \\[eng. a rock, stone])\n3. sing. *t*\\- pl. *r*\\- or *n*\\-\n4. sing. *g*\\- or – pl. *ṅ*\\- (attention! sing. *ṅu\\-* pl. *ṅa*\\-)\n5. sing. *tje*\\- and – pl. *kā*\\-\n6. sing. *k*\\- pl. –",
"Now, the other type of plural form, created by a change of the final position, is categorized in the following way:",
"1. sing. \\-*ak* or \\-*k* pl. *a*\\- or –",
"Oftentimes vowel changes appear in plural forms too, e.g. *nu**dru**ba* pl. *nu**duru**ba* \\[eng. rabbit].",
"Plural forms can also change their stems and be irregular, e.g. sing. *bwai* pl. *tje* \\[eng. cow/cows].",
"### Adjectives",
"The information and data gathered on the topic of adjectives are very limited, and according to Seligmann, in Nding they would be usually replaced with a verbal construction, e.g. instead of saying “no mountain is greater than Eliri” it would be literally translated as “no mountain surpasses Eliri”\\= *ko ma keñe Dayo**.*",
"The initial sound of an adjective adapts to the initial sound of the noun, to which it refers to, and they change in their plural forms accordingly. Meinhof divided the adjectival noun\\-dependent prefixes into 3 categories:",
"1. sing. *b*\\- and *p*\\- pl. *y*\\- or – (e.g. \\-*abuya* \\[eng. full]→ sing. ***p**ali **b**abuya* pl. *ali **y**abuya* \\[eng. a full pot/full pots])\n2. sing. \\-*ōte* \\[eng. good] (e.g. sing. ***tj**alaṅga **dj**ōte* pl. ***m**alanga **m**ōte* \\[eng. a good leg/good legs]). Here one can also notice how the *tj*\\- and *dj*\\- prefixes have the same, beforementioned plural prefix form *m*\\-\n3. \\-*akonda* \\[eng. broken] (e.g. sing. ***g**uri **k**akonda* pl. ***n**uri **n**akonda/e*). Attention to exceptions; As one can see, the adjective and the noun in the singular form don’t fit exactly (*g* and *k*) but in the plural, they both start with the same letter (*n*)",
"### Grammatical Cases (Kasus)",
"The genitive seems very rare and almost non\\-existent in the Nding language, however, when it is used, it is put at the end of the phrase unit, just like in Bantu, e.g. *ba bura bá Dayo* \\[eng. an Eliri man/a man from Eliri].",
"### Numerals",
"",
"| \\+Numerals in Nding | Numeral | Nding translation |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | *elle* |\n| 2 | *eta* |\n| 3 | *etak* |\n| 4 | *yibinik* |\n| 5 | *tjebiṅgela* |\n| 6 | *menayelle* |\n| 7 | *menayeta* |\n| 8 | *menayélak* |\n| 9 | *menayíbinik* |\n| 10 | *yemeńunok* |\n| 11 | *yemeńunok* *menayella* |\n| 20 | *yemenyalok yemenyalok* |",
"The numerals 1,2 and 3 with connection to the \\-*mena* (see numbers 6, 7, 8\\) gain an initial sound \\-*y*. It is being theorized, that \\-*mena* means something like “add”. Additionally, the number 10 (*yemeńunok*) and the repeated *\"yemenyalok\"* in the number 20, are thought to be the same word (*ń→ny* and *u→a*).",
"### Pronouns",
"#### Personal pronouns",
"Normal personal pronouns: *aṅi* (I), *aṅo* (you), *aṅo* (he), *arnaṅo* (we), *ata* (they).",
"Personal pronouns before the verb: *ńi/ṅi/ni* (I), *aṅo* (you), *aṅo* (he), *ṅori/ari* (we), *ṅorno/ano* (you pl.), *ṅota*/*ӑtӑ* (she).",
"Personal pronouns can also conjoin with the verbs and act as suffixes; thus, indicating the subject of the action: \\-*ia/i* (I), \\-*wa/o* (you), \\-*wa/oba* (he), \\-*uria/\\-ori* (we), \\-*ota/\\-ata* (you pl.), \\-*una/\\-ata* (she). When that happens, the stem of the word can change (esp. the vowels *a, o, u* have a tendency to swap). Nevertheless, there are many ambiguities and contradictions in the data about personal pronouns, so there are still many problems with finding a clear pattern.",
"#### Possessive pronouns",
"Personal pronouns: *i/iṅ/ńe* (my/mine), \\-*a* (your/yours), \\-*oba* (his), \\-*ori* (our), \\-*ono/\\-ai* (your/yours), \\-*ano/\\-ota* (her).",
"#### Interrogative pronouns",
"*Interrogative pronouns: abura* (who), *bi* or *yara* (what), *tja* (where).",
"### Verbs",
"#### Verbal suffixes",
"See the paragraph above on personal pronouns.",
"#### Negation",
"Negation is accomplished by the use of a post\\-position *ma/nā/nӑ*.",
"#### Imperative form",
"The information about the imperative form is also somewhat unclear, but as one sees in the following example, it has been observed, that there is surely a difference between an imperative in a singular form and in the plural (a suffix \\-*ano* is gained in the plural): *ŭṅo!* (you go!) *uṅano!* (pl. you go!).",
"#### Conjugation of the verb \"to have\"",
"",
"| \\+Conjugation of the verb \"to have\" | Pronoun \\[eng.] | Nding | Translation |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| I | *bāno/banŏ* | \"I have\" |\n| you | *banŏē* | \"you have\" |\n| he | *banŏē* | \"he has\" |\n| we | *gari* | \"we have\" |\n| you (pl.) | *andona* | \"you (pl.) have\" |\n| they | *ano* *andona* | \"they have\" |",
"#### Past tense",
"Exemplary conjugation of a phrase \"to break a stick\": *koñi guri* (I broke a stick), *koño guri* (you broke…), *koñoba guri* (he broke…), *koñori guri* (we broke..), *koñata guri* (you \\[pl.] broke…), *koñata guri* (they broke..).",
"### Adverbs",
"Adverbs: *nĕnna* (here), *tegu* (yesterday).",
"### (Pre\\- and post\\-)positions",
"Postpositions: *ma/nā/nӑ* (used for negation).",
"Prepositions: *ra* („in“ in a sense, when someone is asking for a location of something), *ba* („to“), *an* („from“), *nā* („at/on“), *tuko* („outside“), *tuka* („at/on“ in a sense, when someone asks about location), *djeta* (“far from”), *noṅgotjon* (“close to”), *tenyagan* (“under”), *ti/tiaritjo* (“in the middle of”).",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Orman was born in [Muscatine, Iowa](/wiki/Muscatine%2C_Iowa "Muscatine, Iowa") and grew up on his family's farm there. In 1869, he moved to Colorado at the age of 20, along with his brother William. The brothers soon started a construction company which, though it did a variety of projects, was most famous for building railroads, particularly in Colorado and Kansas.
James Orman moved to [Pueblo, Colorado](/wiki/Pueblo%2C_Colorado "Pueblo, Colorado") in 1874, and soon entered politics. He was elected to several terms in the Colorado state legislature and the Pueblo city council, and he served as mayor of Pueblo from 1897 to 1898\. In 1883 the state democratic party nominated him to the United States Senate, but the state legislature, which chose senators at that time, elected [Thomas M. Bowen](/wiki/Thomas_M._Bowen "Thomas M. Bowen") over James Orman by three votes.
Orman became the Democratic nominee for governor in 1900\. Though Colorado was generally a Republican state, the Republican Party was divided over the [free silver](/wiki/Free_silver "Free silver") controversy, and the [United States Populist Party](/wiki/United_States_Populist_Party "United States Populist Party"), though in decline, was still a prominent third party in Colorado. When the Silver Republicans and populists endorsed Orman, he was elected easily.
The greatest problem during his administration was a dispute between miners and a mining company. On May 1, 1901, 350 miners led by [Vincent Saint John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John "Vincent Saint John"), and organized by the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners "Western Federation of Miners"), walked away from their jobs at the Smuggler\-Union mine in [Telluride](/wiki/Telluride%2C_Colorado "Telluride, Colorado"). Their walkout was a protest of a new method of payment, called "contracting", or "fathoms", which could sometimes result in a miner doing thirty days' worth of digging, and getting paid nothing for the work. But the contract system was worse than that; if the miner received no pay due to failing to perform according to the contract, then he owed money to the company for tools and powder.The Corpse On Boomerang Road, Telluride's War On Labor 1899\-1908, MaryJoy Martin, 2004, page 31 and 41\.
A shooting war was triggered when one of the strikers, believed to have been unarmed, had been shot through the throat by a deputized mine guard. In spite of intense pressure from others, Lieutenant Governor [David C. Coates](/wiki/David_C._Coates "David C. Coates") helped to persuade Governor Orman not to send the [Colorado National Guard](/wiki/Colorado_National_Guard "Colorado National Guard"). Coates volunteered to mediate, and he was dispatched by the governor to be part of a commission sent to Telluride to investigate the issues that caused the walkout. Vincent St. John and mine operator [Arthur L. Collins](/wiki/Arthur_L._Collins "Arthur L. Collins") finally met across the table, and the commission was able to effect a settlement between the miners and the company, resulting in more than a year of labor peace in [San Miguel County's](/wiki/San_Miguel_County%2C_Colorado "San Miguel County, Colorado") silver mines.The Corpse On Boomerang Road, Telluride's War On Labor 1899\-1908, MaryJoy Martin, 2004, pages 65\-67, 78\-79, and 85\-87\.
Orman served one two\-year term, as most Colorado governors did at that time. After his term as governor he moved back to Pueblo and retired from politics, but was active in business. Following his death, he was buried in Pueblo.
In 1901,{{cite web \|title\=Jesse James and Frank James \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesse\-James\-and\-Frank\-James \|publisher\=Encyclopaedia Britannica \|accessdate\=19 February 2019}} in response to thousands of requests, Orman commuted the sentence of [Edward O'Kelley](/wiki/Edward_O%27Kelley "Edward O'Kelley"), who had killed [Robert Ford](/wiki/Robert_Ford_%28outlaw%29 "Robert Ford (outlaw)"), the man who murdered outlaw [Jesse James](/wiki/Jesse_James "Jesse James").{{cite book \|first\=Ron \|last\=Hansen \|author\-link\=Ron Hansen (novelist) \|title\=\[\[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (novel)\|The assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]] \|publisher\=\[\[Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group]] \|year\=1983 \|pages\=304 \|language\=English\|isbn\=9780394516479}}
Orman was married to Nellie Martin{{cite web \|title\=First Ladies of Colorado: Nellie Martin Orman \|url\=https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine\_v50n1\_Winter1973\.pdf \|publisher\=The Colorado Magazine \|accessdate\=28 May 2019}} from 1876 until her death in 1918\. They had two children, Frederick and Edna.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Orman was born in [Muscatine, Iowa](/wiki/Muscatine%2C_Iowa \"Muscatine, Iowa\") and grew up on his family's farm there. In 1869, he moved to Colorado at the age of 20, along with his brother William. The brothers soon started a construction company which, though it did a variety of projects, was most famous for building railroads, particularly in Colorado and Kansas.",
"James Orman moved to [Pueblo, Colorado](/wiki/Pueblo%2C_Colorado \"Pueblo, Colorado\") in 1874, and soon entered politics. He was elected to several terms in the Colorado state legislature and the Pueblo city council, and he served as mayor of Pueblo from 1897 to 1898\\. In 1883 the state democratic party nominated him to the United States Senate, but the state legislature, which chose senators at that time, elected [Thomas M. Bowen](/wiki/Thomas_M._Bowen \"Thomas M. Bowen\") over James Orman by three votes.",
"Orman became the Democratic nominee for governor in 1900\\. Though Colorado was generally a Republican state, the Republican Party was divided over the [free silver](/wiki/Free_silver \"Free silver\") controversy, and the [United States Populist Party](/wiki/United_States_Populist_Party \"United States Populist Party\"), though in decline, was still a prominent third party in Colorado. When the Silver Republicans and populists endorsed Orman, he was elected easily.",
"The greatest problem during his administration was a dispute between miners and a mining company. On May 1, 1901, 350 miners led by [Vincent Saint John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John \"Vincent Saint John\"), and organized by the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners \"Western Federation of Miners\"), walked away from their jobs at the Smuggler\\-Union mine in [Telluride](/wiki/Telluride%2C_Colorado \"Telluride, Colorado\"). Their walkout was a protest of a new method of payment, called \"contracting\", or \"fathoms\", which could sometimes result in a miner doing thirty days' worth of digging, and getting paid nothing for the work. But the contract system was worse than that; if the miner received no pay due to failing to perform according to the contract, then he owed money to the company for tools and powder.The Corpse On Boomerang Road, Telluride's War On Labor 1899\\-1908, MaryJoy Martin, 2004, page 31 and 41\\.",
"A shooting war was triggered when one of the strikers, believed to have been unarmed, had been shot through the throat by a deputized mine guard. In spite of intense pressure from others, Lieutenant Governor [David C. Coates](/wiki/David_C._Coates \"David C. Coates\") helped to persuade Governor Orman not to send the [Colorado National Guard](/wiki/Colorado_National_Guard \"Colorado National Guard\"). Coates volunteered to mediate, and he was dispatched by the governor to be part of a commission sent to Telluride to investigate the issues that caused the walkout. Vincent St. John and mine operator [Arthur L. Collins](/wiki/Arthur_L._Collins \"Arthur L. Collins\") finally met across the table, and the commission was able to effect a settlement between the miners and the company, resulting in more than a year of labor peace in [San Miguel County's](/wiki/San_Miguel_County%2C_Colorado \"San Miguel County, Colorado\") silver mines.The Corpse On Boomerang Road, Telluride's War On Labor 1899\\-1908, MaryJoy Martin, 2004, pages 65\\-67, 78\\-79, and 85\\-87\\.",
"Orman served one two\\-year term, as most Colorado governors did at that time. After his term as governor he moved back to Pueblo and retired from politics, but was active in business. Following his death, he was buried in Pueblo.",
"In 1901,{{cite web \\|title\\=Jesse James and Frank James \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesse\\-James\\-and\\-Frank\\-James \\|publisher\\=Encyclopaedia Britannica \\|accessdate\\=19 February 2019}} in response to thousands of requests, Orman commuted the sentence of [Edward O'Kelley](/wiki/Edward_O%27Kelley \"Edward O'Kelley\"), who had killed [Robert Ford](/wiki/Robert_Ford_%28outlaw%29 \"Robert Ford (outlaw)\"), the man who murdered outlaw [Jesse James](/wiki/Jesse_James \"Jesse James\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Ron \\|last\\=Hansen \\|author\\-link\\=Ron Hansen (novelist) \\|title\\=\\[\\[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (novel)\\|The assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group]] \\|year\\=1983 \\|pages\\=304 \\|language\\=English\\|isbn\\=9780394516479}}",
"Orman was married to Nellie Martin{{cite web \\|title\\=First Ladies of Colorado: Nellie Martin Orman \\|url\\=https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine\\_v50n1\\_Winter1973\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=The Colorado Magazine \\|accessdate\\=28 May 2019}} from 1876 until her death in 1918\\. They had two children, Frederick and Edna.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
*Based on the 2020 Glen Rose production. Note: Songs labelled with § have been added to the Glen Rose production since the original production.*
**Prologue**
A young shepherd boy, Reuben, appears looking frantically for his sheep and encounters Chaya the shepherdess who tells him of David tending flocks in the same fields. She assists him in finding his sheep through song ("Psalm 23")
Act I
A mother and daughter, Tirzah and Abigail, prepare dinner for father and son, Reuben and Ephram, who are returning from a long day tending their herds in the fields, while the young boy Caleb rests on a bed, he is crippled. After family greetings and excited talk of the upcoming Passover the mealtime prayer and Sabbath evokes questions about Gods covenant and Reuben explains its like a promise. Like the promise God made to send the Messiah. ("A Promise Is a Promise")
The lighting then shifts to revel on the main stage the prophets of the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament "Old Testament"), who are foretelling the coming of Christ. Reuben continues to narrate the telling of the story from the family home in a small upper room located off the main stage that is illuminated only during those parts. The [Archangel Gabriel](/wiki/Archangel_Gabriel "Archangel Gabriel") announces the birth of baby Jesus, and shepherds and [three Magi](/wiki/Biblical_Magi "Biblical Magi") travel to Bethlehem to worship Him ("Saviour"). At this point the Nativity is revealed Mary, Joseph and the baby Jesus in the manger ("Son of God"§). The townspeople and children gather singing their praise to the newborn king. Reuben rushes to confirm the saviours arrival.
Reuben explains to the children that [Herod](/wiki/Herod_the_Great "Herod the Great") decreed that all male babies in Bethlehem under the age of two must be [massacred](/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents "Massacre of the Innocents"), but just in time, an angel warned Joseph to flee to Egypt with baby Jesus. After Herod dies, the angel directs them back to [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth "Nazareth"), where Jesus grows up but it is not long before his parents find him teaching in the Temple. ("Sh'ma Israel"§)
Jesus grows up, and his cousin, [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist"), calls for sinners to repent and be baptized in the [Jordan River](/wiki/Jordan_River "Jordan River") ("The Kingdom of Heaven/One Voice"§). Jesus comes to John to be baptized, and though John bows before Jesus and insists that it is not right for him to baptize Jesus, Jesus asks him to permit it so they may do what is right in God's eyes. John baptizes Jesus, and the [Spirit of God](/wiki/Holy_Spirit "Holy Spirit") descends on him. [Satan](/wiki/Satan "Satan") leads Jesus out into the wilderness and tempts him, but Jesus does not succumb to his [temptation](/wiki/Temptation_of_Christ "Temptation of Christ") ("It is Written"§). Back in [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee "Galilee"), Jesus calls four fishermen – [Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter "Saint Peter"), [James](/wiki/James_the_Just "James the Just"), [John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle "John the Apostle"), and [Andrew](/wiki/Saint_Andrew "Saint Andrew") – to be his first [disciples](/wiki/Disciple_%28Christianity%29 "Disciple (Christianity)"). Amazed by a miraculous catch of fish, they declare that he must be the coming king ("Fishers of Men"§).
Jesus calls [twelve disciples](/wiki/Twelve_Apostles "Twelve Apostles") and begins teaching the common people the [Beatitudes](/wiki/Beatitudes "Beatitudes"), explaining his love for them ("Come Unto Me"§). Caiaphas and the Pharisees enter and accuse Jesus of being a false Messiah and of blasphemy for violating the sabbath. As they leave the crowd ask Jesus to teach them how to pray and he does (The Lords Prayer"§).
Jesus meets with Nicodemus and explains to him that to enter heaven one must be born again. He teaches him the meaning of redemption through repentance. In the next scene The [apostles](/wiki/Twelve_Apostles "Twelve Apostles") sing and dance, telling the crowds "He Is Jehovah" but as they cross the Jordan a great storm suddenly sets in and they fear they will perish and call out to Jesus who calms the sea.
Jesus heals the blind, A woman with the issue of blood("The hem of his garment"§), Ruben's lame son, casts the demons out from a man and raises a child from the dead in the marketplace . ("Hem of his garment" (reprise)).
Act II
Jesus and his disciples make his Triumphal Entry into [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") as the crowds celebrate and lay palm branches before him ("We Cry Hosanna, Lord"). When Jesus arrives at the [Temple](/wiki/Second_Temple "Second Temple"), he finds money changers selling animals for temple [sacrifices](/wiki/Korban "Korban"), turning the Temple into a place of business. He angrily [overturns their tables](/wiki/Jesus_and_the_Money_Changers "Jesus and the Money Changers") and confronts [Caiaphas](/wiki/Caiaphas "Caiaphas"), the [High priest](/wiki/Kohen_Gadol "Kohen Gadol") ("My Father's Temple"§).
Jesus and His disciples meet in an upper room to celebrate the [Passover](/wiki/Passover "Passover"), and he gives them some of his final teachings, assuring them that His spirit and His peace will always be with them ("Shalom"). Judas leaves the table to betray Jesus to the priests and [Pharisees](/wiki/Pharisees "Pharisees"). Jesus predicts that all his disciples will fall away, but Peter insists that he will never leave Jesus. Jesus warns him that before the [rooster](/wiki/Rooster "Rooster") crows, he will deny Jesus three times. Jesus and the rest of His disciples go into the [Garden of Gethsemane](/wiki/Gethsemane "Gethsemane") to pray ("He Is Jehovah" (reprise)). The disciples fall asleep. Jesus begs God to take away the suffering he will endure, but then asks that God's will be done so that God may be glorified ("Glorify Your Son"§). The disciples awaken as Judas returns with some Roman soldiers. Judas betrays Jesus [with a kiss](/wiki/The_Kiss_of_Judas "The Kiss of Judas"), and the soldiers arrest him and lead him away.
As Jesus is awaiting [His trial](/wiki/Sanhedrin_Trial_of_Jesus "Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus"), three people recognize Peter as one of Jesus' followers. Peter repeatedly denies even knowing Jesus, and a rooster crows. Peter is overcome by his guilt and asks God for forgiveness, dedicating his life to God ("Peter's Song"§). Jesus is put on trial before Herod and then [Pontius Pilate](/wiki/Pontius_Pilate "Pontius Pilate"), who initially refuses to condemn Him, since He had committed no crime. During these trials, Jesus is whipped, and a [crown of thorns](/wiki/Crown_of_thorns "Crown of thorns") is placed on his head. An angry mob insists that Pilate "Let Him Be Crucified", and Pilate turns him over to the rioters and the [Roman soldiers](/wiki/Cohortes_urbanae "Cohortes urbanae"). The soldiers lead him along the "[Via Dolorosa](/wiki/Via_Dolorosa "Via Dolorosa")" to [Calvary](/wiki/Calvary "Calvary"), a hill outside the city, to be crucified. The soldiers beat and [mock Jesus](/wiki/Mocking_of_Jesus "Mocking of Jesus") as he carries his cross, while his followers mourn. Jesus is nailed to the cross, and the soldiers cast lots for his robe ("Cross of Calvary"). Jesus tells his mother, Mary, that the apostle John is now her son. He cries out to God, "Abba, Father, why have you forsaken me?" and then gasps, "it is finished."
[Joseph of Arimathea](/wiki/Joseph_of_Arimathea "Joseph of Arimathea") and [Nicodemus](/wiki/Nicodemus "Nicodemus"), religious leaders and secret followers of Jesus, take his body down from the cross and bury it in the tomb that Joseph had purchased for himself. Pilate posts Roman guards at the tomb so Jesus' apostles will not be able to steal Jesus' body and claim that He rose from the dead. On [Sunday](/wiki/Easter "Easter"), the Angel Gabriel appears at the tomb, singing God's command for Jesus to "Arise". Three women arrive at the tomb to mourn and find Jesus there, [risen from the dead](/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus "Ascension of Jesus")! They bring the apostles to Him, and all the people come to worship Jesus.
Reuben explains that Jesus is still alive today and urges everyone to go forth to fulfill His [Great Commission](/wiki/Great_Commission "Great Commission"). Everyone joins in singing "Glory to God" and "Magnify".
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"*Based on the 2020 Glen Rose production. Note: Songs labelled with § have been added to the Glen Rose production since the original production.*",
"**Prologue**",
"A young shepherd boy, Reuben, appears looking frantically for his sheep and encounters Chaya the shepherdess who tells him of David tending flocks in the same fields. She assists him in finding his sheep through song (\"Psalm 23\")\nAct I\nA mother and daughter, Tirzah and Abigail, prepare dinner for father and son, Reuben and Ephram, who are returning from a long day tending their herds in the fields, while the young boy Caleb rests on a bed, he is crippled. After family greetings and excited talk of the upcoming Passover the mealtime prayer and Sabbath evokes questions about Gods covenant and Reuben explains its like a promise. Like the promise God made to send the Messiah. (\"A Promise Is a Promise\")",
"The lighting then shifts to revel on the main stage the prophets of the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament \"Old Testament\"), who are foretelling the coming of Christ. Reuben continues to narrate the telling of the story from the family home in a small upper room located off the main stage that is illuminated only during those parts. The [Archangel Gabriel](/wiki/Archangel_Gabriel \"Archangel Gabriel\") announces the birth of baby Jesus, and shepherds and [three Magi](/wiki/Biblical_Magi \"Biblical Magi\") travel to Bethlehem to worship Him (\"Saviour\"). At this point the Nativity is revealed Mary, Joseph and the baby Jesus in the manger (\"Son of God\"§). The townspeople and children gather singing their praise to the newborn king. Reuben rushes to confirm the saviours arrival.",
"Reuben explains to the children that [Herod](/wiki/Herod_the_Great \"Herod the Great\") decreed that all male babies in Bethlehem under the age of two must be [massacred](/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents \"Massacre of the Innocents\"), but just in time, an angel warned Joseph to flee to Egypt with baby Jesus. After Herod dies, the angel directs them back to [Nazareth](/wiki/Nazareth \"Nazareth\"), where Jesus grows up but it is not long before his parents find him teaching in the Temple. (\"Sh'ma Israel\"§)",
"Jesus grows up, and his cousin, [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\"), calls for sinners to repent and be baptized in the [Jordan River](/wiki/Jordan_River \"Jordan River\") (\"The Kingdom of Heaven/One Voice\"§). Jesus comes to John to be baptized, and though John bows before Jesus and insists that it is not right for him to baptize Jesus, Jesus asks him to permit it so they may do what is right in God's eyes. John baptizes Jesus, and the [Spirit of God](/wiki/Holy_Spirit \"Holy Spirit\") descends on him. [Satan](/wiki/Satan \"Satan\") leads Jesus out into the wilderness and tempts him, but Jesus does not succumb to his [temptation](/wiki/Temptation_of_Christ \"Temptation of Christ\") (\"It is Written\"§). Back in [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee \"Galilee\"), Jesus calls four fishermen – [Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter \"Saint Peter\"), [James](/wiki/James_the_Just \"James the Just\"), [John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle \"John the Apostle\"), and [Andrew](/wiki/Saint_Andrew \"Saint Andrew\") – to be his first [disciples](/wiki/Disciple_%28Christianity%29 \"Disciple (Christianity)\"). Amazed by a miraculous catch of fish, they declare that he must be the coming king (\"Fishers of Men\"§).",
"Jesus calls [twelve disciples](/wiki/Twelve_Apostles \"Twelve Apostles\") and begins teaching the common people the [Beatitudes](/wiki/Beatitudes \"Beatitudes\"), explaining his love for them (\"Come Unto Me\"§). Caiaphas and the Pharisees enter and accuse Jesus of being a false Messiah and of blasphemy for violating the sabbath. As they leave the crowd ask Jesus to teach them how to pray and he does (The Lords Prayer\"§).",
"Jesus meets with Nicodemus and explains to him that to enter heaven one must be born again. He teaches him the meaning of redemption through repentance. In the next scene The [apostles](/wiki/Twelve_Apostles \"Twelve Apostles\") sing and dance, telling the crowds \"He Is Jehovah\" but as they cross the Jordan a great storm suddenly sets in and they fear they will perish and call out to Jesus who calms the sea.",
"Jesus heals the blind, A woman with the issue of blood(\"The hem of his garment\"§), Ruben's lame son, casts the demons out from a man and raises a child from the dead in the marketplace . (\"Hem of his garment\" (reprise)).",
"Act II\nJesus and his disciples make his Triumphal Entry into [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") as the crowds celebrate and lay palm branches before him (\"We Cry Hosanna, Lord\"). When Jesus arrives at the [Temple](/wiki/Second_Temple \"Second Temple\"), he finds money changers selling animals for temple [sacrifices](/wiki/Korban \"Korban\"), turning the Temple into a place of business. He angrily [overturns their tables](/wiki/Jesus_and_the_Money_Changers \"Jesus and the Money Changers\") and confronts [Caiaphas](/wiki/Caiaphas \"Caiaphas\"), the [High priest](/wiki/Kohen_Gadol \"Kohen Gadol\") (\"My Father's Temple\"§).\nJesus and His disciples meet in an upper room to celebrate the [Passover](/wiki/Passover \"Passover\"), and he gives them some of his final teachings, assuring them that His spirit and His peace will always be with them (\"Shalom\"). Judas leaves the table to betray Jesus to the priests and [Pharisees](/wiki/Pharisees \"Pharisees\"). Jesus predicts that all his disciples will fall away, but Peter insists that he will never leave Jesus. Jesus warns him that before the [rooster](/wiki/Rooster \"Rooster\") crows, he will deny Jesus three times. Jesus and the rest of His disciples go into the [Garden of Gethsemane](/wiki/Gethsemane \"Gethsemane\") to pray (\"He Is Jehovah\" (reprise)). The disciples fall asleep. Jesus begs God to take away the suffering he will endure, but then asks that God's will be done so that God may be glorified (\"Glorify Your Son\"§). The disciples awaken as Judas returns with some Roman soldiers. Judas betrays Jesus [with a kiss](/wiki/The_Kiss_of_Judas \"The Kiss of Judas\"), and the soldiers arrest him and lead him away.",
"As Jesus is awaiting [His trial](/wiki/Sanhedrin_Trial_of_Jesus \"Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus\"), three people recognize Peter as one of Jesus' followers. Peter repeatedly denies even knowing Jesus, and a rooster crows. Peter is overcome by his guilt and asks God for forgiveness, dedicating his life to God (\"Peter's Song\"§). Jesus is put on trial before Herod and then [Pontius Pilate](/wiki/Pontius_Pilate \"Pontius Pilate\"), who initially refuses to condemn Him, since He had committed no crime. During these trials, Jesus is whipped, and a [crown of thorns](/wiki/Crown_of_thorns \"Crown of thorns\") is placed on his head. An angry mob insists that Pilate \"Let Him Be Crucified\", and Pilate turns him over to the rioters and the [Roman soldiers](/wiki/Cohortes_urbanae \"Cohortes urbanae\"). The soldiers lead him along the \"[Via Dolorosa](/wiki/Via_Dolorosa \"Via Dolorosa\")\" to [Calvary](/wiki/Calvary \"Calvary\"), a hill outside the city, to be crucified. The soldiers beat and [mock Jesus](/wiki/Mocking_of_Jesus \"Mocking of Jesus\") as he carries his cross, while his followers mourn. Jesus is nailed to the cross, and the soldiers cast lots for his robe (\"Cross of Calvary\"). Jesus tells his mother, Mary, that the apostle John is now her son. He cries out to God, \"Abba, Father, why have you forsaken me?\" and then gasps, \"it is finished.\"",
"[Joseph of Arimathea](/wiki/Joseph_of_Arimathea \"Joseph of Arimathea\") and [Nicodemus](/wiki/Nicodemus \"Nicodemus\"), religious leaders and secret followers of Jesus, take his body down from the cross and bury it in the tomb that Joseph had purchased for himself. Pilate posts Roman guards at the tomb so Jesus' apostles will not be able to steal Jesus' body and claim that He rose from the dead. On [Sunday](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"), the Angel Gabriel appears at the tomb, singing God's command for Jesus to \"Arise\". Three women arrive at the tomb to mourn and find Jesus there, [risen from the dead](/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus \"Ascension of Jesus\")! They bring the apostles to Him, and all the people come to worship Jesus.",
"Reuben explains that Jesus is still alive today and urges everyone to go forth to fulfill His [Great Commission](/wiki/Great_Commission \"Great Commission\"). Everyone joins in singing \"Glory to God\" and \"Magnify\".",
""
] |
Dramatic analysis
-----------------
*The Promise'''s fundamental design is that Grandpa tells his grandchildren about Jesus' life, and the events "come to life" on stage as he tells the story. The musical begins with just Grandpa, Billy, and Lisa, hiking in modern times. As Grandpa and Lisa begin to sing "A Promise is a Promise", Biblical prophets appear behind them, proclaiming Jesus' coming. Billy is the only one who can see the Biblical characters at this time. Billy and Lisa persuade Grandpa to tell them "the whole story" about Jesus as they rest from their hiking. They sit and rest in area of the stage designated as the "firepit" in the original script; this area is very far downstage on one side of the stage, as not to obscure the action farther upstage. The "firepit" and the action there are implied to exist in modern times, while the rest of the stage is where the Biblical story takes place. Grandpa serves as a narrator for the musical; as he describes the events of Jesus' life, they occur onstage behind him. The story maintains continuity through this device; Grandpa's narration "fills the gaps" between scenes in Jesus' life.*
The distinction between the present and Biblical times is not strictly observed; the three modern characters sometimes interact with the Biblical characters, but they return to their bench by the firepit at the end of each scene. This is not a dramatic oversight; rather, it is intended to emphasize the humanity of Biblical figures. Notable instances include when Grandpa, Lisa, and Billy meet Mary and Joseph as they journey to Bethlehem (this is the first time Grandpa and Lisa "see" the Biblical characters), and Lisa and Mary have a brief duet in the middle of "Magnify". Peter, Andrew, and John have a short scene in which they are warming their hands by the firepit and discussing Jesus' death. When Jesus is carrying his cross to Calvary, he cannot carry it all the way up the hill, so Grandpa pulls it the rest of the way (In the Biblical account, the soldiers ordered a passing man, [Simon of Cyrene](/wiki/Simon_of_Cyrene "Simon of Cyrene"), to carry Jesus' cross).
Other productions
-----------------
[thumb\|300x300px\|Crucifixion scene during the 2019 production of *The Promise at the Texas Amphitheatre.*](/wiki/File:Promise_Crucify.jpg "Promise Crucify.jpg")
In 1993, The Promise *became the first Christian production to be allowed into the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"). In 1994,* The Promise *returned to the Kremlin State Palace for a tour of encore performances.*
From 1990 to 2012, [Lighthouse Christian Church's](http://lighthousechristianchurch.us/) Impact Productions in [Fond du Lac, WI](/wiki/Fond_du_Lac%2C_Wisconsin "Fond du Lac, Wisconsin") performed The Promise *during Holy Week with breaks in 1995, 2006, and 2009\. Beginning in 2000, the show was merged with another production by David T. Clydesdale,* The Power of His Love*, and the production was entitled* The Promise: The Power of His Love*. This new production's first act consisted primarily of* The Promise*, whereas the second act was taken primarily from* The Power of His Love*. Many production changes occurred over the years as the shows were combined. The most significant of changes included replacing the character of Grandpa with a Narrator and the complete removal of Billy and Lisa. Numerous songs were introduced as well, including [Michael W. Smith's](/wiki/Michael_W._Smith "Michael W. Smith") [All Is Well](/wiki/Christmas_%28Michael_W._Smith_album%29 "Christmas (Michael W. Smith album)") from his album, [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas_%28Michael_W._Smith_album%29 "Christmas (Michael W. Smith album)"). The cast and crew was entirely made up of members of the congregation with 3 men having portrayed Christ during the production's run. Lighthouse Christian Church never charged an admission price as* The Promise *was always considered "a gift to the community". It is estimated that over 50,000 people had seen the show over the 22\-year span.*
Since 1990 The Promise was performed at Queensway Cathedral in Toronto, Ontario, and was known locally as the Toronto Passion Play. It was by far the largest production of the play to take place in Southern Ontario, boasting a cast and crew of over 400\.
The Promise *was performed for 11 years in the small rural community of [Forest, Ontario](/wiki/Forest%2C_Ontario "Forest, Ontario"), Canada, in southwestern Ontario. That production played on three weekends in each July/August from 1995 to 2005\. The Promise will be returning for its 12th season in August 2010, and will be performed again in 2013 on July 5,6,7th and 12, 13, 14th. produced by [Forest Community Theatre](http://www.forestcommunitytheatre.ca).\|date\=June 2013
Since 1992,* The Promise *has been performed annually in [Litchfield, Illinois](/wiki/Litchfield%2C_Illinois "Litchfield, Illinois") at Zion Lutheran Church and School. The production is performed on the two weekends before [Palm Sunday](/wiki/Palm_Sunday "Palm Sunday") every spring.[Official website of the Litchfield, Illinois production](http://www.thepromiselitchfield.com/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515200749/http://www.thepromiselitchfield.com/ \|date\=2008\-05\-15 }}*
In 1996, The Promise *played at the Will Rogers Theatre in [Branson, Missouri](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri "Branson, Missouri"), beginning year\-round performances in that city. That production continued seasonally through 2002\.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2008}} As of 2008,* The Promise *is being performed at The Mansion Theatre in Branson.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.themansiontheatre.com/show\_promise.html \|title\=Official website of the current Branson production \|access\-date\=2008\-06\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724194826/http://www.themansiontheatre.com/show\_promise.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-24 \|url\-status\=dead }}*
The Promise *has been produced internationally in [Seoul, Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_Korea "Seoul, Korea"), at the Olympic Stadium, and in South Africa, as well as other countries around the world. Other productions in the U.S. include one in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2008}}*
The Promise'' was staged in the University Cultural Centre in the National University of Singapore from 27 to 29 November 2008\.
Beginning in 2014, Bethel Gospel Tabernacle in [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario "Hamilton, Ontario"), began staging the production. The production has been staged in 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2019\.
Since 1992, The Promise has been staged roughly every other year by Northwest Baptist Church in Reisterstown, Maryland, on the weekends of Palm Sunday and Easter. It grew from a modest\-sized production by church members to now include over 100 cast and crew from the local community and several churches. Over the years, many updates and changes to the script have taken place but the core story remains the same. A number of locals have made it a tradition to see it each year it's staged and look forward to the updates, some having been coming to shows for as long as the past 20 years.
Starting in 1992, The Promise was performed in Litchfield, Illinois under the organization Contemporary Christian Music Ministry. Yearly performances were held for two weekends, seven and later only six total performances, shortly before Easter. Performances continued for 24 straight years (though a counting error caused us to celebrate our "25th and Final Season" in 2015\), in the same location, Zion Lutheran Church and School.
Trace Creek Baptist Church in Mayfield, Kentucky has performed The Promise since the year 2000 (with the exceptions of the 2020 and 2021 seasons due to COVID\-19\). Trace Creek utilizes a cast and crew of over 400 people, and the 2022 season saw seven performances with more than 6,500 people in attendance. After overwhelming demand, the 2023 season added an eighth performance.
|
[
"Dramatic analysis\n-----------------",
"*The Promise'''s fundamental design is that Grandpa tells his grandchildren about Jesus' life, and the events \"come to life\" on stage as he tells the story. The musical begins with just Grandpa, Billy, and Lisa, hiking in modern times. As Grandpa and Lisa begin to sing \"A Promise is a Promise\", Biblical prophets appear behind them, proclaiming Jesus' coming. Billy is the only one who can see the Biblical characters at this time. Billy and Lisa persuade Grandpa to tell them \"the whole story\" about Jesus as they rest from their hiking. They sit and rest in area of the stage designated as the \"firepit\" in the original script; this area is very far downstage on one side of the stage, as not to obscure the action farther upstage. The \"firepit\" and the action there are implied to exist in modern times, while the rest of the stage is where the Biblical story takes place. Grandpa serves as a narrator for the musical; as he describes the events of Jesus' life, they occur onstage behind him. The story maintains continuity through this device; Grandpa's narration \"fills the gaps\" between scenes in Jesus' life.*",
"The distinction between the present and Biblical times is not strictly observed; the three modern characters sometimes interact with the Biblical characters, but they return to their bench by the firepit at the end of each scene. This is not a dramatic oversight; rather, it is intended to emphasize the humanity of Biblical figures. Notable instances include when Grandpa, Lisa, and Billy meet Mary and Joseph as they journey to Bethlehem (this is the first time Grandpa and Lisa \"see\" the Biblical characters), and Lisa and Mary have a brief duet in the middle of \"Magnify\". Peter, Andrew, and John have a short scene in which they are warming their hands by the firepit and discussing Jesus' death. When Jesus is carrying his cross to Calvary, he cannot carry it all the way up the hill, so Grandpa pulls it the rest of the way (In the Biblical account, the soldiers ordered a passing man, [Simon of Cyrene](/wiki/Simon_of_Cyrene \"Simon of Cyrene\"), to carry Jesus' cross).\nOther productions\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|300x300px\\|Crucifixion scene during the 2019 production of *The Promise at the Texas Amphitheatre.*](/wiki/File:Promise_Crucify.jpg \"Promise Crucify.jpg\")\nIn 1993, The Promise *became the first Christian production to be allowed into the former [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). In 1994,* The Promise *returned to the Kremlin State Palace for a tour of encore performances.*",
"From 1990 to 2012, [Lighthouse Christian Church's](http://lighthousechristianchurch.us/) Impact Productions in [Fond du Lac, WI](/wiki/Fond_du_Lac%2C_Wisconsin \"Fond du Lac, Wisconsin\") performed The Promise *during Holy Week with breaks in 1995, 2006, and 2009\\. Beginning in 2000, the show was merged with another production by David T. Clydesdale,* The Power of His Love*, and the production was entitled* The Promise: The Power of His Love*. This new production's first act consisted primarily of* The Promise*, whereas the second act was taken primarily from* The Power of His Love*. Many production changes occurred over the years as the shows were combined. The most significant of changes included replacing the character of Grandpa with a Narrator and the complete removal of Billy and Lisa. Numerous songs were introduced as well, including [Michael W. Smith's](/wiki/Michael_W._Smith \"Michael W. Smith\") [All Is Well](/wiki/Christmas_%28Michael_W._Smith_album%29 \"Christmas (Michael W. Smith album)\") from his album, [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas_%28Michael_W._Smith_album%29 \"Christmas (Michael W. Smith album)\"). The cast and crew was entirely made up of members of the congregation with 3 men having portrayed Christ during the production's run. Lighthouse Christian Church never charged an admission price as* The Promise *was always considered \"a gift to the community\". It is estimated that over 50,000 people had seen the show over the 22\\-year span.*",
"Since 1990 The Promise was performed at Queensway Cathedral in Toronto, Ontario, and was known locally as the Toronto Passion Play. It was by far the largest production of the play to take place in Southern Ontario, boasting a cast and crew of over 400\\.\nThe Promise *was performed for 11 years in the small rural community of [Forest, Ontario](/wiki/Forest%2C_Ontario \"Forest, Ontario\"), Canada, in southwestern Ontario. That production played on three weekends in each July/August from 1995 to 2005\\. The Promise will be returning for its 12th season in August 2010, and will be performed again in 2013 on July 5,6,7th and 12, 13, 14th. produced by [Forest Community Theatre](http://www.forestcommunitytheatre.ca).\\|date\\=June 2013\nSince 1992,* The Promise *has been performed annually in [Litchfield, Illinois](/wiki/Litchfield%2C_Illinois \"Litchfield, Illinois\") at Zion Lutheran Church and School. The production is performed on the two weekends before [Palm Sunday](/wiki/Palm_Sunday \"Palm Sunday\") every spring.[Official website of the Litchfield, Illinois production](http://www.thepromiselitchfield.com/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515200749/http://www.thepromiselitchfield.com/ \\|date\\=2008\\-05\\-15 }}*",
"In 1996, The Promise *played at the Will Rogers Theatre in [Branson, Missouri](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri \"Branson, Missouri\"), beginning year\\-round performances in that city. That production continued seasonally through 2002\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2008}} As of 2008,* The Promise *is being performed at The Mansion Theatre in Branson.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.themansiontheatre.com/show\\_promise.html \\|title\\=Official website of the current Branson production \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-06\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724194826/http://www.themansiontheatre.com/show\\_promise.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}*",
"The Promise *has been produced internationally in [Seoul, Korea](/wiki/Seoul%2C_Korea \"Seoul, Korea\"), at the Olympic Stadium, and in South Africa, as well as other countries around the world. Other productions in the U.S. include one in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2008}}*",
"The Promise'' was staged in the University Cultural Centre in the National University of Singapore from 27 to 29 November 2008\\.",
"Beginning in 2014, Bethel Gospel Tabernacle in [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario \"Hamilton, Ontario\"), began staging the production. The production has been staged in 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2019\\.",
"Since 1992, The Promise has been staged roughly every other year by Northwest Baptist Church in Reisterstown, Maryland, on the weekends of Palm Sunday and Easter. It grew from a modest\\-sized production by church members to now include over 100 cast and crew from the local community and several churches. Over the years, many updates and changes to the script have taken place but the core story remains the same. A number of locals have made it a tradition to see it each year it's staged and look forward to the updates, some having been coming to shows for as long as the past 20 years.",
"Starting in 1992, The Promise was performed in Litchfield, Illinois under the organization Contemporary Christian Music Ministry. Yearly performances were held for two weekends, seven and later only six total performances, shortly before Easter. Performances continued for 24 straight years (though a counting error caused us to celebrate our \"25th and Final Season\" in 2015\\), in the same location, Zion Lutheran Church and School.",
"Trace Creek Baptist Church in Mayfield, Kentucky has performed The Promise since the year 2000 (with the exceptions of the 2020 and 2021 seasons due to COVID\\-19\\). Trace Creek utilizes a cast and crew of over 400 people, and the 2022 season saw seven performances with more than 6,500 people in attendance. After overwhelming demand, the 2023 season added an eighth performance.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Eugen Indjic was born in [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade") on March 11, 1947\. His father was a [Serb](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs") Yugoslav army general serving under [King Peter II of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Peter_II_of_Yugoslavia "Peter II of Yugoslavia"). Emigrating to the United States with his Russian mother, an amateur pianist, at the age of four, he there became fascinated by the piano four years later after hearing a recording of [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin "Chopin")’s [Fantaisie\-Impromptu](/wiki/Fantaisie-Impromptu "Fantaisie-Impromptu") and [Polonaise in A flat major](/wiki/Polonaise_in_A_flat%2C_Op._53_%28Chopin%29 "Polonaise in A flat, Op. 53 (Chopin)"). Moved by a desire to master these pieces, he took systematic piano lessons with Georgian pianist, [Liubov Stephani](/wiki/Liubov_Stephani "Liubov Stephani").
Indjic made his first public performance at the age of nine, appearing with the [Springfield, Mass.](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts") Youth Orchestra in [Mozart’s D\-minor Piano Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._20_%28Mozart%29 "Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)"). After two years, Mrs. Stephani introduced her young pupil to [Alexander Borovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Borovsky "Alexander Borovsky"), the eminent Russian pianist, pupil of [Anna Yesipova](/wiki/Anna_Yesipova "Anna Yesipova") and classmate of [Serge Prokofiev](/wiki/Serge_Prokofiev "Serge Prokofiev"), who taught him in [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University") for the next five years (1959–1964\).
At the age of 11, he was already playing [Liszt's Campanella](/wiki/La_campanella_%28Liszt%29 "La campanella (Liszt)") and Hungarian Rhapsody No. 13 on [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") television and at 12, made his first recording for [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor") on Rachmaninov's own piano, playing Beethoven's [Diabelli Variations](/wiki/Diabelli_Variations "Diabelli Variations").
At 13, he performed [Liszt’s Piano Concerto in E flat major](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Liszt%29 "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Liszt)") and a year later the [Brahms' Piano Concerto n°2](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)") with the [Washington National Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_%28United_States%29 "National Symphony Orchestra (United States)").
Between 1961 and 1969, invited by [Arthur Fiedler](/wiki/Arthur_Fiedler "Arthur Fiedler"), Eugen Indjic appeared numerous times each season with the [Boston Pops Orchestra](/wiki/Boston_Pops_Orchestra "Boston Pops Orchestra"). His first concert tour (consisting of 13 concerts) was in Denmark (1963\), together with Alexander Borovsky. "He plays Chopin as a Pole, [Debussy](/wiki/Debussy "Debussy") as a Frenchman and [Prokofiev](/wiki/Prokofiev "Prokofiev") as a Russian master" wrote the *[Politiken](/wiki/Politiken "Politiken")* of [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen").
After his graduation in 1965 from [Phillips Academy Andover](/wiki/Phillips_Academy "Phillips Academy"), [Erich Leinsdorf](/wiki/Erich_Leinsdorf "Erich Leinsdorf") invited him to play Brahms’ Piano Concerto No. 2 with the [Boston Symphony](/wiki/Boston_Symphony "Boston Symphony"), making him the youngest soloist ever to appear with that orchestra.
"Leonard\-Bernstein Scholar" at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), he studied musicology and composition with [Laurence D. Berman](/wiki/Laurence_D._Berman "Laurence D. Berman") and [Leon Kirchner](/wiki/Leon_Kirchner "Leon Kirchner"), graduating "cum laude" in 1969\. [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein") qualified him as "an extraordinary pianist and musician" and [Emil Gilels](/wiki/Emil_Gilels "Emil Gilels") called him "a unique and inspired artist".
While in Harvard, he also took private lessons at the [Juilliard School](/wiki/Juilliard_School "Juilliard School") with [Mieczysław Munz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Munz "Mieczysław Munz") and [Rosina Lhévinne](/wiki/Rosina_Lh%C3%A9vinne "Rosina Lhévinne")’s apprentice Lee Thompson.
In 1968, he met [Arthur Rubinstein](/wiki/Arthur_Rubinstein "Arthur Rubinstein"), who remained a friend and mentor until his death, calling Indjic "a world\-class pianist of rare musical and artistic perfection".
Indjic studied composition with [Nadia Boulanger](/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger "Nadia Boulanger") in Paris and then definitely settled in France in 1972 after marrying Odile Rabaud, granddaughter of the French composer [Henri Rabaud](/wiki/Henri_Rabaud "Henri Rabaud"), who succeeded [Fauré](/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9 "Gabriel Fauré") as director of the [Paris Conservatory](/wiki/Paris_Conservatory "Paris Conservatory"), and coincidentally in 1919 the first French conductor of the Boston Symphony.
Prize\-winner of three international contests \- [Warsaw](/wiki/VIII_International_Chopin_Piano_Competition "VIII International Chopin Piano Competition") (1970\), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_International_Pianoforte_Competition "Leeds International Pianoforte Competition") (1972\), and Rubinstein Tel Aviv (1974\) \- Indjic has performed with the leading orchestras of the United States, Europe and Asia, and under such conductors as Leonard Bernstein, [Vladimir Fedoseyev](/wiki/Vladimir_Fedoseyev "Vladimir Fedoseyev"), [Valery Gergiev](/wiki/Valery_Gergiev "Valery Gergiev"), [Eugen Jochum](/wiki/Eugen_Jochum "Eugen Jochum"), [Rafael Kubelik](/wiki/Rafael_Kubel%C3%ADk "Rafael Kubelík"), [Erich Leinsdorf](/wiki/Erich_Leinsdorf "Erich Leinsdorf"), [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling "Kurt Sanderling"), [Giuseppe Sinopoli](/wiki/Giuseppe_Sinopoli "Giuseppe Sinopoli"), [Georg Solti](/wiki/Georg_Solti "Georg Solti"), [Edo de Waart](/wiki/Edo_de_Waart "Edo de Waart") and [David Zinman](/wiki/David_Zinman "David Zinman"), among others.
He continues to play regularly on great world stages such as [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") Isaac Stern Auditorium, [Avery Fisher Hall](/wiki/Avery_Fisher_Hall "Avery Fisher Hall"), [Queen Elizabeth Hall](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hall "Queen Elizabeth Hall"), the [Concertgebouw](/wiki/Concertgebouw%2C_Amsterdam "Concertgebouw, Amsterdam") Grote Zaal, the [Musikverein](/wiki/Musikverein "Musikverein"), [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel "Salle Pleyel") and [Théâtre des Champs\-Elysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées"), [Bolshoi Hall](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory "Moscow Conservatory"), [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala "La Scala").
Eugen Indjic was invited to participate in a televised co\-production (France, Poland, Japan) of Chopin’s complete works and has recorded for [Polskie Nagrania / Muza](/wiki/Polskie_Nagrania_Muza "Polskie Nagrania Muza"), [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records%23CBS_takes_over "Columbia Records#CBS takes over"), [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor"), Claves and Calliope.
His discography includes works by Chopin (Piano Concertos, complete [Ballades](/wiki/Ballades_%28Chopin%29 "Ballades (Chopin)"), Scherzi, Impromptus, Sonatas and [Mazurkas](/wiki/Mazurkas_%28Chopin%29 "Mazurkas (Chopin)")) [Debussy](/wiki/Debussy "Debussy"), [Schumann](/wiki/Robert_Schumann "Robert Schumann"), Prokofiev, Stravinsky as well as Beethoven.
[Arte Nova Classics](/wiki/Arte_Nova_Classics "Arte Nova Classics") has released live performances with the [SWF Orchestra](/wiki/S%C3%BCdwestrundfunk "Südwestrundfunk") of [Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Tchaikovsky "Tchaikovsky")’s [Concerto in B\-flat minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Tchaikovsky%29 "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)") with [Ahronovich](/wiki/Yuri_Ahronovitch "Yuri Ahronovitch") and Rachmaninoff’s [Paganini Variations](/wiki/Rhapsody_on_a_Theme_of_Paganini "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini") with Sinopoli.
His recording of Chopin’s Mazurkas was doubly acclaimed because of the [Joyce Hatto](/wiki/Joyce_Hatto "Joyce Hatto") hoax. The English pianist signed her name to this disc and received rave reviews.
In addition to performing, Indjic regularly taught master classes in Europe, Japan and the United States, and was a frequent jury member of international competitions including the [Chopin](/wiki/VIII_International_Chopin_Piano_Competition "VIII International Chopin Piano Competition"), Liszt Wroclaw, Rubinstein Tel Aviv, [Prague Spring Festival](/wiki/Prague_Spring_Festival "Prague Spring Festival"), Lisbon [Vianna Da Motta](/wiki/Vianna_da_Motta_International_Music_Competition "Vianna da Motta International Music Competition").
In 2010, he was named "artist\-in\-residence" at the [Prague Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Prague_Symphony_Orchestra "Prague Symphony Orchestra").
Indjic died on February 28, 2024, at the age of 76\.{{cite news \|title\=Le pianiste Eugen Indjic s'est éteint à l'âge de 76 ans \|url\=https://www.radiofrance.fr/francemusique/le\-pianiste\-eugene\-indjic\-s\-est\-eteint\-a\-l\-age\-de\-76\-ans\-4190758 \|access\-date\=1 March 2024 \|publisher\=Radio France \|date\=29 February 2024}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Eugen Indjic was born in [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\") on March 11, 1947\\. His father was a [Serb](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\") Yugoslav army general serving under [King Peter II of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Peter_II_of_Yugoslavia \"Peter II of Yugoslavia\"). Emigrating to the United States with his Russian mother, an amateur pianist, at the age of four, he there became fascinated by the piano four years later after hearing a recording of [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin \"Chopin\")’s [Fantaisie\\-Impromptu](/wiki/Fantaisie-Impromptu \"Fantaisie-Impromptu\") and [Polonaise in A flat major](/wiki/Polonaise_in_A_flat%2C_Op._53_%28Chopin%29 \"Polonaise in A flat, Op. 53 (Chopin)\"). Moved by a desire to master these pieces, he took systematic piano lessons with Georgian pianist, [Liubov Stephani](/wiki/Liubov_Stephani \"Liubov Stephani\").",
"Indjic made his first public performance at the age of nine, appearing with the [Springfield, Mass.](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\") Youth Orchestra in [Mozart’s D\\-minor Piano Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._20_%28Mozart%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)\"). After two years, Mrs. Stephani introduced her young pupil to [Alexander Borovsky](/wiki/Alexander_Borovsky \"Alexander Borovsky\"), the eminent Russian pianist, pupil of [Anna Yesipova](/wiki/Anna_Yesipova \"Anna Yesipova\") and classmate of [Serge Prokofiev](/wiki/Serge_Prokofiev \"Serge Prokofiev\"), who taught him in [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\") for the next five years (1959–1964\\).",
"At the age of 11, he was already playing [Liszt's Campanella](/wiki/La_campanella_%28Liszt%29 \"La campanella (Liszt)\") and Hungarian Rhapsody No. 13 on [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") television and at 12, made his first recording for [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\") on Rachmaninov's own piano, playing Beethoven's [Diabelli Variations](/wiki/Diabelli_Variations \"Diabelli Variations\").\nAt 13, he performed [Liszt’s Piano Concerto in E flat major](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Liszt%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 1 (Liszt)\") and a year later the [Brahms' Piano Concerto n°2](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)\") with the [Washington National Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_%28United_States%29 \"National Symphony Orchestra (United States)\").",
"Between 1961 and 1969, invited by [Arthur Fiedler](/wiki/Arthur_Fiedler \"Arthur Fiedler\"), Eugen Indjic appeared numerous times each season with the [Boston Pops Orchestra](/wiki/Boston_Pops_Orchestra \"Boston Pops Orchestra\"). His first concert tour (consisting of 13 concerts) was in Denmark (1963\\), together with Alexander Borovsky. \"He plays Chopin as a Pole, [Debussy](/wiki/Debussy \"Debussy\") as a Frenchman and [Prokofiev](/wiki/Prokofiev \"Prokofiev\") as a Russian master\" wrote the *[Politiken](/wiki/Politiken \"Politiken\")* of [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\").",
"After his graduation in 1965 from [Phillips Academy Andover](/wiki/Phillips_Academy \"Phillips Academy\"), [Erich Leinsdorf](/wiki/Erich_Leinsdorf \"Erich Leinsdorf\") invited him to play Brahms’ Piano Concerto No. 2 with the [Boston Symphony](/wiki/Boston_Symphony \"Boston Symphony\"), making him the youngest soloist ever to appear with that orchestra.",
"\"Leonard\\-Bernstein Scholar\" at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), he studied musicology and composition with [Laurence D. Berman](/wiki/Laurence_D._Berman \"Laurence D. Berman\") and [Leon Kirchner](/wiki/Leon_Kirchner \"Leon Kirchner\"), graduating \"cum laude\" in 1969\\. [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\") qualified him as \"an extraordinary pianist and musician\" and [Emil Gilels](/wiki/Emil_Gilels \"Emil Gilels\") called him \"a unique and inspired artist\".\nWhile in Harvard, he also took private lessons at the [Juilliard School](/wiki/Juilliard_School \"Juilliard School\") with [Mieczysław Munz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Munz \"Mieczysław Munz\") and [Rosina Lhévinne](/wiki/Rosina_Lh%C3%A9vinne \"Rosina Lhévinne\")’s apprentice Lee Thompson.",
"In 1968, he met [Arthur Rubinstein](/wiki/Arthur_Rubinstein \"Arthur Rubinstein\"), who remained a friend and mentor until his death, calling Indjic \"a world\\-class pianist of rare musical and artistic perfection\".",
"Indjic studied composition with [Nadia Boulanger](/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger \"Nadia Boulanger\") in Paris and then definitely settled in France in 1972 after marrying Odile Rabaud, granddaughter of the French composer [Henri Rabaud](/wiki/Henri_Rabaud \"Henri Rabaud\"), who succeeded [Fauré](/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9 \"Gabriel Fauré\") as director of the [Paris Conservatory](/wiki/Paris_Conservatory \"Paris Conservatory\"), and coincidentally in 1919 the first French conductor of the Boston Symphony.",
"Prize\\-winner of three international contests \\- [Warsaw](/wiki/VIII_International_Chopin_Piano_Competition \"VIII International Chopin Piano Competition\") (1970\\), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_International_Pianoforte_Competition \"Leeds International Pianoforte Competition\") (1972\\), and Rubinstein Tel Aviv (1974\\) \\- Indjic has performed with the leading orchestras of the United States, Europe and Asia, and under such conductors as Leonard Bernstein, [Vladimir Fedoseyev](/wiki/Vladimir_Fedoseyev \"Vladimir Fedoseyev\"), [Valery Gergiev](/wiki/Valery_Gergiev \"Valery Gergiev\"), [Eugen Jochum](/wiki/Eugen_Jochum \"Eugen Jochum\"), [Rafael Kubelik](/wiki/Rafael_Kubel%C3%ADk \"Rafael Kubelík\"), [Erich Leinsdorf](/wiki/Erich_Leinsdorf \"Erich Leinsdorf\"), [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling \"Kurt Sanderling\"), [Giuseppe Sinopoli](/wiki/Giuseppe_Sinopoli \"Giuseppe Sinopoli\"), [Georg Solti](/wiki/Georg_Solti \"Georg Solti\"), [Edo de Waart](/wiki/Edo_de_Waart \"Edo de Waart\") and [David Zinman](/wiki/David_Zinman \"David Zinman\"), among others.\nHe continues to play regularly on great world stages such as [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") Isaac Stern Auditorium, [Avery Fisher Hall](/wiki/Avery_Fisher_Hall \"Avery Fisher Hall\"), [Queen Elizabeth Hall](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hall \"Queen Elizabeth Hall\"), the [Concertgebouw](/wiki/Concertgebouw%2C_Amsterdam \"Concertgebouw, Amsterdam\") Grote Zaal, the [Musikverein](/wiki/Musikverein \"Musikverein\"), [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel \"Salle Pleyel\") and [Théâtre des Champs\\-Elysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es \"Théâtre des Champs-Élysées\"), [Bolshoi Hall](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory \"Moscow Conservatory\"), [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala \"La Scala\").",
"Eugen Indjic was invited to participate in a televised co\\-production (France, Poland, Japan) of Chopin’s complete works and has recorded for [Polskie Nagrania / Muza](/wiki/Polskie_Nagrania_Muza \"Polskie Nagrania Muza\"), [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records%23CBS_takes_over \"Columbia Records#CBS takes over\"), [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\"), Claves and Calliope.",
"His discography includes works by Chopin (Piano Concertos, complete [Ballades](/wiki/Ballades_%28Chopin%29 \"Ballades (Chopin)\"), Scherzi, Impromptus, Sonatas and [Mazurkas](/wiki/Mazurkas_%28Chopin%29 \"Mazurkas (Chopin)\")) [Debussy](/wiki/Debussy \"Debussy\"), [Schumann](/wiki/Robert_Schumann \"Robert Schumann\"), Prokofiev, Stravinsky as well as Beethoven.",
"[Arte Nova Classics](/wiki/Arte_Nova_Classics \"Arte Nova Classics\") has released live performances with the [SWF Orchestra](/wiki/S%C3%BCdwestrundfunk \"Südwestrundfunk\") of [Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Tchaikovsky \"Tchaikovsky\")’s [Concerto in B\\-flat minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Tchaikovsky%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)\") with [Ahronovich](/wiki/Yuri_Ahronovitch \"Yuri Ahronovitch\") and Rachmaninoff’s [Paganini Variations](/wiki/Rhapsody_on_a_Theme_of_Paganini \"Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini\") with Sinopoli.\nHis recording of Chopin’s Mazurkas was doubly acclaimed because of the [Joyce Hatto](/wiki/Joyce_Hatto \"Joyce Hatto\") hoax. The English pianist signed her name to this disc and received rave reviews.",
"In addition to performing, Indjic regularly taught master classes in Europe, Japan and the United States, and was a frequent jury member of international competitions including the [Chopin](/wiki/VIII_International_Chopin_Piano_Competition \"VIII International Chopin Piano Competition\"), Liszt Wroclaw, Rubinstein Tel Aviv, [Prague Spring Festival](/wiki/Prague_Spring_Festival \"Prague Spring Festival\"), Lisbon [Vianna Da Motta](/wiki/Vianna_da_Motta_International_Music_Competition \"Vianna da Motta International Music Competition\").",
"In 2010, he was named \"artist\\-in\\-residence\" at the [Prague Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Prague_Symphony_Orchestra \"Prague Symphony Orchestra\").",
"Indjic died on February 28, 2024, at the age of 76\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Le pianiste Eugen Indjic s'est éteint à l'âge de 76 ans \\|url\\=https://www.radiofrance.fr/francemusique/le\\-pianiste\\-eugene\\-indjic\\-s\\-est\\-eteint\\-a\\-l\\-age\\-de\\-76\\-ans\\-4190758 \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2024 \\|publisher\\=Radio France \\|date\\=29 February 2024}}",
""
] |
Attack on Colombo
-----------------
### Arrival of the Japanese fleet
[thumb\|[Leonard Birchall](/wiki/Leonard_Birchall "Leonard Birchall") piloted the Catalina that initially spotted the Japanese fleet.](/wiki/File:Leonard_birchall.jpg "Leonard birchall.jpg")
The Japanese cancelled a planned reconnaissance of Colombo harbour on 4 April by cruiser floatplanes.Boyd, p. 369
Before dawn on 4 April, Catalina QL\-A of 413 Squadron RCAF, piloted by [Squadron Leader](/wiki/Squadron_Leader "Squadron Leader") [Leonard Birchall](/wiki/Leonard_Birchall "Leonard Birchall"), took off from Koggala to patrol the southernmost patrol sector. Later that day, the crew decided to repeat an assigned leg that took them to the southern\-most point of their patrol; the repetition was conducted for navigational purposes.Stuart 2006, p. 68 At 16:00, at the southern\-most point of the repeated leg, QL\-A spotted the Japanese fleet on the southern horizon about {{convert\|360\|mi\|nmi km\|lk\=on\|abbr\=on}} south\-east of Ceylon.Stuart 2006, p. 69 The flying boat was attacked by at least 12 [Mitsubishi A6M Zero](/wiki/Mitsubishi_A6M_Zero "Mitsubishi A6M Zero") fighters as it closed to get an accurate sighting. The radio was destroyed mid\-transmissionStuart 2006, p. 69 so that the sighting, but not the size of the fleet, was reported. Within seven minutes, QL\-A was forced to make an [emergency landing](/wiki/Emergency_landing "Emergency landing") on the ocean. [Strafing](/wiki/Strafing "Strafing") Zeroes sank the flying boat and killed two crew members in the water. Only six of the nine crew, including Birchall, survived to be captured by the Japanese destroyer *[Isokaze](/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Isokaze_%281939%29 "Japanese destroyer Isokaze (1939)")*.Stuart 2006, p. 69 The prisoners claimed to have taken off from Colombo instead of Koggala, and this was reported to the fleet flagship *Akagi* late on 4 April; Koggala was not struck during the raid. The prisoners also denied making any reports; this was undermined when the Japanese intercepted a signal from Colombo asking QL\-A to repeat its report, indicating that surprise was lost.
Catalina FV\-R from 205 Squadron RAF, piloted by [Flight Lieutenant](/wiki/Flight_Lieutenant "Flight Lieutenant") "Jock" Graham, took off at 17:45 and took over shadowing the Japanese fleet. FV\-R made reports at 22:37, and on 5 April at 00:45 and 06:15\. The last reported Japanese ships {{convert\|110\|mi\|km}} and 195 degrees from [Dondra Head](/wiki/Dondra "Dondra"), the southern tip of Ceylon. The Catalina was shot down by Japanese fighters about 90 minutes after making the final report, with the loss of the entire crew.
Within an hour of QL\-A's report, D’Albiac met with his subordinates to discuss an anticipated Japanese strike after dawn. 222 Group issued Operation Order No. 43 before midnight to warn subordinate units, and units went on alert at 04:00 on 5 April.Stuart 2014, p. 38 Per Operation Order No. 43, 803 NAS launched a six Fulmars from Ratmalana early on 5 April to conduct a line patrol from [Bentota](/wiki/Bentota "Bentota"), {{convert\|35\|mi\|km\|abbr\=on}} south of Colombo on the west coast, to [Pottuvri](/wiki/Pottuvil "Pottuvil") on the east coast.Stuart 2014, p. 39 Ships were ordered to disperse from the harbours at Colombo and Trincomalee. *Cornwall* and *Dorsetshire* left Colombo late on 4 April to rejoin the Eastern Fleet,Roskill, p. 27 part of which had started sailing back to Ceylon from Port T after the QL\-A report.
At 05:45 on 5 April, Catalina BN\-L of 240 Squadron RAF, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Bradshaw, took off to shadow the Japanese fleet.
### Failure of British early warning
[thumb\|Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters escorted the attacking bombers.](/wiki/File:Zero_Akagi_Dec1941.jpg "Zero Akagi Dec1941.jpg")
The Japanese carriers began flying off 91 bombers and 36 fighters for the strike on ColomboRoskill, p. 26 shortly after 06:00 on 5 April.Boyd, p. 371
Shortly after 06:40, Catalina BN\-L spotted four Japanese aircraft flying north but misidentified them as Hurricanes and made no report. The flying boat was seen by the Japanese; *Hiryu* received a report of the encounter at 06:45\. The strike group approached Colombo from the sea to the south\-east; this course prevented detection by coast watchers and the 803 NAS line patrol. AMES 254 and its radar also failed to detect or report the inbound strike.Stuart 2014, pp. 39–41
British fighter pilots waited for a [scramble](/wiki/Scrambling_%28military%29 "Scrambling (military)") order that, due to the lack of early warning, never came. Instead they were forced take\-off under fire, instead of starting the engagement pre\-positioned in the air.Stuart 2014, pp. 42–44
### The attack
[thumb\|RAF [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane "Hawker Hurricane") made up the bulk of the defending fighters.](/wiki/File:RAF_Hurricane.jpg "RAF Hurricane.jpg")
At 07:30, an advance force of nine Zero fighters from *Hiryu* flew over the Colombo Racecourse airbase and were spotted from the ground. The 14 Hurricanes of 258 Squadron RAF took off in good order by 07:35 and climbed toward the harbour. The airbase avoided attack.Stuart 2014, p. 42
At 07:40, 38 [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A "Aichi D3A") "Val" bombers from *Shokaku* and *Zuikaku* were spotted from Ratmalana. 14 from *Zuikaku* attacked the airbase at 07:45 as Hurricanes from 30 Squadron RAF were taking off in ones and twos. 21 Hurricanes took off (four were still on the ground when the first bombs fell) and another – the commanding officer's – was disabled attempting to take\-off. Six Fulmars from 803 and 806 NAS also took off from Ratmalana. These British fighters were fully occupied defending the airbase, and were aided by heavy cloud cover. The first Hurricanes airborne attacked the bombers before any bombs were dropped. Five Vals and a Zero were destroyed, and up to six more Vals were damaged. In exchange, eight Hurricanes and three Fulmars were shot down. The airbase suffered little damage.
19 Vals from *Shokaku* attacked the harbour around 07:50; they ultimately sank the [armed merchant cruiser](/wiki/Armed_merchant_cruiser "Armed merchant cruiser") {{HMS\|Hector\|F45\|6}} and damaged the submarine [depot ship](/wiki/Depot_ship "Depot ship") *Lucia*. They were set upon by 258 Squadron RAF shortly afterwards, which decided to concentrate on bombers rather than the covering Zeros. One Val was shot down, and damaged another, in exchange for eight Hurricanes destroyed and two badly damaged.
The *Shokaku* Vals fully occupied 258 Squadron RAF, allowing the remaining bombers to attack the harbour and port unimpeded by British fighters.Stuart 2014, p. 43 Five Vals from *Zuikaku* damaged the British tanker *San Cirilo*. 53 [Nakajima B5N](/wiki/Nakajima_B5N "Nakajima B5N") "Kate" torpedo bombers, acting as level bombers, sank the old destroyer {{HMS\|Tenedos\|H04\|6}}, damaged the merchant ship *Benledi*, and hit port facilities.
In addition, the Norwegian tanker *Soli* was sunk and the British freighter *Clan Murdoch* was damaged.Stuart 2014, p. 47
The Japanese strike was recovered by their carriers from 09:45 to 10:30\.Boyd, p. 373
### Second strike cancelled
{{Main\|Indian Ocean raid\#Loss of Dorsetshire and Cornwall}}
Carrier Division 5 reserve strike force was armed with high explosive bombs for a second strike on Colombo. This was cancelled when Japanese scout aircraft discovered *Dorsetshire* and *Cornwall* at 10:00 on 5 April. Carrier Division 5 reserve strike force was ordered to attack the British cruisers, but rearming with torpedoes encountered delays, and the cruisers were sunk by Carrier Division 2 instead.Boyd, p. 372
|
[
"Attack on Colombo\n-----------------",
"### Arrival of the Japanese fleet",
"[thumb\\|[Leonard Birchall](/wiki/Leonard_Birchall \"Leonard Birchall\") piloted the Catalina that initially spotted the Japanese fleet.](/wiki/File:Leonard_birchall.jpg \"Leonard birchall.jpg\")",
"The Japanese cancelled a planned reconnaissance of Colombo harbour on 4 April by cruiser floatplanes.Boyd, p. 369",
"Before dawn on 4 April, Catalina QL\\-A of 413 Squadron RCAF, piloted by [Squadron Leader](/wiki/Squadron_Leader \"Squadron Leader\") [Leonard Birchall](/wiki/Leonard_Birchall \"Leonard Birchall\"), took off from Koggala to patrol the southernmost patrol sector. Later that day, the crew decided to repeat an assigned leg that took them to the southern\\-most point of their patrol; the repetition was conducted for navigational purposes.Stuart 2006, p. 68 At 16:00, at the southern\\-most point of the repeated leg, QL\\-A spotted the Japanese fleet on the southern horizon about {{convert\\|360\\|mi\\|nmi km\\|lk\\=on\\|abbr\\=on}} south\\-east of Ceylon.Stuart 2006, p. 69 The flying boat was attacked by at least 12 [Mitsubishi A6M Zero](/wiki/Mitsubishi_A6M_Zero \"Mitsubishi A6M Zero\") fighters as it closed to get an accurate sighting. The radio was destroyed mid\\-transmissionStuart 2006, p. 69 so that the sighting, but not the size of the fleet, was reported. Within seven minutes, QL\\-A was forced to make an [emergency landing](/wiki/Emergency_landing \"Emergency landing\") on the ocean. [Strafing](/wiki/Strafing \"Strafing\") Zeroes sank the flying boat and killed two crew members in the water. Only six of the nine crew, including Birchall, survived to be captured by the Japanese destroyer *[Isokaze](/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Isokaze_%281939%29 \"Japanese destroyer Isokaze (1939)\")*.Stuart 2006, p. 69 The prisoners claimed to have taken off from Colombo instead of Koggala, and this was reported to the fleet flagship *Akagi* late on 4 April; Koggala was not struck during the raid. The prisoners also denied making any reports; this was undermined when the Japanese intercepted a signal from Colombo asking QL\\-A to repeat its report, indicating that surprise was lost.",
"Catalina FV\\-R from 205 Squadron RAF, piloted by [Flight Lieutenant](/wiki/Flight_Lieutenant \"Flight Lieutenant\") \"Jock\" Graham, took off at 17:45 and took over shadowing the Japanese fleet. FV\\-R made reports at 22:37, and on 5 April at 00:45 and 06:15\\. The last reported Japanese ships {{convert\\|110\\|mi\\|km}} and 195 degrees from [Dondra Head](/wiki/Dondra \"Dondra\"), the southern tip of Ceylon. The Catalina was shot down by Japanese fighters about 90 minutes after making the final report, with the loss of the entire crew.",
"Within an hour of QL\\-A's report, D’Albiac met with his subordinates to discuss an anticipated Japanese strike after dawn. 222 Group issued Operation Order No. 43 before midnight to warn subordinate units, and units went on alert at 04:00 on 5 April.Stuart 2014, p. 38 Per Operation Order No. 43, 803 NAS launched a six Fulmars from Ratmalana early on 5 April to conduct a line patrol from [Bentota](/wiki/Bentota \"Bentota\"), {{convert\\|35\\|mi\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} south of Colombo on the west coast, to [Pottuvri](/wiki/Pottuvil \"Pottuvil\") on the east coast.Stuart 2014, p. 39 Ships were ordered to disperse from the harbours at Colombo and Trincomalee. *Cornwall* and *Dorsetshire* left Colombo late on 4 April to rejoin the Eastern Fleet,Roskill, p. 27 part of which had started sailing back to Ceylon from Port T after the QL\\-A report.",
"At 05:45 on 5 April, Catalina BN\\-L of 240 Squadron RAF, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Bradshaw, took off to shadow the Japanese fleet.",
"### Failure of British early warning",
"[thumb\\|Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters escorted the attacking bombers.](/wiki/File:Zero_Akagi_Dec1941.jpg \"Zero Akagi Dec1941.jpg\")\nThe Japanese carriers began flying off 91 bombers and 36 fighters for the strike on ColomboRoskill, p. 26 shortly after 06:00 on 5 April.Boyd, p. 371",
"Shortly after 06:40, Catalina BN\\-L spotted four Japanese aircraft flying north but misidentified them as Hurricanes and made no report. The flying boat was seen by the Japanese; *Hiryu* received a report of the encounter at 06:45\\. The strike group approached Colombo from the sea to the south\\-east; this course prevented detection by coast watchers and the 803 NAS line patrol. AMES 254 and its radar also failed to detect or report the inbound strike.Stuart 2014, pp. 39–41",
"British fighter pilots waited for a [scramble](/wiki/Scrambling_%28military%29 \"Scrambling (military)\") order that, due to the lack of early warning, never came. Instead they were forced take\\-off under fire, instead of starting the engagement pre\\-positioned in the air.Stuart 2014, pp. 42–44",
"### The attack",
"[thumb\\|RAF [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane \"Hawker Hurricane\") made up the bulk of the defending fighters.](/wiki/File:RAF_Hurricane.jpg \"RAF Hurricane.jpg\")\nAt 07:30, an advance force of nine Zero fighters from *Hiryu* flew over the Colombo Racecourse airbase and were spotted from the ground. The 14 Hurricanes of 258 Squadron RAF took off in good order by 07:35 and climbed toward the harbour. The airbase avoided attack.Stuart 2014, p. 42",
"At 07:40, 38 [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A \"Aichi D3A\") \"Val\" bombers from *Shokaku* and *Zuikaku* were spotted from Ratmalana. 14 from *Zuikaku* attacked the airbase at 07:45 as Hurricanes from 30 Squadron RAF were taking off in ones and twos. 21 Hurricanes took off (four were still on the ground when the first bombs fell) and another – the commanding officer's – was disabled attempting to take\\-off. Six Fulmars from 803 and 806 NAS also took off from Ratmalana. These British fighters were fully occupied defending the airbase, and were aided by heavy cloud cover. The first Hurricanes airborne attacked the bombers before any bombs were dropped. Five Vals and a Zero were destroyed, and up to six more Vals were damaged. In exchange, eight Hurricanes and three Fulmars were shot down. The airbase suffered little damage.",
"19 Vals from *Shokaku* attacked the harbour around 07:50; they ultimately sank the [armed merchant cruiser](/wiki/Armed_merchant_cruiser \"Armed merchant cruiser\") {{HMS\\|Hector\\|F45\\|6}} and damaged the submarine [depot ship](/wiki/Depot_ship \"Depot ship\") *Lucia*. They were set upon by 258 Squadron RAF shortly afterwards, which decided to concentrate on bombers rather than the covering Zeros. One Val was shot down, and damaged another, in exchange for eight Hurricanes destroyed and two badly damaged.",
"The *Shokaku* Vals fully occupied 258 Squadron RAF, allowing the remaining bombers to attack the harbour and port unimpeded by British fighters.Stuart 2014, p. 43 Five Vals from *Zuikaku* damaged the British tanker *San Cirilo*. 53 [Nakajima B5N](/wiki/Nakajima_B5N \"Nakajima B5N\") \"Kate\" torpedo bombers, acting as level bombers, sank the old destroyer {{HMS\\|Tenedos\\|H04\\|6}}, damaged the merchant ship *Benledi*, and hit port facilities.",
"In addition, the Norwegian tanker *Soli* was sunk and the British freighter *Clan Murdoch* was damaged.Stuart 2014, p. 47",
"The Japanese strike was recovered by their carriers from 09:45 to 10:30\\.Boyd, p. 373",
"### Second strike cancelled",
"{{Main\\|Indian Ocean raid\\#Loss of Dorsetshire and Cornwall}}\nCarrier Division 5 reserve strike force was armed with high explosive bombs for a second strike on Colombo. This was cancelled when Japanese scout aircraft discovered *Dorsetshire* and *Cornwall* at 10:00 on 5 April. Carrier Division 5 reserve strike force was ordered to attack the British cruisers, but rearming with torpedoes encountered delays, and the cruisers were sunk by Carrier Division 2 instead.Boyd, p. 372",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He did his primary and secondary studies in his hometown of Beja. After obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1968, he enrolled at the University of Tunis where he obtained a degree in literature in 1972, then a complementary degree in philosophy in 1973\.
After teaching at a high school in Beja, he was appointed in 1980 as director of the North West Development Office, a position he held for seven years. From 1987 to 1988, he served as governor of Kairouan. In 1991, he was appointed Secretary of State to the Minister of the Interior in charge of Regional and Municipal Cities; it modernises the management of municipalities, contributes to regional development and introduces the first program that makes environmental concerns mandatory. In recognition of the work accomplished, he was appointed in February 1995 as first adviser to the President of the Republic, then in 2002 as minister\-adviser to the President of the Republic for political affairs. He succeeds Hédi M'henni on 11 November 2004 as Minister of the Interior and Local Development. He was briefly assisted in early 2011 by Secretary of State Mongi Chouchane.
Following the 2011 Tunisian revolution, which is progressively spreading across the country, Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi announces his dismissal on January 12, 2011; Ahmed Friaâ replaces him.
He was Secretary General of the Béja Coordinating Committee in the 1980s. A member of the Political Bureau of the Democratic Constitutional Rally, he was re\-elected as a member of its Central Committee at the party congress held in July 2008\. He is removed from the party on January 18, 2011\.
Placed under house arrest, he was arrested for "answering serious suspicions that weighed on him" fifteen days after his dismissal and imprisoned in Mornaguia prison \[1]. Without legal proceedings, some of his legally acquired property is confiscated and his wife is deprived of her retirement pension.
On June 13, 2012, he obtained a dismissal by the military court of Kef for his role in the crackdown of January 2011 in Thala and Kasserine. On July 19, the military court of Tunis sentenced him to fifteen years in prison in the largest trial of the martyrs and wounded of the revolution, those of greater Tunis and five other governorates, sentence brought back on appeal to three years of prison on April 12, 2014\. On April 30, 2013, he was sentenced to ten years in prison for intentional homicide and attempted murder in the case of a martyr and two wounded in the governorate of Sfax. On May 8, 2014, he was released and hospitalized in a clinic in Tunis.
On November 20, 2015, he was sentenced to two years in prison in a case of extortion of money.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He did his primary and secondary studies in his hometown of Beja. After obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1968, he enrolled at the University of Tunis where he obtained a degree in literature in 1972, then a complementary degree in philosophy in 1973\\.",
"After teaching at a high school in Beja, he was appointed in 1980 as director of the North West Development Office, a position he held for seven years. From 1987 to 1988, he served as governor of Kairouan. In 1991, he was appointed Secretary of State to the Minister of the Interior in charge of Regional and Municipal Cities; it modernises the management of municipalities, contributes to regional development and introduces the first program that makes environmental concerns mandatory. In recognition of the work accomplished, he was appointed in February 1995 as first adviser to the President of the Republic, then in 2002 as minister\\-adviser to the President of the Republic for political affairs. He succeeds Hédi M'henni on 11 November 2004 as Minister of the Interior and Local Development. He was briefly assisted in early 2011 by Secretary of State Mongi Chouchane.",
"Following the 2011 Tunisian revolution, which is progressively spreading across the country, Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi announces his dismissal on January 12, 2011; Ahmed Friaâ replaces him.",
"He was Secretary General of the Béja Coordinating Committee in the 1980s. A member of the Political Bureau of the Democratic Constitutional Rally, he was re\\-elected as a member of its Central Committee at the party congress held in July 2008\\. He is removed from the party on January 18, 2011\\.",
"Placed under house arrest, he was arrested for \"answering serious suspicions that weighed on him\" fifteen days after his dismissal and imprisoned in Mornaguia prison \\[1]. Without legal proceedings, some of his legally acquired property is confiscated and his wife is deprived of her retirement pension.",
"On June 13, 2012, he obtained a dismissal by the military court of Kef for his role in the crackdown of January 2011 in Thala and Kasserine. On July 19, the military court of Tunis sentenced him to fifteen years in prison in the largest trial of the martyrs and wounded of the revolution, those of greater Tunis and five other governorates, sentence brought back on appeal to three years of prison on April 12, 2014\\. On April 30, 2013, he was sentenced to ten years in prison for intentional homicide and attempted murder in the case of a martyr and two wounded in the governorate of Sfax. On May 8, 2014, he was released and hospitalized in a clinic in Tunis.",
"On November 20, 2015, he was sentenced to two years in prison in a case of extortion of money.",
""
] |
Unbundling of Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB)
--------------------------------------
The power situation in Delhi till a few years ago was yet another example of man's incapacity to handle another form of energy. The [Delhi Vidyut Board](/wiki/Delhi_Vidyut_Board "Delhi Vidyut Board") (DVB) was a State Electricity Board set up in 1997 under the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948, succeeding the Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking (DESU) which has existed since 1957 as a wing of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi. It was an integrated utility with the generation, transmission, and distribution functions serving all of Delhi except the NDMC and MES (Cantonment) areas to which it supplied power in bulk.
The creation of DVB, replacing DESU, in 1997 proved to be merely a change in the legal status of the organization and was not followed by any real change in its structure, functioning, and work culture. Its reputation continued to deteriorate and its poor commercial performance, the best\-known thing about DVB perhaps being its high Transmission and Distribution (T\&D) losses made it a drain on the public exchequer. Further, failure in raising the resources necessary for the improvement of its services made matters critical. There were unprecedented, widespread expressions of public discontent during the difficult summer of 1998\.
In December 1998 when the Government came to power in Delhi, the power situation was grim. With T \& D losses as high as 50% regular power cut for 10 to 15 hours and Delhi Vidyut Board accumulating liabilities of over Rs. 23,000 crores, Delhi Government had to come up with a fast and viable alternative.
Delhi Electricity Board Regulatory Commission (DERC) was constituted in May 1999 whose prime responsibility was to look into the entire gamut of existing activity and search for various ways of power sector reforms. The DERC is even today a fully functional body that has since issued tariff orders for annual revenue requirements.
Delhi Electricity Reform Ordinance, 2000 was a body that was promulgated in October 2000 and notified in the form of an Act in March 2001\. It mainly provides for the constitution of an Electricity Regulatory Commission, unbundling of DVB into separate generation, transmission, and distribution companies, and increasing avenues for the participation of the private sector.
This was followed by a Tripartite Agreement which was signed by the Government of Delhi, DVB employees to ensure the cooperation of stakeholders in this reform process. The tripartite agreement sent off very positive vibes to the people in general as well as to the investor community about the sincere and hassle\-free objectives of power reforms.
Next, a two\-stage competitive bidding process of Request for Qualification (RFQ) and Request for Proposal (RFP) was set into motion for the privatization of the distribution companies.
The bidders were selected on the basis of reduction of total Aggregate Technical and Commercial losses (AT \& C) a unique feature of the power sector reforms in Delhi. The bidders were required to bid on the basis of efficiency improvement like the reduction of AT \& C losses that they achieve year\-wise over a period of five years.
|
[
"Unbundling of Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB)\n--------------------------------------",
"The power situation in Delhi till a few years ago was yet another example of man's incapacity to handle another form of energy. The [Delhi Vidyut Board](/wiki/Delhi_Vidyut_Board \"Delhi Vidyut Board\") (DVB) was a State Electricity Board set up in 1997 under the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948, succeeding the Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking (DESU) which has existed since 1957 as a wing of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi. It was an integrated utility with the generation, transmission, and distribution functions serving all of Delhi except the NDMC and MES (Cantonment) areas to which it supplied power in bulk.",
"The creation of DVB, replacing DESU, in 1997 proved to be merely a change in the legal status of the organization and was not followed by any real change in its structure, functioning, and work culture. Its reputation continued to deteriorate and its poor commercial performance, the best\\-known thing about DVB perhaps being its high Transmission and Distribution (T\\&D) losses made it a drain on the public exchequer. Further, failure in raising the resources necessary for the improvement of its services made matters critical. There were unprecedented, widespread expressions of public discontent during the difficult summer of 1998\\.",
"In December 1998 when the Government came to power in Delhi, the power situation was grim. With T \\& D losses as high as 50% regular power cut for 10 to 15 hours and Delhi Vidyut Board accumulating liabilities of over Rs. 23,000 crores, Delhi Government had to come up with a fast and viable alternative.",
"Delhi Electricity Board Regulatory Commission (DERC) was constituted in May 1999 whose prime responsibility was to look into the entire gamut of existing activity and search for various ways of power sector reforms. The DERC is even today a fully functional body that has since issued tariff orders for annual revenue requirements.\nDelhi Electricity Reform Ordinance, 2000 was a body that was promulgated in October 2000 and notified in the form of an Act in March 2001\\. It mainly provides for the constitution of an Electricity Regulatory Commission, unbundling of DVB into separate generation, transmission, and distribution companies, and increasing avenues for the participation of the private sector.",
"This was followed by a Tripartite Agreement which was signed by the Government of Delhi, DVB employees to ensure the cooperation of stakeholders in this reform process. The tripartite agreement sent off very positive vibes to the people in general as well as to the investor community about the sincere and hassle\\-free objectives of power reforms.",
"Next, a two\\-stage competitive bidding process of Request for Qualification (RFQ) and Request for Proposal (RFP) was set into motion for the privatization of the distribution companies.",
"The bidders were selected on the basis of reduction of total Aggregate Technical and Commercial losses (AT \\& C) a unique feature of the power sector reforms in Delhi. The bidders were required to bid on the basis of efficiency improvement like the reduction of AT \\& C losses that they achieve year\\-wise over a period of five years.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The episode opens with a [voice\-over](/wiki/Voice-over "Voice-over") narration from [Meredith Grey](/wiki/Meredith_Grey "Meredith Grey") ([Ellen Pompeo](/wiki/Ellen_Pompeo "Ellen Pompeo")) reflecting on the theme of change.
After completing their [internships](/wiki/Internship_%28medicine%29 "Internship (medicine)"), Meredith, [Cristina Yang](/wiki/Cristina_Yang "Cristina Yang") ([Sandra Oh](/wiki/Sandra_Oh "Sandra Oh")), [Izzie Stevens](/wiki/Izzie_Stevens "Izzie Stevens") ([Katherine Heigl](/wiki/Katherine_Heigl "Katherine Heigl")), and [Alex Karev](/wiki/Alex_Karev "Alex Karev") ([Justin Chambers](/wiki/Justin_Chambers "Justin Chambers")) begin their [surgical](/wiki/Surgery "Surgery") [residency](/wiki/Residency_%28medicine%29 "Residency (medicine)"), facing new responsibilities, including mentoring the latest batch of interns. [George O'Malley](/wiki/George_O%27Malley "George O'Malley") ([T. R. Knight](/wiki/T.R._Knight "T.R. Knight")), having failed his post\-internship exam in the [previous season's finale](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy_season_3 "Grey's Anatomy season 3"), must repeat his internship year, putting him in the difficult position of starting over.
It is revealed that [Lexie Grey](/wiki/Lexie_Grey "Lexie Grey") ([Chyler Leigh](/wiki/Chyler_Leigh "Chyler Leigh")), Meredith's half\-sister, is among the new interns. Unbeknownst to both at the time, she had a brief, flirtatious encounter with [Derek Shepherd](/wiki/Derek_Shepherd "Derek Shepherd") ([Patrick Dempsey](/wiki/Patrick_Dempsey "Patrick Dempsey")) at Joe's Bar, before he realized who she was. Meanwhile, [Callie Torres](/wiki/Callie_Torres "Callie Torres") ([Sara Ramirez](/wiki/Sara_Ramirez "Sara Ramirez")) struggles in her new role as Chief Resident, a position she was given over [Miranda Bailey](/wiki/Miranda_Bailey "Miranda Bailey") ([Chandra Wilson](/wiki/Chandra_Wilson "Chandra Wilson")), and she faces challenges asserting authority and gaining respect from her subordinates.
Following her breakup with [Preston Burke](/wiki/Preston_Burke "Preston Burke") ([Isaiah Washington](/wiki/Isaiah_Washington "Isaiah Washington"))—who left her at the [altar](/wiki/Altar "Altar")—Cristina has just returned from traveling with Meredith, only to discover that Burke has resigned from Seattle Grace and moved away without informing anyone. Izzie grapples with her feelings for George, who is married to Callie but is secretly having an [affair](/wiki/Affair "Affair") with her. George, now repeating his internship, finds a confidante in Lexie, who chooses to keep his secret about failing his exam. Meanwhile, Alex is shown to have visited Rebecca Pope ([Elizabeth Reaser](/wiki/Elizabeth_Reaser "Elizabeth Reaser")) after her departure.
In the absence of [Addison Montgomery](/wiki/Addison_Montgomery "Addison Montgomery") ([Kate Walsh](/wiki/Kate_Walsh_%28actress%29 "Kate Walsh (actress)")), who moved to Los Angeles, [Mark Sloan](/wiki/Mark_Sloan_%28Grey%27s_Anatomy%29 "Mark Sloan (Grey's Anatomy)") ([Eric Dane](/wiki/Eric_Dane "Eric Dane")) seeks to repair his friendship with Derek. Though initially hesitant, Derek eventually gives Mark a second chance. Bailey, frustrated at being passed over for Chief Resident despite her outstanding reputation, displays a cold demeanor toward [Richard Webber](/wiki/Richard_Webber "Richard Webber") ([James Pickens, Jr.](/wiki/James_Pickens%2C_Jr. "James Pickens, Jr.")) as a way to express her disappointment.
Lexie meets Meredith for the first time, but the encounter is awkward, with Meredith clearly uncomfortable. Meredith and Derek, despite breaking up, struggle to stay apart due to their lingering feelings for each other, complicating their attempts to move on.
The emergency room becomes overwhelmed with patients from a major car accident. One patient, admitted to the neurosurgery department under Derek and Cristina's care, is discovered to be internally decapitated, meaning that even the slightest movement could prove fatal. A pregnant woman, whose arm has been severed in the accident, is brought into plastic surgery, and Meredith, assigned to work with Sloan, is tasked with finding the missing arm, to the amazement of her interns. Izzie, struggling to be taken seriously by her interns, damages her professional image further when she abandons her duties to help perform surgery on a deer.
Meredith and Derek have a candid conversation about the difficulties of their breakup and acknowledge that their feelings remain strong. Despite this, they realize they cannot reconcile their relationship. However, they end up having sex one last time as a way to express their unresolved emotions.
George admits to himself that he is in love with Izzie and tells her that he shares her feelings, deepening the complications in his marriage to Callie.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The episode opens with a [voice\\-over](/wiki/Voice-over \"Voice-over\") narration from [Meredith Grey](/wiki/Meredith_Grey \"Meredith Grey\") ([Ellen Pompeo](/wiki/Ellen_Pompeo \"Ellen Pompeo\")) reflecting on the theme of change.",
"After completing their [internships](/wiki/Internship_%28medicine%29 \"Internship (medicine)\"), Meredith, [Cristina Yang](/wiki/Cristina_Yang \"Cristina Yang\") ([Sandra Oh](/wiki/Sandra_Oh \"Sandra Oh\")), [Izzie Stevens](/wiki/Izzie_Stevens \"Izzie Stevens\") ([Katherine Heigl](/wiki/Katherine_Heigl \"Katherine Heigl\")), and [Alex Karev](/wiki/Alex_Karev \"Alex Karev\") ([Justin Chambers](/wiki/Justin_Chambers \"Justin Chambers\")) begin their [surgical](/wiki/Surgery \"Surgery\") [residency](/wiki/Residency_%28medicine%29 \"Residency (medicine)\"), facing new responsibilities, including mentoring the latest batch of interns. [George O'Malley](/wiki/George_O%27Malley \"George O'Malley\") ([T. R. Knight](/wiki/T.R._Knight \"T.R. Knight\")), having failed his post\\-internship exam in the [previous season's finale](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy_season_3 \"Grey's Anatomy season 3\"), must repeat his internship year, putting him in the difficult position of starting over.",
"It is revealed that [Lexie Grey](/wiki/Lexie_Grey \"Lexie Grey\") ([Chyler Leigh](/wiki/Chyler_Leigh \"Chyler Leigh\")), Meredith's half\\-sister, is among the new interns. Unbeknownst to both at the time, she had a brief, flirtatious encounter with [Derek Shepherd](/wiki/Derek_Shepherd \"Derek Shepherd\") ([Patrick Dempsey](/wiki/Patrick_Dempsey \"Patrick Dempsey\")) at Joe's Bar, before he realized who she was. Meanwhile, [Callie Torres](/wiki/Callie_Torres \"Callie Torres\") ([Sara Ramirez](/wiki/Sara_Ramirez \"Sara Ramirez\")) struggles in her new role as Chief Resident, a position she was given over [Miranda Bailey](/wiki/Miranda_Bailey \"Miranda Bailey\") ([Chandra Wilson](/wiki/Chandra_Wilson \"Chandra Wilson\")), and she faces challenges asserting authority and gaining respect from her subordinates.",
"Following her breakup with [Preston Burke](/wiki/Preston_Burke \"Preston Burke\") ([Isaiah Washington](/wiki/Isaiah_Washington \"Isaiah Washington\"))—who left her at the [altar](/wiki/Altar \"Altar\")—Cristina has just returned from traveling with Meredith, only to discover that Burke has resigned from Seattle Grace and moved away without informing anyone. Izzie grapples with her feelings for George, who is married to Callie but is secretly having an [affair](/wiki/Affair \"Affair\") with her. George, now repeating his internship, finds a confidante in Lexie, who chooses to keep his secret about failing his exam. Meanwhile, Alex is shown to have visited Rebecca Pope ([Elizabeth Reaser](/wiki/Elizabeth_Reaser \"Elizabeth Reaser\")) after her departure.",
"In the absence of [Addison Montgomery](/wiki/Addison_Montgomery \"Addison Montgomery\") ([Kate Walsh](/wiki/Kate_Walsh_%28actress%29 \"Kate Walsh (actress)\")), who moved to Los Angeles, [Mark Sloan](/wiki/Mark_Sloan_%28Grey%27s_Anatomy%29 \"Mark Sloan (Grey's Anatomy)\") ([Eric Dane](/wiki/Eric_Dane \"Eric Dane\")) seeks to repair his friendship with Derek. Though initially hesitant, Derek eventually gives Mark a second chance. Bailey, frustrated at being passed over for Chief Resident despite her outstanding reputation, displays a cold demeanor toward [Richard Webber](/wiki/Richard_Webber \"Richard Webber\") ([James Pickens, Jr.](/wiki/James_Pickens%2C_Jr. \"James Pickens, Jr.\")) as a way to express her disappointment.",
"Lexie meets Meredith for the first time, but the encounter is awkward, with Meredith clearly uncomfortable. Meredith and Derek, despite breaking up, struggle to stay apart due to their lingering feelings for each other, complicating their attempts to move on.",
"The emergency room becomes overwhelmed with patients from a major car accident. One patient, admitted to the neurosurgery department under Derek and Cristina's care, is discovered to be internally decapitated, meaning that even the slightest movement could prove fatal. A pregnant woman, whose arm has been severed in the accident, is brought into plastic surgery, and Meredith, assigned to work with Sloan, is tasked with finding the missing arm, to the amazement of her interns. Izzie, struggling to be taken seriously by her interns, damages her professional image further when she abandons her duties to help perform surgery on a deer.",
"Meredith and Derek have a candid conversation about the difficulties of their breakup and acknowledge that their feelings remain strong. Despite this, they realize they cannot reconcile their relationship. However, they end up having sex one last time as a way to express their unresolved emotions.",
"George admits to himself that he is in love with Izzie and tells her that he shares her feelings, deepening the complications in his marriage to Callie.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Migration from China
[thumb\|The gate of the Dungan mosque in [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol "Karakol"), Kyrgyzstan. The upper text on the sign is a partially [Uyghurized](/wiki/Uyghur_language "Uyghur language") rendering of the mosque's Kyrgyz name into the [Uyghur Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Uyghur_Arabic_alphabet "Uyghur Arabic alphabet"): *Isiq\-köl oblasttiq Qaraqol sharindaghi Ibrahim Haji atindaghi borborduq mäsjid.* The lower text is [Kyrgyz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language "Kyrgyz language") in the Cyrillic script: *Ysyk\-Köl oblasttyk Karakol shaaryndagy Ibrakhim Ajy atyndagy borborduk mechit*—Central Mosque in the name of Ibrahim Hajji in the city of Karakol, an [oblast](/wiki/Oblast "Oblast") of [Ysyk\-Köl](/wiki/Ysyk-K%C3%B6l_Province "Ysyk-Köl Province").](/wiki/File:Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Gate-4.jpg "Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Gate-4.jpg")
In the [Ferghana Valley](/wiki/Ferghana_Valley "Ferghana Valley"), the first Dungans to appear in [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") originated from [Kuldja](/wiki/Yining "Yining") and [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar "Kashgar"), as slaves captured by raiders; they mostly served in private wealthy households. After the Russians conquered Central Asia in the late 19th century and abolished slavery, most female Dungan slaves remained where they had originally been held captive. Russian ethnographer [Vlaidimir Petrovich Nalivkin](/wiki/Vladimir_Nalivkin "Vladimir Nalivkin") and his wife said that "women slaves almost all remained in place, because they either were married to workers and servants of their former owners or they were too young to begin an independent life".{{cite book\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=XYZVvJSdLBkC\&q\=The\+Nalivkins\+observed\+that\+Dungan\+women\+slaves\+in\+the\+Fargana\+Valley%2C\+especially\+those\+taken\+as\+children%2C\+had\+few\+choices%3A\+%22women\+slaves\+almost\+all\+remained\+in\+place%2C\+because\+they\+either\+were\+married\+to\+workers\+and\+servants\+of\+their\&pg\=PA25\|title\= The New Woman in Uzbekistan: Islam, Modernity, and Unveiling Under Communism\|author\=Marianne Kamp\|year\= 2008\|publisher\= University of Washington Press\|edition\= reprint, illustrated\|page\= 25\|isbn\= 978\-0\-295\-98819\-1\|access\-date\= 30 July 2010}} Dungan women slaves were of low status and not regarded highly in [Bukhara](/wiki/Bukhara "Bukhara").{{cite book\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=QVSVux0wIW0C\&q\=yelia%27s\+mother\-in\-law\+had\+married\+a\+Chechen.\+But\+such\+is\+the\+stigma\+of\+the\+Chala\+identity\+that\+it\+overrode\+both\+the\+low\+status\+of\+the\+Dungan\+grandmother%2C\+who\+arrived\+in\+Bukhara\+as\+a\+slave%2C\+and\+current\+political\+anxieties\+about\+Chechens\&pg\=PA209\|title\=The other global city\|author\=Shail Mayaram\|editor\= Shail Mayaram\|year\=2009\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis US\|edition\= illustrated\|page\= 209\|isbn\= 978\-0\-415\-99194\-0\|access\-date\=30 July 2010}}
Turkic Muslim slave\-raiders from [Khoqand](/wiki/Kokand "Kokand") did not distinguish between Hui Muslim and Han Chinese, enslaving Hui Muslims in violation of Islamic law.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar\|url\-access\=registration\|quote\=khoqand raiders seizing chinese slaves in east turkistan failed to between hui muslims and han.\|title\=Islam and the abolition of slavery\|author\=W. G. Clarence\-Smith\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Oxford University Press US\|isbn\= 0\-19\-522151\-6\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar/page/45 45]\|access\-date\=31 October 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar\|url\-access\=registration\|quote\=a trickle of chinese also reached turkistan well into the nineteenth century.\|title\=Islam and the abolition of slavery\|author\=W. G. Clarence\-Smith\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Oxford University Press US\|isbn\= 0\-19\-522151\-6\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar/page/15 15]\|access\-date\=31 October 2010}} During the [Afaqi Khoja revolts](/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts "Afaqi Khoja revolts") Turkic Muslim [Khoja](/wiki/Khoja_%28Turkestan%29 "Khoja (Turkestan)") [Jahangir Khoja](/wiki/Jahangir_Khoja "Jahangir Khoja") led an invasion of [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar "Kashgar") from the [Kokand Khanate](/wiki/Kokand_Khanate "Kokand Khanate") and Jahangir's forces captured several hundred [Dungan Chinese Muslims](/wiki/Hui_people "Hui people") (Tungan or Hui) who were taken to [Kokand](/wiki/Kokand "Kokand"). [Tajiks](/wiki/Tajiks_of_Xinjiang "Tajiks of Xinjiang") bought two Chinese slaves from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi"); they were enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku\-bu\-te to China.{{sfn\|Millward\|1998\|p\=298}} All Dungans captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar, had their [queues](/wiki/Queue_%28hairstyle%29 "Queue (hairstyle)") cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as prisoners.{{sfn\|Millward\|1998\|p\=205}}{{sfn\|Millward\|1998\|p\=305}}{{what\|the queues? Or the prisoners?\|date\=June 2023}} Many of the captives became slaves. Accounts of these slaves in Central Asia increased.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KTmO416hNQ8C\&q\=khoqand\+chinese\+slaves\&pg\=PA97\|title\=The Empire and the Khanate: a political history of Qing relations with Khoqand c. 1760–1860\|author\=Laura Newby\|year\=2005\|publisher\=BRILL\|page\=97\|isbn\=90\-04\-14550\-8\|access\-date\=28 November 2010}}{{The Cambridge History of China \| volume \= 10\|page\=371}} The [queues](/wiki/Queue_%28hairstyle%29 "Queue (hairstyle)") were removed from Dungan Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given away. Some of them escaped to Russian territory where they were repatriated back to China and the accounts of their captures were recorded in Chinese records.{{sfn\|Millward\|1998\|p\=168}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Bk7jQaCu1EsC\&pg\=PA59\|title\=The Missionary's Curse and Other Tales from a Chinese Catholic Village\|volume\=26 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes\|first\=Henrietta\|last\=Harrison\|year\=2013\|publisher\=University of California Press\|page\=59\|isbn\=978\-0520954724\|access\-date\=28 November 2010}} The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese Muslim merchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia and sent them back to China.{{sfn\|Millward\|1998\|p\=285}}
The Dungan in the former Soviet republics are Hui who fled China in the aftermath of the [Hui Minorities' War](/wiki/Hui_Minorities%27_War "Hui Minorities' War") (also known as the "Dungan Rebellion") in the 19th century. According to Rimsky\-Korsakoff (1992\), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the [Tian Shan](/wiki/Tian_Shan "Tian Shan") mountains during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78 after the end of the Hui Minorities' War:
1. The first group, of some 1000 people, originally from [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan "Turpan") in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang"), led by Ma Daren (馬大人, 'the Great Man Ma'), also known as Ma Da\-lao\-ye (馬大老爺, 'the Great Master Ma'), reached [Osh](/wiki/Osh "Osh") in Southern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan").
2. The second group, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by *[ahong](/wiki/Ahong "Ahong")* Ma Yusuf (馬郁素夫),As per Ma Tong (2003\) also known as Ah Ye Laoren (阿爺老人, 'the Old Man O'Granpa'), were settled in the spring of 1878 in the village of Yrdyk ({{lang\-ru\|Ирдык}} or Ырдык) some 15 km from [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol "Karakol") in Eastern Kyrgyzstan. They numbered 1130 on arrival.
3. The third group, originally from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi"), led by [Bai Yanhu](/wiki/Bai_Yanhu "Bai Yanhu") (白彦虎; also spelt Bo Yanhu; often called by his followers "虎大人", 'The Great Man Hu (Tiger)', 1829(?)\-1882\), one of the leaders of the rebellion, were settled in the village of Karakunuz (now [Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi "Masanchi")), in modern [Zhambyl Province](/wiki/Zhambyl_Province "Zhambyl Province") of Kazakhstan. It is 8 km north of the city [Tokmak](/wiki/Tokmok "Tokmok") in northwestern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan"). This group numbered 3314 on arrival. Bai Yanhu's name in other romanizations was Bo\-yan\-hu or Pai Yen\-hu; other names included Boyan\-akhun ([Akhund](/wiki/Akhund "Akhund") or [Imam](/wiki/Imam "Imam") Boyan) and Muhammad Ayyub.{{cite book
\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7CP7fYghBFQC\&q\=Dungan\+revolt\+(1895%E2%80%931896\)\&pg\=PA720\|title\= E.J. Brill's first encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936\|author\=M. Th. Houtsma\|year\= 1993\|publisher\= BRILL\|isbn\= 90\-04\-09790\-2\|page\= 720\|access\-date\= 28 October 2010}}
The next wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s. In accordance with the terms of the [Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881\)](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_%281881%29 "Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)"), which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River "Ili River") basin (the [Kulja](/wiki/Yining "Yining") area), the Dungan (Hui) and [Taranchi](/wiki/Taranchi "Taranchi") ([Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghurs "Uyghurs")) people of the region were allowed to opt to move to the Russian side of the border. Many chose to do so; according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of [Sokuluk](/wiki/Sokuluk "Sokuluk") some 30 km west of [Bishkek](/wiki/Bishkek "Bishkek"), as well as in a number of locations between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in southeastern [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and in northern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan").
### Name
{{infobox Chinese
\| s \= 东干族
\| t \= 東干族
\| p \= Dōnggānzú
\| East Turkic \= Tungan
\| rus \= Дунгане
\| dungan\-xej \= حُوِ ذَو
\| dungan \= Хуэйзў
Дунганзў
\| dungan\-latin \= Huejzw
\| dungan\-han \= 回族
}}
In the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and the post\-Soviet states, the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as the *Hui people* ({{zh\|c\=\[\[:zh:回族\|回族]]}}, Huízú; in Cyrillic Soviet Dungan spelling, xуэйзў).
The name *Dungan* is of obscure origin. One popular theory derives this word from Turkic *döñän* ("one who turns"), which can be compared to Chinese [回](/wiki/wiktionary:%E5%9B%9E "回") (huí), which has a similar meaning. Another theory derives it from the Chinese 东甘 (Dong Gan), 'Eastern [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")', the region to which many of the Dungan can trace their ancestry; however the character *gan* (干) used in the name of the ethnic group is different from that used in the name of the province (甘).
The term "Dungan" ("Tonggan", "Donggan") has been used by Central Asian [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages")\-and Tajik\-speaking people to refer to Chinese\-speaking Muslims for several centuries. [Joseph Fletcher](/wiki/Joseph_Fletcher_%28historian%29 "Joseph Fletcher (historian)") cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century [Kashgarian](/wiki/Kashgar "Kashgar") [Sufi](/wiki/Sufi "Sufi") master [Muhammad Yūsuf](/wiki/Muhammad_Yusuf_Khoja "Muhammad Yusuf Khoja") (or, possibly, his son [Afaq Khoja](/wiki/Afaq_Khoja "Afaq Khoja")) inside the [Ming Empire](/wiki/Ming_Dynasty "Ming Dynasty") (in today's Gansu and/or [Qinghai](/wiki/Qinghai "Qinghai")), where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted '*ulamā\-yi Tunganiyyān* (i.e., "Dungan [ulema](/wiki/Ulema "Ulema")") into [Sufism](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism").{{cite book
\|first\=Jonathan Neaman \|last\=Lipman
\|publisher\=Hong Kong University Press \|year\=1998
\|isbn\=962\-209\-468\-6
\|title\=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China
\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=4\_FGPtLEoYQC
\|page\=59
}}. Lipman's source is: [Joseph Fletcher](/wiki/Joseph_Fletcher_%28historian%29 "Joseph Fletcher (historian)"), "The Naqshbandiya in Northwest China", in {{cite book\|title\=Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia\|editor\=Beatrcie Manz\| place\=London\|publisher\=Variorum\|year\=1995}}
Presumably, it was from the Turkic languages that the term was borrowed into Russian (дунгане, *dungane* (pl.); дунганин, *dunganin* (sing.)) and Chinese ({{zh\|s\=东干族\|t\=東干族\|p\=Dōnggānzú}}), as well as to Western European languages.
[thumb\|left\|Caption: "Shooting exercises of *taifurchi* \[gunners]. Dungans and Kashgar Chinese". A French engraving from the [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yaqub_Beg "Yaqub Beg")'s state period](/wiki/File:Zerrspiegel-Taifurchi-shooting-exercises-i125.jpg "Zerrspiegel-Taifurchi-shooting-exercises-i125.jpg")
In English and German, the [ethnonym](/wiki/Ethnonym "Ethnonym") "Dungan", in various spellings, has been attested as early as the 1830s, typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, [James Prinsep](/wiki/James_Prinsep "James Prinsep") in 1835 mentioned Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary".James Prinsep, "Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khoten". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 48, December 1835\. P. 655\.[On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=nK4IAAAAQAAJ)Prinsep's article is also available in "The Chinese Repository", 1843, p. 234 [On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=bXMbAAAAIAAJ). A modern (2003\) reprint is available, {{ISBN\|1\-4021\-5631\-6}}. In 1839, [Karl Ernst von Baer](/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer "Karl Ernst von Baer") in his German\-language account of Russian Empire and adjacent Asian lands has a one\-page account of Chinese\-speaking Muslim "Dungani" or "Tungani", who visited [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg") in 1827 with a caravan from China; he also mentions "Tugean" as a spelling variant used by other authors.[Karl Ernst von Baer](/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer "Karl Ernst von Baer"), Grigoriĭ Petrovich Gelʹmersen. "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches und der angränzenden Länder Asiens". Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1839\. p. 91\. [On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=uN0GAAAAYAAJ) {{in lang\|de}} R.M. Martin in 1847 mentions "Tungani" merchants in [Yarkand](/wiki/Yarkent_County "Yarkent County").Robert Montgomery Martin, "China; political, commercial, and social; an official report". 1847\. p.19\. [On Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/chinapoliticalc01martgoog)
The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860\-1870s discussed the [Dungan rebellion](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 "Dungan revolt (1862–1877)") in [northwestern China](/wiki/Northwestern_China "Northwestern China"). At the time, European and American authors applied the term *Tungani* to the Hui people both in Xinjiang,
For example, [Thomas Edward Gordon](/wiki/Thomas_Edward_Gordon "Thomas Edward Gordon") writes of "Tunganis" with *taifu* wall pieces (small cannons) guarding the walls of [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar "Yakub Beg of Yettishar")'s capital [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar "Kashgar") (in today's Western Xinjiang) in his book [*The roof of the world: being a narrative of a journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir*](https://archive.org/stream/roworldanarrati00gordgoog/roworldanarrati00gordgoog_djvu.txt). A *[Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* journalist in "[Russia and China in Central Asia](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article883063)" (reprinted by *The [Brisbane Courier](/wiki/Brisbane_Courier "Brisbane Courier")*, Wednesday 8 January 1879\) distinguishes "the Tungan Country" (today, eastern Xinjiang) and "Eastern Turkestan" (corresponding to [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar "Yakub Beg of Yettishar")'s state in today's western Xinjiang). He talks about "the Tungani who had erected in the various cities of [Hamil](/wiki/Hami_City "Hami City"), [Barkul](/wiki/Barkol_County "Barkol County"), [Guchen](/wiki/Qitai_County "Qitai County"), [Urumtsi](/wiki/Urumqi "Urumqi"), and [Manas](/wiki/Manas_County "Manas County") a confederacy of no mean power".
and in [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") and Gansu (which at the time included today's [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia "Ningxia") and [Qinghai](/wiki/Qinghai "Qinghai") as well). Authors aware of the general picture of the spread of [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") in China, viewed these "Tungani" as just one of the groups of China's Muslims.See e.g. an anonymous article, "[Mohammedanism in China](http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=livn;idno=livn0145-9)", in *The Living age*, Volume 145, Issue 1876\. 29 May 1880\. Pp. 515–525\. Reprinted from the [Edinburgh Review](/wiki/Edinburgh_Review "Edinburgh Review"). While using "Mohammedans" as the generic description of Chinese Muslim's throughout the article (including e.g., the [Panthays](/wiki/Panthays "Panthays") then recently [rebelling](/wiki/Panthay_rebellion "Panthay rebellion") in [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan "Yunnan")), the author describes "\[a]n [insurrection](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 "Dungan revolt (1862–1877)"), beginning in [Singan\-fu](/wiki/Xi%27an "Xi'an"), and spreading to [Kan\-suh](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu") in 1862, in which the Tungani (a mysterious race of Muslims dwelling in that region, supposed to be the remnant of the armies of [Kublai Khan](/wiki/Kublai_Khan "Kublai Khan")) were the chief actors" (p. 524\).
[Marshall Broomhall](/wiki/Marshall_Broomhall "Marshall Broomhall"), who has a chapter on "the Tungan Rebellion" in his 1910 book, introduces "the name Tungan or Dungan, by which the Muslims of these parts \[i.e., NE China] are designated, as distinguished from the Chinese Buddhists who were spoken of as Kithay. The reference to "[Khitay](/wiki/Names_of_China "Names of China")" shows that he was observing the two terms as used by Turkic speakers.{{Cite book\|title\=Islam in China: a neglected problem\|first\=Marshall\|last\=Broomhall\|year\=1910\|publisher\=China Inland Mission
\|oclc\=347514\|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_ObcNAAAAIAAJ\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_ObcNAAAAIAAJ/page/n178 147]}}. A 1966 reprint by Paragon Book Reprint is available. Relatedly, the Russian word for China is also Kitai ({{lang\|ru\|China}}), and in Chinese is kitaitsy ({{lang\|ru\|китайцы}}), a label that is not applied to the Dungans ({{lang\|ru\|дунгане}} in an ethnic sense; that is, Dungans and kitaitsi (Chinese) were regarded as different ethnic groups or nationalities. Broomhall's book also contains a translation of the report on Chinese Muslims by the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") writer named Abd\-ul\-Aziz. Abd\-ul\-Aziz divides the "Tungan people" into two branches: "the Tunagans of China proper" (including, apparently all Hui people in "[China proper](/wiki/China_proper "China proper")", as he also talks e.g. about the Tungans having 17 mosques in Beijing), and "The Tungans of Chinese and Russian Turkestan", who still looked and spoke Chinese, but had often also learned the ["Turkish" language](/wiki/Uyghur_language "Uyghur language").{{harvnb\|Broomhall\|1910\|p\=260}}
Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang.
For example, [Owen Lattimore](/wiki/Owen_Lattimore "Owen Lattimore"), writing c. 1940, maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups: "T'ungkan" (i.e. [Wade\-Giles](/wiki/Wade-Giles "Wade-Giles") for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17–18th centuries, vs. e.g. "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems".[Owen Lattimore](/wiki/Owen_Lattimore "Owen Lattimore"). *Inner Asian Frontiers of China*. Page 183 in the 1951 edition. The term (usually as "Tungans") continues to be used by many modern historians writing about the 19th century [Dungan Rebellion](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 "Dungan revolt (1862–1877)") (e.g., by [Denis C. Twitchett](/wiki/Denis_C._Twitchett "Denis C. Twitchett") in [The Cambridge History of China](/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_China "The Cambridge History of China"),{{Cite book\|first\=Denis Crispin \|last\=Twitchett\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1978
\|isbn\=0\-521\-22029\-7\|title\=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 11
\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=pEfWaxPhdnIC \|pages\=215–242}}. Twitchett's definition (p. 215\) is in line with the authors of 1870s–1880s, rather than with that of more recent Lattimore: for Twitchett, "Tungans" include the Huis of [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") and Gansu as well, not just of Xinjiang by James A. Millward in his economic history of the region,{{Cite book
\|first\=James A. \|last\=Millward
\|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|year\=1998\|isbn\=0\-8047\-2933\-6
\|title\=Beyond the pass: economy, ethnicity, and empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759\-1864
\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=MC6sAAAAIAAJ\|pages\=35 etc.
}} or by [Kim Ho\-dong](/wiki/Kim_Ho-dong "Kim Ho-dong") in his monograph{{Cite book\|author\-link\=Kim Hodong\|first\=Ho\-dong \|last\=Kim\|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=0\-8047\-4884\-5\|title\=Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864\-1877 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=AtduqAtBzegC}}).
### Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
The Dungans themselves referred to Karakunuz ({{lang\-ru\|Каракунуз}}, sometimes Караконыз or Караконуз) as "Ingpan" ({{zh\|c\=營盤}}, Yingpan; {{lang\-ru\|Иньпан}}), which means 'a camp, an encampment'. In 1965, Karakunuz was renamed [Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi "Masanchi") (sometimes spelt as "Masanchin"), after [Magaza Masanchi](/wiki/Magaza_Masanchi "Magaza Masanchi") or Masanchin (Dungan: Магәзы Масанчын; {{zh\|c\=馬三奇}}), a Dungan participant in the [Communist Revolution](/wiki/Communist_Revolution "Communist Revolution") and a statesman of Soviet Kazakhstan.{{Cite web
\| title \= The Anthropologist as a Mushroom
\| first \= Soledad
\| last \= Jiménez\-Tovar
\| magazine \= Field Notes and Research Projects
\| issue \= XIV
\| publisher \= Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology
\| date \= 2016
\| access\-date \= 9 February 2020
\| url \= https://www.eth.mpg.de/4083112/FN\_Vol14\_Mushroom\_web.pdf
\| issn \= 2193\-987X
\| quote \= Right after Bi Yankhu’s arrival, from 1878 until 1903, the village was called ‘Karakunuz’, meaning ‘black beetle’ in local Turkic languages. Dyer (1992\) believes that this was a nickname given by local Turkic\-speakers to Dungans, due to the fact that Dungan women liked to wear black at that time. In 1903 the name changed to ‘Nikolaevka’ (after the Russian Tsar) and it changed again in 1918, when the name ‘Karakunuz’ was again adopted, and did not change until 1964, when, as part of the rehabilitation of Magaza Masanchi, the village was renamed after him: ‘Masanchi’. Besides these official names, Masanchi also has a Dungan name, Yinpan, which appears in the left image on the wall7\.
}}
The following table summarizes location of Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, alternative names used for them, and their Dungan population as reported by Ma Tong (2003\). The Cyrillic Dungan spelling of place names is as in the textbook by Sushanlo, Imazov (1988\); the spelling of the name in Chinese characters is as in Ma Tong (2003\).
| \+ Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan | Village name (and alternatives) | Location (in present\-day terms) | Foundation | Current Dungan population (from Ma Tang (2003\)) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") – total 48,000 (Ma Tang (2003\)) or 36,900 (Kazakhstan Census of 1999\) | | | |
| **[Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi "Masanchi")** ({{lang\-ru\|Масанчи}}; {{lang\-kk\|Масаншы}}) or Masanchin (Russian: Масанчин; [Cyrillic Dungan](/wiki/Dungan_language "Dungan language"): Масанчын; 馬三成), prior to 1965 Karakunuz (Каракунуз, Караконыз). Traditional Dungan name is Ingpan (Cyrillic Dungan: Йинпан; Russian: Иньпан; {{zh\|c\=營盤}}, Yingpan) | ({{coord\|42\|55\|40\|N\|75\|18\|00\|E\|type:city\|name\=Masanchi}}) [Korday District](/wiki/Korday_District "Korday District"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region "Jambyl Region") of [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") (8 km north of [Tokmok](/wiki/Tokmok "Tokmok"), [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan")) | Spring 1878\. 3314 people from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi"), led by [Bai Yanhu](/wiki/Bai_Yanhu "Bai Yanhu") (白彦虎). | 7,000, current mayor: Iskhar Yusupovich Lou |
| **[Sortobe](/wiki/Sortobe "Sortobe")** ({{lang\-kk\|Sortobe}}; {{lang\-ru\|Шортюбе}}, Shortyube; {{lang\-dng\|Щёртюбе}}; {{zh\|c\=新渠}}, Xinqu) | ({{coord\|42\|52\|00\|N\|75\|15\|15\|E\|type:city\|name\=Sortobe}}) [Korday District](/wiki/Korday_District "Korday District"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region "Jambyl Region"). On the northern bank of the river [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28river%29 "Chu (river)") opposite and a few km downstream from Tokmok; south of Masanchi (Karakunuz) | (Karakunuz group) | 9,000 |
| **Zhalpak\-tobe**, ({{lang\-kk\|Жалпак\-тобе}}; {{zh\|c\=加爾帕克秋白}}, Jiaerpakeqiubai) | [Jambyl District](/wiki/Jambyl_District%2C_Jambyl "Jambyl District, Jambyl"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region "Jambyl Region"); near Grodekovo, south of [Taraz](/wiki/Taraz "Taraz") | | 3,000 |
| [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan") – total 50,000 (Ma Tang (2003\) | | | |
| **[Yrdyk](/wiki/Pristan%27-Przheval%27sk "Pristan'-Przheval'sk")** ({{Lang\-ky\|Ырдык}}; {{lang\-dng\|Эрдэх}}; {{zh\|c\=二道溝}}, Erdaogou) | ({{coord\|42\|27\|30\|N\|78\|18\|0\|E\|type:city\|name\=Yrdyk}}) [Jeti\-Ögüz District](/wiki/Jeti-%C3%96g%C3%BCz_District "Jeti-Ögüz District") of [Issyk\-Kul Region](/wiki/Issyk-Kul_Region "Issyk-Kul Region"); 15 km south\-west from [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol "Karakol"). | Spring 1878\. 1130 people, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by Ma Yusu (馬郁素), a.k.a. Ah Yelaoren (阿爺老人). | 2,800 |
| **[Sokuluk](/wiki/Sokuluk "Sokuluk")** ({{Lang\-ky\|Сокулук}}; Dungan: Сохўлў; {{zh\|c\=梢葫蘆}}, Saohulu); may also include adjacent Aleksandrovka (Александровка) | [Sokuluk District](/wiki/Sokuluk_District "Sokuluk District") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region "Chüy Region"); 30 km west of [Bishkek](/wiki/Bishkek "Bishkek") | Some of those 4,628 Hui people who arrived in 1881–1883 from the [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River "Ili River") Basin (Xinjiang) . | 12,000 |
| **[Milyanfan](/wiki/Milyanfan "Milyanfan")** ({{Lang\-ky\|Милянфан}}; {{lang\-dng\|Милёнчуан}}; {{zh\|c\=米糧川}}, Miliangchuan) | [Ysyk\-Ata District](/wiki/Ysyk-Ata_District "Ysyk-Ata District") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region "Chüy Region"). Southern bank of the [Chu River](/wiki/Chu_River "Chu River"), some 60 km west of Tokmok and about as much north\-east of Bishkek. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 10,000 |
| **[Ivanovka village](/wiki/Ivanovka%2C_Kyrgyzstan "Ivanovka, Kyrgyzstan")** ({{Lang\-ky\|Ивановка}}; {{zh\|c\=伊萬諾夫卡}}) | [Ysyk\-Ata District](/wiki/Ysyk-Ata_District "Ysyk-Ata District") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region "Chüy Region"). Southern bank of the [Chu River](/wiki/Chu_River "Chu River"), some 30 km west of Tokmok. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 1,500 |
Dungan community of **[Osh](/wiki/Osh "Osh")** ({{Lang\-ky\|Ош}}; {{zh\|c\=奥什}} or 敖什, Aoshe) |
[Osh Region](/wiki/Osh_Region "Osh Region") |
Spring 1878, 1000 people, originally from [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan "Turpan") in Xinjiang, led by Ma Daren, also known as Ma Da\-lao\-ye (馬大老爺) |
800 ||
The position of the Kazakhstan villages within the administrative division of [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region "Jambyl Region"), and the total population of each village can be found at the provincial statistics office web site.[Population data for Zhambyl Province towns and villages](http://www.zhambyl.stat.kz/main.php?action=perepis&article=4&lang=rus) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701154321/http://www.zhambyl.stat.kz/main.php?action\=perepis\&article\=4⟨\=rus \|date\=1 July 2007 }} (1999–2002\)
Besides the traditionally Dungan villages, many Dungan people live in the nearby cities, such as Bishkek, [Tokmok](/wiki/Tokmok "Tokmok"), [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol "Karakol").
### Soviet rule
[thumb\|Vanakhun's museum](/wiki/File:E8016-Milyanfan-museum.jpg "E8016-Milyanfan-museum.jpg")
[thumb\|Tungan generals of [Tunganistan](/wiki/Tunganistan "Tunganistan"), in [Hotan](/wiki/Hotan "Hotan").](/wiki/File:Tungani_General%2C_Khotan.jpg "Tungani General, Khotan.jpg")
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), some Dungans served in the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army"), one of them who was {{Interlanguage link\|Vanakhun Mansuza\|ru\|Ванахун, Манзус}} ([Cyrillic Dungan](/wiki/Dungan_language "Dungan language"): мансуза ванахун; {{zh\|t\=曼苏茲({{lang\|en\|or}}子)·王阿洪\|s\=曼蘇茲·王阿洪\|p\=Mànsūzī·Wángāhóng\|first\=t}}) a Dungan war "hero" who led a "mortar battery".{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ywAaAQAAIAAJ\&q\=Makeeva\+writes\+that\+one\+of\+the\+heroes,\+who\+perished\+while\+defending\+Moscow\+in\+1941,\+is\+Dulshenkul\+Shopokov;\+another\+hero\+is\+the\+courageous\+commander\+of\+the\+mortar\+battery,\+Vanakhun\+Mansuza,\+a\+third\+hero\+is\+the\+private\+Tashmamat\|title\=I︠A︡syr Shivaza: the life and works of a Soviet Dungan poet\|author\=Svetlana Rimsky\-Korsakoff Dyer\|year\=1991\|publisher\=P. Lang\|edition\=illustrated\|page\=205\|isbn\=3\-631\-43963\-6\|access\-date\=11 June 2011}}
Reportedly, Dungans were "strongly [anti\-Japanese](/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment "Anti-Japanese sentiment")".{{harvp\|Forbes\|1986\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=IAs9AAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA130 130]}} During the 1930s, a [White Russian](/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9 "White émigré") driver for [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") agent Georg Vasel in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang") was afraid to meet Hui general [Ma Zhongying](/wiki/Ma_Zhongying "Ma Zhongying"), saying: "You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." Vasel passed the Russian driver off as a German.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WAEbAAAAIAAJ\&q\=tungans\+hate\+russians\|title\=My Russian jailers in China\|author1\=Georg Vasel\|author2\=Gerald Griffin\|year\=1937\|publisher\=Hurst \& Blackett\|page\=143\|access\-date\=2010\-06\-28\|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508015959/https://books.google.com/books?id\=WAEbAAAAIAAJ\&q\=tungans\+hate\+russians\|url\-status\=live}}
### Present day
[thumb\|In Milyanfan village, [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region "Chüy Region") of Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/File:E8042-Milyanfan-house.jpg "E8042-Milyanfan-house.jpg")
As Ding (2005\) notes, "\[t]he Dungan people derive from China's Hui people, and now live mainly in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Their population is about 110,000\. This people have now developed a separate ethnicity outside China, yet they have close relations with the Hui people in culture, ethnic characteristics and ethnic identity." Today the Dungans play a role as cultural "shuttles" and economic mediators between Central Asia and the Chinese world.{{cite book \|author1\=Charles E. Ziegler \|url\=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/36761\|title\=Civil Society and Politics in Central Asia \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=\[\[University Press of Kentucky]] \|isbn\=9780813150789 \|series\=Asia in the New Millennium \|access\-date\=8 February 2020 \|language\=en}} [Husei Daurov](/wiki/Husei_Daurov "Husei Daurov"), the president of the Dungan center,[ДАУРОВ ХУСЕЙ ШИМАРОВИЧ](https://bestpeople.name/book/face/id/684/symbol/Д) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620162145/http://bestpeople.name/book/face/id/684/symbol/%D0%94 \|date\=20 June 2017 }} ("Best People", the Great International Encyclopedia) has succeeded in transforming cultural exchanges into commercial partnerships.
In February 2020, [a conflict broke out](/wiki/2020_Dungan%E2%80%93Kazakh_ethnic_clashes "2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes") between ethnic Kazakhs and Dungans in the Korday area in Kazakhstan on the border to Kyrgyzstan. According to official Kazakh sources, 10 people were killed and many more were wounded. In the altercation, cars and homes were burned and rifles were fired. 600 people fled across the border to Kyrgyzstan.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhs\-start\-returning\-home\-from\-kyrgyzstan\-after\-weekend\-ethnic\-violence/30425913\.html\|title\=Kazakhs Start Returning Home From Kyrgyzstan After Weekend's Ethnic Violence\|website\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\|language\=en\|access\-date\=10 February 2020}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/02/09/clashes\-in\-border\-kazakh\-village\-kill\-8\-and\-injure\-at\-least\-40\-others\|title\=Kazakhstan clashes kill 10 people and injure at least 40 others\|date\=9 February 2020\|website\=euronews\|language\=en\|access\-date\=10 February 2020}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Migration from China",
"[thumb\\|The gate of the Dungan mosque in [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol \"Karakol\"), Kyrgyzstan. The upper text on the sign is a partially [Uyghurized](/wiki/Uyghur_language \"Uyghur language\") rendering of the mosque's Kyrgyz name into the [Uyghur Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Uyghur_Arabic_alphabet \"Uyghur Arabic alphabet\"): *Isiq\\-köl oblasttiq Qaraqol sharindaghi Ibrahim Haji atindaghi borborduq mäsjid.* The lower text is [Kyrgyz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language \"Kyrgyz language\") in the Cyrillic script: *Ysyk\\-Köl oblasttyk Karakol shaaryndagy Ibrakhim Ajy atyndagy borborduk mechit*—Central Mosque in the name of Ibrahim Hajji in the city of Karakol, an [oblast](/wiki/Oblast \"Oblast\") of [Ysyk\\-Köl](/wiki/Ysyk-K%C3%B6l_Province \"Ysyk-Köl Province\").](/wiki/File:Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Gate-4.jpg \"Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Gate-4.jpg\")",
"In the [Ferghana Valley](/wiki/Ferghana_Valley \"Ferghana Valley\"), the first Dungans to appear in [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\") originated from [Kuldja](/wiki/Yining \"Yining\") and [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar \"Kashgar\"), as slaves captured by raiders; they mostly served in private wealthy households. After the Russians conquered Central Asia in the late 19th century and abolished slavery, most female Dungan slaves remained where they had originally been held captive. Russian ethnographer [Vlaidimir Petrovich Nalivkin](/wiki/Vladimir_Nalivkin \"Vladimir Nalivkin\") and his wife said that \"women slaves almost all remained in place, because they either were married to workers and servants of their former owners or they were too young to begin an independent life\".{{cite book\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XYZVvJSdLBkC\\&q\\=The\\+Nalivkins\\+observed\\+that\\+Dungan\\+women\\+slaves\\+in\\+the\\+Fargana\\+Valley%2C\\+especially\\+those\\+taken\\+as\\+children%2C\\+had\\+few\\+choices%3A\\+%22women\\+slaves\\+almost\\+all\\+remained\\+in\\+place%2C\\+because\\+they\\+either\\+were\\+married\\+to\\+workers\\+and\\+servants\\+of\\+their\\&pg\\=PA25\\|title\\= The New Woman in Uzbekistan: Islam, Modernity, and Unveiling Under Communism\\|author\\=Marianne Kamp\\|year\\= 2008\\|publisher\\= University of Washington Press\\|edition\\= reprint, illustrated\\|page\\= 25\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-295\\-98819\\-1\\|access\\-date\\= 30 July 2010}} Dungan women slaves were of low status and not regarded highly in [Bukhara](/wiki/Bukhara \"Bukhara\").{{cite book\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=QVSVux0wIW0C\\&q\\=yelia%27s\\+mother\\-in\\-law\\+had\\+married\\+a\\+Chechen.\\+But\\+such\\+is\\+the\\+stigma\\+of\\+the\\+Chala\\+identity\\+that\\+it\\+overrode\\+both\\+the\\+low\\+status\\+of\\+the\\+Dungan\\+grandmother%2C\\+who\\+arrived\\+in\\+Bukhara\\+as\\+a\\+slave%2C\\+and\\+current\\+political\\+anxieties\\+about\\+Chechens\\&pg\\=PA209\\|title\\=The other global city\\|author\\=Shail Mayaram\\|editor\\= Shail Mayaram\\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis US\\|edition\\= illustrated\\|page\\= 209\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-99194\\-0\\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2010}}",
"Turkic Muslim slave\\-raiders from [Khoqand](/wiki/Kokand \"Kokand\") did not distinguish between Hui Muslim and Han Chinese, enslaving Hui Muslims in violation of Islamic law.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|quote\\=khoqand raiders seizing chinese slaves in east turkistan failed to between hui muslims and han.\\|title\\=Islam and the abolition of slavery\\|author\\=W. G. Clarence\\-Smith\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press US\\|isbn\\= 0\\-19\\-522151\\-6\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar/page/45 45]\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|quote\\=a trickle of chinese also reached turkistan well into the nineteenth century.\\|title\\=Islam and the abolition of slavery\\|author\\=W. G. Clarence\\-Smith\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press US\\|isbn\\= 0\\-19\\-522151\\-6\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar/page/15 15]\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2010}} During the [Afaqi Khoja revolts](/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts \"Afaqi Khoja revolts\") Turkic Muslim [Khoja](/wiki/Khoja_%28Turkestan%29 \"Khoja (Turkestan)\") [Jahangir Khoja](/wiki/Jahangir_Khoja \"Jahangir Khoja\") led an invasion of [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar \"Kashgar\") from the [Kokand Khanate](/wiki/Kokand_Khanate \"Kokand Khanate\") and Jahangir's forces captured several hundred [Dungan Chinese Muslims](/wiki/Hui_people \"Hui people\") (Tungan or Hui) who were taken to [Kokand](/wiki/Kokand \"Kokand\"). [Tajiks](/wiki/Tajiks_of_Xinjiang \"Tajiks of Xinjiang\") bought two Chinese slaves from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\"); they were enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku\\-bu\\-te to China.{{sfn\\|Millward\\|1998\\|p\\=298}} All Dungans captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar, had their [queues](/wiki/Queue_%28hairstyle%29 \"Queue (hairstyle)\") cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as prisoners.{{sfn\\|Millward\\|1998\\|p\\=205}}{{sfn\\|Millward\\|1998\\|p\\=305}}{{what\\|the queues? Or the prisoners?\\|date\\=June 2023}} Many of the captives became slaves. Accounts of these slaves in Central Asia increased.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KTmO416hNQ8C\\&q\\=khoqand\\+chinese\\+slaves\\&pg\\=PA97\\|title\\=The Empire and the Khanate: a political history of Qing relations with Khoqand c. 1760–1860\\|author\\=Laura Newby\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|page\\=97\\|isbn\\=90\\-04\\-14550\\-8\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2010}}{{The Cambridge History of China \\| volume \\= 10\\|page\\=371}} The [queues](/wiki/Queue_%28hairstyle%29 \"Queue (hairstyle)\") were removed from Dungan Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given away. Some of them escaped to Russian territory where they were repatriated back to China and the accounts of their captures were recorded in Chinese records.{{sfn\\|Millward\\|1998\\|p\\=168}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Bk7jQaCu1EsC\\&pg\\=PA59\\|title\\=The Missionary's Curse and Other Tales from a Chinese Catholic Village\\|volume\\=26 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes\\|first\\=Henrietta\\|last\\=Harrison\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|page\\=59\\|isbn\\=978\\-0520954724\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2010}} The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese Muslim merchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia and sent them back to China.{{sfn\\|Millward\\|1998\\|p\\=285}}",
"The Dungan in the former Soviet republics are Hui who fled China in the aftermath of the [Hui Minorities' War](/wiki/Hui_Minorities%27_War \"Hui Minorities' War\") (also known as the \"Dungan Rebellion\") in the 19th century. According to Rimsky\\-Korsakoff (1992\\), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the [Tian Shan](/wiki/Tian_Shan \"Tian Shan\") mountains during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78 after the end of the Hui Minorities' War:\n1. The first group, of some 1000 people, originally from [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan \"Turpan\") in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\"), led by Ma Daren (馬大人, 'the Great Man Ma'), also known as Ma Da\\-lao\\-ye (馬大老爺, 'the Great Master Ma'), reached [Osh](/wiki/Osh \"Osh\") in Southern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\").\n2. The second group, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by *[ahong](/wiki/Ahong \"Ahong\")* Ma Yusuf (馬郁素夫),As per Ma Tong (2003\\) also known as Ah Ye Laoren (阿爺老人, 'the Old Man O'Granpa'), were settled in the spring of 1878 in the village of Yrdyk ({{lang\\-ru\\|Ирдык}} or Ырдык) some 15 km from [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol \"Karakol\") in Eastern Kyrgyzstan. They numbered 1130 on arrival.\n3. The third group, originally from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\"), led by [Bai Yanhu](/wiki/Bai_Yanhu \"Bai Yanhu\") (白彦虎; also spelt Bo Yanhu; often called by his followers \"虎大人\", 'The Great Man Hu (Tiger)', 1829(?)\\-1882\\), one of the leaders of the rebellion, were settled in the village of Karakunuz (now [Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi \"Masanchi\")), in modern [Zhambyl Province](/wiki/Zhambyl_Province \"Zhambyl Province\") of Kazakhstan. It is 8 km north of the city [Tokmak](/wiki/Tokmok \"Tokmok\") in northwestern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\"). This group numbered 3314 on arrival. Bai Yanhu's name in other romanizations was Bo\\-yan\\-hu or Pai Yen\\-hu; other names included Boyan\\-akhun ([Akhund](/wiki/Akhund \"Akhund\") or [Imam](/wiki/Imam \"Imam\") Boyan) and Muhammad Ayyub.{{cite book\n\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7CP7fYghBFQC\\&q\\=Dungan\\+revolt\\+(1895%E2%80%931896\\)\\&pg\\=PA720\\|title\\= E.J. Brill's first encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936\\|author\\=M. Th. Houtsma\\|year\\= 1993\\|publisher\\= BRILL\\|isbn\\= 90\\-04\\-09790\\-2\\|page\\= 720\\|access\\-date\\= 28 October 2010}}",
"The next wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s. In accordance with the terms of the [Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881\\)](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_%281881%29 \"Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)\"), which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River \"Ili River\") basin (the [Kulja](/wiki/Yining \"Yining\") area), the Dungan (Hui) and [Taranchi](/wiki/Taranchi \"Taranchi\") ([Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghurs \"Uyghurs\")) people of the region were allowed to opt to move to the Russian side of the border. Many chose to do so; according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of [Sokuluk](/wiki/Sokuluk \"Sokuluk\") some 30 km west of [Bishkek](/wiki/Bishkek \"Bishkek\"), as well as in a number of locations between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in southeastern [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and in northern [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\").",
"### Name",
"{{infobox Chinese\n\\| s \\= 东干族\n\\| t \\= 東干族\n\\| p \\= Dōnggānzú\n\\| East Turkic \\= Tungan\n\\| rus \\= Дунгане\n\\| dungan\\-xej \\= حُوِ ذَو\n\\| dungan \\= Хуэйзў \nДунганзў\n\\| dungan\\-latin \\= Huejzw\n\\| dungan\\-han \\= 回族\n}}\nIn the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and the post\\-Soviet states, the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as the *Hui people* ({{zh\\|c\\=\\[\\[:zh:回族\\|回族]]}}, Huízú; in Cyrillic Soviet Dungan spelling, xуэйзў).",
"The name *Dungan* is of obscure origin. One popular theory derives this word from Turkic *döñän* (\"one who turns\"), which can be compared to Chinese [回](/wiki/wiktionary:%E5%9B%9E \"回\") (huí), which has a similar meaning. Another theory derives it from the Chinese 东甘 (Dong Gan), 'Eastern [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")', the region to which many of the Dungan can trace their ancestry; however the character *gan* (干) used in the name of the ethnic group is different from that used in the name of the province (甘).",
"The term \"Dungan\" (\"Tonggan\", \"Donggan\") has been used by Central Asian [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\")\\-and Tajik\\-speaking people to refer to Chinese\\-speaking Muslims for several centuries. [Joseph Fletcher](/wiki/Joseph_Fletcher_%28historian%29 \"Joseph Fletcher (historian)\") cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century [Kashgarian](/wiki/Kashgar \"Kashgar\") [Sufi](/wiki/Sufi \"Sufi\") master [Muhammad Yūsuf](/wiki/Muhammad_Yusuf_Khoja \"Muhammad Yusuf Khoja\") (or, possibly, his son [Afaq Khoja](/wiki/Afaq_Khoja \"Afaq Khoja\")) inside the [Ming Empire](/wiki/Ming_Dynasty \"Ming Dynasty\") (in today's Gansu and/or [Qinghai](/wiki/Qinghai \"Qinghai\")), where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted '*ulamā\\-yi Tunganiyyān* (i.e., \"Dungan [ulema](/wiki/Ulema \"Ulema\")\") into [Sufism](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\").{{cite book\n\\|first\\=Jonathan Neaman \\|last\\=Lipman\n\\|publisher\\=Hong Kong University Press \\|year\\=1998\n\\|isbn\\=962\\-209\\-468\\-6\n\\|title\\=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China\n\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4\\_FGPtLEoYQC\n\\|page\\=59\n}}. Lipman's source is: [Joseph Fletcher](/wiki/Joseph_Fletcher_%28historian%29 \"Joseph Fletcher (historian)\"), \"The Naqshbandiya in Northwest China\", in {{cite book\\|title\\=Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia\\|editor\\=Beatrcie Manz\\| place\\=London\\|publisher\\=Variorum\\|year\\=1995}}",
"Presumably, it was from the Turkic languages that the term was borrowed into Russian (дунгане, *dungane* (pl.); дунганин, *dunganin* (sing.)) and Chinese ({{zh\\|s\\=东干族\\|t\\=東干族\\|p\\=Dōnggānzú}}), as well as to Western European languages.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Caption: \"Shooting exercises of *taifurchi* \\[gunners]. Dungans and Kashgar Chinese\". A French engraving from the [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yaqub_Beg \"Yaqub Beg\")'s state period](/wiki/File:Zerrspiegel-Taifurchi-shooting-exercises-i125.jpg \"Zerrspiegel-Taifurchi-shooting-exercises-i125.jpg\")\nIn English and German, the [ethnonym](/wiki/Ethnonym \"Ethnonym\") \"Dungan\", in various spellings, has been attested as early as the 1830s, typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, [James Prinsep](/wiki/James_Prinsep \"James Prinsep\") in 1835 mentioned Muslim \"Túngánis\" in \"Chinese Tartary\".James Prinsep, \"Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khoten\". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 48, December 1835\\. P. 655\\.[On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=nK4IAAAAQAAJ)Prinsep's article is also available in \"The Chinese Repository\", 1843, p. 234 [On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=bXMbAAAAIAAJ). A modern (2003\\) reprint is available, {{ISBN\\|1\\-4021\\-5631\\-6}}. In 1839, [Karl Ernst von Baer](/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer \"Karl Ernst von Baer\") in his German\\-language account of Russian Empire and adjacent Asian lands has a one\\-page account of Chinese\\-speaking Muslim \"Dungani\" or \"Tungani\", who visited [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\") in 1827 with a caravan from China; he also mentions \"Tugean\" as a spelling variant used by other authors.[Karl Ernst von Baer](/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer \"Karl Ernst von Baer\"), Grigoriĭ Petrovich Gelʹmersen. \"Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches und der angränzenden Länder Asiens\". Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1839\\. p. 91\\. [On Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=uN0GAAAAYAAJ) {{in lang\\|de}} R.M. Martin in 1847 mentions \"Tungani\" merchants in [Yarkand](/wiki/Yarkent_County \"Yarkent County\").Robert Montgomery Martin, \"China; political, commercial, and social; an official report\". 1847\\. p.19\\. [On Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/chinapoliticalc01martgoog)",
"The word (mostly in the form \"Dungani\" or \"Tungani\", sometimes \"Dungens\" or \"Dungans\") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860\\-1870s discussed the [Dungan rebellion](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 \"Dungan revolt (1862–1877)\") in [northwestern China](/wiki/Northwestern_China \"Northwestern China\"). At the time, European and American authors applied the term *Tungani* to the Hui people both in Xinjiang,\nFor example, [Thomas Edward Gordon](/wiki/Thomas_Edward_Gordon \"Thomas Edward Gordon\") writes of \"Tunganis\" with *taifu* wall pieces (small cannons) guarding the walls of [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar \"Yakub Beg of Yettishar\")'s capital [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar \"Kashgar\") (in today's Western Xinjiang) in his book [*The roof of the world: being a narrative of a journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir*](https://archive.org/stream/roworldanarrati00gordgoog/roworldanarrati00gordgoog_djvu.txt). A *[Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* journalist in \"[Russia and China in Central Asia](http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article883063)\" (reprinted by *The [Brisbane Courier](/wiki/Brisbane_Courier \"Brisbane Courier\")*, Wednesday 8 January 1879\\) distinguishes \"the Tungan Country\" (today, eastern Xinjiang) and \"Eastern Turkestan\" (corresponding to [Yaqub Beg](/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar \"Yakub Beg of Yettishar\")'s state in today's western Xinjiang). He talks about \"the Tungani who had erected in the various cities of [Hamil](/wiki/Hami_City \"Hami City\"), [Barkul](/wiki/Barkol_County \"Barkol County\"), [Guchen](/wiki/Qitai_County \"Qitai County\"), [Urumtsi](/wiki/Urumqi \"Urumqi\"), and [Manas](/wiki/Manas_County \"Manas County\") a confederacy of no mean power\".\nand in [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") and Gansu (which at the time included today's [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\") and [Qinghai](/wiki/Qinghai \"Qinghai\") as well). Authors aware of the general picture of the spread of [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") in China, viewed these \"Tungani\" as just one of the groups of China's Muslims.See e.g. an anonymous article, \"[Mohammedanism in China](http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=livn;idno=livn0145-9)\", in *The Living age*, Volume 145, Issue 1876\\. 29 May 1880\\. Pp. 515–525\\. Reprinted from the [Edinburgh Review](/wiki/Edinburgh_Review \"Edinburgh Review\"). While using \"Mohammedans\" as the generic description of Chinese Muslim's throughout the article (including e.g., the [Panthays](/wiki/Panthays \"Panthays\") then recently [rebelling](/wiki/Panthay_rebellion \"Panthay rebellion\") in [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan \"Yunnan\")), the author describes \"\\[a]n [insurrection](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 \"Dungan revolt (1862–1877)\"), beginning in [Singan\\-fu](/wiki/Xi%27an \"Xi'an\"), and spreading to [Kan\\-suh](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") in 1862, in which the Tungani (a mysterious race of Muslims dwelling in that region, supposed to be the remnant of the armies of [Kublai Khan](/wiki/Kublai_Khan \"Kublai Khan\")) were the chief actors\" (p. 524\\).",
"[Marshall Broomhall](/wiki/Marshall_Broomhall \"Marshall Broomhall\"), who has a chapter on \"the Tungan Rebellion\" in his 1910 book, introduces \"the name Tungan or Dungan, by which the Muslims of these parts \\[i.e., NE China] are designated, as distinguished from the Chinese Buddhists who were spoken of as Kithay. The reference to \"[Khitay](/wiki/Names_of_China \"Names of China\")\" shows that he was observing the two terms as used by Turkic speakers.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Islam in China: a neglected problem\\|first\\=Marshall\\|last\\=Broomhall\\|year\\=1910\\|publisher\\=China Inland Mission\n\\|oclc\\=347514\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_ObcNAAAAIAAJ\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_ObcNAAAAIAAJ/page/n178 147]}}. A 1966 reprint by Paragon Book Reprint is available. Relatedly, the Russian word for China is also Kitai ({{lang\\|ru\\|China}}), and in Chinese is kitaitsy ({{lang\\|ru\\|китайцы}}), a label that is not applied to the Dungans ({{lang\\|ru\\|дунгане}} in an ethnic sense; that is, Dungans and kitaitsi (Chinese) were regarded as different ethnic groups or nationalities. Broomhall's book also contains a translation of the report on Chinese Muslims by the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") writer named Abd\\-ul\\-Aziz. Abd\\-ul\\-Aziz divides the \"Tungan people\" into two branches: \"the Tunagans of China proper\" (including, apparently all Hui people in \"[China proper](/wiki/China_proper \"China proper\")\", as he also talks e.g. about the Tungans having 17 mosques in Beijing), and \"The Tungans of Chinese and Russian Turkestan\", who still looked and spoke Chinese, but had often also learned the [\"Turkish\" language](/wiki/Uyghur_language \"Uyghur language\").{{harvnb\\|Broomhall\\|1910\\|p\\=260}}",
"Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang.\nFor example, [Owen Lattimore](/wiki/Owen_Lattimore \"Owen Lattimore\"), writing c. 1940, maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups: \"T'ungkan\" (i.e. [Wade\\-Giles](/wiki/Wade-Giles \"Wade-Giles\") for \"Dungan\"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17–18th centuries, vs. e.g. \"Gansu Moslems\" or generic \"Chinese Moslems\".[Owen Lattimore](/wiki/Owen_Lattimore \"Owen Lattimore\"). *Inner Asian Frontiers of China*. Page 183 in the 1951 edition. The term (usually as \"Tungans\") continues to be used by many modern historians writing about the 19th century [Dungan Rebellion](/wiki/Dungan_revolt_%281862%E2%80%931877%29 \"Dungan revolt (1862–1877)\") (e.g., by [Denis C. Twitchett](/wiki/Denis_C._Twitchett \"Denis C. Twitchett\") in [The Cambridge History of China](/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_China \"The Cambridge History of China\"),{{Cite book\\|first\\=Denis Crispin \\|last\\=Twitchett\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1978\n\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-22029\\-7\\|title\\=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 11 \n\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pEfWaxPhdnIC \\|pages\\=215–242}}. Twitchett's definition (p. 215\\) is in line with the authors of 1870s–1880s, rather than with that of more recent Lattimore: for Twitchett, \"Tungans\" include the Huis of [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") and Gansu as well, not just of Xinjiang by James A. Millward in his economic history of the region,{{Cite book\n\\|first\\=James A. \\|last\\=Millward\n\\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|year\\=1998\\|isbn\\=0\\-8047\\-2933\\-6\n\\|title\\=Beyond the pass: economy, ethnicity, and empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759\\-1864\n\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MC6sAAAAIAAJ\\|pages\\=35 etc.\n}} or by [Kim Ho\\-dong](/wiki/Kim_Ho-dong \"Kim Ho-dong\") in his monograph{{Cite book\\|author\\-link\\=Kim Hodong\\|first\\=Ho\\-dong \\|last\\=Kim\\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8047\\-4884\\-5\\|title\\=Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864\\-1877 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AtduqAtBzegC}}).",
"### Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan",
"The Dungans themselves referred to Karakunuz ({{lang\\-ru\\|Каракунуз}}, sometimes Караконыз or Караконуз) as \"Ingpan\" ({{zh\\|c\\=營盤}}, Yingpan; {{lang\\-ru\\|Иньпан}}), which means 'a camp, an encampment'. In 1965, Karakunuz was renamed [Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi \"Masanchi\") (sometimes spelt as \"Masanchin\"), after [Magaza Masanchi](/wiki/Magaza_Masanchi \"Magaza Masanchi\") or Masanchin (Dungan: Магәзы Масанчын; {{zh\\|c\\=馬三奇}}), a Dungan participant in the [Communist Revolution](/wiki/Communist_Revolution \"Communist Revolution\") and a statesman of Soviet Kazakhstan.{{Cite web\n\\| title \\= The Anthropologist as a Mushroom\n\\| first \\= Soledad\n\\| last \\= Jiménez\\-Tovar\n\\| magazine \\= Field Notes and Research Projects\n\\| issue \\= XIV\n\\| publisher \\= Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology\n\\| date \\= 2016\n\\| access\\-date \\= 9 February 2020\n\\| url \\= https://www.eth.mpg.de/4083112/FN\\_Vol14\\_Mushroom\\_web.pdf\n\\| issn \\= 2193\\-987X\n\\| quote \\= Right after Bi Yankhu’s arrival, from 1878 until 1903, the village was called ‘Karakunuz’, meaning ‘black beetle’ in local Turkic languages. Dyer (1992\\) believes that this was a nickname given by local Turkic\\-speakers to Dungans, due to the fact that Dungan women liked to wear black at that time. In 1903 the name changed to ‘Nikolaevka’ (after the Russian Tsar) and it changed again in 1918, when the name ‘Karakunuz’ was again adopted, and did not change until 1964, when, as part of the rehabilitation of Magaza Masanchi, the village was renamed after him: ‘Masanchi’. Besides these official names, Masanchi also has a Dungan name, Yinpan, which appears in the left image on the wall7\\. \n}}",
"The following table summarizes location of Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, alternative names used for them, and their Dungan population as reported by Ma Tong (2003\\). The Cyrillic Dungan spelling of place names is as in the textbook by Sushanlo, Imazov (1988\\); the spelling of the name in Chinese characters is as in Ma Tong (2003\\).",
"| \\+ Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan | Village name (and alternatives) | Location (in present\\-day terms) | Foundation | Current Dungan population (from Ma Tang (2003\\)) |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") – total 48,000 (Ma Tang (2003\\)) or 36,900 (Kazakhstan Census of 1999\\) | | | |\n| **[Masanchi](/wiki/Masanchi \"Masanchi\")** ({{lang\\-ru\\|Масанчи}}; {{lang\\-kk\\|Масаншы}}) or Masanchin (Russian: Масанчин; [Cyrillic Dungan](/wiki/Dungan_language \"Dungan language\"): Масанчын; 馬三成), prior to 1965 Karakunuz (Каракунуз, Караконыз). Traditional Dungan name is Ingpan (Cyrillic Dungan: Йинпан; Russian: Иньпан; {{zh\\|c\\=營盤}}, Yingpan) | ({{coord\\|42\\|55\\|40\\|N\\|75\\|18\\|00\\|E\\|type:city\\|name\\=Masanchi}}) [Korday District](/wiki/Korday_District \"Korday District\"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region \"Jambyl Region\") of [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") (8 km north of [Tokmok](/wiki/Tokmok \"Tokmok\"), [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\")) | Spring 1878\\. 3314 people from [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\"), led by [Bai Yanhu](/wiki/Bai_Yanhu \"Bai Yanhu\") (白彦虎). | 7,000, current mayor: Iskhar Yusupovich Lou |\n| **[Sortobe](/wiki/Sortobe \"Sortobe\")** ({{lang\\-kk\\|Sortobe}}; {{lang\\-ru\\|Шортюбе}}, Shortyube; {{lang\\-dng\\|Щёртюбе}}; {{zh\\|c\\=新渠}}, Xinqu) | ({{coord\\|42\\|52\\|00\\|N\\|75\\|15\\|15\\|E\\|type:city\\|name\\=Sortobe}}) [Korday District](/wiki/Korday_District \"Korday District\"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region \"Jambyl Region\"). On the northern bank of the river [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28river%29 \"Chu (river)\") opposite and a few km downstream from Tokmok; south of Masanchi (Karakunuz) | (Karakunuz group) | 9,000 |\n| **Zhalpak\\-tobe**, ({{lang\\-kk\\|Жалпак\\-тобе}}; {{zh\\|c\\=加爾帕克秋白}}, Jiaerpakeqiubai) | [Jambyl District](/wiki/Jambyl_District%2C_Jambyl \"Jambyl District, Jambyl\"), [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region \"Jambyl Region\"); near Grodekovo, south of [Taraz](/wiki/Taraz \"Taraz\") | | 3,000 |\n| [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\") – total 50,000 (Ma Tang (2003\\) | | | |\n| **[Yrdyk](/wiki/Pristan%27-Przheval%27sk \"Pristan'-Przheval'sk\")** ({{Lang\\-ky\\|Ырдык}}; {{lang\\-dng\\|Эрдэх}}; {{zh\\|c\\=二道溝}}, Erdaogou) | ({{coord\\|42\\|27\\|30\\|N\\|78\\|18\\|0\\|E\\|type:city\\|name\\=Yrdyk}}) [Jeti\\-Ögüz District](/wiki/Jeti-%C3%96g%C3%BCz_District \"Jeti-Ögüz District\") of [Issyk\\-Kul Region](/wiki/Issyk-Kul_Region \"Issyk-Kul Region\"); 15 km south\\-west from [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol \"Karakol\"). | Spring 1878\\. 1130 people, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by Ma Yusu (馬郁素), a.k.a. Ah Yelaoren (阿爺老人). | 2,800 |\n| **[Sokuluk](/wiki/Sokuluk \"Sokuluk\")** ({{Lang\\-ky\\|Сокулук}}; Dungan: Сохўлў; {{zh\\|c\\=梢葫蘆}}, Saohulu); may also include adjacent Aleksandrovka (Александровка) | [Sokuluk District](/wiki/Sokuluk_District \"Sokuluk District\") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region \"Chüy Region\"); 30 km west of [Bishkek](/wiki/Bishkek \"Bishkek\") | Some of those 4,628 Hui people who arrived in 1881–1883 from the [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River \"Ili River\") Basin (Xinjiang) . | 12,000 |\n| **[Milyanfan](/wiki/Milyanfan \"Milyanfan\")** ({{Lang\\-ky\\|Милянфан}}; {{lang\\-dng\\|Милёнчуан}}; {{zh\\|c\\=米糧川}}, Miliangchuan) | [Ysyk\\-Ata District](/wiki/Ysyk-Ata_District \"Ysyk-Ata District\") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region \"Chüy Region\"). Southern bank of the [Chu River](/wiki/Chu_River \"Chu River\"), some 60 km west of Tokmok and about as much north\\-east of Bishkek. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 10,000 |\n| **[Ivanovka village](/wiki/Ivanovka%2C_Kyrgyzstan \"Ivanovka, Kyrgyzstan\")** ({{Lang\\-ky\\|Ивановка}}; {{zh\\|c\\=伊萬諾夫卡}}) | [Ysyk\\-Ata District](/wiki/Ysyk-Ata_District \"Ysyk-Ata District\") of [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region \"Chüy Region\"). Southern bank of the [Chu River](/wiki/Chu_River \"Chu River\"), some 30 km west of Tokmok. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 1,500 |",
"Dungan community of **[Osh](/wiki/Osh \"Osh\")** ({{Lang\\-ky\\|Ош}}; {{zh\\|c\\=奥什}} or 敖什, Aoshe) |\n [Osh Region](/wiki/Osh_Region \"Osh Region\") |\n Spring 1878, 1000 people, originally from [Turpan](/wiki/Turpan \"Turpan\") in Xinjiang, led by Ma Daren, also known as Ma Da\\-lao\\-ye (馬大老爺) |\n 800 ||",
"",
"The position of the Kazakhstan villages within the administrative division of [Jambyl Region](/wiki/Jambyl_Region \"Jambyl Region\"), and the total population of each village can be found at the provincial statistics office web site.[Population data for Zhambyl Province towns and villages](http://www.zhambyl.stat.kz/main.php?action=perepis&article=4&lang=rus) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701154321/http://www.zhambyl.stat.kz/main.php?action\\=perepis\\&article\\=4⟨\\=rus \\|date\\=1 July 2007 }} (1999–2002\\)",
"Besides the traditionally Dungan villages, many Dungan people live in the nearby cities, such as Bishkek, [Tokmok](/wiki/Tokmok \"Tokmok\"), [Karakol](/wiki/Karakol \"Karakol\").",
"### Soviet rule",
"[thumb\\|Vanakhun's museum](/wiki/File:E8016-Milyanfan-museum.jpg \"E8016-Milyanfan-museum.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Tungan generals of [Tunganistan](/wiki/Tunganistan \"Tunganistan\"), in [Hotan](/wiki/Hotan \"Hotan\").](/wiki/File:Tungani_General%2C_Khotan.jpg \"Tungani General, Khotan.jpg\")\nDuring [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), some Dungans served in the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\"), one of them who was {{Interlanguage link\\|Vanakhun Mansuza\\|ru\\|Ванахун, Манзус}} ([Cyrillic Dungan](/wiki/Dungan_language \"Dungan language\"): мансуза ванахун; {{zh\\|t\\=曼苏茲({{lang\\|en\\|or}}子)·王阿洪\\|s\\=曼蘇茲·王阿洪\\|p\\=Mànsūzī·Wángāhóng\\|first\\=t}}) a Dungan war \"hero\" who led a \"mortar battery\".{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ywAaAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=Makeeva\\+writes\\+that\\+one\\+of\\+the\\+heroes,\\+who\\+perished\\+while\\+defending\\+Moscow\\+in\\+1941,\\+is\\+Dulshenkul\\+Shopokov;\\+another\\+hero\\+is\\+the\\+courageous\\+commander\\+of\\+the\\+mortar\\+battery,\\+Vanakhun\\+Mansuza,\\+a\\+third\\+hero\\+is\\+the\\+private\\+Tashmamat\\|title\\=I︠A︡syr Shivaza: the life and works of a Soviet Dungan poet\\|author\\=Svetlana Rimsky\\-Korsakoff Dyer\\|year\\=1991\\|publisher\\=P. Lang\\|edition\\=illustrated\\|page\\=205\\|isbn\\=3\\-631\\-43963\\-6\\|access\\-date\\=11 June 2011}}",
"Reportedly, Dungans were \"strongly [anti\\-Japanese](/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment \"Anti-Japanese sentiment\")\".{{harvp\\|Forbes\\|1986\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IAs9AAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA130 130]}} During the 1930s, a [White Russian](/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9 \"White émigré\") driver for [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") agent Georg Vasel in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") was afraid to meet Hui general [Ma Zhongying](/wiki/Ma_Zhongying \"Ma Zhongying\"), saying: \"You know how the Tungans hate the Russians.\" Vasel passed the Russian driver off as a German.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WAEbAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=tungans\\+hate\\+russians\\|title\\=My Russian jailers in China\\|author1\\=Georg Vasel\\|author2\\=Gerald Griffin\\|year\\=1937\\|publisher\\=Hurst \\& Blackett\\|page\\=143\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508015959/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WAEbAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=tungans\\+hate\\+russians\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Present day",
"[thumb\\|In Milyanfan village, [Chüy Region](/wiki/Ch%C3%BCy_Region \"Chüy Region\") of Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/File:E8042-Milyanfan-house.jpg \"E8042-Milyanfan-house.jpg\")\nAs Ding (2005\\) notes, \"\\[t]he Dungan people derive from China's Hui people, and now live mainly in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Their population is about 110,000\\. This people have now developed a separate ethnicity outside China, yet they have close relations with the Hui people in culture, ethnic characteristics and ethnic identity.\" Today the Dungans play a role as cultural \"shuttles\" and economic mediators between Central Asia and the Chinese world.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Charles E. Ziegler \\|url\\=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/36761\\|title\\=Civil Society and Politics in Central Asia \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University Press of Kentucky]] \\|isbn\\=9780813150789 \\|series\\=Asia in the New Millennium \\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2020 \\|language\\=en}} [Husei Daurov](/wiki/Husei_Daurov \"Husei Daurov\"), the president of the Dungan center,[ДАУРОВ ХУСЕЙ ШИМАРОВИЧ](https://bestpeople.name/book/face/id/684/symbol/Д) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620162145/http://bestpeople.name/book/face/id/684/symbol/%D0%94 \\|date\\=20 June 2017 }} (\"Best People\", the Great International Encyclopedia) has succeeded in transforming cultural exchanges into commercial partnerships.",
"In February 2020, [a conflict broke out](/wiki/2020_Dungan%E2%80%93Kazakh_ethnic_clashes \"2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes\") between ethnic Kazakhs and Dungans in the Korday area in Kazakhstan on the border to Kyrgyzstan. According to official Kazakh sources, 10 people were killed and many more were wounded. In the altercation, cars and homes were burned and rifles were fired. 600 people fled across the border to Kyrgyzstan.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhs\\-start\\-returning\\-home\\-from\\-kyrgyzstan\\-after\\-weekend\\-ethnic\\-violence/30425913\\.html\\|title\\=Kazakhs Start Returning Home From Kyrgyzstan After Weekend's Ethnic Violence\\|website\\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2020}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/02/09/clashes\\-in\\-border\\-kazakh\\-village\\-kill\\-8\\-and\\-injure\\-at\\-least\\-40\\-others\\|title\\=Kazakhstan clashes kill 10 people and injure at least 40 others\\|date\\=9 February 2020\\|website\\=euronews\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2020}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{See also\|Warcraft\#Setting}}
### Death Rising
After murdering High Overlord Saurfang using otherworldly powers (at the end of *[Battle for Azeroth](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Battle_for_Azeroth "Battle for Azeroth")*), [Sylvanas Windrunner](/wiki/Sylvanas_Windrunner "Sylvanas Windrunner") travels to Icecrown Citadel and destroys the [Lich King](/wiki/Arthas_Menethil "Arthas Menethil")'s Helm of Domination, tearing a rift in the sky above Icecrown leading to the Shadowlands, realm of the dead.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.windowscentral.com/world\-warcraft\-shadowlands\-review\|title\=World of Warcraft: Shadowlands Review\|date\=16 December 2020\|access\-date\=April 23, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 23, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423161651/https://www.windowscentral.com/world\-warcraft\-shadowlands\-review\|url\-status\=live}} Dark angelic figures kidnap King Anduin Wrynn, former Warchief Thrall, tauren chieftain Baine Bloodhoof and Lady Jaina Proudmoore and hold them in Torghast, the maze\-like Tower of the Damned within the Maw. Tyrande Whisperwind—empowered by the moon goddess Elune as the "Night Warrior" after the burning of the World Tree Teldrassil, and aided by Azeroth's champions—confronts and kills Sylvanas' consort, Nathanos Blightcaller, outside his former homestead in the Eastern Plaguelands.
### Into the Shadowlands
The Knights of the Ebon Blade (the order of Death Knights who had broken from the Scourge in *[Wrath of the Lich King](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Wrath_of_the_Lich_King "Wrath of the Lich King")*) use the fragments of the Helm of Domination to teleport into the Shadowlands with the heroes of Azeroth. They arrive in the Maw, a place of eternal damnation, and make their way through the armies of Zovaal the Jailer, the "Banished One" who rules the Maw; it is revealed that Sylvanas has made a pact with the Jailer.{{cite web\|url\=https://gamerant.com/world\-warcraft\-shadowlands\-unresolved\-mysteries\-plot\-holes/\|title\=10 Unresolved Mysteries and Plot Holes Left Hanging In World of Warcraft: Shadowlands\|date\=11 November 2020\|access\-date\=April 26, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 26, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426115406/https://gamerant.com/world\-warcraft\-shadowlands\-unresolved\-mysteries\-plot\-holes/\|url\-status\=live}} Upon finding a waystone placed by the enigmatic "First Ones", the champions escape the Maw and arrive in Oribos, the Eternal City at the center of the Shadowlands. There, they learn that the Arbiter, who judges the souls of the dead, has gone dormant, condemning all incoming souls to the Maw. Because of this, the realms of the Shadowlands are suffering from a drought of Anima, the essence of souls. In order to discover the cause of the disruption, the attendants send the champions to the four realms of the Shadowlands: Bastion, home of the angelic Kyrian; Maldraxxus, home of the undead Necrolords; Ardenweald, home of the enchanted Night Fae; and Revendreth, home to the vampiric Venthyr.
In Bastion, the heroes discover that the spirit of Uther the Lightbringer, the first Paladin, has joined with a group of renegade Kyrian known as the Forsworn, who seek to overthrow Kyrestia the Firstborne, the Archon of Bastion. Unbeknownst to Uther, they are in the service of the Jailer. An attack by Necrolord forces leads the heroes to Maldraxxus, which is in the throes of civil war; they are joined by Draka, Thrall's mother and member of the House of the Chosen, in collecting the regalia of the Primus, the missing ruler of Maldraxxus. In Ardenweald, the heroes discover the contained spirit of Ysera, the Aspect of the green dragonflight who had been killed in *[Legion](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Legion "Legion")*. Ardenweald's ruler, the Winter Queen, is reluctant to deal with Ysera due to lingering enmity with Elune, but she ultimately awakens Ysera as a spirit bound to Ardenweald. In Revendreth, the heroes discover that its ruler, Sire Denathrius, is in league with the Jailer; the heroes besiege Denathrius' stronghold of Castle Nathria and defeat him.
All the while, Baine, Thrall, and Jaina are recovered from Torghast thanks to the insight of former Lich King Bolvar Fordragon, but Anduin is kept hidden.
### Chains of Domination
The Jailer needs sigils held by the rulers of each realm. Having already acquired the sigils of Denathrius and the Primus, the Jailer and Sylvanas force Anduin to become an agent of the Maw, and they use him to seize the sigils of the Archon and Winter Queen.
The heroes of Azeroth discover that the Primus has been imprisoned in Torghast under the guise of the "Runecarver", forced to craft armaments for the Jailer's Mawsworn army, as well as the Helm of Domination and Frostmourne, the regalia of the Lich King. After the heroes free him, the Primus reveals that Zovaal was the original Arbiter before the rulers of the Shadowlands banished him to the Maw for attempting to dominate all of creation, and that the dormant Arbiter now in Oribos had been created to replace him. The combined Covenant forces discover that they have been infiltrated by the Nathrezim, formerly thought to be demons serving the Burning Legion but actually agents of Denathrius. It is revealed that the Nathrezim have been behind nearly every major antagonist in *Warcraft* lore, including the Legion and the Scourge, as part of the Jailer's plan; they are also responsible for the Anima drought, having disabled the Arbiter with the corrupted spirit of the fallen Titan Argus (killed in *Legion*).
The heroes are also sent to aid Uther, who has repented for his part in the Forsworn rebellion and seeks to understand the fracturing of his soul by Frostmourne. After the heroes discover the fragment taken by Frostmourne in Torghast, they return to Bastion, where Uther relives his memories, ending with his death at the hands of Arthas Menethil. His choice to keep his memories as a lesson inspire the Kyrian, who believed that purging all memories was part of their duty, to change their methods. The heroes also seek the spirits of other Night Warriors to help save Tyrande, who is being torn apart by the Night Warrior's power. During the ritual to remove the Night Warrior's power, the Winter Queen is forced to intervene, and Tyrande is briefly possessed by the spirit of Elune. Elune and the Winter Queen reconcile, and Tyrande is restored to normal.
The Jailer prepares to attack Oribos to claim the dormant Arbiter's sigil. Azeroth's champions band together with Jaina, Thrall, and Bolvar to stop the invasion by breaching the Jailer's personal fortress, the Sanctum of Domination. The incursion ends for naught as the Jailer successfully acquires the Arbiter's sigil, transforming himself into an armored behemoth. The Jailer reveals his goal of forging his own reality where all serve him, going against Sylvanas's previous desire of breaking the cycle of death. Seeing the parallels between the Jailer and Arthas, who had forced her to serve him (in *[Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos](/wiki/Warcraft_III:Reign_of_Chaos "Reign of Chaos")*), Sylvanas cuts ties with the Jailer. For her aid in his cause, the Jailer "rewards" Sylvanas with the fragment of her soul that was taken by Frostmourne, which causes her to pass out at the mercy of Azeroth's leaders, as the Jailer and Anduin escape.
### Eternity's End
In order to pursue the Jailer, the Primus creates new sigils to open the gateway to the mystical realm of Zereth Mortis, where the First Ones created the Shadowlands. With the aid of Uther, Sylvanas' soul is restored, and she offers to help defeat the Jailer. With her help, champions discover a waystone that opens a doorway into the Sepulcher of the First Ones, where the Jailer has begun his redesign of the universe.
Azeroth's champions battle their way through the Sepulcher. Eventually, Anduin is sent to annihilate the invaders, but he is able to free himself from the Jailer's domination after recalling the spirits of Varok Saurfang and Varian Wrynn, Anduin's father. Anduin and Sylvanas then encounter and release the spirit of Arthas Menethil from within Anduin's broken Domination armor. With all their allies regrouped, the heroes of Azeroth finally defeat the Jailer. As he dies, he claims that his plan to unify the cosmos was meant as a preventative measure against something later to come.
With Zovaal defeated, Pelagos, an aspiring Kyrian who aided Uther in his journey, volunteers to become the new Arbiter and fill the vacancy left by its demise. Sylvanas is confronted over her actions during the War of the Thorns and the Jailer's rise to power, though Pelagos gives the final verdict to her long\-time nemesis, Tyrande. Tyrande decides that Sylvanas' words of contrition, although genuine, are not enough to pay for what she did. Tyrande punishes Sylvanas by sending her to the Maw to retrieve lost souls that perished during the conflicts she orchestrated.
### Balance Restored
As everything across the realms returns to normal, some leaders of Azeroth are met with conflicting decisions about their future. Anduin visits Sylvanas as she searches for souls within the Maw, where he reveals his uncertainty about being a leader after the actions he was forced to commit while under the Jailer's influence. In Ardenweald, the Winter Queen thanks Tyrande for helping her and Elune resolve their differences, and she gives Tyrande the seed of a world tree imbued with the souls of Night Elves who died in Teldrassil. In the ruins of Lordaeron, Calia Menethil confesses to Lilian Voss her wariness about being accepted anywhere due to being the last member of the Menethil line, but Voss reassures her that she is at home and is needed among the Forsaken.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{See also\\|Warcraft\\#Setting}}",
"### Death Rising",
"After murdering High Overlord Saurfang using otherworldly powers (at the end of *[Battle for Azeroth](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Battle_for_Azeroth \"Battle for Azeroth\")*), [Sylvanas Windrunner](/wiki/Sylvanas_Windrunner \"Sylvanas Windrunner\") travels to Icecrown Citadel and destroys the [Lich King](/wiki/Arthas_Menethil \"Arthas Menethil\")'s Helm of Domination, tearing a rift in the sky above Icecrown leading to the Shadowlands, realm of the dead.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.windowscentral.com/world\\-warcraft\\-shadowlands\\-review\\|title\\=World of Warcraft: Shadowlands Review\\|date\\=16 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423161651/https://www.windowscentral.com/world\\-warcraft\\-shadowlands\\-review\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Dark angelic figures kidnap King Anduin Wrynn, former Warchief Thrall, tauren chieftain Baine Bloodhoof and Lady Jaina Proudmoore and hold them in Torghast, the maze\\-like Tower of the Damned within the Maw. Tyrande Whisperwind—empowered by the moon goddess Elune as the \"Night Warrior\" after the burning of the World Tree Teldrassil, and aided by Azeroth's champions—confronts and kills Sylvanas' consort, Nathanos Blightcaller, outside his former homestead in the Eastern Plaguelands.",
"### Into the Shadowlands",
"The Knights of the Ebon Blade (the order of Death Knights who had broken from the Scourge in *[Wrath of the Lich King](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Wrath_of_the_Lich_King \"Wrath of the Lich King\")*) use the fragments of the Helm of Domination to teleport into the Shadowlands with the heroes of Azeroth. They arrive in the Maw, a place of eternal damnation, and make their way through the armies of Zovaal the Jailer, the \"Banished One\" who rules the Maw; it is revealed that Sylvanas has made a pact with the Jailer.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://gamerant.com/world\\-warcraft\\-shadowlands\\-unresolved\\-mysteries\\-plot\\-holes/\\|title\\=10 Unresolved Mysteries and Plot Holes Left Hanging In World of Warcraft: Shadowlands\\|date\\=11 November 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 26, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426115406/https://gamerant.com/world\\-warcraft\\-shadowlands\\-unresolved\\-mysteries\\-plot\\-holes/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Upon finding a waystone placed by the enigmatic \"First Ones\", the champions escape the Maw and arrive in Oribos, the Eternal City at the center of the Shadowlands. There, they learn that the Arbiter, who judges the souls of the dead, has gone dormant, condemning all incoming souls to the Maw. Because of this, the realms of the Shadowlands are suffering from a drought of Anima, the essence of souls. In order to discover the cause of the disruption, the attendants send the champions to the four realms of the Shadowlands: Bastion, home of the angelic Kyrian; Maldraxxus, home of the undead Necrolords; Ardenweald, home of the enchanted Night Fae; and Revendreth, home to the vampiric Venthyr.",
"In Bastion, the heroes discover that the spirit of Uther the Lightbringer, the first Paladin, has joined with a group of renegade Kyrian known as the Forsworn, who seek to overthrow Kyrestia the Firstborne, the Archon of Bastion. Unbeknownst to Uther, they are in the service of the Jailer. An attack by Necrolord forces leads the heroes to Maldraxxus, which is in the throes of civil war; they are joined by Draka, Thrall's mother and member of the House of the Chosen, in collecting the regalia of the Primus, the missing ruler of Maldraxxus. In Ardenweald, the heroes discover the contained spirit of Ysera, the Aspect of the green dragonflight who had been killed in *[Legion](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft:Legion \"Legion\")*. Ardenweald's ruler, the Winter Queen, is reluctant to deal with Ysera due to lingering enmity with Elune, but she ultimately awakens Ysera as a spirit bound to Ardenweald. In Revendreth, the heroes discover that its ruler, Sire Denathrius, is in league with the Jailer; the heroes besiege Denathrius' stronghold of Castle Nathria and defeat him.",
"All the while, Baine, Thrall, and Jaina are recovered from Torghast thanks to the insight of former Lich King Bolvar Fordragon, but Anduin is kept hidden.",
"### Chains of Domination",
"The Jailer needs sigils held by the rulers of each realm. Having already acquired the sigils of Denathrius and the Primus, the Jailer and Sylvanas force Anduin to become an agent of the Maw, and they use him to seize the sigils of the Archon and Winter Queen.",
"The heroes of Azeroth discover that the Primus has been imprisoned in Torghast under the guise of the \"Runecarver\", forced to craft armaments for the Jailer's Mawsworn army, as well as the Helm of Domination and Frostmourne, the regalia of the Lich King. After the heroes free him, the Primus reveals that Zovaal was the original Arbiter before the rulers of the Shadowlands banished him to the Maw for attempting to dominate all of creation, and that the dormant Arbiter now in Oribos had been created to replace him. The combined Covenant forces discover that they have been infiltrated by the Nathrezim, formerly thought to be demons serving the Burning Legion but actually agents of Denathrius. It is revealed that the Nathrezim have been behind nearly every major antagonist in *Warcraft* lore, including the Legion and the Scourge, as part of the Jailer's plan; they are also responsible for the Anima drought, having disabled the Arbiter with the corrupted spirit of the fallen Titan Argus (killed in *Legion*).",
"The heroes are also sent to aid Uther, who has repented for his part in the Forsworn rebellion and seeks to understand the fracturing of his soul by Frostmourne. After the heroes discover the fragment taken by Frostmourne in Torghast, they return to Bastion, where Uther relives his memories, ending with his death at the hands of Arthas Menethil. His choice to keep his memories as a lesson inspire the Kyrian, who believed that purging all memories was part of their duty, to change their methods. The heroes also seek the spirits of other Night Warriors to help save Tyrande, who is being torn apart by the Night Warrior's power. During the ritual to remove the Night Warrior's power, the Winter Queen is forced to intervene, and Tyrande is briefly possessed by the spirit of Elune. Elune and the Winter Queen reconcile, and Tyrande is restored to normal.",
"The Jailer prepares to attack Oribos to claim the dormant Arbiter's sigil. Azeroth's champions band together with Jaina, Thrall, and Bolvar to stop the invasion by breaching the Jailer's personal fortress, the Sanctum of Domination. The incursion ends for naught as the Jailer successfully acquires the Arbiter's sigil, transforming himself into an armored behemoth. The Jailer reveals his goal of forging his own reality where all serve him, going against Sylvanas's previous desire of breaking the cycle of death. Seeing the parallels between the Jailer and Arthas, who had forced her to serve him (in *[Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos](/wiki/Warcraft_III:Reign_of_Chaos \"Reign of Chaos\")*), Sylvanas cuts ties with the Jailer. For her aid in his cause, the Jailer \"rewards\" Sylvanas with the fragment of her soul that was taken by Frostmourne, which causes her to pass out at the mercy of Azeroth's leaders, as the Jailer and Anduin escape.",
"### Eternity's End",
"In order to pursue the Jailer, the Primus creates new sigils to open the gateway to the mystical realm of Zereth Mortis, where the First Ones created the Shadowlands. With the aid of Uther, Sylvanas' soul is restored, and she offers to help defeat the Jailer. With her help, champions discover a waystone that opens a doorway into the Sepulcher of the First Ones, where the Jailer has begun his redesign of the universe.",
"Azeroth's champions battle their way through the Sepulcher. Eventually, Anduin is sent to annihilate the invaders, but he is able to free himself from the Jailer's domination after recalling the spirits of Varok Saurfang and Varian Wrynn, Anduin's father. Anduin and Sylvanas then encounter and release the spirit of Arthas Menethil from within Anduin's broken Domination armor. With all their allies regrouped, the heroes of Azeroth finally defeat the Jailer. As he dies, he claims that his plan to unify the cosmos was meant as a preventative measure against something later to come.",
"With Zovaal defeated, Pelagos, an aspiring Kyrian who aided Uther in his journey, volunteers to become the new Arbiter and fill the vacancy left by its demise. Sylvanas is confronted over her actions during the War of the Thorns and the Jailer's rise to power, though Pelagos gives the final verdict to her long\\-time nemesis, Tyrande. Tyrande decides that Sylvanas' words of contrition, although genuine, are not enough to pay for what she did. Tyrande punishes Sylvanas by sending her to the Maw to retrieve lost souls that perished during the conflicts she orchestrated.",
"### Balance Restored",
"As everything across the realms returns to normal, some leaders of Azeroth are met with conflicting decisions about their future. Anduin visits Sylvanas as she searches for souls within the Maw, where he reveals his uncertainty about being a leader after the actions he was forced to commit while under the Jailer's influence. In Ardenweald, the Winter Queen thanks Tyrande for helping her and Elune resolve their differences, and she gives Tyrande the seed of a world tree imbued with the souls of Night Elves who died in Teldrassil. In the ruins of Lordaeron, Calia Menethil confesses to Lilian Voss her wariness about being accepted anywhere due to being the last member of the Menethil line, but Voss reassures her that she is at home and is needed among the Forsaken.",
""
] |
Regulation
----------
Due to the presence of isoforms of its components, there are 12 versions of AMPK in mammals, each of which can have different tissue localizations, and different functions under different conditions.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jeon SM \| title \= Regulation and function of AMPK in physiology and diseases \| journal \= Experimental \& Molecular Medicine \| volume \= 48 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= e245 \| date \= July 2016 \| pmid \= 27416781 \| pmc \= 4973318 \| doi \= 10\.1038/emm.2016\.81 }} AMPK is regulated allosterically and by post\-translational modification, which work together.
If residue Thr\-172 of AMPK's α1\-subunit (or Thr\-174 of AMPK's α2\-subunit) is phosphorylated, AMPK is activated around 100\-fold; access to that residue by phosphatases is blocked if AMP or ADP can block access for and ATP can displace AMP and ADP. That residue is phosphorylated by at least three kinases ([liver kinase B1](/wiki/STK11 "STK11") (LKB1\), which works in a complex with [STRAD](/wiki/LYK5 "LYK5") and [MO25](/wiki/MO25 "MO25"), Calcium/calmodulin\-dependent protein kinase kinase II\-([CAMKK2](/wiki/CAMKK2 "CAMKK2")), and TGFβ\-activated kinase 1 (TAK1\)) and is dephosphorylated by three phosphatases ([protein phosphatase 2A](/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2A "Protein phosphatase 2A") (PP2A); [protein phosphatase 2C](/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2C "Protein phosphatase 2C") (PP2C) and Mg2\+\-/Mn2\+\-dependent protein phosphatase 1E ([PPM1E](/wiki/PPM1E "PPM1E"))).
Regulation of AMPK by CaMKK2 requires a direct interaction of these two proteins via their kinase domains. The interaction of CaMKK2 with AMPK only involves the α and β subunits of AMPK (AMPK γ is absent from the CaMKK2 complex), thus rendering regulation of AMPK in this context to changes in calcium levels but not AMP or ADP.
[thumb\|454x454px\|Active adenosine monophosphate\-activated protein kinase (AMPK, left) and inactive AMPK (right). AMPK is a protein complex composed of three subunits: α (green), β (brown), and γ (blue). When bound to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), AMPK is activated and the active loop is protected against phosphatases. When bound to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), AMPK undergoes a large conformational change wherein part of the α subunit associates weakly with the γ subunit \~100Å away, the active loop is exposed to phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated. PDB ID: [4RER](https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4RER) (left) and [7M74](https://www.rcsb.org/structure/7M74) (right)](/wiki/File:Active_and_Inactive_AMPK.tif "Active and Inactive AMPK.tif")
AMPK is regulated allosterically mostly by competitive binding to the CBS sites on its γ subunit between ATP (which allows phosphatase access to Thr\-172\) and AMP or ADP (each of which blocks access to phosphatases).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Suter M, Riek U, Tuerk R, Schlattner U, Wallimann T, Neumann D \| title \= Dissecting the role of 5'\-AMP for allosteric stimulation, activation, and deactivation of AMP\-activated protein kinase \| journal \= The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume \= 281 \| issue \= 43 \| pages \= 32207–16 \| date \= October 2006 \| pmid \= 16943194 \| doi \= 10\.1074/jbc.M606357200 \| doi\-access \= free }} It thus appears that AMPK is a sensor of AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP ratios and thus cell energy level. AMPK undergoes a large conformational change upon ATP binding. A region on the α subunit known as the kinase domain (KD) dissociates from its active\-state conformation and loosely associates with the γ subunit \~100Å away. The KD also rotates \~180° in the conformational change. Upon KD dissociation, the active loop (AL) of the α subunit which contains the critical phosphorylated Thr residue is fully exposed to upstream phosphatases. This conformational change represents a plausible mechanism for AMPK modulation. When cellular energy states are low (high AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP levels), AMPK adopts the KD\-associated conformation and AMPK is protected from dephosphorylation and remains activated. When cellular energy states are high, AMPK adopts the KD\-displaced conformation, the AL is exposed to upstream phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated.
The pharmacological compounds Merck Compound 991 and Abbott A769662 bind to the allosteric drug and metabolism site (ADaM) on the β subunit and have been shown to activate AMPK up to 10\-fold.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Calabrese MF, Rajamohan F, Harris MS, Caspers NL, Magyar R, Withka JM, Wang H, Borzilleri KA, Sahasrabudhe PV, Hoth LR, Geoghegan KF, Han S, Brown J, Subashi TA, Reyes AR, Frisbie RK, Ward J, Miller RA, Landro JA, Londregan AT, Carpino PA, Cabral S, Smith AC, Conn EL, Cameron KO, Qiu X, Kurumbail RG \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Structural basis for AMPK activation: natural and synthetic ligands regulate kinase activity from opposite poles by different molecular mechanisms \| language \= English \| journal \= Structure \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 1161–1172 \| date \= August 2014 \| pmid \= 25066137 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.str.2014\.06\.009 \| doi\-access \= free }} ADaM site binding may have roles in AMPK activation as well as protection against dephosphorylation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Xiao B, Sanders MJ, Carmena D, Bright NJ, Haire LF, Underwood E, Patel BR, Heath RB, Walker PA, Hallen S, Giordanetto F, Martin SR, Carling D, Gamblin SJ \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Structural basis of AMPK regulation by small molecule activators \| journal \= Nature Communications \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 3017 \| date \= December 2013 \| pmid \= 24352254 \| doi \= 10\.1038/ncomms4017 \| pmc \= 3905731 \| bibcode \= 2013NatCo...4\.3017X \| doi\-access \= free }}
There are other mechanisms by which AMPK is inhibited or activated by insulin, leptin, and [diacylglycerol](/wiki/Diacylglycerol "Diacylglycerol") by inducing various other phosphorylations.{{efn\|Leptin is secreted by adipose tissue upon insulin stimulus, and it inhibits AMPk in hypothalamus (reducing appetite) but stimulates AMPk in peripheral tissues.}}
AMPK may be inhibited or activated by various tissue\-specific [ubiquitinations](/wiki/Ubiquitin "Ubiquitin").
It is also regulated by several protein\-protein interactions, and may either be activated or inhibited by oxidative factors; the role of oxidation in regulating AMPK was controversial as of 2016\.
|
[
"Regulation\n----------",
"Due to the presence of isoforms of its components, there are 12 versions of AMPK in mammals, each of which can have different tissue localizations, and different functions under different conditions.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jeon SM \\| title \\= Regulation and function of AMPK in physiology and diseases \\| journal \\= Experimental \\& Molecular Medicine \\| volume \\= 48 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= e245 \\| date \\= July 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27416781 \\| pmc \\= 4973318 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/emm.2016\\.81 }} AMPK is regulated allosterically and by post\\-translational modification, which work together.",
"If residue Thr\\-172 of AMPK's α1\\-subunit (or Thr\\-174 of AMPK's α2\\-subunit) is phosphorylated, AMPK is activated around 100\\-fold; access to that residue by phosphatases is blocked if AMP or ADP can block access for and ATP can displace AMP and ADP. That residue is phosphorylated by at least three kinases ([liver kinase B1](/wiki/STK11 \"STK11\") (LKB1\\), which works in a complex with [STRAD](/wiki/LYK5 \"LYK5\") and [MO25](/wiki/MO25 \"MO25\"), Calcium/calmodulin\\-dependent protein kinase kinase II\\-([CAMKK2](/wiki/CAMKK2 \"CAMKK2\")), and TGFβ\\-activated kinase 1 (TAK1\\)) and is dephosphorylated by three phosphatases ([protein phosphatase 2A](/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2A \"Protein phosphatase 2A\") (PP2A); [protein phosphatase 2C](/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2C \"Protein phosphatase 2C\") (PP2C) and Mg2\\+\\-/Mn2\\+\\-dependent protein phosphatase 1E ([PPM1E](/wiki/PPM1E \"PPM1E\"))).",
"Regulation of AMPK by CaMKK2 requires a direct interaction of these two proteins via their kinase domains. The interaction of CaMKK2 with AMPK only involves the α and β subunits of AMPK (AMPK γ is absent from the CaMKK2 complex), thus rendering regulation of AMPK in this context to changes in calcium levels but not AMP or ADP.\n[thumb\\|454x454px\\|Active adenosine monophosphate\\-activated protein kinase (AMPK, left) and inactive AMPK (right). AMPK is a protein complex composed of three subunits: α (green), β (brown), and γ (blue). When bound to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), AMPK is activated and the active loop is protected against phosphatases. When bound to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), AMPK undergoes a large conformational change wherein part of the α subunit associates weakly with the γ subunit \\~100Å away, the active loop is exposed to phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated. PDB ID: [4RER](https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4RER) (left) and [7M74](https://www.rcsb.org/structure/7M74) (right)](/wiki/File:Active_and_Inactive_AMPK.tif \"Active and Inactive AMPK.tif\")\nAMPK is regulated allosterically mostly by competitive binding to the CBS sites on its γ subunit between ATP (which allows phosphatase access to Thr\\-172\\) and AMP or ADP (each of which blocks access to phosphatases).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Suter M, Riek U, Tuerk R, Schlattner U, Wallimann T, Neumann D \\| title \\= Dissecting the role of 5'\\-AMP for allosteric stimulation, activation, and deactivation of AMP\\-activated protein kinase \\| journal \\= The Journal of Biological Chemistry \\| volume \\= 281 \\| issue \\= 43 \\| pages \\= 32207–16 \\| date \\= October 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16943194 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1074/jbc.M606357200 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} It thus appears that AMPK is a sensor of AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP ratios and thus cell energy level. AMPK undergoes a large conformational change upon ATP binding. A region on the α subunit known as the kinase domain (KD) dissociates from its active\\-state conformation and loosely associates with the γ subunit \\~100Å away. The KD also rotates \\~180° in the conformational change. Upon KD dissociation, the active loop (AL) of the α subunit which contains the critical phosphorylated Thr residue is fully exposed to upstream phosphatases. This conformational change represents a plausible mechanism for AMPK modulation. When cellular energy states are low (high AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP levels), AMPK adopts the KD\\-associated conformation and AMPK is protected from dephosphorylation and remains activated. When cellular energy states are high, AMPK adopts the KD\\-displaced conformation, the AL is exposed to upstream phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated.",
"The pharmacological compounds Merck Compound 991 and Abbott A769662 bind to the allosteric drug and metabolism site (ADaM) on the β subunit and have been shown to activate AMPK up to 10\\-fold.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Calabrese MF, Rajamohan F, Harris MS, Caspers NL, Magyar R, Withka JM, Wang H, Borzilleri KA, Sahasrabudhe PV, Hoth LR, Geoghegan KF, Han S, Brown J, Subashi TA, Reyes AR, Frisbie RK, Ward J, Miller RA, Landro JA, Londregan AT, Carpino PA, Cabral S, Smith AC, Conn EL, Cameron KO, Qiu X, Kurumbail RG \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Structural basis for AMPK activation: natural and synthetic ligands regulate kinase activity from opposite poles by different molecular mechanisms \\| language \\= English \\| journal \\= Structure \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 1161–1172 \\| date \\= August 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25066137 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.str.2014\\.06\\.009 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} ADaM site binding may have roles in AMPK activation as well as protection against dephosphorylation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Xiao B, Sanders MJ, Carmena D, Bright NJ, Haire LF, Underwood E, Patel BR, Heath RB, Walker PA, Hallen S, Giordanetto F, Martin SR, Carling D, Gamblin SJ \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Structural basis of AMPK regulation by small molecule activators \\| journal \\= Nature Communications \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 3017 \\| date \\= December 2013 \\| pmid \\= 24352254 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ncomms4017 \\| pmc \\= 3905731 \\| bibcode \\= 2013NatCo...4\\.3017X \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"There are other mechanisms by which AMPK is inhibited or activated by insulin, leptin, and [diacylglycerol](/wiki/Diacylglycerol \"Diacylglycerol\") by inducing various other phosphorylations.{{efn\\|Leptin is secreted by adipose tissue upon insulin stimulus, and it inhibits AMPk in hypothalamus (reducing appetite) but stimulates AMPk in peripheral tissues.}}",
"AMPK may be inhibited or activated by various tissue\\-specific [ubiquitinations](/wiki/Ubiquitin \"Ubiquitin\").",
"It is also regulated by several protein\\-protein interactions, and may either be activated or inhibited by oxidative factors; the role of oxidation in regulating AMPK was controversial as of 2016\\.",
""
] |
Clinical significance
---------------------
### Exercise/training
Many [biochemical](/wiki/Biochemical "Biochemical") adaptations of skeletal muscle that take place during a single bout of [exercise](/wiki/Exercise "Exercise") or an extended duration of [training](/wiki/Training "Training"), such as increased [mitochondrial biogenesis](/wiki/Mitochondrial_biogenesis "Mitochondrial biogenesis") and capacity, increased muscle [glycogen](/wiki/Glycogen "Glycogen"), and an increase in [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme "Enzyme") which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as [GLUT4](/wiki/GLUT4 "GLUT4") and [hexokinase](/wiki/Hexokinase "Hexokinase") II are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated. Additionally, recent discoveries can conceivably suggest a direct AMPK role in increasing [blood supply](/wiki/Blood_supply "Blood supply") to exercised/trained muscle cells by stimulating and stabilizing both [vasculogenesis](/wiki/Vasculogenesis "Vasculogenesis") and [angiogenesis](/wiki/Angiogenesis "Angiogenesis"). Taken together, these [adaptations](/wiki/Adaptation "Adaptation") most likely transpire as a result of both temporary and maintained increases in AMPK activity brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio during single bouts of exercise and long\-term training.
During a single [acute](/wiki/Acute_%28medical%29 "Acute (medical)") exercise bout, AMPK allows the contracting muscle cells to adapt to the energy challenges by increasing expression of hexokinase II, translocation of GLUT4 to the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane "Plasma membrane"), for glucose uptake, and by stimulating glycolysis. If bouts of exercise continue through a long\-term [training](/wiki/Training "Training") regimen, AMPK and other signals will facilitate contracting muscle adaptations by escorting muscle cell activity to a metabolic transition resulting in a [fatty\-acid oxidation](/wiki/Beta_oxidation "Beta oxidation") approach to ATP generation as opposed to a [glycolytic](/wiki/Glycolytic "Glycolytic") approach. AMPK accomplishes this transition to the oxidative mode of metabolism by upregulating and activating oxidative enzymes such as [hexokinase II](/wiki/Hexokinase "Hexokinase"), [PPAR\-α](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_alpha "Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha"), [PPAR\-δ](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_delta "Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta"), [PGC\-1](/wiki/PPARGC1A "PPARGC1A"), [UCP\-3](/wiki/UCP3 "UCP3"), [cytochrome C](/wiki/Cytochrome_C "Cytochrome C") and [TFAM](/wiki/TFAM "TFAM").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Narkar VA, Downes M, Yu RT, Embler E, Wang YX, Banayo E, Mihaylova MM, Nelson MC, Zou Y, Juguilon H, Kang H, Shaw RJ, Evans RM \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= AMPK and PPARdelta agonists are exercise mimetics \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 134 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 405–15 \| date \= August 2008 \| pmid \= 18674809 \| pmc \= 2706130 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2008\.06\.051 }}
Mutations in the skeletal muscle calcium release channel ([RYR1](/wiki/Ryanodine_receptor_1 "Ryanodine receptor 1")) underlies a life\- threatening response to heat in patients with [malignant hyperthermia susceptibility](/wiki/Malignant_hyperthermia "Malignant hyperthermia") (MHS). Upon acute exposure to heat, these mutations cause uncontrolled Ca2\+ release from the [sarcoplasmic reticulum](/wiki/Sarcoplasmic_reticulum "Sarcoplasmic reticulum"), leading to sustained muscle contractures, severe hyperthermia, and sudden death.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wang HJ, Lee CS, Yee RS, Groom L, Friedman I, Babcock L, Georgiou DK, Hong J, Hanna AD, Recio J, Choi JM, Chang T, Agha NH, Romero J, Sarkar P, Voermans N, Gaber MW, Jung SY, Baker ML, Pautler RG, Dirksen RT, Riazi S, Hamilton SL \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Adaptive thermogenesis enhances the life\-threatening response to heat in mice with an Ryr1 mutation \| journal \= Nature Communications \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 5099 \| date \= October 2020 \| pmid \= 33037202 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41467\-020\-18865\-z \| pmc \= 7547078 \| bibcode \= 2020NatCo..11\.5099W }} At basal conditions, the temperature\-dependent Ca2\+ leak also leads to increased energy demand and activation of energy sensing AMP kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle. The activated AMPK increases muscle metabolic activity, including glycolysis, which leads to marked elevation of circulating [lactate](/wiki/Lactic_acid "Lactic acid").
AMPK activity increases with exercise and the LKB1/MO25/STRAD [complex](/wiki/Protein_complex "Protein complex") is considered to be the major [upstream](/wiki/Upstream_%28bioprocess%29 "Upstream (bioprocess)") AMPKK of the 5’\-AMP\-activated protein kinase phosphorylating the α subunit of AMPK at Thr\-172\. This fact is puzzling considering that although AMPK [protein](/wiki/Protein "Protein") abundance has been shown to increase in skeletal [tissue](/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29 "Tissue (biology)") with [endurance](/wiki/Endurance "Endurance") training, its level of activity has been shown to decrease with endurance training in both trained and untrained tissue. Currently, the activity of AMPK immediately following a 2 hour bout of exercise of an endurance trained rat is unclear. It is possible that a direct link exists between the observed decrease in AMPK activity in endurance trained skeletal muscle and the apparent decrease in the AMPK response to exercise with endurance training.
Although AMPKα2 activation has been thought to be important for mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training, a recent study investigating the response to exercise training in AMPKα2 knockout mice opposes this idea.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jørgensen SB, Treebak JT, Viollet B, Schjerling P, Vaulont S, Wojtaszewski JF, Richter EA \| title \= Role of AMPKalpha2 in basal, training\-, and AICAR\-induced GLUT4, hexokinase II, and mitochondrial protein expression in mouse muscle \| journal \= American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism \| volume \= 292 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= E331\-9 \| date \= January 2007 \| pmid \= 16954334 \| doi \= 10\.1152/ajpendo.00243\.2006 }} Their study compared the response to exercise training of several proteins and enzymes in wild type and AMPKα2 knockout mice. And even though the knockout mice had lower basal markers of mitochondrial density (COX\-1, CS, and HAD), these markers increased similarly to the wild type mice after exercise training. These findings are supported by another study also showing no difference in mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training between wild type and knockout mice.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Röckl KS, Hirshman MF, Brandauer J, Fujii N, Witters LA, Goodyear LJ \| title \= Skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training: AMP\-activated protein kinase mediates muscle fiber type shift \| journal \= Diabetes \| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 2062–9 \| date \= August 2007 \| pmid \= 17513699 \| doi \= 10\.2337/db07\-0255 \| doi\-access \= free }}
### Maximum life span
The [*C. elegans*](/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans "Caenorhabditis elegans") homologue of AMPK, aak\-2, has been shown by [Michael Ristow](/wiki/Michael_Ristow "Michael Ristow") and colleagues to be required for extension of life span in states of glucose restriction mediating a process named [mitohormesis](/wiki/Mitohormesis "Mitohormesis").
### Lipid metabolism
One of the effects of [exercise](/wiki/Exercise "Exercise") is an increase in [fatty acid metabolism](/wiki/Fatty_acid_metabolism "Fatty acid metabolism"), which provides more [energy](/wiki/Energy "Energy") for the cell. One of the key pathways in AMPK's regulation of [fatty acid oxidation](/wiki/Fatty_acid_oxidation "Fatty acid oxidation") is the phosphorylation and inactivation of [acetyl\-CoA carboxylase](/wiki/Acetyl-CoA_carboxylase "Acetyl-CoA carboxylase"). Acetyl\-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl\-CoA to [malonyl\-CoA](/wiki/Malonyl-CoA "Malonyl-CoA"), an [inhibitor](/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor "Enzyme inhibitor") of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 ([CPT\-1](/wiki/Carnitine_palmitoyltransferase_I "Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I")). CPT\-1 transports [fatty acids](/wiki/Fatty_acids "Fatty acids") into the [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria "Mitochondria") for [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation"). Inactivation of ACC, therefore, results in increased fatty acid transport and subsequent oxidation. It is also thought that the decrease in malonyl\-CoA occurs as a result of [malonyl\-CoA decarboxylase](/wiki/Malonyl-CoA_decarboxylase "Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase") (MCD), which may be regulated by AMPK. MCD is an [antagonist](/wiki/Receptor_antagonist "Receptor antagonist") to ACC, decarboxylating malonyl\-CoA to acetyl\-CoA, resulting in decreased malonyl\-CoA and increased CPT\-1 and fatty acid oxidation.
AMPK also plays an important role in [lipid metabolism](/wiki/Lipid_metabolism "Lipid metabolism") in the [liver](/wiki/Liver "Liver"). It has long been known that [hepatic](/wiki/Hepatic "Hepatic") ACC has been regulated in the liver by [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation "Phosphorylation"). AMPK also phosphorylates and inactivates [3\-hydroxy\-3\-methylglutaryl\-CoA reductase](/wiki/HMG-CoA_reductase "HMG-CoA reductase") (HMGCR), a key enzyme in [cholesterol synthesis](/wiki/Cholesterol_synthesis "Cholesterol synthesis"). HMGR converts 3\-hydroxy\-3\-methylglutaryl\-CoA, which is made from acetyl\-CoA, into [mevalonic acid](/wiki/Mevalonic_acid "Mevalonic acid"), which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become [cholesterol](/wiki/Cholesterol "Cholesterol"). AMPK, therefore, helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and cholesterol synthesis.
### Glucose transport
[Insulin](/wiki/Insulin "Insulin") is a [hormone](/wiki/Hormone "Hormone") which helps regulate [glucose](/wiki/Glucose "Glucose") levels in the body. When blood glucose is high, insulin is released from the [Islets of Langerhans](/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans "Islets of Langerhans"). Insulin, among other things, will then facilitate the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and [translocation](/wiki/Protein_targeting "Protein targeting") of glucose transporter [GLUT\-4](/wiki/GLUT-4 "GLUT-4"). Under conditions of exercise, however, [blood sugar](/wiki/Blood_sugar "Blood sugar") levels are not necessarily high, and insulin is not necessarily activated, yet muscles are still able to bring in glucose. AMPK seems to be responsible in part for this [exercise](/wiki/Exercise "Exercise")\-induced glucose uptake. Goodyear et al. observed that with exercise, the concentration of GLUT\-4 was increased in the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane "Plasma membrane"), but decreased in the [microsomal](/wiki/Microsomal "Microsomal") membranes, suggesting that exercise facilitates the translocation of vesicular GLUT\-4 to the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane "Plasma membrane"). While acute exercise increases GLUT\-4 translocation, endurance training will increase the total amount of GLUT\-4 protein available. It has been shown that both electrical contraction and [AICA ribonucleotide](/wiki/AICA_ribonucleotide "AICA ribonucleotide") (AICAR) treatment increase AMPK activation, glucose uptake, and GLUT\-4 translocation in perfused rat [hindlimb](/wiki/Hindlimb "Hindlimb") muscle, linking exercise\-induced glucose uptake to AMPK. Chronic AICAR injections, simulating some of the effects of [endurance training](/wiki/Endurance_training "Endurance training"), also increase the total amount of GLUT\-4 [protein](/wiki/Protein "Protein") in the [muscle cell](/wiki/Muscle_cell "Muscle cell").
Two proteins are essential for the regulation of GLUT\-4 expression at a transcriptional level – myocyte enhancer factor 2 ([MEF2](/wiki/Mef2 "Mef2")) and [GLUT4 enhancer factor](/wiki/GLUT4_enhancer_factor "GLUT4 enhancer factor") (GEF). Mutations in the [DNA](/wiki/DNA "DNA") binding regions for either of these proteins results in [ablation](/wiki/Ablation "Ablation") of [transgene](/wiki/Transgene "Transgene") GLUT\-4 expression. These results prompted a study in 2005 which showed that AMPK directly phosphorylates GEF, but it doesn't seem to directly activate MEF2\. AICAR treatment has been shown, however, to increase transport of both proteins into the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus "Cell nucleus"), as well as increase the binding of both to the GLUT\-4 [promoter region](/wiki/Promoter_region "Promoter region").
There is another protein involved in [carbohydrate metabolism](/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism "Carbohydrate metabolism") that is worthy of mention along with GLUT\-4\. The enzyme [hexokinase](/wiki/Hexokinase "Hexokinase") phosphorylates a six\-carbon sugar, most notably [glucose](/wiki/Glucose "Glucose"), which is the first step in [glycolysis](/wiki/Glycolysis "Glycolysis"). When glucose is transported into the cell it is phosphorylated by hexokinase. This phosphorylation keeps glucose from leaving the [cell](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 "Cell (biology)"), and by changing the structure of glucose through phosphorylation, it decreases the concentration of glucose molecules, maintaining a gradient for more glucose to be transported into the cell. Hexokinase II [transcription](/wiki/Transcription_%28genetics%29 "Transcription (genetics)") is increased in both red and white [skeletal muscle](/wiki/Skeletal_muscle "Skeletal muscle") upon treatment with AICAR. With chronic injections of AICAR, total protein content of hexokinase II increases in [rat](/wiki/Rat "Rat") skeletal muscle.
### Mitochondria
Mitochondrial enzymes, such as [cytochrome c](/wiki/Cytochrome_c "Cytochrome c"), [succinate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Succinate_dehydrogenase "Succinate dehydrogenase"), [malate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Malate_dehydrogenase "Malate dehydrogenase"), [α\-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase](/wiki/%CE%91-ketoglutarate_dehydrogenase "Α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase"), and [citrate synthase](/wiki/Citrate_synthase "Citrate synthase"), increase in expression and activity in response to exercise. [AICAR](/wiki/AICA_ribonucleotide "AICA ribonucleotide") stimulation of AMPK increases cytochrome c and δ\-aminolevulinate synthase ([ALAS](/wiki/Aminolevulinic_acid_synthase "Aminolevulinic acid synthase")), a [rate\-limiting enzyme](/wiki/Rate-limiting_enzyme "Rate-limiting enzyme") involved in the production of [heme](/wiki/Heme "Heme"). [Malate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Malate_dehydrogenase "Malate dehydrogenase") and [succinate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Succinate_dehydrogenase "Succinate dehydrogenase") also increase, as well as citrate synthase activity, in rats treated with AICAR injections. Conversely, in LKB1 knockout mice, there are decreases in cytochrome c and citrate synthase activity, even if the mice are "trained" by voluntary exercise.
AMPK is required for increased peroxisome proliferator\-activated receptor γ coactivator\-1α ([PGC\-1α](/wiki/PPARGC1A "PPARGC1A")) expression in skeletal muscle in response to [creatine](/wiki/Creatine "Creatine") depletion. PGC\-1α is a transcriptional regulator for genes involved in [fatty acid oxidation](/wiki/Fatty_acid_oxidation "Fatty acid oxidation"), [gluconeogenesis](/wiki/Gluconeogenesis "Gluconeogenesis"), and is considered the master regulator for [mitochondrial biogenesis](/wiki/Mitochondrial_biogenesis "Mitochondrial biogenesis").
To do this, it enhances the activity of [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors "Transcription factors") like nuclear respiratory factor 1 ([NRF\-1](/wiki/NRF1 "NRF1")), [myocyte](/wiki/Myocyte "Myocyte") enhancer factor 2 (MEF2\), [host cell](/wiki/Host_cell "Host cell") factor (HCF), and others. It also has a [positive feedback loop](/wiki/Positive_feedback_loop "Positive feedback loop"), enhancing its own expression. Both MEF2 and [cAMP](/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate "Cyclic adenosine monophosphate") response element ([CRE](/wiki/CREB%23cAMP_response_element "CREB#cAMP response element")) are essential for contraction\-induced PGC\-1α [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28biology%29 "Promoter (biology)") activity. LKB1 knockout mice show a decrease in PGC\-1α, as well as mitochondrial proteins.
### Thyroid hormone
AMPK and [thyroid](/wiki/Thyroid "Thyroid") [hormone](/wiki/Hormone "Hormone") regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities, Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by [thyroid hormone](/wiki/Thyroid_hormone "Thyroid hormone").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Park \|first1\=S. H. \|last2\=Paulsen \|first2\=S. R. \|last3\=Gammon \|first3\=S. R. \|last4\=Mustard \|first4\=K. J. \|last5\=Hardie \|first5\=D. G. \|last6\=Winder \|first6\=W. W. \|date\=December 2002 \|title\=Effects of thyroid state on AMP\-activated protein kinase and acetyl\-CoA carboxylase expression in muscle \|url\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12433937/ \|journal\=Journal of Applied Physiology \|volume\=93 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=2081–2088 \|doi\=10\.1152/japplphysiol.00504\.2002 \|issn\=8750\-7587 \|pmid\=12433937}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Branvold \|first1\=D. J. \|last2\=Allred \|first2\=D. R. \|last3\=Beckstead \|first3\=D. J. \|last4\=Kim \|first4\=H. J. \|last5\=Fillmore \|first5\=N. \|last6\=Condon \|first6\=B. M. \|last7\=Brown \|first7\=J. D. \|last8\=Sudweeks \|first8\=S. N. \|last9\=Thomson \|first9\=D. M. \|last10\=Winder \|first10\=W. W. \|date\=October 2008 \|title\=Thyroid hormone effects on LKB1, MO25, phospho\-AMPK, phospho\-CREB, and PGC\-1alpha in rat muscle \|url\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18669938/ \|journal\=Journal of Applied Physiology \|volume\=105 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=1218–1227 \|doi\=10\.1152/japplphysiol.00997\.2007 \|issn\=8750\-7587 \|pmid\=18669938\|s2cid\=2019764 }}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Winder \|first1\=W. W. \|last2\=Hardie \|first2\=D. G. \|last3\=Mustard \|first3\=K. J. \|last4\=Greenwood \|first4\=L. J. \|last5\=Paxton \|first5\=B. E. \|last6\=Park \|first6\=S. H. \|last7\=Rubink \|first7\=D. S. \|last8\=Taylor \|first8\=E. B. \|date\=February 2003 \|title\=Long\-term regulation of AMP\-activated protein kinase and acetyl\-CoA carboxylase in skeletal muscle \|url\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12546681/ \|journal\=Biochemical Society Transactions \|volume\=31 \|issue\=Pt 1 \|pages\=182–185 \|doi\=10\.1042/bst0310182 \|issn\=0300\-5127 \|pmid\=12546681}} They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in [skeletal muscle](/wiki/Skeletal_muscle "Skeletal muscle"), especially in the [soleus](/wiki/Soleus "Soleus") and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was also an increase in phospho\-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.
### Glucose sensing systems
Loss of AMPK has been reported to alter the sensitivity of glucose sensing cells, through poorly defined mechanisms. Loss of the AMPKα2 subunit in pancreatic β\-cells and hypothalamic neurons decreases the sensitivity of these cells to changes in extracellular glucose concentration. Moreover, exposure of rats to recurrent bouts of insulin induced [hypoglycemia](/wiki/Hypoglycemia "Hypoglycemia")/glucopenia, reduces the activation of AMPK within the [hypothalamus](/wiki/Hypothalamus "Hypothalamus"), whilst also suppressing the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia.
Pharmacological activation of AMPK by delivery of AMPK activating drug AICAR, directly into the hypothalamus can increase the counterregulatory response to hypoglycaemia.
### Lysosomal damage, inflammatory diseases and metformin
AMPK is recruited to lysosomes and regulated at the lysosomes via several systems of clinical significance. This includes the [AXIN](/wiki/AXIN1 "AXIN1") \- [LKB1](/wiki/LKB1 "LKB1") complex, acting in response to glucose limitations functioning independently of AMP sensing, which detects low glucose as absence of [fructose\-1,6\-bisphosphate](/wiki/Fructose_1%2C6-bisphosphate "Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate") via a dynamic set of interactions between lysosomally localized [V\-ATPase](/wiki/V-ATPase "V-ATPase")\-[aldolase](/wiki/Fructose-bisphosphate_aldolase "Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase") in contact with the [endoplasmic reticulum](/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum "Endoplasmic reticulum") localized [TRPV](/wiki/TRPV "TRPV").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li M, Zhang CS, Zong Y, Feng JW, Ma T, Hu M, Lin Z, Li X, Xie C, Wu Y, Jiang D, Li Y, Zhang C, Tian X, Wang W, Yang Y, Chen J, Cui J, Wu YQ, Chen X, Liu QF, Wu J, Lin SY, Ye Z, Liu Y, Piao HL, Yu L, Zhou Z, Xie XS, Hardie DG, Lin SC \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Transient Receptor Potential V Channels Are Essential for Glucose Sensing by Aldolase and AMPK \| journal \= Cell Metabolism \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 508–524\.e12 \| date \= September 2019 \| pmid \= 31204282 \| pmc \= 6720459 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cmet.2019\.05\.018 }} A second AMPK\-control system{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jia J, Bissa B, Brecht L, Allers L, Choi SW, Gu Y, Zbinden M, Burge MR, Timmins G, Hallows K, Behrends C, Deretic V \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= AMPK, a Regulator of Metabolism and Autophagy, Is Activated by Lysosomal Damage via a Novel Galectin\-Directed Ubiquitin Signal Transduction System \| journal \= Molecular Cell \| volume \= 77 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 951–969\.e9 \| date \= March 2020 \| pmid \= 31995728 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.molcel.2019\.12\.028 \| pmc \= 7785494 }} localized to [lysosomes](/wiki/Lysosome "Lysosome") depends on the [Galectin\-9](/wiki/Galectin-9 "Galectin-9")\-[TAK1](/wiki/MAP3K7 "MAP3K7") system and ubiquitination responses at controlled by deubiquitinating enzymes such as [USP9X](/wiki/USP9X "USP9X") leading to AMPK activation in response to lysosomal damage, a condition that can occur biochemically, physically via protein aggregates such as [proteopathic](/wiki/Proteopathy "Proteopathy") tau in [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease"),{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Papadopoulos C, Kirchner P, Bug M, Grum D, Koerver L, Schulze N, Poehler R, Dressler A, Fengler S, Arhzaouy K, Lux V, Ehrmann M, Weihl CC, Meyer H \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= VCP/p97 cooperates with YOD1, UBXD1 and PLAA to drive clearance of ruptured lysosomes by autophagy \| journal \= The EMBO Journal \| volume \= 36 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 135–150 \| date \= January 2017 \| pmid \= 27753622 \| pmc \= 5242375 \| doi \= 10\.15252/embj.201695148 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jia J, Claude\-Taupin A, Gu Y, Choi SW, Peters R, Bissa B, Mudd MH, Allers L, Pallikkuth S, Lidke KA, Salemi M, Phinney B, Mari M, Reggiori F, Deretic V \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Galectin\-3 Coordinates a Cellular System for Lysosomal Repair and Removal \| journal \= Developmental Cell \| volume \= 52 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 69–87\.e8 \| date \= January 2020 \| pmid \= 31813797 \| pmc \= 6997950 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.devcel.2019\.10\.025 }} [crystalline silica](/wiki/Crystalline_silica "Crystalline silica") causing [silicosis](/wiki/Silicosis "Silicosis"), [cholesterol crystals](/wiki/Cholesterol_crystal "Cholesterol crystal") causing inflammation via [NLRP3](/wiki/NALP3 "NALP3") [inflammasome](/wiki/Inflammasome "Inflammasome") and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Grebe A, Latz E \| title \= Cholesterol crystals and inflammation \| journal \= Current Rheumatology Reports \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 313 \| date \= March 2013 \| pmid \= 23412688 \| pmc \= 3623938 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s11926\-012\-0313\-z }} [urate crystals](/wiki/Urate_crystal_arthropathy "Urate crystal arthropathy") associated with [gout](/wiki/Gout "Gout"), or during microbial invasion such as [Mycobacterium tuberculosis](/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis "Mycobacterium tuberculosis"){{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chauhan S, Kumar S, Jain A, Ponpuak M, Mudd MH, Kimura T, Choi SW, Peters R, Mandell M, Bruun JA, Johansen T, Deretic V \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= TRIMs and Galectins Globally Cooperate and TRIM16 and Galectin\-3 Co\-direct Autophagy in Endomembrane Damage Homeostasis \| journal \= Developmental Cell \| volume \= 39 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 13–27 \| date \= October 2016 \| pmid \= 27693506 \| pmc \= 5104201 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.devcel.2016\.08\.003 }} or [coronaviruses](/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus") causing [SARS](/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome "Severe acute respiratory syndrome").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Yue Y, Nabar NR, Shi CS, Kamenyeva O, Xiao X, Hwang IY, Wang M, Kehrl JH \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= SARS\-Coronavirus Open Reading Frame\-3a drives multimodal necrotic cell death \| journal \= Cell Death \& Disease \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 904 \| date \= September 2018 \| pmid \= 30185776 \| pmc \= 6125346 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41419\-018\-0917\-y }} Both of the above lysosomally localized systems controlling AMPK activate it in response to [metformin](/wiki/Metformin "Metformin"),{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zhang CS, Li M, Ma T, Zong Y, Cui J, Feng JW, Wu YQ, Lin SY, Lin SC \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Metformin Activates AMPK through the Lysosomal Pathway \| journal \= Cell Metabolism \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 521–522 \| date \= October 2016 \| pmid \= 27732831 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cmet.2016\.09\.003 \| doi\-access \= free }} a widely prescribed [anti\-diabetic](/wiki/Anti-diabetic_medication "Anti-diabetic medication") drug.
### Tumor suppression and promotion
Some evidence indicates that AMPK may have a role in tumor suppression. Studies have found that AMPK may exert most, or even all of, the tumor suppressing properties of [liver kinase B1](/wiki/STK11 "STK11") (LKB1\). Additionally, studies where the AMPK activator [metformin](/wiki/Metformin "Metformin") was used to treat diabetes found a correlation with a reduced risk of cancer, compared to other medications. [Gene knockout](/wiki/Gene_knockout "Gene knockout") and [knockdown](/wiki/Gene_knockdown "Gene knockdown") studies with mice found that mice without the gene to express AMPK had greater risks of developing lymphomas, though as the gene was knocked out globally instead of just in [B cells](/wiki/B_cell "B cell"), it was impossible to conclude that AMP knockout had cell\-autonomous effects within tumor progenitor cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Merrill GM, Kurth E, Hardie DG, Winder WW \|title\=AMP\-Activated Protein Kinase: Friend or Foe in Cancer? \|year\=2020 \|journal\=Annual Review of Cancer Biology \|volume\=4 \|pages\=1–16 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-cancerbio\-030419\-033619\|doi\-access\=free}}
In contrast, some studies have linked AMPK with a role as a tumor promoter by protecting cancer cells from stress. Thus, once cancerous cells have formed in an organism, AMPK may swap from protecting against cancer to protecting the cancer itself. Studies have found that tumor cells with AMPK knockout are more susceptible to death by glucose starvation or [extracellular matrix](/wiki/Extracellular_matrix "Extracellular matrix") detachment, which may indicate AMPK has a role in preventing these two outcomes. A recent study on pancreatic cancer suggests that AMPKα may play a role in the metastatic cascade and the phenotype of cancer cells. Mechanistically, the authors propose that in the absence of AMPKα, pancreatic cancer cells are more vulnerable to oxidative stress, supporting a tumor\-promoting function of AMPKα. {{Cite journal \|last\=Schneider \|first\=Carolin \|last2\=Hilbert \|first2\=Jorina \|last3\=Genevaux \|first3\=Franziska \|last4\=Höfer \|first4\=Stefanie \|last5\=Krauß \|first5\=Lukas \|last6\=Schicktanz \|first6\=Felix \|last7\=Contreras \|first7\=Constanza Tapia \|last8\=Jansari \|first8\=Shaishavi \|last9\=Papargyriou \|first9\=Aristeidis \|last10\=Richter \|first10\=Thorsten \|last11\=Alfayomy \|first11\=Abdallah M. \|last12\=Falcomatà \|first12\=Chiara \|last13\=Schneeweis \|first13\=Christian \|last14\=Orben \|first14\=Felix \|last15\=Öllinger \|first15\=Ruppert \|date\=2024\-06\-17 \|title\=A Novel AMPK Inhibitor Sensitizes Pancreatic Cancer Cells to Ferroptosis Induction \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1002/advs.202307695 \|journal\=Advanced Science \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1002/advs.202307695 \|issn\=2198\-3844\|doi\-access\=free \|pmc\=11336956 }}
|
[
"Clinical significance\n---------------------",
"### Exercise/training",
"Many [biochemical](/wiki/Biochemical \"Biochemical\") adaptations of skeletal muscle that take place during a single bout of [exercise](/wiki/Exercise \"Exercise\") or an extended duration of [training](/wiki/Training \"Training\"), such as increased [mitochondrial biogenesis](/wiki/Mitochondrial_biogenesis \"Mitochondrial biogenesis\") and capacity, increased muscle [glycogen](/wiki/Glycogen \"Glycogen\"), and an increase in [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme \"Enzyme\") which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as [GLUT4](/wiki/GLUT4 \"GLUT4\") and [hexokinase](/wiki/Hexokinase \"Hexokinase\") II are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated. Additionally, recent discoveries can conceivably suggest a direct AMPK role in increasing [blood supply](/wiki/Blood_supply \"Blood supply\") to exercised/trained muscle cells by stimulating and stabilizing both [vasculogenesis](/wiki/Vasculogenesis \"Vasculogenesis\") and [angiogenesis](/wiki/Angiogenesis \"Angiogenesis\"). Taken together, these [adaptations](/wiki/Adaptation \"Adaptation\") most likely transpire as a result of both temporary and maintained increases in AMPK activity brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio during single bouts of exercise and long\\-term training.",
"During a single [acute](/wiki/Acute_%28medical%29 \"Acute (medical)\") exercise bout, AMPK allows the contracting muscle cells to adapt to the energy challenges by increasing expression of hexokinase II, translocation of GLUT4 to the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane \"Plasma membrane\"), for glucose uptake, and by stimulating glycolysis. If bouts of exercise continue through a long\\-term [training](/wiki/Training \"Training\") regimen, AMPK and other signals will facilitate contracting muscle adaptations by escorting muscle cell activity to a metabolic transition resulting in a [fatty\\-acid oxidation](/wiki/Beta_oxidation \"Beta oxidation\") approach to ATP generation as opposed to a [glycolytic](/wiki/Glycolytic \"Glycolytic\") approach. AMPK accomplishes this transition to the oxidative mode of metabolism by upregulating and activating oxidative enzymes such as [hexokinase II](/wiki/Hexokinase \"Hexokinase\"), [PPAR\\-α](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_alpha \"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha\"), [PPAR\\-δ](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_delta \"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta\"), [PGC\\-1](/wiki/PPARGC1A \"PPARGC1A\"), [UCP\\-3](/wiki/UCP3 \"UCP3\"), [cytochrome C](/wiki/Cytochrome_C \"Cytochrome C\") and [TFAM](/wiki/TFAM \"TFAM\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Narkar VA, Downes M, Yu RT, Embler E, Wang YX, Banayo E, Mihaylova MM, Nelson MC, Zou Y, Juguilon H, Kang H, Shaw RJ, Evans RM \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= AMPK and PPARdelta agonists are exercise mimetics \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 134 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 405–15 \\| date \\= August 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18674809 \\| pmc \\= 2706130 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2008\\.06\\.051 }}",
"Mutations in the skeletal muscle calcium release channel ([RYR1](/wiki/Ryanodine_receptor_1 \"Ryanodine receptor 1\")) underlies a life\\- threatening response to heat in patients with [malignant hyperthermia susceptibility](/wiki/Malignant_hyperthermia \"Malignant hyperthermia\") (MHS). Upon acute exposure to heat, these mutations cause uncontrolled Ca2\\+ release from the [sarcoplasmic reticulum](/wiki/Sarcoplasmic_reticulum \"Sarcoplasmic reticulum\"), leading to sustained muscle contractures, severe hyperthermia, and sudden death.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wang HJ, Lee CS, Yee RS, Groom L, Friedman I, Babcock L, Georgiou DK, Hong J, Hanna AD, Recio J, Choi JM, Chang T, Agha NH, Romero J, Sarkar P, Voermans N, Gaber MW, Jung SY, Baker ML, Pautler RG, Dirksen RT, Riazi S, Hamilton SL \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Adaptive thermogenesis enhances the life\\-threatening response to heat in mice with an Ryr1 mutation \\| journal \\= Nature Communications \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 5099 \\| date \\= October 2020 \\| pmid \\= 33037202 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41467\\-020\\-18865\\-z \\| pmc \\= 7547078 \\| bibcode \\= 2020NatCo..11\\.5099W }} At basal conditions, the temperature\\-dependent Ca2\\+ leak also leads to increased energy demand and activation of energy sensing AMP kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle. The activated AMPK increases muscle metabolic activity, including glycolysis, which leads to marked elevation of circulating [lactate](/wiki/Lactic_acid \"Lactic acid\").",
"AMPK activity increases with exercise and the LKB1/MO25/STRAD [complex](/wiki/Protein_complex \"Protein complex\") is considered to be the major [upstream](/wiki/Upstream_%28bioprocess%29 \"Upstream (bioprocess)\") AMPKK of the 5’\\-AMP\\-activated protein kinase phosphorylating the α subunit of AMPK at Thr\\-172\\. This fact is puzzling considering that although AMPK [protein](/wiki/Protein \"Protein\") abundance has been shown to increase in skeletal [tissue](/wiki/Tissue_%28biology%29 \"Tissue (biology)\") with [endurance](/wiki/Endurance \"Endurance\") training, its level of activity has been shown to decrease with endurance training in both trained and untrained tissue. Currently, the activity of AMPK immediately following a 2 hour bout of exercise of an endurance trained rat is unclear. It is possible that a direct link exists between the observed decrease in AMPK activity in endurance trained skeletal muscle and the apparent decrease in the AMPK response to exercise with endurance training.",
"Although AMPKα2 activation has been thought to be important for mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training, a recent study investigating the response to exercise training in AMPKα2 knockout mice opposes this idea.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jørgensen SB, Treebak JT, Viollet B, Schjerling P, Vaulont S, Wojtaszewski JF, Richter EA \\| title \\= Role of AMPKalpha2 in basal, training\\-, and AICAR\\-induced GLUT4, hexokinase II, and mitochondrial protein expression in mouse muscle \\| journal \\= American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism \\| volume \\= 292 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= E331\\-9 \\| date \\= January 2007 \\| pmid \\= 16954334 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1152/ajpendo.00243\\.2006 }} Their study compared the response to exercise training of several proteins and enzymes in wild type and AMPKα2 knockout mice. And even though the knockout mice had lower basal markers of mitochondrial density (COX\\-1, CS, and HAD), these markers increased similarly to the wild type mice after exercise training. These findings are supported by another study also showing no difference in mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training between wild type and knockout mice.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Röckl KS, Hirshman MF, Brandauer J, Fujii N, Witters LA, Goodyear LJ \\| title \\= Skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training: AMP\\-activated protein kinase mediates muscle fiber type shift \\| journal \\= Diabetes \\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 2062–9 \\| date \\= August 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17513699 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2337/db07\\-0255 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"### Maximum life span",
"The [*C. elegans*](/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans \"Caenorhabditis elegans\") homologue of AMPK, aak\\-2, has been shown by [Michael Ristow](/wiki/Michael_Ristow \"Michael Ristow\") and colleagues to be required for extension of life span in states of glucose restriction mediating a process named [mitohormesis](/wiki/Mitohormesis \"Mitohormesis\").",
"### Lipid metabolism",
"One of the effects of [exercise](/wiki/Exercise \"Exercise\") is an increase in [fatty acid metabolism](/wiki/Fatty_acid_metabolism \"Fatty acid metabolism\"), which provides more [energy](/wiki/Energy \"Energy\") for the cell. One of the key pathways in AMPK's regulation of [fatty acid oxidation](/wiki/Fatty_acid_oxidation \"Fatty acid oxidation\") is the phosphorylation and inactivation of [acetyl\\-CoA carboxylase](/wiki/Acetyl-CoA_carboxylase \"Acetyl-CoA carboxylase\"). Acetyl\\-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl\\-CoA to [malonyl\\-CoA](/wiki/Malonyl-CoA \"Malonyl-CoA\"), an [inhibitor](/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor \"Enzyme inhibitor\") of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 ([CPT\\-1](/wiki/Carnitine_palmitoyltransferase_I \"Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I\")). CPT\\-1 transports [fatty acids](/wiki/Fatty_acids \"Fatty acids\") into the [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria \"Mitochondria\") for [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\"). Inactivation of ACC, therefore, results in increased fatty acid transport and subsequent oxidation. It is also thought that the decrease in malonyl\\-CoA occurs as a result of [malonyl\\-CoA decarboxylase](/wiki/Malonyl-CoA_decarboxylase \"Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase\") (MCD), which may be regulated by AMPK. MCD is an [antagonist](/wiki/Receptor_antagonist \"Receptor antagonist\") to ACC, decarboxylating malonyl\\-CoA to acetyl\\-CoA, resulting in decreased malonyl\\-CoA and increased CPT\\-1 and fatty acid oxidation.\nAMPK also plays an important role in [lipid metabolism](/wiki/Lipid_metabolism \"Lipid metabolism\") in the [liver](/wiki/Liver \"Liver\"). It has long been known that [hepatic](/wiki/Hepatic \"Hepatic\") ACC has been regulated in the liver by [phosphorylation](/wiki/Phosphorylation \"Phosphorylation\"). AMPK also phosphorylates and inactivates [3\\-hydroxy\\-3\\-methylglutaryl\\-CoA reductase](/wiki/HMG-CoA_reductase \"HMG-CoA reductase\") (HMGCR), a key enzyme in [cholesterol synthesis](/wiki/Cholesterol_synthesis \"Cholesterol synthesis\"). HMGR converts 3\\-hydroxy\\-3\\-methylglutaryl\\-CoA, which is made from acetyl\\-CoA, into [mevalonic acid](/wiki/Mevalonic_acid \"Mevalonic acid\"), which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become [cholesterol](/wiki/Cholesterol \"Cholesterol\"). AMPK, therefore, helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and cholesterol synthesis.",
"### Glucose transport",
"[Insulin](/wiki/Insulin \"Insulin\") is a [hormone](/wiki/Hormone \"Hormone\") which helps regulate [glucose](/wiki/Glucose \"Glucose\") levels in the body. When blood glucose is high, insulin is released from the [Islets of Langerhans](/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans \"Islets of Langerhans\"). Insulin, among other things, will then facilitate the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and [translocation](/wiki/Protein_targeting \"Protein targeting\") of glucose transporter [GLUT\\-4](/wiki/GLUT-4 \"GLUT-4\"). Under conditions of exercise, however, [blood sugar](/wiki/Blood_sugar \"Blood sugar\") levels are not necessarily high, and insulin is not necessarily activated, yet muscles are still able to bring in glucose. AMPK seems to be responsible in part for this [exercise](/wiki/Exercise \"Exercise\")\\-induced glucose uptake. Goodyear et al. observed that with exercise, the concentration of GLUT\\-4 was increased in the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane \"Plasma membrane\"), but decreased in the [microsomal](/wiki/Microsomal \"Microsomal\") membranes, suggesting that exercise facilitates the translocation of vesicular GLUT\\-4 to the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane \"Plasma membrane\"). While acute exercise increases GLUT\\-4 translocation, endurance training will increase the total amount of GLUT\\-4 protein available. It has been shown that both electrical contraction and [AICA ribonucleotide](/wiki/AICA_ribonucleotide \"AICA ribonucleotide\") (AICAR) treatment increase AMPK activation, glucose uptake, and GLUT\\-4 translocation in perfused rat [hindlimb](/wiki/Hindlimb \"Hindlimb\") muscle, linking exercise\\-induced glucose uptake to AMPK. Chronic AICAR injections, simulating some of the effects of [endurance training](/wiki/Endurance_training \"Endurance training\"), also increase the total amount of GLUT\\-4 [protein](/wiki/Protein \"Protein\") in the [muscle cell](/wiki/Muscle_cell \"Muscle cell\").",
"Two proteins are essential for the regulation of GLUT\\-4 expression at a transcriptional level – myocyte enhancer factor 2 ([MEF2](/wiki/Mef2 \"Mef2\")) and [GLUT4 enhancer factor](/wiki/GLUT4_enhancer_factor \"GLUT4 enhancer factor\") (GEF). Mutations in the [DNA](/wiki/DNA \"DNA\") binding regions for either of these proteins results in [ablation](/wiki/Ablation \"Ablation\") of [transgene](/wiki/Transgene \"Transgene\") GLUT\\-4 expression. These results prompted a study in 2005 which showed that AMPK directly phosphorylates GEF, but it doesn't seem to directly activate MEF2\\. AICAR treatment has been shown, however, to increase transport of both proteins into the [nucleus](/wiki/Cell_nucleus \"Cell nucleus\"), as well as increase the binding of both to the GLUT\\-4 [promoter region](/wiki/Promoter_region \"Promoter region\").",
"There is another protein involved in [carbohydrate metabolism](/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism \"Carbohydrate metabolism\") that is worthy of mention along with GLUT\\-4\\. The enzyme [hexokinase](/wiki/Hexokinase \"Hexokinase\") phosphorylates a six\\-carbon sugar, most notably [glucose](/wiki/Glucose \"Glucose\"), which is the first step in [glycolysis](/wiki/Glycolysis \"Glycolysis\"). When glucose is transported into the cell it is phosphorylated by hexokinase. This phosphorylation keeps glucose from leaving the [cell](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 \"Cell (biology)\"), and by changing the structure of glucose through phosphorylation, it decreases the concentration of glucose molecules, maintaining a gradient for more glucose to be transported into the cell. Hexokinase II [transcription](/wiki/Transcription_%28genetics%29 \"Transcription (genetics)\") is increased in both red and white [skeletal muscle](/wiki/Skeletal_muscle \"Skeletal muscle\") upon treatment with AICAR. With chronic injections of AICAR, total protein content of hexokinase II increases in [rat](/wiki/Rat \"Rat\") skeletal muscle.",
"### Mitochondria",
"Mitochondrial enzymes, such as [cytochrome c](/wiki/Cytochrome_c \"Cytochrome c\"), [succinate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Succinate_dehydrogenase \"Succinate dehydrogenase\"), [malate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Malate_dehydrogenase \"Malate dehydrogenase\"), [α\\-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase](/wiki/%CE%91-ketoglutarate_dehydrogenase \"Α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase\"), and [citrate synthase](/wiki/Citrate_synthase \"Citrate synthase\"), increase in expression and activity in response to exercise. [AICAR](/wiki/AICA_ribonucleotide \"AICA ribonucleotide\") stimulation of AMPK increases cytochrome c and δ\\-aminolevulinate synthase ([ALAS](/wiki/Aminolevulinic_acid_synthase \"Aminolevulinic acid synthase\")), a [rate\\-limiting enzyme](/wiki/Rate-limiting_enzyme \"Rate-limiting enzyme\") involved in the production of [heme](/wiki/Heme \"Heme\"). [Malate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Malate_dehydrogenase \"Malate dehydrogenase\") and [succinate dehydrogenase](/wiki/Succinate_dehydrogenase \"Succinate dehydrogenase\") also increase, as well as citrate synthase activity, in rats treated with AICAR injections. Conversely, in LKB1 knockout mice, there are decreases in cytochrome c and citrate synthase activity, even if the mice are \"trained\" by voluntary exercise.",
"AMPK is required for increased peroxisome proliferator\\-activated receptor γ coactivator\\-1α ([PGC\\-1α](/wiki/PPARGC1A \"PPARGC1A\")) expression in skeletal muscle in response to [creatine](/wiki/Creatine \"Creatine\") depletion. PGC\\-1α is a transcriptional regulator for genes involved in [fatty acid oxidation](/wiki/Fatty_acid_oxidation \"Fatty acid oxidation\"), [gluconeogenesis](/wiki/Gluconeogenesis \"Gluconeogenesis\"), and is considered the master regulator for [mitochondrial biogenesis](/wiki/Mitochondrial_biogenesis \"Mitochondrial biogenesis\").",
"To do this, it enhances the activity of [transcription factors](/wiki/Transcription_factors \"Transcription factors\") like nuclear respiratory factor 1 ([NRF\\-1](/wiki/NRF1 \"NRF1\")), [myocyte](/wiki/Myocyte \"Myocyte\") enhancer factor 2 (MEF2\\), [host cell](/wiki/Host_cell \"Host cell\") factor (HCF), and others. It also has a [positive feedback loop](/wiki/Positive_feedback_loop \"Positive feedback loop\"), enhancing its own expression. Both MEF2 and [cAMP](/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate \"Cyclic adenosine monophosphate\") response element ([CRE](/wiki/CREB%23cAMP_response_element \"CREB#cAMP response element\")) are essential for contraction\\-induced PGC\\-1α [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28biology%29 \"Promoter (biology)\") activity. LKB1 knockout mice show a decrease in PGC\\-1α, as well as mitochondrial proteins.",
"### Thyroid hormone",
"AMPK and [thyroid](/wiki/Thyroid \"Thyroid\") [hormone](/wiki/Hormone \"Hormone\") regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities, Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by [thyroid hormone](/wiki/Thyroid_hormone \"Thyroid hormone\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Park \\|first1\\=S. H. \\|last2\\=Paulsen \\|first2\\=S. R. \\|last3\\=Gammon \\|first3\\=S. R. \\|last4\\=Mustard \\|first4\\=K. J. \\|last5\\=Hardie \\|first5\\=D. G. \\|last6\\=Winder \\|first6\\=W. W. \\|date\\=December 2002 \\|title\\=Effects of thyroid state on AMP\\-activated protein kinase and acetyl\\-CoA carboxylase expression in muscle \\|url\\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12433937/ \\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Physiology \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=2081–2088 \\|doi\\=10\\.1152/japplphysiol.00504\\.2002 \\|issn\\=8750\\-7587 \\|pmid\\=12433937}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Branvold \\|first1\\=D. J. \\|last2\\=Allred \\|first2\\=D. R. \\|last3\\=Beckstead \\|first3\\=D. J. \\|last4\\=Kim \\|first4\\=H. J. \\|last5\\=Fillmore \\|first5\\=N. \\|last6\\=Condon \\|first6\\=B. M. \\|last7\\=Brown \\|first7\\=J. D. \\|last8\\=Sudweeks \\|first8\\=S. N. \\|last9\\=Thomson \\|first9\\=D. M. \\|last10\\=Winder \\|first10\\=W. W. \\|date\\=October 2008 \\|title\\=Thyroid hormone effects on LKB1, MO25, phospho\\-AMPK, phospho\\-CREB, and PGC\\-1alpha in rat muscle \\|url\\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18669938/ \\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Physiology \\|volume\\=105 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=1218–1227 \\|doi\\=10\\.1152/japplphysiol.00997\\.2007 \\|issn\\=8750\\-7587 \\|pmid\\=18669938\\|s2cid\\=2019764 }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Winder \\|first1\\=W. W. \\|last2\\=Hardie \\|first2\\=D. G. \\|last3\\=Mustard \\|first3\\=K. J. \\|last4\\=Greenwood \\|first4\\=L. J. \\|last5\\=Paxton \\|first5\\=B. E. \\|last6\\=Park \\|first6\\=S. H. \\|last7\\=Rubink \\|first7\\=D. S. \\|last8\\=Taylor \\|first8\\=E. B. \\|date\\=February 2003 \\|title\\=Long\\-term regulation of AMP\\-activated protein kinase and acetyl\\-CoA carboxylase in skeletal muscle \\|url\\=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12546681/ \\|journal\\=Biochemical Society Transactions \\|volume\\=31 \\|issue\\=Pt 1 \\|pages\\=182–185 \\|doi\\=10\\.1042/bst0310182 \\|issn\\=0300\\-5127 \\|pmid\\=12546681}} They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in [skeletal muscle](/wiki/Skeletal_muscle \"Skeletal muscle\"), especially in the [soleus](/wiki/Soleus \"Soleus\") and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was also an increase in phospho\\-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.",
"### Glucose sensing systems",
"Loss of AMPK has been reported to alter the sensitivity of glucose sensing cells, through poorly defined mechanisms. Loss of the AMPKα2 subunit in pancreatic β\\-cells and hypothalamic neurons decreases the sensitivity of these cells to changes in extracellular glucose concentration. Moreover, exposure of rats to recurrent bouts of insulin induced [hypoglycemia](/wiki/Hypoglycemia \"Hypoglycemia\")/glucopenia, reduces the activation of AMPK within the [hypothalamus](/wiki/Hypothalamus \"Hypothalamus\"), whilst also suppressing the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia. \n Pharmacological activation of AMPK by delivery of AMPK activating drug AICAR, directly into the hypothalamus can increase the counterregulatory response to hypoglycaemia.",
"### Lysosomal damage, inflammatory diseases and metformin",
"AMPK is recruited to lysosomes and regulated at the lysosomes via several systems of clinical significance. This includes the [AXIN](/wiki/AXIN1 \"AXIN1\") \\- [LKB1](/wiki/LKB1 \"LKB1\") complex, acting in response to glucose limitations functioning independently of AMP sensing, which detects low glucose as absence of [fructose\\-1,6\\-bisphosphate](/wiki/Fructose_1%2C6-bisphosphate \"Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate\") via a dynamic set of interactions between lysosomally localized [V\\-ATPase](/wiki/V-ATPase \"V-ATPase\")\\-[aldolase](/wiki/Fructose-bisphosphate_aldolase \"Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase\") in contact with the [endoplasmic reticulum](/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum \"Endoplasmic reticulum\") localized [TRPV](/wiki/TRPV \"TRPV\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li M, Zhang CS, Zong Y, Feng JW, Ma T, Hu M, Lin Z, Li X, Xie C, Wu Y, Jiang D, Li Y, Zhang C, Tian X, Wang W, Yang Y, Chen J, Cui J, Wu YQ, Chen X, Liu QF, Wu J, Lin SY, Ye Z, Liu Y, Piao HL, Yu L, Zhou Z, Xie XS, Hardie DG, Lin SC \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Transient Receptor Potential V Channels Are Essential for Glucose Sensing by Aldolase and AMPK \\| journal \\= Cell Metabolism \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 508–524\\.e12 \\| date \\= September 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31204282 \\| pmc \\= 6720459 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cmet.2019\\.05\\.018 }} A second AMPK\\-control system{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jia J, Bissa B, Brecht L, Allers L, Choi SW, Gu Y, Zbinden M, Burge MR, Timmins G, Hallows K, Behrends C, Deretic V \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= AMPK, a Regulator of Metabolism and Autophagy, Is Activated by Lysosomal Damage via a Novel Galectin\\-Directed Ubiquitin Signal Transduction System \\| journal \\= Molecular Cell \\| volume \\= 77 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 951–969\\.e9 \\| date \\= March 2020 \\| pmid \\= 31995728 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.molcel.2019\\.12\\.028 \\| pmc \\= 7785494 }} localized to [lysosomes](/wiki/Lysosome \"Lysosome\") depends on the [Galectin\\-9](/wiki/Galectin-9 \"Galectin-9\")\\-[TAK1](/wiki/MAP3K7 \"MAP3K7\") system and ubiquitination responses at controlled by deubiquitinating enzymes such as [USP9X](/wiki/USP9X \"USP9X\") leading to AMPK activation in response to lysosomal damage, a condition that can occur biochemically, physically via protein aggregates such as [proteopathic](/wiki/Proteopathy \"Proteopathy\") tau in [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\"),{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Papadopoulos C, Kirchner P, Bug M, Grum D, Koerver L, Schulze N, Poehler R, Dressler A, Fengler S, Arhzaouy K, Lux V, Ehrmann M, Weihl CC, Meyer H \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= VCP/p97 cooperates with YOD1, UBXD1 and PLAA to drive clearance of ruptured lysosomes by autophagy \\| journal \\= The EMBO Journal \\| volume \\= 36 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 135–150 \\| date \\= January 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27753622 \\| pmc \\= 5242375 \\| doi \\= 10\\.15252/embj.201695148 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jia J, Claude\\-Taupin A, Gu Y, Choi SW, Peters R, Bissa B, Mudd MH, Allers L, Pallikkuth S, Lidke KA, Salemi M, Phinney B, Mari M, Reggiori F, Deretic V \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Galectin\\-3 Coordinates a Cellular System for Lysosomal Repair and Removal \\| journal \\= Developmental Cell \\| volume \\= 52 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 69–87\\.e8 \\| date \\= January 2020 \\| pmid \\= 31813797 \\| pmc \\= 6997950 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.devcel.2019\\.10\\.025 }} [crystalline silica](/wiki/Crystalline_silica \"Crystalline silica\") causing [silicosis](/wiki/Silicosis \"Silicosis\"), [cholesterol crystals](/wiki/Cholesterol_crystal \"Cholesterol crystal\") causing inflammation via [NLRP3](/wiki/NALP3 \"NALP3\") [inflammasome](/wiki/Inflammasome \"Inflammasome\") and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Grebe A, Latz E \\| title \\= Cholesterol crystals and inflammation \\| journal \\= Current Rheumatology Reports \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 313 \\| date \\= March 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23412688 \\| pmc \\= 3623938 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s11926\\-012\\-0313\\-z }} [urate crystals](/wiki/Urate_crystal_arthropathy \"Urate crystal arthropathy\") associated with [gout](/wiki/Gout \"Gout\"), or during microbial invasion such as [Mycobacterium tuberculosis](/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\"){{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chauhan S, Kumar S, Jain A, Ponpuak M, Mudd MH, Kimura T, Choi SW, Peters R, Mandell M, Bruun JA, Johansen T, Deretic V \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= TRIMs and Galectins Globally Cooperate and TRIM16 and Galectin\\-3 Co\\-direct Autophagy in Endomembrane Damage Homeostasis \\| journal \\= Developmental Cell \\| volume \\= 39 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 13–27 \\| date \\= October 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27693506 \\| pmc \\= 5104201 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.devcel.2016\\.08\\.003 }} or [coronaviruses](/wiki/Coronavirus \"Coronavirus\") causing [SARS](/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome \"Severe acute respiratory syndrome\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Yue Y, Nabar NR, Shi CS, Kamenyeva O, Xiao X, Hwang IY, Wang M, Kehrl JH \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= SARS\\-Coronavirus Open Reading Frame\\-3a drives multimodal necrotic cell death \\| journal \\= Cell Death \\& Disease \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 904 \\| date \\= September 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30185776 \\| pmc \\= 6125346 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41419\\-018\\-0917\\-y }} Both of the above lysosomally localized systems controlling AMPK activate it in response to [metformin](/wiki/Metformin \"Metformin\"),{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zhang CS, Li M, Ma T, Zong Y, Cui J, Feng JW, Wu YQ, Lin SY, Lin SC \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Metformin Activates AMPK through the Lysosomal Pathway \\| journal \\= Cell Metabolism \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 521–522 \\| date \\= October 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27732831 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cmet.2016\\.09\\.003 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} a widely prescribed [anti\\-diabetic](/wiki/Anti-diabetic_medication \"Anti-diabetic medication\") drug.",
"### Tumor suppression and promotion",
"Some evidence indicates that AMPK may have a role in tumor suppression. Studies have found that AMPK may exert most, or even all of, the tumor suppressing properties of [liver kinase B1](/wiki/STK11 \"STK11\") (LKB1\\). Additionally, studies where the AMPK activator [metformin](/wiki/Metformin \"Metformin\") was used to treat diabetes found a correlation with a reduced risk of cancer, compared to other medications. [Gene knockout](/wiki/Gene_knockout \"Gene knockout\") and [knockdown](/wiki/Gene_knockdown \"Gene knockdown\") studies with mice found that mice without the gene to express AMPK had greater risks of developing lymphomas, though as the gene was knocked out globally instead of just in [B cells](/wiki/B_cell \"B cell\"), it was impossible to conclude that AMP knockout had cell\\-autonomous effects within tumor progenitor cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Merrill GM, Kurth E, Hardie DG, Winder WW \\|title\\=AMP\\-Activated Protein Kinase: Friend or Foe in Cancer? \\|year\\=2020 \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Cancer Biology \\|volume\\=4 \\|pages\\=1–16 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-cancerbio\\-030419\\-033619\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"In contrast, some studies have linked AMPK with a role as a tumor promoter by protecting cancer cells from stress. Thus, once cancerous cells have formed in an organism, AMPK may swap from protecting against cancer to protecting the cancer itself. Studies have found that tumor cells with AMPK knockout are more susceptible to death by glucose starvation or [extracellular matrix](/wiki/Extracellular_matrix \"Extracellular matrix\") detachment, which may indicate AMPK has a role in preventing these two outcomes. A recent study on pancreatic cancer suggests that AMPKα may play a role in the metastatic cascade and the phenotype of cancer cells. Mechanistically, the authors propose that in the absence of AMPKα, pancreatic cancer cells are more vulnerable to oxidative stress, supporting a tumor\\-promoting function of AMPKα. {{Cite journal \\|last\\=Schneider \\|first\\=Carolin \\|last2\\=Hilbert \\|first2\\=Jorina \\|last3\\=Genevaux \\|first3\\=Franziska \\|last4\\=Höfer \\|first4\\=Stefanie \\|last5\\=Krauß \\|first5\\=Lukas \\|last6\\=Schicktanz \\|first6\\=Felix \\|last7\\=Contreras \\|first7\\=Constanza Tapia \\|last8\\=Jansari \\|first8\\=Shaishavi \\|last9\\=Papargyriou \\|first9\\=Aristeidis \\|last10\\=Richter \\|first10\\=Thorsten \\|last11\\=Alfayomy \\|first11\\=Abdallah M. \\|last12\\=Falcomatà \\|first12\\=Chiara \\|last13\\=Schneeweis \\|first13\\=Christian \\|last14\\=Orben \\|first14\\=Felix \\|last15\\=Öllinger \\|first15\\=Ruppert \\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-17 \\|title\\=A Novel AMPK Inhibitor Sensitizes Pancreatic Cancer Cells to Ferroptosis Induction \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1002/advs.202307695 \\|journal\\=Advanced Science \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/advs.202307695 \\|issn\\=2198\\-3844\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmc\\=11336956 }}",
""
] |
History
-------
The group's 1961 [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 "Single (music)") "[Oh Carolina](/wiki/Oh_Carolina "Oh Carolina")" was written by John Folkes, the sole author, as established in court in England.
In 1960, Prince Buster (then a relative unknown who was working as a DJ and bouncer for Duke Reid) approached the legendary Rastafarian percussionist Count Ossie, who had established one of the first Rastafarian camps in Wareika Hill, to record for him. After much encouragement from Prince Buster that he would keep the essence of the Niyabinghi \-style drumming intact on the recording, he booked Count Ossie and his drummers along with Owen Gray on piano and Ronnie Bop on bass drum into a small recording studio. Once there, Buster did handclaps and imitated horn riffs while The Folkes Brothers, a trio of teenagers, led by John and backed by his brothers Mico, and Junior, did the back up vocals capturing it in just two takes. It was the only recording the group ever did.
In 1994, John, Eric (Junior ) and Mico Folkes were involved in a legal dispute with Buster over the authorship of the song, after a cover version by Shaggy, who became an international hit."[Jamaican Records Fill R\&B Gap](http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140720/ent/ent3.html)", *[Jamaica Gleaner](/wiki/Jamaica_Gleaner "Jamaica Gleaner")*, 20 July 2014\. Retrieved 21 July 2014"[The Folkes Brothers Biography](http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-folkes-brothers-mn0001841566/biography)", [Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic "Allmusic"). Retrieved 21 July 2014 It was eventually ruled by the High Court in London, England, that John Folkes held the [copyright](/wiki/Copyright "Copyright").Moskowitz, David V. (2006\) *Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall*, Greenwood Press, {{ISBN\|0\-313\-33158\-8}}, p. 113\-4 John Folkes assigned the copyright to Greensleeves so that Shaggy's *[Pure Pleasure](/wiki/Pure_Pleasure "Pure Pleasure")* album could be released. This included listing [Henry Mancini](/wiki/Henry_Mancini "Henry Mancini") as co\-author, because it was alleged that Shaggy sampled the "[Peter Gunn](/wiki/Peter_Gunn_%28song%29 "Peter Gunn (song)")" theme song. It has been noted that John Folkes never agreed to this nor any assignment of the copyright to Greensleeves. This is no longer in dispute.
In 2011, a new group (now consisting Mico Folkes and Eric J. Folkes) recorded an album with their close musician friend, Jah D, in efforts to help promote his studio, while Jah D provided background music for 15 of the Folkes brothers' songs, solely written by Mico and Eric J. "Junior". The original group was created by John. As such, he has been the only group member to receive any royalties and his estate is the sole owner of the copyright, as has always been the case.
John Folkes passed away August 29, 2022 at the age of 81, survived by his wife Vilma, and three children Shawn, Paula, and Angel. Junior Folkes passed away January 8, 2024, leaving Mico Folkes the last surviving member of The Folkes Brothers, who has recreated a different group, and has never been entitled to any royalties because Dr. John Folkes (PhD summa cum laude in English from the University of Toronto) is and has always been the sole author.
Further references can be found at: "Marco On The Bass: The Story Behind 'Oh Carolina': Jamaican Music Pioneers The Folkes Brothers Reunite!" [http://marcoonthebass.blogspot.com/2011/06/story\-behind\-oh\-carolina\-jamaican\-music.html?m\=1](http://marcoonthebass.blogspot.com/2011/06/story-behind-oh-carolina-jamaican-music.html?m=1).
"Shaggy's 'oh Carolina' Celebrates 20th Anniversary \- Jamaicansmusic.com" <http://www.jamaicansmusic.com/news/Music/Shaggy_s_Oh_Carolina_Celebrates_20th_Anniversary>
"Oh Carolina: The Folkes Brothers – Heather Augustyn" [https://skabook.com/2014/04/11/oh\-carolina\-folkes\-brothers/](https://skabook.com/2014/04/11/oh-carolina-folkes-brothers/)
"The Music Diaries \| The drama of 'Oh Carolina' \| Entertainment \| Jamaica Gleaner" [https://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20181104/music\-diaries\-drama\-oh\-carolina](https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20181104/music-diaries-drama-oh-carolina)
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The group's 1961 [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 \"Single (music)\") \"[Oh Carolina](/wiki/Oh_Carolina \"Oh Carolina\")\" was written by John Folkes, the sole author, as established in court in England. \nIn 1960, Prince Buster (then a relative unknown who was working as a DJ and bouncer for Duke Reid) approached the legendary Rastafarian percussionist Count Ossie, who had established one of the first Rastafarian camps in Wareika Hill, to record for him. After much encouragement from Prince Buster that he would keep the essence of the Niyabinghi \\-style drumming intact on the recording, he booked Count Ossie and his drummers along with Owen Gray on piano and Ronnie Bop on bass drum into a small recording studio. Once there, Buster did handclaps and imitated horn riffs while The Folkes Brothers, a trio of teenagers, led by John and backed by his brothers Mico, and Junior, did the back up vocals capturing it in just two takes. It was the only recording the group ever did.",
"In 1994, John, Eric (Junior ) and Mico Folkes were involved in a legal dispute with Buster over the authorship of the song, after a cover version by Shaggy, who became an international hit.\"[Jamaican Records Fill R\\&B Gap](http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140720/ent/ent3.html)\", *[Jamaica Gleaner](/wiki/Jamaica_Gleaner \"Jamaica Gleaner\")*, 20 July 2014\\. Retrieved 21 July 2014\"[The Folkes Brothers Biography](http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-folkes-brothers-mn0001841566/biography)\", [Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic \"Allmusic\"). Retrieved 21 July 2014 It was eventually ruled by the High Court in London, England, that John Folkes held the [copyright](/wiki/Copyright \"Copyright\").Moskowitz, David V. (2006\\) *Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall*, Greenwood Press, {{ISBN\\|0\\-313\\-33158\\-8}}, p. 113\\-4 John Folkes assigned the copyright to Greensleeves so that Shaggy's *[Pure Pleasure](/wiki/Pure_Pleasure \"Pure Pleasure\")* album could be released. This included listing [Henry Mancini](/wiki/Henry_Mancini \"Henry Mancini\") as co\\-author, because it was alleged that Shaggy sampled the \"[Peter Gunn](/wiki/Peter_Gunn_%28song%29 \"Peter Gunn (song)\")\" theme song. It has been noted that John Folkes never agreed to this nor any assignment of the copyright to Greensleeves. This is no longer in dispute.",
"In 2011, a new group (now consisting Mico Folkes and Eric J. Folkes) recorded an album with their close musician friend, Jah D, in efforts to help promote his studio, while Jah D provided background music for 15 of the Folkes brothers' songs, solely written by Mico and Eric J. \"Junior\". The original group was created by John. As such, he has been the only group member to receive any royalties and his estate is the sole owner of the copyright, as has always been the case.",
"John Folkes passed away August 29, 2022 at the age of 81, survived by his wife Vilma, and three children Shawn, Paula, and Angel. Junior Folkes passed away January 8, 2024, leaving Mico Folkes the last surviving member of The Folkes Brothers, who has recreated a different group, and has never been entitled to any royalties because Dr. John Folkes (PhD summa cum laude in English from the University of Toronto) is and has always been the sole author.",
"Further references can be found at: \"Marco On The Bass: The Story Behind 'Oh Carolina': Jamaican Music Pioneers The Folkes Brothers Reunite!\" [http://marcoonthebass.blogspot.com/2011/06/story\\-behind\\-oh\\-carolina\\-jamaican\\-music.html?m\\=1](http://marcoonthebass.blogspot.com/2011/06/story-behind-oh-carolina-jamaican-music.html?m=1).",
"\"Shaggy's 'oh Carolina' Celebrates 20th Anniversary \\- Jamaicansmusic.com\" <http://www.jamaicansmusic.com/news/Music/Shaggy_s_Oh_Carolina_Celebrates_20th_Anniversary>",
"\"Oh Carolina: The Folkes Brothers – Heather Augustyn\" [https://skabook.com/2014/04/11/oh\\-carolina\\-folkes\\-brothers/](https://skabook.com/2014/04/11/oh-carolina-folkes-brothers/)",
"\"The Music Diaries \\| The drama of 'Oh Carolina' \\| Entertainment \\| Jamaica Gleaner\" [https://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20181104/music\\-diaries\\-drama\\-oh\\-carolina](https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20181104/music-diaries-drama-oh-carolina)",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
### Minor, under\-21 and intermediate
By 1960 Roche's performances as a minor hurler for St. Molleran's led to him being considered for the Waterford minor hurling panel. He was only sixteen years\-old when he was called for a trial, however, he failed to be selected.
Roche was eligible for the minor grade again the following year, however, on this occasion he was added to the Tipperary panel after impressing in trial games. He made his debut against [Clare](/wiki/Clare_GAA "Clare GAA") on 2 July 1961\. Roche later won a [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Minor_Hurling_Championship "Munster Minor Hurling Championship") medal following a 7\-11 to 1\-6 thrashing of [Cork](/wiki/Cork_GAA "Cork GAA"). The subsequent All\-Ireland final on 3 September 1961 saw Roche make his first [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") appearance. [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA "Kilkenny GAA") provided the opposition on that occasion, however, Tipperary looked set for victory when they held a 0\-12 to 1\-7 lead with ten minutes remaining in the games. Kilkenny scored 2\-6 in the time remaining and, in spite of [Billy Ryan](/wiki/Billy_Ryan_%28hurler%29 "Billy Ryan (hurler)") scoring 0\-12 of Tipperary's points, Roche's side faced a 3\-13 to 0\-15 defeat.
In 1963 Roche went on to become one of the youngest members of the Tipperary intermediate hurling team. He was at midfield from the start of the championship campaign and collected a [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Intermediate_Hurling_Championship "Munster Intermediate Hurling Championship") medal following a 6\-10 to 0\-4 trouncing of Clare. The subsequent All\-Ireland final on 8 September 1963 saw Tipperary face [London](/wiki/London_GAA "London GAA"). Tipperary had home advantage at [Thurles Sportsfield](/wiki/Semple_Stadium "Semple Stadium") and secured a 1\-10 to 1\-7 victory after a poor game. Roche contributed three points from midfield and collected an [All\-Ireland Intermediate Hurling Championship](/wiki/All-Ireland_Intermediate_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Intermediate Hurling Championship") medal.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nationalist.ie/news/local\-news/all\-ireland\-goalkeeper\-s\-hurley\-saved\-after\-42\-years\-1\-5699979\|title\=All\-Ireland goalkeeper's hurley 'saved' after 42 years\|publisher\=The Nationalist\|date\=22 November 2013\|access\-date\=10 July 2015}}
Roche was added to the inaugural Tipperary under\-21 team in 1964\. The team dominated the new provincial series and collected the [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Under-21_Hurling_Championship "Munster Under-21 Hurling Championship") title following an 8\-9 to 3\-1 defeat of Waterford in the decider. The All\-Ireland final on 4 October 1964 saw Tipperary face [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford_GAA "Wexford GAA"). Tipperary's forwards ran riot, with Roche contributing to the eight\-goal scoreline. An 8\-9 to 3\-1 victory gave him an [All\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Under-21_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship") medal in the new grade.
### Senior
Roche was added to the Tipperary senior panel in 1963, however, his involvement with the intermediate team precluded him from making his championship debut. Later that year he won an [Oireachtas Cup](/wiki/Oireachtas_Cup "Oireachtas Cup") medal at midfield as Tipperary defeated Wexford by 4\-15 to 3\-12\.
Throughout the 1963\-64 league campaign Roche became a regular member of the senior team. The campaign was a successful one, with Roche winning a first [National Hurling League](/wiki/National_Hurling_League "National Hurling League") medal following a 4\-16 to 6\-6 defeat of [New York](/wiki/New_York_GAA "New York GAA") in the decider. Tipperary later cantered casually past Cork by fourteen points in the provincial decider, giving Roche a first [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship "Munster Senior Hurling Championship") medal. The All\-Ireland final on 6 September 1964 saw Kilkenny enter the game as firm favourites against Tipperary. [John "Mackey" McKenna](/wiki/John_McKenna_%28hurler%29 "John McKenna (hurler)") scored Tipperary's first goal after ten minutes as the Munster champions took a 1\-8 to 0\-6 interval lead. The second half saw Tipperary score goals for fun, with [Donie Nealon](/wiki/Donie_Nealon "Donie Nealon") getting a hat\-trick and [Seán McLoughlin](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_McLoughlin_%28hurler%29 "Seán McLoughlin (hurler)") another. Kilkenny were humiliated at the full\-time whistle as Tipperary triumphed by 5\-13 to 2\-8\.{{cite web\|url\=http://munster.gaa.ie/2010/09/05/all\-ireland\-senior\-hurling\-championship\-final\-3/\|title\=All\-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\|publisher\=Munster GAA website\|date\=5 September 2010\|access\-date\=3 July 2013}} It was Roche's first [All\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship") medal. He later added a second Oireachtas Cup medal to his collection before winning a [Cú Chulainn Award](/wiki/List_of_All_Stars_Awards_winners_%28hurling%29 "List of All Stars Awards winners (hurling)") for his displays throughout the year.
In 1965 Tipperary demolished all opposition in the provincial championship once again. A 4–11 to 0–5 trouncing of Cork gave Roche a second Munster medal. Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\-Ireland final on 5 September 1965, however, the game failed to live up to the two classic games between the two sides in 1960 and 1962\. Victory went to Tipperary on that occasion by 2–16 to 0–10, courtesy of a brace of goals by Seán McLoughlin. The win gave Roche a second successive All\-Ireland medal. The year ended with further success as he won a second National League medal as New York were narrowly defeated on an aggregate score of 6–19 to 5–20 before claiming a third Oireachtas medal as Kilkenny were downed by 2\-12 to 2\-7\. Roche's performances throughout the year also earned him a second successive Cú Chulainn Award.
After surrendering their provincial crown in 1966, Tipperary bounced back the following year, with Roche, who was now captain of the team, winning a third Munster medal following a 4–12 to 2–6 defeat of Clare. On 3 September 1967 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\-Ireland decider. Tipperary looked like continuing their hoodoo over their near rivals as they took a 2–6 to 1–3 lead at half\-time. Goalkeeper [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh "Ollie Walsh") was the hero for Kilkenny as he made a series of spectacular saves, however, the team lost [Eddie Keher](/wiki/Eddie_Keher "Eddie Keher") and [Tom Walsh](/wiki/Tom_Walsh_%28Thomastown_hurler%29 "Tom Walsh (Thomastown hurler)") to injury in the second half. In spite of this, Kilkenny laid to rest a bogey that Tipperary had over the team since 1922, and a 3–8 to 2–7 victory resulted in defeat for Roche's team.{{cite web\|url\=http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\-five\-tipperary\-kilkenny\-all\-ireland\-finals\-.aspx \|title\=Famous Five: Tipperary\-Kilkenny All Ireland finals \|publisher\=Eircom Sports website \|date\=3 September 2010 \|access\-date\=3 July 2013 \|first\=Shane \|last\=Stapleton \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022024612/http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\-five\-tipperary\-kilkenny\-all\-ireland\-finals\-.aspx \|archive\-date\=22 October 2013 }} Roche finished the year by winning a third Cú Chulainn Award.
Roche won a third National League medal in 1968 as New York were defeated on an aggregate score of 6–27 to 4–22\. Tipperary retained their status as provincial kingpins once again and a 2–13 to 1–7 trouncing of Cork gave team captain Roche a fourth Munster medal. For the fourth time of the decade, Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\-Ireland final on 1 September 1968\. At half\-time it looked as if Tipperary were cruising to another victory as they took an eight\-point lead. Just after the restart Wexford had a [Christy Jacob](/wiki/Christy_Jacob "Christy Jacob") goal disallowed before [Tony Doran](/wiki/Tony_Doran "Tony Doran") scored a goal after just six minutes. Tipperary fought back, however, it was too late as Wexford won by 5–8 to 3–12\. In spite of this setback, Roche finished the year with a fourth Oireachtas Cup medal following a narrow 1\-9 to 1\-6 defeat of Cork.
In 1970 Roche won a fifth Oireachtas Cup medal following a 1\-12 to 0\-8 defeat of recently crowned All\-Ireland champions Cork in the final.
By 1971 the great Tipperary team of the previous decade was in decline and beginning to break up. In spite of this Roche won a fifth Munster medal that year following a 4–16 to 3–18 defeat of [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA "Limerick GAA"). On 5 September 1971 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\-Ireland final, the first to be [broadcast in colour](/wiki/Colour_television "Colour television") by [Telefís Éireann](/wiki/RT%C3%89 "RTÉ") and the only eighty\-minute meeting between the two sides. Kilkenny's ever\-dependable goalkeeper, [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh "Ollie Walsh"), had a nightmare of a game in which he conceded five goals, one of which passed through his legs, while that year's Hurler of the Year, ["Babs" Keating](/wiki/Michael_Keating_%28hurler%29 "Michael Keating (hurler)"), played out the closing stages of the game in his bare feet. Tipperary emerged the victors on a score line of 5–17 to 5–14\. It was Roche's third All\-Ireland medal.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/gaelic\-games/hurling/reeling\-back\-the\-headlines\-some\-of\-jimmy\-doyle\-s\-finest\-moments\-1\.2259918\|title\=Reeling back the headlines: Some of Jimmy Doyle's finest moments\|date\=23 June 2015\|publisher\=Irish Times\|access\-date\=23 June 2015}} He finished the year by being included on the inaugural [All Stars](/wiki/GAA_All_Stars_Awards "GAA All Stars Awards") team.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"### Minor, under\\-21 and intermediate",
"By 1960 Roche's performances as a minor hurler for St. Molleran's led to him being considered for the Waterford minor hurling panel. He was only sixteen years\\-old when he was called for a trial, however, he failed to be selected.",
"Roche was eligible for the minor grade again the following year, however, on this occasion he was added to the Tipperary panel after impressing in trial games. He made his debut against [Clare](/wiki/Clare_GAA \"Clare GAA\") on 2 July 1961\\. Roche later won a [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Minor_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Minor Hurling Championship\") medal following a 7\\-11 to 1\\-6 thrashing of [Cork](/wiki/Cork_GAA \"Cork GAA\"). The subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 3 September 1961 saw Roche make his first [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\") appearance. [Kilkenny](/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA \"Kilkenny GAA\") provided the opposition on that occasion, however, Tipperary looked set for victory when they held a 0\\-12 to 1\\-7 lead with ten minutes remaining in the games. Kilkenny scored 2\\-6 in the time remaining and, in spite of [Billy Ryan](/wiki/Billy_Ryan_%28hurler%29 \"Billy Ryan (hurler)\") scoring 0\\-12 of Tipperary's points, Roche's side faced a 3\\-13 to 0\\-15 defeat.",
"In 1963 Roche went on to become one of the youngest members of the Tipperary intermediate hurling team. He was at midfield from the start of the championship campaign and collected a [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Intermediate_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Intermediate Hurling Championship\") medal following a 6\\-10 to 0\\-4 trouncing of Clare. The subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 8 September 1963 saw Tipperary face [London](/wiki/London_GAA \"London GAA\"). Tipperary had home advantage at [Thurles Sportsfield](/wiki/Semple_Stadium \"Semple Stadium\") and secured a 1\\-10 to 1\\-7 victory after a poor game. Roche contributed three points from midfield and collected an [All\\-Ireland Intermediate Hurling Championship](/wiki/All-Ireland_Intermediate_Hurling_Championship \"All-Ireland Intermediate Hurling Championship\") medal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nationalist.ie/news/local\\-news/all\\-ireland\\-goalkeeper\\-s\\-hurley\\-saved\\-after\\-42\\-years\\-1\\-5699979\\|title\\=All\\-Ireland goalkeeper's hurley 'saved' after 42 years\\|publisher\\=The Nationalist\\|date\\=22 November 2013\\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2015}}",
"Roche was added to the inaugural Tipperary under\\-21 team in 1964\\. The team dominated the new provincial series and collected the [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Under-21_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Under-21 Hurling Championship\") title following an 8\\-9 to 3\\-1 defeat of Waterford in the decider. The All\\-Ireland final on 4 October 1964 saw Tipperary face [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford_GAA \"Wexford GAA\"). Tipperary's forwards ran riot, with Roche contributing to the eight\\-goal scoreline. An 8\\-9 to 3\\-1 victory gave him an [All\\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Under-21_Hurling_Championship \"All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship\") medal in the new grade.",
"### Senior",
"Roche was added to the Tipperary senior panel in 1963, however, his involvement with the intermediate team precluded him from making his championship debut. Later that year he won an [Oireachtas Cup](/wiki/Oireachtas_Cup \"Oireachtas Cup\") medal at midfield as Tipperary defeated Wexford by 4\\-15 to 3\\-12\\.",
"Throughout the 1963\\-64 league campaign Roche became a regular member of the senior team. The campaign was a successful one, with Roche winning a first [National Hurling League](/wiki/National_Hurling_League \"National Hurling League\") medal following a 4\\-16 to 6\\-6 defeat of [New York](/wiki/New_York_GAA \"New York GAA\") in the decider. Tipperary later cantered casually past Cork by fourteen points in the provincial decider, giving Roche a first [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Senior Hurling Championship\") medal. The All\\-Ireland final on 6 September 1964 saw Kilkenny enter the game as firm favourites against Tipperary. [John \"Mackey\" McKenna](/wiki/John_McKenna_%28hurler%29 \"John McKenna (hurler)\") scored Tipperary's first goal after ten minutes as the Munster champions took a 1\\-8 to 0\\-6 interval lead. The second half saw Tipperary score goals for fun, with [Donie Nealon](/wiki/Donie_Nealon \"Donie Nealon\") getting a hat\\-trick and [Seán McLoughlin](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_McLoughlin_%28hurler%29 \"Seán McLoughlin (hurler)\") another. Kilkenny were humiliated at the full\\-time whistle as Tipperary triumphed by 5\\-13 to 2\\-8\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://munster.gaa.ie/2010/09/05/all\\-ireland\\-senior\\-hurling\\-championship\\-final\\-3/\\|title\\=All\\-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\\|publisher\\=Munster GAA website\\|date\\=5 September 2010\\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2013}} It was Roche's first [All\\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\") medal. He later added a second Oireachtas Cup medal to his collection before winning a [Cú Chulainn Award](/wiki/List_of_All_Stars_Awards_winners_%28hurling%29 \"List of All Stars Awards winners (hurling)\") for his displays throughout the year.",
"In 1965 Tipperary demolished all opposition in the provincial championship once again. A 4–11 to 0–5 trouncing of Cork gave Roche a second Munster medal. Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 5 September 1965, however, the game failed to live up to the two classic games between the two sides in 1960 and 1962\\. Victory went to Tipperary on that occasion by 2–16 to 0–10, courtesy of a brace of goals by Seán McLoughlin. The win gave Roche a second successive All\\-Ireland medal. The year ended with further success as he won a second National League medal as New York were narrowly defeated on an aggregate score of 6–19 to 5–20 before claiming a third Oireachtas medal as Kilkenny were downed by 2\\-12 to 2\\-7\\. Roche's performances throughout the year also earned him a second successive Cú Chulainn Award.",
"After surrendering their provincial crown in 1966, Tipperary bounced back the following year, with Roche, who was now captain of the team, winning a third Munster medal following a 4–12 to 2–6 defeat of Clare. On 3 September 1967 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\\-Ireland decider. Tipperary looked like continuing their hoodoo over their near rivals as they took a 2–6 to 1–3 lead at half\\-time. Goalkeeper [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh \"Ollie Walsh\") was the hero for Kilkenny as he made a series of spectacular saves, however, the team lost [Eddie Keher](/wiki/Eddie_Keher \"Eddie Keher\") and [Tom Walsh](/wiki/Tom_Walsh_%28Thomastown_hurler%29 \"Tom Walsh (Thomastown hurler)\") to injury in the second half. In spite of this, Kilkenny laid to rest a bogey that Tipperary had over the team since 1922, and a 3–8 to 2–7 victory resulted in defeat for Roche's team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\\-five\\-tipperary\\-kilkenny\\-all\\-ireland\\-finals\\-.aspx \\|title\\=Famous Five: Tipperary\\-Kilkenny All Ireland finals \\|publisher\\=Eircom Sports website \\|date\\=3 September 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2013 \\|first\\=Shane \\|last\\=Stapleton \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022024612/http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\\-five\\-tipperary\\-kilkenny\\-all\\-ireland\\-finals\\-.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2013 }} Roche finished the year by winning a third Cú Chulainn Award.",
"Roche won a third National League medal in 1968 as New York were defeated on an aggregate score of 6–27 to 4–22\\. Tipperary retained their status as provincial kingpins once again and a 2–13 to 1–7 trouncing of Cork gave team captain Roche a fourth Munster medal. For the fourth time of the decade, Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 1 September 1968\\. At half\\-time it looked as if Tipperary were cruising to another victory as they took an eight\\-point lead. Just after the restart Wexford had a [Christy Jacob](/wiki/Christy_Jacob \"Christy Jacob\") goal disallowed before [Tony Doran](/wiki/Tony_Doran \"Tony Doran\") scored a goal after just six minutes. Tipperary fought back, however, it was too late as Wexford won by 5–8 to 3–12\\. In spite of this setback, Roche finished the year with a fourth Oireachtas Cup medal following a narrow 1\\-9 to 1\\-6 defeat of Cork.",
"In 1970 Roche won a fifth Oireachtas Cup medal following a 1\\-12 to 0\\-8 defeat of recently crowned All\\-Ireland champions Cork in the final.",
"By 1971 the great Tipperary team of the previous decade was in decline and beginning to break up. In spite of this Roche won a fifth Munster medal that year following a 4–16 to 3–18 defeat of [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA \"Limerick GAA\"). On 5 September 1971 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\\-Ireland final, the first to be [broadcast in colour](/wiki/Colour_television \"Colour television\") by [Telefís Éireann](/wiki/RT%C3%89 \"RTÉ\") and the only eighty\\-minute meeting between the two sides. Kilkenny's ever\\-dependable goalkeeper, [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh \"Ollie Walsh\"), had a nightmare of a game in which he conceded five goals, one of which passed through his legs, while that year's Hurler of the Year, [\"Babs\" Keating](/wiki/Michael_Keating_%28hurler%29 \"Michael Keating (hurler)\"), played out the closing stages of the game in his bare feet. Tipperary emerged the victors on a score line of 5–17 to 5–14\\. It was Roche's third All\\-Ireland medal.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/gaelic\\-games/hurling/reeling\\-back\\-the\\-headlines\\-some\\-of\\-jimmy\\-doyle\\-s\\-finest\\-moments\\-1\\.2259918\\|title\\=Reeling back the headlines: Some of Jimmy Doyle's finest moments\\|date\\=23 June 2015\\|publisher\\=Irish Times\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2015}} He finished the year by being included on the inaugural [All Stars](/wiki/GAA_All_Stars_Awards \"GAA All Stars Awards\") team.",
""
] |
### Senior
Roche was added to the Tipperary senior panel in 1963, however, his involvement with the intermediate team precluded him from making his championship debut. Later that year he won an [Oireachtas Cup](/wiki/Oireachtas_Cup "Oireachtas Cup") medal at midfield as Tipperary defeated Wexford by 4\-15 to 3\-12\.
Throughout the 1963\-64 league campaign Roche became a regular member of the senior team. The campaign was a successful one, with Roche winning a first [National Hurling League](/wiki/National_Hurling_League "National Hurling League") medal following a 4\-16 to 6\-6 defeat of [New York](/wiki/New_York_GAA "New York GAA") in the decider. Tipperary later cantered casually past Cork by fourteen points in the provincial decider, giving Roche a first [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship "Munster Senior Hurling Championship") medal. The All\-Ireland final on 6 September 1964 saw Kilkenny enter the game as firm favourites against Tipperary. [John "Mackey" McKenna](/wiki/John_McKenna_%28hurler%29 "John McKenna (hurler)") scored Tipperary's first goal after ten minutes as the Munster champions took a 1\-8 to 0\-6 interval lead. The second half saw Tipperary score goals for fun, with [Donie Nealon](/wiki/Donie_Nealon "Donie Nealon") getting a hat\-trick and [Seán McLoughlin](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_McLoughlin_%28hurler%29 "Seán McLoughlin (hurler)") another. Kilkenny were humiliated at the full\-time whistle as Tipperary triumphed by 5\-13 to 2\-8\.{{cite web\|url\=http://munster.gaa.ie/2010/09/05/all\-ireland\-senior\-hurling\-championship\-final\-3/\|title\=All\-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\|publisher\=Munster GAA website\|date\=5 September 2010\|access\-date\=3 July 2013}} It was Roche's first [All\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship") medal. He later added a second Oireachtas Cup medal to his collection before winning a [Cú Chulainn Award](/wiki/List_of_All_Stars_Awards_winners_%28hurling%29 "List of All Stars Awards winners (hurling)") for his displays throughout the year.
In 1965 Tipperary demolished all opposition in the provincial championship once again. A 4–11 to 0–5 trouncing of Cork gave Roche a second Munster medal. Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\-Ireland final on 5 September 1965, however, the game failed to live up to the two classic games between the two sides in 1960 and 1962\. Victory went to Tipperary on that occasion by 2–16 to 0–10, courtesy of a brace of goals by Seán McLoughlin. The win gave Roche a second successive All\-Ireland medal. The year ended with further success as he won a second National League medal as New York were narrowly defeated on an aggregate score of 6–19 to 5–20 before claiming a third Oireachtas medal as Kilkenny were downed by 2\-12 to 2\-7\. Roche's performances throughout the year also earned him a second successive Cú Chulainn Award.
After surrendering their provincial crown in 1966, Tipperary bounced back the following year, with Roche, who was now captain of the team, winning a third Munster medal following a 4–12 to 2–6 defeat of Clare. On 3 September 1967 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\-Ireland decider. Tipperary looked like continuing their hoodoo over their near rivals as they took a 2–6 to 1–3 lead at half\-time. Goalkeeper [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh "Ollie Walsh") was the hero for Kilkenny as he made a series of spectacular saves, however, the team lost [Eddie Keher](/wiki/Eddie_Keher "Eddie Keher") and [Tom Walsh](/wiki/Tom_Walsh_%28Thomastown_hurler%29 "Tom Walsh (Thomastown hurler)") to injury in the second half. In spite of this, Kilkenny laid to rest a bogey that Tipperary had over the team since 1922, and a 3–8 to 2–7 victory resulted in defeat for Roche's team.{{cite web\|url\=http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\-five\-tipperary\-kilkenny\-all\-ireland\-finals\-.aspx \|title\=Famous Five: Tipperary\-Kilkenny All Ireland finals \|publisher\=Eircom Sports website \|date\=3 September 2010 \|access\-date\=3 July 2013 \|first\=Shane \|last\=Stapleton \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022024612/http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\-five\-tipperary\-kilkenny\-all\-ireland\-finals\-.aspx \|archive\-date\=22 October 2013 }} Roche finished the year by winning a third Cú Chulainn Award.
Roche won a third National League medal in 1968 as New York were defeated on an aggregate score of 6–27 to 4–22\. Tipperary retained their status as provincial kingpins once again and a 2–13 to 1–7 trouncing of Cork gave team captain Roche a fourth Munster medal. For the fourth time of the decade, Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\-Ireland final on 1 September 1968\. At half\-time it looked as if Tipperary were cruising to another victory as they took an eight\-point lead. Just after the restart Wexford had a [Christy Jacob](/wiki/Christy_Jacob "Christy Jacob") goal disallowed before [Tony Doran](/wiki/Tony_Doran "Tony Doran") scored a goal after just six minutes. Tipperary fought back, however, it was too late as Wexford won by 5–8 to 3–12\. In spite of this setback, Roche finished the year with a fourth Oireachtas Cup medal following a narrow 1\-9 to 1\-6 defeat of Cork.
In 1970 Roche won a fifth Oireachtas Cup medal following a 1\-12 to 0\-8 defeat of recently crowned All\-Ireland champions Cork in the final.
By 1971 the great Tipperary team of the previous decade was in decline and beginning to break up. In spite of this Roche won a fifth Munster medal that year following a 4–16 to 3–18 defeat of [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA "Limerick GAA"). On 5 September 1971 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\-Ireland final, the first to be [broadcast in colour](/wiki/Colour_television "Colour television") by [Telefís Éireann](/wiki/RT%C3%89 "RTÉ") and the only eighty\-minute meeting between the two sides. Kilkenny's ever\-dependable goalkeeper, [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh "Ollie Walsh"), had a nightmare of a game in which he conceded five goals, one of which passed through his legs, while that year's Hurler of the Year, ["Babs" Keating](/wiki/Michael_Keating_%28hurler%29 "Michael Keating (hurler)"), played out the closing stages of the game in his bare feet. Tipperary emerged the victors on a score line of 5–17 to 5–14\. It was Roche's third All\-Ireland medal.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/gaelic\-games/hurling/reeling\-back\-the\-headlines\-some\-of\-jimmy\-doyle\-s\-finest\-moments\-1\.2259918\|title\=Reeling back the headlines: Some of Jimmy Doyle's finest moments\|date\=23 June 2015\|publisher\=Irish Times\|access\-date\=23 June 2015}} He finished the year by being included on the inaugural [All Stars](/wiki/GAA_All_Stars_Awards "GAA All Stars Awards") team.
|
[
"### Senior",
"Roche was added to the Tipperary senior panel in 1963, however, his involvement with the intermediate team precluded him from making his championship debut. Later that year he won an [Oireachtas Cup](/wiki/Oireachtas_Cup \"Oireachtas Cup\") medal at midfield as Tipperary defeated Wexford by 4\\-15 to 3\\-12\\.",
"Throughout the 1963\\-64 league campaign Roche became a regular member of the senior team. The campaign was a successful one, with Roche winning a first [National Hurling League](/wiki/National_Hurling_League \"National Hurling League\") medal following a 4\\-16 to 6\\-6 defeat of [New York](/wiki/New_York_GAA \"New York GAA\") in the decider. Tipperary later cantered casually past Cork by fourteen points in the provincial decider, giving Roche a first [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Senior Hurling Championship\") medal. The All\\-Ireland final on 6 September 1964 saw Kilkenny enter the game as firm favourites against Tipperary. [John \"Mackey\" McKenna](/wiki/John_McKenna_%28hurler%29 \"John McKenna (hurler)\") scored Tipperary's first goal after ten minutes as the Munster champions took a 1\\-8 to 0\\-6 interval lead. The second half saw Tipperary score goals for fun, with [Donie Nealon](/wiki/Donie_Nealon \"Donie Nealon\") getting a hat\\-trick and [Seán McLoughlin](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_McLoughlin_%28hurler%29 \"Seán McLoughlin (hurler)\") another. Kilkenny were humiliated at the full\\-time whistle as Tipperary triumphed by 5\\-13 to 2\\-8\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://munster.gaa.ie/2010/09/05/all\\-ireland\\-senior\\-hurling\\-championship\\-final\\-3/\\|title\\=All\\-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\\|publisher\\=Munster GAA website\\|date\\=5 September 2010\\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2013}} It was Roche's first [All\\-Ireland](/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship\") medal. He later added a second Oireachtas Cup medal to his collection before winning a [Cú Chulainn Award](/wiki/List_of_All_Stars_Awards_winners_%28hurling%29 \"List of All Stars Awards winners (hurling)\") for his displays throughout the year.",
"In 1965 Tipperary demolished all opposition in the provincial championship once again. A 4–11 to 0–5 trouncing of Cork gave Roche a second Munster medal. Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 5 September 1965, however, the game failed to live up to the two classic games between the two sides in 1960 and 1962\\. Victory went to Tipperary on that occasion by 2–16 to 0–10, courtesy of a brace of goals by Seán McLoughlin. The win gave Roche a second successive All\\-Ireland medal. The year ended with further success as he won a second National League medal as New York were narrowly defeated on an aggregate score of 6–19 to 5–20 before claiming a third Oireachtas medal as Kilkenny were downed by 2\\-12 to 2\\-7\\. Roche's performances throughout the year also earned him a second successive Cú Chulainn Award.",
"After surrendering their provincial crown in 1966, Tipperary bounced back the following year, with Roche, who was now captain of the team, winning a third Munster medal following a 4–12 to 2–6 defeat of Clare. On 3 September 1967 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\\-Ireland decider. Tipperary looked like continuing their hoodoo over their near rivals as they took a 2–6 to 1–3 lead at half\\-time. Goalkeeper [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh \"Ollie Walsh\") was the hero for Kilkenny as he made a series of spectacular saves, however, the team lost [Eddie Keher](/wiki/Eddie_Keher \"Eddie Keher\") and [Tom Walsh](/wiki/Tom_Walsh_%28Thomastown_hurler%29 \"Tom Walsh (Thomastown hurler)\") to injury in the second half. In spite of this, Kilkenny laid to rest a bogey that Tipperary had over the team since 1922, and a 3–8 to 2–7 victory resulted in defeat for Roche's team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\\-five\\-tipperary\\-kilkenny\\-all\\-ireland\\-finals\\-.aspx \\|title\\=Famous Five: Tipperary\\-Kilkenny All Ireland finals \\|publisher\\=Eircom Sports website \\|date\\=3 September 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2013 \\|first\\=Shane \\|last\\=Stapleton \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022024612/http://eircomsports.eircom.net/News/news/gaa/famous\\-five\\-tipperary\\-kilkenny\\-all\\-ireland\\-finals\\-.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2013 }} Roche finished the year by winning a third Cú Chulainn Award.",
"Roche won a third National League medal in 1968 as New York were defeated on an aggregate score of 6–27 to 4–22\\. Tipperary retained their status as provincial kingpins once again and a 2–13 to 1–7 trouncing of Cork gave team captain Roche a fourth Munster medal. For the fourth time of the decade, Wexford were Tipperary's opponents in the subsequent All\\-Ireland final on 1 September 1968\\. At half\\-time it looked as if Tipperary were cruising to another victory as they took an eight\\-point lead. Just after the restart Wexford had a [Christy Jacob](/wiki/Christy_Jacob \"Christy Jacob\") goal disallowed before [Tony Doran](/wiki/Tony_Doran \"Tony Doran\") scored a goal after just six minutes. Tipperary fought back, however, it was too late as Wexford won by 5–8 to 3–12\\. In spite of this setback, Roche finished the year with a fourth Oireachtas Cup medal following a narrow 1\\-9 to 1\\-6 defeat of Cork.",
"In 1970 Roche won a fifth Oireachtas Cup medal following a 1\\-12 to 0\\-8 defeat of recently crowned All\\-Ireland champions Cork in the final.",
"By 1971 the great Tipperary team of the previous decade was in decline and beginning to break up. In spite of this Roche won a fifth Munster medal that year following a 4–16 to 3–18 defeat of [Limerick](/wiki/Limerick_GAA \"Limerick GAA\"). On 5 September 1971 Kilkenny faced Tipperary in the All\\-Ireland final, the first to be [broadcast in colour](/wiki/Colour_television \"Colour television\") by [Telefís Éireann](/wiki/RT%C3%89 \"RTÉ\") and the only eighty\\-minute meeting between the two sides. Kilkenny's ever\\-dependable goalkeeper, [Ollie Walsh](/wiki/Ollie_Walsh \"Ollie Walsh\"), had a nightmare of a game in which he conceded five goals, one of which passed through his legs, while that year's Hurler of the Year, [\"Babs\" Keating](/wiki/Michael_Keating_%28hurler%29 \"Michael Keating (hurler)\"), played out the closing stages of the game in his bare feet. Tipperary emerged the victors on a score line of 5–17 to 5–14\\. It was Roche's third All\\-Ireland medal.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/gaelic\\-games/hurling/reeling\\-back\\-the\\-headlines\\-some\\-of\\-jimmy\\-doyle\\-s\\-finest\\-moments\\-1\\.2259918\\|title\\=Reeling back the headlines: Some of Jimmy Doyle's finest moments\\|date\\=23 June 2015\\|publisher\\=Irish Times\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2015}} He finished the year by being included on the inaugural [All Stars](/wiki/GAA_All_Stars_Awards \"GAA All Stars Awards\") team.",
""
] |
Life
----
### Early years and education
Karl\-Heinz Gerstner was born in the [Charlottenburg](/wiki/Charlottenburg "Charlottenburg") quarter of [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"). His natural father was the diplomat [Karl Ritter](/wiki/Karl_Ritter_%28diplomat%29 "Karl Ritter (diplomat)") (1883\-1968\) who later became an ambassador. However, his legal father was actually his step\-father, [Paul Gerstner](/wiki/Paul_Gerstner "Paul Gerstner") (1880\-1945\), an academic who taught [Economics](/wiki/Economics "Economics") and hoped that his adopted son would grow up to become a [statutory auditor](/wiki/Statutory_auditor "Statutory auditor").{{cite web\|title\=Ein außergewöhnliches Journalistenleben\| url\=http://www.luise\-berlin.de/lesezei/blz99\_10/text25\.htm\|author\=Horst Wagner\|publisher\=Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein e.V., Berlin\|work\=book review of Karl\-Heinz Gerstner: Sachlich, kritisch, optimistisch: Eine sonntägliche Lebensbetrachtung. \|accessdate\=7 January 2018}} He attended the Kaiser\-Friedrich [Gymnasium (secondary school)](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 "Gymnasium (Germany)") in Berlin between 1917 and 1931\. In 1921 he became a member of the [Youth Association](/wiki/B%C3%BCndische_Jugend "Bündische Jugend") and [Path finder](/wiki/Pfadfinder "Pfadfinder") [scouting](/wiki/Scouting "Scouting") organisations, remaining a member of the latter till 1930\. At school, he later recalled, a love of the French language and culture was awakened in him. It was also during this period that he won a public speaking competition staged for Berlin school children by the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."). His prize was six months abroad during 1928, as a pupil at the [Tabor Academy](/wiki/Tabor_Academy_%28Massachusetts%29 "Tabor Academy (Massachusetts)"), a prestigious private school in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts").
Renewed economic austerity following the [Wall Street Crash](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 "Wall Street Crash of 1929") triggered a period of accelerating political polarisation in [Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany "Weimar Germany"), and Gerstner chose the extreme left, in 1931 joining the ["German Youth of 1 November 1929"](/wiki/Deutsche_Jungenschaft_vom_1.11.1929 "Deutsche Jungenschaft vom 1.11.1929") scouting group, which tended to take its lead from the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany"). He remained a member till 1932\. Fellow members whom he came across at this time included [Friedrich Wolf](/wiki/Friedrich_Wolf_%28writer%29 "Friedrich Wolf (writer)"), [Harro Schulze\-Boysen](/wiki/Harro_Schulze-Boysen "Harro Schulze-Boysen"), [Heinrich, Count von Einsiedel](/wiki/Heinrich_Graf_von_Einsiedel "Heinrich Graf von Einsiedel") and the group's founder, [Eberhard Koebel](/wiki/Eberhard_Koebel "Eberhard Koebel"). Between 1931 and 1935 Gerstner studied [Jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence "Jurisprudence") at Berlin's [Frederick\-William University (as the Humboldt was then known)](/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin "Humboldt University of Berlin"). As a student he funded his living costs by working part\-time at the foreign\-exchange desk of the [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank "Deutsche Bank"). Towards the end of 1932 he began to take part in evening tutorials held by [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger "Kurt Georg Kiesinger").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.zeit.de/1999/40/Ein\_linientreuer\_Dissident/komplettansicht\|title\=Ein linientreuer Dissident\|work\=Der DDR\-Journalist Karl\-Heinz Gerstner erzählt sein Leben\|author\=Bernd C Hesslein\|publisher\=\[\[Die Zeit]] (online)\|date\=30 September 1999\|volume\=40/1999\|accessdate\=7 January 2018}}
In 1931 he joined the socialist "Red students group". On 1 May 1933 he joined the [Nazi party](/wiki/Nazi_party "Nazi party"): he was member number 2,673,178\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article13922056/Zwei\-Nazi\-Jaeger\-mit\-unterschiedlichen\-Blickrichtungen.html\|title\=Zwei Nazi\-Jäger mit unterschiedlichen Blickrichtungen .... Kappelt kennt zahlreiche "Einzelfälle"\|work\=Beate Klarsfeld und Olaf Kappelt forschten beide nach den braunen Altlasten in Deutschland. Sie wurde von der Stasi unterstützt, er von der Stasi bekämpft. \|author1\=Sven Felix Kellerhoff\|author2\=Uwe Müller\|publisher\=WeltN24 GmbH, Berlin \| date\= 14 March 2012\|accessdate\=7 January 2018}} Party membership had surged since January 1933 when the Nazis [took power](/wiki/Machtergreifung "Machtergreifung") and lost no time in [transforming](/wiki/Gleichschaltung "Gleichschaltung") Germany into a [one\-party](/wiki/One-party_state "One-party state") [dictatorship](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 "Enabling Act of 1933"). Nevertheless, in his autobiography published in 1999 Gerstner evidently identified an inconsistency which could not go unremarked. He had taken the step, he wrote, only "out of hatred against Hitler ... in order \[to do] something against the Nazis" (*nur aus "Hass gegen Hitler ...um etwas gegen die Nazis" zu tun*). With half an eye on Gerstner's subsequent career as a German diplomat, there were commentators who found the explanation less than persuasive.
It was on the recommendation of the head of the legal department at [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank "Deutsche Bank") that Gerstner wrote his doctoral dissertation on aspects of the modalities of interbank payments ("Treugiroverkehr"). He received his doctorate of laws from the [University of Erlangen](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg "University of Erlangen-Nuremberg") in 1937\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ddr\-lexikon.de/Karl\-Heinz\_Gerstner\|title\=Karl\-Heinz Gerstner, Journalist geboren: 15\. November 1912 in Berlin\-Charlottenburg \|publisher\=iportale GmbH, Riemerling\|accessdate\=7 January 2018}}
### Nazi Germany
Gerstner passed his [Level 1 national law exams](/wiki/Juristenausbildung_in_Deutschland%23Erste_juristische_Pr%C3%BCfung "Juristenausbildung in Deutschland#Erste juristische Prüfung") in 1935 and embarked on the next stage of the legal traineeship (*"[Rechtsreferendariat](/wiki/Rechtsreferendariat "Rechtsreferendariat")"*), starting with six months at the district court in [Rheinsberg](/wiki/Rheinsberg "Rheinsberg"). That was followed by a six month period working at a solicitors' office in Berlin that specialised in cases that involved economics, where (despite the growing prevalence of state mandated [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism") since [1933](/wiki/Machtergreifung "Machtergreifung")) two of the senior lawyers were of Jewish provenance. For the next three years, between 1936 and 1939, he worked in Paris and the German foreign trade mission. This appears to have counted, at least initially, as part of his *"[Rechtsreferendariat](/wiki/Rechtsreferendariat "Rechtsreferendariat")"* (legal traineeship). Gerstner was marked out for advancement soon after his arrival at Paris trade mission, partly on account of his excellent mastery of [the language](/wiki/French_language "French language"): the fact that during this time [his father](/wiki/Karl_Ritter_%28diplomat%29 "Karl Ritter (diplomat)") became the German ambassador to Brazil may also have counted in Gerstner's favour with German diplomatic staff in Paris. After a few weeks he was offered a permanent position at the newly expanded trade mission, and his status as an "articled law clerk" was apparently suspended or overlooked. In August 1939 all the trade mission staff in Paris were returned to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") where Gerstner pursued his legal traineeship, employed as a ["Gerichtsassessor" (*loosely: "trainee judge"*)](/wiki/Gerichtsassessor "Gerichtsassessor").{{cite book\|author\=Michael Kubina\|title\=Von Utopie, Widerstand und kaltem Krieg: das unzeitgemäße Leben des Berliner Rätekommunisten Alfred Weiland (1906\-1978\)\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hw4N9kkAIXQC\&pg\=PA177\| year\=2001\| publisher\=LIT Verlag Münster\| isbn\=978\-3\-8258\-5361\-7\| pages\=176–179}} Gerstner stayed in Germany for around six months. During this time he met [Sibylle Boden](/wiki/Sibylle_Boden-Gerstner "Sibylle Boden-Gerstner") at a ski resort in the [Riesengebirge (literally *"Giant Mountains"*)](/wiki/Krkono%C5%A1e "Krkonoše") in southern Silesia. Boden, who later became a highly successful fashion designer, noticed the excellent quality of the suit he was wearing. Evidently there were other mutual attractions, since the two of them would quickly become a couple: in 1945 they married.{{cite web\| date\=3 August 2013\|title\=Sibylle Gerstner: Ein Leben erzählen\|url\=http://fraeulein\-magazine.eu/fashion/sibylle\-gerstner\-ein\-leben\-erzahlen/\|author\=Ruben Donsbach\|work\=Fräulein Magazin\| publisher\=Off One's Rocker Publishing Ltd, Berlin\|accessdate\=8 January 2018}}
In February 1940 Gerstner finally completed his legal training, apparently passing the necessary exams. The simultaneous [Invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), launched in September 1939, had triggered the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), and shortly after passing his law exams he received call\-up papers requiring him to join the [army](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht"). However, in the end Gerstner was spared from military service as a result of injuries caused by childhood [polio](/wiki/Polio "Polio"). At the same time the Foreign Ministry offered him a job based on his mastery of the French language, and in April 1940 he started work as a translator in the ministry's radio department. His core responsibilities involved translating "propaganda texts" into French. There is reason to think that even at this stage he was not beyond applying a little ad hoc diplomacy, where appropriate. Working in the broadcasting department of [Ribbentrop's](/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop "Joachim von Ribbentrop") [Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Ausw%C3%A4rtiges_Amt%23Angeh%C3%B6riger_des_Ausw%C3%A4rtigen_Amtes "Auswärtiges Amt#Angehöriger des Auswärtigen Amtes") placed him at the heart of a potentially serious "turf war" with the [Propaganda Ministry](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda "Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda") under [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels"). Ribbentrop believed that broadcasting propaganda to foreigners was a matter for the Foreign Ministry. Shortly after he joined the department Gerstner was asked by his head of department, [Gerhard Rühle](/wiki/Gerhard_R%C3%BChle "Gerhard Rühle"), if he could think of anyone with sufficient natural authority to defend the ministry in any possible future conflict with [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels"). Gerstner thought of, and recommended, his old law tutor, [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger "Kurt Georg Kiesinger"). Kiesinger had, by this time, already received his call\-up papers, requiring him to join the army. However, on 5 April 1940 he was offered and accepted a top job with the increasingly important broadcasting department at the [Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_%28Germany%29 "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)"). It was essential work which cancelled out the requirement to join the army. In this way, Gerstner played a key role in keeping a future [West German Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%281949%E2%80%93%29 "Chancellor of Germany (1949–)") away from Nazi Germany's wartime frontline.{{cite book\|author\=\[\[:de:Philipp Gassert\|Philipp Gassert]]\|title\= Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904–1988\. Kanzler zwischen den Zeiten.\| publisher\=DVA, München \|date\= 2006 \|isbn\=3\-421\-05824\-5\| page\=105}}
### Wartime in Paris
The foreign ministry radio department effectively introduced Karl\-Heinz Gerstner to the world of wartime news journalism. Because of his subsequent career as a well\-regarded journalist in [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") Karl\-Heinz Gerstner had many more opportunities than most people retrospectively to present his wartime career selectively: there have been suggestions that his enthusiastic pro\-government pronouncements, which many sources play down, would have figured more prominently in the record of his wartime career if the war itself had ended differently. Certainly Gerstner's actions in support of the French resistance agenda became anything but covert in 1946, and some, at least, of the more pressing evidence supporting it appears to sourced, directly or indirectly, from his own writings.
France [was invaded](/wiki/Battle_for_France "Battle for France") in May/June 1940\. The military phase of the operation was completed much more rapidly than French military planners had expected, and in July 1940 Karl\-Heinz was sent back to [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") as an "Academic support assistant in the Economy Department" at the German embassy in Paris. In his own later autobiographical contributions he indicated that this was more a continuation of his previous role than might appear from the job title: he was also keen to stress the difference between members of the permanent diplomatic corps hierarchy and those, such as himself, seconded to the embassy from outside the "civil service" talent pool. In some ways this allowed him a flexibility in interpreting and defining his role which would not have been available to a career diplomat.{{cite book \|author\=Karl\-Heinz Gerstner \|title\=Sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch. Eine sonntägliche Lebensbetrachtung. \|publisher\=Edition Ost, Berlin \|date\=1999 \|isbn\= 3\-932180\-78\-X\| pages\=121, 124, 183, 225–231}} Reports indicate that his superiors found him to be highly competent, with a useful personal charm and excellent contacts to the local business community that enabled him to provide exceptionally reliable reports. There is an assessment from a relatively unsympathetic commentator that for many practical purposes he quickly came to replace Hans Kuntze, his somewhat "laid\-back" head of department.
Gerstner remained in Paris till May 1944\. (The city was [liberated](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris "Liberation of Paris") from German occupation a couple of months later.) He was able to support the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance "French Resistance") by secretly passing on information and, especially before [1943](/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II "German military administration in occupied France during World War II"), by providing travel permits for the [unoccupied southern part](/wiki/Zone_libre "Zone libre") of France, thereby rescuing numerous Jewish families facing the threat of deportation to death camps in Germany. During the second half of 1944 and then till the [war](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") ended in May 1945 Gerstner was back in Berlin employed, at least officially, at the Foreign Ministry, in the "Special office for news procurement" (*"Sonderreferat für Nachrichtenbeschaffung"*). It has been suggested \- perhaps uncharitably \- that this gave him an opportunity to hone a peculiar talent for charming people into providing information that he could then pass on for pecuniary gain, which after 1975 would by of significant value to the [East Germany Ministry for Security (Stasi)](/wiki/Stasi "Stasi"). Other sources refer to his having undertaken "illegal political work" \- implicitly on behalf of the still illegal [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") \- in the Berlin quarter of [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf "Wilmersdorf") where he had ended up. Fellow antifascists with whom he operated included Leo Dyck, Herbert Eppinger, and [Gerhard Fuchs](/wiki/Gerhard_Fuchs_%28Journalist%29 "Gerhard Fuchs (Journalist)").
### Soviet occupation zone
By the time the war ended the [victorious powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") had agreed upon the division of the western two\-thirds of post\-war Germany into four military occupation zones. Arrangements would, however, be confirmed at the [Potsdam Conference](/wiki/Potsdam_Conference "Potsdam Conference") in July/August 1945\. Berlin itself was to be separately treated, surrounded by the [Soviet occupation zone](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone "Soviet occupation zone") and itself administered as four separate military zones (or "sectors"). On 2 May 1945, a few days before the formal end of the war, the local Soviet commander appointed Karl\-Heinz Gerstner to serve as "second deputy mayor" in [Berlin\-Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf "Wilmersdorf"). However, it had already been agreed that Wilmersdorf would be administered as part of the British sector, and in July the [Red army](/wiki/Red_army "Red army") troops withdrew to the pre\-agreed frontiers, leaving the British to take control in this part of Berlin. British military police arrested Gerstner on 24 July 1945, reasoning that since he had worked at the German embassy in Paris he must have been a senior Nazi official. They handed him over to the [Soviet sector](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany "Soviet Military Administration in Germany") to be detained pending further decisions. He was now taken to in the underground [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") prisoner of war holding centre in what had previously been the cellar for keeping the bodies of dead animals cool at the former Veterinary Medicine Institute in central Berlin.Peter Erler: "GPU\-Keller". Arrestlokale und Untersuchungsgefängnisse sowjetischer Geheimdienste in Berlin (1945–1949\). Bund der Stalinistisch Verfolgten, Landesverband Berlin, Berlin 2005, pp. 54\-55\. On 21 September 1945 he was moved to "more appropriate" accommodation in [Special Internment Camp 3](/wiki/Berlin-Hohensch%C3%B6nhausen_Memorial "Berlin-Hohenschönhausen Memorial") at Berlin\-Hohenschönhausen. Now, however, [Sibylle Boden\-Gerstner](/wiki/Sibylle_Boden-Gerstner "Sibylle Boden-Gerstner") (as she had become) was able to deliver to the Soviet district commander 23 written statements from friends and former [Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance "French Resistance") activists whom Karl\-Heinz and Sibylle had known during their time in Paris.
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.berliner\-zeitung.de/ein\-besonderer\-leserbrief\-\-karl\-heinz\-gerstners\-antwort\-auf\-die\-kritik\-an\-seiner\-lebenserinnerung\-durch\-goetz\-aly\-\-weder\-ein\-held\-\-noch\-ein\-feigling\-\-16781278\|work\=Ein besonderer Leserbrief: Karl\-Heinz Gerstners Antwort auf die Kritik an seiner Lebenserinnerung durch Götz Aly\|title\="Weder ein Held, noch ein Feigling"\|publisher\=\[\[Berliner Zeitung]]\|author\=Karl\-Heinz Gerstner\|date\=11 March 2000\|accessdate\=8 January 2018}}{{Dead link\|date\=November 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The statements demonstrated that Gerstner (unlike most of the staff at the Paris embassy) had never been a convinced Nazi, and they included several sworn statements attesting ways in which he had helped Resistance members during the war. The Soviets were convinced, and Gerstner was released from detention on 21 January 1946\. Gerstner later claimed that while he was held in Soviet detention he had succeeded in communicating with his wife using [Kassiber](/wiki/Kassiber "Kassiber") code. It had taken his wife six months to organise the written statements, and she had entered a closed military zone in the city "under fire" from a Soviet sentry in order to hand over the papers. In his memoire Gernstner concluded the chapter in question, "I owe her my life". There was no resentment on Gerstner's part over his seven months of incarceration: his return to freedom was accompanied by "complete understanding for the Soviets who persecuted the fascists" (*"mit vollem Verständnis für die Sovjets, die die Fascisten verfolgten"*), according to information in the [Stasi records](/wiki/Stasi_Records_Agency "Stasi Records Agency") that became available after [1990](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification").
One thing which Gerstner's memoires conspicuously fail to mention, but which became clear when investigators reviewed the relevant files in the [Stasi archives](/wiki/Stasi_Records_Agency "Stasi Records Agency") after [reunification](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification"), is that by the time he was released by the Soviets in January 1946 he had already been signed up by Soviet intelligence as an "agent". He also submitted an application to join the newly reinstated [German Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany"). The application appears to have been rejected on account of his Nazi Party membership during the Hitler years, however.
As early as July 1946 the occupying powers permitted Gerstner to visit [France](/wiki/France "France") in order to say "farewell" to people whom he had last known under wartime conditions (and possibly also to thank in person some of those whose written testimonies had contributed to his release from detention six months earlier). In Autumn 1946 he was recruited into the "National German administration for inter\-zonal and foreign trade" (*"Deutsche Zentralverwaltung für Interzonen\- und Außenhandel"*) which the Soviets were setting up. Meanwhile the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") had disappeared, subsumed, along with the [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") (if only, effectively, in the [Soviet zone](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany "Soviet Military Administration in Germany")) into the new [Socialist Unity Party (*"Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands"* / SED)](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany"), as the result of a [contentious political merger](/wiki/Merger_of_the_KPD_and_SPD_into_the_Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Merger of the KPD and SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany") implemented in April 1946 and intended, it was said, to unite the political left as a bulwark against a return of [fascism](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party"). Intriguingly, the personnel department of the SED attempted (without success) to block Gerstner's recruitment into the Soviet\-sponsored "trade administration". They cited strong doubts over Gerstner's assertion that he had joined the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party") back in 1933 only because he had been mandated to do so by a communist student organisation, and they speculated over a possible "connection" to the Soviet security services.
Although the political differences implicit in the military and administrative division of Berlin since 1945 would, after 1949, be replicated by increasingly stark social, economic and eventually physical barriers, during the late 1940s Berliners could pass freely between "sectors", often with little reason to know where the frontiers were. [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf "Wilmersdorf"), where Gerstner continued to live after the Soviets released him, was in the British sector. However, many in his social circle were living in the US sector where he would visit and engage in discussions with politically like\-minded friends including [Iwan Katz](/wiki/Iwan_Katz "Iwan Katz") and [Hans Oliva\-Hagen](/wiki/Hans_Oliva-Hagen "Hans Oliva-Hagen"). The larger\-than\-life polemicist [Wolfgang Leonhard](/wiki/Wolfgang_Leonhard "Wolfgang Leonhard") was another friend. In Wilmersdorf Gerstner built up another political discussion circle: participants included [Rainer Hildebrandt](/wiki/Rainer_Hildebrandt "Rainer Hildebrandt"), [Günter Neumann](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Neumann_%28singer%29 "Günter Neumann (singer)") and [Fritz Teppich](/wiki/Fritz_Teppich "Fritz Teppich").
### German Democratic Republic
In December 1948 Gerstner embarked on a career as an economic journalist, his contributions appearing in the [Berliner Zeitung](/wiki/Berliner_Zeitung "Berliner Zeitung"). He would work for the publication for more than forty years. It was at the request of the newspaper's management that in 1949 he moved house, relocating to what was becoming known as [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin"). In October 1949 the entire [Soviet occupation zone](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone "Soviet occupation zone") was rebranded and relaunched as the [Soviet sponsored](/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany "Group of Soviet Forces in Germany") [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic "German Democratic Republic"), a new kind of German [one\-](/wiki/One-party_state "One-party state")[party](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") [dictatorship](/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany "Constitution of East Germany"). He moved again in 1952/53, settling with his wife and their two daughters in [Kleinmachnow](/wiki/Kleinmachnow "Kleinmachnow"), a suburb on the southside of [the city](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin").{{cite book\|author\=Lutz Hagestedt\|title\=Dahn, Daniela \|work\=Deutsches Literatur\-Lexikon. Das 20\. Jahrhundert .... Butenschön \- Dedo\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NmR\_GZTZOecC\&pg\=PA2140\|volume\=5\| year\=2003\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\| isbn\=978\-3\-11\-096111\-9\|page\=2140}}
According to one source, it was only after nine rejected attempts that in 1957 Gerstner's application for [party](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") membership was accepted. His career, meanwhile, was progressing well. In 1955 he started making weekly contributions as a commentator to a programme of economic analysis, transmitted each Sunday on [DDR1](/wiki/Radio_DDR_1 "Radio DDR 1"), a national radio channel in East Germany. He continued to give these radio talks till 1988, concluding each week with the words "sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch wie immer" (*loosely "as ever, factual, critical and optimistic"*), a motto the first part of which he would later re\-activate as the title for his 1999 autobiography. This was the only regular programme dealing expressly with economics in the schedules.{{cite web\|title\=Wirtschaftssendungen für die DDR .... Fazit: Für die Wirtschaftspropaganda das Gütezeichen "Q"?\|work\=Weil der Aufbau einer sozialistischen Wirtschaft sich schwierig gestaltete, überlegte die SED zusammen mit dem DDR\-Hörfunk, wie das sozialistische Wirtschaftsleben der DDR\-Bevölkerung vermittelt werden könne. Die neuen Rundfunkformate sollten auch Unterhaltung bieten. Zur Finanzierung schreckte man selbst vor westlicher Werbung nicht zurück. \|date\=7 March 2011\|author\= Christian Könne\|url\=http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/zeitgeschichte/deutschlandarchiv/54048/wirtschaftssendungen\-fuer\-die\-ddr?p\=all\| publisher\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Bonn\|accessdate\=9 January 2018}} Between 1965 and 1978 he appeared regularly on "Prisma", a long\-running [DFF](/wiki/Deutscher_Fernsehfunk "Deutscher Fernsehfunk") television programme for which he was employed as the economic commentator, also including in his presentations some political aspects of topics covered and, on occasion hints of political criticism in his analyses. Gerstner became a favourite with viewers, on several occasions topping popularity polls for television personalities.{{cite web\|title\=Sachlich, kritisch ... Zum Tod des Journalisten K.\-H. Gerstner\|author\=Hanno Harnisch\|date\= 16 February 2005 \|publisher\=\[\[Neues Deutschland]], Berlin\|url\=https://www.neues\-deutschland.de/artikel/82721\.sachlich\-kritisch.html\|accessdate\=9 January 2018}} He could be \- and sometimes was \- described as something of an institution in the German Democratic Republic.
### Final years
Karl\-Heinz Gerstner retired in May 1989\. His autobiography appeared ten years later, with the title "Sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch". He died at [Kleinmachnow](/wiki/Kleinmachnow "Kleinmachnow") a couple of weeks after his ninety\-third birthday.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Early years and education",
"Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner was born in the [Charlottenburg](/wiki/Charlottenburg \"Charlottenburg\") quarter of [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). His natural father was the diplomat [Karl Ritter](/wiki/Karl_Ritter_%28diplomat%29 \"Karl Ritter (diplomat)\") (1883\\-1968\\) who later became an ambassador. However, his legal father was actually his step\\-father, [Paul Gerstner](/wiki/Paul_Gerstner \"Paul Gerstner\") (1880\\-1945\\), an academic who taught [Economics](/wiki/Economics \"Economics\") and hoped that his adopted son would grow up to become a [statutory auditor](/wiki/Statutory_auditor \"Statutory auditor\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Ein außergewöhnliches Journalistenleben\\| url\\=http://www.luise\\-berlin.de/lesezei/blz99\\_10/text25\\.htm\\|author\\=Horst Wagner\\|publisher\\=Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein e.V., Berlin\\|work\\=book review of Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner: Sachlich, kritisch, optimistisch: Eine sonntägliche Lebensbetrachtung. \\|accessdate\\=7 January 2018}} He attended the Kaiser\\-Friedrich [Gymnasium (secondary school)](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 \"Gymnasium (Germany)\") in Berlin between 1917 and 1931\\. In 1921 he became a member of the [Youth Association](/wiki/B%C3%BCndische_Jugend \"Bündische Jugend\") and [Path finder](/wiki/Pfadfinder \"Pfadfinder\") [scouting](/wiki/Scouting \"Scouting\") organisations, remaining a member of the latter till 1930\\. At school, he later recalled, a love of the French language and culture was awakened in him. It was also during this period that he won a public speaking competition staged for Berlin school children by the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"). His prize was six months abroad during 1928, as a pupil at the [Tabor Academy](/wiki/Tabor_Academy_%28Massachusetts%29 \"Tabor Academy (Massachusetts)\"), a prestigious private school in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\").",
"Renewed economic austerity following the [Wall Street Crash](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 \"Wall Street Crash of 1929\") triggered a period of accelerating political polarisation in [Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany \"Weimar Germany\"), and Gerstner chose the extreme left, in 1931 joining the [\"German Youth of 1 November 1929\"](/wiki/Deutsche_Jungenschaft_vom_1.11.1929 \"Deutsche Jungenschaft vom 1.11.1929\") scouting group, which tended to take its lead from the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\"). He remained a member till 1932\\. Fellow members whom he came across at this time included [Friedrich Wolf](/wiki/Friedrich_Wolf_%28writer%29 \"Friedrich Wolf (writer)\"), [Harro Schulze\\-Boysen](/wiki/Harro_Schulze-Boysen \"Harro Schulze-Boysen\"), [Heinrich, Count von Einsiedel](/wiki/Heinrich_Graf_von_Einsiedel \"Heinrich Graf von Einsiedel\") and the group's founder, [Eberhard Koebel](/wiki/Eberhard_Koebel \"Eberhard Koebel\"). Between 1931 and 1935 Gerstner studied [Jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence \"Jurisprudence\") at Berlin's [Frederick\\-William University (as the Humboldt was then known)](/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin \"Humboldt University of Berlin\"). As a student he funded his living costs by working part\\-time at the foreign\\-exchange desk of the [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank \"Deutsche Bank\"). Towards the end of 1932 he began to take part in evening tutorials held by [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger \"Kurt Georg Kiesinger\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.zeit.de/1999/40/Ein\\_linientreuer\\_Dissident/komplettansicht\\|title\\=Ein linientreuer Dissident\\|work\\=Der DDR\\-Journalist Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner erzählt sein Leben\\|author\\=Bernd C Hesslein\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Die Zeit]] (online)\\|date\\=30 September 1999\\|volume\\=40/1999\\|accessdate\\=7 January 2018}}",
"In 1931 he joined the socialist \"Red students group\". On 1 May 1933 he joined the [Nazi party](/wiki/Nazi_party \"Nazi party\"): he was member number 2,673,178\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article13922056/Zwei\\-Nazi\\-Jaeger\\-mit\\-unterschiedlichen\\-Blickrichtungen.html\\|title\\=Zwei Nazi\\-Jäger mit unterschiedlichen Blickrichtungen .... Kappelt kennt zahlreiche \"Einzelfälle\"\\|work\\=Beate Klarsfeld und Olaf Kappelt forschten beide nach den braunen Altlasten in Deutschland. Sie wurde von der Stasi unterstützt, er von der Stasi bekämpft. \\|author1\\=Sven Felix Kellerhoff\\|author2\\=Uwe Müller\\|publisher\\=WeltN24 GmbH, Berlin \\| date\\= 14 March 2012\\|accessdate\\=7 January 2018}} Party membership had surged since January 1933 when the Nazis [took power](/wiki/Machtergreifung \"Machtergreifung\") and lost no time in [transforming](/wiki/Gleichschaltung \"Gleichschaltung\") Germany into a [one\\-party](/wiki/One-party_state \"One-party state\") [dictatorship](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 \"Enabling Act of 1933\"). Nevertheless, in his autobiography published in 1999 Gerstner evidently identified an inconsistency which could not go unremarked. He had taken the step, he wrote, only \"out of hatred against Hitler ... in order \\[to do] something against the Nazis\" (*nur aus \"Hass gegen Hitler ...um etwas gegen die Nazis\" zu tun*). With half an eye on Gerstner's subsequent career as a German diplomat, there were commentators who found the explanation less than persuasive.",
"It was on the recommendation of the head of the legal department at [Deutsche Bank](/wiki/Deutsche_Bank \"Deutsche Bank\") that Gerstner wrote his doctoral dissertation on aspects of the modalities of interbank payments (\"Treugiroverkehr\"). He received his doctorate of laws from the [University of Erlangen](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg \"University of Erlangen-Nuremberg\") in 1937\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ddr\\-lexikon.de/Karl\\-Heinz\\_Gerstner\\|title\\=Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner, Journalist geboren: 15\\. November 1912 in Berlin\\-Charlottenburg \\|publisher\\=iportale GmbH, Riemerling\\|accessdate\\=7 January 2018}}",
"### Nazi Germany",
"Gerstner passed his [Level 1 national law exams](/wiki/Juristenausbildung_in_Deutschland%23Erste_juristische_Pr%C3%BCfung \"Juristenausbildung in Deutschland#Erste juristische Prüfung\") in 1935 and embarked on the next stage of the legal traineeship (*\"[Rechtsreferendariat](/wiki/Rechtsreferendariat \"Rechtsreferendariat\")\"*), starting with six months at the district court in [Rheinsberg](/wiki/Rheinsberg \"Rheinsberg\"). That was followed by a six month period working at a solicitors' office in Berlin that specialised in cases that involved economics, where (despite the growing prevalence of state mandated [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\") since [1933](/wiki/Machtergreifung \"Machtergreifung\")) two of the senior lawyers were of Jewish provenance. For the next three years, between 1936 and 1939, he worked in Paris and the German foreign trade mission. This appears to have counted, at least initially, as part of his *\"[Rechtsreferendariat](/wiki/Rechtsreferendariat \"Rechtsreferendariat\")\"* (legal traineeship). Gerstner was marked out for advancement soon after his arrival at Paris trade mission, partly on account of his excellent mastery of [the language](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"): the fact that during this time [his father](/wiki/Karl_Ritter_%28diplomat%29 \"Karl Ritter (diplomat)\") became the German ambassador to Brazil may also have counted in Gerstner's favour with German diplomatic staff in Paris. After a few weeks he was offered a permanent position at the newly expanded trade mission, and his status as an \"articled law clerk\" was apparently suspended or overlooked. In August 1939 all the trade mission staff in Paris were returned to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") where Gerstner pursued his legal traineeship, employed as a [\"Gerichtsassessor\" (*loosely: \"trainee judge\"*)](/wiki/Gerichtsassessor \"Gerichtsassessor\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Michael Kubina\\|title\\=Von Utopie, Widerstand und kaltem Krieg: das unzeitgemäße Leben des Berliner Rätekommunisten Alfred Weiland (1906\\-1978\\)\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hw4N9kkAIXQC\\&pg\\=PA177\\| year\\=2001\\| publisher\\=LIT Verlag Münster\\| isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8258\\-5361\\-7\\| pages\\=176–179}} Gerstner stayed in Germany for around six months. During this time he met [Sibylle Boden](/wiki/Sibylle_Boden-Gerstner \"Sibylle Boden-Gerstner\") at a ski resort in the [Riesengebirge (literally *\"Giant Mountains\"*)](/wiki/Krkono%C5%A1e \"Krkonoše\") in southern Silesia. Boden, who later became a highly successful fashion designer, noticed the excellent quality of the suit he was wearing. Evidently there were other mutual attractions, since the two of them would quickly become a couple: in 1945 they married.{{cite web\\| date\\=3 August 2013\\|title\\=Sibylle Gerstner: Ein Leben erzählen\\|url\\=http://fraeulein\\-magazine.eu/fashion/sibylle\\-gerstner\\-ein\\-leben\\-erzahlen/\\|author\\=Ruben Donsbach\\|work\\=Fräulein Magazin\\| publisher\\=Off One's Rocker Publishing Ltd, Berlin\\|accessdate\\=8 January 2018}}",
"In February 1940 Gerstner finally completed his legal training, apparently passing the necessary exams. The simultaneous [Invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), launched in September 1939, had triggered the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), and shortly after passing his law exams he received call\\-up papers requiring him to join the [army](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\"). However, in the end Gerstner was spared from military service as a result of injuries caused by childhood [polio](/wiki/Polio \"Polio\"). At the same time the Foreign Ministry offered him a job based on his mastery of the French language, and in April 1940 he started work as a translator in the ministry's radio department. His core responsibilities involved translating \"propaganda texts\" into French. There is reason to think that even at this stage he was not beyond applying a little ad hoc diplomacy, where appropriate. Working in the broadcasting department of [Ribbentrop's](/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop \"Joachim von Ribbentrop\") [Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Ausw%C3%A4rtiges_Amt%23Angeh%C3%B6riger_des_Ausw%C3%A4rtigen_Amtes \"Auswärtiges Amt#Angehöriger des Auswärtigen Amtes\") placed him at the heart of a potentially serious \"turf war\" with the [Propaganda Ministry](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda \"Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda\") under [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\"). Ribbentrop believed that broadcasting propaganda to foreigners was a matter for the Foreign Ministry. Shortly after he joined the department Gerstner was asked by his head of department, [Gerhard Rühle](/wiki/Gerhard_R%C3%BChle \"Gerhard Rühle\"), if he could think of anyone with sufficient natural authority to defend the ministry in any possible future conflict with [Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\"). Gerstner thought of, and recommended, his old law tutor, [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger \"Kurt Georg Kiesinger\"). Kiesinger had, by this time, already received his call\\-up papers, requiring him to join the army. However, on 5 April 1940 he was offered and accepted a top job with the increasingly important broadcasting department at the [Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_%28Germany%29 \"Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)\"). It was essential work which cancelled out the requirement to join the army. In this way, Gerstner played a key role in keeping a future [West German Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%281949%E2%80%93%29 \"Chancellor of Germany (1949–)\") away from Nazi Germany's wartime frontline.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[:de:Philipp Gassert\\|Philipp Gassert]]\\|title\\= Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904–1988\\. Kanzler zwischen den Zeiten.\\| publisher\\=DVA, München \\|date\\= 2006 \\|isbn\\=3\\-421\\-05824\\-5\\| page\\=105}}",
"### Wartime in Paris",
"The foreign ministry radio department effectively introduced Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner to the world of wartime news journalism. Because of his subsequent career as a well\\-regarded journalist in [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner had many more opportunities than most people retrospectively to present his wartime career selectively: there have been suggestions that his enthusiastic pro\\-government pronouncements, which many sources play down, would have figured more prominently in the record of his wartime career if the war itself had ended differently. Certainly Gerstner's actions in support of the French resistance agenda became anything but covert in 1946, and some, at least, of the more pressing evidence supporting it appears to sourced, directly or indirectly, from his own writings.",
"France [was invaded](/wiki/Battle_for_France \"Battle for France\") in May/June 1940\\. The military phase of the operation was completed much more rapidly than French military planners had expected, and in July 1940 Karl\\-Heinz was sent back to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") as an \"Academic support assistant in the Economy Department\" at the German embassy in Paris. In his own later autobiographical contributions he indicated that this was more a continuation of his previous role than might appear from the job title: he was also keen to stress the difference between members of the permanent diplomatic corps hierarchy and those, such as himself, seconded to the embassy from outside the \"civil service\" talent pool. In some ways this allowed him a flexibility in interpreting and defining his role which would not have been available to a career diplomat.{{cite book \\|author\\=Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner \\|title\\=Sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch. Eine sonntägliche Lebensbetrachtung. \\|publisher\\=Edition Ost, Berlin \\|date\\=1999 \\|isbn\\= 3\\-932180\\-78\\-X\\| pages\\=121, 124, 183, 225–231}} Reports indicate that his superiors found him to be highly competent, with a useful personal charm and excellent contacts to the local business community that enabled him to provide exceptionally reliable reports. There is an assessment from a relatively unsympathetic commentator that for many practical purposes he quickly came to replace Hans Kuntze, his somewhat \"laid\\-back\" head of department.",
"Gerstner remained in Paris till May 1944\\. (The city was [liberated](/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris \"Liberation of Paris\") from German occupation a couple of months later.) He was able to support the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance \"French Resistance\") by secretly passing on information and, especially before [1943](/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II \"German military administration in occupied France during World War II\"), by providing travel permits for the [unoccupied southern part](/wiki/Zone_libre \"Zone libre\") of France, thereby rescuing numerous Jewish families facing the threat of deportation to death camps in Germany. During the second half of 1944 and then till the [war](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") ended in May 1945 Gerstner was back in Berlin employed, at least officially, at the Foreign Ministry, in the \"Special office for news procurement\" (*\"Sonderreferat für Nachrichtenbeschaffung\"*). It has been suggested \\- perhaps uncharitably \\- that this gave him an opportunity to hone a peculiar talent for charming people into providing information that he could then pass on for pecuniary gain, which after 1975 would by of significant value to the [East Germany Ministry for Security (Stasi)](/wiki/Stasi \"Stasi\"). Other sources refer to his having undertaken \"illegal political work\" \\- implicitly on behalf of the still illegal [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") \\- in the Berlin quarter of [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf \"Wilmersdorf\") where he had ended up. Fellow antifascists with whom he operated included Leo Dyck, Herbert Eppinger, and [Gerhard Fuchs](/wiki/Gerhard_Fuchs_%28Journalist%29 \"Gerhard Fuchs (Journalist)\").",
"### Soviet occupation zone",
"By the time the war ended the [victorious powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") had agreed upon the division of the western two\\-thirds of post\\-war Germany into four military occupation zones. Arrangements would, however, be confirmed at the [Potsdam Conference](/wiki/Potsdam_Conference \"Potsdam Conference\") in July/August 1945\\. Berlin itself was to be separately treated, surrounded by the [Soviet occupation zone](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone \"Soviet occupation zone\") and itself administered as four separate military zones (or \"sectors\"). On 2 May 1945, a few days before the formal end of the war, the local Soviet commander appointed Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner to serve as \"second deputy mayor\" in [Berlin\\-Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf \"Wilmersdorf\"). However, it had already been agreed that Wilmersdorf would be administered as part of the British sector, and in July the [Red army](/wiki/Red_army \"Red army\") troops withdrew to the pre\\-agreed frontiers, leaving the British to take control in this part of Berlin. British military police arrested Gerstner on 24 July 1945, reasoning that since he had worked at the German embassy in Paris he must have been a senior Nazi official. They handed him over to the [Soviet sector](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany \"Soviet Military Administration in Germany\") to be detained pending further decisions. He was now taken to in the underground [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") prisoner of war holding centre in what had previously been the cellar for keeping the bodies of dead animals cool at the former Veterinary Medicine Institute in central Berlin.Peter Erler: \"GPU\\-Keller\". Arrestlokale und Untersuchungsgefängnisse sowjetischer Geheimdienste in Berlin (1945–1949\\). Bund der Stalinistisch Verfolgten, Landesverband Berlin, Berlin 2005, pp. 54\\-55\\. On 21 September 1945 he was moved to \"more appropriate\" accommodation in [Special Internment Camp 3](/wiki/Berlin-Hohensch%C3%B6nhausen_Memorial \"Berlin-Hohenschönhausen Memorial\") at Berlin\\-Hohenschönhausen. Now, however, [Sibylle Boden\\-Gerstner](/wiki/Sibylle_Boden-Gerstner \"Sibylle Boden-Gerstner\") (as she had become) was able to deliver to the Soviet district commander 23 written statements from friends and former [Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance \"French Resistance\") activists whom Karl\\-Heinz and Sibylle had known during their time in Paris.\n{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.berliner\\-zeitung.de/ein\\-besonderer\\-leserbrief\\-\\-karl\\-heinz\\-gerstners\\-antwort\\-auf\\-die\\-kritik\\-an\\-seiner\\-lebenserinnerung\\-durch\\-goetz\\-aly\\-\\-weder\\-ein\\-held\\-\\-noch\\-ein\\-feigling\\-\\-16781278\\|work\\=Ein besonderer Leserbrief: Karl\\-Heinz Gerstners Antwort auf die Kritik an seiner Lebenserinnerung durch Götz Aly\\|title\\=\"Weder ein Held, noch ein Feigling\"\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Berliner Zeitung]]\\|author\\=Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner\\|date\\=11 March 2000\\|accessdate\\=8 January 2018}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=November 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The statements demonstrated that Gerstner (unlike most of the staff at the Paris embassy) had never been a convinced Nazi, and they included several sworn statements attesting ways in which he had helped Resistance members during the war. The Soviets were convinced, and Gerstner was released from detention on 21 January 1946\\. Gerstner later claimed that while he was held in Soviet detention he had succeeded in communicating with his wife using [Kassiber](/wiki/Kassiber \"Kassiber\") code. It had taken his wife six months to organise the written statements, and she had entered a closed military zone in the city \"under fire\" from a Soviet sentry in order to hand over the papers. In his memoire Gernstner concluded the chapter in question, \"I owe her my life\". There was no resentment on Gerstner's part over his seven months of incarceration: his return to freedom was accompanied by \"complete understanding for the Soviets who persecuted the fascists\" (*\"mit vollem Verständnis für die Sovjets, die die Fascisten verfolgten\"*), according to information in the [Stasi records](/wiki/Stasi_Records_Agency \"Stasi Records Agency\") that became available after [1990](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\").",
"One thing which Gerstner's memoires conspicuously fail to mention, but which became clear when investigators reviewed the relevant files in the [Stasi archives](/wiki/Stasi_Records_Agency \"Stasi Records Agency\") after [reunification](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\"), is that by the time he was released by the Soviets in January 1946 he had already been signed up by Soviet intelligence as an \"agent\". He also submitted an application to join the newly reinstated [German Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\"). The application appears to have been rejected on account of his Nazi Party membership during the Hitler years, however.",
"As early as July 1946 the occupying powers permitted Gerstner to visit [France](/wiki/France \"France\") in order to say \"farewell\" to people whom he had last known under wartime conditions (and possibly also to thank in person some of those whose written testimonies had contributed to his release from detention six months earlier). In Autumn 1946 he was recruited into the \"National German administration for inter\\-zonal and foreign trade\" (*\"Deutsche Zentralverwaltung für Interzonen\\- und Außenhandel\"*) which the Soviets were setting up. Meanwhile the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") had disappeared, subsumed, along with the [Social Democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") (if only, effectively, in the [Soviet zone](/wiki/Soviet_Military_Administration_in_Germany \"Soviet Military Administration in Germany\")) into the new [Socialist Unity Party (*\"Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands\"* / SED)](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\"), as the result of a [contentious political merger](/wiki/Merger_of_the_KPD_and_SPD_into_the_Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Merger of the KPD and SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") implemented in April 1946 and intended, it was said, to unite the political left as a bulwark against a return of [fascism](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\"). Intriguingly, the personnel department of the SED attempted (without success) to block Gerstner's recruitment into the Soviet\\-sponsored \"trade administration\". They cited strong doubts over Gerstner's assertion that he had joined the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\") back in 1933 only because he had been mandated to do so by a communist student organisation, and they speculated over a possible \"connection\" to the Soviet security services.",
"Although the political differences implicit in the military and administrative division of Berlin since 1945 would, after 1949, be replicated by increasingly stark social, economic and eventually physical barriers, during the late 1940s Berliners could pass freely between \"sectors\", often with little reason to know where the frontiers were. [Wilmersdorf](/wiki/Wilmersdorf \"Wilmersdorf\"), where Gerstner continued to live after the Soviets released him, was in the British sector. However, many in his social circle were living in the US sector where he would visit and engage in discussions with politically like\\-minded friends including [Iwan Katz](/wiki/Iwan_Katz \"Iwan Katz\") and [Hans Oliva\\-Hagen](/wiki/Hans_Oliva-Hagen \"Hans Oliva-Hagen\"). The larger\\-than\\-life polemicist [Wolfgang Leonhard](/wiki/Wolfgang_Leonhard \"Wolfgang Leonhard\") was another friend. In Wilmersdorf Gerstner built up another political discussion circle: participants included [Rainer Hildebrandt](/wiki/Rainer_Hildebrandt \"Rainer Hildebrandt\"), [Günter Neumann](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Neumann_%28singer%29 \"Günter Neumann (singer)\") and [Fritz Teppich](/wiki/Fritz_Teppich \"Fritz Teppich\").",
"### German Democratic Republic",
"In December 1948 Gerstner embarked on a career as an economic journalist, his contributions appearing in the [Berliner Zeitung](/wiki/Berliner_Zeitung \"Berliner Zeitung\"). He would work for the publication for more than forty years. It was at the request of the newspaper's management that in 1949 he moved house, relocating to what was becoming known as [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\"). In October 1949 the entire [Soviet occupation zone](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone \"Soviet occupation zone\") was rebranded and relaunched as the [Soviet sponsored](/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany \"Group of Soviet Forces in Germany\") [German Democratic Republic](/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic \"German Democratic Republic\"), a new kind of German [one\\-](/wiki/One-party_state \"One-party state\")[party](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") [dictatorship](/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany \"Constitution of East Germany\"). He moved again in 1952/53, settling with his wife and their two daughters in [Kleinmachnow](/wiki/Kleinmachnow \"Kleinmachnow\"), a suburb on the southside of [the city](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Lutz Hagestedt\\|title\\=Dahn, Daniela \\|work\\=Deutsches Literatur\\-Lexikon. Das 20\\. Jahrhundert .... Butenschön \\- Dedo\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NmR\\_GZTZOecC\\&pg\\=PA2140\\|volume\\=5\\| year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\| isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-096111\\-9\\|page\\=2140}}",
"According to one source, it was only after nine rejected attempts that in 1957 Gerstner's application for [party](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") membership was accepted. His career, meanwhile, was progressing well. In 1955 he started making weekly contributions as a commentator to a programme of economic analysis, transmitted each Sunday on [DDR1](/wiki/Radio_DDR_1 \"Radio DDR 1\"), a national radio channel in East Germany. He continued to give these radio talks till 1988, concluding each week with the words \"sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch wie immer\" (*loosely \"as ever, factual, critical and optimistic\"*), a motto the first part of which he would later re\\-activate as the title for his 1999 autobiography. This was the only regular programme dealing expressly with economics in the schedules.{{cite web\\|title\\=Wirtschaftssendungen für die DDR .... Fazit: Für die Wirtschaftspropaganda das Gütezeichen \"Q\"?\\|work\\=Weil der Aufbau einer sozialistischen Wirtschaft sich schwierig gestaltete, überlegte die SED zusammen mit dem DDR\\-Hörfunk, wie das sozialistische Wirtschaftsleben der DDR\\-Bevölkerung vermittelt werden könne. Die neuen Rundfunkformate sollten auch Unterhaltung bieten. Zur Finanzierung schreckte man selbst vor westlicher Werbung nicht zurück. \\|date\\=7 March 2011\\|author\\= Christian Könne\\|url\\=http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/zeitgeschichte/deutschlandarchiv/54048/wirtschaftssendungen\\-fuer\\-die\\-ddr?p\\=all\\| publisher\\=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Bonn\\|accessdate\\=9 January 2018}} Between 1965 and 1978 he appeared regularly on \"Prisma\", a long\\-running [DFF](/wiki/Deutscher_Fernsehfunk \"Deutscher Fernsehfunk\") television programme for which he was employed as the economic commentator, also including in his presentations some political aspects of topics covered and, on occasion hints of political criticism in his analyses. Gerstner became a favourite with viewers, on several occasions topping popularity polls for television personalities.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sachlich, kritisch ... Zum Tod des Journalisten K.\\-H. Gerstner\\|author\\=Hanno Harnisch\\|date\\= 16 February 2005 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Neues Deutschland]], Berlin\\|url\\=https://www.neues\\-deutschland.de/artikel/82721\\.sachlich\\-kritisch.html\\|accessdate\\=9 January 2018}} He could be \\- and sometimes was \\- described as something of an institution in the German Democratic Republic.",
"### Final years",
"Karl\\-Heinz Gerstner retired in May 1989\\. His autobiography appeared ten years later, with the title \"Sachlich, kritisch und optimistisch\". He died at [Kleinmachnow](/wiki/Kleinmachnow \"Kleinmachnow\") a couple of weeks after his ninety\\-third birthday.",
""
] |
History
-------
November was popular for playing "as fast as possible" and with many guitar solos. Although their style did not have much in common with [Speed Metal](/wiki/Speed_Metal "Speed Metal"), their music was inspired by American [acid rock](/wiki/Acid_rock "Acid rock"). A mixture of some early [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28band%29 "Uriah Heep (band)") hits like "Bird of Prey" and "Easy Livin' ", [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") and [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), it was heavy, and blues based. November was formed in 1968 at Tegelhögen, a youth club in [Vällingby](/wiki/V%C3%A4llingby "Vällingby") (a Stockholm suburb). Here, Christer Stålbrandt and Björn Inge, played with two friends as The Imps. After a few months, Stålbrandt left to form a new group called Train. Björn Inge joined shortly after. The Train also included [Snowy White](/wiki/Snowy_White "Snowy White") on guitar. In the early autumn of 1969, Snowy made a decision to return to his homeland, England, and Richard Rolf joined as their new guitarist.
On 1 November 1969, following their support of Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac at the Que\-Club in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg"), they decided to call themselves November.
November was one of the first Swedish rock bands with Swedish lyrics. Most of the lyrics were written by Stålbrandt and influenced by the 60's [flower power](/wiki/Flower_power "Flower power") movement. Despite the Swedish lyrics, November was quite popular in England. While touring in England the lyrics were often translated to English, the crowd, however, insisted on the band performing with Swedish lyrics.
November recorded three albums which all reached high on the Swedish charts. After their last concert at club Domino on New Year's Eve 1972, the band split up and had, up until 2007, only performed once, namely during the release party for the CD November\-Live 1993 (recorded on tour in 1971\) on 30 Nov 1993\.
Christer Stålbrandt moved on and formed the group Saga. Björn Inge joined jazz rockers Energy and Richard Rolf was one of the forming members of Bash and later joined [Nature](/wiki/Nature_%28band%29 "Nature (band)").
On 27 January 2007, they performed at the Mellotronen 20th anniversary party. More gigs have been played since.
In Sweden, November is considered to be music legends (within smaller circles of people from the same generation), and not only in their home city Greater [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm").
### November and "Progg"
In the early 1970s, most Swedish rock bands were in media labeled as [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_Rock_in_the_21st_Century "Progressive Rock in the 21st Century"), which very soon became "[Progg](/wiki/Progg "Progg")". The times, with demonstrations against the American involvement in [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strike_action "Wildcat strike action") (with the best example at the iron\-ore mine in Kiruna 1969 {{Cite news\|url\=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid\=1602\&artikel\=3244414\|title\=40 år sedan gruvstrejken i malmfälten \- Radiofynd\|newspaper\=Sveriges Radio\|date\=17 November 2009}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/svenska/tidskrifter/ri/ri69\-2\.html\|title \= Revolutionär information 1 1969}} and the harbor workers in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/svenska/tidskrifter/ri/ri69\-2\.html\|title \= Revolutionär information 1 1969}} who struck both their employers and against the common working class trade union [LO](/wiki/Landsorganisationen_i_Sverige "Landsorganisationen i Sverige") (or *Landsorganisationen* which translates to "the Land's Organisation" or "the Country's Organisation") after [Marxistic](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism") and revolutionary agitation. Close to a dozen of [Communist parties](/wiki/Communism "Communism") participated in the general elections 1968, 1970 and 1973\. All tried to be "more or better communists" than all the others (Only the old VPK received enough votes for parliamentary seats though). During these times, with a very loud (but not equally large) group of red agitators, who at daily basis through radio and television reached in particular the Swedish youth. And it more or less was declared that all "Progg\-music" was political and red ("standing on the working class' side"), while [ABBA](/wiki/ABBA "ABBA") and dance music bands soon became the "commercial exception".
But in reality, November was far from all political bands and had not asked to be put in the "progg\-category" at all. November's music is instead related to heavy instrumental rock, and bands like [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)"), early [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28band%29 "Uriah Heep (band)") and [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28band%29 "Mountain (band)").
November, like a few other bands and solo\-artists, was put in the "progg\-category" *by media*, simply for coming up at the same time, sharing the audience. Still today, November is sometimes labelled as "progg"\-music (meaning independent, often raw, anti\-establishment music with a strong leftist agenda), but they certainly never played political music, or agitated for any political standpoint in lyrics or in interviews. November was — thanks to acting in this era in Sweden — unavoidably loosely connected with the wider anti\-Vietnam war [hippie](/wiki/Hippie "Hippie") movement and liked to play [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock "Hard rock") fast.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"November was popular for playing \"as fast as possible\" and with many guitar solos. Although their style did not have much in common with [Speed Metal](/wiki/Speed_Metal \"Speed Metal\"), their music was inspired by American [acid rock](/wiki/Acid_rock \"Acid rock\"). A mixture of some early [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28band%29 \"Uriah Heep (band)\") hits like \"Bird of Prey\" and \"Easy Livin' \", [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") and [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), it was heavy, and blues based. November was formed in 1968 at Tegelhögen, a youth club in [Vällingby](/wiki/V%C3%A4llingby \"Vällingby\") (a Stockholm suburb). Here, Christer Stålbrandt and Björn Inge, played with two friends as The Imps. After a few months, Stålbrandt left to form a new group called Train. Björn Inge joined shortly after. The Train also included [Snowy White](/wiki/Snowy_White \"Snowy White\") on guitar. In the early autumn of 1969, Snowy made a decision to return to his homeland, England, and Richard Rolf joined as their new guitarist.",
"On 1 November 1969, following their support of Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac at the Que\\-Club in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\"), they decided to call themselves November.",
"November was one of the first Swedish rock bands with Swedish lyrics. Most of the lyrics were written by Stålbrandt and influenced by the 60's [flower power](/wiki/Flower_power \"Flower power\") movement. Despite the Swedish lyrics, November was quite popular in England. While touring in England the lyrics were often translated to English, the crowd, however, insisted on the band performing with Swedish lyrics.",
"November recorded three albums which all reached high on the Swedish charts. After their last concert at club Domino on New Year's Eve 1972, the band split up and had, up until 2007, only performed once, namely during the release party for the CD November\\-Live 1993 (recorded on tour in 1971\\) on 30 Nov 1993\\.",
"Christer Stålbrandt moved on and formed the group Saga. Björn Inge joined jazz rockers Energy and Richard Rolf was one of the forming members of Bash and later joined [Nature](/wiki/Nature_%28band%29 \"Nature (band)\").",
"On 27 January 2007, they performed at the Mellotronen 20th anniversary party. More gigs have been played since.",
"In Sweden, November is considered to be music legends (within smaller circles of people from the same generation), and not only in their home city Greater [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\").",
"### November and \"Progg\"",
"In the early 1970s, most Swedish rock bands were in media labeled as [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_Rock_in_the_21st_Century \"Progressive Rock in the 21st Century\"), which very soon became \"[Progg](/wiki/Progg \"Progg\")\". The times, with demonstrations against the American involvement in [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strike_action \"Wildcat strike action\") (with the best example at the iron\\-ore mine in Kiruna 1969 {{Cite news\\|url\\=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid\\=1602\\&artikel\\=3244414\\|title\\=40 år sedan gruvstrejken i malmfälten \\- Radiofynd\\|newspaper\\=Sveriges Radio\\|date\\=17 November 2009}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/svenska/tidskrifter/ri/ri69\\-2\\.html\\|title \\= Revolutionär information 1 1969}} and the harbor workers in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/svenska/tidskrifter/ri/ri69\\-2\\.html\\|title \\= Revolutionär information 1 1969}} who struck both their employers and against the common working class trade union [LO](/wiki/Landsorganisationen_i_Sverige \"Landsorganisationen i Sverige\") (or *Landsorganisationen* which translates to \"the Land's Organisation\" or \"the Country's Organisation\") after [Marxistic](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\") and revolutionary agitation. Close to a dozen of [Communist parties](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") participated in the general elections 1968, 1970 and 1973\\. All tried to be \"more or better communists\" than all the others (Only the old VPK received enough votes for parliamentary seats though). During these times, with a very loud (but not equally large) group of red agitators, who at daily basis through radio and television reached in particular the Swedish youth. And it more or less was declared that all \"Progg\\-music\" was political and red (\"standing on the working class' side\"), while [ABBA](/wiki/ABBA \"ABBA\") and dance music bands soon became the \"commercial exception\".",
"But in reality, November was far from all political bands and had not asked to be put in the \"progg\\-category\" at all. November's music is instead related to heavy instrumental rock, and bands like [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\"), early [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28band%29 \"Uriah Heep (band)\") and [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28band%29 \"Mountain (band)\").",
"November, like a few other bands and solo\\-artists, was put in the \"progg\\-category\" *by media*, simply for coming up at the same time, sharing the audience. Still today, November is sometimes labelled as \"progg\"\\-music (meaning independent, often raw, anti\\-establishment music with a strong leftist agenda), but they certainly never played political music, or agitated for any political standpoint in lyrics or in interviews. November was — thanks to acting in this era in Sweden — unavoidably loosely connected with the wider anti\\-Vietnam war [hippie](/wiki/Hippie \"Hippie\") movement and liked to play [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock \"Hard rock\") fast.",
""
] |
Track and field career
----------------------
At first, Farmer was forced to run in a dress for religious reasons. She continued to run in short skirts and tutus as part of her more flamboyant professional career, whenever she had the choice of uniform. Her stylish, flashy attire was perhaps as notorious as [FloJo](/wiki/FloJo "FloJo") at the time.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/you\-cant\-help\-but\-notice\-it\-world\-athletics\-1\|title\=You can't help but notice it \- World Athletics Final\- News\|date\=23 September 2007\|publisher\=IAAF\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401233351/https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/you\-cant\-help\-but\-notice\-it\-world\-athletics\-1\|archive\-date\=1 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}}
Farmer set an American Junior record of 58\.90 in the 400 hurdles at age 14, which ranked her number five amongst all Americans.[US Women 400m Hurdles Rankings](http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/images/stories/Rankings/us_women/10-w400hrankus.pdf){{dead link\|date\=April 2019}} Track and Field News Scholarship money she won in the Colgate Games kept her in [St Angela Hall Academy](/wiki/St_Angela_Hall_Academy "St Angela Hall Academy"). She lowered her time to 58\.31 while in high school.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.usatf.org/athletes/bios/TrackAndFieldArchive/1997/sfp.asp\|title\=Sandra Farmer\-Patrick\|publisher\=USATF\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014919/http://www.usatf.org/athletes/bios/TrackAndFieldArchive/1997/sfp.asp\|archive\-date\=2 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}} She briefly attended the [University of Arizona](/wiki/University_of_Arizona "University of Arizona"), but ended up running for [California State University, Los Angeles](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Los_Angeles "California State University, Los Angeles") (at the same time as the [Howard](/wiki/Sherri_Howard "Sherri Howard") [sisters](/wiki/Denean_Howard "Denean Howard")). In addition to some very fast relays with the sisters, she still holds the school record in the 400 hurdles.{{cite web\|url\=https://lagoldeneagles.com/documents/2014/5/30/14\_All\_Time\_Women\_Top\_10s.pdf?id\=1192\|title\=5\-30 WTF alltime top 10\|publisher\=Cal State LA Athletics\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014738/https://lagoldeneagles.com/documents/2014/5/30/14\_All\_Time\_Women\_Top\_10s.pdf?id\=1192\|archive\-date\=2 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}} She was elected into the CSULA Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.calstatela.edu/univ/ppa/newsrel/athleticshall2007\.htm\|title\=Hall of Famers\|date\=22 October 2013\|publisher\=Cal State LA\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014755/http://www.calstatela.edu/univ/ppa/newsrel/athleticshall2007\.htm\|archive\-date\=2 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}}
Starting in 1982, she represented Jamaica in international competition, until 1987, removing her name from the American rankings list. At the [1984 Los Angeles Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics "1984 Summer Olympics"), she finished eighth in the [400 m hurdles final](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metres_hurdles "Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metres hurdles") in a sub\-par race, the first time the event was held in the Olympics.
Farmer was ranked in the world's top ten for the 400 m hurdles for the first time in 1987\. In July of that year, she ran 54\.59 to win a silver medal at the [Pan American Games](/wiki/1987_Pan_American_Games "1987 Pan American Games") in Indianapolis behind [Judi Brown](/wiki/Judi_Brown "Judi Brown")\-King. Then in September at the [World Championships](/wiki/1987_World_Championships_in_Athletics "1987 World Championships in Athletics") in Rome, she finished fourth in the final in 54\.38, only 0\.07 from a medal.
After marrying [David Patrick](/wiki/David_Patrick_%28athlete%29 "David Patrick (athlete)") and hyphenating her name, Farmer\-Patrick began competing for the US in 1988 and attempted to qualify for the US Olympic team for Seoul, but was disqualified in her semi\-final at the US Olympic trials for inadvertently running out of her lane. Having dual citizenship, she had the option to run for Jamaica, but by switching to the US, some Jamaican newspapers had branded her as a traitor. Her appeal to the [Jamaican Federation](/wiki/Jamaica_Athletics_Administrative_Association "Jamaica Athletics Administrative Association") went unanswered.
In 1989, she was unbeaten in the 400 m hurdles and was the fastest woman in the world at the event, improving her best to 53\.37\. In September, she won the [World Cup](/wiki/IAAF_World_Cup "IAAF World Cup") title in Barcelona, running 53\.84 to defeat [Tatyana Ledovskaya](/wiki/Tatyana_Ledovskaya "Tatyana Ledovskaya") and [Sally Gunnell](/wiki/Sally_Gunnell "Sally Gunnell"). In 1990, she won the Goodwill Games title in 55\.16, defeating Schowonda Williams.
A medal favourite for the [1991 World Championships](/wiki/1991_World_Championships_in_Athletics "1991 World Championships in Athletics") in Tokyo, Farmer\-Patrick ended up fourth in a time of 53\.95, in a race won by Tatyana Ledovsakya, with Sally Gunnell second and [Janeene Vickers](/wiki/Janeene_Vickers "Janeene Vickers") third. Still she was ranked number 1 in the world for 1989, 1991 and 1992\.[Women's 400m Hurdles Rankings](http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/images/stories/Rankings/10-w400hrank.pdf){{dead link\|date\=April 2019}} Track and Field News
She competed for the United States in the [1992 Barcelona Olympics](/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics "1992 Summer Olympics"), where she ran 53\.69 to win the silver medal behind her greatest rival, [Great Britain's](/wiki/Great_Britain%27s "Great Britain's") Sally Gunnell. A month after the Olympics, she successfully defended her World Cup title in Havana, ahead of [Gowry Retchakan](/wiki/Gowry_Retchakan "Gowry Retchakan") and [Margarita Ponomaryova](/wiki/Margarita_Ponomaryova "Margarita Ponomaryova"). The following year at the [1993 World Championships](/wiki/1993_World_Championships_in_Athletics "1993 World Championships in Athletics") held in [Stuttgart, Germany](/wiki/Stuttgart%2C_Germany "Stuttgart, Germany"), she broke the existing world record running 52\.79\. But Gunnell also broke the record finishing .05 faster at 52\.74, passing after the last hurdle and pushing the diving Farmer\-Patrick to another silver medal.
She was ranked number 1 in the US from 1988 to 1993\. Having missed the 1994 season due to pregnancy, Farmer\-Patrick returned in 1995 and finished fourth at the US Championships. She then qualified for the [1996 Atlanta Olympics](/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics "1996 Summer Olympics"). At her third and final games, she was eliminated in the semi\-finals, failing to reach the final by just one\-one hundredth of a second, a performance which was later disqualified due to a high testosterone\-epitestosterone (T\-E) ratio.{{cite web\|url\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/jun/04/drug\-use\-allegations\-ruin\-hurdler/\|title\=Drug\-use allegations ruin hurdler\|first\=Bert\|last\=Rosenthal\|date\=4 June 1997\|work\=Las Vegas Sun\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402002624/https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/jun/04/drug\-use\-allegations\-ruin\-hurdler/\|archive\-date\=2 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2019, she was inducted into the [National Track and Field Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Track_and_Field_Hall_of_Fame "National Track and Field Hall of Fame").{{Cite web\|url\=https://usatf.org/news/2019/the\-year’s\-best\-athletes\-performances\-and\-hall\-of\-\|title\=USA Track \& Field {{!}} The year's best athletes, performances and Hall of Fame inductees honored at USATF Night of Legends\|website\=usatf.org\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208223020/https://www.usatf.org/news/2019/the\-year%e2%80%99s\-best\-athletes\-performances\-and\-hall\-of\-\|archive\-date\=8 December 2019\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Track and field career\n----------------------",
"At first, Farmer was forced to run in a dress for religious reasons. She continued to run in short skirts and tutus as part of her more flamboyant professional career, whenever she had the choice of uniform. Her stylish, flashy attire was perhaps as notorious as [FloJo](/wiki/FloJo \"FloJo\") at the time.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/you\\-cant\\-help\\-but\\-notice\\-it\\-world\\-athletics\\-1\\|title\\=You can't help but notice it \\- World Athletics Final\\- News\\|date\\=23 September 2007\\|publisher\\=IAAF\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401233351/https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/you\\-cant\\-help\\-but\\-notice\\-it\\-world\\-athletics\\-1\\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Farmer set an American Junior record of 58\\.90 in the 400 hurdles at age 14, which ranked her number five amongst all Americans.[US Women 400m Hurdles Rankings](http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/images/stories/Rankings/us_women/10-w400hrankus.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=April 2019}} Track and Field News Scholarship money she won in the Colgate Games kept her in [St Angela Hall Academy](/wiki/St_Angela_Hall_Academy \"St Angela Hall Academy\"). She lowered her time to 58\\.31 while in high school.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.usatf.org/athletes/bios/TrackAndFieldArchive/1997/sfp.asp\\|title\\=Sandra Farmer\\-Patrick\\|publisher\\=USATF\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014919/http://www.usatf.org/athletes/bios/TrackAndFieldArchive/1997/sfp.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} She briefly attended the [University of Arizona](/wiki/University_of_Arizona \"University of Arizona\"), but ended up running for [California State University, Los Angeles](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Los_Angeles \"California State University, Los Angeles\") (at the same time as the [Howard](/wiki/Sherri_Howard \"Sherri Howard\") [sisters](/wiki/Denean_Howard \"Denean Howard\")). In addition to some very fast relays with the sisters, she still holds the school record in the 400 hurdles.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://lagoldeneagles.com/documents/2014/5/30/14\\_All\\_Time\\_Women\\_Top\\_10s.pdf?id\\=1192\\|title\\=5\\-30 WTF alltime top 10\\|publisher\\=Cal State LA Athletics\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014738/https://lagoldeneagles.com/documents/2014/5/30/14\\_All\\_Time\\_Women\\_Top\\_10s.pdf?id\\=1192\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} She was elected into the CSULA Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.calstatela.edu/univ/ppa/newsrel/athleticshall2007\\.htm\\|title\\=Hall of Famers\\|date\\=22 October 2013\\|publisher\\=Cal State LA\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402014755/http://www.calstatela.edu/univ/ppa/newsrel/athleticshall2007\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Starting in 1982, she represented Jamaica in international competition, until 1987, removing her name from the American rankings list. At the [1984 Los Angeles Olympics](/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics \"1984 Summer Olympics\"), she finished eighth in the [400 m hurdles final](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metres_hurdles \"Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metres hurdles\") in a sub\\-par race, the first time the event was held in the Olympics.",
"Farmer was ranked in the world's top ten for the 400 m hurdles for the first time in 1987\\. In July of that year, she ran 54\\.59 to win a silver medal at the [Pan American Games](/wiki/1987_Pan_American_Games \"1987 Pan American Games\") in Indianapolis behind [Judi Brown](/wiki/Judi_Brown \"Judi Brown\")\\-King. Then in September at the [World Championships](/wiki/1987_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"1987 World Championships in Athletics\") in Rome, she finished fourth in the final in 54\\.38, only 0\\.07 from a medal.",
"After marrying [David Patrick](/wiki/David_Patrick_%28athlete%29 \"David Patrick (athlete)\") and hyphenating her name, Farmer\\-Patrick began competing for the US in 1988 and attempted to qualify for the US Olympic team for Seoul, but was disqualified in her semi\\-final at the US Olympic trials for inadvertently running out of her lane. Having dual citizenship, she had the option to run for Jamaica, but by switching to the US, some Jamaican newspapers had branded her as a traitor. Her appeal to the [Jamaican Federation](/wiki/Jamaica_Athletics_Administrative_Association \"Jamaica Athletics Administrative Association\") went unanswered.",
"In 1989, she was unbeaten in the 400 m hurdles and was the fastest woman in the world at the event, improving her best to 53\\.37\\. In September, she won the [World Cup](/wiki/IAAF_World_Cup \"IAAF World Cup\") title in Barcelona, running 53\\.84 to defeat [Tatyana Ledovskaya](/wiki/Tatyana_Ledovskaya \"Tatyana Ledovskaya\") and [Sally Gunnell](/wiki/Sally_Gunnell \"Sally Gunnell\"). In 1990, she won the Goodwill Games title in 55\\.16, defeating Schowonda Williams.",
"A medal favourite for the [1991 World Championships](/wiki/1991_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"1991 World Championships in Athletics\") in Tokyo, Farmer\\-Patrick ended up fourth in a time of 53\\.95, in a race won by Tatyana Ledovsakya, with Sally Gunnell second and [Janeene Vickers](/wiki/Janeene_Vickers \"Janeene Vickers\") third. Still she was ranked number 1 in the world for 1989, 1991 and 1992\\.[Women's 400m Hurdles Rankings](http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/images/stories/Rankings/10-w400hrank.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=April 2019}} Track and Field News",
"She competed for the United States in the [1992 Barcelona Olympics](/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics \"1992 Summer Olympics\"), where she ran 53\\.69 to win the silver medal behind her greatest rival, [Great Britain's](/wiki/Great_Britain%27s \"Great Britain's\") Sally Gunnell. A month after the Olympics, she successfully defended her World Cup title in Havana, ahead of [Gowry Retchakan](/wiki/Gowry_Retchakan \"Gowry Retchakan\") and [Margarita Ponomaryova](/wiki/Margarita_Ponomaryova \"Margarita Ponomaryova\"). The following year at the [1993 World Championships](/wiki/1993_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"1993 World Championships in Athletics\") held in [Stuttgart, Germany](/wiki/Stuttgart%2C_Germany \"Stuttgart, Germany\"), she broke the existing world record running 52\\.79\\. But Gunnell also broke the record finishing .05 faster at 52\\.74, passing after the last hurdle and pushing the diving Farmer\\-Patrick to another silver medal.",
"She was ranked number 1 in the US from 1988 to 1993\\. Having missed the 1994 season due to pregnancy, Farmer\\-Patrick returned in 1995 and finished fourth at the US Championships. She then qualified for the [1996 Atlanta Olympics](/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics \"1996 Summer Olympics\"). At her third and final games, she was eliminated in the semi\\-finals, failing to reach the final by just one\\-one hundredth of a second, a performance which was later disqualified due to a high testosterone\\-epitestosterone (T\\-E) ratio.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/jun/04/drug\\-use\\-allegations\\-ruin\\-hurdler/\\|title\\=Drug\\-use allegations ruin hurdler\\|first\\=Bert\\|last\\=Rosenthal\\|date\\=4 June 1997\\|work\\=Las Vegas Sun\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402002624/https://lasvegassun.com/news/1997/jun/04/drug\\-use\\-allegations\\-ruin\\-hurdler/\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2019, she was inducted into the [National Track and Field Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Track_and_Field_Hall_of_Fame \"National Track and Field Hall of Fame\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://usatf.org/news/2019/the\\-year’s\\-best\\-athletes\\-performances\\-and\\-hall\\-of\\-\\|title\\=USA Track \\& Field {{!}} The year's best athletes, performances and Hall of Fame inductees honored at USATF Night of Legends\\|website\\=usatf.org\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208223020/https://www.usatf.org/news/2019/the\\-year%e2%80%99s\\-best\\-athletes\\-performances\\-and\\-hall\\-of\\-\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Amateur era
[thumb\|left\|NSW team of 1883](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_109656_New_South_Wales_Rugby_Union_Team%2C_ca._1883.jpg "StateLibQld 1 109656 New South Wales Rugby Union Team, ca. 1883.jpg")
The NSWRU (or then, The Southern RU – SRU) was established in 1874, and the very first club competition took place that year. By 1880 the SRU had over 100 clubs in its governance in the metropolitan area. In [1882](/wiki/1882_Southern_Rugby_Union_season%23Representative_Games "1882 Southern Rugby Union season#Representative Games") the first New South Wales team was selected to play [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_Reds "Queensland Reds") in a two\-match series. NSW would go on to win both the games.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13517363\|title\=The Intercolonial Football Match\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|location\=Sydney \|date\=14 Aug 1882 \|accessdate\=19 Jul 2022 \|page\=6 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13525236\|title\=The Queensland v. Combined Team Football Match\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|location\=Sydney \|date\=24 Aug 1882 \|accessdate\=21 Jul 2022 \|page\=6 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article161925074\|title\=The Queensland Footballers in Sydney\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Mail]] \|location\=Sydney \|date\=26 Aug 1882 \|accessdate\=21 Jul 2022 \|page\=347 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}} That same year the first NSW touring squad was selected to go and play in New Zealand.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article108207155\|title\=Football\|newspaper\=\[\[The Evening News (Sydney)]] \|location\=Sydney \|date\=29 Aug 1882 \|accessdate\=22 Jul 2022 \|page\=3 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article161925944\|title\= The First N. S. W. Football Team in New Zealand.\|newspaper\=\[\[The Sydney Mail]] \|location\=Sydney \|date\=4 Nov 1882 \|accessdate\=19 Jul 2022 \|page\=803 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}}
[thumb\|left\|The 1906 NSW team](/wiki/File:1906_new_south_wales_team.jpg "1906 new south wales team.jpg")
In 1907, several of the New South Wales rugby union team's players defected. They included the "superstar", [Dally Messenger](/wiki/Dally_Messenger "Dally Messenger"). These players joined the [New South Wales rugby league team](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") against a visiting [rebel New Zealand rugby team](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team"). This was essentially the birth of [rugby league in Australia](/wiki/Rugby_league_in_Australia "Rugby league in Australia").{{cite book\|last\=Sean Fagan \& \[\[Dally Messenger III]]\|title\=The Master: The Life and Times of Dally Messenger, Australia's first sporting superstar\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Hachette\|location\=Australia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zW9ggl97DKIC\|isbn\=9780733628993}}{{rp\|pp.159ff}}
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the NSW (and QLD) Rugby Unions ceased senior competition. The Queensland body however would not reform until 1929, which saw NSW have more responsibilities for Australian rugby. In 1921 the Waratahs toured New Zealand again, and out of their 10 fixtures, won nine games, including the Test.{{cn\|date\=March 2023}}
The most famous Waratah team was the [1927/28 Waratahs](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_Waratahs_tour_of_the_British_Isles%2C_France_and_Canada "1927–28 Waratahs tour of the British Isles, France and Canada") who toured the United Kingdom, France and North America, introducing a style of open, running rugby never seen before, but which has been the stamp of the Australian game ever since. They won 24 and drew two of their 31 official matches. Seven members of this 1927/8 side were from the [Drummoyne Rugby Club](/wiki/Drummoyne_DRFC "Drummoyne DRFC").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.drummoynerugby.com.au/SNR/About/default.asp \|title\=About the Club \|publisher\=Drummoyne District Rugby Football Club \|date\=2009\-03\-01 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-15 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126073634/http://drummoynerugby.com.au/SNR/About/default.asp \|archive\-date\=26 January 2014}} Upon returning home, were greeted with a parade through Sydney and a reception at Town Hall. It was also around this time that they formally adopted the Waratahs name.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.theroar.com.au/2011/06/27/new\-south\-wales\-need\-rebranding\-as\-true\-waratahs/ \| title\=New South Wales need rebranding as true Waratahs }} Matches against Queensland would soon resume also.
The 1930s were a particularly successful time for NSW. The height of the success of NSW is best represented by the defeat of the South African [Springboks](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team "South Africa national rugby union team") in 1937 at the SCG.{{cn\|date\=March 2023}} NSW Rugby Union would also perform strongly throughout the following decades as well, which included the emergence of footballers such as Trevor Allan, David Brockhoff, Tony Miller, Nick Shehadie, Eddie Stapleton, [Ken Catchpole](/wiki/Ken_Catchpole "Ken Catchpole"), [John Thornett](/wiki/John_Thornett "John Thornett"), [Peter Crittle](/wiki/Peter_Crittle "Peter Crittle") and [Ron Graham](/wiki/Ron_Graham_%28rugby_union%29 "Ron Graham (rugby union)").
In 1963, the Sydney Rugby Union was established for the growth of the game in the city area. The NSW Rugby Union would celebrate its 100th anniversary in 1974\. As part of the anniversary celebrations, a match was played at the SCG on 18 May against the [All Blacks](/wiki/All_Blacks "All Blacks"), though the Waratahs lost nil to 20\.{{cn\|date\=March 2023}}
### Professional era
### Super 12: 1996–2005
[thumb\|260px\|right\|NSW Waratahs playing the ACT Brumbies](/wiki/Image:Brumbies_vs_Waratahs.jpg "Brumbies vs Waratahs.jpg")
In their inaugural [Super 12](/wiki/Super_12 "Super 12") season of [1996](/wiki/1996_Super_12_season "1996 Super 12 season"), the Waratahs won just under half of their games, finishing mid table, with the two other Australian teams finishing above them. The following season of [1997](/wiki/1997_Super_12_season "1997 Super 12 season") saw the Waratahs end in a 9th place, winning four fixtures.
In the [1998](/wiki/1998_Super_12_season "1998 Super 12 season") season the Waratahs won a best six out of 11 games, ending up in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the season, despite obvious improvements the team had still yet to make a finals appearance. The Waratahs won four fixtures the next season. They won five games in the [2000](/wiki/2000_Super_12_season "2000 Super 12 season") season and the 'Tahs finished their season in 9th place.
In [2001](/wiki/2001_Super_12_season "2001 Super 12 season") after replicating their 2000 performance, the Waratahs were still out of reach of finals contention, in 8th position. [2002](/wiki/2002_Super_12_season "2002 Super 12 season") was a record breaking season for the Waratahs, as the team won eight out of their 11\-season games and finished in second place behind the Crusaders – making the semis. However, in the final game of the regular season the Waratahs lost 96–19 (a Super Rugby record). They were defeated by their Australian rivals the Brumbies, 51–10, in the Waratahs' first ever semi\-final. The combined score over the two weeks was Brumbies/Crusaders 147 v. Waratahs 29\.
In the [2003](/wiki/2003_Super_12_season "2003 Super 12 season") season the Waratahs missed a place in the finals, finishing in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the regular season. In [2004](/wiki/2004_Super_12_season "2004 Super 12 season") the Waratahs made a promising start to their season with three straight wins. The team finished 8th on the Super 12 table, six points out of the finals. That year coach Ewen McKenzie re\-introduced the end of season tour, taking place in Argentina that year. In [2005](/wiki/2005_Super_12_season "2005 Super 12 season"), they had their best regular season, finishing second in the table, before losing to the Crusaders in the [2005 Super 12 Final](/wiki/2005_Super_12_season%23Finals "2005 Super 12 season#Finals").
### Super 14: 2006–2010
The Waratahs finished 3rd on the regular season table for the [2006 Super 14 season](/wiki/2006_Super_14_season "2006 Super 14 season"), in which two new teams entered the expanding tournament, the [Force](/wiki/Western_Force "Western Force") and [Cheetahs](/wiki/Cheetahs_%28rugby_union%29 "Cheetahs (rugby union)"). In the last home match of the regular season, the Waratahs hosted the [Hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricanes_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 "Hurricanes (Super rugby franchise)"), which they lost 14 to 29\. The news that star league recruit [Wendell Sailor](/wiki/Wendell_Sailor "Wendell Sailor") had tested positive to an illegal substance and thus faced a career ending ban from the game was an unwelcome intrusion on the Waratahs semifinal build up. The following week, the semi\-finals, they again faced the Hurricanes, though away in [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"). The Waratahs made their exit, losing 16 to 14\. Wendell Sailor later received a two\-year ban from the game, marring a season that had promised so much.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/Sport/Cocaine\-use\-ends\-Wendell\-Sailors\-career/2006/07/21/1153166551712\.html \|title\=Cocaine use ends Wendell Sailor's career \|publisher\=Theage.com.au \|date\=2006\-07\-21 \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-15}}
The [2007 Super 14 season](/wiki/2007_Super_14_season "2007 Super 14 season") was the most disappointing for the team and its supporters with the Waratahs winning only three games, against the lions, the wooden spoon winning Reds, and the Hurricanes in the final round gaining a final placing of 13th out of 14\. Despite the poor performance the 2007 season saw the emergence of teenage rugby prodigy [Kurtley Beale](/wiki/Kurtley_Beale "Kurtley Beale") and proved to be a vital rebuilding stage in the Waratahs super 14 championship run.
The [2008 season](/wiki/2008_Super_14_season "2008 Super 14 season") began well for the NSW Waratahs, with solid pre\-season wins and a solid opening game victory against the Hurricanes 20–3\. The 'Tahs secured their 500th win since their formation in their Fourth round match against the {{Rut\|Brumbies}}. After starting the season in a slow but solid manner the 'Tahs began to play their best rugby in their mid season match with the Blues, scoring their first four try bonus point of the season. The Waratahs then continued on a roll finishing their home season with another impressive 4 try bonus point win against title front runners the Sharks, advancing to second place on the ladder. An average South African trip saw the team slip to third on the ladder after only notching up 3 competition points, due to a loss to the {{Rut\|Bulls}} (7 or less BP) and a satisfactory draw against other title contenders the [Stormers](/wiki/Stormers "Stormers"). The Waratahs faced the Reds in the final round with a win securing second place, combined with a home semi\-final win over the Sharks, moved them up to their first Super 14 final against the Crusaders, which they later lost 12–20\.
In the last two seasons of the Super14 format, the Waratahs failed to make the final on both occasions after narrowly missing the finals (on points difference) in [2009](/wiki/2009_Super_14_season "2009 Super 14 season") and qualifying for the semi\-final in [2010](/wiki/2010_Super_14_season "2010 Super 14 season"). They finished 5th and 3rd in respective years, losing to the {{Rut\|Stormers}} in the semi\-final of the 2010 season.
### Super Rugby: 2011–present
[thumb\|right\|Waratahs playing [Brumbies](/wiki/Brumbies "Brumbies") in the 2012 Super Rugby](/wiki/File:Waratahs_vs_Brumbies_at_ANZ_7_2012.jpg "Waratahs vs Brumbies at ANZ 7 2012.jpg")
In the [2011](/wiki/2011_Super_Rugby_season "2011 Super Rugby season") season, the Waratahs again failed to reach the final. On this occasion, their season ended when they were eliminated by the {{Rut\|Blues}} in the qualifying final after finishing 5th in the overall standings in the revamped competition. The following two seasons were very bleak by comparison. Coach [Chris Hickey](/wiki/Chris_Hickey "Chris Hickey") parted ways with the club at the end of the season with [Michael Foley](/wiki/Michael_Foley_%28rugby_union%29 "Michael Foley (rugby union)") taking over the reins for 2012\. The Waratahs finished well outside finals contention in [2012](/wiki/2012_Super_Rugby_season "2012 Super Rugby season") in 11th place. This brought about another change in the coaching department with [Michael Cheika](/wiki/Michael_Cheika "Michael Cheika") for [2013](/wiki/2013_Super_Rugby_season "2013 Super Rugby season"). His impact was not immediate as the Waratahs failed to make the finals for a second consecutive season finishing 9th overall.
#### Championship season 2014
{{main\|2014 New South Wales Waratahs season}}
The 2014 season of the [super rugby](/wiki/Super_rugby "Super rugby") competition was undoubtedly the Waratahs greatest season so far. The Waratahs not only overcame the Curse of the Tahs, a commonly held superstition, but they were also able to post the greatest super rugby season yet. The second season under coach [Michael Cheika](/wiki/Michael_Cheika "Michael Cheika") saw a new expansive style of rugby implemented which gave birth to exciting running rugby, bringing dwindling crowds back in force with home games averaging at around 19,152 people in attendance.{{cn\|date\=April 2023}}
The running intent of Michael Cheika was quickly revealed after the team saw two [fly halves](/wiki/Fly-half_%28rugby_union%29 "Fly-half (rugby union)") announced in the starting game against [Western Force](/wiki/Western_Force "Western Force"). The Waratahs opening match not only saw Kurtley Beale's return, scoring one try and having a hand in several others, but it was also a showcase to reveal the Tahs new weapon; [Israel Folau](/wiki/Israel_Folau "Israel Folau"). Folau highlighted Cheika's intent scoring a hat\-trick of tries in what was soon to be a season of all\-out attack by the Waratahs. Not only did the Waratahs score the most points in the opening match out of any team with a 43–21 score, but they also had the second largest winning margin of 22 points.
The Waratahs went on to win the Australian conference with 13 more points than the team that came in at second place, the [Brumbies](/wiki/Brumbies "Brumbies"), and came in as the number one team 7 points ahead of the competition. The Waratahs were in the driver's seat advancing straight through to the semi\-finals; the club's 8th semi\-final appearance. After the Brumbies defeated the Chiefs 32–30, the Brumbies advanced to compete against the Waratahs. The Waratahs displayed a show of force in their performance against an in\-form Brumbies team, decimating them 26\-8 granting the Waratahs a home final. The final, held at [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia "Stadium Australia"), was host to 61,823 spectators. With two tries a piece, six penalties each, and the Crusaders up 32–30, only one conversion made the difference. The turning point in the game was a penalty at the 79th minute by the famous New Zealand flanker, [Richie McCaw](/wiki/Richie_McCaw "Richie McCaw") 45 metres out. [Bernard Foley](/wiki/Bernard_Foley "Bernard Foley")'s penalty 45m out right in front of the post gave the Waratahs' a lead 33–32\. The Waratahs had finally won a Super Rugby Championship.Fox Sports, © 2015 Fox Sports. Cited 09/02/14, available at: [http://www.foxsports.com.au/rugby/super\-rugby/match\-centre/match\-stats?matchid\=SRU20142201](http://www.foxsports.com.au/rugby/super-rugby/match-centre/match-stats?matchid=SRU20142201)
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Amateur era",
"[thumb\\|left\\|NSW team of 1883](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_109656_New_South_Wales_Rugby_Union_Team%2C_ca._1883.jpg \"StateLibQld 1 109656 New South Wales Rugby Union Team, ca. 1883.jpg\")\nThe NSWRU (or then, The Southern RU – SRU) was established in 1874, and the very first club competition took place that year. By 1880 the SRU had over 100 clubs in its governance in the metropolitan area. In [1882](/wiki/1882_Southern_Rugby_Union_season%23Representative_Games \"1882 Southern Rugby Union season#Representative Games\") the first New South Wales team was selected to play [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_Reds \"Queensland Reds\") in a two\\-match series. NSW would go on to win both the games.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13517363\\|title\\=The Intercolonial Football Match\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=14 Aug 1882 \\|accessdate\\=19 Jul 2022 \\|page\\=6 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13525236\\|title\\=The Queensland v. Combined Team Football Match\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=24 Aug 1882 \\|accessdate\\=21 Jul 2022 \\|page\\=6 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article161925074\\|title\\=The Queensland Footballers in Sydney\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Mail]] \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=26 Aug 1882 \\|accessdate\\=21 Jul 2022 \\|page\\=347 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}} That same year the first NSW touring squad was selected to go and play in New Zealand.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article108207155\\|title\\=Football\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Evening News (Sydney)]] \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=29 Aug 1882 \\|accessdate\\=22 Jul 2022 \\|page\\=3 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article161925944\\|title\\= The First N. S. W. Football Team in New Zealand.\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Mail]] \\|location\\=Sydney \\|date\\=4 Nov 1882 \\|accessdate\\=19 Jul 2022 \\|page\\=803 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The 1906 NSW team](/wiki/File:1906_new_south_wales_team.jpg \"1906 new south wales team.jpg\")\nIn 1907, several of the New South Wales rugby union team's players defected. They included the \"superstar\", [Dally Messenger](/wiki/Dally_Messenger \"Dally Messenger\"). These players joined the [New South Wales rugby league team](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") against a visiting [rebel New Zealand rugby team](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\"). This was essentially the birth of [rugby league in Australia](/wiki/Rugby_league_in_Australia \"Rugby league in Australia\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Sean Fagan \\& \\[\\[Dally Messenger III]]\\|title\\=The Master: The Life and Times of Dally Messenger, Australia's first sporting superstar\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Hachette\\|location\\=Australia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zW9ggl97DKIC\\|isbn\\=9780733628993}}{{rp\\|pp.159ff}}",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the NSW (and QLD) Rugby Unions ceased senior competition. The Queensland body however would not reform until 1929, which saw NSW have more responsibilities for Australian rugby. In 1921 the Waratahs toured New Zealand again, and out of their 10 fixtures, won nine games, including the Test.{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
"The most famous Waratah team was the [1927/28 Waratahs](/wiki/1927%E2%80%9328_Waratahs_tour_of_the_British_Isles%2C_France_and_Canada \"1927–28 Waratahs tour of the British Isles, France and Canada\") who toured the United Kingdom, France and North America, introducing a style of open, running rugby never seen before, but which has been the stamp of the Australian game ever since. They won 24 and drew two of their 31 official matches. Seven members of this 1927/8 side were from the [Drummoyne Rugby Club](/wiki/Drummoyne_DRFC \"Drummoyne DRFC\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.drummoynerugby.com.au/SNR/About/default.asp \\|title\\=About the Club \\|publisher\\=Drummoyne District Rugby Football Club \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-15 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126073634/http://drummoynerugby.com.au/SNR/About/default.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2014}} Upon returning home, were greeted with a parade through Sydney and a reception at Town Hall. It was also around this time that they formally adopted the Waratahs name.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.theroar.com.au/2011/06/27/new\\-south\\-wales\\-need\\-rebranding\\-as\\-true\\-waratahs/ \\| title\\=New South Wales need rebranding as true Waratahs }} Matches against Queensland would soon resume also.",
"The 1930s were a particularly successful time for NSW. The height of the success of NSW is best represented by the defeat of the South African [Springboks](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team \"South Africa national rugby union team\") in 1937 at the SCG.{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}} NSW Rugby Union would also perform strongly throughout the following decades as well, which included the emergence of footballers such as Trevor Allan, David Brockhoff, Tony Miller, Nick Shehadie, Eddie Stapleton, [Ken Catchpole](/wiki/Ken_Catchpole \"Ken Catchpole\"), [John Thornett](/wiki/John_Thornett \"John Thornett\"), [Peter Crittle](/wiki/Peter_Crittle \"Peter Crittle\") and [Ron Graham](/wiki/Ron_Graham_%28rugby_union%29 \"Ron Graham (rugby union)\").",
"In 1963, the Sydney Rugby Union was established for the growth of the game in the city area. The NSW Rugby Union would celebrate its 100th anniversary in 1974\\. As part of the anniversary celebrations, a match was played at the SCG on 18 May against the [All Blacks](/wiki/All_Blacks \"All Blacks\"), though the Waratahs lost nil to 20\\.{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
"### Professional era",
"### Super 12: 1996–2005",
"[thumb\\|260px\\|right\\|NSW Waratahs playing the ACT Brumbies](/wiki/Image:Brumbies_vs_Waratahs.jpg \"Brumbies vs Waratahs.jpg\")\nIn their inaugural [Super 12](/wiki/Super_12 \"Super 12\") season of [1996](/wiki/1996_Super_12_season \"1996 Super 12 season\"), the Waratahs won just under half of their games, finishing mid table, with the two other Australian teams finishing above them. The following season of [1997](/wiki/1997_Super_12_season \"1997 Super 12 season\") saw the Waratahs end in a 9th place, winning four fixtures.",
"In the [1998](/wiki/1998_Super_12_season \"1998 Super 12 season\") season the Waratahs won a best six out of 11 games, ending up in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the season, despite obvious improvements the team had still yet to make a finals appearance. The Waratahs won four fixtures the next season. They won five games in the [2000](/wiki/2000_Super_12_season \"2000 Super 12 season\") season and the 'Tahs finished their season in 9th place.",
"In [2001](/wiki/2001_Super_12_season \"2001 Super 12 season\") after replicating their 2000 performance, the Waratahs were still out of reach of finals contention, in 8th position. [2002](/wiki/2002_Super_12_season \"2002 Super 12 season\") was a record breaking season for the Waratahs, as the team won eight out of their 11\\-season games and finished in second place behind the Crusaders – making the semis. However, in the final game of the regular season the Waratahs lost 96–19 (a Super Rugby record). They were defeated by their Australian rivals the Brumbies, 51–10, in the Waratahs' first ever semi\\-final. The combined score over the two weeks was Brumbies/Crusaders 147 v. Waratahs 29\\.",
"In the [2003](/wiki/2003_Super_12_season \"2003 Super 12 season\") season the Waratahs missed a place in the finals, finishing in 6th position on the ladder at the end of the regular season. In [2004](/wiki/2004_Super_12_season \"2004 Super 12 season\") the Waratahs made a promising start to their season with three straight wins. The team finished 8th on the Super 12 table, six points out of the finals. That year coach Ewen McKenzie re\\-introduced the end of season tour, taking place in Argentina that year. In [2005](/wiki/2005_Super_12_season \"2005 Super 12 season\"), they had their best regular season, finishing second in the table, before losing to the Crusaders in the [2005 Super 12 Final](/wiki/2005_Super_12_season%23Finals \"2005 Super 12 season#Finals\").",
"### Super 14: 2006–2010",
"The Waratahs finished 3rd on the regular season table for the [2006 Super 14 season](/wiki/2006_Super_14_season \"2006 Super 14 season\"), in which two new teams entered the expanding tournament, the [Force](/wiki/Western_Force \"Western Force\") and [Cheetahs](/wiki/Cheetahs_%28rugby_union%29 \"Cheetahs (rugby union)\"). In the last home match of the regular season, the Waratahs hosted the [Hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricanes_%28Super_rugby_franchise%29 \"Hurricanes (Super rugby franchise)\"), which they lost 14 to 29\\. The news that star league recruit [Wendell Sailor](/wiki/Wendell_Sailor \"Wendell Sailor\") had tested positive to an illegal substance and thus faced a career ending ban from the game was an unwelcome intrusion on the Waratahs semifinal build up. The following week, the semi\\-finals, they again faced the Hurricanes, though away in [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"). The Waratahs made their exit, losing 16 to 14\\. Wendell Sailor later received a two\\-year ban from the game, marring a season that had promised so much.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/Sport/Cocaine\\-use\\-ends\\-Wendell\\-Sailors\\-career/2006/07/21/1153166551712\\.html \\|title\\=Cocaine use ends Wendell Sailor's career \\|publisher\\=Theage.com.au \\|date\\=2006\\-07\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-15}}",
"The [2007 Super 14 season](/wiki/2007_Super_14_season \"2007 Super 14 season\") was the most disappointing for the team and its supporters with the Waratahs winning only three games, against the lions, the wooden spoon winning Reds, and the Hurricanes in the final round gaining a final placing of 13th out of 14\\. Despite the poor performance the 2007 season saw the emergence of teenage rugby prodigy [Kurtley Beale](/wiki/Kurtley_Beale \"Kurtley Beale\") and proved to be a vital rebuilding stage in the Waratahs super 14 championship run.",
"The [2008 season](/wiki/2008_Super_14_season \"2008 Super 14 season\") began well for the NSW Waratahs, with solid pre\\-season wins and a solid opening game victory against the Hurricanes 20–3\\. The 'Tahs secured their 500th win since their formation in their Fourth round match against the {{Rut\\|Brumbies}}. After starting the season in a slow but solid manner the 'Tahs began to play their best rugby in their mid season match with the Blues, scoring their first four try bonus point of the season. The Waratahs then continued on a roll finishing their home season with another impressive 4 try bonus point win against title front runners the Sharks, advancing to second place on the ladder. An average South African trip saw the team slip to third on the ladder after only notching up 3 competition points, due to a loss to the {{Rut\\|Bulls}} (7 or less BP) and a satisfactory draw against other title contenders the [Stormers](/wiki/Stormers \"Stormers\"). The Waratahs faced the Reds in the final round with a win securing second place, combined with a home semi\\-final win over the Sharks, moved them up to their first Super 14 final against the Crusaders, which they later lost 12–20\\.",
"In the last two seasons of the Super14 format, the Waratahs failed to make the final on both occasions after narrowly missing the finals (on points difference) in [2009](/wiki/2009_Super_14_season \"2009 Super 14 season\") and qualifying for the semi\\-final in [2010](/wiki/2010_Super_14_season \"2010 Super 14 season\"). They finished 5th and 3rd in respective years, losing to the {{Rut\\|Stormers}} in the semi\\-final of the 2010 season.",
"### Super Rugby: 2011–present",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Waratahs playing [Brumbies](/wiki/Brumbies \"Brumbies\") in the 2012 Super Rugby](/wiki/File:Waratahs_vs_Brumbies_at_ANZ_7_2012.jpg \"Waratahs vs Brumbies at ANZ 7 2012.jpg\")\nIn the [2011](/wiki/2011_Super_Rugby_season \"2011 Super Rugby season\") season, the Waratahs again failed to reach the final. On this occasion, their season ended when they were eliminated by the {{Rut\\|Blues}} in the qualifying final after finishing 5th in the overall standings in the revamped competition. The following two seasons were very bleak by comparison. Coach [Chris Hickey](/wiki/Chris_Hickey \"Chris Hickey\") parted ways with the club at the end of the season with [Michael Foley](/wiki/Michael_Foley_%28rugby_union%29 \"Michael Foley (rugby union)\") taking over the reins for 2012\\. The Waratahs finished well outside finals contention in [2012](/wiki/2012_Super_Rugby_season \"2012 Super Rugby season\") in 11th place. This brought about another change in the coaching department with [Michael Cheika](/wiki/Michael_Cheika \"Michael Cheika\") for [2013](/wiki/2013_Super_Rugby_season \"2013 Super Rugby season\"). His impact was not immediate as the Waratahs failed to make the finals for a second consecutive season finishing 9th overall.",
"#### Championship season 2014",
"{{main\\|2014 New South Wales Waratahs season}}",
"The 2014 season of the [super rugby](/wiki/Super_rugby \"Super rugby\") competition was undoubtedly the Waratahs greatest season so far. The Waratahs not only overcame the Curse of the Tahs, a commonly held superstition, but they were also able to post the greatest super rugby season yet. The second season under coach [Michael Cheika](/wiki/Michael_Cheika \"Michael Cheika\") saw a new expansive style of rugby implemented which gave birth to exciting running rugby, bringing dwindling crowds back in force with home games averaging at around 19,152 people in attendance.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2023}}",
"The running intent of Michael Cheika was quickly revealed after the team saw two [fly halves](/wiki/Fly-half_%28rugby_union%29 \"Fly-half (rugby union)\") announced in the starting game against [Western Force](/wiki/Western_Force \"Western Force\"). The Waratahs opening match not only saw Kurtley Beale's return, scoring one try and having a hand in several others, but it was also a showcase to reveal the Tahs new weapon; [Israel Folau](/wiki/Israel_Folau \"Israel Folau\"). Folau highlighted Cheika's intent scoring a hat\\-trick of tries in what was soon to be a season of all\\-out attack by the Waratahs. Not only did the Waratahs score the most points in the opening match out of any team with a 43–21 score, but they also had the second largest winning margin of 22 points.",
"The Waratahs went on to win the Australian conference with 13 more points than the team that came in at second place, the [Brumbies](/wiki/Brumbies \"Brumbies\"), and came in as the number one team 7 points ahead of the competition. The Waratahs were in the driver's seat advancing straight through to the semi\\-finals; the club's 8th semi\\-final appearance. After the Brumbies defeated the Chiefs 32–30, the Brumbies advanced to compete against the Waratahs. The Waratahs displayed a show of force in their performance against an in\\-form Brumbies team, decimating them 26\\-8 granting the Waratahs a home final. The final, held at [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\"), was host to 61,823 spectators. With two tries a piece, six penalties each, and the Crusaders up 32–30, only one conversion made the difference. The turning point in the game was a penalty at the 79th minute by the famous New Zealand flanker, [Richie McCaw](/wiki/Richie_McCaw \"Richie McCaw\") 45 metres out. [Bernard Foley](/wiki/Bernard_Foley \"Bernard Foley\")'s penalty 45m out right in front of the post gave the Waratahs' a lead 33–32\\. The Waratahs had finally won a Super Rugby Championship.Fox Sports, © 2015 Fox Sports. Cited 09/02/14, available at: [http://www.foxsports.com.au/rugby/super\\-rugby/match\\-centre/match\\-stats?matchid\\=SRU20142201](http://www.foxsports.com.au/rugby/super-rugby/match-centre/match-stats?matchid=SRU20142201)",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
The house was built in 1794 by Thomas Beall. During its early years, the house was situated on a large plot of land and was said to have had a servants wing attached to the east side. At that time [N Street](/wiki/N_Street_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "N Street (Washington, D.C.)") was known as [Gay Street](/wiki/Georgetown_street_renaming "Georgetown street renaming") and was situated higher than today.
In 1796, John Laird, a wealthy merchant, lived in the house, and later Maj. [George Peter](/wiki/George_Peter_%28politician%2C_born_1779%29 "George Peter (politician, born 1779)"), a [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812") commander and [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland") [Congressman](/wiki/Congressman "Congressman"), purchased the house who lived there until 1827, when the same Laird bought the house for his son. In 1834, William Redin, the first auditor of the [Circuit Court](/wiki/Circuit_Court "Circuit Court") for the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia"), purchased it.
In 1868, Redin's unmarried daughter inherited and sold the dwelling, which became the [Georgetown Female Seminary](/wiki/Georgetown_Female_Seminary "Georgetown Female Seminary"). The Seminary had a student body of boarders and day students totaling 105\. In approximately 1890, John H. Smoot bought the building and converted it back to a private residence again.
In 1915, Col. William E. Pattison French purchased the house, and began renting it to [Newton D. Baker](/wiki/Newton_D._Baker "Newton D. Baker") in 1916\. When Baker returned to [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland") in 1920, French either leased or lived in the house himself for more than two decades. During the [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the [British military](/wiki/British_military "British military") [attache](/wiki/Attache "Attache") occupied the house and rented rooms to British officers.
After World War II, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral "Vice Admiral") [Alan Kirk](/wiki/Alan_Kirk "Alan Kirk"), later [Ambassador to Belgium](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Belgium "United States Ambassador to Belgium") and to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Russia "United States Ambassador to Russia"), purchased the property. Three years later, Dr. E. H. Gushing bought the home along with his wife. They sold the attached servants' wing as a separate residence to Mr. and Mrs. [Stanley Woodward](/wiki/Stanley_Woodward_%28political_aide%29 "Stanley Woodward (political aide)") who built a new front entrance and lived in the home. The Gushings updated the main house's electrical wiring and plumbing and removed some of the interior walls therefore enlarging the living room.
In 1954, James McMillan Gibson bought the dwelling, added a small rear wing, and installed an elevator and lived there with his wife.
In 1964, [Jacqueline Kennedy](/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy "Jacqueline Kennedy") purchased the house and lived in it shortly after the assassination of her husband, president [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") in 1963\. The Kennedy family lived here for about a year.
In 1965, [Michael Whitney Straight](/wiki/Michael_Whitney_Straight "Michael Whitney Straight") purchased the home{{cite web\|title\=NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY \-\- NOMINATION FORM\|url\=http://focus.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NHLS/Text/76002126\.pdf\|website\=nps.gov\|publisher\=National Park Service\|access\-date\=14 March 2016}} for $200,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|200000\|1964\|r\=\-3\|fmt\=eq}}), from Kennedy when she moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").{{cite news\|last1\=Cheshire\|first1\=Maxine\|title\=Spiro T's on the Ball\|url\=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1972/10/22/page/161/article/spiro\-ts\-on\-the\-ball\|access\-date\=14 March 2016\|newspaper\=The Chicago Tribune\|date\=October 22, 1972}} While living in the home, Straight married his second wife, [Nina G. Auchincloss Steers](/wiki/Nina_Straight "Nina Straight") in 1974\. Nina was the daughter of Nina Gore and [Hugh D. Auchincloss](/wiki/Hugh_D._Auchincloss "Hugh D. Auchincloss"). She was the half\-sister of writer [Gore Vidal](/wiki/Gore_Vidal "Gore Vidal") and coincidentally, a stepsister of [Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis](/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis "Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis").{{cite news\|title\=Mrs. Steers Wed to Michael Straight\|url\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1974/05/02/91440001\.html?pageNumber\=63\|access\-date\=3 February 2016\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=May 2, 1974}} Straight and his wife spent $125,000 ({{Inflation\|US\|125000\|1974\|r\=\-3\|fmt\=eq}}) renovating the home and decided to move to [Bethesda, Maryland](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Maryland "Bethesda, Maryland") in 1976 when he was vice chairman of the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts "National Endowment for the Arts"). Straight and his wife lived in the home until 1976\.{{cite news\|last1\=Staff\|title\=Mrs. Onassis, 'Gracious Full of Pep,' D.C. Socialite Says\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/101037108/\|access\-date\=14 March 2016\|newspaper\=The Cincinnati Enquirer\|date\=December 7, 1975}}
In 1976, [Yolande Bebeze Fox](/wiki/Yolande_Fox "Yolande Fox"), the former [Miss America 1951](/wiki/Miss_America_1951 "Miss America 1951"), bought the home from Straight.{{cite news\|last1\=Joynt\|first1\=Carol\|title\=Washington Social Diary\|url\=http://www.newyorksocialdiary.com/across\-the\-nationacross\-the\-world/2013/washington\-social\-diary\-27\|access\-date\=14 March 2016\|publisher\=New York Social Diary\|date\=November 11, 2013}} Fox lived in the home with her granddaughter, [Paris Campbell](/wiki/Paris_Campbell_Grace "Paris Campbell Grace"), until her death in February 2016\.{{Cite news
\| url \= https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/yolande\-betbeze\-fox\-a\-miss\-america\-who\-rebelled\-dies\-at\-87/2016/02/25/32374126\-dbda\-11e5\-81ae\-7491b9b9e7df\_story.html
\| title \= Yolande Betbeze Fox, a Miss America who rebelled, dies at 87
\| last \= Bernstein
\| first \= Adam
\| date \= 2016\-02\-25
\| newspaper \= The Washington Post
\| language \= en\-US
\| issn \= 0190\-8286
\| access\-date \= 2016\-02\-26
}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The house was built in 1794 by Thomas Beall. During its early years, the house was situated on a large plot of land and was said to have had a servants wing attached to the east side. At that time [N Street](/wiki/N_Street_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"N Street (Washington, D.C.)\") was known as [Gay Street](/wiki/Georgetown_street_renaming \"Georgetown street renaming\") and was situated higher than today.",
"In 1796, John Laird, a wealthy merchant, lived in the house, and later Maj. [George Peter](/wiki/George_Peter_%28politician%2C_born_1779%29 \"George Peter (politician, born 1779)\"), a [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\") commander and [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") [Congressman](/wiki/Congressman \"Congressman\"), purchased the house who lived there until 1827, when the same Laird bought the house for his son. In 1834, William Redin, the first auditor of the [Circuit Court](/wiki/Circuit_Court \"Circuit Court\") for the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\"), purchased it.",
"In 1868, Redin's unmarried daughter inherited and sold the dwelling, which became the [Georgetown Female Seminary](/wiki/Georgetown_Female_Seminary \"Georgetown Female Seminary\"). The Seminary had a student body of boarders and day students totaling 105\\. In approximately 1890, John H. Smoot bought the building and converted it back to a private residence again.",
"In 1915, Col. William E. Pattison French purchased the house, and began renting it to [Newton D. Baker](/wiki/Newton_D._Baker \"Newton D. Baker\") in 1916\\. When Baker returned to [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\") in 1920, French either leased or lived in the house himself for more than two decades. During the [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the [British military](/wiki/British_military \"British military\") [attache](/wiki/Attache \"Attache\") occupied the house and rented rooms to British officers.",
"After World War II, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral \"Vice Admiral\") [Alan Kirk](/wiki/Alan_Kirk \"Alan Kirk\"), later [Ambassador to Belgium](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Belgium \"United States Ambassador to Belgium\") and to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Russia \"United States Ambassador to Russia\"), purchased the property. Three years later, Dr. E. H. Gushing bought the home along with his wife. They sold the attached servants' wing as a separate residence to Mr. and Mrs. [Stanley Woodward](/wiki/Stanley_Woodward_%28political_aide%29 \"Stanley Woodward (political aide)\") who built a new front entrance and lived in the home. The Gushings updated the main house's electrical wiring and plumbing and removed some of the interior walls therefore enlarging the living room.",
"In 1954, James McMillan Gibson bought the dwelling, added a small rear wing, and installed an elevator and lived there with his wife.",
"In 1964, [Jacqueline Kennedy](/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy \"Jacqueline Kennedy\") purchased the house and lived in it shortly after the assassination of her husband, president [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") in 1963\\. The Kennedy family lived here for about a year.",
"In 1965, [Michael Whitney Straight](/wiki/Michael_Whitney_Straight \"Michael Whitney Straight\") purchased the home{{cite web\\|title\\=NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY \\-\\- NOMINATION FORM\\|url\\=http://focus.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NHLS/Text/76002126\\.pdf\\|website\\=nps.gov\\|publisher\\=National Park Service\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2016}} for $200,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|200000\\|1964\\|r\\=\\-3\\|fmt\\=eq}}), from Kennedy when she moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Cheshire\\|first1\\=Maxine\\|title\\=Spiro T's on the Ball\\|url\\=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1972/10/22/page/161/article/spiro\\-ts\\-on\\-the\\-ball\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2016\\|newspaper\\=The Chicago Tribune\\|date\\=October 22, 1972}} While living in the home, Straight married his second wife, [Nina G. Auchincloss Steers](/wiki/Nina_Straight \"Nina Straight\") in 1974\\. Nina was the daughter of Nina Gore and [Hugh D. Auchincloss](/wiki/Hugh_D._Auchincloss \"Hugh D. Auchincloss\"). She was the half\\-sister of writer [Gore Vidal](/wiki/Gore_Vidal \"Gore Vidal\") and coincidentally, a stepsister of [Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis](/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis \"Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Mrs. Steers Wed to Michael Straight\\|url\\=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1974/05/02/91440001\\.html?pageNumber\\=63\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2016\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=May 2, 1974}} Straight and his wife spent $125,000 ({{Inflation\\|US\\|125000\\|1974\\|r\\=\\-3\\|fmt\\=eq}}) renovating the home and decided to move to [Bethesda, Maryland](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Maryland \"Bethesda, Maryland\") in 1976 when he was vice chairman of the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts \"National Endowment for the Arts\"). Straight and his wife lived in the home until 1976\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Staff\\|title\\=Mrs. Onassis, 'Gracious Full of Pep,' D.C. Socialite Says\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/101037108/\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2016\\|newspaper\\=The Cincinnati Enquirer\\|date\\=December 7, 1975}}",
"In 1976, [Yolande Bebeze Fox](/wiki/Yolande_Fox \"Yolande Fox\"), the former [Miss America 1951](/wiki/Miss_America_1951 \"Miss America 1951\"), bought the home from Straight.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Joynt\\|first1\\=Carol\\|title\\=Washington Social Diary\\|url\\=http://www.newyorksocialdiary.com/across\\-the\\-nationacross\\-the\\-world/2013/washington\\-social\\-diary\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2016\\|publisher\\=New York Social Diary\\|date\\=November 11, 2013}} Fox lived in the home with her granddaughter, [Paris Campbell](/wiki/Paris_Campbell_Grace \"Paris Campbell Grace\"), until her death in February 2016\\.{{Cite news\n\\| url \\= https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/yolande\\-betbeze\\-fox\\-a\\-miss\\-america\\-who\\-rebelled\\-dies\\-at\\-87/2016/02/25/32374126\\-dbda\\-11e5\\-81ae\\-7491b9b9e7df\\_story.html\n\\| title \\= Yolande Betbeze Fox, a Miss America who rebelled, dies at 87\n\\| last \\= Bernstein\n\\| first \\= Adam\n\\| date \\= 2016\\-02\\-25\n\\| newspaper \\= The Washington Post\n\\| language \\= en\\-US\n\\| issn \\= 0190\\-8286\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-26\n}}",
""
] |
History
-------
*Umagang Kay Ganda* premiered on June 25, 2007, at 5:15{{nbsp}}AM, replacing *Magandang Umaga, Pilipinas*. The original hosts include [Edu Manzano](/wiki/Edu_Manzano "Edu Manzano"), [Pinky Webb](/wiki/Pinky_Webb "Pinky Webb"), Lucky Mercado, [Anthony Taberna](/wiki/Anthony_Taberna "Anthony Taberna"), [Alex Santos](/wiki/Alex_Santos_%28newscaster%29 "Alex Santos (newscaster)"), [Winnie Cordero](/wiki/Winnie_Cordero "Winnie Cordero"), [Donita Rose](/wiki/Donita_Rose "Donita Rose"), Zenaida Seva, [Ogie Diaz](/wiki/Ogie_Diaz "Ogie Diaz"), [Kim Atienza](/wiki/Kim_Atienza "Kim Atienza"), [Bernadette Sembrano](/wiki/Bernadette_Sembrano "Bernadette Sembrano"), and [Rica Peralejo](/wiki/Rica_Peralejo "Rica Peralejo").
Manzano and Diaz left the program more than two years later. Manzano was [running for Vice President](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election "2010 Philippine presidential election"), while Diaz was concentrating on hosting *[Entertainment Live](/wiki/Entertainment_Live "Entertainment Live")*.
On May 11, 2009, *Umagang Kay Ganda* launched "*[Boto Mo iPatrol Mo Ako Ang Simula](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs%23iPatrol_Mo%21 "ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs#iPatrol Mo!")*" in preparation for the [2010 Philippine elections](/wiki/2010_Philippine_general_election "2010 Philippine general election").
On July 13, 2009, [Ginger Conejero](/wiki/Ginger_Conejero "Ginger Conejero") and [Atom Araullo](/wiki/Atom_Araullo "Atom Araullo") separately joined the program, filling the vacancy by the departure of Manzano and Diaz.
On October 21, 2009, [Kim Atienza](/wiki/Kim_Atienza "Kim Atienza") left the program to join the talent competition program *[Showtime](/wiki/It%27s_Showtime_%28Philippine_TV_program%29 "It's Showtime (Philippine TV program)")* (later known as *It's Showtime*) as one of the hosts.
On March 22, 2010, Andre Felix, Bekimon, and [Phoemela Baranda](/wiki/Phoemela_Baranda "Phoemela Baranda") joined the program as hosts. The same year, Araullo left the show to concentrate on field reporting.
In February 2011, the program was reformatted, with [Iya Villania](/wiki/Iya_Villania "Iya Villania"), Jeffrey Tam, and *[Miss Universe 2010](/wiki/Miss_Universe_2010 "Miss Universe 2010")* fourth runner\-up [Venus Raj](/wiki/Venus_Raj "Venus Raj") joining the program to replace Sembrano, Peralejo, Conejero and Bekimon. On August 1 of the same year, Bernadette Sembrano replaced Webb after the former's six\-month hiatus from the show.
On January 30, 2012, [Bianca Gonzalez](/wiki/Bianca_Gonzalez "Bianca Gonzalez") replaced Donita Rose (who left the show to train as a professional chef), while Anthony Taberna and his *Dos Por Dos* co\-host Gerry Baja joined the program as hosts.
On June 4, 2012, comedian\-actor [Ariel Ureta](/wiki/Ariel_Ureta "Ariel Ureta") joined the program as one of the new hosts.
On January 28, 2013, Jorge Cariño joined the program replacing Santos, while Araullo returned to the show after three years.
On February 10, 2014, *Umagang Kay Ganda* shortened its timeslot from 5:00{{nbsp}}AM to 7:30{{nbsp}}AM to give way for the airing extension of talk show *[Kris TV](/wiki/Kris_TV "Kris TV")*.
On October 2, 2015, Bernadette Sembrano left the program to focus on *[TV Patrol](/wiki/TV_Patrol "TV Patrol")*.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.abs\-cbnnews.com/entertainment/10/02/15/bernadette\-cries\-she\-bids\-farewell\-ukg\-family\|title\=Bernadette cries as she bids farewell to 'UKG' family\|publisher\=ABS\-CBN News\|access\-date\=October 3, 2017}}
On October 23, 2015, *Umagang Kay Ganda* ended its broadcast on [ANC](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_Channel "ABS-CBN News Channel") in preparation for the major revamp of the channel's programming, logo and imaging. The timeslot was replaced by *[Mornings @ ANC](/wiki/Mornings_%40_ANC "Mornings @ ANC")* and *Early Edition*.
On June 20, 2016, *Umagang Kay Ganda* brings back its original three\-hour runtime from 5:00{{nbsp}}AM to 8:00{{nbsp}}AM.
On September 15, 2017, Atom Araullo left the program (following his departure from ABS\-CBN) as he returned to GMA Network on September 21\.{{cite news\|title\=Atom Araullo leaves ABS\-CBN\|url\=http://news.abs\-cbn.com/entertainment/09/15/17/atom\-araullo\-leaves\-abs\-cbn\|publisher\=ABS\-CBN News\|date\=September 15, 2017}} The next year, Kori Quintos and [Jeff Canoy](/wiki/Jeff_Canoy "Jeff Canoy") joined the show replacing Araullo and former [PAGASA](/wiki/PAGASA "PAGASA") weatherman Alvin Pura.
On April 2, 2018, *Umagang Kay Ganda*, along with the other [ABS\-CBN News and Current Affairs](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs "ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs") programs switched to high definition format.
On July 29, 2019, Canoy officially became part of UKG as a permanent co\-host after filling\-in for Araullo.
On March 18, 2020, *Umagang Kay Ganda* was temporarily replaced by the simulcast of [DZMM TeleRadyo](/wiki/TeleRadyo_Serbisyo "TeleRadyo Serbisyo") on the show's timeslot for the first time in years as provisional programming. Gerry Baja's *Garantisadong Balita* aired at 5\-6am, followed by [Noli de Castro](/wiki/Noli_de_Castro "Noli de Castro")'s *[Kabayan](/wiki/Kabayan_%28radio_program%29 "Kabayan (radio program)")* (6\-7am; 7:30\-8am), and the tag team of [Ted Failon](/wiki/Ted_Failon "Ted Failon") and Noli de Castro in morning newscast *Radyo Patrol Balita Alas\-Siyete* at 7\-7:30am. The program returned to air on May 4, though it began at 6:00 am rather than 4:55 am as DZMM's *Garantisadong Balita* remained on air. However, due to the shutdown of ABS\-CBN on the evening of May 5, 2020, caused by a [cease\-and\-desist order](/wiki/Cease_and_desist "Cease and desist") from the [National Telecommunications Commission](/wiki/National_Telecommunications_Commission "National Telecommunications Commission") after its legislative franchise expired the day prior,{{cite web\|title\=ABS\-CBN to go off air in compliance with NTC order\|url\=https://news.abs\-cbn.com/news/05/05/20/abs\-cbn\-to\-go\-off\-air\-in\-compliance\-with\-ntc\-order\|website\=\[\[ABS\-CBN News]]\|date\=May 5, 2020\|access\-date\=April 29, 2021}} the program continued broadcasting as *Umagang Kwentuhan* on [Facebook Live](/wiki/List_of_Facebook_features "List of Facebook features") the day after until June 30\. On July 15, 2020, the current affairs division's documentary section of [ABS\-CBN News](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs "ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs"), including the staff from the program became part of the series of retrenchments following the [July 10 vote of the House Committee on Legislative Franchises denied the network a congressional franchise](/wiki/Shutdown_of_ABS-CBN_broadcasting "Shutdown of ABS-CBN broadcasting") and officially cancelled.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"*Umagang Kay Ganda* premiered on June 25, 2007, at 5:15{{nbsp}}AM, replacing *Magandang Umaga, Pilipinas*. The original hosts include [Edu Manzano](/wiki/Edu_Manzano \"Edu Manzano\"), [Pinky Webb](/wiki/Pinky_Webb \"Pinky Webb\"), Lucky Mercado, [Anthony Taberna](/wiki/Anthony_Taberna \"Anthony Taberna\"), [Alex Santos](/wiki/Alex_Santos_%28newscaster%29 \"Alex Santos (newscaster)\"), [Winnie Cordero](/wiki/Winnie_Cordero \"Winnie Cordero\"), [Donita Rose](/wiki/Donita_Rose \"Donita Rose\"), Zenaida Seva, [Ogie Diaz](/wiki/Ogie_Diaz \"Ogie Diaz\"), [Kim Atienza](/wiki/Kim_Atienza \"Kim Atienza\"), [Bernadette Sembrano](/wiki/Bernadette_Sembrano \"Bernadette Sembrano\"), and [Rica Peralejo](/wiki/Rica_Peralejo \"Rica Peralejo\").",
"Manzano and Diaz left the program more than two years later. Manzano was [running for Vice President](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election \"2010 Philippine presidential election\"), while Diaz was concentrating on hosting *[Entertainment Live](/wiki/Entertainment_Live \"Entertainment Live\")*.",
"On May 11, 2009, *Umagang Kay Ganda* launched \"*[Boto Mo iPatrol Mo Ako Ang Simula](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs%23iPatrol_Mo%21 \"ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs#iPatrol Mo!\")*\" in preparation for the [2010 Philippine elections](/wiki/2010_Philippine_general_election \"2010 Philippine general election\").",
"On July 13, 2009, [Ginger Conejero](/wiki/Ginger_Conejero \"Ginger Conejero\") and [Atom Araullo](/wiki/Atom_Araullo \"Atom Araullo\") separately joined the program, filling the vacancy by the departure of Manzano and Diaz.",
"On October 21, 2009, [Kim Atienza](/wiki/Kim_Atienza \"Kim Atienza\") left the program to join the talent competition program *[Showtime](/wiki/It%27s_Showtime_%28Philippine_TV_program%29 \"It's Showtime (Philippine TV program)\")* (later known as *It's Showtime*) as one of the hosts.",
"On March 22, 2010, Andre Felix, Bekimon, and [Phoemela Baranda](/wiki/Phoemela_Baranda \"Phoemela Baranda\") joined the program as hosts. The same year, Araullo left the show to concentrate on field reporting.",
"In February 2011, the program was reformatted, with [Iya Villania](/wiki/Iya_Villania \"Iya Villania\"), Jeffrey Tam, and *[Miss Universe 2010](/wiki/Miss_Universe_2010 \"Miss Universe 2010\")* fourth runner\\-up [Venus Raj](/wiki/Venus_Raj \"Venus Raj\") joining the program to replace Sembrano, Peralejo, Conejero and Bekimon. On August 1 of the same year, Bernadette Sembrano replaced Webb after the former's six\\-month hiatus from the show.",
"On January 30, 2012, [Bianca Gonzalez](/wiki/Bianca_Gonzalez \"Bianca Gonzalez\") replaced Donita Rose (who left the show to train as a professional chef), while Anthony Taberna and his *Dos Por Dos* co\\-host Gerry Baja joined the program as hosts.",
"On June 4, 2012, comedian\\-actor [Ariel Ureta](/wiki/Ariel_Ureta \"Ariel Ureta\") joined the program as one of the new hosts.",
"On January 28, 2013, Jorge Cariño joined the program replacing Santos, while Araullo returned to the show after three years.",
"On February 10, 2014, *Umagang Kay Ganda* shortened its timeslot from 5:00{{nbsp}}AM to 7:30{{nbsp}}AM to give way for the airing extension of talk show *[Kris TV](/wiki/Kris_TV \"Kris TV\")*.",
"On October 2, 2015, Bernadette Sembrano left the program to focus on *[TV Patrol](/wiki/TV_Patrol \"TV Patrol\")*.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.abs\\-cbnnews.com/entertainment/10/02/15/bernadette\\-cries\\-she\\-bids\\-farewell\\-ukg\\-family\\|title\\=Bernadette cries as she bids farewell to 'UKG' family\\|publisher\\=ABS\\-CBN News\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2017}}",
"On October 23, 2015, *Umagang Kay Ganda* ended its broadcast on [ANC](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_Channel \"ABS-CBN News Channel\") in preparation for the major revamp of the channel's programming, logo and imaging. The timeslot was replaced by *[Mornings @ ANC](/wiki/Mornings_%40_ANC \"Mornings @ ANC\")* and *Early Edition*.",
"On June 20, 2016, *Umagang Kay Ganda* brings back its original three\\-hour runtime from 5:00{{nbsp}}AM to 8:00{{nbsp}}AM.",
"On September 15, 2017, Atom Araullo left the program (following his departure from ABS\\-CBN) as he returned to GMA Network on September 21\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Atom Araullo leaves ABS\\-CBN\\|url\\=http://news.abs\\-cbn.com/entertainment/09/15/17/atom\\-araullo\\-leaves\\-abs\\-cbn\\|publisher\\=ABS\\-CBN News\\|date\\=September 15, 2017}} The next year, Kori Quintos and [Jeff Canoy](/wiki/Jeff_Canoy \"Jeff Canoy\") joined the show replacing Araullo and former [PAGASA](/wiki/PAGASA \"PAGASA\") weatherman Alvin Pura.",
"On April 2, 2018, *Umagang Kay Ganda*, along with the other [ABS\\-CBN News and Current Affairs](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs \"ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs\") programs switched to high definition format.",
"On July 29, 2019, Canoy officially became part of UKG as a permanent co\\-host after filling\\-in for Araullo.",
"On March 18, 2020, *Umagang Kay Ganda* was temporarily replaced by the simulcast of [DZMM TeleRadyo](/wiki/TeleRadyo_Serbisyo \"TeleRadyo Serbisyo\") on the show's timeslot for the first time in years as provisional programming. Gerry Baja's *Garantisadong Balita* aired at 5\\-6am, followed by [Noli de Castro](/wiki/Noli_de_Castro \"Noli de Castro\")'s *[Kabayan](/wiki/Kabayan_%28radio_program%29 \"Kabayan (radio program)\")* (6\\-7am; 7:30\\-8am), and the tag team of [Ted Failon](/wiki/Ted_Failon \"Ted Failon\") and Noli de Castro in morning newscast *Radyo Patrol Balita Alas\\-Siyete* at 7\\-7:30am. The program returned to air on May 4, though it began at 6:00 am rather than 4:55 am as DZMM's *Garantisadong Balita* remained on air. However, due to the shutdown of ABS\\-CBN on the evening of May 5, 2020, caused by a [cease\\-and\\-desist order](/wiki/Cease_and_desist \"Cease and desist\") from the [National Telecommunications Commission](/wiki/National_Telecommunications_Commission \"National Telecommunications Commission\") after its legislative franchise expired the day prior,{{cite web\\|title\\=ABS\\-CBN to go off air in compliance with NTC order\\|url\\=https://news.abs\\-cbn.com/news/05/05/20/abs\\-cbn\\-to\\-go\\-off\\-air\\-in\\-compliance\\-with\\-ntc\\-order\\|website\\=\\[\\[ABS\\-CBN News]]\\|date\\=May 5, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2021}} the program continued broadcasting as *Umagang Kwentuhan* on [Facebook Live](/wiki/List_of_Facebook_features \"List of Facebook features\") the day after until June 30\\. On July 15, 2020, the current affairs division's documentary section of [ABS\\-CBN News](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs \"ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs\"), including the staff from the program became part of the series of retrenchments following the [July 10 vote of the House Committee on Legislative Franchises denied the network a congressional franchise](/wiki/Shutdown_of_ABS-CBN_broadcasting \"Shutdown of ABS-CBN broadcasting\") and officially cancelled.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Joseph Cotter was born on November 19, 1844, in [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"), England, the son of Lawrence Cotter and Ann (Perrin) Cotter. His father was a native of [Ross Castle](/wiki/Ross_Castle "Ross Castle"), County Kerry, Ireland. His mother was born in Liverpool, England. In 1849, the Cotter family immigrated to the United States, settling for a short time in New York. They moved to [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio"). Ann Cotter died during their residence in Cleveland. In 1855, Lawrence Cotter moved the family to [St. Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/Saint_Paul%2C_Minnesota "Saint Paul, Minnesota").
Cotter received his elementary education at private academies in Cleveland and [Fremont, Ohio](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Ohio "Fremont, Ohio"). Bishop [Thomas Grace](/wiki/Thomas_Grace_%28bishop_of_Saint_Paul%29 "Thomas Grace (bishop of Saint Paul)") of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul decided to sponsor Cotter's preparation for the priesthood, sending him to [St. Francis de Sales Seminary](/wiki/Saint_Francis_de_Sales_Seminary "Saint Francis de Sales Seminary") near Milwaukee in September 1864\. The following year, Cotter was sent to [St. Vincent College](/wiki/St._Vincent_College%2C_Pennsylvania "St. Vincent College, Pennsylvania") in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, for three years of study.
In 1868, Cotter was recalled to Minnesota and became a student of theology in St. John's, [Collegeville](/wiki/Collegeville%2C_Minnesota "Collegeville, Minnesota"). In the cathedral, on May 3, 1871, Bishop Grace conferred on him the minor orders. On Sunday, May 7, he received sub\-deaconship.
### Priesthood
On May 21, 1871, Cotter was ordained to the priesthood. Cotter celebrated his first Mass on the feast of Pentecost at St. Mary Parish, Minneapolis.
### Bishop of Winona
On November 15, 1889, [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") appointed Cotter the first bishop of the Diocese of Winona.{{Cite web \|title\=The History of the Diocese of Winona \|url\=https://www.dowr.org/about/our\-history.html \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-01 \|website\=www.dowr.org}} On December 27, 1889, he was consecrated. In his sermon, Archbishop [John Ireland](/wiki/John_Ireland_%28bishop%29 "John Ireland (bishop)"), drawing upon the meaning of the [Dakota](/wiki/Dakota_people "Dakota people") word Winona, "eldest daughter", referred to the city as the first\-born daughter of the Diocese of St. Paul.
His appearances, however, often turned into public celebrations honoring his elevation to bishop. When he traveled to [Wabasha, Minnesota](/wiki/Wabasha%2C_Minnesota "Wabasha, Minnesota"), for a confirmation class, he was greeted by a crowd at the station and a parade of over 800 people accompanied him to the church for the service. A week later, he visited [Rochester, Minnesota](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota "Rochester, Minnesota"), and spent much of the day with clergy of the area. He visited the academy, the new hospital, and the mental hospital. In the evening, the bishop and his clergy were honored by the school children of Rochester. He thanked the children for the lesson their program game him and remarked that he was not surprised to find so much culture in Rochester, calling the city one of the gems in the crown of the diocese.
In the next few months, Cotter traveled throughout southern Minnesota, greeting the people in his new diocese. His travels took him across the state from the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") to the South Dakota border. When Cotter became bishop, the new diocese included 45 priests, eight churches, 15 parochial schools, and two hospitals. Approximately 38,000 Catholics resided in the diocese.
Cotter was a strong supporter of the national [Temperance Movement](/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States "Temperance movement in the United States"). He travelled throughout the country delivering sermons and lectures of on the evils of [alcohol consumption](/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage "Alcoholic beverage").{{Cite web \|title\=A day for Bishop Cotter \|url\=https://www.winonapost.com/news/a\-day\-for\-bishop\-cotter/article\_893e9c0f\-becf\-5bc4\-8122\-db5f6a4c4b62\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=Winona Post \|language\=en}} He was said to have received 69,000 pledges from people promising to give up alcohol.{{Cite web \|title\=Sacramento Daily Union 28 June 1909 — California Digital Newspaper Collection \|url\=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a\=d\&d\=SDU19090628\.2\.4\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-en\-\-20\-\-1\-\-txt\-txIN\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-1 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=cdnc.ucr.edu}} He was elected president of the National Union of Father Matthew Societies, a national umbrella temperance group.{{Cite web \|title\=The Catholic Telegraph 9 January 1890 — Catholic Research Resources Alliance \|url\=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a\=d\&d\=TCT18900109\-01\.2\.38\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-en\-20\-\-1\-\-txt\-txIN\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=thecatholicnewsarchive.org}}
By the turn of the century, the Diocese of Winona was securely established and its bishop was recognized as a civic, as well as religious, leader. Both the church and the community had celebrated Bishop Cotter's silver jubilee as a priest in 1896 with addresses and receptions. Cotter said that credit for the expansion of the church was due to the priests and lay people who had worked with him.
Before long, Cotter's health, which had been frail since surgery several years earlier, began to fail. Physicians diagnosed a heart condition, but the bishop maintained his heavy schedule of confirmations, dedications, and other official ceremonies. In early 1909, following his physicians' advice, he traveled to [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey "Atlantic City, New Jersey"), to rest in a milder climate. As his condition worsened, Cotter returned home to Winona, lingering for a few months.
### Death and legacy
On Sunday, June 27, 1909, Cotter died at his home in Winona at the age of 64\.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/118370099/bishop\-j\-b\-cotter\-dies\-after\-a\-long/ \|title\=Bishop J. B. Cotter Dies After a Long Illness \|newspaper\=\[\[The Minneapolis Tribune]] \|location\=Winona, Minnesota \|page\=1 \|date\=1909\-06\-28 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-10 \|via\=Newspapers.com}} A newspaper editorial mourning Bishop Cotter's death pointed out that "he left behind him a monument...the Diocese of Winona."{{Attribution needed\|date\=February 2023}} By the time of his death, the diocese consisted of 90 priests; 135 parishes, missions, or chapels; 30 parochial schools; three hospitals; and an orphanage. In 1909, there were approximately 49,000 Catholics in the diocese.
Cotter was known for his genuine interest in people, which he sometimes expressed in simple letters of concern. Almost 30 years after Bishop Cotter's death, Father John Sherman of Winona wrote, "His memory lives in the respect and affection of a devoted people... He was a genuine ambassador of Christ and the good he did lives after him."*The History of the Diocese of Winona*, 2014{{full citation needed\|date\=December 2020}}
[Cotter High School](/wiki/Cotter_High_School_%28Winona%2C_Minnesota%29 "Cotter High School (Winona, Minnesota)") in Winona was named in his memory.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cotterschools.org/se3bin/clientgenie.cgi \|title\=Cotter Schools a diverse Catholic community of Faith, Scholarship, and Service \|accessdate\=2009\-07\-17 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723144824/http://www.cotterschools.org/se3bin/clientgenie.cgi \|archivedate\=2012\-07\-23 }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Joseph Cotter was born on November 19, 1844, in [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\"), England, the son of Lawrence Cotter and Ann (Perrin) Cotter. His father was a native of [Ross Castle](/wiki/Ross_Castle \"Ross Castle\"), County Kerry, Ireland. His mother was born in Liverpool, England. In 1849, the Cotter family immigrated to the United States, settling for a short time in New York. They moved to [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\"). Ann Cotter died during their residence in Cleveland. In 1855, Lawrence Cotter moved the family to [St. Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/Saint_Paul%2C_Minnesota \"Saint Paul, Minnesota\").",
"Cotter received his elementary education at private academies in Cleveland and [Fremont, Ohio](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Ohio \"Fremont, Ohio\"). Bishop [Thomas Grace](/wiki/Thomas_Grace_%28bishop_of_Saint_Paul%29 \"Thomas Grace (bishop of Saint Paul)\") of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul decided to sponsor Cotter's preparation for the priesthood, sending him to [St. Francis de Sales Seminary](/wiki/Saint_Francis_de_Sales_Seminary \"Saint Francis de Sales Seminary\") near Milwaukee in September 1864\\. The following year, Cotter was sent to [St. Vincent College](/wiki/St._Vincent_College%2C_Pennsylvania \"St. Vincent College, Pennsylvania\") in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, for three years of study.",
"In 1868, Cotter was recalled to Minnesota and became a student of theology in St. John's, [Collegeville](/wiki/Collegeville%2C_Minnesota \"Collegeville, Minnesota\"). In the cathedral, on May 3, 1871, Bishop Grace conferred on him the minor orders. On Sunday, May 7, he received sub\\-deaconship.",
"### Priesthood",
"On May 21, 1871, Cotter was ordained to the priesthood. Cotter celebrated his first Mass on the feast of Pentecost at St. Mary Parish, Minneapolis.",
"### Bishop of Winona",
"On November 15, 1889, [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") appointed Cotter the first bishop of the Diocese of Winona.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The History of the Diocese of Winona \\|url\\=https://www.dowr.org/about/our\\-history.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=www.dowr.org}} On December 27, 1889, he was consecrated. In his sermon, Archbishop [John Ireland](/wiki/John_Ireland_%28bishop%29 \"John Ireland (bishop)\"), drawing upon the meaning of the [Dakota](/wiki/Dakota_people \"Dakota people\") word Winona, \"eldest daughter\", referred to the city as the first\\-born daughter of the Diocese of St. Paul.",
"His appearances, however, often turned into public celebrations honoring his elevation to bishop. When he traveled to [Wabasha, Minnesota](/wiki/Wabasha%2C_Minnesota \"Wabasha, Minnesota\"), for a confirmation class, he was greeted by a crowd at the station and a parade of over 800 people accompanied him to the church for the service. A week later, he visited [Rochester, Minnesota](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota \"Rochester, Minnesota\"), and spent much of the day with clergy of the area. He visited the academy, the new hospital, and the mental hospital. In the evening, the bishop and his clergy were honored by the school children of Rochester. He thanked the children for the lesson their program game him and remarked that he was not surprised to find so much culture in Rochester, calling the city one of the gems in the crown of the diocese.",
"In the next few months, Cotter traveled throughout southern Minnesota, greeting the people in his new diocese. His travels took him across the state from the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") to the South Dakota border. When Cotter became bishop, the new diocese included 45 priests, eight churches, 15 parochial schools, and two hospitals. Approximately 38,000 Catholics resided in the diocese.",
"Cotter was a strong supporter of the national [Temperance Movement](/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States \"Temperance movement in the United States\"). He travelled throughout the country delivering sermons and lectures of on the evils of [alcohol consumption](/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage \"Alcoholic beverage\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=A day for Bishop Cotter \\|url\\=https://www.winonapost.com/news/a\\-day\\-for\\-bishop\\-cotter/article\\_893e9c0f\\-becf\\-5bc4\\-8122\\-db5f6a4c4b62\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=Winona Post \\|language\\=en}} He was said to have received 69,000 pledges from people promising to give up alcohol.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sacramento Daily Union 28 June 1909 — California Digital Newspaper Collection \\|url\\=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a\\=d\\&d\\=SDU19090628\\.2\\.4\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-en\\-\\-20\\-\\-1\\-\\-txt\\-txIN\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-1 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=cdnc.ucr.edu}} He was elected president of the National Union of Father Matthew Societies, a national umbrella temperance group.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Catholic Telegraph 9 January 1890 — Catholic Research Resources Alliance \\|url\\=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a\\=d\\&d\\=TCT18900109\\-01\\.2\\.38\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-en\\-20\\-\\-1\\-\\-txt\\-txIN\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=thecatholicnewsarchive.org}}",
"By the turn of the century, the Diocese of Winona was securely established and its bishop was recognized as a civic, as well as religious, leader. Both the church and the community had celebrated Bishop Cotter's silver jubilee as a priest in 1896 with addresses and receptions. Cotter said that credit for the expansion of the church was due to the priests and lay people who had worked with him.",
"Before long, Cotter's health, which had been frail since surgery several years earlier, began to fail. Physicians diagnosed a heart condition, but the bishop maintained his heavy schedule of confirmations, dedications, and other official ceremonies. In early 1909, following his physicians' advice, he traveled to [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Atlantic City, New Jersey\"), to rest in a milder climate. As his condition worsened, Cotter returned home to Winona, lingering for a few months.",
"### Death and legacy",
"On Sunday, June 27, 1909, Cotter died at his home in Winona at the age of 64\\.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/118370099/bishop\\-j\\-b\\-cotter\\-dies\\-after\\-a\\-long/ \\|title\\=Bishop J. B. Cotter Dies After a Long Illness \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Minneapolis Tribune]] \\|location\\=Winona, Minnesota \\|page\\=1 \\|date\\=1909\\-06\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-10 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com}} A newspaper editorial mourning Bishop Cotter's death pointed out that \"he left behind him a monument...the Diocese of Winona.\"{{Attribution needed\\|date\\=February 2023}} By the time of his death, the diocese consisted of 90 priests; 135 parishes, missions, or chapels; 30 parochial schools; three hospitals; and an orphanage. In 1909, there were approximately 49,000 Catholics in the diocese.",
"Cotter was known for his genuine interest in people, which he sometimes expressed in simple letters of concern. Almost 30 years after Bishop Cotter's death, Father John Sherman of Winona wrote, \"His memory lives in the respect and affection of a devoted people... He was a genuine ambassador of Christ and the good he did lives after him.\"*The History of the Diocese of Winona*, 2014{{full citation needed\\|date\\=December 2020}}",
"[Cotter High School](/wiki/Cotter_High_School_%28Winona%2C_Minnesota%29 \"Cotter High School (Winona, Minnesota)\") in Winona was named in his memory.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cotterschools.org/se3bin/clientgenie.cgi \\|title\\=Cotter Schools a diverse Catholic community of Faith, Scholarship, and Service \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-07\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723144824/http://www.cotterschools.org/se3bin/clientgenie.cgi \\|archivedate\\=2012\\-07\\-23 }}",
""
] |
### Bishop of Winona
On November 15, 1889, [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") appointed Cotter the first bishop of the Diocese of Winona.{{Cite web \|title\=The History of the Diocese of Winona \|url\=https://www.dowr.org/about/our\-history.html \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-01 \|website\=www.dowr.org}} On December 27, 1889, he was consecrated. In his sermon, Archbishop [John Ireland](/wiki/John_Ireland_%28bishop%29 "John Ireland (bishop)"), drawing upon the meaning of the [Dakota](/wiki/Dakota_people "Dakota people") word Winona, "eldest daughter", referred to the city as the first\-born daughter of the Diocese of St. Paul.
His appearances, however, often turned into public celebrations honoring his elevation to bishop. When he traveled to [Wabasha, Minnesota](/wiki/Wabasha%2C_Minnesota "Wabasha, Minnesota"), for a confirmation class, he was greeted by a crowd at the station and a parade of over 800 people accompanied him to the church for the service. A week later, he visited [Rochester, Minnesota](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota "Rochester, Minnesota"), and spent much of the day with clergy of the area. He visited the academy, the new hospital, and the mental hospital. In the evening, the bishop and his clergy were honored by the school children of Rochester. He thanked the children for the lesson their program game him and remarked that he was not surprised to find so much culture in Rochester, calling the city one of the gems in the crown of the diocese.
In the next few months, Cotter traveled throughout southern Minnesota, greeting the people in his new diocese. His travels took him across the state from the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") to the South Dakota border. When Cotter became bishop, the new diocese included 45 priests, eight churches, 15 parochial schools, and two hospitals. Approximately 38,000 Catholics resided in the diocese.
Cotter was a strong supporter of the national [Temperance Movement](/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States "Temperance movement in the United States"). He travelled throughout the country delivering sermons and lectures of on the evils of [alcohol consumption](/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage "Alcoholic beverage").{{Cite web \|title\=A day for Bishop Cotter \|url\=https://www.winonapost.com/news/a\-day\-for\-bishop\-cotter/article\_893e9c0f\-becf\-5bc4\-8122\-db5f6a4c4b62\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=Winona Post \|language\=en}} He was said to have received 69,000 pledges from people promising to give up alcohol.{{Cite web \|title\=Sacramento Daily Union 28 June 1909 — California Digital Newspaper Collection \|url\=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a\=d\&d\=SDU19090628\.2\.4\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-en\-\-20\-\-1\-\-txt\-txIN\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-1 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=cdnc.ucr.edu}} He was elected president of the National Union of Father Matthew Societies, a national umbrella temperance group.{{Cite web \|title\=The Catholic Telegraph 9 January 1890 — Catholic Research Resources Alliance \|url\=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a\=d\&d\=TCT18900109\-01\.2\.38\&e\=\-\-\-\-\-\-\-en\-20\-\-1\-\-txt\-txIN\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\- \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-02 \|website\=thecatholicnewsarchive.org}}
By the turn of the century, the Diocese of Winona was securely established and its bishop was recognized as a civic, as well as religious, leader. Both the church and the community had celebrated Bishop Cotter's silver jubilee as a priest in 1896 with addresses and receptions. Cotter said that credit for the expansion of the church was due to the priests and lay people who had worked with him.
Before long, Cotter's health, which had been frail since surgery several years earlier, began to fail. Physicians diagnosed a heart condition, but the bishop maintained his heavy schedule of confirmations, dedications, and other official ceremonies. In early 1909, following his physicians' advice, he traveled to [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey "Atlantic City, New Jersey"), to rest in a milder climate. As his condition worsened, Cotter returned home to Winona, lingering for a few months.
|
[
"### Bishop of Winona",
"On November 15, 1889, [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") appointed Cotter the first bishop of the Diocese of Winona.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The History of the Diocese of Winona \\|url\\=https://www.dowr.org/about/our\\-history.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=www.dowr.org}} On December 27, 1889, he was consecrated. In his sermon, Archbishop [John Ireland](/wiki/John_Ireland_%28bishop%29 \"John Ireland (bishop)\"), drawing upon the meaning of the [Dakota](/wiki/Dakota_people \"Dakota people\") word Winona, \"eldest daughter\", referred to the city as the first\\-born daughter of the Diocese of St. Paul.",
"His appearances, however, often turned into public celebrations honoring his elevation to bishop. When he traveled to [Wabasha, Minnesota](/wiki/Wabasha%2C_Minnesota \"Wabasha, Minnesota\"), for a confirmation class, he was greeted by a crowd at the station and a parade of over 800 people accompanied him to the church for the service. A week later, he visited [Rochester, Minnesota](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota \"Rochester, Minnesota\"), and spent much of the day with clergy of the area. He visited the academy, the new hospital, and the mental hospital. In the evening, the bishop and his clergy were honored by the school children of Rochester. He thanked the children for the lesson their program game him and remarked that he was not surprised to find so much culture in Rochester, calling the city one of the gems in the crown of the diocese.",
"In the next few months, Cotter traveled throughout southern Minnesota, greeting the people in his new diocese. His travels took him across the state from the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") to the South Dakota border. When Cotter became bishop, the new diocese included 45 priests, eight churches, 15 parochial schools, and two hospitals. Approximately 38,000 Catholics resided in the diocese.",
"Cotter was a strong supporter of the national [Temperance Movement](/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States \"Temperance movement in the United States\"). He travelled throughout the country delivering sermons and lectures of on the evils of [alcohol consumption](/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage \"Alcoholic beverage\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=A day for Bishop Cotter \\|url\\=https://www.winonapost.com/news/a\\-day\\-for\\-bishop\\-cotter/article\\_893e9c0f\\-becf\\-5bc4\\-8122\\-db5f6a4c4b62\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=Winona Post \\|language\\=en}} He was said to have received 69,000 pledges from people promising to give up alcohol.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sacramento Daily Union 28 June 1909 — California Digital Newspaper Collection \\|url\\=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a\\=d\\&d\\=SDU19090628\\.2\\.4\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-en\\-\\-20\\-\\-1\\-\\-txt\\-txIN\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-1 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=cdnc.ucr.edu}} He was elected president of the National Union of Father Matthew Societies, a national umbrella temperance group.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Catholic Telegraph 9 January 1890 — Catholic Research Resources Alliance \\|url\\=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a\\=d\\&d\\=TCT18900109\\-01\\.2\\.38\\&e\\=\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-en\\-20\\-\\-1\\-\\-txt\\-txIN\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\-\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-02 \\|website\\=thecatholicnewsarchive.org}}",
"By the turn of the century, the Diocese of Winona was securely established and its bishop was recognized as a civic, as well as religious, leader. Both the church and the community had celebrated Bishop Cotter's silver jubilee as a priest in 1896 with addresses and receptions. Cotter said that credit for the expansion of the church was due to the priests and lay people who had worked with him.",
"Before long, Cotter's health, which had been frail since surgery several years earlier, began to fail. Physicians diagnosed a heart condition, but the bishop maintained his heavy schedule of confirmations, dedications, and other official ceremonies. In early 1909, following his physicians' advice, he traveled to [Atlantic City, New Jersey](/wiki/Atlantic_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Atlantic City, New Jersey\"), to rest in a milder climate. As his condition worsened, Cotter returned home to Winona, lingering for a few months.",
""
] |
Life
----
Porto\-Alegre was born Manuel José de Araújo in [Rio Pardo](/wiki/Rio_Pardo "Rio Pardo"), [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul "Rio Grande do Sul"), to Francisco José de Araújo and Francisca Antônia Viana. He would change his name to Manuel de Araújo Pitangueira during the [independence of Brazil](/wiki/Independence_of_Brazil "Independence of Brazil"), citing [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)") reasons. Later on, he finally changed it to Manuel de Araújo Porto\-Alegre.
[thumb\|200px\|left\|A [herma](/wiki/Herma "Herma") of Porto\-Alegre in [Porto Alegre](/wiki/Porto_Alegre "Porto Alegre"), [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul "Rio Grande do Sul"), Brazil](/wiki/Image:Bar%C3%A3o_de_Santo_%C3%82ngelo.jpg "Barão de Santo Ângelo.jpg")
In 1826, he moved to [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), in order to study painting with [Jean\-Baptiste Debret](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret "Jean-Baptiste Debret") at the [Imperial Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Fine_Arts_%28Brazil%29 "Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (Brazil)"). He also studied at what is now the [Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras](/wiki/Academia_Militar_das_Agulhas_Negras "Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras") and took a medicine course and philosophy. In 1831, he left Brazil along with Debret to Europe, in order to improve his painting techniques. In 1835, he went to Italy, where he met [Gonçalves de Magalhães](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es%2C_Viscount_of_Araguaia "Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia"), another Brazilian poet. Porto\-Alegre and Magalhães would create in France, in the year of 1837, a short\-lived magazine named *[Niterói](/wiki/Niter%C3%B3i_%28magazine%29 "Niterói (magazine)")*, alongside [Francisco de Sales Torres Homem](/wiki/Francisco_de_Sales_Torres_Homem%2C_Viscount_of_Inhomirim "Francisco de Sales Torres Homem, Viscount of Inhomirim"). Also in 1837, he became [history painting](/wiki/History_painting "History painting") teacher at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, in a post that would last until 1848, when he became a drawing teacher at the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras, and started doing his first caricatures. In 1838, he married Ana Paulina Delamare, having two children with her: Carlota Porto\-Alegre (the future wife of painter [Pedro Américo](/wiki/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico "Pedro Américo")) and future diplomat Paulo Porto\-Alegre.
In 1840 he was named the official painter and decorator of emperor [Pedro II](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil "Pedro II of Brazil")'s palace. He decorated the [imperial palace](/wiki/Imperial_Museum_of_Brazil "Imperial Museum of Brazil") in [Petrópolis](/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis "Petrópolis"), the wedding of Pedro II with [Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies](/wiki/Teresa_Cristina_of_the_Two_Sicilies "Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies") and the emperor's coronation. He was decorated with the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Brazil%29 "Order of Christ (Brazil)") and the [Order of the Rose](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rose "Order of the Rose").
Reuniting with Gonçalves de Magalhães and Torres Homem, he founded a periodic named *Minerva Brasiliense*, that lasted from 1843 to 1845\. He would publish in this periodic his poem *Brasiliana*. In 1844, alongside Torres Homem, he founded the humoristic magazine *Lanterna Mágica*, where he published his caricatures.
In 1849, Porto\-Alegre founded the magazine *Guanabara*, alongside [Joaquim Manuel de Macedo](/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo "Joaquim Manuel de Macedo") and [Gonçalves Dias](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias "Gonçalves Dias"). The magazine, considered the official journal of the Romantic movement in Brazil, lasted until 1856\.
In 1852, he entered the political career, assuming a position as a substitute councilman in the [Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Municipal_Chamber_of_Rio_de_Janeiro "Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro"), lending service in the areas of [urbanism](/wiki/Urbanism "Urbanism") and public health. He exercised this post until 1854, the year when he became the headmaster of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, lasting until 1857\.
In 1860, Porto\-Alegre entered the diplomatic career, where he served as the consul of the [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil "Empire of Brazil") in the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"), in the [Kingdom of Saxony](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony "Kingdom of Saxony") and later in [Portugal](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal "Kingdom of Portugal"), where he died. (Porto\-Alegre's remains were brought to Brazil in 1922\.)
He was granted the title of Baron of Santo Ângelo by emperor Pedro II in 1874, and was a member of the [Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute](/wiki/Brazilian_Historic_and_Geographic_Institute "Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute").
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Porto\\-Alegre was born Manuel José de Araújo in [Rio Pardo](/wiki/Rio_Pardo \"Rio Pardo\"), [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul \"Rio Grande do Sul\"), to Francisco José de Araújo and Francisca Antônia Viana. He would change his name to Manuel de Araújo Pitangueira during the [independence of Brazil](/wiki/Independence_of_Brazil \"Independence of Brazil\"), citing [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\") reasons. Later on, he finally changed it to Manuel de Araújo Porto\\-Alegre.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|A [herma](/wiki/Herma \"Herma\") of Porto\\-Alegre in [Porto Alegre](/wiki/Porto_Alegre \"Porto Alegre\"), [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul \"Rio Grande do Sul\"), Brazil](/wiki/Image:Bar%C3%A3o_de_Santo_%C3%82ngelo.jpg \"Barão de Santo Ângelo.jpg\")",
"In 1826, he moved to [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), in order to study painting with [Jean\\-Baptiste Debret](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret \"Jean-Baptiste Debret\") at the [Imperial Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Fine_Arts_%28Brazil%29 \"Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (Brazil)\"). He also studied at what is now the [Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras](/wiki/Academia_Militar_das_Agulhas_Negras \"Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras\") and took a medicine course and philosophy. In 1831, he left Brazil along with Debret to Europe, in order to improve his painting techniques. In 1835, he went to Italy, where he met [Gonçalves de Magalhães](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es%2C_Viscount_of_Araguaia \"Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia\"), another Brazilian poet. Porto\\-Alegre and Magalhães would create in France, in the year of 1837, a short\\-lived magazine named *[Niterói](/wiki/Niter%C3%B3i_%28magazine%29 \"Niterói (magazine)\")*, alongside [Francisco de Sales Torres Homem](/wiki/Francisco_de_Sales_Torres_Homem%2C_Viscount_of_Inhomirim \"Francisco de Sales Torres Homem, Viscount of Inhomirim\"). Also in 1837, he became [history painting](/wiki/History_painting \"History painting\") teacher at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, in a post that would last until 1848, when he became a drawing teacher at the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras, and started doing his first caricatures. In 1838, he married Ana Paulina Delamare, having two children with her: Carlota Porto\\-Alegre (the future wife of painter [Pedro Américo](/wiki/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico \"Pedro Américo\")) and future diplomat Paulo Porto\\-Alegre.",
"In 1840 he was named the official painter and decorator of emperor [Pedro II](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil \"Pedro II of Brazil\")'s palace. He decorated the [imperial palace](/wiki/Imperial_Museum_of_Brazil \"Imperial Museum of Brazil\") in [Petrópolis](/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis \"Petrópolis\"), the wedding of Pedro II with [Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies](/wiki/Teresa_Cristina_of_the_Two_Sicilies \"Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies\") and the emperor's coronation. He was decorated with the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Brazil%29 \"Order of Christ (Brazil)\") and the [Order of the Rose](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rose \"Order of the Rose\").",
"Reuniting with Gonçalves de Magalhães and Torres Homem, he founded a periodic named *Minerva Brasiliense*, that lasted from 1843 to 1845\\. He would publish in this periodic his poem *Brasiliana*. In 1844, alongside Torres Homem, he founded the humoristic magazine *Lanterna Mágica*, where he published his caricatures.",
"In 1849, Porto\\-Alegre founded the magazine *Guanabara*, alongside [Joaquim Manuel de Macedo](/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo \"Joaquim Manuel de Macedo\") and [Gonçalves Dias](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias \"Gonçalves Dias\"). The magazine, considered the official journal of the Romantic movement in Brazil, lasted until 1856\\.",
"In 1852, he entered the political career, assuming a position as a substitute councilman in the [Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Municipal_Chamber_of_Rio_de_Janeiro \"Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro\"), lending service in the areas of [urbanism](/wiki/Urbanism \"Urbanism\") and public health. He exercised this post until 1854, the year when he became the headmaster of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, lasting until 1857\\.",
"In 1860, Porto\\-Alegre entered the diplomatic career, where he served as the consul of the [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil \"Empire of Brazil\") in the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"), in the [Kingdom of Saxony](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony \"Kingdom of Saxony\") and later in [Portugal](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal \"Kingdom of Portugal\"), where he died. (Porto\\-Alegre's remains were brought to Brazil in 1922\\.)",
"He was granted the title of Baron of Santo Ângelo by emperor Pedro II in 1874, and was a member of the [Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute](/wiki/Brazilian_Historic_and_Geographic_Institute \"Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute\").",
""
] |
Plot
----
"Max" is about the life of Max Britsky, an [East European Jewish](/wiki/East_European_Jews "East European Jews") kid who grows up in great poverty on New York's [Lower East Side](/wiki/Lower_East_Side "Lower East Side") in the late 19th Century. The elder of seven siblings, Max's life is shaped by the death of his father when he was twelve and Max's decision to drop out of school and provide for his mother, brothers and sisters. First earning money by such expedients as selling theater tickets to prostitutes and appearing as a low\-level comedian in a [music hall](/wiki/Music_hall "Music hall"), Max is among the first to recognize the enormous potential of the newly invented [motion pictures](/wiki/Motion_pictures "Motion pictures"). He opens a [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28movie_theater%29 "Nickelodeon (movie theater)") with great success, expanding to a whole chain of them and graduating to full\-fledged movie theaters, later finding a creative young architect to construct for him a whole series of extremely lavish [movie palaces](/wiki/Movie_palace "Movie palace") all over the country. Then he starts producing his own feature films, becoming one of the first major studio owners in America and eventually moving westwards and establishing an enormous new studio in a hitherto neglected Los Angeles suburb called [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles").
A shrewd businessman, becoming one of the richest people in America and a dominant figure in the now burgeoning film industry, in personal matters Max's judgement is clouded by his care for his family and his deep loyalty to them \- ignoring warnings that his two brothers, to whom he gave positions in his film empire, are dishonest peculators.
Max's marriage turns arid and loveless; his wife Sally, a former school teacher whom he met when making the first steps of his career and with whose erudition the school dropout Max was impressed, never truly loved him and in the later years of their marriage comes to actively loath him. While other film moguls engage in an endless round of fleeting affairs with starlets, Max falls deeply in love with his secretary Della and for many years keeps completely faithful to her. He cannot, however, divorce Sally and marry Della because his secretary is a devout Catholic, trapped in an unbreakable Catholic marriage with an abusive husband she did not see for years.
Della's sudden death from pneumonia leaves Max completely devastated and broken. Though continuing his brilliant film career with great success, his personal life is a wasteland, finding no woman who could remotely compare with the lost Della. He consents to divorce Sally and give her in settlement a significant chunk of his film empire, and finds his son and daughter completely estranged from him. In 1927 he is about to embrace what should have been the crowing achievement of his career: the move to the [talking film](/wiki/Talking_film "Talking film"). But at that very moment, Max's long tolerance of his crooked brothers, and his habit of trusting old friends even when they have become untrustworthy, spell his downfall.
It turns out that the brothers' embezzlement had gone far beyond what anyone realized, and that by setting up a series of fake shell companies they stole no less than seven million Dollars \- a scandal which cannot be hushed. Even then, Max is still held by his lifelong family loyalty, unable to contemplate sending his brothers to highly deserved prison terms, especially that doing that might cause the death of Max's old and frail mother. Max's rivals inside the company \- led by an old colleague who used to be his best friend and who proceeds to stab him in the back \- team up with Max's vengeful ex\-wife, to whom he gave a seat on the board. In a dramatic board meeting, Max \- determined to protect his unworthy brothers to the bitter end \- is dethroned and forced to give up the company which he founded and built up.
Max then leaves Holywood, and returns to New York City. He does not give up his generous impulses, continuing to lavishly support his mother. He fortunes shrink from millions to hundreds of thousands \- still enough to live a comfortable but meaningless life. Finally he passes away, still quite young, from a heart attack which happens in a movie theater, seated in a back row and watching the latest film put out by the company from which he was exiled.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"\"Max\" is about the life of Max Britsky, an [East European Jewish](/wiki/East_European_Jews \"East European Jews\") kid who grows up in great poverty on New York's [Lower East Side](/wiki/Lower_East_Side \"Lower East Side\") in the late 19th Century. The elder of seven siblings, Max's life is shaped by the death of his father when he was twelve and Max's decision to drop out of school and provide for his mother, brothers and sisters. First earning money by such expedients as selling theater tickets to prostitutes and appearing as a low\\-level comedian in a [music hall](/wiki/Music_hall \"Music hall\"), Max is among the first to recognize the enormous potential of the newly invented [motion pictures](/wiki/Motion_pictures \"Motion pictures\"). He opens a [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28movie_theater%29 \"Nickelodeon (movie theater)\") with great success, expanding to a whole chain of them and graduating to full\\-fledged movie theaters, later finding a creative young architect to construct for him a whole series of extremely lavish [movie palaces](/wiki/Movie_palace \"Movie palace\") all over the country. Then he starts producing his own feature films, becoming one of the first major studio owners in America and eventually moving westwards and establishing an enormous new studio in a hitherto neglected Los Angeles suburb called [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\").",
"A shrewd businessman, becoming one of the richest people in America and a dominant figure in the now burgeoning film industry, in personal matters Max's judgement is clouded by his care for his family and his deep loyalty to them \\- ignoring warnings that his two brothers, to whom he gave positions in his film empire, are dishonest peculators.",
"Max's marriage turns arid and loveless; his wife Sally, a former school teacher whom he met when making the first steps of his career and with whose erudition the school dropout Max was impressed, never truly loved him and in the later years of their marriage comes to actively loath him. While other film moguls engage in an endless round of fleeting affairs with starlets, Max falls deeply in love with his secretary Della and for many years keeps completely faithful to her. He cannot, however, divorce Sally and marry Della because his secretary is a devout Catholic, trapped in an unbreakable Catholic marriage with an abusive husband she did not see for years.",
"Della's sudden death from pneumonia leaves Max completely devastated and broken. Though continuing his brilliant film career with great success, his personal life is a wasteland, finding no woman who could remotely compare with the lost Della. He consents to divorce Sally and give her in settlement a significant chunk of his film empire, and finds his son and daughter completely estranged from him. In 1927 he is about to embrace what should have been the crowing achievement of his career: the move to the [talking film](/wiki/Talking_film \"Talking film\"). But at that very moment, Max's long tolerance of his crooked brothers, and his habit of trusting old friends even when they have become untrustworthy, spell his downfall.",
"It turns out that the brothers' embezzlement had gone far beyond what anyone realized, and that by setting up a series of fake shell companies they stole no less than seven million Dollars \\- a scandal which cannot be hushed. Even then, Max is still held by his lifelong family loyalty, unable to contemplate sending his brothers to highly deserved prison terms, especially that doing that might cause the death of Max's old and frail mother. Max's rivals inside the company \\- led by an old colleague who used to be his best friend and who proceeds to stab him in the back \\- team up with Max's vengeful ex\\-wife, to whom he gave a seat on the board. In a dramatic board meeting, Max \\- determined to protect his unworthy brothers to the bitter end \\- is dethroned and forced to give up the company which he founded and built up.",
"Max then leaves Holywood, and returns to New York City. He does not give up his generous impulses, continuing to lavishly support his mother. He fortunes shrink from millions to hundreds of thousands \\- still enough to live a comfortable but meaningless life. Finally he passes away, still quite young, from a heart attack which happens in a movie theater, seated in a back row and watching the latest film put out by the company from which he was exiled.",
""
] |
Electrification
---------------
[thumb\|(Figure 1\) The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where the air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from {{convert\|\-15\|to\|\-25\|C\|F}}.](/wiki/File:Understanding_Lightning_-_Figure_1_-_Cloud_Charging_Area.gif "Understanding Lightning - Figure 1 - Cloud Charging Area.gif")
[thumb\|(Figure 2\) When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged.](/wiki/File:Graupel_animation_3a.gif "Graupel animation 3a.gif")
[thumb\|The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.](/wiki/File:Charged_cloud_animation_4a.gif "Charged cloud animation 4a.gif")
The details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm electrification. Electrification can be by the [triboelectric effect](/wiki/Triboelectric_effect "Triboelectric effect") leading to electron or ion transfer between colliding bodies. Uncharged, colliding water\-drops can become charged because of charge transfer between them (as aqueous ions) in an electric field as would exist in a thunder cloud.{{cite journal \| last1\=Jennings \| first1\=S. G. \| last2\=Latham \| first2\=J. \| title\=The charging of water drops falling and colliding in an electric field \| journal\=Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie A \| publisher\=Springer Science and Business Media LLC \| volume\=21 \| issue\=2–3 \| year\=1972 \| doi\=10\.1007/bf02247978 \| pages\=299–306\| bibcode\=1972AMGBA..21\..299J \| s2cid\=118661076 }} The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from {{convert\|\-15\|to\|\-25\|C\|F}}; see Figure 1\. In that area, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super\-cooled cloud droplets (small water droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and [graupel](/wiki/Graupel "Graupel") (soft hail). The updraft carries the [super\-cooled](/wiki/Supercooling "Supercooling") cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward.
At the same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be suspended in the rising air.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science/science\_electrication.htm \|title\=NWS Lightning Safety: Understanding Lightning: Thunderstorm Electrification \|publisher\=\[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]\|access\-date\=November 25, 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130080723/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science/science\_electrication.htm \|archive\-date\=November 30, 2016}} {{PD\-notice}}
The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur. When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged; see Figure 2\. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm.
The result is that the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.
The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from the thunderstorm cloud base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts). In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.
The induced separation of charge in pure liquid water has been known since the 1840s as has the electrification of pure liquid water by the triboelectric effect.Francis, G. W., "Electrostatic Experiments" Oleg D. Jefimenko, Editor, Electret Scientific Company, Star City, 2005
[William Thomson](/wiki/William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin") (Lord Kelvin) demonstrated that charge separation in water occurs in the usual electric fields at the Earth's surface and developed a continuous electric field measuring device using that knowledge.{{cite journal \|last1\=Aplin \|first1\=K. L. \|last2\=Harrison \|first2\=R. G. \|title\=Lord Kelvin's atmospheric electricity measurements \|journal\=History of Geo\- and Space Sciences \|date\=September 3, 2013 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=83–95 \|doi\=10\.5194/hgss\-4\-83\-2013\|arxiv\=1305\.5347 \|bibcode\=2013HGSS....4\...83A \|s2cid\=9783512 \|doi\-access\=free }}
The physical separation of charge into different regions using liquid water was demonstrated by Kelvin with the [Kelvin water dropper](/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper "Kelvin water dropper"). The most likely charge\-carrying species were considered to be the aqueous hydrogen ion and the aqueous hydroxide ion.{{cite journal \|last1\=Desmet \|first1\=S \|last2\=Orban \|first2\=F \|last3\=Grandjean \|first3\=F \|title\=On the Kelvin electrostatic generator \|journal\=European Journal of Physics \|date\=April 1, 1989 \|volume\=10 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=118–122 \|doi\=10\.1088/0143\-0807/10/2/008\|bibcode\=1989EJPh...10\..118D \|s2cid\=121840275 }}
The electrical charging of solid water ice has also been considered. The charged species were again considered to be the hydrogen ion and the hydroxide ion.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dash \|first1\=J G \|last2\=Wettlaufer \|first2\=J S \|title\=The surface physics of ice in thunderstorms \|journal\=Canadian Journal of Physics \|date\=January 1, 2003 \|volume\=81 \|issue\=1–2 \|pages\=201–207 \|doi\=10\.1139/P03\-011\|bibcode\=2003CaJPh..81\..201D }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Dash \|first1\=J. G. \|last2\=Mason \|first2\=B. L. \|last3\=Wettlaufer \|first3\=J. S. \|title\=Theory of charge and mass transfer in ice\-ice collisions \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \|date\=September 16, 2001 \|volume\=106 \|issue\=D17 \|pages\=20395–20402 \|doi\=10\.1029/2001JD900109\|bibcode\=2001JGR...10620395D \|doi\-access\=free }}
An electron is not stable in liquid water concerning a hydroxide ion plus dissolved hydrogen for the time scales involved in thunderstorms.Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P. and Ross, A. B. "Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (OH/O in aqueous solution." J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 17, 513–886 (1988\).
The charge carrier in lightning is mainly electrons in a plasma.{{Cite book\|last\=Uman\|first\=Martin\|title\=All About Lightning\|publisher\=Dover\|year\=1986\|isbn\=978\-0\-486\-25237\-7\|location\=New York\|pages\=74}} The process of going from charge as ions (positive hydrogen ion and negative hydroxide ion) associated with liquid water or solid water to charge as electrons associated with lightning must involve some form of electro\-chemistry, that is, the oxidation and/or the reduction of chemical species.{{cite journal \|last1\=Witzke \|first1\=Megan \|last2\=Rumbach \|first2\=Paul \|last3\=Go \|first3\=David B \|last4\=Sankaran \|first4\=R Mohan \|title\=Evidence for the electrolysis of water by atmospheric\-pressure plasmas formed at the surface of aqueous solutions \|journal\=Journal of Physics D \|date\=November 7, 2012 \|volume\=45 \|issue\=44 \|pages\=442001 \|doi\=10\.1088/0022\-3727/45/44/442001\|bibcode\=2012JPhD...45R2001W \|s2cid\=98547405 }} As [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide "Hydroxide") functions as a base and [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") is an acidic gas, it is possible that charged water clouds in which the negative charge is in the form of the aqueous hydroxide ion, interact with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form aqueous carbonate ions and aqueous hydrogen carbonate ions.
|
[
"Electrification\n---------------",
"[thumb\\|(Figure 1\\) The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where the air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from {{convert\\|\\-15\\|to\\|\\-25\\|C\\|F}}.](/wiki/File:Understanding_Lightning_-_Figure_1_-_Cloud_Charging_Area.gif \"Understanding Lightning - Figure 1 - Cloud Charging Area.gif\")\n[thumb\\|(Figure 2\\) When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged.](/wiki/File:Graupel_animation_3a.gif \"Graupel animation 3a.gif\")\n[thumb\\|The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.](/wiki/File:Charged_cloud_animation_4a.gif \"Charged cloud animation 4a.gif\")\nThe details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm electrification. Electrification can be by the [triboelectric effect](/wiki/Triboelectric_effect \"Triboelectric effect\") leading to electron or ion transfer between colliding bodies. Uncharged, colliding water\\-drops can become charged because of charge transfer between them (as aqueous ions) in an electric field as would exist in a thunder cloud.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Jennings \\| first1\\=S. G. \\| last2\\=Latham \\| first2\\=J. \\| title\\=The charging of water drops falling and colliding in an electric field \\| journal\\=Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie A \\| publisher\\=Springer Science and Business Media LLC \\| volume\\=21 \\| issue\\=2–3 \\| year\\=1972 \\| doi\\=10\\.1007/bf02247978 \\| pages\\=299–306\\| bibcode\\=1972AMGBA..21\\..299J \\| s2cid\\=118661076 }} The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from {{convert\\|\\-15\\|to\\|\\-25\\|C\\|F}}; see Figure 1\\. In that area, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super\\-cooled cloud droplets (small water droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and [graupel](/wiki/Graupel \"Graupel\") (soft hail). The updraft carries the [super\\-cooled](/wiki/Supercooling \"Supercooling\") cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward.",
"At the same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be suspended in the rising air.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science/science\\_electrication.htm \\|title\\=NWS Lightning Safety: Understanding Lightning: Thunderstorm Electrification \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130080723/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science/science\\_electrication.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=November 30, 2016}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur. When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged; see Figure 2\\. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm.",
"The result is that the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.",
"The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from the thunderstorm cloud base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts). In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.",
"The induced separation of charge in pure liquid water has been known since the 1840s as has the electrification of pure liquid water by the triboelectric effect.Francis, G. W., \"Electrostatic Experiments\" Oleg D. Jefimenko, Editor, Electret Scientific Company, Star City, 2005",
"[William Thomson](/wiki/William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin \"William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin\") (Lord Kelvin) demonstrated that charge separation in water occurs in the usual electric fields at the Earth's surface and developed a continuous electric field measuring device using that knowledge.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Aplin \\|first1\\=K. L. \\|last2\\=Harrison \\|first2\\=R. G. \\|title\\=Lord Kelvin's atmospheric electricity measurements \\|journal\\=History of Geo\\- and Space Sciences \\|date\\=September 3, 2013 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=83–95 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/hgss\\-4\\-83\\-2013\\|arxiv\\=1305\\.5347 \\|bibcode\\=2013HGSS....4\\...83A \\|s2cid\\=9783512 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"The physical separation of charge into different regions using liquid water was demonstrated by Kelvin with the [Kelvin water dropper](/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper \"Kelvin water dropper\"). The most likely charge\\-carrying species were considered to be the aqueous hydrogen ion and the aqueous hydroxide ion.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Desmet \\|first1\\=S \\|last2\\=Orban \\|first2\\=F \\|last3\\=Grandjean \\|first3\\=F \\|title\\=On the Kelvin electrostatic generator \\|journal\\=European Journal of Physics \\|date\\=April 1, 1989 \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=118–122 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0143\\-0807/10/2/008\\|bibcode\\=1989EJPh...10\\..118D \\|s2cid\\=121840275 }}",
"The electrical charging of solid water ice has also been considered. The charged species were again considered to be the hydrogen ion and the hydroxide ion.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dash \\|first1\\=J G \\|last2\\=Wettlaufer \\|first2\\=J S \\|title\\=The surface physics of ice in thunderstorms \\|journal\\=Canadian Journal of Physics \\|date\\=January 1, 2003 \\|volume\\=81 \\|issue\\=1–2 \\|pages\\=201–207 \\|doi\\=10\\.1139/P03\\-011\\|bibcode\\=2003CaJPh..81\\..201D }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dash \\|first1\\=J. G. \\|last2\\=Mason \\|first2\\=B. L. \\|last3\\=Wettlaufer \\|first3\\=J. S. \\|title\\=Theory of charge and mass transfer in ice\\-ice collisions \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \\|date\\=September 16, 2001 \\|volume\\=106 \\|issue\\=D17 \\|pages\\=20395–20402 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2001JD900109\\|bibcode\\=2001JGR...10620395D \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"An electron is not stable in liquid water concerning a hydroxide ion plus dissolved hydrogen for the time scales involved in thunderstorms.Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P. and Ross, A. B. \"Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (OH/O in aqueous solution.\" J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 17, 513–886 (1988\\).",
"The charge carrier in lightning is mainly electrons in a plasma.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Uman\\|first\\=Martin\\|title\\=All About Lightning\\|publisher\\=Dover\\|year\\=1986\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-486\\-25237\\-7\\|location\\=New York\\|pages\\=74}} The process of going from charge as ions (positive hydrogen ion and negative hydroxide ion) associated with liquid water or solid water to charge as electrons associated with lightning must involve some form of electro\\-chemistry, that is, the oxidation and/or the reduction of chemical species.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Witzke \\|first1\\=Megan \\|last2\\=Rumbach \\|first2\\=Paul \\|last3\\=Go \\|first3\\=David B \\|last4\\=Sankaran \\|first4\\=R Mohan \\|title\\=Evidence for the electrolysis of water by atmospheric\\-pressure plasmas formed at the surface of aqueous solutions \\|journal\\=Journal of Physics D \\|date\\=November 7, 2012 \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=44 \\|pages\\=442001 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0022\\-3727/45/44/442001\\|bibcode\\=2012JPhD...45R2001W \\|s2cid\\=98547405 }} As [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") functions as a base and [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") is an acidic gas, it is possible that charged water clouds in which the negative charge is in the form of the aqueous hydroxide ion, interact with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form aqueous carbonate ions and aqueous hydrogen carbonate ions.",
""
] |
Distribution, frequency and extent
----------------------------------
{{main\|Distribution of lightning}}
[thumb\|Data obtained from April 1995 to February 2003 from [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s Optical Transient Detector depicting space\-based sensors revealing the uneven distribution of worldwide lightning strikes](/wiki/File:Global_Lightning_Frequency.png "Global Lightning Frequency.png")
[thumb\|A {{convert\|768\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} megaflash from [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") to [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"), in the United States.{{citation \|title\=New WMO Certified Megaflash Lightning Extremes for Flash Distance (768 km) and Duration (17\.01 seconds) Recorded from Space \|author\=Randall Cerveny \|collaboration\=WMO panel \|doi\=10\.1175/BAMS\-D\-21\-0254\.1 \|journal\=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society \|date\=February 1, 2022\|hdl\=2117/369605 \|s2cid\=246358397 \|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\-access\=free }}](/wiki/File:Megaflash_of_477_miles.png "Megaflash of 477 miles.png")
Lightning is not distributed evenly around [Earth](/wiki/Earth "Earth"). On Earth, the lightning frequency is approximately 44 (± 5\) times per second, or nearly 1\.4 [billion](/wiki/1%2C000%2C000%2C000_%28number%29 "1,000,000,000 (number)") flashes per year{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-mwbAsxpRr0C\&pg\=PA452\|title\=Encyclopedia of World Climatology\|access\-date\=February 8, 2009\|publisher\=\[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]\|author\=Oliver, John E.\| isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-3264\-6\|date\=2005}} and the median duration is 0\.52 seconds{{cite journal \|last1\=Kákona \|first1\=Jakub \|title\=In situ ground\-based mobile measurement of lightning events above central Europe \|journal\=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques\|year\=2023 \|volume\=16 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=547–561 \|doi\=10\.5194/amt\-16\-547\-2023 \|bibcode\=2023AMT....16\..547K \|s2cid\=253187897 \|doi\-access\=free }} made up from a number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 60 to 70 [microseconds](/wiki/Microsecond "Microsecond").{{cite web\|url\=http://hyperphysics.phy\-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/lightning2\.html\|title\=Lightning\|work\=gsu.edu\|access\-date\=December 30, 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115043319/http://hyperphysics.phy\-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/lightning2\.html\|archive\-date\=January 15, 2016}}
Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude"), [prevailing wind](/wiki/Prevailing_wind "Prevailing wind") currents, [relative humidity](/wiki/Relative_humidity "Relative humidity"), and proximity to warm and cold bodies of water. To a certain degree, the proportions of intra\-cloud, cloud\-to\-cloud, and cloud\-to\-ground lightning may also vary by [season](/wiki/Season "Season") in [middle latitudes](/wiki/Middle_latitudes "Middle latitudes").
Because human beings are terrestrial and most of their possessions are on the Earth where lightning can damage or destroy them, cloud\-to\-ground (CG) lightning is the most studied and best understood of the three types, even though in\-cloud (IC) and cloud\-to\-cloud (CC) are more common types of lightning. Lightning's relative unpredictability limits a complete explanation of how or why it occurs, even after hundreds of years of scientific investigation.
About 70% of lightning occurs over land in the [tropics](/wiki/Tropics "Tropics"){{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5oZUAAAAMAAJ\&q\=70%25\+of\+lightning\+occurs\+in\+tropics\+on\+land\|title\=Encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences\|last1\=Holton\|first1\=James R.\|last2\=Curry\|first2\=Judith A.\|last3\=Pyle\|first3\=J. A.\|date\=2003\|publisher\=Academic Press\|isbn\=9780122270901\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104190958/https://books.google.com/books?id\=5oZUAAAAMAAJ\&q\=70%25\+of\+lightning\+occurs\+in\+tropics\+on\+land\&dq\=70%25\+of\+lightning\+occurs\+in\+tropics\+on\+land\&hl\=en\&sa\=X\&ved\=0ahUKEwjq6bqvrbzUAhUC4GMKHRR6AUkQ6AEINzAF\|archive\-date\=November 4, 2017}} where [atmospheric convection](/wiki/Atmospheric_convection "Atmospheric convection") is the greatest.
This occurs from both the mixture of warmer and colder [air masses](/wiki/Air_mass "Air mass"), as well as differences in moisture concentrations, and it generally happens at the [boundaries between them](/wiki/Weather_front "Weather front"). The flow of warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the [Gulf Stream](/wiki/Gulf_stream "Gulf stream"), partially explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the [Southeast United States](/wiki/Southeast_United_States "Southeast United States"). Because large bodies of water lack the topographic variation that would result in atmospheric mixing, lightning is notably less frequent over the world's oceans than over land. The [North](/wiki/North_pole "North pole") and [South Poles](/wiki/South_pole "South pole") are limited in their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least lightning.{{Clarify\|reason\=absence of thunderstorms is similar to absence of lightning; an explanation of why are there less thunderstorms (lightning) above the poles would be more helpful\|date\=August 2019}}
In general, CG lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation where [freezing](/wiki/Freezing_level "Freezing level") occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process. During wind\-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water (called [graupel](/wiki/Graupel "Graupel")) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to accumulate a positive [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge "Space charge") while the lower level accumulates a negative space charge.
Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating properties of air, and this increases proportionally to the distance between the cloud and the ground, the proportion of CG strikes (versus CC or IC discharges) becomes greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics, where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60° North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.{{cite web\|url\=https://science.nasa.gov/science\-news/science\-at\-nasa/2001/ast05dec\_1/\|date\=December 5, 2001\|title\=Where LightningStrikes\|publisher\=NASA Science. Science News.\|access\-date\=July 5, 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716173018/http://science.nasa.gov/science\-news/science\-at\-nasa/2001/ast05dec\_1/\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2010}}[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") Ch. 8, p. 68\.
Lightning is usually produced by [cumulonimbus](/wiki/Cumulonimbus "Cumulonimbus") clouds, which have bases that are typically {{cvt\|1\|\-\|2\|km}} above the ground and tops up to {{convert\|15\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} in height.
The place on Earth where lightning occurs most often is over [Lake Maracaibo](/wiki/Lake_Maracaibo "Lake Maracaibo"), wherein the [Catatumbo lightning](/wiki/Catatumbo_lightning "Catatumbo lightning") phenomenon produces 250 bolts of lightning a day.{{cite web \|author1\=R. I. Albrecht \|author2\=S. J. Goodman \|author3\=W. A. Petersen \|author4\=D. E. Buechler \|author5\=E. C. Bruning \|author6\=R. J. Blakeslee \|author7\=H. J. Christian \|title\=The 13 years of TRMM Lightning Imaging Sensor: From individual flash characteristics to decadal tendencies \|url\=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110015779/downloads/20110015779\.pdf \|website\=NASA Technical Reports Server \|access\-date\=November 23, 2022}} This activity occurs on average, 297 days a year.Fischetti, M. (2016\) [Lightning Hotspots](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-s-top-lightning-hotspot-is-lake-maracaibo-in-venezuela/), Scientific American 314: 76 (May 2016\) The second most lightning density is near the village of [Kifuka](/wiki/Kifuka "Kifuka") in the mountains of the eastern [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Democratic Republic of the Congo"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Af/CongoDR/SudKivu/Kifuka.htm\|title\=Kifuka – place where lightning strikes most often\|access\-date\=November 21, 2010\|publisher\=Wondermondo\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001201900/http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Af/CongoDR/SudKivu/Kifuka.htm\|archive\-date\=October 1, 2011\|date\=November 7, 2010}} where the [elevation](/wiki/Elevation "Elevation") is around {{convert\|975\|m\|ft\|\-2\|abbr\=on}}. On average, this region receives {{convert\|158\|/km2/years\|/sqmi/years\|adj\=pre\|lightning strikes}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/Atmosphere/lightning.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080330025304/http://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/Atmosphere/lightning.html\|archive\-date\=March 30, 2008\|title\=Annual Lightning Flash Rate \|access\-date\=February 8, 2009\|publisher\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} Other lightning hotspots include [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"){{cite web\|url\=http://app.nea.gov.sg/cms/htdocs/article.asp?pid\=1203\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927224804/http://app.nea.gov.sg/cms/htdocs/article.asp?pid\=1203\|archive\-date\=September 27, 2007\|title\=Lightning Activity in Singapore\|access\-date\=September 24, 2007\|publisher\=National Environmental Agency\|date\=2002}} and [Lightning Alley](/wiki/Lightning_Alley "Lightning Alley") in Central [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/lightning\_alley.html\|title\=Staying Safe in Lightning Alley\|access\-date\=September 24, 2007\|publisher\=NASA\|date\=January 3, 2007\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713041430/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/lightning\_alley.html\|archive\-date\=July 13, 2007}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.floridaenvironment.com/programs/fe00703\.htm \|title\=Summer Lightning Ahead \|access\-date\=September 24, 2007 \|publisher\=Florida Environment.com \|date\=2000 \|author\=Pierce, Kevin \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012160959/http://floridaenvironment.com/programs/fe00703\.htm \|archive\-date\=October 12, 2007 }}
According to the [World Meteorological Organization](/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization "World Meteorological Organization"), on April 29, 2020, a bolt 768 km (477\.2 mi) long was observed in the southern U.S.—sixty km (37 mi) longer than the previous distance record (southern Brazil, October 31, 2018\). A single flash in Uruguay and northern Argentina on June 18, 2020, lasted for 17\.1 seconds—0\.37 seconds longer than the previous record (March 4, 2019, also in northern Argentina).
|
[
"Distribution, frequency and extent\n----------------------------------",
"{{main\\|Distribution of lightning}}\n[thumb\\|Data obtained from April 1995 to February 2003 from [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s Optical Transient Detector depicting space\\-based sensors revealing the uneven distribution of worldwide lightning strikes](/wiki/File:Global_Lightning_Frequency.png \"Global Lightning Frequency.png\")\n[thumb\\|A {{convert\\|768\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} megaflash from [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") to [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"), in the United States.{{citation \\|title\\=New WMO Certified Megaflash Lightning Extremes for Flash Distance (768 km) and Duration (17\\.01 seconds) Recorded from Space \\|author\\=Randall Cerveny \\|collaboration\\=WMO panel \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/BAMS\\-D\\-21\\-0254\\.1 \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society \\|date\\=February 1, 2022\\|hdl\\=2117/369605 \\|s2cid\\=246358397 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}](/wiki/File:Megaflash_of_477_miles.png \"Megaflash of 477 miles.png\")",
"Lightning is not distributed evenly around [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\"). On Earth, the lightning frequency is approximately 44 (± 5\\) times per second, or nearly 1\\.4 [billion](/wiki/1%2C000%2C000%2C000_%28number%29 \"1,000,000,000 (number)\") flashes per year{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-mwbAsxpRr0C\\&pg\\=PA452\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of World Climatology\\|access\\-date\\=February 8, 2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]\\|author\\=Oliver, John E.\\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-3264\\-6\\|date\\=2005}} and the median duration is 0\\.52 seconds{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kákona \\|first1\\=Jakub \\|title\\=In situ ground\\-based mobile measurement of lightning events above central Europe \\|journal\\=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques\\|year\\=2023 \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=547–561 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/amt\\-16\\-547\\-2023 \\|bibcode\\=2023AMT....16\\..547K \\|s2cid\\=253187897 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} made up from a number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 60 to 70 [microseconds](/wiki/Microsecond \"Microsecond\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hyperphysics.phy\\-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/lightning2\\.html\\|title\\=Lightning\\|work\\=gsu.edu\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115043319/http://hyperphysics.phy\\-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/lightning2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2016}}",
"Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\"), [prevailing wind](/wiki/Prevailing_wind \"Prevailing wind\") currents, [relative humidity](/wiki/Relative_humidity \"Relative humidity\"), and proximity to warm and cold bodies of water. To a certain degree, the proportions of intra\\-cloud, cloud\\-to\\-cloud, and cloud\\-to\\-ground lightning may also vary by [season](/wiki/Season \"Season\") in [middle latitudes](/wiki/Middle_latitudes \"Middle latitudes\").",
"Because human beings are terrestrial and most of their possessions are on the Earth where lightning can damage or destroy them, cloud\\-to\\-ground (CG) lightning is the most studied and best understood of the three types, even though in\\-cloud (IC) and cloud\\-to\\-cloud (CC) are more common types of lightning. Lightning's relative unpredictability limits a complete explanation of how or why it occurs, even after hundreds of years of scientific investigation.\nAbout 70% of lightning occurs over land in the [tropics](/wiki/Tropics \"Tropics\"){{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5oZUAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=70%25\\+of\\+lightning\\+occurs\\+in\\+tropics\\+on\\+land\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences\\|last1\\=Holton\\|first1\\=James R.\\|last2\\=Curry\\|first2\\=Judith A.\\|last3\\=Pyle\\|first3\\=J. A.\\|date\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Academic Press\\|isbn\\=9780122270901\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104190958/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5oZUAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=70%25\\+of\\+lightning\\+occurs\\+in\\+tropics\\+on\\+land\\&dq\\=70%25\\+of\\+lightning\\+occurs\\+in\\+tropics\\+on\\+land\\&hl\\=en\\&sa\\=X\\&ved\\=0ahUKEwjq6bqvrbzUAhUC4GMKHRR6AUkQ6AEINzAF\\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2017}} where [atmospheric convection](/wiki/Atmospheric_convection \"Atmospheric convection\") is the greatest.",
"This occurs from both the mixture of warmer and colder [air masses](/wiki/Air_mass \"Air mass\"), as well as differences in moisture concentrations, and it generally happens at the [boundaries between them](/wiki/Weather_front \"Weather front\"). The flow of warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the [Gulf Stream](/wiki/Gulf_stream \"Gulf stream\"), partially explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the [Southeast United States](/wiki/Southeast_United_States \"Southeast United States\"). Because large bodies of water lack the topographic variation that would result in atmospheric mixing, lightning is notably less frequent over the world's oceans than over land. The [North](/wiki/North_pole \"North pole\") and [South Poles](/wiki/South_pole \"South pole\") are limited in their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least lightning.{{Clarify\\|reason\\=absence of thunderstorms is similar to absence of lightning; an explanation of why are there less thunderstorms (lightning) above the poles would be more helpful\\|date\\=August 2019}}",
"In general, CG lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation where [freezing](/wiki/Freezing_level \"Freezing level\") occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process. During wind\\-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water (called [graupel](/wiki/Graupel \"Graupel\")) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to accumulate a positive [space charge](/wiki/Space_charge \"Space charge\") while the lower level accumulates a negative space charge.",
"Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating properties of air, and this increases proportionally to the distance between the cloud and the ground, the proportion of CG strikes (versus CC or IC discharges) becomes greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics, where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60° North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://science.nasa.gov/science\\-news/science\\-at\\-nasa/2001/ast05dec\\_1/\\|date\\=December 5, 2001\\|title\\=Where LightningStrikes\\|publisher\\=NASA Science. Science News.\\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716173018/http://science.nasa.gov/science\\-news/science\\-at\\-nasa/2001/ast05dec\\_1/\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2010}}[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") Ch. 8, p. 68\\.",
"Lightning is usually produced by [cumulonimbus](/wiki/Cumulonimbus \"Cumulonimbus\") clouds, which have bases that are typically {{cvt\\|1\\|\\-\\|2\\|km}} above the ground and tops up to {{convert\\|15\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} in height.",
"The place on Earth where lightning occurs most often is over [Lake Maracaibo](/wiki/Lake_Maracaibo \"Lake Maracaibo\"), wherein the [Catatumbo lightning](/wiki/Catatumbo_lightning \"Catatumbo lightning\") phenomenon produces 250 bolts of lightning a day.{{cite web \\|author1\\=R. I. Albrecht \\|author2\\=S. J. Goodman \\|author3\\=W. A. Petersen \\|author4\\=D. E. Buechler \\|author5\\=E. C. Bruning \\|author6\\=R. J. Blakeslee \\|author7\\=H. J. Christian \\|title\\=The 13 years of TRMM Lightning Imaging Sensor: From individual flash characteristics to decadal tendencies \\|url\\=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110015779/downloads/20110015779\\.pdf \\|website\\=NASA Technical Reports Server \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2022}} This activity occurs on average, 297 days a year.Fischetti, M. (2016\\) [Lightning Hotspots](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-s-top-lightning-hotspot-is-lake-maracaibo-in-venezuela/), Scientific American 314: 76 (May 2016\\) The second most lightning density is near the village of [Kifuka](/wiki/Kifuka \"Kifuka\") in the mountains of the eastern [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Democratic Republic of the Congo\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Af/CongoDR/SudKivu/Kifuka.htm\\|title\\=Kifuka – place where lightning strikes most often\\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2010\\|publisher\\=Wondermondo\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001201900/http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Af/CongoDR/SudKivu/Kifuka.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2011\\|date\\=November 7, 2010}} where the [elevation](/wiki/Elevation \"Elevation\") is around {{convert\\|975\\|m\\|ft\\|\\-2\\|abbr\\=on}}. On average, this region receives {{convert\\|158\\|/km2/years\\|/sqmi/years\\|adj\\=pre\\|lightning strikes}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/Atmosphere/lightning.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080330025304/http://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/Atmosphere/lightning.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 30, 2008\\|title\\=Annual Lightning Flash Rate \\|access\\-date\\=February 8, 2009\\|publisher\\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} Other lightning hotspots include [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://app.nea.gov.sg/cms/htdocs/article.asp?pid\\=1203\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927224804/http://app.nea.gov.sg/cms/htdocs/article.asp?pid\\=1203\\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2007\\|title\\=Lightning Activity in Singapore\\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2007\\|publisher\\=National Environmental Agency\\|date\\=2002}} and [Lightning Alley](/wiki/Lightning_Alley \"Lightning Alley\") in Central [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/lightning\\_alley.html\\|title\\=Staying Safe in Lightning Alley\\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2007\\|publisher\\=NASA\\|date\\=January 3, 2007\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713041430/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/lightning\\_alley.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2007}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.floridaenvironment.com/programs/fe00703\\.htm \\|title\\=Summer Lightning Ahead \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2007 \\|publisher\\=Florida Environment.com \\|date\\=2000 \\|author\\=Pierce, Kevin \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012160959/http://floridaenvironment.com/programs/fe00703\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2007 }}",
"According to the [World Meteorological Organization](/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization \"World Meteorological Organization\"), on April 29, 2020, a bolt 768 km (477\\.2 mi) long was observed in the southern U.S.—sixty km (37 mi) longer than the previous distance record (southern Brazil, October 31, 2018\\). A single flash in Uruguay and northern Argentina on June 18, 2020, lasted for 17\\.1 seconds—0\\.37 seconds longer than the previous record (March 4, 2019, also in northern Argentina).",
""
] |
Flashes and strikes
-------------------
The best\-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra\-cloud (IC) and cloud\-to\-cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given there are no "physical" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very low probability of lightning striking the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of high CG frequency.
### Lightning leaders
[thumb\|A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.](/wiki/File:Lightning_formation.gif "Lightning formation.gif")
[thumbnail\|Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red](/wiki/File:Leaderlightnig.gif "Leaderlightnig.gif")
In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of [ionized](/wiki/Ionized "Ionized") air, called a "[leader](/wiki/Leader_%28spark%29 "Leader (spark)")", is initiated between oppositely\-charged regions in a thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through, or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region, also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree\-like pattern.Ultraslow\-motion video of stepped leader propagation: [ztresearch.com](http://www.ztresearch.com/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413125231/http://www.ztresearch.com/ \|date\=April 13, 2010 }} In addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in a process called "stepping". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be readily observed in slow\-motion videos of lightning flashes.
It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely\-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud\-to\-air flash or a cloud\-to\-ground flash. In a typical cloud\-to\-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively\-charged ground.
The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and [negative](/wiki/Electric_charge "Electric charge") towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader "pools" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.
About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately {{convert\|45\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} in length.Goulde, R.H. (1977\) "The lightning conductor", pp. 545–576 in *Lightning Protection*, R.H. Golde, Ed., *Lightning, Vol. 2*, Academic Press. The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of [milliseconds](/wiki/Millisecond "Millisecond")) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current "Electric current") needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of [amperes](/wiki/Ampere "Ampere"), is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.
Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1007/s11214\-008\-9338\-z\|title\=Charge Structure and Dynamics in Thunderstorms\|date\=2008\|last1\=Stolzenburg\|first1\=Maribeth\|last2\=Marshall\|first2\=Thomas C.\|journal\=Space Science Reviews\|volume\=137\|issue\=1–4\|page\=355\|bibcode \= 2008SSRv..137\..355S \|s2cid\=119997418}} Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by [cosmic rays](/wiki/Cosmic_rays "Cosmic rays") and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called [runaway breakdown](/wiki/Runaway_breakdown "Runaway breakdown"). As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1029/2007JD009036\|title\=A brief review of the problem of lightning initiation and a hypothesis of initial lightning leader formation\|date\=2008\|last1\=Petersen\|first1\=Danyal\|last2\=Bailey\|first2\=Matthew\|last3\=Beasley\|first3\=William H.\|last4\=Hallett\|first4\=John\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research\|volume\=113\|issue\=D17\|pages\=D17205\|bibcode \= 2008JGRD..11317205P }} [Percolation theory](/wiki/Percolation_theory "Percolation theory"), especially for the case of biased percolation,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevE.81\.011102\|pmid\=20365318\|title\=Biased percolation on scale\-free networks\|date\=2010\|last1\=Hooyberghs\|first1\=Hans\|last2\=Van Schaeybroeck\|first2\=Bert\|last3\=Moreira\|first3\=André A.\|last4\=Andrade\|first4\=José S.\|last5\=Herrmann\|first5\=Hans J.\|last6\=Indekeu\|first6\=Joseph O.\|journal\=Physical Review E\|volume\=81\|issue\=1\|page\=011102\|bibcode \= 2010PhRvE..81a1102H \|arxiv \= 0908\.3786 \|s2cid\=7872437}} {{clarify\| what does 'biased percolation' mean?\|date\= July 2013}} describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model{{Cite journal\|last1\=Griffiths\|first1\=R. F.\|last2\=Phelps\|first2\=C. T.\|date\=1976\|title\=A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research\|volume\=81\|issue\=21\|pages\=3671–3676\|doi\=10\.1029/JC081i021p03671\|bibcode\=1976JGR....81\.3671G}} has recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sterpka\|first1\=Christopher\|last2\=Dwyer\|first2\=J\|last3\=Liu\|first3\=N\|last4\=Hare\|first4\=B M\|last5\=Scholten\|first5\=O\|last6\=Buitink\|first6\=S\|last7\=Ter Veen\|first7\=S\|last8\=Nelles\|first8\=A\|date\=November 24, 2021\|title\=The Spontaneous Nature of Lightning Initiation Revealed\|journal\=Ess Open Archive ePrints \|volume\=105 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=GL095511 \|doi\=10\.1002/essoar.10508882\.1\|bibcode\=2021GeoRL..4895511S \|s2cid\=244646368\|url\=https://bib\-pubdb1\.desy.de/record/474239 \|hdl\=2066/242824\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite web\|last\=Lewton\|first\=Thomas\|date\=December 20, 2021\|title\=Detailed Footage Finally Reveals What Triggers Lightning\|url\=https://www.quantamagazine.org/radio\-telescope\-reveals\-how\-lightning\-begins\-20211220/\|access\-date\=December 21, 2021\|website\=Quanta Magazine}}
### Upward streamers
[thumb\|220x124px \| right \| Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover](/wiki/File:Upwards_streamer_from_pool_cover.jpg "Upwards streamer from pool cover.jpg")
When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field "Electric field"). The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward [streamer](/wiki/Streamer_discharge "Streamer discharge"), can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.Kasemir, H. W. (1950\) "Qualitative Übersicht über Potential\-, Feld\- und Ladungsverhaltnisse Bei einer Blitzentladung in der Gewitterwolke" (Qualitative survey of the potential, field and charge conditions during a lightning discharge in the thunderstorm cloud) in *Das Gewitter* (The Thunderstorm), H. Israel, ed., Leipzig, Germany: [Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft](/wiki/Akademische_Verlagsgesellschaft "Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft").Ruhnke, Lothar H. (June 7, 2007\) "[Death notice: Heinz Wolfram Kasemir](https://archive.today/20110611231459/http://www.physicstoday.org/obits/notice_157.shtml)". Physics Today.{{cite web \|last1\=Stephan \|first1\=Karl \|title\=The Man Who Understood Lightning \|url\=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest\-blog/the\-man\-who\-understood\-lightning/ \|publisher\=Scientific American \|access\-date\=June 26, 2020 \|date\=March 3, 2016}}
As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing [corona discharge](/wiki/Corona_discharge "Corona discharge") will [exceed a threshold](/wiki/Corona_breakdown "Corona breakdown") and form upward streamers.
### Attachment
Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low\-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High\-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.{{Cite journal \|doi \= 10\.1002/2017GL072796\|title \= Lightning attachment process to common buildings\|journal \= Geophysical Research Letters\|volume \= 44\|issue \= 9\|pages \= 4368–4375\|year \= 2017\|last1 \= Saba\|first1 \= M. M. F.\|last2 \= Paiva\|first2 \= A. R.\|last3 \= Schumann\|first3 \= C.\|last4 \= Ferro\|first4 \= M. A. S.\|last5 \= Naccarato\|first5 \= K. P.\|last6 \= Silva\|first6 \= J. C. O.\|last7 \= Siqueira\|first7 \= F. V. C.\|last8 \= Custódio\|first8 \= D. M.\|bibcode \= 2017GeoRL..44\.4368S\|doi\-access \= free}}
### Discharge
#### Return stroke
{{redirect\|Return stroke}}
[thumb\|High\-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse"), France.](/wiki/File:Lightnings_sequence_2_animation-wcag.gif "Lightnings sequence 2 animation-wcag.gif")
Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DgHCAgAAQBAJ\|title\=The lightning discharge\|access\-date\=September 1, 2020\|publisher\=Courier Corporation\|author\=Uman, M. A.\| date\=2001\|isbn\=9780486151984}} This is the "return stroke" and it is the most [luminous](/wiki/Luminous_intensity "Luminous intensity") and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.
A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016\) [More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why](https://www.livescience.com/55916-why-reindeer-killed-by-lightning.html). *Live Science* Electricity takes every path available to it.{{cite web\|title\=The Path of Least Resistance\|url\=http://ecmweb.com/content/path\-least\-resistance\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104215214/http://ecmweb.com/content/path\-least\-resistance\|archive\-date\=January 4, 2016\|date\=July 2001\|access\-date\=January 9, 2016}}
Such step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a ground\-to\-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one\-third of the speed of light).{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Idone \| first1 \= V. P. \| last2 \= Orville \| first2 \= R. E. \| last3 \= Mach \| first3 \= D. M. \| last4 \= Rust \| first4 \= W. D. \| title \= The propagation speed of a positive lightning return stroke \| doi \= 10\.1029/GL014i011p01150 \| journal \= Geophysical Research Letters \| volume \= 14 \| issue \= 11 \| page \= 1150 \| year \= 1987 \|bibcode \= 1987GeoRL..14\.1150I \| url \= https://zenodo.org/record/1231386 }}
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly [superheats](/wiki/Superheating "Superheating") the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed {{convert\|50,000\|F\|C\|order\=flip}},{{Cite web \|last\=US Department of Commerce \|first\=NOAA \|title\=Understanding Lightning: Thunder \|url\=https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning\-science\-thunder\#:\~:text\=The%20lightning%20discharge%20heats%20the,the%20surface%20of%20the%20sun \|access\-date\=December 15, 2023 \|website\=www.weather.gov \|language\=EN\-US}} causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue\-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave "Shock wave") which is heard as [thunder](/wiki/%23Thunder "#Thunder").
#### Re\-strike
High\-speed videos (examined frame\-by\-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30\.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") Ch. 5, p. 41\.
Each re\-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re\-strikes often cause a noticeable "[strobe light](/wiki/Strobe_light "Strobe light")" effect.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") pp. 103–110\.
To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re\-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called *recoil leaders*, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke\-like process occurs and a *dart leader* travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.{{cite web \|url\=https://ztresearch.blog/education/ground\-flashes/ \|title\=Ground Flashes \|last\=Warner \|first\=Tom \|website\=ZT Research \|access\-date\=November 9, 2017\|date\=May 6, 2017 }}
Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re\-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") Ch. 9, p. 78\.
Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.
#### Transient currents during flash
The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground\-based structures. Rapidly changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the [skin effect](/wiki/Skin_effect "Skin effect"), unlike direct currents, which "flow\-through" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi\-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area "Surface area") in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total [cross\-sectional area](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 "Cross section (geometry)").
The rapidly changing currents also create [electromagnetic pulses (EMPs)](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse "Electromagnetic pulse") that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.{{Cite web\|url\=https://site.ieee.org/sas\-pesias/files/2016/03/Lightning\-Protection\-and\-Transient\-Overvoltage\_Rogerio\-Verdolin.pdf\|title\=Lightning Protection and Transient Overvoltage}} This is the [surge](/wiki/Voltage_spike "Voltage spike") that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate [electronics](/wiki/Electronics "Electronics"), [electrical appliances](/wiki/Electrical_appliance "Electrical appliance"), or [electric motors](/wiki/Electric_motor "Electric motor"). Devices known as [surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)](/wiki/Surge_protector "Surge protector") attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached [earthing ground](/wiki/Electrical_ground "Electrical ground"), thereby protecting the equipment from damage.
|
[
"Flashes and strikes\n-------------------",
"The best\\-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra\\-cloud (IC) and cloud\\-to\\-cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given there are no \"physical\" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very low probability of lightning striking the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of high CG frequency.",
"### Lightning leaders",
"[thumb\\|A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.](/wiki/File:Lightning_formation.gif \"Lightning formation.gif\")\n[thumbnail\\|Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red](/wiki/File:Leaderlightnig.gif \"Leaderlightnig.gif\")",
"In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of [ionized](/wiki/Ionized \"Ionized\") air, called a \"[leader](/wiki/Leader_%28spark%29 \"Leader (spark)\")\", is initiated between oppositely\\-charged regions in a thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through, or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region, also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree\\-like pattern.Ultraslow\\-motion video of stepped leader propagation: [ztresearch.com](http://www.ztresearch.com/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413125231/http://www.ztresearch.com/ \\|date\\=April 13, 2010 }} In addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in a process called \"stepping\". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be readily observed in slow\\-motion videos of lightning flashes.",
"It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely\\-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud\\-to\\-air flash or a cloud\\-to\\-ground flash. In a typical cloud\\-to\\-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively\\-charged ground.",
"The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and [negative](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader \"pools\" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.",
"About 90% of ionic channel lengths between \"pools\" are approximately {{convert\\|45\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} in length.Goulde, R.H. (1977\\) \"The lightning conductor\", pp. 545–576 in *Lightning Protection*, R.H. Golde, Ed., *Lightning, Vol. 2*, Academic Press. The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of [milliseconds](/wiki/Millisecond \"Millisecond\")) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current \"Electric current\") needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of [amperes](/wiki/Ampere \"Ampere\"), is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.",
"Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11214\\-008\\-9338\\-z\\|title\\=Charge Structure and Dynamics in Thunderstorms\\|date\\=2008\\|last1\\=Stolzenburg\\|first1\\=Maribeth\\|last2\\=Marshall\\|first2\\=Thomas C.\\|journal\\=Space Science Reviews\\|volume\\=137\\|issue\\=1–4\\|page\\=355\\|bibcode \\= 2008SSRv..137\\..355S \\|s2cid\\=119997418}} Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by [cosmic rays](/wiki/Cosmic_rays \"Cosmic rays\") and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called [runaway breakdown](/wiki/Runaway_breakdown \"Runaway breakdown\"). As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2007JD009036\\|title\\=A brief review of the problem of lightning initiation and a hypothesis of initial lightning leader formation\\|date\\=2008\\|last1\\=Petersen\\|first1\\=Danyal\\|last2\\=Bailey\\|first2\\=Matthew\\|last3\\=Beasley\\|first3\\=William H.\\|last4\\=Hallett\\|first4\\=John\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research\\|volume\\=113\\|issue\\=D17\\|pages\\=D17205\\|bibcode \\= 2008JGRD..11317205P }} [Percolation theory](/wiki/Percolation_theory \"Percolation theory\"), especially for the case of biased percolation,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevE.81\\.011102\\|pmid\\=20365318\\|title\\=Biased percolation on scale\\-free networks\\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Hooyberghs\\|first1\\=Hans\\|last2\\=Van Schaeybroeck\\|first2\\=Bert\\|last3\\=Moreira\\|first3\\=André A.\\|last4\\=Andrade\\|first4\\=José S.\\|last5\\=Herrmann\\|first5\\=Hans J.\\|last6\\=Indekeu\\|first6\\=Joseph O.\\|journal\\=Physical Review E\\|volume\\=81\\|issue\\=1\\|page\\=011102\\|bibcode \\= 2010PhRvE..81a1102H \\|arxiv \\= 0908\\.3786 \\|s2cid\\=7872437}} {{clarify\\| what does 'biased percolation' mean?\\|date\\= July 2013}} describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Griffiths\\|first1\\=R. F.\\|last2\\=Phelps\\|first2\\=C. T.\\|date\\=1976\\|title\\=A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research\\|volume\\=81\\|issue\\=21\\|pages\\=3671–3676\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/JC081i021p03671\\|bibcode\\=1976JGR....81\\.3671G}} has recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sterpka\\|first1\\=Christopher\\|last2\\=Dwyer\\|first2\\=J\\|last3\\=Liu\\|first3\\=N\\|last4\\=Hare\\|first4\\=B M\\|last5\\=Scholten\\|first5\\=O\\|last6\\=Buitink\\|first6\\=S\\|last7\\=Ter Veen\\|first7\\=S\\|last8\\=Nelles\\|first8\\=A\\|date\\=November 24, 2021\\|title\\=The Spontaneous Nature of Lightning Initiation Revealed\\|journal\\=Ess Open Archive ePrints \\|volume\\=105 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=GL095511 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/essoar.10508882\\.1\\|bibcode\\=2021GeoRL..4895511S \\|s2cid\\=244646368\\|url\\=https://bib\\-pubdb1\\.desy.de/record/474239 \\|hdl\\=2066/242824\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Lewton\\|first\\=Thomas\\|date\\=December 20, 2021\\|title\\=Detailed Footage Finally Reveals What Triggers Lightning\\|url\\=https://www.quantamagazine.org/radio\\-telescope\\-reveals\\-how\\-lightning\\-begins\\-20211220/\\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2021\\|website\\=Quanta Magazine}}",
"### Upward streamers",
"[thumb\\|220x124px \\| right \\| Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover](/wiki/File:Upwards_streamer_from_pool_cover.jpg \"Upwards streamer from pool cover.jpg\")\nWhen a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the [electric field](/wiki/Electric_field \"Electric field\"). The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward [streamer](/wiki/Streamer_discharge \"Streamer discharge\"), can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.Kasemir, H. W. (1950\\) \"Qualitative Übersicht über Potential\\-, Feld\\- und Ladungsverhaltnisse Bei einer Blitzentladung in der Gewitterwolke\" (Qualitative survey of the potential, field and charge conditions during a lightning discharge in the thunderstorm cloud) in *Das Gewitter* (The Thunderstorm), H. Israel, ed., Leipzig, Germany: [Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft](/wiki/Akademische_Verlagsgesellschaft \"Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft\").Ruhnke, Lothar H. (June 7, 2007\\) \"[Death notice: Heinz Wolfram Kasemir](https://archive.today/20110611231459/http://www.physicstoday.org/obits/notice_157.shtml)\". Physics Today.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Stephan \\|first1\\=Karl \\|title\\=The Man Who Understood Lightning \\|url\\=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest\\-blog/the\\-man\\-who\\-understood\\-lightning/ \\|publisher\\=Scientific American \\|access\\-date\\=June 26, 2020 \\|date\\=March 3, 2016}}",
"As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing [corona discharge](/wiki/Corona_discharge \"Corona discharge\") will [exceed a threshold](/wiki/Corona_breakdown \"Corona breakdown\") and form upward streamers.",
"### Attachment",
"Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low\\-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High\\-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.{{Cite journal \\|doi \\= 10\\.1002/2017GL072796\\|title \\= Lightning attachment process to common buildings\\|journal \\= Geophysical Research Letters\\|volume \\= 44\\|issue \\= 9\\|pages \\= 4368–4375\\|year \\= 2017\\|last1 \\= Saba\\|first1 \\= M. M. F.\\|last2 \\= Paiva\\|first2 \\= A. R.\\|last3 \\= Schumann\\|first3 \\= C.\\|last4 \\= Ferro\\|first4 \\= M. A. S.\\|last5 \\= Naccarato\\|first5 \\= K. P.\\|last6 \\= Silva\\|first6 \\= J. C. O.\\|last7 \\= Siqueira\\|first7 \\= F. V. C.\\|last8 \\= Custódio\\|first8 \\= D. M.\\|bibcode \\= 2017GeoRL..44\\.4368S\\|doi\\-access \\= free}}",
"### Discharge",
"#### Return stroke",
"{{redirect\\|Return stroke}}\n[thumb\\|High\\-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\"), France.](/wiki/File:Lightnings_sequence_2_animation-wcag.gif \"Lightnings sequence 2 animation-wcag.gif\")",
"Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DgHCAgAAQBAJ\\|title\\=The lightning discharge\\|access\\-date\\=September 1, 2020\\|publisher\\=Courier Corporation\\|author\\=Uman, M. A.\\| date\\=2001\\|isbn\\=9780486151984}} This is the \"return stroke\" and it is the most [luminous](/wiki/Luminous_intensity \"Luminous intensity\") and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.",
"A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016\\) [More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why](https://www.livescience.com/55916-why-reindeer-killed-by-lightning.html). *Live Science* Electricity takes every path available to it.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Path of Least Resistance\\|url\\=http://ecmweb.com/content/path\\-least\\-resistance\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104215214/http://ecmweb.com/content/path\\-least\\-resistance\\|archive\\-date\\=January 4, 2016\\|date\\=July 2001\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2016}}\nSuch step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.",
"The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as \"negative CG\" lightning. In some cases, a ground\\-to\\-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one\\-third of the speed of light).{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Idone \\| first1 \\= V. P. \\| last2 \\= Orville \\| first2 \\= R. E. \\| last3 \\= Mach \\| first3 \\= D. M. \\| last4 \\= Rust \\| first4 \\= W. D. \\| title \\= The propagation speed of a positive lightning return stroke \\| doi \\= 10\\.1029/GL014i011p01150 \\| journal \\= Geophysical Research Letters \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| page \\= 1150 \\| year \\= 1987 \\|bibcode \\= 1987GeoRL..14\\.1150I \\| url \\= https://zenodo.org/record/1231386 }}",
"The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly [superheats](/wiki/Superheating \"Superheating\") the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed {{convert\\|50,000\\|F\\|C\\|order\\=flip}},{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Department of Commerce \\|first\\=NOAA \\|title\\=Understanding Lightning: Thunder \\|url\\=https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning\\-science\\-thunder\\#:\\~:text\\=The%20lightning%20discharge%20heats%20the,the%20surface%20of%20the%20sun \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2023 \\|website\\=www.weather.gov \\|language\\=EN\\-US}} causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue\\-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave \"Shock wave\") which is heard as [thunder](/wiki/%23Thunder \"#Thunder\").",
"#### Re\\-strike",
"High\\-speed videos (examined frame\\-by\\-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30\\.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") Ch. 5, p. 41\\.",
"Each re\\-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re\\-strikes often cause a noticeable \"[strobe light](/wiki/Strobe_light \"Strobe light\")\" effect.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") pp. 103–110\\.",
"To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re\\-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called *recoil leaders*, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke\\-like process occurs and a *dart leader* travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://ztresearch.blog/education/ground\\-flashes/ \\|title\\=Ground Flashes \\|last\\=Warner \\|first\\=Tom \\|website\\=ZT Research \\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2017\\|date\\=May 6, 2017 }}",
"Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re\\-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") Ch. 9, p. 78\\.",
"Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.",
"#### Transient currents during flash",
"The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground\\-based structures. Rapidly changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the [skin effect](/wiki/Skin_effect \"Skin effect\"), unlike direct currents, which \"flow\\-through\" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi\\-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area \"Surface area\") in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total [cross\\-sectional area](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 \"Cross section (geometry)\").",
"The rapidly changing currents also create [electromagnetic pulses (EMPs)](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse \"Electromagnetic pulse\") that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://site.ieee.org/sas\\-pesias/files/2016/03/Lightning\\-Protection\\-and\\-Transient\\-Overvoltage\\_Rogerio\\-Verdolin.pdf\\|title\\=Lightning Protection and Transient Overvoltage}} This is the [surge](/wiki/Voltage_spike \"Voltage spike\") that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate [electronics](/wiki/Electronics \"Electronics\"), [electrical appliances](/wiki/Electrical_appliance \"Electrical appliance\"), or [electric motors](/wiki/Electric_motor \"Electric motor\"). Devices known as [surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)](/wiki/Surge_protector \"Surge protector\") attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached [earthing ground](/wiki/Electrical_ground \"Electrical ground\"), thereby protecting the equipment from damage.",
""
] |
### Discharge
#### Return stroke
{{redirect\|Return stroke}}
[thumb\|High\-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse"), France.](/wiki/File:Lightnings_sequence_2_animation-wcag.gif "Lightnings sequence 2 animation-wcag.gif")
Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DgHCAgAAQBAJ\|title\=The lightning discharge\|access\-date\=September 1, 2020\|publisher\=Courier Corporation\|author\=Uman, M. A.\| date\=2001\|isbn\=9780486151984}} This is the "return stroke" and it is the most [luminous](/wiki/Luminous_intensity "Luminous intensity") and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.
A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016\) [More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why](https://www.livescience.com/55916-why-reindeer-killed-by-lightning.html). *Live Science* Electricity takes every path available to it.{{cite web\|title\=The Path of Least Resistance\|url\=http://ecmweb.com/content/path\-least\-resistance\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104215214/http://ecmweb.com/content/path\-least\-resistance\|archive\-date\=January 4, 2016\|date\=July 2001\|access\-date\=January 9, 2016}}
Such step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a ground\-to\-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one\-third of the speed of light).{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Idone \| first1 \= V. P. \| last2 \= Orville \| first2 \= R. E. \| last3 \= Mach \| first3 \= D. M. \| last4 \= Rust \| first4 \= W. D. \| title \= The propagation speed of a positive lightning return stroke \| doi \= 10\.1029/GL014i011p01150 \| journal \= Geophysical Research Letters \| volume \= 14 \| issue \= 11 \| page \= 1150 \| year \= 1987 \|bibcode \= 1987GeoRL..14\.1150I \| url \= https://zenodo.org/record/1231386 }}
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly [superheats](/wiki/Superheating "Superheating") the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed {{convert\|50,000\|F\|C\|order\=flip}},{{Cite web \|last\=US Department of Commerce \|first\=NOAA \|title\=Understanding Lightning: Thunder \|url\=https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning\-science\-thunder\#:\~:text\=The%20lightning%20discharge%20heats%20the,the%20surface%20of%20the%20sun \|access\-date\=December 15, 2023 \|website\=www.weather.gov \|language\=EN\-US}} causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue\-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave "Shock wave") which is heard as [thunder](/wiki/%23Thunder "#Thunder").
#### Re\-strike
High\-speed videos (examined frame\-by\-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30\.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") Ch. 5, p. 41\.
Each re\-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re\-strikes often cause a noticeable "[strobe light](/wiki/Strobe_light "Strobe light")" effect.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") pp. 103–110\.
To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re\-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called *recoil leaders*, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke\-like process occurs and a *dart leader* travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.{{cite web \|url\=https://ztresearch.blog/education/ground\-flashes/ \|title\=Ground Flashes \|last\=Warner \|first\=Tom \|website\=ZT Research \|access\-date\=November 9, 2017\|date\=May 6, 2017 }}
Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re\-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") Ch. 9, p. 78\.
Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.
#### Transient currents during flash
The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground\-based structures. Rapidly changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the [skin effect](/wiki/Skin_effect "Skin effect"), unlike direct currents, which "flow\-through" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi\-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area "Surface area") in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total [cross\-sectional area](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 "Cross section (geometry)").
The rapidly changing currents also create [electromagnetic pulses (EMPs)](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse "Electromagnetic pulse") that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.{{Cite web\|url\=https://site.ieee.org/sas\-pesias/files/2016/03/Lightning\-Protection\-and\-Transient\-Overvoltage\_Rogerio\-Verdolin.pdf\|title\=Lightning Protection and Transient Overvoltage}} This is the [surge](/wiki/Voltage_spike "Voltage spike") that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate [electronics](/wiki/Electronics "Electronics"), [electrical appliances](/wiki/Electrical_appliance "Electrical appliance"), or [electric motors](/wiki/Electric_motor "Electric motor"). Devices known as [surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)](/wiki/Surge_protector "Surge protector") attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached [earthing ground](/wiki/Electrical_ground "Electrical ground"), thereby protecting the equipment from damage.
|
[
"### Discharge",
"#### Return stroke",
"{{redirect\\|Return stroke}}\n[thumb\\|High\\-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\"), France.](/wiki/File:Lightnings_sequence_2_animation-wcag.gif \"Lightnings sequence 2 animation-wcag.gif\")",
"Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DgHCAgAAQBAJ\\|title\\=The lightning discharge\\|access\\-date\\=September 1, 2020\\|publisher\\=Courier Corporation\\|author\\=Uman, M. A.\\| date\\=2001\\|isbn\\=9780486151984}} This is the \"return stroke\" and it is the most [luminous](/wiki/Luminous_intensity \"Luminous intensity\") and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.",
"A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016\\) [More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why](https://www.livescience.com/55916-why-reindeer-killed-by-lightning.html). *Live Science* Electricity takes every path available to it.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Path of Least Resistance\\|url\\=http://ecmweb.com/content/path\\-least\\-resistance\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104215214/http://ecmweb.com/content/path\\-least\\-resistance\\|archive\\-date\\=January 4, 2016\\|date\\=July 2001\\|access\\-date\\=January 9, 2016}}\nSuch step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.",
"The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as \"negative CG\" lightning. In some cases, a ground\\-to\\-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one\\-third of the speed of light).{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Idone \\| first1 \\= V. P. \\| last2 \\= Orville \\| first2 \\= R. E. \\| last3 \\= Mach \\| first3 \\= D. M. \\| last4 \\= Rust \\| first4 \\= W. D. \\| title \\= The propagation speed of a positive lightning return stroke \\| doi \\= 10\\.1029/GL014i011p01150 \\| journal \\= Geophysical Research Letters \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| page \\= 1150 \\| year \\= 1987 \\|bibcode \\= 1987GeoRL..14\\.1150I \\| url \\= https://zenodo.org/record/1231386 }}",
"The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly [superheats](/wiki/Superheating \"Superheating\") the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed {{convert\\|50,000\\|F\\|C\\|order\\=flip}},{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Department of Commerce \\|first\\=NOAA \\|title\\=Understanding Lightning: Thunder \\|url\\=https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning\\-science\\-thunder\\#:\\~:text\\=The%20lightning%20discharge%20heats%20the,the%20surface%20of%20the%20sun \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2023 \\|website\\=www.weather.gov \\|language\\=EN\\-US}} causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue\\-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave \"Shock wave\") which is heard as [thunder](/wiki/%23Thunder \"#Thunder\").",
"#### Re\\-strike",
"High\\-speed videos (examined frame\\-by\\-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30\\.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") Ch. 5, p. 41\\.",
"Each re\\-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re\\-strikes often cause a noticeable \"[strobe light](/wiki/Strobe_light \"Strobe light\")\" effect.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") pp. 103–110\\.",
"To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re\\-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called *recoil leaders*, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke\\-like process occurs and a *dart leader* travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://ztresearch.blog/education/ground\\-flashes/ \\|title\\=Ground Flashes \\|last\\=Warner \\|first\\=Tom \\|website\\=ZT Research \\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2017\\|date\\=May 6, 2017 }}",
"Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re\\-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") Ch. 9, p. 78\\.",
"Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.",
"#### Transient currents during flash",
"The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground\\-based structures. Rapidly changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the [skin effect](/wiki/Skin_effect \"Skin effect\"), unlike direct currents, which \"flow\\-through\" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi\\-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area \"Surface area\") in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total [cross\\-sectional area](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 \"Cross section (geometry)\").",
"The rapidly changing currents also create [electromagnetic pulses (EMPs)](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse \"Electromagnetic pulse\") that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://site.ieee.org/sas\\-pesias/files/2016/03/Lightning\\-Protection\\-and\\-Transient\\-Overvoltage\\_Rogerio\\-Verdolin.pdf\\|title\\=Lightning Protection and Transient Overvoltage}} This is the [surge](/wiki/Voltage_spike \"Voltage spike\") that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate [electronics](/wiki/Electronics \"Electronics\"), [electrical appliances](/wiki/Electrical_appliance \"Electrical appliance\"), or [electric motors](/wiki/Electric_motor \"Electric motor\"). Devices known as [surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)](/wiki/Surge_protector \"Surge protector\") attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached [earthing ground](/wiki/Electrical_ground \"Electrical ground\"), thereby protecting the equipment from damage.",
""
] |
Types
-----
Three primary types of lightning are defined by the "starting" and "ending" points of a flash channel.
* {{em\|Intra\-cloud}} (IC) or {{em\|in\-cloud}} lightning occurs within a single thundercloud unit.
* {{em\|Cloud\-to\-cloud}} (CC) or {{em\|inter\-cloud}} lightning starts and ends between two different "functional" thundercloud units.
* {{em\|Cloud\-to\-ground}} (CG) lightning primarily originates in the thundercloud and terminates on an Earth surface, but may also occur in the reverse direction, that is ground to cloud.
There are variations of each type, such as "positive" versus "negative" CG flashes, that have different physical characteristics common to each which can be measured. Different [common names](/wiki/Common_name "Common name") used to describe a particular lightning event may be attributed to the same or to different events.
### Cloud to ground (CG)
[thumb\|Cloud to ground seen in slow motion](/wiki/File:Lightning_strikes_in_slow_motion_%28240fps%29_in_Muurame%2C_Finland.webm "Lightning strikes in slow motion (240fps) in Muurame, Finland.webm")
{{em\|Cloud\-to\-ground}} (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge between a thundercloud and the ground. It is initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud, which is met by a streamer moving up from the ground.
CG is the least common, but best understood of all types of lightning. It is easier to study scientifically because it terminates on a physical object, namely the ground, and lends itself to being measured by instruments on the ground. Of the three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property, since it terminates on the ground or "strikes".
The overall discharge, termed a flash, is composed of a number of processes such as preliminary breakdown, stepped leaders, connecting leaders, return strokes, dart leaders, and subsequent return strokes.{{cite book \|chapter\=Mechanism of the Lightning Flash \|title\=The Lightning Flash \|edition\=2nd \|editor\-first\=V.\|editor\-last\=Cooray \|publisher\=\[\[Institution of Engineering and Technology]] \|location\=London \|year\=2014 \|pages\=119–229}} The conductivity of the electrical ground, be it soil, [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water "Fresh water"), or [salt water](/wiki/Saline_water "Saline water"), may affect the lightning discharge rate and thus visible characteristics.{{cite magazine \|last\=Jones\|first\=Nicola \|title\=Salty Seas Make Lightning Brighter \|url\=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/salty\-seas\-make\-lightning\-brighter \|access\-date\=January 11, 2021 \|magazine\=\[\[Smithsonian (magazine)\|Smithsonian]] \|date\=January 4, 2021}}
#### {{anchor\|Positive lightning}}Positive and negative lightning
Cloud\-to\-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the [conventional electric current](/wiki/Conventional_current_flow "Conventional current flow") between cloud and ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred to ground and electrons travel downward along the lightning channel (conventionally the current flows from the ground to the cloud). The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel and a positive charge is transferred to the ground (conventionally the current flows from the cloud to the ground). Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.{{cite web \|title\=NWS JetStream – The Positive and Negative Side of Lightning \|publisher\=\[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \|url\=https://srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/lightning/positive.htm \|access\-date\=September 25, 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705205815/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/lightning/positive.htm \|archive\-date\=July 5, 2007 \| df \= mdy\-all }}
[thumb\|A *bolt from the blue* lightning strike which appears to initiate from the clear, but the turbulent sky above the [anvil cloud](/wiki/Anvil_cloud "Anvil cloud") and drive a bolt of plasma through the cloud directly to the ground. They are commonly referred to as positive flashes, despite the fact that they are usually negative in polarity.](/wiki/File:Anvil-to-ground_lightning.jpg "Anvil-to-ground lightning.jpg")
There are six different mechanisms theorized to result in the formation of positive lightning.{{cite journal \|title\=Positive lightning: An overview, new observations, and inferences \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \|volume\=117 \|issue\=D8 \|year\=2012 \|last1\=Nag\|first1\=Amitabh \|last2\=Rakov\|first2\=Vladimir A. \|pages\= \|bibcode\=2012JGRD..117\.8109N \|doi\=10\.1029/2012JD017545 \|doi\-access\=free}}
* Vertical wind shear displacing the upper positive charge region of a thundercloud, exposing it to the ground below.
* The loss of lower charge regions in the dissipating stage of a thunderstorm, leaving the primary positive charge region.
* A complex arrangement of charge regions in a thundercloud, effectively resulting in an {{em\|inverted dipole}} or {{em\|inverted tripole}} in which the main negative charge region is above the main positive charge region instead of beneath it.
* An unusually large lower positive charge region in the thundercloud.
* Cutoff of an extended negative leader from its origin which creates a new bidirectional leader in which the positive end strikes the ground, commonly seen in anvil\-crawler spider flashes.
* The initiation of a downward positive branch from an IC lightning flash.
Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do *not* necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain\-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar and originate from their respective charge region.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2021}}
Positive lightning strikes tend to be much more intense than their negative counterparts. An average bolt of [negative](/wiki/Electrical_polarity "Electrical polarity") lightning carries an electric current of 30,000 [amperes](/wiki/Ampere "Ampere") (30 kA), and transfers 15 C ([coulombs](/wiki/Coulomb "Coulomb")) of [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge "Electric charge") and 1 [gigajoule](/wiki/Joule "Joule") of [energy](/wiki/Energy "Energy"). Large bolts of positive lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350 C.Hasbrouck, Richard. [Mitigating Lightning Hazards](https://llnl.gov/str/pdfs/05_96.1.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005005230/https://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/05\_96\.1\.pdf \|date\=October 5, 2013 }}, Science \& Technology Review May 1996\. Retrieved on April 26, 2009\. The average positive ground flash has roughly double the peak current of a typical negative flash, and can produce peak currents up to 400 kA and charges of several hundred coulombs.V. A. Rakov, M. A. Uman, Positive and bipolar lightning discharges to ground, in: Light. Phys. Eff., [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"), 2003: pp. 214–240{{cite book \|first1\=U. A.\|last1\=Bakshi \|first2\=M. V.\|last2\=Bakshi \|title\=Power System – II \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oOj4NjQ8xGQC\&pg\=SA12\-PA5 \|date\=January 1, 2009 \|publisher\=Technical Publications \|isbn\=978\-81\-8431\-536\-3 \|page\=12 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312135216/https://books.google.com/books?id\=oOj4NjQ8xGQC\&pg\=SA12\-PA5 \|archive\-date\=March 12, 2017 }} Furthermore, positive ground flashes with high peak currents are commonly followed by long continuing currents, a correlation not seen in negative ground flashes.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1029/2010JD014330 \|title\=High\-speed video observations of positive lightning flashes to ground \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \|volume\=115 \|issue\=D24 \|pages\=201 \|year\=2010 \|last1\=Saba\|first1\=Marcelo M. F. \|last2\=Schulz\|first2\=Wolfgang \|last3\=Warner\|first3\=Tom A. \|last4\=Campos\|first4\=Leandro Z. S. \|last5\=Schumann\|first5\=Carina \|last6\=Krider\|first6\=E. Philip \|last7\=Cummins\|first7\=Kenneth L. \|last8\=Orville\|first8\=Richard E. \|bibcode\=2010JGRD..11524201S \|s2cid\=129809543 \|doi\-access\=free}}
As a result of their greater power, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous than negative strikes. Positive lightning produces both higher peak currents and longer continuing currents, making them capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited. The long distances positive lightning can propagate through clear air explains why they are known as "bolts from the blue", giving no warning to observers.
Despite the popular misconception that these{{clarify\|date\=April 2021}} are positive lightning strikes due to them seemingly originating from the positive charge region, observations have shown that these are in fact negative flashes. They begin as IC flashes within the cloud, the negative leader then exits the cloud from the positive charge region before propagating through clear air and striking the ground some distance away.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1029/2011JD016890\|title\=Lightning morphology and impulse charge moment change of high peak current negative strokes\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres\|volume\=117\|issue\=D4\|year\=2012\|last1\=Lu\|first1\=Gaopeng\|last2\=Cummer\|first2\=Steven A\|last3\=Blakeslee\|first3\=Richard J\|last4\=Weiss\|first4\=Stephanie\|last5\=Beasley\|first5\=William H\|pages\=n/a\|bibcode\=2012JGRD..117\.4212L\|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.308\.9842}}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1038/ngeo162\|title\=Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorms\|journal\=Nature Geoscience\|volume\=1\|issue\=4\|page\=233\|year\=2008\|last1\=Krehbiel\|first1\=Paul R\|last2\=Riousset\|first2\=Jeremy A\|last3\=Pasko\|first3\=Victor P\|last4\=Thomas\|first4\=Ronald J\|last5\=Rison\|first5\=William\|last6\=Stanley\|first6\=Mark A\|last7\=Edens\|first7\=Harald E\|bibcode\=2008NatGe...1\..233K\|s2cid\=8753629}}
Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of upward lightning flashes from the tops of tall structures and is largely responsible for the initiation of [sprites](/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning%23Sprites "Upper-atmospheric lightning#Sprites") several tens of kilometers above ground level. Positive lightning tends to occur more frequently in [winter storms](/wiki/Winter_storm "Winter storm"), as with [thundersnow](/wiki/Thundersnow "Thundersnow"), during intense [tornadoes](/wiki/Tornado "Tornado"){{cite journal\|author1\=Perez, Antony H. \|author2\=Wicker, Louis J. \|author3\=Richard E. Orville \|title\=Characteristics of Cloud\-to\-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes\|journal\=Weather Forecast.\|volume\=12\|issue\=3\|pages\=428–37\|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0434(1997\)012\<0428:COCTGL\>2\.0\.CO;2\|bibcode \= 1997WtFor..12\..428P\|year\=1997 \|doi\-access\=free}} and in the dissipation stage of a [thunderstorm](/wiki/Thunderstorm "Thunderstorm").{{cite web
\| url \= http://thunder.nsstc.nasa.gov/primer/primer2\.html\|title \= A Lightning Primer – Characteristics of a Storm \|access\-date \= February 8, 2009 \|author1\=Christian, Hugh J. \|author2\=McCook, Melanie A. \|work \=NASA \| url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305002214/http://thunder.nsstc.nasa.gov/primer/primer2\.html \|archive\-date\=March 5, 2016}} Huge quantities of [extremely low frequency](/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency "Extremely low frequency") (ELF) and [very low frequency](/wiki/Very_low_frequency "Very low frequency") (VLF) [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_wave "Radio wave") are also generated.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Boccippio \| first1 \= DJ \| title \= Sprites, ELF Transients, and Positive Ground Strokes \| journal \= \[\[Science (journal)\|Science]] \| volume \= 269 \| pages \= 1088–1091 \|date\=August 1995 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.269\.5227\.1088 \| pmid \= 17755531 \| last2 \= Williams \| first2 \= ER \| last3 \= Heckman \| first3 \= SJ \| last4 \= Lyons \| first4 \= WA \| last5 \= Baker \| first5 \= IT \| last6 \= Boldi \| first6 \= R \| issue \= 5227 \| bibcode \= 1995Sci...269\.1088B \| s2cid \= 8840716 }}
### {{anchor\|Cloud to cloud}} Cloud to cloud (CC) and intra\-cloud (IC)
Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground. When it occurs between two separate clouds, it is known as {{em\|cloud\-to\-cloud}} (CC) or {{em\|inter\-cloud}} lightning; when it occurs between areas of differing [electric potential](/wiki/Electric_potential "Electric potential") within a single cloud, it is known as {{em\|intra\-cloud}} (IC) lightning. IC lightning is the most frequently occurring type.
IC lightning most commonly occurs between the upper [anvil](/wiki/Cumulonimbus_incus "Cumulonimbus incus") portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so\-called "[sheet lightning](/wiki/Sheet_lightning "Sheet lightning")". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.
Another term used for cloud–cloud or cloud–cloud–ground lightning is "Anvil Crawler", due to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature extensive rear anvil shearing.
File:Ligtning new delhi view 1\.GIF\|Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, \[\[New Delhi]], India.
File:Cloud to cloud lightning strike.jpg\|Multiple paths of cloud\-to\-cloud lightning, \[\[Swifts Creek, Victoria\|Swifts Creek]], Australia.
File:Baltic thunder.jpg\|Intra\-clouds lightning over the \[\[Baltic Sea]].
File:CC lightning, Albury NSW.JPG\|Cloud\-to\-cloud lightning, \[\[Albury]], Australia
|
[
"Types\n-----",
"Three primary types of lightning are defined by the \"starting\" and \"ending\" points of a flash channel.\n* {{em\\|Intra\\-cloud}} (IC) or {{em\\|in\\-cloud}} lightning occurs within a single thundercloud unit.\n* {{em\\|Cloud\\-to\\-cloud}} (CC) or {{em\\|inter\\-cloud}} lightning starts and ends between two different \"functional\" thundercloud units.\n* {{em\\|Cloud\\-to\\-ground}} (CG) lightning primarily originates in the thundercloud and terminates on an Earth surface, but may also occur in the reverse direction, that is ground to cloud.",
"There are variations of each type, such as \"positive\" versus \"negative\" CG flashes, that have different physical characteristics common to each which can be measured. Different [common names](/wiki/Common_name \"Common name\") used to describe a particular lightning event may be attributed to the same or to different events.",
"### Cloud to ground (CG)",
"[thumb\\|Cloud to ground seen in slow motion](/wiki/File:Lightning_strikes_in_slow_motion_%28240fps%29_in_Muurame%2C_Finland.webm \"Lightning strikes in slow motion (240fps) in Muurame, Finland.webm\")",
"{{em\\|Cloud\\-to\\-ground}} (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge between a thundercloud and the ground. It is initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud, which is met by a streamer moving up from the ground.",
"CG is the least common, but best understood of all types of lightning. It is easier to study scientifically because it terminates on a physical object, namely the ground, and lends itself to being measured by instruments on the ground. Of the three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property, since it terminates on the ground or \"strikes\".",
"The overall discharge, termed a flash, is composed of a number of processes such as preliminary breakdown, stepped leaders, connecting leaders, return strokes, dart leaders, and subsequent return strokes.{{cite book \\|chapter\\=Mechanism of the Lightning Flash \\|title\\=The Lightning Flash \\|edition\\=2nd \\|editor\\-first\\=V.\\|editor\\-last\\=Cooray \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institution of Engineering and Technology]] \\|location\\=London \\|year\\=2014 \\|pages\\=119–229}} The conductivity of the electrical ground, be it soil, [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water \"Fresh water\"), or [salt water](/wiki/Saline_water \"Saline water\"), may affect the lightning discharge rate and thus visible characteristics.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Jones\\|first\\=Nicola \\|title\\=Salty Seas Make Lightning Brighter \\|url\\=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/salty\\-seas\\-make\\-lightning\\-brighter \\|access\\-date\\=January 11, 2021 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Smithsonian (magazine)\\|Smithsonian]] \\|date\\=January 4, 2021}}",
"#### {{anchor\\|Positive lightning}}Positive and negative lightning",
"Cloud\\-to\\-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the [conventional electric current](/wiki/Conventional_current_flow \"Conventional current flow\") between cloud and ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred to ground and electrons travel downward along the lightning channel (conventionally the current flows from the ground to the cloud). The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel and a positive charge is transferred to the ground (conventionally the current flows from the cloud to the ground). Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.{{cite web \\|title\\=NWS JetStream – The Positive and Negative Side of Lightning \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \\|url\\=https://srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/lightning/positive.htm \\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705205815/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/lightning/positive.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2007 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all }}",
"[thumb\\|A *bolt from the blue* lightning strike which appears to initiate from the clear, but the turbulent sky above the [anvil cloud](/wiki/Anvil_cloud \"Anvil cloud\") and drive a bolt of plasma through the cloud directly to the ground. They are commonly referred to as positive flashes, despite the fact that they are usually negative in polarity.](/wiki/File:Anvil-to-ground_lightning.jpg \"Anvil-to-ground lightning.jpg\")",
"There are six different mechanisms theorized to result in the formation of positive lightning.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Positive lightning: An overview, new observations, and inferences \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \\|volume\\=117 \\|issue\\=D8 \\|year\\=2012 \\|last1\\=Nag\\|first1\\=Amitabh \\|last2\\=Rakov\\|first2\\=Vladimir A. \\|pages\\= \\|bibcode\\=2012JGRD..117\\.8109N \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2012JD017545 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}\n* Vertical wind shear displacing the upper positive charge region of a thundercloud, exposing it to the ground below.\n* The loss of lower charge regions in the dissipating stage of a thunderstorm, leaving the primary positive charge region.\n* A complex arrangement of charge regions in a thundercloud, effectively resulting in an {{em\\|inverted dipole}} or {{em\\|inverted tripole}} in which the main negative charge region is above the main positive charge region instead of beneath it.\n* An unusually large lower positive charge region in the thundercloud.\n* Cutoff of an extended negative leader from its origin which creates a new bidirectional leader in which the positive end strikes the ground, commonly seen in anvil\\-crawler spider flashes.\n* The initiation of a downward positive branch from an IC lightning flash.",
"Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do *not* necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain\\-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar and originate from their respective charge region.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}}",
"Positive lightning strikes tend to be much more intense than their negative counterparts. An average bolt of [negative](/wiki/Electrical_polarity \"Electrical polarity\") lightning carries an electric current of 30,000 [amperes](/wiki/Ampere \"Ampere\") (30 kA), and transfers 15 C ([coulombs](/wiki/Coulomb \"Coulomb\")) of [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") and 1 [gigajoule](/wiki/Joule \"Joule\") of [energy](/wiki/Energy \"Energy\"). Large bolts of positive lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350 C.Hasbrouck, Richard. [Mitigating Lightning Hazards](https://llnl.gov/str/pdfs/05_96.1.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005005230/https://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/05\\_96\\.1\\.pdf \\|date\\=October 5, 2013 }}, Science \\& Technology Review May 1996\\. Retrieved on April 26, 2009\\. The average positive ground flash has roughly double the peak current of a typical negative flash, and can produce peak currents up to 400 kA and charges of several hundred coulombs.V. A. Rakov, M. A. Uman, Positive and bipolar lightning discharges to ground, in: Light. Phys. Eff., [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press \"Cambridge University Press\"), 2003: pp. 214–240{{cite book \\|first1\\=U. A.\\|last1\\=Bakshi \\|first2\\=M. V.\\|last2\\=Bakshi \\|title\\=Power System – II \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oOj4NjQ8xGQC\\&pg\\=SA12\\-PA5 \\|date\\=January 1, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Technical Publications \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-8431\\-536\\-3 \\|page\\=12 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312135216/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oOj4NjQ8xGQC\\&pg\\=SA12\\-PA5 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 12, 2017 }} Furthermore, positive ground flashes with high peak currents are commonly followed by long continuing currents, a correlation not seen in negative ground flashes.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2010JD014330 \\|title\\=High\\-speed video observations of positive lightning flashes to ground \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \\|volume\\=115 \\|issue\\=D24 \\|pages\\=201 \\|year\\=2010 \\|last1\\=Saba\\|first1\\=Marcelo M. F. \\|last2\\=Schulz\\|first2\\=Wolfgang \\|last3\\=Warner\\|first3\\=Tom A. \\|last4\\=Campos\\|first4\\=Leandro Z. S. \\|last5\\=Schumann\\|first5\\=Carina \\|last6\\=Krider\\|first6\\=E. Philip \\|last7\\=Cummins\\|first7\\=Kenneth L. \\|last8\\=Orville\\|first8\\=Richard E. \\|bibcode\\=2010JGRD..11524201S \\|s2cid\\=129809543 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"As a result of their greater power, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous than negative strikes. Positive lightning produces both higher peak currents and longer continuing currents, making them capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited. The long distances positive lightning can propagate through clear air explains why they are known as \"bolts from the blue\", giving no warning to observers.",
"Despite the popular misconception that these{{clarify\\|date\\=April 2021}} are positive lightning strikes due to them seemingly originating from the positive charge region, observations have shown that these are in fact negative flashes. They begin as IC flashes within the cloud, the negative leader then exits the cloud from the positive charge region before propagating through clear air and striking the ground some distance away.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2011JD016890\\|title\\=Lightning morphology and impulse charge moment change of high peak current negative strokes\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres\\|volume\\=117\\|issue\\=D4\\|year\\=2012\\|last1\\=Lu\\|first1\\=Gaopeng\\|last2\\=Cummer\\|first2\\=Steven A\\|last3\\=Blakeslee\\|first3\\=Richard J\\|last4\\=Weiss\\|first4\\=Stephanie\\|last5\\=Beasley\\|first5\\=William H\\|pages\\=n/a\\|bibcode\\=2012JGRD..117\\.4212L\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.308\\.9842}}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/ngeo162\\|title\\=Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorms\\|journal\\=Nature Geoscience\\|volume\\=1\\|issue\\=4\\|page\\=233\\|year\\=2008\\|last1\\=Krehbiel\\|first1\\=Paul R\\|last2\\=Riousset\\|first2\\=Jeremy A\\|last3\\=Pasko\\|first3\\=Victor P\\|last4\\=Thomas\\|first4\\=Ronald J\\|last5\\=Rison\\|first5\\=William\\|last6\\=Stanley\\|first6\\=Mark A\\|last7\\=Edens\\|first7\\=Harald E\\|bibcode\\=2008NatGe...1\\..233K\\|s2cid\\=8753629}}",
"Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of upward lightning flashes from the tops of tall structures and is largely responsible for the initiation of [sprites](/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning%23Sprites \"Upper-atmospheric lightning#Sprites\") several tens of kilometers above ground level. Positive lightning tends to occur more frequently in [winter storms](/wiki/Winter_storm \"Winter storm\"), as with [thundersnow](/wiki/Thundersnow \"Thundersnow\"), during intense [tornadoes](/wiki/Tornado \"Tornado\"){{cite journal\\|author1\\=Perez, Antony H. \\|author2\\=Wicker, Louis J. \\|author3\\=Richard E. Orville \\|title\\=Characteristics of Cloud\\-to\\-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes\\|journal\\=Weather Forecast.\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=428–37\\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0434(1997\\)012\\<0428:COCTGL\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2\\|bibcode \\= 1997WtFor..12\\..428P\\|year\\=1997 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} and in the dissipation stage of a [thunderstorm](/wiki/Thunderstorm \"Thunderstorm\").{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://thunder.nsstc.nasa.gov/primer/primer2\\.html\\|title \\= A Lightning Primer – Characteristics of a Storm \\|access\\-date \\= February 8, 2009 \\|author1\\=Christian, Hugh J. \\|author2\\=McCook, Melanie A. \\|work \\=NASA \\| url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305002214/http://thunder.nsstc.nasa.gov/primer/primer2\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 5, 2016}} Huge quantities of [extremely low frequency](/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency \"Extremely low frequency\") (ELF) and [very low frequency](/wiki/Very_low_frequency \"Very low frequency\") (VLF) [radio waves](/wiki/Radio_wave \"Radio wave\") are also generated.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Boccippio \\| first1 \\= DJ \\| title \\= Sprites, ELF Transients, and Positive Ground Strokes \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Science (journal)\\|Science]] \\| volume \\= 269 \\| pages \\= 1088–1091 \\|date\\=August 1995 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.269\\.5227\\.1088 \\| pmid \\= 17755531 \\| last2 \\= Williams \\| first2 \\= ER \\| last3 \\= Heckman \\| first3 \\= SJ \\| last4 \\= Lyons \\| first4 \\= WA \\| last5 \\= Baker \\| first5 \\= IT \\| last6 \\= Boldi \\| first6 \\= R \\| issue \\= 5227 \\| bibcode \\= 1995Sci...269\\.1088B \\| s2cid \\= 8840716 }}",
"### {{anchor\\|Cloud to cloud}} Cloud to cloud (CC) and intra\\-cloud (IC)",
"Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground. When it occurs between two separate clouds, it is known as {{em\\|cloud\\-to\\-cloud}} (CC) or {{em\\|inter\\-cloud}} lightning; when it occurs between areas of differing [electric potential](/wiki/Electric_potential \"Electric potential\") within a single cloud, it is known as {{em\\|intra\\-cloud}} (IC) lightning. IC lightning is the most frequently occurring type.",
"IC lightning most commonly occurs between the upper [anvil](/wiki/Cumulonimbus_incus \"Cumulonimbus incus\") portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so\\-called \"[sheet lightning](/wiki/Sheet_lightning \"Sheet lightning\")\". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.",
"Another term used for cloud–cloud or cloud–cloud–ground lightning is \"Anvil Crawler\", due to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature extensive rear anvil shearing.",
"",
"File:Ligtning new delhi view 1\\.GIF\\|Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, \\[\\[New Delhi]], India.\nFile:Cloud to cloud lightning strike.jpg\\|Multiple paths of cloud\\-to\\-cloud lightning, \\[\\[Swifts Creek, Victoria\\|Swifts Creek]], Australia.\nFile:Baltic thunder.jpg\\|Intra\\-clouds lightning over the \\[\\[Baltic Sea]].\nFile:CC lightning, Albury NSW.JPG\\|Cloud\\-to\\-cloud lightning, \\[\\[Albury]], Australia",
"",
""
] |
Effects
-------
### Lightning strike
{{Main\|Lightning strike}}
#### Effects on objects
[thumb\|Explosive steam pressure between trunk and bark from lightning strike blew away birch bark](/wiki/File:Explosionsartiger_Dampfdruck_zwischen_Stamm_und_Rinde_vom_Blitzeinschlag_sprengte_Birkenrinde_weg.jpg "Explosionsartiger Dampfdruck zwischen Stamm und Rinde vom Blitzeinschlag sprengte Birkenrinde weg.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\=.8\|A strike mark on the trunk of a [black walnut](/wiki/Black_walnut "Black walnut") tree in [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma")](/wiki/File:Black_walnut_lightning_strike.jpg "Black walnut lightning strike.jpg")
Objects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. The heat created by lightning currents travelling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a steam explosion that bursts the trunk. As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil surrounding the [plasma channel](/wiki/Plasma_channel "Plasma channel") may melt, forming tubular structures called [fulgurites](/wiki/Fulgurite "Fulgurite").
#### Effects on buildings and vehicles
Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks unimpeded paths to the ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to the ground, a lightning protection system, usually incorporating at least one [lightning rod](/wiki/Lightning_rod "Lightning rod"), can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage.
Aircraft are highly susceptible to being struck due to their metallic fuselages, but lightning strikes are generally not dangerous to them.{{Cite web\|title\=What happens when lightning strikes an airplane?\|url\=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what\-happens\-when\-lightni/\|date\=August 14, 2006\|website\=Scientific American}} Due to the conductive properties of [aluminium alloy](/wiki/Aluminium_alloy "Aluminium alloy"), the fuselage acts as a [Faraday cage](/wiki/Faraday_cage "Faraday cage"). Present day aircraft are built to be safe from a lightning strike and passengers will generally not even know that it has happened.
#### Effects on animals
Although 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor\-adventure/nature/The\-Body\-Electric.html\|title\=Lightning\-Strike Survivors Tell Their Stories\|last1\=Jabr\|first1\=Ferris\|date\=September 22, 2014\|work\=\[\[Outside (magazine)\|Outside]]\|access\-date\=September 28, 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928220906/http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor\-adventure/nature/The\-Body\-Electric.html\|archive\-date\=September 28, 2014}} animals{{Snd}}including humans{{Snd}}struck by lightning may suffer [severe injury](/wiki/Lightning_injuries "Lightning injuries") due to internal organ and nervous system damage.
#### Other effects
Lightning serves an important role in the [nitrogen cycle](/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle "Nitrogen cycle") by oxidizing diatomic nitrogen in the air into [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrates "Nitrates") which are deposited by rain and can fertilize the growth of plants and other organisms.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Bond \| first1 \= D.W. \| last2 \= Steiger \| first2 \= S. \| last3 \= Zhang \| first3 \= R. \| last4 \= Tie \| first4 \= X. \| last5 \= Orville \| first5 \= R.E. \| year \= 2002 \| title \= The importance of NOx production by lightning in the tropics \| journal \= Atmospheric Environment \| volume \= 36 \| issue \= 9\| pages \= 1509–1519 \| doi\=10\.1016/s1352\-2310(01\)00553\-2\| bibcode \= 2002AtmEn..36\.1509B }}Pickering, K.E., Bucsela, E., Allen, D, Cummings, K., Li, Y., MacGorman, D., Bruning, E. 2014\. Estimates of Lightning NOx Production Per Flash from OMI NO2 and Lightning Observations. XV International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 15–20, June 2014\.
### Thunder
{{main\|Thunder}}
Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, [kinetic theory](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases "Kinetic theory of gases") dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave "Shock wave") audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by [acoustic echoing](/wiki/Echo_%28phenomenon%29 "Echo (phenomenon)") from terrain, and by the usually multiple\-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.
[Light travels](/wiki/Speed_of_light "Speed of light") at about {{cvt\|300,000,000\|m/s}}, and [sound](/wiki/Speed_of_sound "Speed of sound") travels through air at about {{cvt\|343\|m/s}}. An observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder by one second would be approximately {{convert\|343\|m\|abbr\=on}} in distance; a delay of three seconds would indicate a distance of about {{cvt\|1\|km\|disp\=or}} (3 × 343 m). A flash preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of approximately {{cvt\|1\.7\|km\|disp\=or}} (5 × 343 m). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse, possibly accompanied by the smell of [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") (O3).
Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over {{cvt\|100\|mi\|order\=flip}} whereas the thunder travels about {{cvt\|20\|mi\|order\=flip}}. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all\-around and yet there was no thunder'. Since thunderclouds can be up to 20 km high,{{Cite web\|url\=https://factfile.org/10\-facts\-about\-cumulonimbus\-clouds\|title \= 10 Facts about Cumulonimbus Clouds\|date \= May 17, 2016}} lightning occurring high up in the cloud may appear close but is actually too far away to produce noticeable thunder.
### Radio
{{Expand section\|date\=September 2021\|small\=no}}
{{further\|Radio atmospheric signal\|Whistler (radio)}}
[thumb\|Nearby lightning strikes seen across the [AM](/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_broadcasting "Amplitude modulation broadcasting") broadcast band](/wiki/File:Lightning_Strikes_on_SDR.png "Lightning Strikes on SDR.png")
Lightning discharges generate radio\-frequency pulses which can be received thousands of kilometres from their source as radio atmospheric signals and whistlers.
### High\-energy radiation
{{further\|Terrestrial gamma\-ray flash}}
The production of [X\-rays](/wiki/X-ray "X-ray") by a bolt of lightning was predicted as early as 1925 by [C.T.R. Wilson](/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson"),{{cite journal \| last1 \= Wilson \| first1 \= C.T.R. \| date \= 1925 \| title \= The acceleration of beta\-particles in strong electric fields such as those of thunderclouds \| journal \= Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society \| volume \= 22 \|pages \= 534–538 \|bibcode \= 1925PCPS...22\..534W \|doi \= 10\.1017/S0305004100003236 \| issue \= 4 \| s2cid \= 121202128 }} but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Moore \| first1 \= C. B. \| last2 \= Eack \| first2 \= K. B. \| last3 \= Aulich \| first3 \= G. D. \| last4 \= Rison \| first4 \= W. \| title \= Energetic radiation associated with lightning stepped\-leaders \| doi \= 10\.1029/2001GL013140 \| journal \= Geophysical Research Letters \| volume \= 28 \| issue \= 11 \| page \= 2141 \| year \= 2001 \|bibcode \= 2001GeoRL..28\.2141M \| doi\-access \= free }}{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Dwyer \| first1 \= J. R. \| last2 \= Uman \| first2 \= M. A. \| last3 \= Rassoul \| first3 \= H. K. \| last4 \= Al\-Dayeh \| first4 \= M. \| last5 \= Caraway \| first5 \= L. \| last6 \= Jerauld \| first6 \= J. \| last7 \= Rakov \| first7 \= V. A. \| last8 \= Jordan \| first8 \= D. M. \| last9 \= Rambo \| first9 \= K. J. \| last10 \= Corbin \| first10 \= V. \| last11 \= Wright \| first11 \= B. \| title \= Energetic Radiation Produced During Rocket\-Triggered Lightning \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1078940 \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 299 \| issue \= 5607 \| pages \= 694–697 \| year \= 2003 \| pmid \= 12560549 \| url \= http://www.lightning.ece.ufl.edu/PDF/Dwyer\_et\_al\_2003\.pdf \| bibcode \= 2003Sci...299\..694D \| s2cid \= 31926167 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220240/http://www.lightning.ece.ufl.edu/PDF/Dwyer\_et\_al\_2003\.pdf \| archive\-date \= March 4, 2016 \| df \= mdy\-all \| access\-date \= August 28, 2015 }}Newitz, A. (September 2007\) "Educated Destruction 101", *Popular Science*, p. 61\. when researchers at the [New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology](/wiki/New_Mexico_Institute_of_Mining_and_Technology "New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology") detected X\-ray emissions from an induced lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the same year [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida") and [Florida Tech](/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology "Florida Institute of Technology") researchers used an array of electric field and X\-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural lightning makes X\-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The cause of the X\-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is too low to account for the X\-rays observed.[Scientists close in on source of X\-rays in lightning](http://www.physorg.com/news135351802.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905120610/http://www.physorg.com/news135351802\.html \|date\=September 5, 2008 }}, *Physorg.com*, July 15, 2008\. Retrieved July 2008\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.sci\-news.com/othersciences/geophysics/article00996\.html \| title\=Scientists Explain Invisible 'Dark Lightning' \| website\=Sci\-News.com \| date\=April 11, 2013 \| access\-date\=July 9, 2013 \| author\=Prostak, Sergio \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620185324/http://www.sci\-news.com/othersciences/geophysics/article00996\.html \| archive\-date\=June 20, 2013 \| df\=mdy\-all }}
A number of observations by space\-based telescopes have revealed even higher energy [gamma ray](/wiki/Gamma_ray "Gamma ray") emissions, the so\-called [terrestrial gamma\-ray flashes](/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash "Terrestrial gamma-ray flash") (TGFs). These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent discovery of the clear signatures of [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter "Antimatter") produced in lightning.{{Cite web\|title\=Signature of antimatter detected in lightning\|url\=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/signature\-antimatter\-detected\-lightning\|website\=Science News\|last\=Cowen\|first\=Ron\|date\=November 6, 2009\|access\-date\=July 28, 2023\|archive\-date\=July 28, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728171126/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/signature\-antimatter\-detected\-lightning\|url\-status\=live}} Recent research has shown that secondary species, produced by these TGFs, such as [electrons](/wiki/Electrons "Electrons"), [positrons](/wiki/Positrons "Positrons"), [neutrons](/wiki/Neutrons "Neutrons") or [protons](/wiki/Protons "Protons"), can gain energies of up to several tens of MeV.{{cite journal\|last1\=Köhn \|first1\=C. \|last2\=Ebert \|first2\=U.\|author2\-link\= Ute Ebert \|title\=Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons and protons associated with terrestrial gamma\-ray flashes \|journal\=\[\[J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.]] \|date\=2015 \|volume\=23 \|issue\=4 \|doi\=10\.1002/2014JD022229 \|pages\=1620–1635\|bibcode\=2015JGRD..120\.1620K \|url\=https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/23845 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal\|last1\=Köhn \|first1\=C. \|last2\=Diniz \|first2\=G. \|last3\=Harakeh \|first3\=Muhsin \|title\=Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders \|journal\=\[\[J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.]] \|date\=2017 \|volume\=122 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=1365–1383 \|doi\=10\.1002/2016JD025445\|pmid\=28357174 \|pmc\=5349290 \|bibcode\=2017JGRD..122\.1365K }}
### Ozone and nitrogen oxides
The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") and [oxides of nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide "Nitrogen oxide"). Each lightning flash in temperate and sub\-tropical areas produces 7 kg of {{NOx}} on average.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091030100022\.htm\|title\=Lightning's 'NOx\-ious' Impact On Pollution, Climate\|magazine\= Science News\|access\-date\=August 4, 2018}} In the [troposphere](/wiki/Troposphere "Troposphere") the effect of lightning can increase {{NOx}} by 90% and ozone by 30%.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0312pollution.html\|publisher\=NASA\|title\=Surprise! Lightning has big effect on atmospheric chemistry\|access\-date\=August 4, 2018\|archive\-date\=March 9, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309075516/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0312pollution.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
|
[
"Effects\n-------",
"### Lightning strike",
"{{Main\\|Lightning strike}}",
"#### Effects on objects",
"[thumb\\|Explosive steam pressure between trunk and bark from lightning strike blew away birch bark](/wiki/File:Explosionsartiger_Dampfdruck_zwischen_Stamm_und_Rinde_vom_Blitzeinschlag_sprengte_Birkenrinde_weg.jpg \"Explosionsartiger Dampfdruck zwischen Stamm und Rinde vom Blitzeinschlag sprengte Birkenrinde weg.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=.8\\|A strike mark on the trunk of a [black walnut](/wiki/Black_walnut \"Black walnut\") tree in [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\")](/wiki/File:Black_walnut_lightning_strike.jpg \"Black walnut lightning strike.jpg\")\nObjects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. The heat created by lightning currents travelling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a steam explosion that bursts the trunk. As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil surrounding the [plasma channel](/wiki/Plasma_channel \"Plasma channel\") may melt, forming tubular structures called [fulgurites](/wiki/Fulgurite \"Fulgurite\").",
"#### Effects on buildings and vehicles",
"Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks unimpeded paths to the ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to the ground, a lightning protection system, usually incorporating at least one [lightning rod](/wiki/Lightning_rod \"Lightning rod\"), can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage.",
"Aircraft are highly susceptible to being struck due to their metallic fuselages, but lightning strikes are generally not dangerous to them.{{Cite web\\|title\\=What happens when lightning strikes an airplane?\\|url\\=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what\\-happens\\-when\\-lightni/\\|date\\=August 14, 2006\\|website\\=Scientific American}} Due to the conductive properties of [aluminium alloy](/wiki/Aluminium_alloy \"Aluminium alloy\"), the fuselage acts as a [Faraday cage](/wiki/Faraday_cage \"Faraday cage\"). Present day aircraft are built to be safe from a lightning strike and passengers will generally not even know that it has happened.",
"#### Effects on animals",
"Although 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor\\-adventure/nature/The\\-Body\\-Electric.html\\|title\\=Lightning\\-Strike Survivors Tell Their Stories\\|last1\\=Jabr\\|first1\\=Ferris\\|date\\=September 22, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[Outside (magazine)\\|Outside]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928220906/http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor\\-adventure/nature/The\\-Body\\-Electric.html\\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2014}} animals{{Snd}}including humans{{Snd}}struck by lightning may suffer [severe injury](/wiki/Lightning_injuries \"Lightning injuries\") due to internal organ and nervous system damage.",
"#### Other effects",
"Lightning serves an important role in the [nitrogen cycle](/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle \"Nitrogen cycle\") by oxidizing diatomic nitrogen in the air into [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrates \"Nitrates\") which are deposited by rain and can fertilize the growth of plants and other organisms.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Bond \\| first1 \\= D.W. \\| last2 \\= Steiger \\| first2 \\= S. \\| last3 \\= Zhang \\| first3 \\= R. \\| last4 \\= Tie \\| first4 \\= X. \\| last5 \\= Orville \\| first5 \\= R.E. \\| year \\= 2002 \\| title \\= The importance of NOx production by lightning in the tropics \\| journal \\= Atmospheric Environment \\| volume \\= 36 \\| issue \\= 9\\| pages \\= 1509–1519 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s1352\\-2310(01\\)00553\\-2\\| bibcode \\= 2002AtmEn..36\\.1509B }}Pickering, K.E., Bucsela, E., Allen, D, Cummings, K., Li, Y., MacGorman, D., Bruning, E. 2014\\. Estimates of Lightning NOx Production Per Flash from OMI NO2 and Lightning Observations. XV International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 15–20, June 2014\\.",
"### Thunder",
"{{main\\|Thunder}}",
"Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, [kinetic theory](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases \"Kinetic theory of gases\") dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a [shock wave](/wiki/Shock_wave \"Shock wave\") audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by [acoustic echoing](/wiki/Echo_%28phenomenon%29 \"Echo (phenomenon)\") from terrain, and by the usually multiple\\-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.",
"[Light travels](/wiki/Speed_of_light \"Speed of light\") at about {{cvt\\|300,000,000\\|m/s}}, and [sound](/wiki/Speed_of_sound \"Speed of sound\") travels through air at about {{cvt\\|343\\|m/s}}. An observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder by one second would be approximately {{convert\\|343\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} in distance; a delay of three seconds would indicate a distance of about {{cvt\\|1\\|km\\|disp\\=or}} (3 × 343 m). A flash preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of approximately {{cvt\\|1\\.7\\|km\\|disp\\=or}} (5 × 343 m). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse, possibly accompanied by the smell of [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") (O3).",
"Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over {{cvt\\|100\\|mi\\|order\\=flip}} whereas the thunder travels about {{cvt\\|20\\|mi\\|order\\=flip}}. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all\\-around and yet there was no thunder'. Since thunderclouds can be up to 20 km high,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://factfile.org/10\\-facts\\-about\\-cumulonimbus\\-clouds\\|title \\= 10 Facts about Cumulonimbus Clouds\\|date \\= May 17, 2016}} lightning occurring high up in the cloud may appear close but is actually too far away to produce noticeable thunder.",
"### Radio",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=September 2021\\|small\\=no}}\n{{further\\|Radio atmospheric signal\\|Whistler (radio)}}",
"[thumb\\|Nearby lightning strikes seen across the [AM](/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_broadcasting \"Amplitude modulation broadcasting\") broadcast band](/wiki/File:Lightning_Strikes_on_SDR.png \"Lightning Strikes on SDR.png\")",
"Lightning discharges generate radio\\-frequency pulses which can be received thousands of kilometres from their source as radio atmospheric signals and whistlers.",
"### High\\-energy radiation",
"{{further\\|Terrestrial gamma\\-ray flash}}\nThe production of [X\\-rays](/wiki/X-ray \"X-ray\") by a bolt of lightning was predicted as early as 1925 by [C.T.R. Wilson](/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson \"Charles Thomson Rees Wilson\"),{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Wilson \\| first1 \\= C.T.R. \\| date \\= 1925 \\| title \\= The acceleration of beta\\-particles in strong electric fields such as those of thunderclouds \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society \\| volume \\= 22 \\|pages \\= 534–538 \\|bibcode \\= 1925PCPS...22\\..534W \\|doi \\= 10\\.1017/S0305004100003236 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| s2cid \\= 121202128 }} but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Moore \\| first1 \\= C. B. \\| last2 \\= Eack \\| first2 \\= K. B. \\| last3 \\= Aulich \\| first3 \\= G. D. \\| last4 \\= Rison \\| first4 \\= W. \\| title \\= Energetic radiation associated with lightning stepped\\-leaders \\| doi \\= 10\\.1029/2001GL013140 \\| journal \\= Geophysical Research Letters \\| volume \\= 28 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| page \\= 2141 \\| year \\= 2001 \\|bibcode \\= 2001GeoRL..28\\.2141M \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Dwyer \\| first1 \\= J. R. \\| last2 \\= Uman \\| first2 \\= M. A. \\| last3 \\= Rassoul \\| first3 \\= H. K. \\| last4 \\= Al\\-Dayeh \\| first4 \\= M. \\| last5 \\= Caraway \\| first5 \\= L. \\| last6 \\= Jerauld \\| first6 \\= J. \\| last7 \\= Rakov \\| first7 \\= V. A. \\| last8 \\= Jordan \\| first8 \\= D. M. \\| last9 \\= Rambo \\| first9 \\= K. J. \\| last10 \\= Corbin \\| first10 \\= V. \\| last11 \\= Wright \\| first11 \\= B. \\| title \\= Energetic Radiation Produced During Rocket\\-Triggered Lightning \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1078940 \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 299 \\| issue \\= 5607 \\| pages \\= 694–697 \\| year \\= 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12560549 \\| url \\= http://www.lightning.ece.ufl.edu/PDF/Dwyer\\_et\\_al\\_2003\\.pdf \\| bibcode \\= 2003Sci...299\\..694D \\| s2cid \\= 31926167 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220240/http://www.lightning.ece.ufl.edu/PDF/Dwyer\\_et\\_al\\_2003\\.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= March 4, 2016 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all \\| access\\-date \\= August 28, 2015 }}Newitz, A. (September 2007\\) \"Educated Destruction 101\", *Popular Science*, p. 61\\. when researchers at the [New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology](/wiki/New_Mexico_Institute_of_Mining_and_Technology \"New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology\") detected X\\-ray emissions from an induced lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the same year [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\") and [Florida Tech](/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology \"Florida Institute of Technology\") researchers used an array of electric field and X\\-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural lightning makes X\\-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The cause of the X\\-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is too low to account for the X\\-rays observed.[Scientists close in on source of X\\-rays in lightning](http://www.physorg.com/news135351802.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905120610/http://www.physorg.com/news135351802\\.html \\|date\\=September 5, 2008 }}, *Physorg.com*, July 15, 2008\\. Retrieved July 2008\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.sci\\-news.com/othersciences/geophysics/article00996\\.html \\| title\\=Scientists Explain Invisible 'Dark Lightning' \\| website\\=Sci\\-News.com \\| date\\=April 11, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=July 9, 2013 \\| author\\=Prostak, Sergio \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620185324/http://www.sci\\-news.com/othersciences/geophysics/article00996\\.html \\| archive\\-date\\=June 20, 2013 \\| df\\=mdy\\-all }}",
"A number of observations by space\\-based telescopes have revealed even higher energy [gamma ray](/wiki/Gamma_ray \"Gamma ray\") emissions, the so\\-called [terrestrial gamma\\-ray flashes](/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash \"Terrestrial gamma-ray flash\") (TGFs). These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent discovery of the clear signatures of [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter \"Antimatter\") produced in lightning.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Signature of antimatter detected in lightning\\|url\\=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/signature\\-antimatter\\-detected\\-lightning\\|website\\=Science News\\|last\\=Cowen\\|first\\=Ron\\|date\\=November 6, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=July 28, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728171126/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/signature\\-antimatter\\-detected\\-lightning\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Recent research has shown that secondary species, produced by these TGFs, such as [electrons](/wiki/Electrons \"Electrons\"), [positrons](/wiki/Positrons \"Positrons\"), [neutrons](/wiki/Neutrons \"Neutrons\") or [protons](/wiki/Protons \"Protons\"), can gain energies of up to several tens of MeV.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Köhn \\|first1\\=C. \\|last2\\=Ebert \\|first2\\=U.\\|author2\\-link\\= Ute Ebert \\|title\\=Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons and protons associated with terrestrial gamma\\-ray flashes \\|journal\\=\\[\\[J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.]] \\|date\\=2015 \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=4 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/2014JD022229 \\|pages\\=1620–1635\\|bibcode\\=2015JGRD..120\\.1620K \\|url\\=https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/23845 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Köhn \\|first1\\=C. \\|last2\\=Diniz \\|first2\\=G. \\|last3\\=Harakeh \\|first3\\=Muhsin \\|title\\=Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders \\|journal\\=\\[\\[J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.]] \\|date\\=2017 \\|volume\\=122 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=1365–1383 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/2016JD025445\\|pmid\\=28357174 \\|pmc\\=5349290 \\|bibcode\\=2017JGRD..122\\.1365K }}",
"### Ozone and nitrogen oxides",
"The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") and [oxides of nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide \"Nitrogen oxide\"). Each lightning flash in temperate and sub\\-tropical areas produces 7 kg of {{NOx}} on average.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091030100022\\.htm\\|title\\=Lightning's 'NOx\\-ious' Impact On Pollution, Climate\\|magazine\\= Science News\\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2018}} In the [troposphere](/wiki/Troposphere \"Troposphere\") the effect of lightning can increase {{NOx}} by 90% and ozone by 30%.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0312pollution.html\\|publisher\\=NASA\\|title\\=Surprise! Lightning has big effect on atmospheric chemistry\\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309075516/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0312pollution.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
""
] |
Scientific study
----------------
The science of lightning is called *fulminology*.
### Properties
Lightning causes [thunder](/wiki/Thunder "Thunder"), a sound from the shock wave which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge heat suddenly to very high temperatures. It is often heard a few seconds after the lightning itself.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/lightning \|work\=\[\[National Geographic]] \|title\=Lightning\|date\=October 9, 2009 }} Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") pp. 103–110
When the local electric field exceeds the [dielectric strength](/wiki/Dielectric_strength "Dielectric strength") of damp air (about 3 MV/m), electrical discharge results in a *strike*, often followed by commensurate discharges branching from the same path. Mechanisms that cause the charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html\|title\=How Lightning Forms\|access\-date\=September 21, 2007\|publisher\=Public Broadcasting System\|author\=Fink, Micah\|work\=PBS.org\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929174806/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html\|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm\|title\=Lightning Safety\|access\-date\=September 21, 2007\|publisher\=National Weather Service\|date\=2007\|author\=National Weather Service\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007110300/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm\|archive\-date\=October 7, 2007}} A 2016 study confirmed dielectric breakdown is involved.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Rison\|first1\=William\|last2\=Krehbiel\|first2\=Paul R.\|last3\=Stock\|first3\=Michael G.\|last4\=Edens\|first4\=Harald E.\|last5\=Shao\|first5\=Xuan\-Min\|last6\=Thomas\|first6\=Ronald J.\|last7\=Stanley\|first7\=Mark A.\|last8\=Zhang\|first8\=Yang\|date\=February 15, 2016\|title\=Observations of narrow bipolar events reveal how lightning is initiated in thunderstorms\|journal\=Nature Communications\|volume\=7\|issue\=1\|pages\=10721\|doi\=10\.1038/ncomms10721\|pmid\=26876654\|pmc\=4756383\|bibcode\=2016NatCo...710721R\|doi\-access\=free}} Lightning may be caused by the circulation of warm moisture\-filled air through [electric fields](/wiki/Electric_field "Electric field").[Uman (1986\)](/wiki/%23Uman "#Uman") p. 61\. Ice or water particles then accumulate charge as in a [Van de Graaff generator](/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_generator "Van de Graaff generator").[Rakov and Uman](/wiki/%23Rakov "#Rakov"), p. 84\.
Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one\-dimensional speeds of 10 flashes observed were between 1\.0{{e\|5}} and 1\.4{{e\|6}} m/s, with an average of 4\.4{{e\|5}} m/s.{{cite journal\|last\=Thomson\|first\=E. M.\|author2\=Uman, M. A. \|author3\=Beasley, W. H. \|title\=Speed and current for lightning stepped leaders near ground as determined from electric field records\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research\|date\=January 1985\|volume\=90\|issue\=D5\|page\=8136\|doi\=10\.1029/JD090iD05p08136\|bibcode\=1985JGR....90\.8136T}}
### Detection and monitoring
{{main\|Lightning detection}}
[thumb\|Lightning strike counter in a museum](/wiki/File:Museu_Rom%C3%A0ntic_Can_Papiol._Maig_2014_05.JPG "Museu Romàntic Can Papiol. Maig 2014 05.JPG")
The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunderstorm was the [lightning bell](/wiki/Lightning_bell "Lightning bell"). [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") installed one such device in his house.The Franklin Institute. [Ben Franklin's Lightning Bells](http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/bells.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212052405/http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/bells.html \|date\=December 12, 2008 }}. Retrieved December 14, 2008\.Rimstar.org [Video demonstration of how Franklin's Bell worked](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEqudsyIWzk) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806121106/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=fEqudsyIWzk \|date\=August 6, 2016 }} The detector was based on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by [Andrew Gordon](/wiki/Andrew_Gordon_%28Benedictine%29 "Andrew Gordon (Benedictine)") in 1742\.
Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radio\-frequency pulses. The times at which a pulse from a given lightning discharge arrives at several receivers can be used to locate the source of the discharge with a precision on the order of metres. The United States federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S.{{cite web
\|title \= Lightning Detection Systems
\|url \= http://www.nwstc.noaa.gov/METEOR/Lightning/detection.htm
\|access\-date \= July 27, 2007
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080917190959/http://www.nwstc.noaa.gov/METEOR/Lightning/detection.htm
\|archive\-date \= September 17, 2008
\|df \= mdy\-all
}} NOAA page on how the U.S. national lightning detection system operates{{cite web \| title \= Vaisala Thunderstorm Online Application Portal
\| url \= https://thunderstorm.vaisala.com/tux/jsp/explorer/explorer.jsp
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070928033058/https://thunderstorm.vaisala.com/tux/jsp/explorer/explorer.jsp
\| archive\-date \= September 28, 2007
\| access\-date \= July 27, 2007 }} Real\-time map of lightning discharges in U.S.
In addition, [Blitzortung](/wiki/Blitzortung "Blitzortung") (a private global detection system that consists of over 500 detection stations owned and operated by hobbyists/volunteers) provides near real\-time lightning maps at <https://archive.today/20161216132732/http://en.blitzortung.org/>.
The [Earth\-ionosphere waveguide](/wiki/Earth-ionosphere_waveguide "Earth-ionosphere waveguide") traps electromagnetic [VLF](/wiki/VLF "VLF")\- and [ELF](/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency "Extremely low frequency") waves. Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide. The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their [group velocity](/wiki/Group_velocity "Group velocity") depends on frequency. The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction\-finding methods, this allows locating lightning strikes up to distances of 10,000 km from their origin. Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth\-ionospheric waveguide, the [Schumann resonances](/wiki/Schumann_resonances "Schumann resonances")
at about 7\.5 Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.Volland, H. (ed) (1995\) *Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics*, CRC Press, Boca Raton, {{ISBN\|0849386470}}.
In addition to ground\-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have been constructed to observe lightning distribution. These include the Optical Transient Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView\-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard [TRMM](/wiki/TRMM "TRMM") launched on November 28, 1997\.{{cite web\| url\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/\| title\=NASA Dataset Information\| access\-date\=September 11, 2007\| publisher\=NASA\| date\=2007\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915074014/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/\| archive\-date\=September 15, 2007\| df\=mdy\-all}}{{cite web\|url\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/lisbrowse.html\|title\=NASA LIS Images\|access\-date\=September 11, 2007\|publisher\=NASA\|date\=2007\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012171040/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/lisbrowse.html\|archive\-date\=October 12, 2007}}{{cite web\| url\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/otdbrowse.html\| title\=NASA OTD Images\| access\-date\=September 11, 2007\| publisher\=NASA\| date\=2007\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012171045/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/otdbrowse.html\| archive\-date\=October 12, 2007\| df\=mdy\-all}}
Starting in 2016, the [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration") launched Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES\-R) weather satellites outfitted with [Geostationary Lightning Mapper](/wiki/Geostationary_Lightning_Mapper "Geostationary Lightning Mapper") (GLM) instruments which are near\-infrared optical transient detectors that can detect the momentary changes in an optical scene, indicating the presence of lightning.{{cite web \|title\=GLM │ GOES\-R Series \|url\=https://www.goes\-r.gov/spacesegment/glm.html \|website\=www.goes\-r.gov}}{{cite news \|last1\=Sima \|first1\=Richard \|title\=Mapping Lightning Strikes from Space \|url\=https://eos.org/articles/mapping\-lightning\-strikes\-from\-space \|work\=Eos \|date\=March 13, 2020}} The lightning detection data can be converted into a real\-time map of lightning activity across the Western Hemisphere; this mapping technique has been implemented by the United States [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service").{{cite journal \|last1\=Bruning \|first1\=Eric C. \|last2\=Tillier \|first2\=Clemens E. \|last3\=Edgington \|first3\=Samantha F. \|last4\=Rudlosky \|first4\=Scott D. \|last5\=Zajic \|first5\=Joe \|last6\=Gravelle \|first6\=Chad \|last7\=Foster \|first7\=Matt \|last8\=Calhoun \|first8\=Kristin M. \|last9\=Campbell \|first9\=P. Adrian \|last10\=Stano \|first10\=Geoffrey T. \|last11\=Schultz \|first11\=Christopher J. \|last12\=Meyer \|first12\=Tiffany C. \|title\=Meteorological Imagery for the Geostationary Lightning Mapper \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \|date\=2019 \|volume\=124 \|issue\=24 \|pages\=14285–14309 \|doi\=10\.1029/2019JD030874 \|bibcode\=2019JGRD..12414285B \|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=2346/95772 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
In 2022 [EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites "European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites") plan to launch the Lightning Imager (MTG\-I LI) on board [Meteosat Third Generation](/wiki/Meteosat "Meteosat"). This will complement NOAA's GLM. MTG\-I LI will cover Europe and Africa and will include products on events, groups and flashes.{{Cite web \|title\=Lightning Imager \|url\=https://www.eumetsat.int/mtg\-lightning\-imager \|access\-date\=July 27, 2022 \|website\=EUMETSAT \|date\=May 21, 2020 \|archive\-date\=July 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714105714/https://www.eumetsat.int/mtg\-lightning\-imager \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Artificially triggered
* **Rocket\-triggered** lightning can be "triggered" by launching [specially designed rockets](/wiki/Lightning_rocket "Lightning rocket") trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low\-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.{{cite web\|url\=http://skydiary.com/gallery/chase2002/2002lightmovie.html\|title\=Triggered lightning video\|access\-date\=September 24, 2007\|publisher\=Chris Kridler's Sky Diary\|date\=July 25, 2002\|author\=Kridler, Chris\|work\=requires QuickTime\|format\=video\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915074527/http://skydiary.com/gallery/chase2002/2002lightmovie.html\|archive\-date\=September 15, 2007}}
* The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.
* **Laser\-triggered**
* Since the 1970s, researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.{{cite web \| title \= UNM researchers use lasers to guide lightning\| publisher \= Campus News, The \[\[University of New Mexico]]\| date \= January 29, 2001\| url \= http://panda.unm.edu/AcadAdv/lightning.html \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120709023513/http://panda.unm.edu/AcadAdv/lightning.html \| archive\-date \= July 9, 2012 \| access\-date \= July 28, 2007}}{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1088/1367\-2630/4/1/361\| title \= Laser\-triggered lightning discharge\| journal \= New Journal of Physics\| volume \= 4\| issue \= 1\| page \= 61\| year \= 2002\| last1 \= Khan \| first1 \= N. \| last2 \= Mariun \| first2 \= N. \| last3 \= Aris \| first3 \= I. \| last4 \= Yeak \| first4 \= J. \|bibcode \= 2002NJPh....4\...61K \| doi\-access \= free }}{{Cite journal \|doi\=10\.1364/JOT.66\.000194 \|title\=Laboratory tests of laser\-induced lightning discharge \|journal\=Journal of Optical Technology \|volume\=66 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=194–198 \|date\=1999 \|first1\=P. \|last1\=Rambo \|first2\=J. \|last2\=Biegert \|first3\=V. \|last3\=Kubecek \|first4\=J. \|last4\=Schwarz \|first5\=A. \|last5\=Bernstein \|first6\=J.\-C. \|last6\=Diels \|first7\=R. \|last7\=Bernstein \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|first8\=K. \|last8\=Stahlkopf \|bibcode\=1999JOptT..66\..194R }}{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1063/1\.1829165\| title \= Triggering and guiding of megavolt discharges by laser\-induced filaments under rain conditions\| journal \= Applied Physics Letters\| volume \= 85\| issue \= 23\| page \= 5781\| year \= 2004\| last1 \= Ackermann \| first1 \= R.\| last2 \= Stelmaszczyk \| first2 \= K.\| last3 \= Rohwetter \| first3 \= P.\| last4 \= MéJean \| first4 \= G.\| last5 \= Salmon \| first5 \= E.\| last6 \= Yu \| first6 \= J.\| last7 \= Kasparian \| first7 \= J.\| last8 \= MéChain \| first8 \= G.\| last9 \= Bergmann \| first9 \= V.\| last10 \= Schaper \| first10 \= S.\| last11 \= Weise \| first11 \= B.\| last12 \= Kumm \| first12 \= T.\| last13 \= Rethmeier \| first13 \= K.\| last14 \= Kalkner \| first14 \= W.\| last15 \= WöSte \| first15 \= L.\| last16 \= Wolf \| first16 \= J. P.\|bibcode \= 2004ApPhL..85\.5781A }}{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1016/0021\-9169(94\)00073\-W\| title \= A possible way to trigger lightning using a laser\| journal \= Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics\| volume \= 57\| issue \= 5\| page \= 459\| year \= 1995\| last1 \= Wang \| first1 \= D.\| last2 \= Ushio \| first2 \= T.\| last3 \= Kawasaki \| first3 \= Z. \-I. \| last4 \= Matsuura \| first4 \= K.\| last5 \= Shimada \| first5 \= Y.\| last6 \= Uchida \| first6 \= S.\| last7 \= Yamanaka \| first7 \= C.\| last8 \= Izawa \| first8 \= Y.\| last9 \= Sonoi \| first9 \= Y.\| last10 \= Simokura \| first10 \= N.\|bibcode \= 1995JATP...57\..459W }}
* In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new [terawatt](/wiki/Terawatt "Terawatt") laser which provoked lightning. Scientists fired ultra\-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized molecules known as *filaments*. Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike. Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered. According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand.{{cite web \|url\=http://infoniac.com/science/terawatt\-laser\-beam\-shot\-clouds\-provokes\-lightning\-strike.html \|title\=Terawatt Laser Beam Shot in the Clouds Provokes Lightning Strike \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420130439/http://infoniac.com/science/terawatt\-laser\-beam\-shot\-clouds\-provokes\-lightning\-strike.html \|archive\-date\=April 20, 2008 \|access\-date\=April 17, 2008 }} News report based on: {{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1364/OE.16\.005757 \| pmid \= 18542684 \| title \= Electric events synchronized with laser filaments in thunderclouds \| journal \= Optics Express \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 5757–63 \| year \= 2008 \| last1 \= Kasparian \| first1 \= J. \| last2 \= Ackermann \| first2 \= R. \| last3 \= André \| first3 \= Y. B. \| last4 \= Méchain \| first4 \= G. G. \| last5 \= Méjean \| first5 \= G. \| last6 \= Prade \| first6 \= B. \| last7 \= Rohwetter \| first7 \= P. \| last8 \= Salmon \| first8 \= E. \| last9 \= Stelmaszczyk \| first9 \= K. \| last10 \= Yu \| first10 \= J. \| last11 \= Mysyrowicz \| first11 \= A. \| last12 \= Sauerbrey \| first12 \= R. \| last13 \= Woeste \| first13 \= L. \| last14 \= Wolf \| first14 \= J. P. \| bibcode \= 2008OExpr..16\.5757K \| url \= https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri\=oe\-16\-8\-5757 \| doi\-access \= free }} Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical activity in the thundercloud where it was aimed—in effect they generated small local discharges located at the position of the [plasma channels](/wiki/Plasma_channel "Plasma channel").{{cite web \|url\=http://newswise.com/articles/view/539709/ \|title\=Laser Triggers Electrical Activity in Thunderstorm for the First Time \|work\=Newswise \|access\-date\=August 6, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220100906/http://newswise.com/articles/view/539709/ \|archive\-date\=December 20, 2008 }} News report based on {{Harvard citation no brackets\|Kasparian\|Ackermann\|André\|Méchain\|Méjean\|Prade\|Rohwetter\|Salmon\|Stelmaszczyk\|Yu\|Mysyrowicz\|Sauerbrey\|Woeste\|Wolf\|2008\|pp\=5757–5763}}
### Physical manifestations
[thumb\|Multiple lightning strikes in [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") in August 2020](/wiki/File:Lighting_barrage.jpg "Lighting barrage.jpg")
#### Magnetism
The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism "Electromagnetism")). The intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field. Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightning\-induced [remanent](/wiki/Remanence "Remanence") magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often horizontally near the surface{{cite journal\|title\=The Re\-magnetization of a Surface Outcrop by Lightning Currents\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-246X.1961\.tb02963\.x\|date\=1961\|last1\=Graham\|first1\=K.W.T.\|journal\=\[\[Geophysical Journal International]]\|volume\=6\|issue\=1\|page\=85\|bibcode \= 1961GeoJ....6\...85G \|doi\-access\=free}}Cox A. (1961\). [Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basalt](http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529011301/http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf \|date\=May 29, 2013 }}. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1038\-E, pp. 131–160\. but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or ground water offers a less resistive path.Bevan B. (1995\). ["Magnetic Surveys and Lightning"](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruce-Bevan/publication/318826400_Magnetic_surveys_and_lightning/links/59807da84585156238facc4d/Magnetic-surveys-and-lightning.pdf). *Near Surface Views* (newsletter of the Near Surface Geophysics section of the Society of Exploration Geophysics). October 1995, pp. 7–8\. One theory suggests that [lodestones](/wiki/Lodestone "Lodestone"), natural magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.{{cite journal
\| doi\=10\.1029/1999GL900496
\| first\=Peter
\| last\=Wasilewski
\|author2\=Günther Kletetschka
\| title\=Lodestone: Nature's only permanent magnet – What it is and how it gets charged
\| url\=http://lep694\.gsfc.nasa.gov/gunther/gunther/Wasilewski1999\.pdf
\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003193325/http://lep694\.gsfc.nasa.gov/gunther/gunther/Wasilewski1999\.pdf
\| archive\-date\=October 3, 2006
\| journal\=\[\[Geophysical Research Letters]]
\| volume\=26
\| issue\=15
\| pages\=2275–78
\| date\=1999
\| access\-date\=July 13, 2009\| url\-status\=dead
\|bibcode \= 1999GeoRL..26\.2275W \| s2cid\=128699936
}}
Lightning\-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground,{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sakai \|first1\=H. S. \|last2\=Sunada \|first2\=S. \|last3\=Sakurano \|first3\=H. \|date\=1998 \|title\=Study of Lightning Current by Remanent Magnetization \|journal\=Electrical Engineering in Japan \|volume\=123 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=41–47 \|doi\=10\.1002/(SICI)1520\-6416(199806\)123:4\<41::AID\-EEJ6\>3\.0\.CO;2\-O}}[Archaeo\-Physics, LLC \| Lightning\-induced magnetic anomalies on archaeological sites](http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/LIRM.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012080847/http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/LIRM.html \|date\=October 12, 2007 }}. Archaeophysics.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2012\. and analysis of magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization{{Cite journal \|last\=Maki \|first\=David \|date\=2005 \|title\=Lightning strikes and prehistoric ovens: Determining the source of magnetic anomalies using techniques of environmental magnetism \|journal\=Geoarchaeology \|volume\=20 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=449–459 \|doi\=10\.1002/gea.20059 \|bibcode\=2005Gearc..20\..449M \|url\=http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/lightning\-oven.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515025335/http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/lightning\-oven.pdf \|archive\-date\=May 15, 2013 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.536\.5980 \|s2cid\=52383921 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017 }} and provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Verrier \|first1\=V. \|last2\=Rochette \|first2\=P. \|date\=2002 \|title\=Estimating Peak Currents at Ground Lightning Impacts Using Remanent Magnetization \|journal\=\[\[Geophysical Research Letters]] \|volume\=29 \|issue\=18 \|page\=1867 \|doi\=10\.1029/2002GL015207\|bibcode \= 2002GeoRL..29\.1867V \|s2cid\=128577288 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Research at the [University of Innsbruck](/wiki/University_of_Innsbruck "University of Innsbruck") has calculated that magnetic fields generated by plasma may induce [hallucinations](/wiki/Hallucinations "Hallucinations") in subjects located within {{cvt\|200\|m}} of a severe lightning storm, like what happened in [Transcranial magnetic stimulation](/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation "Transcranial magnetic stimulation") (TMS).{{cite web \| url\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/418887/magnetically\-induced\-hallucinations\-explain\-ball\-lightning\-say\-physicists/ \|title \= Magnetically Induced Hallucinations Explain Ball Lightning, Say Physicists}}
### Solar wind and cosmic rays
Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, which may create pathways for lightning bolts.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iop.org/news/14/may/page\_63245\.html \|title\=High\-speed solar winds increase lightning strikes on Earth \|publisher\=Iop.org \|date\=May 15, 2014 \|access\-date\=May 19, 2014}}
### Lightning and climate change
Due to the low resolution of global climate models, accurately representing lightning in these climate models is difficult, largely due to their inability to simulate the convection and cloud ice fundamental to lightning formation. Research from the Future Climate for Africa programme demonstrates that using a convection\-permitting model over Africa can more accurately capture convective thunderstorms and the distribution of ice particles. This research indicates climate change may increase the total amount of lightning only slightly: the total number of lightning days per year decreases, while more cloud ice and stronger convection leads to more lightning strikes occurring on days when lightning does occur.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Finney\|first1\=D. L.\|last2\=Marsham\|first2\=J. H.\|last3\=Wilkinson\|first3\=J. M.\|last4\=Field\|first4\=P. R.\|last5\=Blyth\|first5\=A. M.\|last6\=Jackson\|first6\=L. S.\|last7\=Kendon\|first7\=E. J.\|last8\=Tucker\|first8\=S. O.\|last9\=Stratton\|first9\=R. A.\|date\=2020\|title\=African Lightning and its Relation to Rainfall and Climate Change in a Convection\-Permitting Model\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|volume\=47\|issue\=23\|pages\=e2020GL088163\|doi\=10\.1029/2020GL088163\|bibcode\=2020GeoRL..4788163F\|doi\-access\=free}}
A study from the University of Washington looked at lightning activity in the Arctic from 2010 to 2020\. The ratio of Arctic summertime strokes was compared to total global strokes and was observed to be increasing with time, indicating that the region is becoming more influenced by lightning. The fraction of strokes above 65 degrees north was found to be increasing linearly with the NOAA [global temperature anomaly](/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record "Instrumental temperature record") and grew by a factor of 3 as the anomaly increased from 0\.65 to 0\.95 °C {{cite journal\|last1\=Holzworth\|first1\=R. H.\|last2\=Brundell\|first2\=J. B.\|first3\=M. P.\|last3\=McCarthy\|first4\=A. R.\|last4\=Jacobson\|first5\=C. J.\|last5\=Rodger\|first6\=T. S.\|last6\=Anderson\|date\=2021\|title\=Lightning in the Arctic\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|volume\=48\|issue\=7\|doi\=10\.1029/2020GL091366\|bibcode\=2021GeoRL..4891366H\|doi\-access\=free}}
### Paleolightning
{{excerpt\|Paleolightning\|only\=paragraphs}}
|
[
"Scientific study\n----------------",
"The science of lightning is called *fulminology*.",
"### Properties",
"Lightning causes [thunder](/wiki/Thunder \"Thunder\"), a sound from the shock wave which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge heat suddenly to very high temperatures. It is often heard a few seconds after the lightning itself.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/lightning \\|work\\=\\[\\[National Geographic]] \\|title\\=Lightning\\|date\\=October 9, 2009 }} Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") pp. 103–110",
"When the local electric field exceeds the [dielectric strength](/wiki/Dielectric_strength \"Dielectric strength\") of damp air (about 3 MV/m), electrical discharge results in a *strike*, often followed by commensurate discharges branching from the same path. Mechanisms that cause the charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html\\|title\\=How Lightning Forms\\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2007\\|publisher\\=Public Broadcasting System\\|author\\=Fink, Micah\\|work\\=PBS.org\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929174806/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html\\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm\\|title\\=Lightning Safety\\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2007\\|publisher\\=National Weather Service\\|date\\=2007\\|author\\=National Weather Service\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007110300/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 7, 2007}} A 2016 study confirmed dielectric breakdown is involved.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Rison\\|first1\\=William\\|last2\\=Krehbiel\\|first2\\=Paul R.\\|last3\\=Stock\\|first3\\=Michael G.\\|last4\\=Edens\\|first4\\=Harald E.\\|last5\\=Shao\\|first5\\=Xuan\\-Min\\|last6\\=Thomas\\|first6\\=Ronald J.\\|last7\\=Stanley\\|first7\\=Mark A.\\|last8\\=Zhang\\|first8\\=Yang\\|date\\=February 15, 2016\\|title\\=Observations of narrow bipolar events reveal how lightning is initiated in thunderstorms\\|journal\\=Nature Communications\\|volume\\=7\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=10721\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/ncomms10721\\|pmid\\=26876654\\|pmc\\=4756383\\|bibcode\\=2016NatCo...710721R\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Lightning may be caused by the circulation of warm moisture\\-filled air through [electric fields](/wiki/Electric_field \"Electric field\").[Uman (1986\\)](/wiki/%23Uman \"#Uman\") p. 61\\. Ice or water particles then accumulate charge as in a [Van de Graaff generator](/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_generator \"Van de Graaff generator\").[Rakov and Uman](/wiki/%23Rakov \"#Rakov\"), p. 84\\.",
"Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one\\-dimensional speeds of 10 flashes observed were between 1\\.0{{e\\|5}} and 1\\.4{{e\\|6}} m/s, with an average of 4\\.4{{e\\|5}} m/s.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Thomson\\|first\\=E. M.\\|author2\\=Uman, M. A. \\|author3\\=Beasley, W. H. \\|title\\=Speed and current for lightning stepped leaders near ground as determined from electric field records\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research\\|date\\=January 1985\\|volume\\=90\\|issue\\=D5\\|page\\=8136\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/JD090iD05p08136\\|bibcode\\=1985JGR....90\\.8136T}}",
"### Detection and monitoring",
"{{main\\|Lightning detection}}\n[thumb\\|Lightning strike counter in a museum](/wiki/File:Museu_Rom%C3%A0ntic_Can_Papiol._Maig_2014_05.JPG \"Museu Romàntic Can Papiol. Maig 2014 05.JPG\")",
"The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunderstorm was the [lightning bell](/wiki/Lightning_bell \"Lightning bell\"). [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") installed one such device in his house.The Franklin Institute. [Ben Franklin's Lightning Bells](http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/bells.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212052405/http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/bells.html \\|date\\=December 12, 2008 }}. Retrieved December 14, 2008\\.Rimstar.org [Video demonstration of how Franklin's Bell worked](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEqudsyIWzk) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806121106/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=fEqudsyIWzk \\|date\\=August 6, 2016 }} The detector was based on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by [Andrew Gordon](/wiki/Andrew_Gordon_%28Benedictine%29 \"Andrew Gordon (Benedictine)\") in 1742\\.",
"Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radio\\-frequency pulses. The times at which a pulse from a given lightning discharge arrives at several receivers can be used to locate the source of the discharge with a precision on the order of metres. The United States federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S.{{cite web\n \\|title \\= Lightning Detection Systems\n \\|url \\= http://www.nwstc.noaa.gov/METEOR/Lightning/detection.htm\n \\|access\\-date \\= July 27, 2007\n\\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080917190959/http://www.nwstc.noaa.gov/METEOR/Lightning/detection.htm\n \\|archive\\-date \\= September 17, 2008\n\\|df \\= mdy\\-all\n}} NOAA page on how the U.S. national lightning detection system operates{{cite web \\| title \\= Vaisala Thunderstorm Online Application Portal\n\\| url \\= https://thunderstorm.vaisala.com/tux/jsp/explorer/explorer.jsp\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070928033058/https://thunderstorm.vaisala.com/tux/jsp/explorer/explorer.jsp\n\\| archive\\-date \\= September 28, 2007\n\\| access\\-date \\= July 27, 2007 }} Real\\-time map of lightning discharges in U.S.",
"In addition, [Blitzortung](/wiki/Blitzortung \"Blitzortung\") (a private global detection system that consists of over 500 detection stations owned and operated by hobbyists/volunteers) provides near real\\-time lightning maps at <https://archive.today/20161216132732/http://en.blitzortung.org/>.",
"The [Earth\\-ionosphere waveguide](/wiki/Earth-ionosphere_waveguide \"Earth-ionosphere waveguide\") traps electromagnetic [VLF](/wiki/VLF \"VLF\")\\- and [ELF](/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency \"Extremely low frequency\") waves. Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide. The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their [group velocity](/wiki/Group_velocity \"Group velocity\") depends on frequency. The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction\\-finding methods, this allows locating lightning strikes up to distances of 10,000 km from their origin. Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth\\-ionospheric waveguide, the [Schumann resonances](/wiki/Schumann_resonances \"Schumann resonances\")\nat about 7\\.5 Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.Volland, H. (ed) (1995\\) *Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics*, CRC Press, Boca Raton, {{ISBN\\|0849386470}}.",
"In addition to ground\\-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have been constructed to observe lightning distribution. These include the Optical Transient Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView\\-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard [TRMM](/wiki/TRMM \"TRMM\") launched on November 28, 1997\\.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/\\| title\\=NASA Dataset Information\\| access\\-date\\=September 11, 2007\\| publisher\\=NASA\\| date\\=2007\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915074014/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/\\| archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2007\\| df\\=mdy\\-all}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/lisbrowse.html\\|title\\=NASA LIS Images\\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2007\\|publisher\\=NASA\\|date\\=2007\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012171040/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/lisbrowse.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2007}}{{cite web\\| url\\=http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/otdbrowse.html\\| title\\=NASA OTD Images\\| access\\-date\\=September 11, 2007\\| publisher\\=NASA\\| date\\=2007\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012171045/http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/data/otdbrowse.html\\| archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2007\\| df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"Starting in 2016, the [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration \"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\") launched Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES\\-R) weather satellites outfitted with [Geostationary Lightning Mapper](/wiki/Geostationary_Lightning_Mapper \"Geostationary Lightning Mapper\") (GLM) instruments which are near\\-infrared optical transient detectors that can detect the momentary changes in an optical scene, indicating the presence of lightning.{{cite web \\|title\\=GLM │ GOES\\-R Series \\|url\\=https://www.goes\\-r.gov/spacesegment/glm.html \\|website\\=www.goes\\-r.gov}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sima \\|first1\\=Richard \\|title\\=Mapping Lightning Strikes from Space \\|url\\=https://eos.org/articles/mapping\\-lightning\\-strikes\\-from\\-space \\|work\\=Eos \\|date\\=March 13, 2020}} The lightning detection data can be converted into a real\\-time map of lightning activity across the Western Hemisphere; this mapping technique has been implemented by the United States [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bruning \\|first1\\=Eric C. \\|last2\\=Tillier \\|first2\\=Clemens E. \\|last3\\=Edgington \\|first3\\=Samantha F. \\|last4\\=Rudlosky \\|first4\\=Scott D. \\|last5\\=Zajic \\|first5\\=Joe \\|last6\\=Gravelle \\|first6\\=Chad \\|last7\\=Foster \\|first7\\=Matt \\|last8\\=Calhoun \\|first8\\=Kristin M. \\|last9\\=Campbell \\|first9\\=P. Adrian \\|last10\\=Stano \\|first10\\=Geoffrey T. \\|last11\\=Schultz \\|first11\\=Christopher J. \\|last12\\=Meyer \\|first12\\=Tiffany C. \\|title\\=Meteorological Imagery for the Geostationary Lightning Mapper \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres \\|date\\=2019 \\|volume\\=124 \\|issue\\=24 \\|pages\\=14285–14309 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2019JD030874 \\|bibcode\\=2019JGRD..12414285B \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=2346/95772 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"In 2022 [EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") plan to launch the Lightning Imager (MTG\\-I LI) on board [Meteosat Third Generation](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\"). This will complement NOAA's GLM. MTG\\-I LI will cover Europe and Africa and will include products on events, groups and flashes.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lightning Imager \\|url\\=https://www.eumetsat.int/mtg\\-lightning\\-imager \\|access\\-date\\=July 27, 2022 \\|website\\=EUMETSAT \\|date\\=May 21, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714105714/https://www.eumetsat.int/mtg\\-lightning\\-imager \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Artificially triggered",
"* **Rocket\\-triggered** lightning can be \"triggered\" by launching [specially designed rockets](/wiki/Lightning_rocket \"Lightning rocket\") trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low\\-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://skydiary.com/gallery/chase2002/2002lightmovie.html\\|title\\=Triggered lightning video\\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2007\\|publisher\\=Chris Kridler's Sky Diary\\|date\\=July 25, 2002\\|author\\=Kridler, Chris\\|work\\=requires QuickTime\\|format\\=video\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915074527/http://skydiary.com/gallery/chase2002/2002lightmovie.html\\|archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2007}}\n* The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.\n* **Laser\\-triggered**\n* Since the 1970s, researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.{{cite web \\| title \\= UNM researchers use lasers to guide lightning\\| publisher \\= Campus News, The \\[\\[University of New Mexico]]\\| date \\= January 29, 2001\\| url \\= http://panda.unm.edu/AcadAdv/lightning.html \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120709023513/http://panda.unm.edu/AcadAdv/lightning.html \\| archive\\-date \\= July 9, 2012 \\| access\\-date \\= July 28, 2007}}{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/1367\\-2630/4/1/361\\| title \\= Laser\\-triggered lightning discharge\\| journal \\= New Journal of Physics\\| volume \\= 4\\| issue \\= 1\\| page \\= 61\\| year \\= 2002\\| last1 \\= Khan \\| first1 \\= N. \\| last2 \\= Mariun \\| first2 \\= N. \\| last3 \\= Aris \\| first3 \\= I. \\| last4 \\= Yeak \\| first4 \\= J. \\|bibcode \\= 2002NJPh....4\\...61K \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{Cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1364/JOT.66\\.000194 \\|title\\=Laboratory tests of laser\\-induced lightning discharge \\|journal\\=Journal of Optical Technology \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=194–198 \\|date\\=1999 \\|first1\\=P. \\|last1\\=Rambo \\|first2\\=J. \\|last2\\=Biegert \\|first3\\=V. \\|last3\\=Kubecek \\|first4\\=J. \\|last4\\=Schwarz \\|first5\\=A. \\|last5\\=Bernstein \\|first6\\=J.\\-C. \\|last6\\=Diels \\|first7\\=R. \\|last7\\=Bernstein \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|first8\\=K. \\|last8\\=Stahlkopf \\|bibcode\\=1999JOptT..66\\..194R }}{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1063/1\\.1829165\\| title \\= Triggering and guiding of megavolt discharges by laser\\-induced filaments under rain conditions\\| journal \\= Applied Physics Letters\\| volume \\= 85\\| issue \\= 23\\| page \\= 5781\\| year \\= 2004\\| last1 \\= Ackermann \\| first1 \\= R.\\| last2 \\= Stelmaszczyk \\| first2 \\= K.\\| last3 \\= Rohwetter \\| first3 \\= P.\\| last4 \\= MéJean \\| first4 \\= G.\\| last5 \\= Salmon \\| first5 \\= E.\\| last6 \\= Yu \\| first6 \\= J.\\| last7 \\= Kasparian \\| first7 \\= J.\\| last8 \\= MéChain \\| first8 \\= G.\\| last9 \\= Bergmann \\| first9 \\= V.\\| last10 \\= Schaper \\| first10 \\= S.\\| last11 \\= Weise \\| first11 \\= B.\\| last12 \\= Kumm \\| first12 \\= T.\\| last13 \\= Rethmeier \\| first13 \\= K.\\| last14 \\= Kalkner \\| first14 \\= W.\\| last15 \\= WöSte \\| first15 \\= L.\\| last16 \\= Wolf \\| first16 \\= J. P.\\|bibcode \\= 2004ApPhL..85\\.5781A }}{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/0021\\-9169(94\\)00073\\-W\\| title \\= A possible way to trigger lightning using a laser\\| journal \\= Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics\\| volume \\= 57\\| issue \\= 5\\| page \\= 459\\| year \\= 1995\\| last1 \\= Wang \\| first1 \\= D.\\| last2 \\= Ushio \\| first2 \\= T.\\| last3 \\= Kawasaki \\| first3 \\= Z. \\-I. \\| last4 \\= Matsuura \\| first4 \\= K.\\| last5 \\= Shimada \\| first5 \\= Y.\\| last6 \\= Uchida \\| first6 \\= S.\\| last7 \\= Yamanaka \\| first7 \\= C.\\| last8 \\= Izawa \\| first8 \\= Y.\\| last9 \\= Sonoi \\| first9 \\= Y.\\| last10 \\= Simokura \\| first10 \\= N.\\|bibcode \\= 1995JATP...57\\..459W }}\n* In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new [terawatt](/wiki/Terawatt \"Terawatt\") laser which provoked lightning. Scientists fired ultra\\-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized molecules known as *filaments*. Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike. Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered. According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://infoniac.com/science/terawatt\\-laser\\-beam\\-shot\\-clouds\\-provokes\\-lightning\\-strike.html \\|title\\=Terawatt Laser Beam Shot in the Clouds Provokes Lightning Strike \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420130439/http://infoniac.com/science/terawatt\\-laser\\-beam\\-shot\\-clouds\\-provokes\\-lightning\\-strike.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 20, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2008 }} News report based on: {{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1364/OE.16\\.005757 \\| pmid \\= 18542684 \\| title \\= Electric events synchronized with laser filaments in thunderclouds \\| journal \\= Optics Express \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 5757–63 \\| year \\= 2008 \\| last1 \\= Kasparian \\| first1 \\= J. \\| last2 \\= Ackermann \\| first2 \\= R. \\| last3 \\= André \\| first3 \\= Y. B. \\| last4 \\= Méchain \\| first4 \\= G. G. \\| last5 \\= Méjean \\| first5 \\= G. \\| last6 \\= Prade \\| first6 \\= B. \\| last7 \\= Rohwetter \\| first7 \\= P. \\| last8 \\= Salmon \\| first8 \\= E. \\| last9 \\= Stelmaszczyk \\| first9 \\= K. \\| last10 \\= Yu \\| first10 \\= J. \\| last11 \\= Mysyrowicz \\| first11 \\= A. \\| last12 \\= Sauerbrey \\| first12 \\= R. \\| last13 \\= Woeste \\| first13 \\= L. \\| last14 \\= Wolf \\| first14 \\= J. P. \\| bibcode \\= 2008OExpr..16\\.5757K \\| url \\= https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri\\=oe\\-16\\-8\\-5757 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical activity in the thundercloud where it was aimed—in effect they generated small local discharges located at the position of the [plasma channels](/wiki/Plasma_channel \"Plasma channel\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://newswise.com/articles/view/539709/ \\|title\\=Laser Triggers Electrical Activity in Thunderstorm for the First Time \\|work\\=Newswise \\|access\\-date\\=August 6, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220100906/http://newswise.com/articles/view/539709/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 20, 2008 }} News report based on {{Harvard citation no brackets\\|Kasparian\\|Ackermann\\|André\\|Méchain\\|Méjean\\|Prade\\|Rohwetter\\|Salmon\\|Stelmaszczyk\\|Yu\\|Mysyrowicz\\|Sauerbrey\\|Woeste\\|Wolf\\|2008\\|pp\\=5757–5763}}",
"### Physical manifestations",
"[thumb\\|Multiple lightning strikes in [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") in August 2020](/wiki/File:Lighting_barrage.jpg \"Lighting barrage.jpg\")",
"#### Magnetism",
"The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see [electromagnetism](/wiki/Electromagnetism \"Electromagnetism\")). The intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field. Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightning\\-induced [remanent](/wiki/Remanence \"Remanence\") magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often horizontally near the surface{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Re\\-magnetization of a Surface Outcrop by Lightning Currents\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-246X.1961\\.tb02963\\.x\\|date\\=1961\\|last1\\=Graham\\|first1\\=K.W.T.\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Geophysical Journal International]]\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=1\\|page\\=85\\|bibcode \\= 1961GeoJ....6\\...85G \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}Cox A. (1961\\). [Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basalt](http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529011301/http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf \\|date\\=May 29, 2013 }}. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1038\\-E, pp. 131–160\\. but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or ground water offers a less resistive path.Bevan B. (1995\\). [\"Magnetic Surveys and Lightning\"](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruce-Bevan/publication/318826400_Magnetic_surveys_and_lightning/links/59807da84585156238facc4d/Magnetic-surveys-and-lightning.pdf). *Near Surface Views* (newsletter of the Near Surface Geophysics section of the Society of Exploration Geophysics). October 1995, pp. 7–8\\. One theory suggests that [lodestones](/wiki/Lodestone \"Lodestone\"), natural magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.{{cite journal\n\\| doi\\=10\\.1029/1999GL900496\n\\| first\\=Peter\n\\| last\\=Wasilewski\n\\|author2\\=Günther Kletetschka\n \\| title\\=Lodestone: Nature's only permanent magnet – What it is and how it gets charged\n\\| url\\=http://lep694\\.gsfc.nasa.gov/gunther/gunther/Wasilewski1999\\.pdf\n\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003193325/http://lep694\\.gsfc.nasa.gov/gunther/gunther/Wasilewski1999\\.pdf\n\\| archive\\-date\\=October 3, 2006\n\\| journal\\=\\[\\[Geophysical Research Letters]]\n\\| volume\\=26\n\\| issue\\=15\n\\| pages\\=2275–78\n\\| date\\=1999\n\\| access\\-date\\=July 13, 2009\\| url\\-status\\=dead\n\\|bibcode \\= 1999GeoRL..26\\.2275W \\| s2cid\\=128699936\n}}",
"Lightning\\-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground,{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sakai \\|first1\\=H. S. \\|last2\\=Sunada \\|first2\\=S. \\|last3\\=Sakurano \\|first3\\=H. \\|date\\=1998 \\|title\\=Study of Lightning Current by Remanent Magnetization \\|journal\\=Electrical Engineering in Japan \\|volume\\=123 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=41–47 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/(SICI)1520\\-6416(199806\\)123:4\\<41::AID\\-EEJ6\\>3\\.0\\.CO;2\\-O}}[Archaeo\\-Physics, LLC \\| Lightning\\-induced magnetic anomalies on archaeological sites](http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/LIRM.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012080847/http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/LIRM.html \\|date\\=October 12, 2007 }}. Archaeophysics.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2012\\. and analysis of magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Maki \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=2005 \\|title\\=Lightning strikes and prehistoric ovens: Determining the source of magnetic anomalies using techniques of environmental magnetism \\|journal\\=Geoarchaeology \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=449–459 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/gea.20059 \\|bibcode\\=2005Gearc..20\\..449M \\|url\\=http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/lightning\\-oven.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515025335/http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/lightning\\-oven.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=May 15, 2013 \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.536\\.5980 \\|s2cid\\=52383921 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017 }} and provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Verrier \\|first1\\=V. \\|last2\\=Rochette \\|first2\\=P. \\|date\\=2002 \\|title\\=Estimating Peak Currents at Ground Lightning Impacts Using Remanent Magnetization \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Geophysical Research Letters]] \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=18 \\|page\\=1867 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2002GL015207\\|bibcode \\= 2002GeoRL..29\\.1867V \\|s2cid\\=128577288 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Research at the [University of Innsbruck](/wiki/University_of_Innsbruck \"University of Innsbruck\") has calculated that magnetic fields generated by plasma may induce [hallucinations](/wiki/Hallucinations \"Hallucinations\") in subjects located within {{cvt\\|200\\|m}} of a severe lightning storm, like what happened in [Transcranial magnetic stimulation](/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation \"Transcranial magnetic stimulation\") (TMS).{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/418887/magnetically\\-induced\\-hallucinations\\-explain\\-ball\\-lightning\\-say\\-physicists/ \\|title \\= Magnetically Induced Hallucinations Explain Ball Lightning, Say Physicists}}",
"### Solar wind and cosmic rays",
"Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, which may create pathways for lightning bolts.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iop.org/news/14/may/page\\_63245\\.html \\|title\\=High\\-speed solar winds increase lightning strikes on Earth \\|publisher\\=Iop.org \\|date\\=May 15, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2014}}",
"### Lightning and climate change",
"Due to the low resolution of global climate models, accurately representing lightning in these climate models is difficult, largely due to their inability to simulate the convection and cloud ice fundamental to lightning formation. Research from the Future Climate for Africa programme demonstrates that using a convection\\-permitting model over Africa can more accurately capture convective thunderstorms and the distribution of ice particles. This research indicates climate change may increase the total amount of lightning only slightly: the total number of lightning days per year decreases, while more cloud ice and stronger convection leads to more lightning strikes occurring on days when lightning does occur.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Finney\\|first1\\=D. L.\\|last2\\=Marsham\\|first2\\=J. H.\\|last3\\=Wilkinson\\|first3\\=J. M.\\|last4\\=Field\\|first4\\=P. R.\\|last5\\=Blyth\\|first5\\=A. M.\\|last6\\=Jackson\\|first6\\=L. S.\\|last7\\=Kendon\\|first7\\=E. J.\\|last8\\=Tucker\\|first8\\=S. O.\\|last9\\=Stratton\\|first9\\=R. A.\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=African Lightning and its Relation to Rainfall and Climate Change in a Convection\\-Permitting Model\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|volume\\=47\\|issue\\=23\\|pages\\=e2020GL088163\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2020GL088163\\|bibcode\\=2020GeoRL..4788163F\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"A study from the University of Washington looked at lightning activity in the Arctic from 2010 to 2020\\. The ratio of Arctic summertime strokes was compared to total global strokes and was observed to be increasing with time, indicating that the region is becoming more influenced by lightning. The fraction of strokes above 65 degrees north was found to be increasing linearly with the NOAA [global temperature anomaly](/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record \"Instrumental temperature record\") and grew by a factor of 3 as the anomaly increased from 0\\.65 to 0\\.95 °C {{cite journal\\|last1\\=Holzworth\\|first1\\=R. H.\\|last2\\=Brundell\\|first2\\=J. B.\\|first3\\=M. P.\\|last3\\=McCarthy\\|first4\\=A. R.\\|last4\\=Jacobson\\|first5\\=C. J.\\|last5\\=Rodger\\|first6\\=T. S.\\|last6\\=Anderson\\|date\\=2021\\|title\\=Lightning in the Arctic\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|volume\\=48\\|issue\\=7\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2020GL091366\\|bibcode\\=2021GeoRL..4891366H\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Paleolightning",
"{{excerpt\\|Paleolightning\\|only\\=paragraphs}}",
""
] |
Musical career
--------------
### 1999–2004: Hear Me and Blackstar
In 1999, Williams recorded a few songs and toured with her band "Dirty Soul". She adopted the named "Yahzarah", as a tribute to her grandmothers Yaa Asantewaa and Sarah. In 2000, Yahzarah received her break into the recording industry by singing back\-up vocals for [Erykah Badu](/wiki/Erykah_Badu "Erykah Badu"). Yahzarah also appeared in Badu's [Bag Lady](/wiki/Bag_Lady "Bag Lady") music video. Later in 2000, Yahzarah toured with Erykah Badu as the opening act for Badu's "Mama's Gun Tour".
In 2000, Yahzarah signed to Keo Music Records and began recording her first album. In early 2001, Yahzarah released her first single "Feel Me". In 2001, Yahzarah released her first album, *Hear Me*.[Yahzarah Performing as Purple St. James](http://2008.sxsw.com/music/showcases/band/70473.html). [South by Southwest](/wiki/South_by_Southwest "South by Southwest"), 2008\. Retrieved on September 29, 2008\. The album also spawned the singles "Love Is You" and "Natural".
In 2002, YahZarah signed a recording contract with Three Keys Music and began recording sessions for her second album. In August 2003, Yahzarah released "Wishing" as the lead single for her second album. In September 2003, Yahzarah released her second album, *Blackstar*, and began her "Blackstar Tour". Later that year, Yahzarah returned to her hometown Washington D.C. to perform at the Black Luv Festival. In November 2003, she released the title\-track "Blackstar" as the second single. In 2004, she released "One Day" as the third single. Later that year, Yahzarah left Three Keys Music and signed to The Foreign Exchange Music.
### 2005–2011: The Prelude and Purple St. James
In 2005, YahZarah was featured on Foreign Exchange's *[Connected](/wiki/Connected_%28Foreign_Exchange_album%29 "Connected (Foreign Exchange album)")* album. The song "Sincere" which featured long\-time friend [Phonte](/wiki/Phonte "Phonte") was chosen as the single for the album. In 2008, Yahzarah released an extended play, entitled "The Prelude". She toured with [Chaka Khan](/wiki/Chaka_Khan "Chaka Khan"), [Musiq Soulchild](/wiki/Musiq_Soulchild "Musiq Soulchild"), [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots "The Roots"), and [R. Kelly](/wiki/R._Kelly "R. Kelly") to promote her EP. Yahzarah later appeared the [Little Brother](/wiki/Little_Brother_%28band%29 "Little Brother (band)") album *[The Minstrel Show](/wiki/The_Minstrel_Show "The Minstrel Show")*.[Purple St. James (Yahzarah)'s The Prelude](http://www.indyweek.com/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A262048). [Independent Weekly](/wiki/Independent_Weekly "Independent Weekly"), August 6, 2008\. Retrieved on August 29, 2008 Later that year, YahZarah was the featured artist opener on the Anthony Hamilton "Playing it Cool Tour" which was featured at the House of Blues. She is also featured the album *[Leave It All Behind](/wiki/Leave_It_All_Behind_%28Foreign_Exchange_album%29 "Leave It All Behind (Foreign Exchange album)")* by The Foreign Exchange.
In 2009, YahZarah was elected to the "Board of Governors" for the Washington D.C. Chapter of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) and still currently holds that post. Later that year, Yahzarah performed at the invitation of the Republic of Italy for the inauguration of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama"). In the same year, YahZarah began recording sessions for her third album previously title, *Introducing Purple St. James*, later re\-titled [The Ballad of Purple St. James](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Purple_St._James "The Ballad of Purple St. James"). In mid\-2009, Yahzarah announced the album title "Introducing Purple St. James" along with the expected release date in the fall of 2009, which was later pushed back to May 2010\. She continued to promote her upcoming album by touring. In July 2009, she toured with [Conya Doss](/wiki/Conya_Doss "Conya Doss"), [Sy Smith](/wiki/Sy_Smith "Sy Smith"), and Maya Azucena where she hosted the Soulsista Tour where she also tributed to [Michael Jackson](/wiki/Michael_Jackson "Michael Jackson"). In late 2009, Yahzarah reunited with long\-time friend "[Natalie "The Floacist" Stewart](/wiki/Floetry "Floetry")" to perform "[Butterflies](/wiki/Floetic "Floetic")" in tribute to Michael Jackson.
In January 2010, Yahzarah released her buzz single "The Tickler". In March 2010, Yahzarah released the lead single "[Why Dontcha Call Me No More](/wiki/Why_Dontcha_Call_Me_No_More "Why Dontcha Call Me No More")". In May 2010, she released her third album, *[The Ballad of Purple St. James](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Purple_St._James "The Ballad of Purple St. James")*. A music video for her single "[Why Dontcha Call Me No More](/wiki/Why_Dontcha_Call_Me_No_More "Why Dontcha Call Me No More")" was released May 19, 2010\. In mid\-2010, Yahzarah began the "Love vs Lust Tour" along with [The Foreign Exchange](/wiki/The_Foreign_Exchange "The Foreign Exchange"). In September 2010, Yahzarah released the second single "Cry Over You" along a music video. On September 18, 2010, Yahzarah announced that she will be touring with [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots "The Roots") and [Q\-Tip](/wiki/Q-Tip_%28musician%29 "Q-Tip (musician)") on the 2010 Hennesy Artistry Tour.[Yahzarah Added to the Hennesy Artistry Tour 2010](http://www.whoisyahzarah.com/yahzarah-added-to-the-hennesy-artistry-tour-2010.html). Who Is Yahzarah. Retrieved on October 26, 2010\. Yahzarah also made a cameo on the tune "I Remember" by [Wes Felton](/wiki/Wes_Felton "Wes Felton") on his album Land of Sheep, Ran by Pigs, Ruled by Wolves.{{cite web \|url\=http://wesfelton.bandcamp.com/album/land\-of\-sheep\-ran\-by\-pigs\-ruled\-by\-wolves \|title\=Land of Sheep, Ran by Pigs, Ruled By Wolves {{!}} W.Ellington Felton \|website\=wesfelton.bandcamp.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105160630/http://wesfelton.bandcamp.com/album/land\-of\-sheep\-ran\-by\-pigs\-ruled\-by\-wolves \|archive\-date\=2010\-11\-05}}
In July 2011, Yahzarah released the video for her single "Love Come Save the Day". In December 2011, Yahazarh re\-appeared on FoxDC News to perform the single. On December 18, 2011, she released a Christmas single, "What Do The Lonely Do At Christmas".
### 2012–present: Recent activities
In 2012, Yahzarah began her Tribute to the Beatles Tour. In 2015, she toured as a backup for [Lenny Kravitz](/wiki/Lenny_Kravitz "Lenny Kravitz") during his Strut Europe Tour. In January 2017, she released a single "Running". In 2019, she toured as a backup vocalist for [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 "Madonna (entertainer)") during her [Madame X Tour](/wiki/Madame_X_Tour "Madame X Tour").
|
[
"Musical career\n--------------",
"### 1999–2004: Hear Me and Blackstar",
"In 1999, Williams recorded a few songs and toured with her band \"Dirty Soul\". She adopted the named \"Yahzarah\", as a tribute to her grandmothers Yaa Asantewaa and Sarah. In 2000, Yahzarah received her break into the recording industry by singing back\\-up vocals for [Erykah Badu](/wiki/Erykah_Badu \"Erykah Badu\"). Yahzarah also appeared in Badu's [Bag Lady](/wiki/Bag_Lady \"Bag Lady\") music video. Later in 2000, Yahzarah toured with Erykah Badu as the opening act for Badu's \"Mama's Gun Tour\".",
"In 2000, Yahzarah signed to Keo Music Records and began recording her first album. In early 2001, Yahzarah released her first single \"Feel Me\". In 2001, Yahzarah released her first album, *Hear Me*.[Yahzarah Performing as Purple St. James](http://2008.sxsw.com/music/showcases/band/70473.html). [South by Southwest](/wiki/South_by_Southwest \"South by Southwest\"), 2008\\. Retrieved on September 29, 2008\\. The album also spawned the singles \"Love Is You\" and \"Natural\".",
"In 2002, YahZarah signed a recording contract with Three Keys Music and began recording sessions for her second album. In August 2003, Yahzarah released \"Wishing\" as the lead single for her second album. In September 2003, Yahzarah released her second album, *Blackstar*, and began her \"Blackstar Tour\". Later that year, Yahzarah returned to her hometown Washington D.C. to perform at the Black Luv Festival. In November 2003, she released the title\\-track \"Blackstar\" as the second single. In 2004, she released \"One Day\" as the third single. Later that year, Yahzarah left Three Keys Music and signed to The Foreign Exchange Music.",
"### 2005–2011: The Prelude and Purple St. James",
"In 2005, YahZarah was featured on Foreign Exchange's *[Connected](/wiki/Connected_%28Foreign_Exchange_album%29 \"Connected (Foreign Exchange album)\")* album. The song \"Sincere\" which featured long\\-time friend [Phonte](/wiki/Phonte \"Phonte\") was chosen as the single for the album. In 2008, Yahzarah released an extended play, entitled \"The Prelude\". She toured with [Chaka Khan](/wiki/Chaka_Khan \"Chaka Khan\"), [Musiq Soulchild](/wiki/Musiq_Soulchild \"Musiq Soulchild\"), [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots \"The Roots\"), and [R. Kelly](/wiki/R._Kelly \"R. Kelly\") to promote her EP. Yahzarah later appeared the [Little Brother](/wiki/Little_Brother_%28band%29 \"Little Brother (band)\") album *[The Minstrel Show](/wiki/The_Minstrel_Show \"The Minstrel Show\")*.[Purple St. James (Yahzarah)'s The Prelude](http://www.indyweek.com/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A262048). [Independent Weekly](/wiki/Independent_Weekly \"Independent Weekly\"), August 6, 2008\\. Retrieved on August 29, 2008 Later that year, YahZarah was the featured artist opener on the Anthony Hamilton \"Playing it Cool Tour\" which was featured at the House of Blues. She is also featured the album *[Leave It All Behind](/wiki/Leave_It_All_Behind_%28Foreign_Exchange_album%29 \"Leave It All Behind (Foreign Exchange album)\")* by The Foreign Exchange.",
"In 2009, YahZarah was elected to the \"Board of Governors\" for the Washington D.C. Chapter of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) and still currently holds that post. Later that year, Yahzarah performed at the invitation of the Republic of Italy for the inauguration of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"). In the same year, YahZarah began recording sessions for her third album previously title, *Introducing Purple St. James*, later re\\-titled [The Ballad of Purple St. James](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Purple_St._James \"The Ballad of Purple St. James\"). In mid\\-2009, Yahzarah announced the album title \"Introducing Purple St. James\" along with the expected release date in the fall of 2009, which was later pushed back to May 2010\\. She continued to promote her upcoming album by touring. In July 2009, she toured with [Conya Doss](/wiki/Conya_Doss \"Conya Doss\"), [Sy Smith](/wiki/Sy_Smith \"Sy Smith\"), and Maya Azucena where she hosted the Soulsista Tour where she also tributed to [Michael Jackson](/wiki/Michael_Jackson \"Michael Jackson\"). In late 2009, Yahzarah reunited with long\\-time friend \"[Natalie \"The Floacist\" Stewart](/wiki/Floetry \"Floetry\")\" to perform \"[Butterflies](/wiki/Floetic \"Floetic\")\" in tribute to Michael Jackson.",
"In January 2010, Yahzarah released her buzz single \"The Tickler\". In March 2010, Yahzarah released the lead single \"[Why Dontcha Call Me No More](/wiki/Why_Dontcha_Call_Me_No_More \"Why Dontcha Call Me No More\")\". In May 2010, she released her third album, *[The Ballad of Purple St. James](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Purple_St._James \"The Ballad of Purple St. James\")*. A music video for her single \"[Why Dontcha Call Me No More](/wiki/Why_Dontcha_Call_Me_No_More \"Why Dontcha Call Me No More\")\" was released May 19, 2010\\. In mid\\-2010, Yahzarah began the \"Love vs Lust Tour\" along with [The Foreign Exchange](/wiki/The_Foreign_Exchange \"The Foreign Exchange\"). In September 2010, Yahzarah released the second single \"Cry Over You\" along a music video. On September 18, 2010, Yahzarah announced that she will be touring with [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots \"The Roots\") and [Q\\-Tip](/wiki/Q-Tip_%28musician%29 \"Q-Tip (musician)\") on the 2010 Hennesy Artistry Tour.[Yahzarah Added to the Hennesy Artistry Tour 2010](http://www.whoisyahzarah.com/yahzarah-added-to-the-hennesy-artistry-tour-2010.html). Who Is Yahzarah. Retrieved on October 26, 2010\\. Yahzarah also made a cameo on the tune \"I Remember\" by [Wes Felton](/wiki/Wes_Felton \"Wes Felton\") on his album Land of Sheep, Ran by Pigs, Ruled by Wolves.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://wesfelton.bandcamp.com/album/land\\-of\\-sheep\\-ran\\-by\\-pigs\\-ruled\\-by\\-wolves \\|title\\=Land of Sheep, Ran by Pigs, Ruled By Wolves {{!}} W.Ellington Felton \\|website\\=wesfelton.bandcamp.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105160630/http://wesfelton.bandcamp.com/album/land\\-of\\-sheep\\-ran\\-by\\-pigs\\-ruled\\-by\\-wolves \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-05}}",
"In July 2011, Yahzarah released the video for her single \"Love Come Save the Day\". In December 2011, Yahazarh re\\-appeared on FoxDC News to perform the single. On December 18, 2011, she released a Christmas single, \"What Do The Lonely Do At Christmas\".",
"### 2012–present: Recent activities",
"In 2012, Yahzarah began her Tribute to the Beatles Tour. In 2015, she toured as a backup for [Lenny Kravitz](/wiki/Lenny_Kravitz \"Lenny Kravitz\") during his Strut Europe Tour. In January 2017, she released a single \"Running\". In 2019, she toured as a backup vocalist for [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 \"Madonna (entertainer)\") during her [Madame X Tour](/wiki/Madame_X_Tour \"Madame X Tour\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Fujita's father was born in a village near [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki "Nagasaki"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), and after learning English while at school he was sent to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") to learn American methods of agriculture.Fujita, p. 5\. Arriving in June 1914, he took a Western name and became embroiled in gambling in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"). He worked for the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army "Salvation Army") before training as a chef on the [Rock Island Rail Road](/wiki/Rock_Island_Rail_Road "Rock Island Rail Road").Fujita, p. 6\-7\. He met his future wife, Isa Pearl Elliott, at a hotel in [Rock Island, Illinois](/wiki/Rock_Island%2C_Illinois "Rock Island, Illinois"), and the two were married in 1919\.Fujita, p. 7\.
Fujita was the second of five children, born on October 20, 1921, in [Lawton](/wiki/Lawton%2C_Oklahoma "Lawton, Oklahoma") while his father worked in the food industry in [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma"),Fujita, p. 9\. enhancing his income further with gambling wins and moonlighting in artistry and sign painting. Fujita and his siblings were encouraged to absorb the culture of the United States and become "one hundred percent American".Fujita, p. 7\-8\. Fujita joined the [American Boy Scouts](/wiki/American_Boy_Scouts "American Boy Scouts") upon moving to [El Reno](/wiki/El_Reno "El Reno"), and survived well under his father's healthy income during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression").Fujita, p. 10\. It was at this time that he earned the nickname "Foo", based on a childhood pet.Fujita, p. 11\. His drawings of this cat attracted local media interest from *The Abilene Reporter News* in 1937, a local newspaper from [Abilene, Texas](/wiki/Abilene%2C_Texas "Abilene, Texas"). He obtained work as a cartoonist for a local school newspaper and as a stage hand in various theatre plays.Fujita, p. 13\-14\.
### Enlistment
Fujita became interested in joining the military after hearing of his friend's enjoyment of the [Texas National Guard](/wiki/Texas_National_Guard "Texas National Guard"). He enlisted after a lengthy debate between the National Guard and the civics teacher of the local high school debating the legitimacy of his claim to American citizenship, as well as questions over his weight, height and age, all three of which were below the minimum level.Fujita, p. 13\-15\. Made a [PFC](/wiki/Private_First_Class "Private First Class") and a chauffeur for the battalion officers, Fujita progressed well in the National Guard though struggled at home with his studies.Fujita, p. 19\. After accepting an ultimatum from his father to work harder or leave, Fujita chose to hitch\-hike to Oklahoma and became an artist and illustrator.Fujita, p. 20\. On the outbreak of war in 1939, he returned to his National Guard unit, taking part in training manoeuvres through 1940\.Fujita, p. 21\.
{{quote\|November 10, 1941\. We are leaving Camp Bowie. The Battalion is going to "Frisco" on two trains. I am in the first train that the others will follow in the morning. It was sure hard to say good\-bye to Charlie, Ed, Joe and the rest. We got underway at 10:00 PM.\| Fujita's diary entry during the activation of his National Guard Unit.Fujita, p. 2\.}}
Come November, with Fujita by now a sergeant, the unit was mobilized and sent to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") and then [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana").Fujita, p. 21\-24\. In 1941, he was shipped overseas aboard the *Republic*.Fujita, p. 39\-41\.
### Battle of Java
[thumb\|250px\|Japanese [bicycle infantry](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry "Bicycle infantry") moving through Java.](/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_move_through_Java.jpg "Japanese troops move through Java.jpg")
{{main\|Battle of Java (1942\)}}
#### Japanese landings
During the [Battle of the Java Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea "Battle of the Java Sea") on 27 February 1942, the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") navies suffered a disastrous defeat at the hand of the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy"). The [American\-British\-Dutch\-Australian Command](/wiki/American-British-Dutch-Australian_Command "American-British-Dutch-Australian Command") (ABDA) Strike Force commander—Admiral [Karel Doorman](/wiki/Karel_Doorman "Karel Doorman")—was killed. What followed was several [landings on the island of Java](/wiki/Battle_of_Java_%281942%29 "Battle of Java (1942)") on March 1\. The Allied forces were commanded by the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army") (KNIL) commander, General [Hein ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten "Hein ter Poorten").{{cite web \|first\=Klemen \|last\=L \|url\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/terpoorten.html \|title\=Lieutenant\-General Hein Ter Poorten \|date\=1999–2000 \|work\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|access\-date\=2011\-12\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717020654/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/terpoorten.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-17 \|url\-status\=live }} Although the KNIL forces had, on paper, 25,000 (mostly Indonesian) well\-armed troops, many were poorly trained. The Japanese troops landed at three points on Java on 1 March. The West Java invasion convoy landed on [Bantam Bay](/wiki/Bantam_Bay "Bantam Bay") near [Merak](/wiki/Merak%2C_Banten "Merak, Banten") and Eretan Wetan, having defeated HMAS *Perth* and USS *Houston* at the [Battle of Sunda Strait](/wiki/Battle_of_Sunda_Strait "Battle of Sunda Strait"), a few hours prior to landing.{{cite web \|first \= Jan \|last \= Visser \|url \= http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/SundaStrait.html \|title \= The Sunda Strait Battle \|date \= 1999–2000 \|work \= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|access\-date \= 2011\-12\-07 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141203155704/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/SundaStrait.html \|archive\-date \= 2014\-12\-03 \|url\-status \= live }} The East Java invasion convoy landed on Kragan.{{cite web\|first\=Klemen \|last\=L \|url\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/java\_sea.html \|title\=The Java Sea Battle \|date\=1999–2000 \|work\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726052834/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/java\_sea.html \|archivedate\=2011\-07\-26 }}
#### Land campaign
{{see also\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}
Japanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\.
The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.
As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn "Arthur Blackburn"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore "Japanese occupation of Singapore"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.
However, "E" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.
On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang "Leuwiliang"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor "Bogor"), "D" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from "D" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi "Sukabumi"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.
The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong "Porong"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya "Surabaya"), the Texans of "E" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.
#### Allied surrender
By 7 March, defeat was inevitable, with Tjilatjap already in Japanese hands. Soerabaja was being evacuated while Japanese troops were rapidly converging on [Bandoeng](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung") from both the north and the west. At 09:00 on 8 March, the Commander\-in\-Chief of the Allied forces — [Ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten "Hein ter Poorten") — announced the surrender of the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army") in [Java](/wiki/Java "Java"). At 23:00, the Dutch radio station NIROM (*Nederlandsch Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij*) broadcast the last news from a temporary transmitter at [Ciumbuleuit](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung"). The announcer Bert Garthoff ended the broadcast with the words "*Wij sluiten nu. Vaarwel tot betere tijden. Leve de Koningin!*" (We are closing now. Farewell till better times. Long live the Queen!) The Dutch [Governor](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies "Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies"), Jonkheer Dr. [A.W.L. Tjarda Van Starkenborgh Stachouwer](/wiki/Alidius_Warmoldus_Lambertus_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer "Alidius Warmoldus Lambertus Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer") and Lieutenant\-General Ter Poorten, together with Major\-General Jacob J. Pesman, the commander of the Bandoeng District, met the Japanese Commander\-in\-Chief, Lieutenant\-General [Hitoshi Imamura](/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura "Hitoshi Imamura") at Kalidjati that afternoon and agreed to the capitulation of all the troops. Fujita was captured along 550 other members of what became known as the "Lost Battalion".Fujita, p. ix.
### Internment
Fujita was a prisoner of war for three and a half years.Fujita, p. 3\. He spent the majority of his internment in Omori Prison Island in [Tokyo Bay](/wiki/Tokyo_Bay "Tokyo Bay"),Fujito, p. 1\. but was also imprisoned in [Surabaja](/wiki/Surabaja "Surabaja") and [Changi Prison](/wiki/Changi_Prison "Changi Prison") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") after initial capture.*Oral history interview with Frank Fujita*, Texas State University, 1970\. He was for a time in the company of fellow prisoner [John David Provoo](/wiki/John_David_Provoo "John David Provoo").Fujita, p. 191\-192\.
Due to his ethnicity, Fujita was separated from other American prisoners and forced to produce [```
propaganda broadcasts
```](/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II "Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II") for the Japanese.Buenger, p. 107\.
### Liberation
On August 29, 1945, Fujita and 300 other survivors from his battalion were among the first American prisoners to be liberated.
{{quote\|These are the first free Americans that I have seen in almost four years. I am so grateful not to have drowned for my own foolishness that I cannot even cry. They are indeed the toughest men I have ever seen... I am fully aware that I have not drowned. My final foolishness has not killed me. I am alive! I am free!\| Fujita on his liberation.}}
Like most of his fellow inmates, Fujita was returned to the United States over a period of several weeks in late 1945\. Fujita travelled via train to Texas, and via bus to Abilene, arriving in October. He recorded later that "I walked past my mother and baby sister without recognizing them. My mom must have been drowsy, or the sight of me froze her to immobility, for I was two or three people past her before she came into action."Crager, p. 130\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Fujita's father was born in a village near [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki \"Nagasaki\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), and after learning English while at school he was sent to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") to learn American methods of agriculture.Fujita, p. 5\\. Arriving in June 1914, he took a Western name and became embroiled in gambling in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"). He worked for the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army \"Salvation Army\") before training as a chef on the [Rock Island Rail Road](/wiki/Rock_Island_Rail_Road \"Rock Island Rail Road\").Fujita, p. 6\\-7\\. He met his future wife, Isa Pearl Elliott, at a hotel in [Rock Island, Illinois](/wiki/Rock_Island%2C_Illinois \"Rock Island, Illinois\"), and the two were married in 1919\\.Fujita, p. 7\\.",
"Fujita was the second of five children, born on October 20, 1921, in [Lawton](/wiki/Lawton%2C_Oklahoma \"Lawton, Oklahoma\") while his father worked in the food industry in [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\"),Fujita, p. 9\\. enhancing his income further with gambling wins and moonlighting in artistry and sign painting. Fujita and his siblings were encouraged to absorb the culture of the United States and become \"one hundred percent American\".Fujita, p. 7\\-8\\. Fujita joined the [American Boy Scouts](/wiki/American_Boy_Scouts \"American Boy Scouts\") upon moving to [El Reno](/wiki/El_Reno \"El Reno\"), and survived well under his father's healthy income during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\").Fujita, p. 10\\. It was at this time that he earned the nickname \"Foo\", based on a childhood pet.Fujita, p. 11\\. His drawings of this cat attracted local media interest from *The Abilene Reporter News* in 1937, a local newspaper from [Abilene, Texas](/wiki/Abilene%2C_Texas \"Abilene, Texas\"). He obtained work as a cartoonist for a local school newspaper and as a stage hand in various theatre plays.Fujita, p. 13\\-14\\.",
"### Enlistment",
"Fujita became interested in joining the military after hearing of his friend's enjoyment of the [Texas National Guard](/wiki/Texas_National_Guard \"Texas National Guard\"). He enlisted after a lengthy debate between the National Guard and the civics teacher of the local high school debating the legitimacy of his claim to American citizenship, as well as questions over his weight, height and age, all three of which were below the minimum level.Fujita, p. 13\\-15\\. Made a [PFC](/wiki/Private_First_Class \"Private First Class\") and a chauffeur for the battalion officers, Fujita progressed well in the National Guard though struggled at home with his studies.Fujita, p. 19\\. After accepting an ultimatum from his father to work harder or leave, Fujita chose to hitch\\-hike to Oklahoma and became an artist and illustrator.Fujita, p. 20\\. On the outbreak of war in 1939, he returned to his National Guard unit, taking part in training manoeuvres through 1940\\.Fujita, p. 21\\.",
"{{quote\\|November 10, 1941\\. We are leaving Camp Bowie. The Battalion is going to \"Frisco\" on two trains. I am in the first train that the others will follow in the morning. It was sure hard to say good\\-bye to Charlie, Ed, Joe and the rest. We got underway at 10:00 PM.\\| Fujita's diary entry during the activation of his National Guard Unit.Fujita, p. 2\\.}}",
"Come November, with Fujita by now a sergeant, the unit was mobilized and sent to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") and then [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\").Fujita, p. 21\\-24\\. In 1941, he was shipped overseas aboard the *Republic*.Fujita, p. 39\\-41\\.",
"### Battle of Java",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Japanese [bicycle infantry](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry \"Bicycle infantry\") moving through Java.](/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_move_through_Java.jpg \"Japanese troops move through Java.jpg\")",
"{{main\\|Battle of Java (1942\\)}}",
"#### Japanese landings",
"During the [Battle of the Java Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea \"Battle of the Java Sea\") on 27 February 1942, the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") navies suffered a disastrous defeat at the hand of the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\"). The [American\\-British\\-Dutch\\-Australian Command](/wiki/American-British-Dutch-Australian_Command \"American-British-Dutch-Australian Command\") (ABDA) Strike Force commander—Admiral [Karel Doorman](/wiki/Karel_Doorman \"Karel Doorman\")—was killed. What followed was several [landings on the island of Java](/wiki/Battle_of_Java_%281942%29 \"Battle of Java (1942)\") on March 1\\. The Allied forces were commanded by the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army \"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army\") (KNIL) commander, General [Hein ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten \"Hein ter Poorten\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Klemen \\|last\\=L \\|url\\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/terpoorten.html \\|title\\=Lieutenant\\-General Hein Ter Poorten \\|date\\=1999–2000 \\|work\\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717020654/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/terpoorten.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although the KNIL forces had, on paper, 25,000 (mostly Indonesian) well\\-armed troops, many were poorly trained. The Japanese troops landed at three points on Java on 1 March. The West Java invasion convoy landed on [Bantam Bay](/wiki/Bantam_Bay \"Bantam Bay\") near [Merak](/wiki/Merak%2C_Banten \"Merak, Banten\") and Eretan Wetan, having defeated HMAS *Perth* and USS *Houston* at the [Battle of Sunda Strait](/wiki/Battle_of_Sunda_Strait \"Battle of Sunda Strait\"), a few hours prior to landing.{{cite web \\|first \\= Jan \\|last \\= Visser \\|url \\= http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/SundaStrait.html \\|title \\= The Sunda Strait Battle \\|date \\= 1999–2000 \\|work \\= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|access\\-date \\= 2011\\-12\\-07 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141203155704/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/SundaStrait.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 2014\\-12\\-03 \\|url\\-status \\= live }} The East Java invasion convoy landed on Kragan.{{cite web\\|first\\=Klemen \\|last\\=L \\|url\\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/java\\_sea.html \\|title\\=The Java Sea Battle \\|date\\=1999–2000 \\|work\\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726052834/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/java\\_sea.html \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-07\\-26 }}",
"#### Land campaign",
"{{see also\\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}\nJapanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\\.",
"The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.",
"As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn \"Arthur Blackburn\"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore \"Japanese occupation of Singapore\"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.",
"However, \"E\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.",
"On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang \"Leuwiliang\"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor \"Bogor\"), \"D\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from \"D\" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi \"Sukabumi\"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.",
"The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong \"Porong\"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya \"Surabaya\"), the Texans of \"E\" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.",
"#### Allied surrender",
"By 7 March, defeat was inevitable, with Tjilatjap already in Japanese hands. Soerabaja was being evacuated while Japanese troops were rapidly converging on [Bandoeng](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\") from both the north and the west. At 09:00 on 8 March, the Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Allied forces — [Ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten \"Hein ter Poorten\") — announced the surrender of the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army \"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army\") in [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\"). At 23:00, the Dutch radio station NIROM (*Nederlandsch Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij*) broadcast the last news from a temporary transmitter at [Ciumbuleuit](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\"). The announcer Bert Garthoff ended the broadcast with the words \"*Wij sluiten nu. Vaarwel tot betere tijden. Leve de Koningin!*\" (We are closing now. Farewell till better times. Long live the Queen!) The Dutch [Governor](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies \"Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies\"), Jonkheer Dr. [A.W.L. Tjarda Van Starkenborgh Stachouwer](/wiki/Alidius_Warmoldus_Lambertus_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer \"Alidius Warmoldus Lambertus Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer\") and Lieutenant\\-General Ter Poorten, together with Major\\-General Jacob J. Pesman, the commander of the Bandoeng District, met the Japanese Commander\\-in\\-Chief, Lieutenant\\-General [Hitoshi Imamura](/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura \"Hitoshi Imamura\") at Kalidjati that afternoon and agreed to the capitulation of all the troops. Fujita was captured along 550 other members of what became known as the \"Lost Battalion\".Fujita, p. ix.",
"### Internment",
"Fujita was a prisoner of war for three and a half years.Fujita, p. 3\\. He spent the majority of his internment in Omori Prison Island in [Tokyo Bay](/wiki/Tokyo_Bay \"Tokyo Bay\"),Fujito, p. 1\\. but was also imprisoned in [Surabaja](/wiki/Surabaja \"Surabaja\") and [Changi Prison](/wiki/Changi_Prison \"Changi Prison\") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") after initial capture.*Oral history interview with Frank Fujita*, Texas State University, 1970\\. He was for a time in the company of fellow prisoner [John David Provoo](/wiki/John_David_Provoo \"John David Provoo\").Fujita, p. 191\\-192\\.",
"Due to his ethnicity, Fujita was separated from other American prisoners and forced to produce [```\npropaganda broadcasts\n```](/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II \"Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II\") for the Japanese.Buenger, p. 107\\.",
"### Liberation",
"On August 29, 1945, Fujita and 300 other survivors from his battalion were among the first American prisoners to be liberated.",
"{{quote\\|These are the first free Americans that I have seen in almost four years. I am so grateful not to have drowned for my own foolishness that I cannot even cry. They are indeed the toughest men I have ever seen... I am fully aware that I have not drowned. My final foolishness has not killed me. I am alive! I am free!\\| Fujita on his liberation.}}",
"Like most of his fellow inmates, Fujita was returned to the United States over a period of several weeks in late 1945\\. Fujita travelled via train to Texas, and via bus to Abilene, arriving in October. He recorded later that \"I walked past my mother and baby sister without recognizing them. My mom must have been drowsy, or the sight of me froze her to immobility, for I was two or three people past her before she came into action.\"Crager, p. 130\\.",
""
] |
### Battle of Java
[thumb\|250px\|Japanese [bicycle infantry](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry "Bicycle infantry") moving through Java.](/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_move_through_Java.jpg "Japanese troops move through Java.jpg")
{{main\|Battle of Java (1942\)}}
#### Japanese landings
During the [Battle of the Java Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea "Battle of the Java Sea") on 27 February 1942, the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") navies suffered a disastrous defeat at the hand of the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy"). The [American\-British\-Dutch\-Australian Command](/wiki/American-British-Dutch-Australian_Command "American-British-Dutch-Australian Command") (ABDA) Strike Force commander—Admiral [Karel Doorman](/wiki/Karel_Doorman "Karel Doorman")—was killed. What followed was several [landings on the island of Java](/wiki/Battle_of_Java_%281942%29 "Battle of Java (1942)") on March 1\. The Allied forces were commanded by the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army") (KNIL) commander, General [Hein ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten "Hein ter Poorten").{{cite web \|first\=Klemen \|last\=L \|url\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/terpoorten.html \|title\=Lieutenant\-General Hein Ter Poorten \|date\=1999–2000 \|work\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|access\-date\=2011\-12\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717020654/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/terpoorten.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-17 \|url\-status\=live }} Although the KNIL forces had, on paper, 25,000 (mostly Indonesian) well\-armed troops, many were poorly trained. The Japanese troops landed at three points on Java on 1 March. The West Java invasion convoy landed on [Bantam Bay](/wiki/Bantam_Bay "Bantam Bay") near [Merak](/wiki/Merak%2C_Banten "Merak, Banten") and Eretan Wetan, having defeated HMAS *Perth* and USS *Houston* at the [Battle of Sunda Strait](/wiki/Battle_of_Sunda_Strait "Battle of Sunda Strait"), a few hours prior to landing.{{cite web \|first \= Jan \|last \= Visser \|url \= http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/SundaStrait.html \|title \= The Sunda Strait Battle \|date \= 1999–2000 \|work \= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|access\-date \= 2011\-12\-07 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141203155704/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/SundaStrait.html \|archive\-date \= 2014\-12\-03 \|url\-status \= live }} The East Java invasion convoy landed on Kragan.{{cite web\|first\=Klemen \|last\=L \|url\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/java\_sea.html \|title\=The Java Sea Battle \|date\=1999–2000 \|work\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\-1942 \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726052834/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/java\_sea.html \|archivedate\=2011\-07\-26 }}
#### Land campaign
{{see also\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}
Japanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\.
The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.
As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn "Arthur Blackburn"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore "Japanese occupation of Singapore"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.
However, "E" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.
On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang "Leuwiliang"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor "Bogor"), "D" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from "D" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi "Sukabumi"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.
The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong "Porong"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya "Surabaya"), the Texans of "E" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.
#### Allied surrender
By 7 March, defeat was inevitable, with Tjilatjap already in Japanese hands. Soerabaja was being evacuated while Japanese troops were rapidly converging on [Bandoeng](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung") from both the north and the west. At 09:00 on 8 March, the Commander\-in\-Chief of the Allied forces — [Ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten "Hein ter Poorten") — announced the surrender of the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army") in [Java](/wiki/Java "Java"). At 23:00, the Dutch radio station NIROM (*Nederlandsch Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij*) broadcast the last news from a temporary transmitter at [Ciumbuleuit](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung"). The announcer Bert Garthoff ended the broadcast with the words "*Wij sluiten nu. Vaarwel tot betere tijden. Leve de Koningin!*" (We are closing now. Farewell till better times. Long live the Queen!) The Dutch [Governor](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies "Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies"), Jonkheer Dr. [A.W.L. Tjarda Van Starkenborgh Stachouwer](/wiki/Alidius_Warmoldus_Lambertus_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer "Alidius Warmoldus Lambertus Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer") and Lieutenant\-General Ter Poorten, together with Major\-General Jacob J. Pesman, the commander of the Bandoeng District, met the Japanese Commander\-in\-Chief, Lieutenant\-General [Hitoshi Imamura](/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura "Hitoshi Imamura") at Kalidjati that afternoon and agreed to the capitulation of all the troops. Fujita was captured along 550 other members of what became known as the "Lost Battalion".Fujita, p. ix.
|
[
"### Battle of Java",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Japanese [bicycle infantry](/wiki/Bicycle_infantry \"Bicycle infantry\") moving through Java.](/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_move_through_Java.jpg \"Japanese troops move through Java.jpg\")",
"{{main\\|Battle of Java (1942\\)}}",
"#### Japanese landings",
"During the [Battle of the Java Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea \"Battle of the Java Sea\") on 27 February 1942, the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") navies suffered a disastrous defeat at the hand of the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\"). The [American\\-British\\-Dutch\\-Australian Command](/wiki/American-British-Dutch-Australian_Command \"American-British-Dutch-Australian Command\") (ABDA) Strike Force commander—Admiral [Karel Doorman](/wiki/Karel_Doorman \"Karel Doorman\")—was killed. What followed was several [landings on the island of Java](/wiki/Battle_of_Java_%281942%29 \"Battle of Java (1942)\") on March 1\\. The Allied forces were commanded by the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army \"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army\") (KNIL) commander, General [Hein ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten \"Hein ter Poorten\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Klemen \\|last\\=L \\|url\\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/terpoorten.html \\|title\\=Lieutenant\\-General Hein Ter Poorten \\|date\\=1999–2000 \\|work\\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717020654/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/terpoorten.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although the KNIL forces had, on paper, 25,000 (mostly Indonesian) well\\-armed troops, many were poorly trained. The Japanese troops landed at three points on Java on 1 March. The West Java invasion convoy landed on [Bantam Bay](/wiki/Bantam_Bay \"Bantam Bay\") near [Merak](/wiki/Merak%2C_Banten \"Merak, Banten\") and Eretan Wetan, having defeated HMAS *Perth* and USS *Houston* at the [Battle of Sunda Strait](/wiki/Battle_of_Sunda_Strait \"Battle of Sunda Strait\"), a few hours prior to landing.{{cite web \\|first \\= Jan \\|last \\= Visser \\|url \\= http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/SundaStrait.html \\|title \\= The Sunda Strait Battle \\|date \\= 1999–2000 \\|work \\= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|access\\-date \\= 2011\\-12\\-07 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141203155704/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/SundaStrait.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 2014\\-12\\-03 \\|url\\-status \\= live }} The East Java invasion convoy landed on Kragan.{{cite web\\|first\\=Klemen \\|last\\=L \\|url\\=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/java\\_sea.html \\|title\\=The Java Sea Battle \\|date\\=1999–2000 \\|work\\=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941\\-1942 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726052834/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/java\\_sea.html \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-07\\-26 }}",
"#### Land campaign",
"{{see also\\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}\nJapanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\\.",
"The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.",
"As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn \"Arthur Blackburn\"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore \"Japanese occupation of Singapore\"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.",
"However, \"E\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.",
"On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang \"Leuwiliang\"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor \"Bogor\"), \"D\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from \"D\" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi \"Sukabumi\"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.",
"The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong \"Porong\"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya \"Surabaya\"), the Texans of \"E\" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.",
"#### Allied surrender",
"By 7 March, defeat was inevitable, with Tjilatjap already in Japanese hands. Soerabaja was being evacuated while Japanese troops were rapidly converging on [Bandoeng](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\") from both the north and the west. At 09:00 on 8 March, the Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Allied forces — [Ter Poorten](/wiki/Hein_ter_Poorten \"Hein ter Poorten\") — announced the surrender of the [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army \"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army\") in [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\"). At 23:00, the Dutch radio station NIROM (*Nederlandsch Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij*) broadcast the last news from a temporary transmitter at [Ciumbuleuit](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\"). The announcer Bert Garthoff ended the broadcast with the words \"*Wij sluiten nu. Vaarwel tot betere tijden. Leve de Koningin!*\" (We are closing now. Farewell till better times. Long live the Queen!) The Dutch [Governor](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies \"Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies\"), Jonkheer Dr. [A.W.L. Tjarda Van Starkenborgh Stachouwer](/wiki/Alidius_Warmoldus_Lambertus_Tjarda_van_Starkenborgh_Stachouwer \"Alidius Warmoldus Lambertus Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer\") and Lieutenant\\-General Ter Poorten, together with Major\\-General Jacob J. Pesman, the commander of the Bandoeng District, met the Japanese Commander\\-in\\-Chief, Lieutenant\\-General [Hitoshi Imamura](/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura \"Hitoshi Imamura\") at Kalidjati that afternoon and agreed to the capitulation of all the troops. Fujita was captured along 550 other members of what became known as the \"Lost Battalion\".Fujita, p. ix.",
""
] |
#### Land campaign
{{see also\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}
Japanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\.
The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.
As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn "Arthur Blackburn"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore "Japanese occupation of Singapore"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.
However, "E" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.
On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang "Leuwiliang"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor "Bogor"), "D" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from "D" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi "Sukabumi"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.
The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong "Porong"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya "Surabaya"), the Texans of "E" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.
|
[
"#### Land campaign",
"{{see also\\|Battle of Leuwiliang}}\nJapanese troops, mainly from the 48th Division, landed at three points on Java on March 1\\.",
"The Dutch and other Allied forces were organized in four sub\\-commands: Batavia (Jakarta); North Central Java; South Java and East Java.",
"As the only US ground forces in Java, the main body of the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery was attached to an Australian Army formation named Blackforce after its commander, Brigadier [Arthur Blackburn](/wiki/Arthur_Blackburn \"Arthur Blackburn\"). The Australians lacked infantry units, but included a heavy machine gun battalion, a pioneer battalion, several smaller units, some reinforcements diverted en route to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") after the [Allied surrender there](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore \"Japanese occupation of Singapore\"), a handful of Australian soldiers who had escaped from Singapore, two transport companies, and a casualty clearing station. From these units, Blackburn organized three makeshift infantry battalions.",
"However, \"E\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, including Frank Fujita, were attached to Dutch infantry in Central and East Java.",
"On March 2, at [Leuwiliang](/wiki/Leuwiliang \"Leuwiliang\"), 15 miles (24 km) west of [Buitenzorg](/wiki/Bogor \"Bogor\"), \"D\" Battery, 2/131st Field Artillery, supported the makeshift Australian infantry, positioned along a riverbank. The Allies put up a vigorous defence. Volleys from \"D\" Battery reportedly destroyed many Japanese tanks and trucks. Blackforce managed to hold up the Japanese advance for two full days before being forced to withdraw to [Soekabumi](/wiki/Sukabumi \"Sukabumi\"), lest it become trapped by Japanese flanking manoeuvres, and was ordered to retreat to Soekabumi.",
"The Japanese quickly overwhelmed the Allied defences in most other areas. However, at [Porong](/wiki/Porong \"Porong\"), near [Surabaya](/wiki/Surabaya \"Surabaya\"), the Texans of \"E\" Battery, including Frank Fujita, supported the Dutch 8th and 13th Infantry Battalions, as well as the Dutch 3rd Cavalry Unit, in giving fierce resistance to the incoming Japanese.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{more citations needed section\|date\=August 2017}}
{{Main\|History of Missouri}}
{{external media \| width \= 210px \| headerimage \= \[\[File:Westminister College gym from NE 1\.JPG\|210px]] \| float \= right \| video1 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=2Hr9gyOVJYM\&list\=TL4qgywHm9Vt3C\-vp93BZxQK7D55YBIGI\_ Missouri], Westminster College Gymnasium in Fulton, Missouri}}
### Early history
[Archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") excavations along river valleys have shown continuous habitation since about 9000 BCE.{{Cite web\|title\=Missouri \- History\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri\-state\|access\-date\=March 3, 2021\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|archive\-date\=March 9, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309080758/https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri\-state\|url\-status\=live}} Beginning before 1000 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era"), the people of the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture "Mississippian culture") created regional political centers at present\-day [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") and across the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") at [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia "Cahokia"), near present\-day [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois "Collinsville, Illinois"). Their large cities included thousands of individual residences. Still, they are known for their surviving massive [earthwork mounds](/wiki/Earthwork_%28archaeology%29 "Earthwork (archaeology)"), built for religious, political and social reasons, in [platform](/wiki/Platform_mound "Platform mound"), [ridgetop](/wiki/Ridge "Ridge") and [conical](/wiki/Cone_%28geometry%29 "Cone (geometry)") shapes. Cahokia was the center of a regional trading network that reached from the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") to the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"). The civilization declined by 1400 CE, and most descendants left the area long before the arrival of Europeans. St. Louis was at one time known as Mound City by the European Americans because of the numerous surviving prehistoric mounds since lost to urban development. The Mississippian culture left mounds throughout the middle Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, extending into the southeast and the upper river.
[thumb\|upright\|The [Gateway Arch](/wiki/Gateway_Arch "Gateway Arch") in St. Louis](/wiki/File:Gateway_Arch_edit1.jpg "Gateway Arch edit1.jpg")
The land that became the state of Missouri was part of numerous different territories, possessed changing and often indeterminate borders, and had many different [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") and European names between the 1600s and statehood. For much of the first half of the 1700s, the west bank of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") that would become Missouri was mostly uninhabited, something of a no man's land that kept peace between the [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") on the east bank of the Mississippi River and to the North, and the Osage and Missouri Indians of the lower Missouri Valley. In the early 1700s, French traders and missionaries explored the whole of the Mississippi Valley, and named the region "Louisiana". Around the same time, a different group of French Canadians established five villages on the east bank of the Mississippi River and identified their settlements as being in le pays des Illinois, "the country of the Illinois". When settlers of [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadians "French Canadians") descent began crossing the Mississippi River to establish settlements such as Ste. Genevieve, they continued to identify their settlements as being in the Illinois Country. At the same time, the French settlements on both sides of the Mississippi River were part of the French province of [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"). To distinguish the settlements in the Middle Mississippi Valley from French settlements in the lower Mississippi Valley around New Orleans, French officials and inhabitants referred to the Middle Mississippi Valley as La Haute Louisiane, "The High Louisiana", or "Upper Louisiana".
The first European settlers were mostly ethnic [French Canadians](/wiki/French_Canadian "French Canadian"), who created their first settlement in Missouri at present\-day [Ste. Genevieve](/wiki/Ste._Genevieve%2C_Missouri "Ste. Genevieve, Missouri"), about {{convert\|45\|mi\|km}} south of St. Louis. They had migrated in about 1750 from the [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") Country. They came from colonial villages on the east side of the Mississippi River, where soils were becoming exhausted and there was insufficient river bottom land for the growing population. The early Missouri [settlements](/wiki/Human_settlement "Human settlement") included many enslaved Africans and Native Americans, and slave labor was central to both commercial agriculture and the fur trade. Sainte\-Geneviève became a thriving agricultural center, producing enough surplus wheat, [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize") and tobacco to ship tons of grain annually downriver to Lower Louisiana for trade. Grain production in the Illinois Country was critical to the survival of Lower Louisiana and especially the city of New Orleans.
St. Louis was founded on February 14, 1764, by French fur traders [Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent](/wiki/Gilbert_Antoine_de_St._Maxent "Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent"), [Pierre Laclède](/wiki/Pierre_Lacl%C3%A8de "Pierre Laclède"), and [Auguste Chouteau](/wiki/Auguste_Chouteau "Auguste Chouteau").Cazorla, Frank; Baena, Rose; Polo, David; and Reder Gadow, Marion. (2019\) *The governor Louis de Unzaga (1717–1793\) Pioneer in the Birth of the United States of America*. Foundation, Malaga, pages 49, 57–65, 70–75, 150, 207 From 1764 to 1803, European control of the area west of the Mississippi to the northernmost part of the Missouri River basin, called Louisiana, was assumed by the Spanish as part of the Viceroyalty of [New Spain](/wiki/New_Spain "New Spain"), due to [Treaty of Fontainebleau](/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_%281762%29 "Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)")Foley (1989\), 26\. (in order to have Spain join with France in the war against England). The arrival of the Spanish in St. Louis was in September 1767\.
St. Louis became the center of a regional [fur trade](/wiki/Fur_trade "Fur trade") with Native American tribes that extended up the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, dominating the regional economy for decades. Trading partners of major firms shipped their furs from St. Louis by river down to New Orleans for export to Europe. They provided a variety of goods to traders for sale and trade with their Native American clients. The fur trade and associated businesses made St. Louis an early financial center and provided the wealth for some to build fine houses and import luxury items. Its location near the confluence of the Illinois River meant it also handled produce from the agricultural areas. River traffic and trade along the Mississippi were integral to the state's economy. As the area's first major city, St. Louis expanded greatly after the invention of the [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat "Steamboat") and the increased river trade.
### 19th century
[thumb\|*[Fur Traders Descending the Missouri](/wiki/Fur_Traders_Descending_the_Missouri "Fur Traders Descending the Missouri")* by Missouri painter [George Caleb Bingham](/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham "George Caleb Bingham")](/wiki/File:George_Caleb_Bingham_001.jpg "George Caleb Bingham 001.jpg")
Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the [Treaty of San Ildefonso](/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso "Third Treaty of San Ildefonso") after it had been a Spanish colony since 1762, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States.
Part of the 1803 [Louisiana Purchase](/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase "Louisiana Purchase") by the United States, Missouri earned the nickname *Gateway to the West* because it served as a significant departure point for expeditions and settlers heading to the West during the 19th century. [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles%2C_Missouri "St. Charles, Missouri"), just west of St. Louis, was the starting point and the return destination of the [Lewis and Clark Expedition](/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition "Lewis and Clark Expedition"), which ascended the Missouri River in 1804, to explore the western lands to the Pacific Ocean. For decades, [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") was a major supply point for parties of settlers heading west.
As many of the early settlers in western Missouri migrated from the [Upper South](/wiki/Upper_South "Upper South"), they brought enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American "African American") as agricultural laborers, and they desired to continue their culture and the institution of [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States"). They settled predominantly in 17 counties along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River"), in an area of flatlands that enabled [plantation](/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South "Plantations in the American South") agriculture and became known as "[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 "Little Dixie (Missouri)")".
The state was rocked by the [1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes](/wiki/1811%E2%80%9312_New_Madrid_earthquakes "1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes"). Casualties were few due to the sparse population.
### Admission as a state in 1821
{{See also\|History of slavery in Missouri}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|The states and territories of the United States as a result of Missouri's admission as a state on August 10, 1821\. The remainder of the former [Missouri Territory](/wiki/Missouri_Territory "Missouri Territory") became unorganized territory.](/wiki/File:United_States_1821-08-1822.png "United States 1821-08-1822.png")
In 1821, the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a [slave state](/wiki/Slave_and_free_states "Slave and free states"), under the [Missouri Compromise](/wiki/Missouri_Compromise "Missouri Compromise"), and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles. In 1826, the [capital](/wiki/Capital_city "Capital city") was shifted to its permanent location of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri "Jefferson City, Missouri"), also on the Missouri River.
Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth,Hoffhaus. (1984\). *Chez Les Canses: Three Centuries at Kawsmouth*, Kansas City: Lowell Press. {{ISBN\|0\-913504\-91\-2}}. the point where the [Kansas River](/wiki/Kansas_River "Kansas River") enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary.{{cite web \|url\=http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \|title\=''MISSOURI V. IOWA'', 48 U.S. 660 (1849\)—US Supreme Court Cases from Justia \& Oyez \|publisher\=Supreme.justia.com \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111095858/http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \|archive\-date\=November 11, 2010 \|url\-status\=live }} In 1836 the [Platte Purchase](/wiki/Platte_Purchase "Platte Purchase") was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about {{convert\|66500\|sqmi\|km2}} to Virginia's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).[Meinig, D.W.](/wiki/D.W._Meinig "D.W. Meinig") (1993\). *The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History*, *Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867*. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-300\-05658\-3}}; pg. 437
In the early 1830s, [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon "Mormon") migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near [Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri "Independence, Missouri") and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The [Mormon War](/wiki/Mormon_War_%281838%29 "Mormon War (1838)") erupted in 1838\. By 1839, with the help of an "Extermination Order" by Governor [Lilburn Boggs](/wiki/Lilburn_Boggs "Lilburn Boggs"), the old settlers forcibly expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.
Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa "Iowa") over the so\-called [Honey Lands](/wiki/Honey_Lands "Honey Lands") resulted in both states' calling\-up of [militias](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 "Militia (United States)") along the border.
With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade. Most newcomers were American\-born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. As a majority were [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant"). Many settled in cities, creating a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools. 19th\-century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.
While many German immigrants were strongly anti\-slavery,{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\-known\-history\-german\-immigrants\-missouri\-were\-anti\-slavery\-allies\|title\=A Little\-Known History: German Immigrants In Missouri Were Anti\-Slavery Allies\|last\=Davis\|first\=Chad\|website\=news.stlpublicradio.org\|date\=February 21, 2019\|access\-date\=October 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004344/https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\-known\-history\-german\-immigrants\-missouri\-were\-anti\-slavery\-allies\|archive\-date\=October 29, 2019\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.stlouis\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\-resources/preservation\-plan/Part\-I\-Peopling\-St\-Louis.cfm\|title\=Part I: Peopling St. Louis\|website\=stlouis\-mo.gov\|access\-date\=October 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004330/https://www.stlouis\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\-resources/preservation\-plan/Part\-I\-Peopling\-St\-Louis.cfm\|archive\-date\=October 29, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} many Irish immigrants living in cities were pro\-slavery, fearing that liberating African\-American slaves would create a glut of unskilled labor, driving wages down.
Most Missouri farmers practiced [subsistence farming](/wiki/Subsistence_farming "Subsistence farming") before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"). The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each. [Planters](/wiki/Planter_%28plantation_owner%29 "Planter (plantation owner)"), defined by some historians as those holding 20 slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as "[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 "Little Dixie (Missouri)")", in the central part of the state along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River"). The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860, enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American "African American") made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012\.[Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library](http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206001455/http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/ \|date\=December 6, 2009 }}. Retrieved March 21, 2008\. In order to control the flooding of farmland and low\-lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of {{convert\|140\|mi\|km}} of [levees](/wiki/Levee "Levee") along the river by 1860\.["Louisiana: The Levee System of the State"](https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana-the-levee-system-of-the-state-overflows-and-how-they-are.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014538/https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana\-the\-levee\-system\-of\-the\-state\-overflows\-and\-how\-they\-are.html \|date\=July 21, 2018 }}, *New York Times*, October 8, 1874; Retrieved November 15, 2007
### American Civil War
{{Main\|Ordinance of Secession\|Missouri in the American Civil War\|Confederate government of Missouri}}
[upright\=1\.5\|thumb\|[Price's Raid](/wiki/Price%27s_Raid "Price's Raid") in the [Trans\-Mississippi Theater](/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War "Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War"), 1864](/wiki/File:NPS_CW_at_a_Glance_Western_1864.jpg "NPS CW at a Glance Western 1864.jpg")
After the secession of Southern states began in 1861, the Missouri legislature called for the election of a special convention on secession. This convention voted against secession, but also qualified their support of the Union. In the aftermath of [Battle of Fort Sumter](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter "Battle of Fort Sumter") Pro\-Southern Governor [Claiborne F. Jackson](/wiki/Claiborne_F._Jackson "Claiborne F. Jackson") ordered the mobilization of several hundred members of the state militia who had gathered in a camp in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") for training. In secret, he also requested Confederate arms and artillery to help take the [St. Louis Arsenal](/wiki/St._Louis_Arsenal "St. Louis Arsenal"). Alarmed at this action, and discovering the Confederate aid, General [Nathaniel Lyon](/wiki/Nathaniel_Lyon "Nathaniel Lyon") struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state troops to surrender. Lyon directed his soldiers, largely non\-English\-speaking German [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants "Immigrants"), to march the prisoners through the streets, and this led to riot by pro\-secession citizens. While it is disputed how it started, this riot led to violence and Union soldiers killed by St. Louis civilians. The event as a whole, is called the [Camp Jackson Affair](/wiki/Camp_Jackson_Affair "Camp Jackson Affair").
These events sharpened the divisions within the state. Governor Jackson appointed [Sterling Price](/wiki/Sterling_Price "Sterling Price"), president of the convention on secession, as head of the new [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_State_Guard "Missouri State Guard"). In the face of Union General Lyon's rapid advance through the state, Jackson and Price were forced to flee the capital of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City "Jefferson City") on June 14, 1861\. In [Neosho, Missouri](/wiki/Neosho%2C_Missouri "Neosho, Missouri"), Jackson called the state legislature into session to call for secession. However, the elected legislative body was split between pro\-Union and pro\-Confederate. As such, few of the pro\-unionist attended the session called in Neosho, and the ordinance of secession was quickly adopted. The Confederacy recognized Missouri secession on October 30, 1861\.
With the elected governor absent from the capital and the legislators largely dispersed, the state convention was reassembled with most of its members present, save twenty who fled south with Jackson's forces. The convention declared all offices vacant and installed [Hamilton Gamble](/wiki/Hamilton_Gamble "Hamilton Gamble") as the new governor of Missouri. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized Gamble's government as the legal Missouri government. The federal government's decision enabled raising pro\-Union militia forces for service within the state and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.
Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas") and Texas under General [Ben McCulloch](/wiki/Ben_McCulloch "Ben McCulloch"). After winning victories at the [battle of Wilson's Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek "Battle of Wilson's Creek") and the siege of [Lexington, Missouri](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Missouri "Lexington, Missouri") and suffering losses elsewhere, the Confederate forces retreated to Arkansas and later [Marshall, Texas](/wiki/Marshall%2C_Texas "Marshall, Texas"), in the face of a largely reinforced Union Army.
Though regular Confederate troops staged some large\-scale raids into Missouri, the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted chiefly of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare"). "Citizen soldiers" or insurgents such as Captain [William Quantrill](/wiki/William_Quantrill "William Quantrill"), [Frank](/wiki/Frank_James "Frank James") and [Jesse James](/wiki/Jesse_James "Jesse James"), the [Younger brothers](/wiki/James-Younger_gang "James-Younger gang"), and [William T. Anderson](/wiki/William_T._Anderson "William T. Anderson") made use of quick, small\-unit tactics. Pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers, such insurgencies also arose in portions of the Confederacy occupied by the Union during the Civil War. Historians have portrayed stories of the James brothers' outlaw years as an American "Robin Hood" myth.{{cite journal \| author \= Steckmesser Kent L \| year \= 1966 \| title \= Robin Hood and the American Outlaw: A Note on History and Folklore \| journal \= Journal of American Folklore \| volume \= 79 \| issue \= 312\| pages \= 348–355 \| jstor\=538043\| doi \= 10\.2307/538043 }} The vigilante activities of the [Bald Knobbers](/wiki/Bald_Knobbers "Bald Knobbers") of the Ozarks in the 1880s were an unofficial continuation of insurgent mentality long after the official end of the war, and they are a favorite theme in [Branson's self\-image](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri "Branson, Missouri").Mary Hartman and Elmo Ingenthron. *Bald Knobbers: Vigilantes on the Ozarks Frontier* (1988\)
### Reconstruction period and later 19th century
{{Expand section\|date\=July 2024}}
### 20th century
[thumb\|left\|[Union Station](/wiki/Union_Station_%28St._Louis%29 "Union Station (St. Louis)") in St. Louis was the world's largest and busiest train station when it opened in 1894\.](/wiki/File:PASSENGERS_JAM_THE_INTERIOR_OF_THE_ST._LOUIS%2C_MISSOURI%2C_UNION_STATION_IN_A_COPYRIGHTED_PICTURE_TAKEN_BY_B.A._ATWATER..._-_NARA_-_556056.jpg "PASSENGERS JAM THE INTERIOR OF THE ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, UNION STATION IN A COPYRIGHTED PICTURE TAKEN BY B.A. ATWATER... - NARA - 556056.jpg")
[thumb\|Child shoe workers in [Kirksville, Missouri](/wiki/Kirksville%2C_Missouri "Kirksville, Missouri"), 1910](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Kirksville%2C_MO.jpg "Child workers in Kirksville, MO.jpg")
The [Progressive Era](/wiki/Progressive_Era "Progressive Era") (1890s to 1920s) saw numerous prominent leaders from Missouri trying to end corruption and modernize politics, government, and society. [Joseph "Holy Joe" Folk](/wiki/Joseph_Folk "Joseph Folk") was a key leader who made a strong appeal to the middle class and rural evangelical Protestants. Folk was elected governor as a progressive reformer and [Democrat](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "History of the Democratic Party (United States)") in the [1904 election](/wiki/Missouri_gubernatorial_election%2C_1904 "Missouri gubernatorial election, 1904"). He promoted what he called "the Missouri Idea", the concept of Missouri as a leader in public morality through popular control of law and strict enforcement. He successfully conducted antitrust prosecutions, ended free railroad passes for state officials, extended bribery statutes, improved election laws, required formal registration for lobbyists, made racetrack gambling illegal and enforced the Sunday\-closing law. He helped enact Progressive legislation, including an initiative and referendum provision, regulation of elections, education, employment and child labor, railroads, food, business, and public utilities. Several efficiency\-oriented examiner boards and commissions were established during Folk's administration, including many agricultural boards and the Missouri library commission.Steven L. Piott, *Holy Joe: Joseph Folk and the Missouri Idea* (1997\)
[thumb\|left\|upright\|General John J. Pershing, commander of the [American Expeditionary Forces](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces "American Expeditionary Forces") in World War I, was raised in [Laclede, Missouri](/wiki/Laclede%2C_Missouri "Laclede, Missouri").](/wiki/File:General_John_Joseph_Pershing_head_on_shoulders.jpg "General John Joseph Pershing head on shoulders.jpg")
Between the Civil War and the end of World War II, Missouri transitioned from a rural economy to a hybrid industrial\-service\-agricultural economy as the Midwest rapidly industrialized. The expansion of railroads to the West transformed Kansas City into a major transportation hub within the nation. The growth of the Texas cattle industry along with this increased rail infrastructure and the invention of the [refrigerated boxcar](/wiki/Refrigerated_boxcar "Refrigerated boxcar") also made Kansas City a major [meatpacking](/wiki/Meatpacking "Meatpacking") center, as large [cattle drives](/wiki/Cattle_drives "Cattle drives") from Texas brought herds of cattle to [Dodge City](/wiki/Dodge_City "Dodge City") and other Kansas towns. There, the cattle were loaded onto trains destined for Kansas City, where they were butchered and distributed to the eastern markets. The first half of the 20th century was the height of Kansas City's prominence, and its downtown became a showcase for stylish [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") [skyscrapers](/wiki/Skyscrapers "Skyscrapers") as construction boomed.
[thumb\|African American boy in a [sharecropper](/wiki/Sharecropping%23United_States "Sharecropping#United States") shack, [New Madrid County](/wiki/New_Madrid_County "New Madrid County"), 1938\.](/wiki/File:Boy_resting_on_bed_in_attic_of_sharecropper_shack%2C_New_Madrid_County%2C_Missouri.jpg "Boy resting on bed in attic of sharecropper shack, New Madrid County, Missouri.jpg")
In 1930, there was a [diphtheria](/wiki/Diphtheria "Diphtheria") epidemic in the area around Springfield, which killed approximately 100 people. Serum was rushed to the area, and medical personnel stopped the epidemic.
During the mid\-1950s and 1960s, St. Louis and Kansas City suffered deindustrialization and loss of jobs in railroads and manufacturing, as did other [Midwestern](/wiki/Midwestern "Midwestern") industrial cities. [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles%2C_Missouri "St. Charles, Missouri") claims to be the site of the first [interstate](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System "Interstate Highway System") highway project in 1956\.{{cite web \|url\=https://highways.dot.gov/public\-roads/summer\-1996/three\-states\-claim\-first\-interstate\-highway \|title\=First interstate project \|publisher\=Fhwa.dot.gov \|access\-date\=May 6, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607064752/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/rw96h.cfm \|archive\-date\=June 7, 2011 \|url\-status\=live }} Such highway construction made it easy for middle\-class residents to leave the city for newer housing developed in the suburbs, often former farmland where land was available at lower prices. These major cities have gone through decades of readjustment to develop different economies and adjust to demographic changes. Suburban areas have developed separate job markets, both in knowledge industries and services, such as major retail malls.
### 21st century
In 2014, Missouri received national attention for the [protests and riots](/wiki/Ferguson_unrest "Ferguson unrest") that followed the [shooting of Michael Brown](/wiki/Shooting_of_Michael_Brown "Shooting of Michael Brown") by a police officer of [Ferguson](/wiki/Ferguson%2C_Missouri "Ferguson, Missouri"),{{cite web \|first\=Eliott C. \|last\=McLaughlin \|title\=What we know about Michael Brown's shooting \|work\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=August 15, 2014 \|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/11/us/missouri\-ferguson\-michael\-brown\-what\-we\-know/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825101929/http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/11/us/missouri\-ferguson\-michael\-brown\-what\-we\-know/index.html \|archive\-date\=August 25, 2014 }}{{cite web \|first\=David \|last\=Carr \|title\=View of \#Ferguson Thrust Michael Brown Shooting to National Attention \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 17, 2014 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/business/media/view\-of\-ferguson\-thrust\-michael\-brown\-shooting\-to\-national\-attention.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810171608/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/business/media/view\-of\-ferguson\-thrust\-michael\-brown\-shooting\-to\-national\-attention.html \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2017 }}{{cite web \|first\=Jamelle \|last\=Bouie \|title\=Why the Fires in Ferguson Won't End Soon \|work\=\[\[Slate (magazine)\|Slate]] \|date\=August 19, 2014 \|url\=http://www.slate.com/articles/news\_and\_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson\_protests\_over\_michael\_brown\_won\_t\_end\_soon\_the\_black\_community.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831214449/http://www.slate.com/articles/news\_and\_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson\_protests\_over\_michael\_brown\_won\_t\_end\_soon\_the\_black\_community.html \|archive\-date\=August 31, 2017 }}. which led Governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon "Jay Nixon") to call out the [Missouri National Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard "Missouri National Guard").{{Cite news \| last1 \= Davey \| first1 \= Monica \| last2 \= Eligon \| first2 \= John \| last3 \= Blinder \| first3 \= Alan \| title \= National Guard Troops Fail to Quell Unrest in Ferguson \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/ferguson\-missouri\-protests.html?\_r\=0 \| work \= The New York Times \| date \= August 19, 2014 \| access\-date \= August 19, 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140819234813/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/ferguson\-missouri\-protests.html?\_r\=0 \| archive\-date \= August 19, 2014 \| url\-status \= live }}{{cite web\|last1\=Hartmann\|first1\=Margaret\|title\=National Guard Deployed After Chaotic, Violent Night in Ferguson\|url\=https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/08/national\-guard\-called\-after\-more\-ferguson\-chaos.html\|publisher\=NY Magazine \|work\=Intelligencer \|date\=August 18, 2014 \|access\-date\=August 18, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819102937/http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/08/national\-guard\-called\-after\-more\-ferguson\-chaos.html\|archive\-date\=August 19, 2014\|url\-status\=live}} A [grand jury](/wiki/Grand_juries_in_the_United_States "Grand juries in the United States") declined to [indict](/wiki/Indict "Indict") the officer, and the [U.S. Department of Justice](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice "U.S. Department of Justice") concluded, after careful investigation, that the police officer legitimately feared for his safety.{{cite report \|publisher\=U.S. Department of Justice \|title\=Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation Into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown by Ferguson, Missouri Police Officer Darren Wilson \|date\=March 4, 2015 \|url\=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press\-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/doj\_report\_on\_shooting\_of\_michael\_brown\_1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731233723/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press\-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/doj\_report\_on\_shooting\_of\_michael\_brown\_1\.pdf \|archive\-date\=July 31, 2017}} However, in a separate investigation, the Department of Justice also found that the Ferguson Police Department and the City of Ferguson relied on unconstitutional practices in order to balance the city's budget through racially motivated excessive fines and punishments,{{cite news\|last1\=Apuzzo\|first1\=Matt\|title\=Ferguson Police Routinely Violate Rights of Blacks, Justice Dept. Finds\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/04/us/justice\-department\-finds\-pattern\-of\-police\-bias\-and\-excessive\-force\-in\-ferguson.html\|access\-date\=March 4, 2015\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=March 3, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303220058/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/04/us/justice\-department\-finds\-pattern\-of\-police\-bias\-and\-excessive\-force\-in\-ferguson.html\|archive\-date\=March 3, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} that the Ferguson police "had used excessive and dangerous force and had disproportionately targeted blacks,"{{cite web \|work\=NBC News \|title\=Ferguson Officials Suspended After DOJ Report Have Resigned, City Confirms \|date\=March 7, 2015 \|url\=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\-brown\-shooting/ferguson\-officials\-suspended\-after\-doj\-report\-have\-resigned\-city\-confirms\-n318836 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810233038/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\-brown\-shooting/ferguson\-officials\-suspended\-after\-doj\-report\-have\-resigned\-city\-confirms\-n318836 \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2017 }} and that the municipal court "emphasized revenue over public safety, leading to routine breaches of citizens' constitutional guarantees of due process and equal protection under the law."{{cite web \|work\=NBC News \|title\=Report on Ferguson Exposes Broader Effort to Reform Municipal Courts \|date\=March 3, 2015 \|url\=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\-brown\-shooting/report\-ferguson\-exposes\-broader\-effort\-reform\-municipal\-courts\-n316716 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810031951/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\-brown\-shooting/report\-ferguson\-exposes\-broader\-effort\-reform\-municipal\-courts\-n316716 \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2017 }}.
[A series of student protests](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_University_of_Missouri_protests "2015–16 University of Missouri protests") at the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri "University of Missouri") against what the protesters viewed as poor response by the administration to racist incidents on campus began in September 2015\.{{Cite news \|title\=Students march through MU Student Center in protest of racial injustice \|last\=Naskidashvili \|first\=Nana \|work\=Columbia Missourian \|date\=October 1, 2015 \|access\-date\=November 11, 2015 \|url\=http://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/higher\_education/students\-march\-through\-mu\-student\-center\-in\-protest\-of\-racial/article\_4b8e3458\-688b\-11e5\-8412\-9b38a4d41eb8\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708052809/http://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/higher\_education/students\-march\-through\-mu\-student\-center\-in\-protest\-of\-racial/article\_4b8e3458\-688b\-11e5\-8412\-9b38a4d41eb8\.html \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2017 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|title\=Second 'Racism Lives Here' event calls for administration to act on social injustices \|last\=Plaster \|first\=Madison \|work\=The Maneater \|date\=October 1, 2015 \|access\-date\=November 11, 2015 \|url\=http://www.themaneater.com/stories/2015/10/1/second\-racism\-lives\-here\-event\-calls\-administratio/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151111035002/http://www.themaneater.com/stories/2015/10/1/second\-racism\-lives\-here\-event\-calls\-administratio/ \|archive\-date\=November 11, 2015 \|url\-status\=live }}
On June 7, 2017, the [National Association for the Advancement of Colored People](/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People") issued a warning to prospective African\-American travelers to Missouri. This is the first NAACP warning ever covering an entire state.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.monaacp.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/06/170605\-NAACP\-MO\-Travel\-Advisory.pdf \|title\=Urgent–Missouri Travel Advisory \|publisher\=National Association for the Advancement of Colored People \|date\=June 7, 2017 \|access\-date\=April 17, 2021 \|archive\-date\=February 25, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225003952/http://www.monaacp.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/06/170605\-NAACP\-MO\-Travel\-Advisory.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|first\=Nancy \|last\=Coleman \|title\=NAACP issues its first statewide travel advisory, for Missouri \|work\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=August 3, 2017 \|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/02/us/naacp\-missouri\-travel\-advisory\-trnd/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028030940/http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/02/us/naacp\-missouri\-travel\-advisory\-trnd/index.html \|archive\-date\=October 28, 2017}} According to a 2018 report by the [Missouri Attorney General](/wiki/Missouri_Attorney_General "Missouri Attorney General")'s office, for the past 18 years, "African Americans, Hispanics and other people of color are disproportionately affected by stops, searches and arrests."{{cite news
\|title\=Black Drivers Stopped in Missouri at a Rate 85 Percent Higher Than Whites
\|first\=Alison
\|last\=Gold
\|date\=June 1, 2018
\|newspaper\=\[\[Riverfront Times]]
\|url\=https://www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2018/06/01/black\-drivers\-stopped\-in\-missouri\-at\-a\-rate\-85\-percent\-higher\-than\-whites
\|access\-date\=July 5, 2018
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705175738/https://www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2018/06/01/black\-drivers\-stopped\-in\-missouri\-at\-a\-rate\-85\-percent\-higher\-than\-whites
\|archive\-date\=July 5, 2018
\|url\-status\=live
}} The same report found that the biggest discrepancy was in 2017, when "black motorists were 85% more likely to be pulled over in traffic stops".{{cite news
\|title\='Predatory police': the high price of driving while black in Missouri
\|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]]
\|first\=Jamiles
\|last\=Lartey
\|date\=July 5, 2018
\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/us\-news/2018/jul/05/missouri\-driving\-while\-black\-st\-louis
\|access\-date\=July 5, 2018
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705140213/https://www.theguardian.com/us\-news/2018/jul/05/missouri\-driving\-while\-black\-st\-louis
\|archive\-date\=July 5, 2018
\|url\-status\=live
}}
In 2018 the USDA announced its plans to relocate Economic Research Service (ERS) and National Institute of Food \& Agriculture (NIFA) to Kansas City. They have since decided on a specific location in downtown Kansas City, Missouri.{{Cite press release\|url\=https://www.usda.gov/media/press\-releases/2019/10/31/secretary\-perdue\-announces\-lease\-ers\-and\-nifa\-kansas\-city\-mo\|title\=Secretary Perdue Announces Lease for ERS and NIFA in Kansas City, MO\|publisher\=US Department of Agriculture\|date\=October 31, 2019\|access\-date\=December 22, 2019\|archive\-date\=December 22, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130126/https://www.usda.gov/media/press\-releases/2019/10/31/secretary\-perdue\-announces\-lease\-ers\-and\-nifa\-kansas\-city\-mo\|url\-status\=live}} With the addition of the KC Streetcar project and construction of the Sprint Center Arena, the downtown area in KC has attracted investment in new offices, hotels, and residential complexes. Both Kansas City and St. Louis are undergoing a rebirth in their downtown areas with the addition of the new Power \& Light (KC) and Ballpark Village (STL) districts and the renovation of existing historical buildings in each downtown area.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kmov.com/news/nearly\-billion\-in\-development\-underway\-in\-st\-louis\-city/article\_5da13736\-0571\-11e9\-bd69\-cbe203940e16\.html\|title\=Nearly $8 billion in development underway in St. Louis City\|website\=KMOV.com\|access\-date\=December 22, 2019\|archive\-date\=December 22, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130126/https://www.kmov.com/news/nearly\-billion\-in\-development\-underway\-in\-st\-louis\-city/article\_5da13736\-0571\-11e9\-bd69\-cbe203940e16\.html\|url\-status\=live}} The 2019 announcement of an MLS expansion team in St. Louis is driving even more development in the downtown west area of St. Louis.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/news/2019/11/07/mls\-updates\-a\-timeline\-for\-a\-team\-name\-and\-how\-the.html\#g/458875/28\|date\=November 7, 2019\|first\=Erik\|last\=Siemers\|work\=St. Louis Business Journal\|title\=MLS: A timeline for a team name \& how the stadium project expanded\|access\-date\=December 22, 2019\|archive\-date\=September 19, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919034227/https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/news/2019/11/07/mls\-updates\-a\-timeline\-for\-a\-team\-name\-and\-how\-the.html\#g/458875/28\|url\-status\=live}} Kansas City has experienced a boom in population, with new developments such as Three Light apartments being centered in [Downtown Kansas City](/wiki/Downtown_Kansas_City "Downtown Kansas City"),{{cite web \|url\=https://flatlandkc.org/people\-places/migration\-patterns\-kansas\-city/ \|title\=Is Kansas City's Population Growing? \|website\=Flatland \|last\=Huth \|first\=Lindsay \|date\=September 3, 2018 \|access\-date\=October 2, 2024}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://fox4kc.com/business/three\-light\-apartment\-tower\-set\-to\-open\-soon\-in\-downtown\-kansas\-city/ \|title\=Three Light apartment tower set to open soon in downtown Kansas City \|date\=August 17, 2023 \|work\=Fox 4 (\[\[WDAF\-TV]]) \|last\=Kittilstad \|first\=Jacob \|access\-date\=September 2, 2024 \|archive\-date\=September 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902001934/https://fox4kc.com/business/three\-light\-apartment\-tower\-set\-to\-open\-soon\-in\-downtown\-kansas\-city/ \|url\-status\=dead }} as well as suburban development in the [Northland](/wiki/Northland%2C_Kansas_City "Northland, Kansas City").{{Cite web \|url\=https://fox4kc.com/business/kansas\-citys\-northland\-booms\-as\-more\-people\-search\-for\-land\-cheaper\-homes/ \|title\=Kansas City's Northland booms as more people search for land, cheaper homes \|last\=Cagle \|first\=Ellen \|date\=September 9, 2022 \|work\=Fox 4 (\[\[WDAF\-TV]]) \|access\-date\=September 2, 2024 \|archive\-date\=September 27, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927124416/https://fox4kc.com/business/kansas\-citys\-northland\-booms\-as\-more\-people\-search\-for\-land\-cheaper\-homes/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2017}}\n{{Main\\|History of Missouri}}\n{{external media \\| width \\= 210px \\| headerimage \\= \\[\\[File:Westminister College gym from NE 1\\.JPG\\|210px]] \\| float \\= right \\| video1 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=2Hr9gyOVJYM\\&list\\=TL4qgywHm9Vt3C\\-vp93BZxQK7D55YBIGI\\_ Missouri], Westminster College Gymnasium in Fulton, Missouri}}",
"### Early history",
"[Archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") excavations along river valleys have shown continuous habitation since about 9000 BCE.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Missouri \\- History\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri\\-state\\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2021\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309080758/https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri\\-state\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Beginning before 1000 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\"), the people of the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture \"Mississippian culture\") created regional political centers at present\\-day [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") and across the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") at [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia \"Cahokia\"), near present\\-day [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois \"Collinsville, Illinois\"). Their large cities included thousands of individual residences. Still, they are known for their surviving massive [earthwork mounds](/wiki/Earthwork_%28archaeology%29 \"Earthwork (archaeology)\"), built for religious, political and social reasons, in [platform](/wiki/Platform_mound \"Platform mound\"), [ridgetop](/wiki/Ridge \"Ridge\") and [conical](/wiki/Cone_%28geometry%29 \"Cone (geometry)\") shapes. Cahokia was the center of a regional trading network that reached from the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") to the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). The civilization declined by 1400 CE, and most descendants left the area long before the arrival of Europeans. St. Louis was at one time known as Mound City by the European Americans because of the numerous surviving prehistoric mounds since lost to urban development. The Mississippian culture left mounds throughout the middle Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, extending into the southeast and the upper river.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|The [Gateway Arch](/wiki/Gateway_Arch \"Gateway Arch\") in St. Louis](/wiki/File:Gateway_Arch_edit1.jpg \"Gateway Arch edit1.jpg\")",
"The land that became the state of Missouri was part of numerous different territories, possessed changing and often indeterminate borders, and had many different [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") and European names between the 1600s and statehood. For much of the first half of the 1700s, the west bank of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") that would become Missouri was mostly uninhabited, something of a no man's land that kept peace between the [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") on the east bank of the Mississippi River and to the North, and the Osage and Missouri Indians of the lower Missouri Valley. In the early 1700s, French traders and missionaries explored the whole of the Mississippi Valley, and named the region \"Louisiana\". Around the same time, a different group of French Canadians established five villages on the east bank of the Mississippi River and identified their settlements as being in le pays des Illinois, \"the country of the Illinois\". When settlers of [French Canadian](/wiki/French_Canadians \"French Canadians\") descent began crossing the Mississippi River to establish settlements such as Ste. Genevieve, they continued to identify their settlements as being in the Illinois Country. At the same time, the French settlements on both sides of the Mississippi River were part of the French province of [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"). To distinguish the settlements in the Middle Mississippi Valley from French settlements in the lower Mississippi Valley around New Orleans, French officials and inhabitants referred to the Middle Mississippi Valley as La Haute Louisiane, \"The High Louisiana\", or \"Upper Louisiana\".",
"The first European settlers were mostly ethnic [French Canadians](/wiki/French_Canadian \"French Canadian\"), who created their first settlement in Missouri at present\\-day [Ste. Genevieve](/wiki/Ste._Genevieve%2C_Missouri \"Ste. Genevieve, Missouri\"), about {{convert\\|45\\|mi\\|km}} south of St. Louis. They had migrated in about 1750 from the [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") Country. They came from colonial villages on the east side of the Mississippi River, where soils were becoming exhausted and there was insufficient river bottom land for the growing population. The early Missouri [settlements](/wiki/Human_settlement \"Human settlement\") included many enslaved Africans and Native Americans, and slave labor was central to both commercial agriculture and the fur trade. Sainte\\-Geneviève became a thriving agricultural center, producing enough surplus wheat, [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") and tobacco to ship tons of grain annually downriver to Lower Louisiana for trade. Grain production in the Illinois Country was critical to the survival of Lower Louisiana and especially the city of New Orleans.",
"St. Louis was founded on February 14, 1764, by French fur traders [Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent](/wiki/Gilbert_Antoine_de_St._Maxent \"Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent\"), [Pierre Laclède](/wiki/Pierre_Lacl%C3%A8de \"Pierre Laclède\"), and [Auguste Chouteau](/wiki/Auguste_Chouteau \"Auguste Chouteau\").Cazorla, Frank; Baena, Rose; Polo, David; and Reder Gadow, Marion. (2019\\) *The governor Louis de Unzaga (1717–1793\\) Pioneer in the Birth of the United States of America*. Foundation, Malaga, pages 49, 57–65, 70–75, 150, 207 From 1764 to 1803, European control of the area west of the Mississippi to the northernmost part of the Missouri River basin, called Louisiana, was assumed by the Spanish as part of the Viceroyalty of [New Spain](/wiki/New_Spain \"New Spain\"), due to [Treaty of Fontainebleau](/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_%281762%29 \"Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)\")Foley (1989\\), 26\\. (in order to have Spain join with France in the war against England). The arrival of the Spanish in St. Louis was in September 1767\\.",
"St. Louis became the center of a regional [fur trade](/wiki/Fur_trade \"Fur trade\") with Native American tribes that extended up the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, dominating the regional economy for decades. Trading partners of major firms shipped their furs from St. Louis by river down to New Orleans for export to Europe. They provided a variety of goods to traders for sale and trade with their Native American clients. The fur trade and associated businesses made St. Louis an early financial center and provided the wealth for some to build fine houses and import luxury items. Its location near the confluence of the Illinois River meant it also handled produce from the agricultural areas. River traffic and trade along the Mississippi were integral to the state's economy. As the area's first major city, St. Louis expanded greatly after the invention of the [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat \"Steamboat\") and the increased river trade.",
"### 19th century",
"[thumb\\|*[Fur Traders Descending the Missouri](/wiki/Fur_Traders_Descending_the_Missouri \"Fur Traders Descending the Missouri\")* by Missouri painter [George Caleb Bingham](/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham \"George Caleb Bingham\")](/wiki/File:George_Caleb_Bingham_001.jpg \"George Caleb Bingham 001.jpg\")",
"Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the [Treaty of San Ildefonso](/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso \"Third Treaty of San Ildefonso\") after it had been a Spanish colony since 1762, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States.",
"Part of the 1803 [Louisiana Purchase](/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase \"Louisiana Purchase\") by the United States, Missouri earned the nickname *Gateway to the West* because it served as a significant departure point for expeditions and settlers heading to the West during the 19th century. [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles%2C_Missouri \"St. Charles, Missouri\"), just west of St. Louis, was the starting point and the return destination of the [Lewis and Clark Expedition](/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition \"Lewis and Clark Expedition\"), which ascended the Missouri River in 1804, to explore the western lands to the Pacific Ocean. For decades, [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") was a major supply point for parties of settlers heading west.",
"As many of the early settlers in western Missouri migrated from the [Upper South](/wiki/Upper_South \"Upper South\"), they brought enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") as agricultural laborers, and they desired to continue their culture and the institution of [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\"). They settled predominantly in 17 counties along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\"), in an area of flatlands that enabled [plantation](/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South \"Plantations in the American South\") agriculture and became known as \"[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 \"Little Dixie (Missouri)\")\".",
"The state was rocked by the [1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes](/wiki/1811%E2%80%9312_New_Madrid_earthquakes \"1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes\"). Casualties were few due to the sparse population.",
"### Admission as a state in 1821",
"{{See also\\|History of slavery in Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|The states and territories of the United States as a result of Missouri's admission as a state on August 10, 1821\\. The remainder of the former [Missouri Territory](/wiki/Missouri_Territory \"Missouri Territory\") became unorganized territory.](/wiki/File:United_States_1821-08-1822.png \"United States 1821-08-1822.png\")",
"In 1821, the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a [slave state](/wiki/Slave_and_free_states \"Slave and free states\"), under the [Missouri Compromise](/wiki/Missouri_Compromise \"Missouri Compromise\"), and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles. In 1826, the [capital](/wiki/Capital_city \"Capital city\") was shifted to its permanent location of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri \"Jefferson City, Missouri\"), also on the Missouri River.",
"Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth,Hoffhaus. (1984\\). *Chez Les Canses: Three Centuries at Kawsmouth*, Kansas City: Lowell Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-913504\\-91\\-2}}. the point where the [Kansas River](/wiki/Kansas_River \"Kansas River\") enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \\|title\\=''MISSOURI V. IOWA'', 48 U.S. 660 (1849\\)—US Supreme Court Cases from Justia \\& Oyez \\|publisher\\=Supreme.justia.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111095858/http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \\|archive\\-date\\=November 11, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 1836 the [Platte Purchase](/wiki/Platte_Purchase \"Platte Purchase\") was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about {{convert\\|66500\\|sqmi\\|km2}} to Virginia's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).[Meinig, D.W.](/wiki/D.W._Meinig \"D.W. Meinig\") (1993\\). *The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History*, *Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867*. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-300\\-05658\\-3}}; pg. 437",
"In the early 1830s, [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon \"Mormon\") migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near [Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri \"Independence, Missouri\") and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The [Mormon War](/wiki/Mormon_War_%281838%29 \"Mormon War (1838)\") erupted in 1838\\. By 1839, with the help of an \"Extermination Order\" by Governor [Lilburn Boggs](/wiki/Lilburn_Boggs \"Lilburn Boggs\"), the old settlers forcibly expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.",
"Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa \"Iowa\") over the so\\-called [Honey Lands](/wiki/Honey_Lands \"Honey Lands\") resulted in both states' calling\\-up of [militias](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 \"Militia (United States)\") along the border.",
"With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade. Most newcomers were American\\-born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. As a majority were [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\"). Many settled in cities, creating a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools. 19th\\-century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.",
"While many German immigrants were strongly anti\\-slavery,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\\-known\\-history\\-german\\-immigrants\\-missouri\\-were\\-anti\\-slavery\\-allies\\|title\\=A Little\\-Known History: German Immigrants In Missouri Were Anti\\-Slavery Allies\\|last\\=Davis\\|first\\=Chad\\|website\\=news.stlpublicradio.org\\|date\\=February 21, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004344/https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\\-known\\-history\\-german\\-immigrants\\-missouri\\-were\\-anti\\-slavery\\-allies\\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stlouis\\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\\-resources/preservation\\-plan/Part\\-I\\-Peopling\\-St\\-Louis.cfm\\|title\\=Part I: Peopling St. Louis\\|website\\=stlouis\\-mo.gov\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004330/https://www.stlouis\\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\\-resources/preservation\\-plan/Part\\-I\\-Peopling\\-St\\-Louis.cfm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} many Irish immigrants living in cities were pro\\-slavery, fearing that liberating African\\-American slaves would create a glut of unskilled labor, driving wages down.",
"Most Missouri farmers practiced [subsistence farming](/wiki/Subsistence_farming \"Subsistence farming\") before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"). The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each. [Planters](/wiki/Planter_%28plantation_owner%29 \"Planter (plantation owner)\"), defined by some historians as those holding 20 slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as \"[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 \"Little Dixie (Missouri)\")\", in the central part of the state along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\"). The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860, enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012\\.[Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library](http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206001455/http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/ \\|date\\=December 6, 2009 }}. Retrieved March 21, 2008\\. In order to control the flooding of farmland and low\\-lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of {{convert\\|140\\|mi\\|km}} of [levees](/wiki/Levee \"Levee\") along the river by 1860\\.[\"Louisiana: The Levee System of the State\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana-the-levee-system-of-the-state-overflows-and-how-they-are.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014538/https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana\\-the\\-levee\\-system\\-of\\-the\\-state\\-overflows\\-and\\-how\\-they\\-are.html \\|date\\=July 21, 2018 }}, *New York Times*, October 8, 1874; Retrieved November 15, 2007",
"### American Civil War",
"{{Main\\|Ordinance of Secession\\|Missouri in the American Civil War\\|Confederate government of Missouri}}\n[upright\\=1\\.5\\|thumb\\|[Price's Raid](/wiki/Price%27s_Raid \"Price's Raid\") in the [Trans\\-Mississippi Theater](/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War \"Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War\"), 1864](/wiki/File:NPS_CW_at_a_Glance_Western_1864.jpg \"NPS CW at a Glance Western 1864.jpg\")",
"After the secession of Southern states began in 1861, the Missouri legislature called for the election of a special convention on secession. This convention voted against secession, but also qualified their support of the Union. In the aftermath of [Battle of Fort Sumter](/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter \"Battle of Fort Sumter\") Pro\\-Southern Governor [Claiborne F. Jackson](/wiki/Claiborne_F._Jackson \"Claiborne F. Jackson\") ordered the mobilization of several hundred members of the state militia who had gathered in a camp in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") for training. In secret, he also requested Confederate arms and artillery to help take the [St. Louis Arsenal](/wiki/St._Louis_Arsenal \"St. Louis Arsenal\"). Alarmed at this action, and discovering the Confederate aid, General [Nathaniel Lyon](/wiki/Nathaniel_Lyon \"Nathaniel Lyon\") struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state troops to surrender. Lyon directed his soldiers, largely non\\-English\\-speaking German [immigrants](/wiki/Immigrants \"Immigrants\"), to march the prisoners through the streets, and this led to riot by pro\\-secession citizens. While it is disputed how it started, this riot led to violence and Union soldiers killed by St. Louis civilians. The event as a whole, is called the [Camp Jackson Affair](/wiki/Camp_Jackson_Affair \"Camp Jackson Affair\").",
"These events sharpened the divisions within the state. Governor Jackson appointed [Sterling Price](/wiki/Sterling_Price \"Sterling Price\"), president of the convention on secession, as head of the new [Missouri State Guard](/wiki/Missouri_State_Guard \"Missouri State Guard\"). In the face of Union General Lyon's rapid advance through the state, Jackson and Price were forced to flee the capital of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City \"Jefferson City\") on June 14, 1861\\. In [Neosho, Missouri](/wiki/Neosho%2C_Missouri \"Neosho, Missouri\"), Jackson called the state legislature into session to call for secession. However, the elected legislative body was split between pro\\-Union and pro\\-Confederate. As such, few of the pro\\-unionist attended the session called in Neosho, and the ordinance of secession was quickly adopted. The Confederacy recognized Missouri secession on October 30, 1861\\.",
"With the elected governor absent from the capital and the legislators largely dispersed, the state convention was reassembled with most of its members present, save twenty who fled south with Jackson's forces. The convention declared all offices vacant and installed [Hamilton Gamble](/wiki/Hamilton_Gamble \"Hamilton Gamble\") as the new governor of Missouri. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized Gamble's government as the legal Missouri government. The federal government's decision enabled raising pro\\-Union militia forces for service within the state and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.",
"Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas \"Arkansas\") and Texas under General [Ben McCulloch](/wiki/Ben_McCulloch \"Ben McCulloch\"). After winning victories at the [battle of Wilson's Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek \"Battle of Wilson's Creek\") and the siege of [Lexington, Missouri](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Missouri \"Lexington, Missouri\") and suffering losses elsewhere, the Confederate forces retreated to Arkansas and later [Marshall, Texas](/wiki/Marshall%2C_Texas \"Marshall, Texas\"), in the face of a largely reinforced Union Army.",
"Though regular Confederate troops staged some large\\-scale raids into Missouri, the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted chiefly of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\"). \"Citizen soldiers\" or insurgents such as Captain [William Quantrill](/wiki/William_Quantrill \"William Quantrill\"), [Frank](/wiki/Frank_James \"Frank James\") and [Jesse James](/wiki/Jesse_James \"Jesse James\"), the [Younger brothers](/wiki/James-Younger_gang \"James-Younger gang\"), and [William T. Anderson](/wiki/William_T._Anderson \"William T. Anderson\") made use of quick, small\\-unit tactics. Pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers, such insurgencies also arose in portions of the Confederacy occupied by the Union during the Civil War. Historians have portrayed stories of the James brothers' outlaw years as an American \"Robin Hood\" myth.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Steckmesser Kent L \\| year \\= 1966 \\| title \\= Robin Hood and the American Outlaw: A Note on History and Folklore \\| journal \\= Journal of American Folklore \\| volume \\= 79 \\| issue \\= 312\\| pages \\= 348–355 \\| jstor\\=538043\\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/538043 }} The vigilante activities of the [Bald Knobbers](/wiki/Bald_Knobbers \"Bald Knobbers\") of the Ozarks in the 1880s were an unofficial continuation of insurgent mentality long after the official end of the war, and they are a favorite theme in [Branson's self\\-image](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri \"Branson, Missouri\").Mary Hartman and Elmo Ingenthron. *Bald Knobbers: Vigilantes on the Ozarks Frontier* (1988\\)",
"### Reconstruction period and later 19th century",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=July 2024}}",
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Union Station](/wiki/Union_Station_%28St._Louis%29 \"Union Station (St. Louis)\") in St. Louis was the world's largest and busiest train station when it opened in 1894\\.](/wiki/File:PASSENGERS_JAM_THE_INTERIOR_OF_THE_ST._LOUIS%2C_MISSOURI%2C_UNION_STATION_IN_A_COPYRIGHTED_PICTURE_TAKEN_BY_B.A._ATWATER..._-_NARA_-_556056.jpg \"PASSENGERS JAM THE INTERIOR OF THE ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, UNION STATION IN A COPYRIGHTED PICTURE TAKEN BY B.A. ATWATER... - NARA - 556056.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Child shoe workers in [Kirksville, Missouri](/wiki/Kirksville%2C_Missouri \"Kirksville, Missouri\"), 1910](/wiki/File:Child_workers_in_Kirksville%2C_MO.jpg \"Child workers in Kirksville, MO.jpg\")",
"The [Progressive Era](/wiki/Progressive_Era \"Progressive Era\") (1890s to 1920s) saw numerous prominent leaders from Missouri trying to end corruption and modernize politics, government, and society. [Joseph \"Holy Joe\" Folk](/wiki/Joseph_Folk \"Joseph Folk\") was a key leader who made a strong appeal to the middle class and rural evangelical Protestants. Folk was elected governor as a progressive reformer and [Democrat](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"History of the Democratic Party (United States)\") in the [1904 election](/wiki/Missouri_gubernatorial_election%2C_1904 \"Missouri gubernatorial election, 1904\"). He promoted what he called \"the Missouri Idea\", the concept of Missouri as a leader in public morality through popular control of law and strict enforcement. He successfully conducted antitrust prosecutions, ended free railroad passes for state officials, extended bribery statutes, improved election laws, required formal registration for lobbyists, made racetrack gambling illegal and enforced the Sunday\\-closing law. He helped enact Progressive legislation, including an initiative and referendum provision, regulation of elections, education, employment and child labor, railroads, food, business, and public utilities. Several efficiency\\-oriented examiner boards and commissions were established during Folk's administration, including many agricultural boards and the Missouri library commission.Steven L. Piott, *Holy Joe: Joseph Folk and the Missouri Idea* (1997\\)\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|General John J. Pershing, commander of the [American Expeditionary Forces](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces \"American Expeditionary Forces\") in World War I, was raised in [Laclede, Missouri](/wiki/Laclede%2C_Missouri \"Laclede, Missouri\").](/wiki/File:General_John_Joseph_Pershing_head_on_shoulders.jpg \"General John Joseph Pershing head on shoulders.jpg\")\nBetween the Civil War and the end of World War II, Missouri transitioned from a rural economy to a hybrid industrial\\-service\\-agricultural economy as the Midwest rapidly industrialized. The expansion of railroads to the West transformed Kansas City into a major transportation hub within the nation. The growth of the Texas cattle industry along with this increased rail infrastructure and the invention of the [refrigerated boxcar](/wiki/Refrigerated_boxcar \"Refrigerated boxcar\") also made Kansas City a major [meatpacking](/wiki/Meatpacking \"Meatpacking\") center, as large [cattle drives](/wiki/Cattle_drives \"Cattle drives\") from Texas brought herds of cattle to [Dodge City](/wiki/Dodge_City \"Dodge City\") and other Kansas towns. There, the cattle were loaded onto trains destined for Kansas City, where they were butchered and distributed to the eastern markets. The first half of the 20th century was the height of Kansas City's prominence, and its downtown became a showcase for stylish [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") [skyscrapers](/wiki/Skyscrapers \"Skyscrapers\") as construction boomed.\n[thumb\\|African American boy in a [sharecropper](/wiki/Sharecropping%23United_States \"Sharecropping#United States\") shack, [New Madrid County](/wiki/New_Madrid_County \"New Madrid County\"), 1938\\.](/wiki/File:Boy_resting_on_bed_in_attic_of_sharecropper_shack%2C_New_Madrid_County%2C_Missouri.jpg \"Boy resting on bed in attic of sharecropper shack, New Madrid County, Missouri.jpg\")",
"In 1930, there was a [diphtheria](/wiki/Diphtheria \"Diphtheria\") epidemic in the area around Springfield, which killed approximately 100 people. Serum was rushed to the area, and medical personnel stopped the epidemic.",
"During the mid\\-1950s and 1960s, St. Louis and Kansas City suffered deindustrialization and loss of jobs in railroads and manufacturing, as did other [Midwestern](/wiki/Midwestern \"Midwestern\") industrial cities. [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles%2C_Missouri \"St. Charles, Missouri\") claims to be the site of the first [interstate](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System \"Interstate Highway System\") highway project in 1956\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://highways.dot.gov/public\\-roads/summer\\-1996/three\\-states\\-claim\\-first\\-interstate\\-highway \\|title\\=First interstate project \\|publisher\\=Fhwa.dot.gov \\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607064752/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/rw96h.cfm \\|archive\\-date\\=June 7, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Such highway construction made it easy for middle\\-class residents to leave the city for newer housing developed in the suburbs, often former farmland where land was available at lower prices. These major cities have gone through decades of readjustment to develop different economies and adjust to demographic changes. Suburban areas have developed separate job markets, both in knowledge industries and services, such as major retail malls.",
"### 21st century",
"In 2014, Missouri received national attention for the [protests and riots](/wiki/Ferguson_unrest \"Ferguson unrest\") that followed the [shooting of Michael Brown](/wiki/Shooting_of_Michael_Brown \"Shooting of Michael Brown\") by a police officer of [Ferguson](/wiki/Ferguson%2C_Missouri \"Ferguson, Missouri\"),{{cite web \\|first\\=Eliott C. \\|last\\=McLaughlin \\|title\\=What we know about Michael Brown's shooting \\|work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=August 15, 2014 \\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/11/us/missouri\\-ferguson\\-michael\\-brown\\-what\\-we\\-know/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825101929/http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/11/us/missouri\\-ferguson\\-michael\\-brown\\-what\\-we\\-know/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2014 }}{{cite web \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Carr \\|title\\=View of \\#Ferguson Thrust Michael Brown Shooting to National Attention \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 17, 2014 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/business/media/view\\-of\\-ferguson\\-thrust\\-michael\\-brown\\-shooting\\-to\\-national\\-attention.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810171608/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/business/media/view\\-of\\-ferguson\\-thrust\\-michael\\-brown\\-shooting\\-to\\-national\\-attention.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2017 }}{{cite web \\|first\\=Jamelle \\|last\\=Bouie \\|title\\=Why the Fires in Ferguson Won't End Soon \\|work\\=\\[\\[Slate (magazine)\\|Slate]] \\|date\\=August 19, 2014 \\|url\\=http://www.slate.com/articles/news\\_and\\_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson\\_protests\\_over\\_michael\\_brown\\_won\\_t\\_end\\_soon\\_the\\_black\\_community.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831214449/http://www.slate.com/articles/news\\_and\\_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson\\_protests\\_over\\_michael\\_brown\\_won\\_t\\_end\\_soon\\_the\\_black\\_community.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 31, 2017 }}. which led Governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon \"Jay Nixon\") to call out the [Missouri National Guard](/wiki/Missouri_National_Guard \"Missouri National Guard\").{{Cite news \\| last1 \\= Davey \\| first1 \\= Monica \\| last2 \\= Eligon \\| first2 \\= John \\| last3 \\= Blinder \\| first3 \\= Alan \\| title \\= National Guard Troops Fail to Quell Unrest in Ferguson \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/ferguson\\-missouri\\-protests.html?\\_r\\=0 \\| work \\= The New York Times \\| date \\= August 19, 2014 \\| access\\-date \\= August 19, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140819234813/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/us/ferguson\\-missouri\\-protests.html?\\_r\\=0 \\| archive\\-date \\= August 19, 2014 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hartmann\\|first1\\=Margaret\\|title\\=National Guard Deployed After Chaotic, Violent Night in Ferguson\\|url\\=https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/08/national\\-guard\\-called\\-after\\-more\\-ferguson\\-chaos.html\\|publisher\\=NY Magazine \\|work\\=Intelligencer \\|date\\=August 18, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=August 18, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819102937/http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/08/national\\-guard\\-called\\-after\\-more\\-ferguson\\-chaos.html\\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live}} A [grand jury](/wiki/Grand_juries_in_the_United_States \"Grand juries in the United States\") declined to [indict](/wiki/Indict \"Indict\") the officer, and the [U.S. Department of Justice](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice \"U.S. Department of Justice\") concluded, after careful investigation, that the police officer legitimately feared for his safety.{{cite report \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Justice \\|title\\=Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation Into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown by Ferguson, Missouri Police Officer Darren Wilson \\|date\\=March 4, 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press\\-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/doj\\_report\\_on\\_shooting\\_of\\_michael\\_brown\\_1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731233723/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press\\-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/doj\\_report\\_on\\_shooting\\_of\\_michael\\_brown\\_1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2017}} However, in a separate investigation, the Department of Justice also found that the Ferguson Police Department and the City of Ferguson relied on unconstitutional practices in order to balance the city's budget through racially motivated excessive fines and punishments,{{cite news\\|last1\\=Apuzzo\\|first1\\=Matt\\|title\\=Ferguson Police Routinely Violate Rights of Blacks, Justice Dept. Finds\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/04/us/justice\\-department\\-finds\\-pattern\\-of\\-police\\-bias\\-and\\-excessive\\-force\\-in\\-ferguson.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2015\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=March 3, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303220058/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/04/us/justice\\-department\\-finds\\-pattern\\-of\\-police\\-bias\\-and\\-excessive\\-force\\-in\\-ferguson.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} that the Ferguson police \"had used excessive and dangerous force and had disproportionately targeted blacks,\"{{cite web \\|work\\=NBC News \\|title\\=Ferguson Officials Suspended After DOJ Report Have Resigned, City Confirms \\|date\\=March 7, 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\\-brown\\-shooting/ferguson\\-officials\\-suspended\\-after\\-doj\\-report\\-have\\-resigned\\-city\\-confirms\\-n318836 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810233038/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\\-brown\\-shooting/ferguson\\-officials\\-suspended\\-after\\-doj\\-report\\-have\\-resigned\\-city\\-confirms\\-n318836 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2017 }} and that the municipal court \"emphasized revenue over public safety, leading to routine breaches of citizens' constitutional guarantees of due process and equal protection under the law.\"{{cite web \\|work\\=NBC News \\|title\\=Report on Ferguson Exposes Broader Effort to Reform Municipal Courts \\|date\\=March 3, 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\\-brown\\-shooting/report\\-ferguson\\-exposes\\-broader\\-effort\\-reform\\-municipal\\-courts\\-n316716 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810031951/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/michael\\-brown\\-shooting/report\\-ferguson\\-exposes\\-broader\\-effort\\-reform\\-municipal\\-courts\\-n316716 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2017 }}.",
"[A series of student protests](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_University_of_Missouri_protests \"2015–16 University of Missouri protests\") at the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri \"University of Missouri\") against what the protesters viewed as poor response by the administration to racist incidents on campus began in September 2015\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Students march through MU Student Center in protest of racial injustice \\|last\\=Naskidashvili \\|first\\=Nana \\|work\\=Columbia Missourian \\|date\\=October 1, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/higher\\_education/students\\-march\\-through\\-mu\\-student\\-center\\-in\\-protest\\-of\\-racial/article\\_4b8e3458\\-688b\\-11e5\\-8412\\-9b38a4d41eb8\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708052809/http://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/higher\\_education/students\\-march\\-through\\-mu\\-student\\-center\\-in\\-protest\\-of\\-racial/article\\_4b8e3458\\-688b\\-11e5\\-8412\\-9b38a4d41eb8\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Second 'Racism Lives Here' event calls for administration to act on social injustices \\|last\\=Plaster \\|first\\=Madison \\|work\\=The Maneater \\|date\\=October 1, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.themaneater.com/stories/2015/10/1/second\\-racism\\-lives\\-here\\-event\\-calls\\-administratio/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151111035002/http://www.themaneater.com/stories/2015/10/1/second\\-racism\\-lives\\-here\\-event\\-calls\\-administratio/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 11, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On June 7, 2017, the [National Association for the Advancement of Colored People](/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People \"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People\") issued a warning to prospective African\\-American travelers to Missouri. This is the first NAACP warning ever covering an entire state.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.monaacp.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/06/170605\\-NAACP\\-MO\\-Travel\\-Advisory.pdf \\|title\\=Urgent–Missouri Travel Advisory \\|publisher\\=National Association for the Advancement of Colored People \\|date\\=June 7, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 25, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225003952/http://www.monaacp.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/06/170605\\-NAACP\\-MO\\-Travel\\-Advisory.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|first\\=Nancy \\|last\\=Coleman \\|title\\=NAACP issues its first statewide travel advisory, for Missouri \\|work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=August 3, 2017 \\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/02/us/naacp\\-missouri\\-travel\\-advisory\\-trnd/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028030940/http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/02/us/naacp\\-missouri\\-travel\\-advisory\\-trnd/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 28, 2017}} According to a 2018 report by the [Missouri Attorney General](/wiki/Missouri_Attorney_General \"Missouri Attorney General\")'s office, for the past 18 years, \"African Americans, Hispanics and other people of color are disproportionately affected by stops, searches and arrests.\"{{cite news\n\\|title\\=Black Drivers Stopped in Missouri at a Rate 85 Percent Higher Than Whites\n\\|first\\=Alison\n\\|last\\=Gold\n\\|date\\=June 1, 2018\n\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Riverfront Times]]\n\\|url\\=https://www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2018/06/01/black\\-drivers\\-stopped\\-in\\-missouri\\-at\\-a\\-rate\\-85\\-percent\\-higher\\-than\\-whites\n\\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2018\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705175738/https://www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2018/06/01/black\\-drivers\\-stopped\\-in\\-missouri\\-at\\-a\\-rate\\-85\\-percent\\-higher\\-than\\-whites\n\\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2018\n\\|url\\-status\\=live\n}} The same report found that the biggest discrepancy was in 2017, when \"black motorists were 85% more likely to be pulled over in traffic stops\".{{cite news\n\\|title\\='Predatory police': the high price of driving while black in Missouri\n\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\n\\|first\\=Jamiles\n\\|last\\=Lartey\n\\|date\\=July 5, 2018\n\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/us\\-news/2018/jul/05/missouri\\-driving\\-while\\-black\\-st\\-louis\n\\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2018\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705140213/https://www.theguardian.com/us\\-news/2018/jul/05/missouri\\-driving\\-while\\-black\\-st\\-louis\n\\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2018\n\\|url\\-status\\=live\n}}",
"In 2018 the USDA announced its plans to relocate Economic Research Service (ERS) and National Institute of Food \\& Agriculture (NIFA) to Kansas City. They have since decided on a specific location in downtown Kansas City, Missouri.{{Cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.usda.gov/media/press\\-releases/2019/10/31/secretary\\-perdue\\-announces\\-lease\\-ers\\-and\\-nifa\\-kansas\\-city\\-mo\\|title\\=Secretary Perdue Announces Lease for ERS and NIFA in Kansas City, MO\\|publisher\\=US Department of Agriculture\\|date\\=October 31, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130126/https://www.usda.gov/media/press\\-releases/2019/10/31/secretary\\-perdue\\-announces\\-lease\\-ers\\-and\\-nifa\\-kansas\\-city\\-mo\\|url\\-status\\=live}} With the addition of the KC Streetcar project and construction of the Sprint Center Arena, the downtown area in KC has attracted investment in new offices, hotels, and residential complexes. Both Kansas City and St. Louis are undergoing a rebirth in their downtown areas with the addition of the new Power \\& Light (KC) and Ballpark Village (STL) districts and the renovation of existing historical buildings in each downtown area.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kmov.com/news/nearly\\-billion\\-in\\-development\\-underway\\-in\\-st\\-louis\\-city/article\\_5da13736\\-0571\\-11e9\\-bd69\\-cbe203940e16\\.html\\|title\\=Nearly $8 billion in development underway in St. Louis City\\|website\\=KMOV.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130126/https://www.kmov.com/news/nearly\\-billion\\-in\\-development\\-underway\\-in\\-st\\-louis\\-city/article\\_5da13736\\-0571\\-11e9\\-bd69\\-cbe203940e16\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The 2019 announcement of an MLS expansion team in St. Louis is driving even more development in the downtown west area of St. Louis.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/news/2019/11/07/mls\\-updates\\-a\\-timeline\\-for\\-a\\-team\\-name\\-and\\-how\\-the.html\\#g/458875/28\\|date\\=November 7, 2019\\|first\\=Erik\\|last\\=Siemers\\|work\\=St. Louis Business Journal\\|title\\=MLS: A timeline for a team name \\& how the stadium project expanded\\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919034227/https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/news/2019/11/07/mls\\-updates\\-a\\-timeline\\-for\\-a\\-team\\-name\\-and\\-how\\-the.html\\#g/458875/28\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Kansas City has experienced a boom in population, with new developments such as Three Light apartments being centered in [Downtown Kansas City](/wiki/Downtown_Kansas_City \"Downtown Kansas City\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://flatlandkc.org/people\\-places/migration\\-patterns\\-kansas\\-city/ \\|title\\=Is Kansas City's Population Growing? \\|website\\=Flatland \\|last\\=Huth \\|first\\=Lindsay \\|date\\=September 3, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=October 2, 2024}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://fox4kc.com/business/three\\-light\\-apartment\\-tower\\-set\\-to\\-open\\-soon\\-in\\-downtown\\-kansas\\-city/ \\|title\\=Three Light apartment tower set to open soon in downtown Kansas City \\|date\\=August 17, 2023 \\|work\\=Fox 4 (\\[\\[WDAF\\-TV]]) \\|last\\=Kittilstad \\|first\\=Jacob \\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902001934/https://fox4kc.com/business/three\\-light\\-apartment\\-tower\\-set\\-to\\-open\\-soon\\-in\\-downtown\\-kansas\\-city/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} as well as suburban development in the [Northland](/wiki/Northland%2C_Kansas_City \"Northland, Kansas City\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://fox4kc.com/business/kansas\\-citys\\-northland\\-booms\\-as\\-more\\-people\\-search\\-for\\-land\\-cheaper\\-homes/ \\|title\\=Kansas City's Northland booms as more people search for land, cheaper homes \\|last\\=Cagle \\|first\\=Ellen \\|date\\=September 9, 2022 \\|work\\=Fox 4 (\\[\\[WDAF\\-TV]]) \\|access\\-date\\=September 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927124416/https://fox4kc.com/business/kansas\\-citys\\-northland\\-booms\\-as\\-more\\-people\\-search\\-for\\-land\\-cheaper\\-homes/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
### Admission as a state in 1821
{{See also\|History of slavery in Missouri}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|The states and territories of the United States as a result of Missouri's admission as a state on August 10, 1821\. The remainder of the former [Missouri Territory](/wiki/Missouri_Territory "Missouri Territory") became unorganized territory.](/wiki/File:United_States_1821-08-1822.png "United States 1821-08-1822.png")
In 1821, the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a [slave state](/wiki/Slave_and_free_states "Slave and free states"), under the [Missouri Compromise](/wiki/Missouri_Compromise "Missouri Compromise"), and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles. In 1826, the [capital](/wiki/Capital_city "Capital city") was shifted to its permanent location of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri "Jefferson City, Missouri"), also on the Missouri River.
Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth,Hoffhaus. (1984\). *Chez Les Canses: Three Centuries at Kawsmouth*, Kansas City: Lowell Press. {{ISBN\|0\-913504\-91\-2}}. the point where the [Kansas River](/wiki/Kansas_River "Kansas River") enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary.{{cite web \|url\=http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \|title\=''MISSOURI V. IOWA'', 48 U.S. 660 (1849\)—US Supreme Court Cases from Justia \& Oyez \|publisher\=Supreme.justia.com \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111095858/http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \|archive\-date\=November 11, 2010 \|url\-status\=live }} In 1836 the [Platte Purchase](/wiki/Platte_Purchase "Platte Purchase") was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about {{convert\|66500\|sqmi\|km2}} to Virginia's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).[Meinig, D.W.](/wiki/D.W._Meinig "D.W. Meinig") (1993\). *The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History*, *Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867*. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-300\-05658\-3}}; pg. 437
In the early 1830s, [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon "Mormon") migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near [Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri "Independence, Missouri") and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The [Mormon War](/wiki/Mormon_War_%281838%29 "Mormon War (1838)") erupted in 1838\. By 1839, with the help of an "Extermination Order" by Governor [Lilburn Boggs](/wiki/Lilburn_Boggs "Lilburn Boggs"), the old settlers forcibly expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.
Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa "Iowa") over the so\-called [Honey Lands](/wiki/Honey_Lands "Honey Lands") resulted in both states' calling\-up of [militias](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 "Militia (United States)") along the border.
With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade. Most newcomers were American\-born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. As a majority were [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant"). Many settled in cities, creating a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools. 19th\-century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.
While many German immigrants were strongly anti\-slavery,{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\-known\-history\-german\-immigrants\-missouri\-were\-anti\-slavery\-allies\|title\=A Little\-Known History: German Immigrants In Missouri Were Anti\-Slavery Allies\|last\=Davis\|first\=Chad\|website\=news.stlpublicradio.org\|date\=February 21, 2019\|access\-date\=October 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004344/https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\-known\-history\-german\-immigrants\-missouri\-were\-anti\-slavery\-allies\|archive\-date\=October 29, 2019\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.stlouis\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\-resources/preservation\-plan/Part\-I\-Peopling\-St\-Louis.cfm\|title\=Part I: Peopling St. Louis\|website\=stlouis\-mo.gov\|access\-date\=October 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004330/https://www.stlouis\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\-resources/preservation\-plan/Part\-I\-Peopling\-St\-Louis.cfm\|archive\-date\=October 29, 2019\|url\-status\=live}} many Irish immigrants living in cities were pro\-slavery, fearing that liberating African\-American slaves would create a glut of unskilled labor, driving wages down.
Most Missouri farmers practiced [subsistence farming](/wiki/Subsistence_farming "Subsistence farming") before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"). The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each. [Planters](/wiki/Planter_%28plantation_owner%29 "Planter (plantation owner)"), defined by some historians as those holding 20 slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as "[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 "Little Dixie (Missouri)")", in the central part of the state along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River"). The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860, enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American "African American") made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012\.[Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library](http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206001455/http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/ \|date\=December 6, 2009 }}. Retrieved March 21, 2008\. In order to control the flooding of farmland and low\-lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of {{convert\|140\|mi\|km}} of [levees](/wiki/Levee "Levee") along the river by 1860\.["Louisiana: The Levee System of the State"](https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana-the-levee-system-of-the-state-overflows-and-how-they-are.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014538/https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana\-the\-levee\-system\-of\-the\-state\-overflows\-and\-how\-they\-are.html \|date\=July 21, 2018 }}, *New York Times*, October 8, 1874; Retrieved November 15, 2007
|
[
"### Admission as a state in 1821",
"{{See also\\|History of slavery in Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|The states and territories of the United States as a result of Missouri's admission as a state on August 10, 1821\\. The remainder of the former [Missouri Territory](/wiki/Missouri_Territory \"Missouri Territory\") became unorganized territory.](/wiki/File:United_States_1821-08-1822.png \"United States 1821-08-1822.png\")",
"In 1821, the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a [slave state](/wiki/Slave_and_free_states \"Slave and free states\"), under the [Missouri Compromise](/wiki/Missouri_Compromise \"Missouri Compromise\"), and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles. In 1826, the [capital](/wiki/Capital_city \"Capital city\") was shifted to its permanent location of [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri \"Jefferson City, Missouri\"), also on the Missouri River.",
"Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth,Hoffhaus. (1984\\). *Chez Les Canses: Three Centuries at Kawsmouth*, Kansas City: Lowell Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-913504\\-91\\-2}}. the point where the [Kansas River](/wiki/Kansas_River \"Kansas River\") enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \\|title\\=''MISSOURI V. IOWA'', 48 U.S. 660 (1849\\)—US Supreme Court Cases from Justia \\& Oyez \\|publisher\\=Supreme.justia.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111095858/http://supreme.justia.com/us/48/660/case.html \\|archive\\-date\\=November 11, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 1836 the [Platte Purchase](/wiki/Platte_Purchase \"Platte Purchase\") was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about {{convert\\|66500\\|sqmi\\|km2}} to Virginia's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).[Meinig, D.W.](/wiki/D.W._Meinig \"D.W. Meinig\") (1993\\). *The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History*, *Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867*. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-300\\-05658\\-3}}; pg. 437",
"In the early 1830s, [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon \"Mormon\") migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near [Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri \"Independence, Missouri\") and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The [Mormon War](/wiki/Mormon_War_%281838%29 \"Mormon War (1838)\") erupted in 1838\\. By 1839, with the help of an \"Extermination Order\" by Governor [Lilburn Boggs](/wiki/Lilburn_Boggs \"Lilburn Boggs\"), the old settlers forcibly expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.",
"Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa \"Iowa\") over the so\\-called [Honey Lands](/wiki/Honey_Lands \"Honey Lands\") resulted in both states' calling\\-up of [militias](/wiki/Militia_%28United_States%29 \"Militia (United States)\") along the border.",
"With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade. Most newcomers were American\\-born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. As a majority were [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\"). Many settled in cities, creating a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools. 19th\\-century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.",
"While many German immigrants were strongly anti\\-slavery,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\\-known\\-history\\-german\\-immigrants\\-missouri\\-were\\-anti\\-slavery\\-allies\\|title\\=A Little\\-Known History: German Immigrants In Missouri Were Anti\\-Slavery Allies\\|last\\=Davis\\|first\\=Chad\\|website\\=news.stlpublicradio.org\\|date\\=February 21, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004344/https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/little\\-known\\-history\\-german\\-immigrants\\-missouri\\-were\\-anti\\-slavery\\-allies\\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stlouis\\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\\-resources/preservation\\-plan/Part\\-I\\-Peopling\\-St\\-Louis.cfm\\|title\\=Part I: Peopling St. Louis\\|website\\=stlouis\\-mo.gov\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029004330/https://www.stlouis\\-mo.gov/government/departments/planning/cultural\\-resources/preservation\\-plan/Part\\-I\\-Peopling\\-St\\-Louis.cfm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 29, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} many Irish immigrants living in cities were pro\\-slavery, fearing that liberating African\\-American slaves would create a glut of unskilled labor, driving wages down.",
"Most Missouri farmers practiced [subsistence farming](/wiki/Subsistence_farming \"Subsistence farming\") before the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"). The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each. [Planters](/wiki/Planter_%28plantation_owner%29 \"Planter (plantation owner)\"), defined by some historians as those holding 20 slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as \"[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 \"Little Dixie (Missouri)\")\", in the central part of the state along the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\"). The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860, enslaved [African Americans](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012\\.[Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library](http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206001455/http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/ \\|date\\=December 6, 2009 }}. Retrieved March 21, 2008\\. In order to control the flooding of farmland and low\\-lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of {{convert\\|140\\|mi\\|km}} of [levees](/wiki/Levee \"Levee\") along the river by 1860\\.[\"Louisiana: The Levee System of the State\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana-the-levee-system-of-the-state-overflows-and-how-they-are.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014538/https://www.nytimes.com/1874/10/13/archives/louisiana\\-the\\-levee\\-system\\-of\\-the\\-state\\-overflows\\-and\\-how\\-they\\-are.html \\|date\\=July 21, 2018 }}, *New York Times*, October 8, 1874; Retrieved November 15, 2007",
""
] |
Geography
---------
{{Main\|Geography of Missouri}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5](/wiki/File:National-atlas-missouri.png "National-atlas-missouri.png")
Missouri borders eight different states, a figure equaled only by its neighbor, Tennessee. Missouri is bounded by [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa "Iowa") on the north; by [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"), [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky "Kentucky"), and [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee") across the Mississippi River on the east; on the south by [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas"); and by [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"), and [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska") (the last across the Missouri River) on the west. Whereas the northern and southern boundaries are straight lines, the [Missouri Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel "Missouri Bootheel") extends south between the [St. Francis](/wiki/St._Francis_River "St. Francis River") and the [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") rivers. The two largest rivers are the Mississippi (which defines the eastern boundary of the state) and the Missouri River (which flows from west to east through the state), essentially connecting the two largest metros of Kansas City and St. Louis.
Although today it is usually considered part of the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bls.gov/eag/eag.midwest.htm \|title\=Midwest Region Economy at a Glance \|publisher\=Bls.gov \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917003753/http://bls.gov/eag/eag.midwest.htm \|archive\-date\=September 17, 2010 \|url\-status\=live }} Missouri was historically seen by many as a [border state](/wiki/Border_states_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Border states (American Civil War)"), chiefly because of the settlement of migrants from the South and its status as a slave state before the Civil War, balanced by the influence of St. Louis. The counties that made up "[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 "Little Dixie (Missouri)")" were those along the Missouri River in the center of the state, settled by Southern migrants who held the greatest concentration of slaves.
In 2005, Missouri received 16,695,000 visitors to its national parks and other recreational areas totaling {{convert\|101000\|acre\|km2}}, giving it $7\.41 million in annual revenues, 26\.6% of its operating expenditures.{{cite book \|title\=''Almanac of the 50 States'' (Missouri) \|publisher\=Information Publications (Woodside, California) \|year\=2008 \|page\=203}}
### Topography
[thumb\|left\|A physiographic map of Missouri](/wiki/File:US_mo_physiographic_map.jpg "US mo physiographic map.jpg")
North of, and in some cases just south of, the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. Here, rolling hills remain from the [glaciation](/wiki/Glaciation "Glaciation") that once extended from the Canadian Shield to the Missouri River. Missouri has many large river bluffs along the Mississippi, Missouri, and [Meramec Rivers](/wiki/Meramec_River "Meramec River"). Southern Missouri rises to the [Ozark Mountains](/wiki/Ozark_Mountains "Ozark Mountains"), a [dissected plateau](/wiki/Dissected_plateau "Dissected plateau") surrounding the [Precambrian](/wiki/Precambrian "Precambrian") [igneous](/wiki/Igneous "Igneous") [St. Francois Mountains](/wiki/St._Francois_Mountains "St. Francois Mountains"). This region also hosts [karst topography](/wiki/Karst_topography "Karst topography") characterized by high limestone content with the formation of sinkholes and caves.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mostateparks.com/karst.htm \|title\=Missouri's Karst Wonderland—Missouri State Parks and Historic Sites, DNR \|publisher\=Mostateparks.com \|date\=June 6, 2008 \|access\-date\=February 20, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228195535/http://www.mostateparks.com/karst.htm \|archive\-date\=February 28, 2010 }}
[right\|thumb\|upright\=1\.6\|The [Bell Mountain Wilderness](/wiki/Bell_Mountain_Wilderness "Bell Mountain Wilderness") of southern Missouri's [Mark Twain National Forest](/wiki/Mark_Twain_National_Forest "Mark Twain National Forest")](/wiki/File:Bell_Mountain.jpg "Bell Mountain.jpg")
The southeastern part of the state is known as the [Missouri Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel "Missouri Bootheel") region, which is part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or [Mississippi embayment](/wiki/Mississippi_embayment "Mississippi embayment"). This region is the lowest, flattest, warmest, and wettest part of the state. It is also among the poorest, as the economy there is mostly agricultural.{{cite web \|url\=http://ded.mo.gov/researchandplanning/community/misc/sa\-1102\-1\.stm \|title\=Income Inequality in Missouri \|publisher\=Ded.mo.gov \|date\=December 21, 2001 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107144051/http://ded.mo.gov/researchandplanning/community/misc/sa\-1102\-1\.stm \|archive\-date\=January 7, 2010 }} It is also the most fertile, with cotton and rice crops predominant. The Bootheel was the epicenter of the four [New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811 and 1812](/wiki/1811%E2%80%9312_New_Madrid_earthquakes "1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes").
### Climate
{{Main\|Climate of Missouri}}
[thumb\|Köppen climate types of Missouri](/wiki/File:Missouri_K%C3%B6ppen.svg "Missouri Köppen.svg")
Missouri generally has a [humid continental climate](/wiki/Humid_continental_climate "Humid continental climate") with cool, sometimes cold, winters and hot, humid, and wet summers. In the southern part of the state, particularly in the [Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel "Missouri Bootheel"), the climate becomes [humid subtropical](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate "Humid subtropical climate"). Located in the interior United States, Missouri often experiences extreme temperatures. Without high mountains or oceans nearby to moderate temperature, its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico. Missouri's highest recorded temperature is {{convert\|118\|F\|C}} at [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw%2C_Missouri "Warsaw, Missouri") and [Union](/wiki/Union%2C_Missouri "Union, Missouri") on July 14, 1954, while the lowest recorded temperature is {{convert\|\-40\|F\|C}} also at Warsaw on February 13, 1905\.
Located in [Tornado Alley](/wiki/Tornado_Alley "Tornado Alley"), Missouri also receives extreme weather in the form of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. On May 22, 2011, a [massive EF\-5 tornado](/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado "2011 Joplin tornado") killed 158 people and destroyed roughly one\-third of the city of [Joplin](/wiki/Joplin%2C_Missouri "Joplin, Missouri"). The tornado caused an estimated $1–3 billion in damages, killed 159 people and injured more than a thousand. It was the first EF5 to hit the state since 1957 and the deadliest in the U.S. since 1947, making it the seventh deadliest tornado in American history and 27th deadliest in the world. [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") and its suburbs also have a history of experiencing particularly severe tornadoes, the most recent one of note being an EF4 that damaged [Lambert\-St. Louis International Airport](/wiki/Lambert-St._Louis_International_Airport "Lambert-St. Louis International Airport") on April 22, 2011\. [One of the worst tornadoes in American history](/wiki/1896_St._Louis%E2%80%93East_St._Louis_tornado "1896 St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado") struck St. Louis on May 27, 1896, killing at least 255 people and causing $10 million in damage (equivalent to $3\.9 billion in 2009 or ${{Formatprice\| {{Inflation\|US\|3900000000\|2009\|r\=2}}}} in today's dollars).
| Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Missouri cities in °F (°C). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| City | Avg. | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |
|
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| \[\[Columbia, Missouri\|Columbia]]\|High\|37 44 55 66 75 84 89 87 79 68 53 42 65\.0}}
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| Columbia\|Low\|18 23 33 43 53 62 66 64 55 44 33 22 43\.0}}
|
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| \[\[Kansas City, Missouri\|Kansas City]]\|High\|36 43 54 65 75 84 89 87 79 68 52 40 64\.4}}
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| Kansas City\|Low\|18 23 33 44 54 63 68 66 57 46 33 22 44\.0}}
|
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| \[\[Springfield, Missouri\|Springfield]]\|High\|42 48 58 68 76 85 90 90 81 71 56 46 67\.6}}
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| Springfield\|Low\|22 26 35 44 53 62 67 66 57 46 35 26 45\.0}}
|
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| \[\[St. Louis]]\|High\|40 45 56 67 76 85 89 88 80 69 56 43 66\.2}}
{{Average temperature table/row/F\| St. Louis\|Low\|24 28 37 47 57 67 71 69 61 49 38 27 48\.0}}
| Source:{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather\-missouri/ \|title\=Missouri Weather And Climate \|access\-date\=July 17, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505201459/http://www.ustravelweather.com/missouri \|archive\-date\=May 5, 2011 }} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
[thumb\|The [Lake of the Ozarks](/wiki/Lake_of_the_Ozarks "Lake of the Ozarks") is one of several man\-made lakes in Missouri, created by the damming of several rivers and tributaries. The lake has a surface area of 54,000 acres and 1,150 miles of shoreline and has become a popular tourist destination.](/wiki/File:Lake_of_the_Ozarks_-_Missouri_%2840533516433%29.jpg "Lake of the Ozarks - Missouri (40533516433).jpg")
### Wildlife
{{Main\|Wildlife of Missouri}}
[thumb\|right\|Missouri River near [Rocheport, Missouri](/wiki/Rocheport%2C_Missouri "Rocheport, Missouri")](/wiki/File:Lower_Missouri_River.jpg "Lower Missouri River.jpg")
Missouri is home to diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora "Flora") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna "Fauna"), including several [endemic](/wiki/Endemism "Endemism") species.{{Cite web\|title\=Missouri's High Country\|url\=https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2005/10/missouris\-high\-country\|access\-date\=June 19, 2020\|website\=Missouri Department of Conservation\|archive\-date\=June 22, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622033327/https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2005/10/missouris\-high\-country\|url\-status\=dead}} There is a large amount of [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water "Fresh water") present due to the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River"), [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River"), [Table Rock Lake](/wiki/Table_Rock_Lake "Table Rock Lake") and [Lake of the Ozarks](/wiki/Lake_of_the_Ozarks "Lake of the Ozarks"), with numerous smaller tributary rivers, streams, and lakes. North of the Missouri River, the state is primarily rolling hills of the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains "Great Plains"), whereas south of the Missouri River, the state is dominated by the Oak\-Hickory [Central U.S. hardwood forest](/wiki/Central_U.S._hardwood_forest "Central U.S. hardwood forest").
### Forests
Recreational and commercial uses of public forests, including grazing, logging, and mining, increased after World War{{spaces}}II. Fishermen, hikers, campers, and others started lobbying to protect forest areas with a "wilderness character". During the 1930s and 1940s, [Aldo Leopold](/wiki/Aldo_Leopold "Aldo Leopold"), [Arthur Carhart](/wiki/Arthur_Carhart "Arthur Carhart") and [Bob Marshall](/wiki/Bob_Marshall_%28wilderness_activist%29 "Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)") developed a "wilderness" policy for the Forest Service. Their efforts bore fruit with the [Wilderness Act of 1964](/wiki/Wilderness_Act_of_1964 "Wilderness Act of 1964"), which designated wilderness areas "where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by men, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain." This included [second growth](/wiki/Secondary_forest "Secondary forest") public forests like the [Mark Twain National Forest](/wiki/Mark_Twain_National_Forest "Mark Twain National Forest").{{cite book \|last1\=Farmer \|first1\=Charles J. \|title\=A Personal Guide to Missouri Wilderness \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=University of Missouri Press \|pages\=9–13}}
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"{{Main\\|Geography of Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5](/wiki/File:National-atlas-missouri.png \"National-atlas-missouri.png\")",
"Missouri borders eight different states, a figure equaled only by its neighbor, Tennessee. Missouri is bounded by [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa \"Iowa\") on the north; by [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"), [Kentucky](/wiki/Kentucky \"Kentucky\"), and [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\") across the Mississippi River on the east; on the south by [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas \"Arkansas\"); and by [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"), and [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska \"Nebraska\") (the last across the Missouri River) on the west. Whereas the northern and southern boundaries are straight lines, the [Missouri Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel \"Missouri Bootheel\") extends south between the [St. Francis](/wiki/St._Francis_River \"St. Francis River\") and the [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") rivers. The two largest rivers are the Mississippi (which defines the eastern boundary of the state) and the Missouri River (which flows from west to east through the state), essentially connecting the two largest metros of Kansas City and St. Louis.",
"Although today it is usually considered part of the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bls.gov/eag/eag.midwest.htm \\|title\\=Midwest Region Economy at a Glance \\|publisher\\=Bls.gov \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917003753/http://bls.gov/eag/eag.midwest.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=September 17, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Missouri was historically seen by many as a [border state](/wiki/Border_states_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Border states (American Civil War)\"), chiefly because of the settlement of migrants from the South and its status as a slave state before the Civil War, balanced by the influence of St. Louis. The counties that made up \"[Little Dixie](/wiki/Little_Dixie_%28Missouri%29 \"Little Dixie (Missouri)\")\" were those along the Missouri River in the center of the state, settled by Southern migrants who held the greatest concentration of slaves.",
"In 2005, Missouri received 16,695,000 visitors to its national parks and other recreational areas totaling {{convert\\|101000\\|acre\\|km2}}, giving it $7\\.41 million in annual revenues, 26\\.6% of its operating expenditures.{{cite book \\|title\\=''Almanac of the 50 States'' (Missouri) \\|publisher\\=Information Publications (Woodside, California) \\|year\\=2008 \\|page\\=203}}",
"### Topography",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A physiographic map of Missouri](/wiki/File:US_mo_physiographic_map.jpg \"US mo physiographic map.jpg\")\nNorth of, and in some cases just south of, the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. Here, rolling hills remain from the [glaciation](/wiki/Glaciation \"Glaciation\") that once extended from the Canadian Shield to the Missouri River. Missouri has many large river bluffs along the Mississippi, Missouri, and [Meramec Rivers](/wiki/Meramec_River \"Meramec River\"). Southern Missouri rises to the [Ozark Mountains](/wiki/Ozark_Mountains \"Ozark Mountains\"), a [dissected plateau](/wiki/Dissected_plateau \"Dissected plateau\") surrounding the [Precambrian](/wiki/Precambrian \"Precambrian\") [igneous](/wiki/Igneous \"Igneous\") [St. Francois Mountains](/wiki/St._Francois_Mountains \"St. Francois Mountains\"). This region also hosts [karst topography](/wiki/Karst_topography \"Karst topography\") characterized by high limestone content with the formation of sinkholes and caves.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mostateparks.com/karst.htm \\|title\\=Missouri's Karst Wonderland—Missouri State Parks and Historic Sites, DNR \\|publisher\\=Mostateparks.com \\|date\\=June 6, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228195535/http://www.mostateparks.com/karst.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=February 28, 2010 }}\n[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.6\\|The [Bell Mountain Wilderness](/wiki/Bell_Mountain_Wilderness \"Bell Mountain Wilderness\") of southern Missouri's [Mark Twain National Forest](/wiki/Mark_Twain_National_Forest \"Mark Twain National Forest\")](/wiki/File:Bell_Mountain.jpg \"Bell Mountain.jpg\")",
"The southeastern part of the state is known as the [Missouri Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel \"Missouri Bootheel\") region, which is part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or [Mississippi embayment](/wiki/Mississippi_embayment \"Mississippi embayment\"). This region is the lowest, flattest, warmest, and wettest part of the state. It is also among the poorest, as the economy there is mostly agricultural.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ded.mo.gov/researchandplanning/community/misc/sa\\-1102\\-1\\.stm \\|title\\=Income Inequality in Missouri \\|publisher\\=Ded.mo.gov \\|date\\=December 21, 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107144051/http://ded.mo.gov/researchandplanning/community/misc/sa\\-1102\\-1\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=January 7, 2010 }} It is also the most fertile, with cotton and rice crops predominant. The Bootheel was the epicenter of the four [New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811 and 1812](/wiki/1811%E2%80%9312_New_Madrid_earthquakes \"1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes\").",
"### Climate",
"{{Main\\|Climate of Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|Köppen climate types of Missouri](/wiki/File:Missouri_K%C3%B6ppen.svg \"Missouri Köppen.svg\")",
"Missouri generally has a [humid continental climate](/wiki/Humid_continental_climate \"Humid continental climate\") with cool, sometimes cold, winters and hot, humid, and wet summers. In the southern part of the state, particularly in the [Bootheel](/wiki/Missouri_Bootheel \"Missouri Bootheel\"), the climate becomes [humid subtropical](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate \"Humid subtropical climate\"). Located in the interior United States, Missouri often experiences extreme temperatures. Without high mountains or oceans nearby to moderate temperature, its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico. Missouri's highest recorded temperature is {{convert\\|118\\|F\\|C}} at [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw%2C_Missouri \"Warsaw, Missouri\") and [Union](/wiki/Union%2C_Missouri \"Union, Missouri\") on July 14, 1954, while the lowest recorded temperature is {{convert\\|\\-40\\|F\\|C}} also at Warsaw on February 13, 1905\\.",
"Located in [Tornado Alley](/wiki/Tornado_Alley \"Tornado Alley\"), Missouri also receives extreme weather in the form of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. On May 22, 2011, a [massive EF\\-5 tornado](/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado \"2011 Joplin tornado\") killed 158 people and destroyed roughly one\\-third of the city of [Joplin](/wiki/Joplin%2C_Missouri \"Joplin, Missouri\"). The tornado caused an estimated $1–3 billion in damages, killed 159 people and injured more than a thousand. It was the first EF5 to hit the state since 1957 and the deadliest in the U.S. since 1947, making it the seventh deadliest tornado in American history and 27th deadliest in the world. [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") and its suburbs also have a history of experiencing particularly severe tornadoes, the most recent one of note being an EF4 that damaged [Lambert\\-St. Louis International Airport](/wiki/Lambert-St._Louis_International_Airport \"Lambert-St. Louis International Airport\") on April 22, 2011\\. [One of the worst tornadoes in American history](/wiki/1896_St._Louis%E2%80%93East_St._Louis_tornado \"1896 St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado\") struck St. Louis on May 27, 1896, killing at least 255 people and causing $10 million in damage (equivalent to $3\\.9 billion in 2009 or ${{Formatprice\\| {{Inflation\\|US\\|3900000000\\|2009\\|r\\=2}}}} in today's dollars).",
"",
"| Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Missouri cities in °F (°C). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| City | Avg. | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |\n|\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| \\[\\[Columbia, Missouri\\|Columbia]]\\|High\\|37 44 55 66 75 84 89 87 79 68 53 42 65\\.0}}\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| Columbia\\|Low\\|18 23 33 43 53 62 66 64 55 44 33 22 43\\.0}}",
"|\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| \\[\\[Kansas City, Missouri\\|Kansas City]]\\|High\\|36 43 54 65 75 84 89 87 79 68 52 40 64\\.4}}\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| Kansas City\\|Low\\|18 23 33 44 54 63 68 66 57 46 33 22 44\\.0}}",
"|\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| \\[\\[Springfield, Missouri\\|Springfield]]\\|High\\|42 48 58 68 76 85 90 90 81 71 56 46 67\\.6}}\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| Springfield\\|Low\\|22 26 35 44 53 62 67 66 57 46 35 26 45\\.0}}",
"|\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| \\[\\[St. Louis]]\\|High\\|40 45 56 67 76 85 89 88 80 69 56 43 66\\.2}}\n{{Average temperature table/row/F\\| St. Louis\\|Low\\|24 28 37 47 57 67 71 69 61 49 38 27 48\\.0}}",
"| Source:{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather\\-missouri/ \\|title\\=Missouri Weather And Climate \\|access\\-date\\=July 17, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505201459/http://www.ustravelweather.com/missouri \\|archive\\-date\\=May 5, 2011 }} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |",
"[thumb\\|The [Lake of the Ozarks](/wiki/Lake_of_the_Ozarks \"Lake of the Ozarks\") is one of several man\\-made lakes in Missouri, created by the damming of several rivers and tributaries. The lake has a surface area of 54,000 acres and 1,150 miles of shoreline and has become a popular tourist destination.](/wiki/File:Lake_of_the_Ozarks_-_Missouri_%2840533516433%29.jpg \"Lake of the Ozarks - Missouri (40533516433).jpg\")",
"### Wildlife",
"{{Main\\|Wildlife of Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Missouri River near [Rocheport, Missouri](/wiki/Rocheport%2C_Missouri \"Rocheport, Missouri\")](/wiki/File:Lower_Missouri_River.jpg \"Lower Missouri River.jpg\")",
"Missouri is home to diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora \"Flora\") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna \"Fauna\"), including several [endemic](/wiki/Endemism \"Endemism\") species.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Missouri's High Country\\|url\\=https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2005/10/missouris\\-high\\-country\\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2020\\|website\\=Missouri Department of Conservation\\|archive\\-date\\=June 22, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622033327/https://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2005/10/missouris\\-high\\-country\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} There is a large amount of [fresh water](/wiki/Fresh_water \"Fresh water\") present due to the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\"), [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\"), [Table Rock Lake](/wiki/Table_Rock_Lake \"Table Rock Lake\") and [Lake of the Ozarks](/wiki/Lake_of_the_Ozarks \"Lake of the Ozarks\"), with numerous smaller tributary rivers, streams, and lakes. North of the Missouri River, the state is primarily rolling hills of the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains \"Great Plains\"), whereas south of the Missouri River, the state is dominated by the Oak\\-Hickory [Central U.S. hardwood forest](/wiki/Central_U.S._hardwood_forest \"Central U.S. hardwood forest\").",
"### Forests",
"Recreational and commercial uses of public forests, including grazing, logging, and mining, increased after World War{{spaces}}II. Fishermen, hikers, campers, and others started lobbying to protect forest areas with a \"wilderness character\". During the 1930s and 1940s, [Aldo Leopold](/wiki/Aldo_Leopold \"Aldo Leopold\"), [Arthur Carhart](/wiki/Arthur_Carhart \"Arthur Carhart\") and [Bob Marshall](/wiki/Bob_Marshall_%28wilderness_activist%29 \"Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)\") developed a \"wilderness\" policy for the Forest Service. Their efforts bore fruit with the [Wilderness Act of 1964](/wiki/Wilderness_Act_of_1964 \"Wilderness Act of 1964\"), which designated wilderness areas \"where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by men, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain.\" This included [second growth](/wiki/Secondary_forest \"Secondary forest\") public forests like the [Mark Twain National Forest](/wiki/Mark_Twain_National_Forest \"Mark Twain National Forest\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Farmer \\|first1\\=Charles J. \\|title\\=A Personal Guide to Missouri Wilderness \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=University of Missouri Press \\|pages\\=9–13}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.6\|Missouri population density map](/wiki/File:Missouri_population_map_%282000%29.png "Missouri population map (2000).png"){{See also\|African Americans in Missouri}}{{US Census population
\|1810\= 19783
\|1820\= 66586
\|1830\= 140455
\|1840\= 383702
\|1850\= 682044
\|1860\= 1182012
\|1870\= 1721295
\|1880\= 2168380
\|1890\= 2679185
\|1900\= 3106665
\|1910\= 3293335
\|1920\= 3404055
\|1930\= 3629367
\|1940\= 3784664
\|1950\= 3954653
\|1960\= 4319813
\|1970\= 4676501
\|1980\= 4916686
\|1990\= 5117073
\|2000\= 5595211
\|2010\= 5988927
\|2020\= 6154913
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=Source: 1910–2020{{cite web \|title\=Historical Population Change Data (1910–2020\) \|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/dec/popchange\-data\-text.html \|website\=Census.gov \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau \|access\-date\=May 1, 2021 \|archive\-date\=April 29, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429012609/https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/dec/popchange\-data\-text.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
}}
The [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau") estimates that the population of Missouri was 6,137,428 on July 1, 2019, a 2\.48% increase since the [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MO,US/PST045219\|title\=QuickFacts Missouri; UNITED STATES\|website\=2019 Population Estimates\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]], Population Division\|date\=February 6, 2019\|access\-date\=February 6, 2019\|archive\-date\=January 3, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103003640/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MO,US/PST045219\|url\-status\=live}}
Missouri had a population of 5,988,927, according to the 2010 census; an increase of 137,525 (2\.3 percent) since the year 2010\. From 2010 to 2018, this includes a natural increase of 137,564 people since the last census (480,763 births less 343,199 deaths) and an increase of 88,088 people due to net [migration](/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration") into the state. [Immigration](/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States "Immigration to the United States") from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 50,450 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 37,638 people. More than half of Missourians (3,294,936 people, or 55\.0%) live within the state's two largest metropolitan areas—[St. Louis and Kansas City](/wiki/Missouri_census_statistical_areas "Missouri census statistical areas"). The state's population density of 86\.9 people per square mile in 2009, was also [closer to the national average (86\.8 in 2009\) than any other state](/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_population_density "List of U.S. states by population density"). The top countries of origin for Missouri's immigrants in 2018 were [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") and [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/immigrants\_in\_missouri.pdf\|title\=Immigrants in Missouri\|access\-date\=January 4, 2024\|archive\-date\=March 24, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324160126/https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/immigrants\_in\_missouri.pdf\|url\-status\=live}}
According to [HUD](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development "United States Department of Housing and Urban Development")'s 2022 [Annual Homeless Assessment Report](/wiki/Annual_Homeless_Assessment_Report_to_Congress "Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress"), there were an estimated 5,992 [homeless](/wiki/Homelessness "Homelessness") people in Missouri.{{Cite web \|title\=2007\-2022 PIT Counts by State \|url\=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src\=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007\-2022\-PIT\-Counts\-by\-State.xlsx\&wdOrigin\=BROWSELINK \|access\-date\=March 11, 2023 \|archive\-date\=March 14, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314020239/https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src\=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007\-2022\-PIT\-Counts\-by\-State.xlsx\&wdOrigin\=BROWSELINK \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|title\=The 2022 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress \|url\=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022\-AHAR\-Part\-1\.pdf \|access\-date\=March 11, 2023 \|archive\-date\=March 11, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311234217/https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022\-AHAR\-Part\-1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
| \+ **Missouri racial breakdown of population** |
| --- |
| Racial composition | 1990{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 25, 2008 \|title\=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States \|author\=Population Division, Laura K. Yax }} | 2000{{Cite web\|url\=http://censusviewer.com/city/MO\|title\=Population of Missouri: Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts\|access\-date\=April 17, 2021}}{{Dead link\|date\=April 2021 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} | 2010{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/\|title\=2010 Census Data\|access\-date\=December 11, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516050616/http://www.census.gov/2010census/data/\|archive\-date\=May 16, 2014\|url\-status\=live}} | 2020{{Cite web \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\.DP1?g\=040XX00US29 \|title\=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2020 Demographic Profile Data (DP\-1\): Missouri \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau \|access\-date\=April 2, 2024 \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402230131/https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\.DP1?g\=040XX00US29 \|url\-status\=live }} |
| [White](/wiki/White_American "White American") | 87\.7% | 84\.9% | 82\.8% | 77\.0% |
| [Black](/wiki/African_American "African American") | 10\.7% | 11\.3% | 11\.6% | 11\.4% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American "Asian American") | 0\.8% | 1\.1% | 1\.6% | 2\.2% |
| [Native](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") | 0\.4% | 0\.4% | 0\.5% | 0\.5% |
| [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian "Native Hawaiian") and[other Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander "Pacific Islander") | – | 0\.1% | 0\.1% | 0\.2% |
| [Other race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census") | 0\.4% | 0\.8% | 1\.3% | 2\.1% |
| [Two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_American "Multiracial American") | – | 1\.5% | 2\.1% | 6\.7% |
[left\|thumb\|The population center for the United States has been in Missouri since 1980\. As of 2020, it is near [Interstate 44 in Missouri](/wiki/Interstate_44_in_Missouri "Interstate 44 in Missouri") as it approaches [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Missouri "Springfield, Missouri").](/wiki/File:US-Population-Center-Illinois-and-Missouri.png "US-Population-Center-Illinois-and-Missouri.png")
The U.S. census of 2010 found that the [population center](/wiki/Mean_center_of_United_States_population "Mean center of United States population") of the United States is in [Texas County](/wiki/Texas_County%2C_Missouri "Texas County, Missouri"), while the 2000 census found the mean population center to be in [Phelps County](/wiki/Phelps_County%2C_Missouri "Phelps County, Missouri"). The [center of population](/wiki/Center_of_population "Center of population") of Missouri is in [Osage County](/wiki/Osage_County%2C_Missouri "Osage County, Missouri"), in the city of [Westphalia](/wiki/Westphalia%2C_Missouri "Westphalia, Missouri").{{cite web\|title\=Population and Population Centers by State \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau \|access\-date\=December 5, 2008 \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011212170351/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=December 12, 2001 }}
In 2004, the population included 194,000 foreign\-born people (3\.4 percent of the state population).
The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: [German](/wiki/German_American "German American") (27\.4 percent), [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American "Irish American") (14\.8 percent), [English](/wiki/English_American "English American") (10\.2 percent), [American](/wiki/American_ancestry "American ancestry") (8\.5 percent) and [French](/wiki/French_American "French American") (3\.7 percent).
[thumb\|Ethnic origins in Missouri](/wiki/File:Ethnic_Origins_in_Missouri.png "Ethnic Origins in Missouri.png")
German Americans are an ancestry group present throughout Missouri. African Americans are a substantial part of the population in St. Louis (56\.6% of African Americans in the state lived in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") or [St. Louis County](/wiki/St._Louis_County%2C_Missouri "St. Louis County, Missouri") as of the 2010 census), Kansas City, Boone County and in the southeastern Bootheel and some parts of the Missouri River Valley, where plantation agriculture was once important. Missouri [Creoles](/wiki/Creole_peoples "Creole peoples") of French ancestry are concentrated in the [Mississippi River Valley](/wiki/Mississippi_River_Valley "Mississippi River Valley") south of St. Louis (see [Missouri French](/wiki/Missouri_French "Missouri French")). Kansas City is home to large and growing immigrant communities from Latin America esp. [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"), Africa (i.e. [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan"), Somalia and [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria")), and Southeast Asia including China and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"); and Europe like the former [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia") (see [Bosnian American](/wiki/Bosnian_American "Bosnian American")). A notable [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee") Indian population exists in Missouri, and 30,518 identified as being Native American alone in 2020, while 152,917 did in combination with one or more other races.{{Cite web \|title\=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census \|url\=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race\-and\-ethnicity\-in\-the\-united\-state\-2010\-and\-2020\-census.html}}
In 2004, 6\.6 percent of the state's population was reported as younger than{{nbsp}}5, 25\.5 percent younger than 18, and 13\.5 percent 65 or older. Females were approximately 51\.4 percent of the population. 81\.3 percent of Missouri residents were high school graduates (more than the national average), and 21\.6 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher. 3\.4 percent of Missourians were foreign\-born, and 5\.1 percent reported speaking a language other than English at home.
In 2010, there were 2,349,955 households in Missouri, with 2\.45 people per household. The homeownership rate was 70\.0 percent, and the median value of an owner\-occupied housing unit was $137,700\. The median household income for 2010 was $46,262, or $24,724 per capita. There was 14\.0 percent (1,018,118\) of Missourians living below the poverty line in 2010\.
The mean commute time to work was 23\.8 minutes.
[thumb\|Map of counties in Missouri by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census{{Collapsible list
\| title \= Legend\|{{col\-begin}}{{col\-2}}
'''Non\-Hispanic White'''
{{legend\|\#cc4125\|50–60%}}
{{legend\|\#a61c00\|60–70%}}
{{legend\|\#85200c\|70–80%}}
{{legend\|\#5b0f00\|80–90%}}
{{legend\|\#410b00\|90%\+}}
{{col\-2}}
'''Black or African American'''
{{legend\|\#ffe599\|40–50%}}
{{col\-end}}
}}\|172x172px](/wiki/File:Missouri_counties_by_race.svg "Missouri counties by race.svg")
### Birth data
In 2011, 28\.1% of Missouri's population younger than age{{nbsp}}1 were minorities.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas\_under\_age\_1\_populatio.html\|title\=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot\|last\=Exner\|first\=Rich\|date\=June 3, 2012\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]]\|access\-date\=August 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714084214/http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas\_under\_age\_1\_populatio.html\|archive\-date\=July 14, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}
*Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.*
| \+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother |
| --- |
| [Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census") | 2013{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\_01\.pdf \|title\=data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=September 25, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215939/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\_01\.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 25, 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} | 2014{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\_12\.pdf \|title\=data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=September 25, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014027/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\_12\.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 26, 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} | 2015{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr66\_01\.pdf \|title\=data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=September 25, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014144/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr66\_01\.pdf \|archive\-date\=September 26, 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} | 2016{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\_01\.pdf \|title\=data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=May 4, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603002249/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\_01\.pdf \|archive\-date\=June 3, 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} | 2017{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\_08\-508\.pdf \|title\=Births: Final Data for 2017 \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=February 21, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201210916/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\_08\-508\.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 1, 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} | 2018{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr68/nvsr68\_13\-508\.pdf \|title\=Data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=December 21, 2019 \|archive\-date\=November 28, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128161211/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr68/nvsr68\_13\-508\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} | 2019{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\-02\-508\.pdf \|title\=Data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=March 30, 2021 \|archive\-date\=June 23, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623200707/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\-02\-508\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} | 2020{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\-17\.pdf \|title\=Data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=February 20, 2022 \|archive\-date\=February 10, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210175206/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/NVSR70\-17\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} | 2021{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr72/nvsr72\-01\.pdf \|title\=Data \|website\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-03 \|archive\-date\=February 1, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201003942/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr72/nvsr72\-01\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} | 2022{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr73/nvsr73\-02\.pdf \|title\=Data \|website\=www.cdc.gov \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-05 \|archive\-date\=April 4, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404230758/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr73/nvsr73\-02\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} |
| [White](/wiki/White_Americans "White Americans"): | 61,097 (81\.1%) | 60,968 (80\.9%) | 60,913 (81\.1%) | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| \> [Non\-Hispanic White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_whites "Non-Hispanic whites") | 57,361 (76\.2%) | 57,150 (75\.8%) | 57,092 (76\.1%) | 55,455 (74\.2%) | 53,800 (73\.7%) | 53,697 (73\.3%) | 52,523 (72\.8%) | 50,190 (72\.4%) | 50,705 (73\.0%) | 49,846 (72\.3%) |
| [Black](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") | 11,722 (15\.6%) | 11,783 (15\.6%) | 11,660 (15\.5%) | 10,445 (14\.0%) | 10,495 (14\.4%) | 10,589 (14\.4%) | 10,501 (14\.6%) | 10,156 (14\.6%) | 9,443 (13\.6%) | 9,188 (13\.3%) |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") | 2,075 (2\.8%) | 2,186 (2\.9%) | 2,129 (2\.8%) | 1,852 (2\.5%) | 1,773 (2\.4%) | 1,698 (2\.3%) | 1,814 (2\.5%) | 1,610 (2\.3%) | 1,625 (2\.3%) | 1,684 (2\.4%) |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Americans "Pacific Islands Americans") | ... | ... | ... | 199 (0\.3%) | 183 (0\.3%) | 199 (0\.3%) | 228 (0\.3%) | 249 (0\.3%) | 246 (0\.3%) | 265 (0\.4%) |
| [American Indian](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") | 402 (0\.5%) | 423 (0\.6%) | 359 (0\.5%) | 156 (0\.2%) | 167 (0\.2%) | 140 (0\.2%) | 145 (0\.2%) | 163 (0\.2%) | 184 (0\.2%) | 160 (0\.2%) |
| *[Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans")* (of any race) | *3,931* (5\.2%) | *3,959* (5\.3%) | *4,042* (5\.4%) | *4,136* (5\.5%) | *4,156* (5\.7%) | *4,409* (6\.0%) | *4,386* (6\.1%) | *4,469* (6\.4%) | *4,606* (6\.6%) | *5,224* (7\.6%) |
| **Total Missouri** | **75,296** (100%) | **75,360** (100%) | **75,061** (100%) | **74,705** (100%) | **73,034** (100%) | **73,269** (100%) | **72,127** (100%) | **69,285** (100%) | **69,453** (100%) | **68,985** (100%) |
* Since 2016, data for births of [White Hispanic](/wiki/White_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "White Hispanic and Latino Americans") origin are not collected, but included in one *Hispanic* group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
### Language
The vast majority of people in Missouri speak English. Approximately 5\.1% of the population reported speaking a language other than English at home. The Spanish language is spoken in small Latino communities in the St. Louis and Kansas City Metro areas.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cambio.missouri.edu/Library/Publications/2006\-08CambioDeColoresAbstractsBookWEB.pdf\|title\=Latinos in Missouri\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525203034/http://www.cambio.missouri.edu/Library/Publications/2006\-08CambioDeColoresAbstractsBookWEB.pdf\|archive\-date\=May 25, 2017\|url\-status\=live}}
Missouri is home to an endangered dialect of the French language known as [Missouri French](/wiki/Missouri_French "Missouri French"). Speakers of the dialect, who call themselves *[Créoles](/wiki/Creole_peoples "Creole peoples")*, are descendants of the French pioneers who settled the area then known as the [Illinois Country](/wiki/Illinois_Country "Illinois Country") beginning in the late 17th century. It developed in isolation from French speakers in Canada and [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"), becoming quite distinct from the varieties of [Canadian French](/wiki/Canadian_French "Canadian French") and [Louisiana French](/wiki/Louisiana_French "Louisiana French"). Once widely spoken throughout the area, Missouri French is now nearly extinct, with only a few elderly speakers able to use it.{{cite book\|title\= Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties\|last1\= Ammon\|first1\= Ulrich\|year\= 1989\|publisher\= Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\= 978\-0\-89925\-356\-5\|pages\= 306–8\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=geh261xgI8sC\|access\-date\= September 3, 2010\|archive\-date\= December 20, 2012\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121220231510/http://books.google.com/books?id\=geh261xgI8sC\&printsec\=frontcover\&source\=gbs\_ge\_summary\_r\&cad\=0\|url\-status\= live}}; International Sociological Association.{{cite journal \|last1\= Carrière\|first1\= J\-M\|year\= 1939\|title\= Creole Dialect of Missouri \|journal\=American Speech \|volume\= 14 \|issue\= 2\|pages\= 109–19\|jstor\= 451217\|doi\=10\.2307/451217}}
### Religion
{{Pie chart
\| thumb \= right
\| caption \= Religion in Missouri (2014\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.pewforum.org/religious\-landscape\-study/state/missouri/\|title\=Religious Landscape Study\|date\=May 11, 2015\|access\-date\=August 30, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905090451/http://www.pewforum.org/religious\-landscape\-study/state/missouri/\|archive\-date\=September 5, 2015\|url\-status\=live}}
\| label1 \= \[\[Protestantism]]
\| value1 \= 58
\| color1 \= DodgerBlue
\| label2 \= \[\[Roman Catholicism]]
\| value2 \= 16
\| color2 \= \#d4213d
\| label3 \= \[\[Mormonism]]
\| value3 \= 1
\| color3 \= DeepSkyBlue
\| label4 \= Other Christian
\| value4 \= 2
\| color4 \= Aquamarine
\| label5 \= \[\[Irreligious\|No religion]]
\| value5 \= 20
\| color5 \= Honeydew
\| label6 \= \[\[Buddhism]]
\| value6 \= 1
\| color6 \= Gold
\| label7 \= Other religion
\| value7 \= 2
\| color7 \= Orange
}}
According to a Pew Research study conducted in 2014, 80% of Missourians identify with a religion. 77% affiliate with Christianity and its various denominations and the other 3% are adherents of non\-Christian religions. The remaining 20% have no religion, with 2% specifically identifying as atheists and 3% identifying as agnostics (the other 15% do not identify as "anything in particular").
The religious demographics of Missouri are as follows:
* Christian 77%
+ Protestant 58%
- Evangelical Protestant 36%
- Mainline Protestant 16%
- Historically Black Protestant 6%
+ Catholic 16%
+ Mormon 1%
+ Orthodox Christian \<1%
+ Jehovah's Witness \<1%
+ Other Christian \<1%
* Non\-Christian Religions 3%
+ Jewish \<1%
+ Muslim \<1%
+ Buddhist 1%
+ Hindu \<1%
+ Other World Religions \<1%
* Unaffiliated (No religion) 20%
+ Atheist 2%
+ Agnostic 3%
+ Nothing in particular 15%
* Don't know \<1%
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the [Southern Baptist Convention](/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention "Southern Baptist Convention") with 749,685; the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") with 724,315; and the [United Methodist Church](/wiki/United_Methodist_Church "United Methodist Church") with 226,409\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/29/rcms2010\_29\_state\_adh\_2010\.asp \|title\=The Association of Religion Data Archives \| State Membership Report \|publisher\=www.thearda.com \|access\-date\=November 22, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233840/http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/29/rcms2010\_29\_state\_adh\_2010\.asp \|archive\-date\=December 2, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Among the other denominations there are approximately 93,000 Mormons in 253 congregations, 25,000 Jewish adherents in 21 [synagogues](/wiki/Synagogue "Synagogue"), 12,000 Muslims in 39 [masjids](/wiki/Masjid "Masjid"), 7,000 Buddhists in 34 temples, 20,000 Hindus in 17 temples, 2,500 [Unitarians](/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism "Unitarian Universalism") in nine congregations, 2,000 of the [Baháʼí Faith](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith") in 17 temples, five [Sikh](/wiki/Sikh "Sikh") temples, a [Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian "Zoroastrian") temple, a [Jain](/wiki/Jain "Jain") temple and an uncounted number of [neopagans](/wiki/Neopagans "Neopagans").{{cite web\|title\=Fox apologizes for comments on Wiccans at University of Missouri\|author\=Kellie Moore\|publisher\=Religious News Service\|url\=http://www.religionnews.com/2013/02/25/fox\-apologizes\-for\-comments\-on\-wiccans\-at\-university\-of\-missouri/\|date\=February 25, 2013\|access\-date\=December 23, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224122607/http://www.religionnews.com/2013/02/25/fox\-apologizes\-for\-comments\-on\-wiccans\-at\-university\-of\-missouri/\|archive\-date\=December 24, 2013\|url\-status\=live}}
Several religious organizations have headquarters in Missouri, including the [Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod](/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod "Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod"), which has its headquarters in [Kirkwood](/wiki/Kirkwood%2C_Missouri "Kirkwood, Missouri"), as well as the [United Pentecostal Church International](/wiki/United_Pentecostal_Church_International "United Pentecostal Church International") in [Hazelwood](/wiki/Hazelwood%2C_Missouri "Hazelwood, Missouri"), both outside St. Louis.
[Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri "Independence, Missouri"), near Kansas City, is the headquarters for the [Community of Christ](/wiki/Community_of_Christ "Community of Christ") (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints), the [Church of Christ (Temple Lot)](/wiki/Church_of_Christ_%28Temple_Lot%29 "Church of Christ (Temple Lot)") and the group [Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/Remnant_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter_Day_Saints "Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints"). This area and other parts of Missouri are also of significant religious and historical importance to [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints") (LDS Church), which maintains several sites and visitor centers.
[Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Missouri "Springfield, Missouri") is the headquarters of the [Assemblies of God USA](/wiki/Assemblies_of_God_USA "Assemblies of God USA") and the [Baptist Bible Fellowship International](/wiki/Baptist_Bible_Fellowship_International "Baptist Bible Fellowship International"). The [General Association of General Baptists](/wiki/General_Association_of_General_Baptists "General Association of General Baptists") has its headquarters in [Poplar Bluff](/wiki/Poplar_Bluff%2C_Missouri "Poplar Bluff, Missouri"). The [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church "Unity Church") is headquartered in [Unity Village](/wiki/Unity_Village%2C_Missouri "Unity Village, Missouri"). Springfield is particularly known as a Christian center in the state{{Cite web\|last\=Pokin\|first\=Steve\|title\=Which do we have more of? Churches or Chinese restaurants?\|url\=https://www.news\-leader.com/story/news/local/ozarks/2018/02/09/pokin\-around\-whos\-no\-1\-springfield\-which\-do\-we\-have\-more/310688002/\|access\-date\=March 22, 2021\|website\=Springfield News\-Leader\|archive\-date\=April 15, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415182328/https://www.news\-leader.com/story/news/local/ozarks/2018/02/09/pokin\-around\-whos\-no\-1\-springfield\-which\-do\-we\-have\-more/310688002/\|url\-status\=live}} and is considered by some to be a "buckle" of the [Bible Belt](/wiki/Bible_Belt "Bible Belt").{{Cite web\|title\=Springfield Area Congregations Study: Profile and Community Engagement\|url\=https://sociology.missouristate.edu/Assets/soc\-ant/SpringfieldCongregationsStudy\_small.pdf\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=March 22, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 15, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415182330/https://sociology.missouristate.edu/Assets/soc\-ant/SpringfieldCongregationsStudy\_small.pdf}}
The [Hindu Temple of St. Louis](/wiki/Hindu_Temple_of_St._Louis "Hindu Temple of St. Louis") is the largest Hindu Temple in Missouri, serving more than 14,000 Hindus.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.6\\|Missouri population density map](/wiki/File:Missouri_population_map_%282000%29.png \"Missouri population map (2000).png\"){{See also\\|African Americans in Missouri}}{{US Census population\n\\|1810\\= 19783\n\\|1820\\= 66586\n\\|1830\\= 140455\n\\|1840\\= 383702\n\\|1850\\= 682044\n\\|1860\\= 1182012\n\\|1870\\= 1721295\n\\|1880\\= 2168380\n\\|1890\\= 2679185\n\\|1900\\= 3106665\n\\|1910\\= 3293335\n\\|1920\\= 3404055\n\\|1930\\= 3629367\n\\|1940\\= 3784664\n\\|1950\\= 3954653\n\\|1960\\= 4319813\n\\|1970\\= 4676501\n\\|1980\\= 4916686\n\\|1990\\= 5117073\n\\|2000\\= 5595211\n\\|2010\\= 5988927\n\\|2020\\= 6154913\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=Source: 1910–2020{{cite web \\|title\\=Historical Population Change Data (1910–2020\\) \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/dec/popchange\\-data\\-text.html \\|website\\=Census.gov \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429012609/https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/dec/popchange\\-data\\-text.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n}}",
"The [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\") estimates that the population of Missouri was 6,137,428 on July 1, 2019, a 2\\.48% increase since the [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MO,US/PST045219\\|title\\=QuickFacts Missouri; UNITED STATES\\|website\\=2019 Population Estimates\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]], Population Division\\|date\\=February 6, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=January 3, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103003640/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MO,US/PST045219\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Missouri had a population of 5,988,927, according to the 2010 census; an increase of 137,525 (2\\.3 percent) since the year 2010\\. From 2010 to 2018, this includes a natural increase of 137,564 people since the last census (480,763 births less 343,199 deaths) and an increase of 88,088 people due to net [migration](/wiki/Human_migration \"Human migration\") into the state. [Immigration](/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States \"Immigration to the United States\") from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 50,450 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 37,638 people. More than half of Missourians (3,294,936 people, or 55\\.0%) live within the state's two largest metropolitan areas—[St. Louis and Kansas City](/wiki/Missouri_census_statistical_areas \"Missouri census statistical areas\"). The state's population density of 86\\.9 people per square mile in 2009, was also [closer to the national average (86\\.8 in 2009\\) than any other state](/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_population_density \"List of U.S. states by population density\"). The top countries of origin for Missouri's immigrants in 2018 were [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\") and [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/immigrants\\_in\\_missouri.pdf\\|title\\=Immigrants in Missouri\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2024\\|archive\\-date\\=March 24, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324160126/https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/immigrants\\_in\\_missouri.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"According to [HUD](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development \"United States Department of Housing and Urban Development\")'s 2022 [Annual Homeless Assessment Report](/wiki/Annual_Homeless_Assessment_Report_to_Congress \"Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress\"), there were an estimated 5,992 [homeless](/wiki/Homelessness \"Homelessness\") people in Missouri.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2007\\-2022 PIT Counts by State \\|url\\=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src\\=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007\\-2022\\-PIT\\-Counts\\-by\\-State.xlsx\\&wdOrigin\\=BROWSELINK \\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 14, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314020239/https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src\\=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007\\-2022\\-PIT\\-Counts\\-by\\-State.xlsx\\&wdOrigin\\=BROWSELINK \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=The 2022 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress \\|url\\=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022\\-AHAR\\-Part\\-1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 11, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311234217/https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022\\-AHAR\\-Part\\-1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"",
"| \\+ **Missouri racial breakdown of population** |\n| --- |\n| Racial composition | 1990{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2008 \\|title\\=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States \\|author\\=Population Division, Laura K. Yax }} | 2000{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://censusviewer.com/city/MO\\|title\\=Population of Missouri: Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2021}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2021 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} | 2010{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/\\|title\\=2010 Census Data\\|access\\-date\\=December 11, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516050616/http://www.census.gov/2010census/data/\\|archive\\-date\\=May 16, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | 2020{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\\.DP1?g\\=040XX00US29 \\|title\\=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2020 Demographic Profile Data (DP\\-1\\): Missouri \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402230131/https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\\.DP1?g\\=040XX00US29 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} |\n| [White](/wiki/White_American \"White American\") | 87\\.7% | 84\\.9% | 82\\.8% | 77\\.0% |\n| [Black](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") | 10\\.7% | 11\\.3% | 11\\.6% | 11\\.4% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American \"Asian American\") | 0\\.8% | 1\\.1% | 1\\.6% | 2\\.2% |\n| [Native](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") | 0\\.4% | 0\\.4% | 0\\.5% | 0\\.5% |\n| [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian \"Native Hawaiian\") and[other Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander \"Pacific Islander\") | – | 0\\.1% | 0\\.1% | 0\\.2% |\n| [Other race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census\") | 0\\.4% | 0\\.8% | 1\\.3% | 2\\.1% |\n| [Two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_American \"Multiracial American\") | – | 1\\.5% | 2\\.1% | 6\\.7% |",
"[left\\|thumb\\|The population center for the United States has been in Missouri since 1980\\. As of 2020, it is near [Interstate 44 in Missouri](/wiki/Interstate_44_in_Missouri \"Interstate 44 in Missouri\") as it approaches [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Missouri \"Springfield, Missouri\").](/wiki/File:US-Population-Center-Illinois-and-Missouri.png \"US-Population-Center-Illinois-and-Missouri.png\")\nThe U.S. census of 2010 found that the [population center](/wiki/Mean_center_of_United_States_population \"Mean center of United States population\") of the United States is in [Texas County](/wiki/Texas_County%2C_Missouri \"Texas County, Missouri\"), while the 2000 census found the mean population center to be in [Phelps County](/wiki/Phelps_County%2C_Missouri \"Phelps County, Missouri\"). The [center of population](/wiki/Center_of_population \"Center of population\") of Missouri is in [Osage County](/wiki/Osage_County%2C_Missouri \"Osage County, Missouri\"), in the city of [Westphalia](/wiki/Westphalia%2C_Missouri \"Westphalia, Missouri\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Population and Population Centers by State \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2008 \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011212170351/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=December 12, 2001 }}",
"In 2004, the population included 194,000 foreign\\-born people (3\\.4 percent of the state population).",
"The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: [German](/wiki/German_American \"German American\") (27\\.4 percent), [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American \"Irish American\") (14\\.8 percent), [English](/wiki/English_American \"English American\") (10\\.2 percent), [American](/wiki/American_ancestry \"American ancestry\") (8\\.5 percent) and [French](/wiki/French_American \"French American\") (3\\.7 percent).\n[thumb\\|Ethnic origins in Missouri](/wiki/File:Ethnic_Origins_in_Missouri.png \"Ethnic Origins in Missouri.png\")\nGerman Americans are an ancestry group present throughout Missouri. African Americans are a substantial part of the population in St. Louis (56\\.6% of African Americans in the state lived in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") or [St. Louis County](/wiki/St._Louis_County%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis County, Missouri\") as of the 2010 census), Kansas City, Boone County and in the southeastern Bootheel and some parts of the Missouri River Valley, where plantation agriculture was once important. Missouri [Creoles](/wiki/Creole_peoples \"Creole peoples\") of French ancestry are concentrated in the [Mississippi River Valley](/wiki/Mississippi_River_Valley \"Mississippi River Valley\") south of St. Louis (see [Missouri French](/wiki/Missouri_French \"Missouri French\")). Kansas City is home to large and growing immigrant communities from Latin America esp. [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), Africa (i.e. [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\"), Somalia and [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\")), and Southeast Asia including China and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"); and Europe like the former [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\") (see [Bosnian American](/wiki/Bosnian_American \"Bosnian American\")). A notable [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\") Indian population exists in Missouri, and 30,518 identified as being Native American alone in 2020, while 152,917 did in combination with one or more other races.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race\\-and\\-ethnicity\\-in\\-the\\-united\\-state\\-2010\\-and\\-2020\\-census.html}}",
"In 2004, 6\\.6 percent of the state's population was reported as younger than{{nbsp}}5, 25\\.5 percent younger than 18, and 13\\.5 percent 65 or older. Females were approximately 51\\.4 percent of the population. 81\\.3 percent of Missouri residents were high school graduates (more than the national average), and 21\\.6 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher. 3\\.4 percent of Missourians were foreign\\-born, and 5\\.1 percent reported speaking a language other than English at home.",
"In 2010, there were 2,349,955 households in Missouri, with 2\\.45 people per household. The homeownership rate was 70\\.0 percent, and the median value of an owner\\-occupied housing unit was $137,700\\. The median household income for 2010 was $46,262, or $24,724 per capita. There was 14\\.0 percent (1,018,118\\) of Missourians living below the poverty line in 2010\\.",
"The mean commute time to work was 23\\.8 minutes.\n[thumb\\|Map of counties in Missouri by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census{{Collapsible list\n\\| title \\= Legend\\|{{col\\-begin}}{{col\\-2}}",
"'''Non\\-Hispanic White'''",
"{{legend\\|\\#cc4125\\|50–60%}}",
"{{legend\\|\\#a61c00\\|60–70%}}",
"{{legend\\|\\#85200c\\|70–80%}}",
"{{legend\\|\\#5b0f00\\|80–90%}}",
"{{legend\\|\\#410b00\\|90%\\+}}",
"{{col\\-2}}",
"'''Black or African American'''",
"{{legend\\|\\#ffe599\\|40–50%}}",
"{{col\\-end}}\n}}\\|172x172px](/wiki/File:Missouri_counties_by_race.svg \"Missouri counties by race.svg\")\n### Birth data",
"In 2011, 28\\.1% of Missouri's population younger than age{{nbsp}}1 were minorities.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas\\_under\\_age\\_1\\_populatio.html\\|title\\=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot\\|last\\=Exner\\|first\\=Rich\\|date\\=June 3, 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714084214/http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas\\_under\\_age\\_1\\_populatio.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"*Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.*",
"| \\+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother |\n| --- |\n| [Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census\") | 2013{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\\_01\\.pdf \\|title\\=data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215939/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\\_01\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 25, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2014{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\\_12\\.pdf \\|title\\=data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014027/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr64\\_12\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 26, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2015{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr66\\_01\\.pdf \\|title\\=data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014144/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr66\\_01\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=September 26, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2016{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\\_01\\.pdf \\|title\\=data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603002249/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\\_01\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2017{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\\_08\\-508\\.pdf \\|title\\=Births: Final Data for 2017 \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201210916/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67\\_08\\-508\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 1, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2018{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr68/nvsr68\\_13\\-508\\.pdf \\|title\\=Data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 28, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128161211/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr68/nvsr68\\_13\\-508\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2019{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\\-02\\-508\\.pdf \\|title\\=Data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=March 30, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 23, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623200707/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\\-02\\-508\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2020{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70\\-17\\.pdf \\|title\\=Data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 10, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210175206/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/NVSR70\\-17\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2021{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr72/nvsr72\\-01\\.pdf \\|title\\=Data \\|website\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-03 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 1, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201003942/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr72/nvsr72\\-01\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} | 2022{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr73/nvsr73\\-02\\.pdf \\|title\\=Data \\|website\\=www.cdc.gov \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-05 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404230758/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr73/nvsr73\\-02\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} |\n| [White](/wiki/White_Americans \"White Americans\"): | 61,097 (81\\.1%) | 60,968 (80\\.9%) | 60,913 (81\\.1%) | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |\n| \\> [Non\\-Hispanic White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_whites \"Non-Hispanic whites\") | 57,361 (76\\.2%) | 57,150 (75\\.8%) | 57,092 (76\\.1%) | 55,455 (74\\.2%) | 53,800 (73\\.7%) | 53,697 (73\\.3%) | 52,523 (72\\.8%) | 50,190 (72\\.4%) | 50,705 (73\\.0%) | 49,846 (72\\.3%) |\n| [Black](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") | 11,722 (15\\.6%) | 11,783 (15\\.6%) | 11,660 (15\\.5%) | 10,445 (14\\.0%) | 10,495 (14\\.4%) | 10,589 (14\\.4%) | 10,501 (14\\.6%) | 10,156 (14\\.6%) | 9,443 (13\\.6%) | 9,188 (13\\.3%) |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") | 2,075 (2\\.8%) | 2,186 (2\\.9%) | 2,129 (2\\.8%) | 1,852 (2\\.5%) | 1,773 (2\\.4%) | 1,698 (2\\.3%) | 1,814 (2\\.5%) | 1,610 (2\\.3%) | 1,625 (2\\.3%) | 1,684 (2\\.4%) |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Americans \"Pacific Islands Americans\") | ... | ... | ... | 199 (0\\.3%) | 183 (0\\.3%) | 199 (0\\.3%) | 228 (0\\.3%) | 249 (0\\.3%) | 246 (0\\.3%) | 265 (0\\.4%) |\n| [American Indian](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") | 402 (0\\.5%) | 423 (0\\.6%) | 359 (0\\.5%) | 156 (0\\.2%) | 167 (0\\.2%) | 140 (0\\.2%) | 145 (0\\.2%) | 163 (0\\.2%) | 184 (0\\.2%) | 160 (0\\.2%) |\n| *[Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\")* (of any race) | *3,931* (5\\.2%) | *3,959* (5\\.3%) | *4,042* (5\\.4%) | *4,136* (5\\.5%) | *4,156* (5\\.7%) | *4,409* (6\\.0%) | *4,386* (6\\.1%) | *4,469* (6\\.4%) | *4,606* (6\\.6%) | *5,224* (7\\.6%) |\n| **Total Missouri** | **75,296** (100%) | **75,360** (100%) | **75,061** (100%) | **74,705** (100%) | **73,034** (100%) | **73,269** (100%) | **72,127** (100%) | **69,285** (100%) | **69,453** (100%) | **68,985** (100%) |",
"",
"* Since 2016, data for births of [White Hispanic](/wiki/White_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"White Hispanic and Latino Americans\") origin are not collected, but included in one *Hispanic* group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.",
"### Language",
"The vast majority of people in Missouri speak English. Approximately 5\\.1% of the population reported speaking a language other than English at home. The Spanish language is spoken in small Latino communities in the St. Louis and Kansas City Metro areas.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cambio.missouri.edu/Library/Publications/2006\\-08CambioDeColoresAbstractsBookWEB.pdf\\|title\\=Latinos in Missouri\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525203034/http://www.cambio.missouri.edu/Library/Publications/2006\\-08CambioDeColoresAbstractsBookWEB.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Missouri is home to an endangered dialect of the French language known as [Missouri French](/wiki/Missouri_French \"Missouri French\"). Speakers of the dialect, who call themselves *[Créoles](/wiki/Creole_peoples \"Creole peoples\")*, are descendants of the French pioneers who settled the area then known as the [Illinois Country](/wiki/Illinois_Country \"Illinois Country\") beginning in the late 17th century. It developed in isolation from French speakers in Canada and [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"), becoming quite distinct from the varieties of [Canadian French](/wiki/Canadian_French \"Canadian French\") and [Louisiana French](/wiki/Louisiana_French \"Louisiana French\"). Once widely spoken throughout the area, Missouri French is now nearly extinct, with only a few elderly speakers able to use it.{{cite book\\|title\\= Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties\\|last1\\= Ammon\\|first1\\= Ulrich\\|year\\= 1989\\|publisher\\= Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-89925\\-356\\-5\\|pages\\= 306–8\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=geh261xgI8sC\\|access\\-date\\= September 3, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\= December 20, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121220231510/http://books.google.com/books?id\\=geh261xgI8sC\\&printsec\\=frontcover\\&source\\=gbs\\_ge\\_summary\\_r\\&cad\\=0\\|url\\-status\\= live}}; International Sociological Association.{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Carrière\\|first1\\= J\\-M\\|year\\= 1939\\|title\\= Creole Dialect of Missouri \\|journal\\=American Speech \\|volume\\= 14 \\|issue\\= 2\\|pages\\= 109–19\\|jstor\\= 451217\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/451217}}",
"### Religion",
"{{Pie chart\n\\| thumb \\= right\n\\| caption \\= Religion in Missouri (2014\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pewforum.org/religious\\-landscape\\-study/state/missouri/\\|title\\=Religious Landscape Study\\|date\\=May 11, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905090451/http://www.pewforum.org/religious\\-landscape\\-study/state/missouri/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 5, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n\\| label1 \\= \\[\\[Protestantism]]\n\\| value1 \\= 58\n\\| color1 \\= DodgerBlue\n\\| label2 \\= \\[\\[Roman Catholicism]]\n\\| value2 \\= 16\n\\| color2 \\= \\#d4213d\n\\| label3 \\= \\[\\[Mormonism]]\n\\| value3 \\= 1\n\\| color3 \\= DeepSkyBlue\n\\| label4 \\= Other Christian\n\\| value4 \\= 2\n\\| color4 \\= Aquamarine\n\\| label5 \\= \\[\\[Irreligious\\|No religion]]\n\\| value5 \\= 20\n\\| color5 \\= Honeydew\n\\| label6 \\= \\[\\[Buddhism]]\n\\| value6 \\= 1\n\\| color6 \\= Gold\n\\| label7 \\= Other religion\n\\| value7 \\= 2\n\\| color7 \\= Orange\n}}\nAccording to a Pew Research study conducted in 2014, 80% of Missourians identify with a religion. 77% affiliate with Christianity and its various denominations and the other 3% are adherents of non\\-Christian religions. The remaining 20% have no religion, with 2% specifically identifying as atheists and 3% identifying as agnostics (the other 15% do not identify as \"anything in particular\").",
"The religious demographics of Missouri are as follows:\n* Christian 77%\n\t+ Protestant 58%\n\t\t- Evangelical Protestant 36%\n\t\t- Mainline Protestant 16%\n\t\t- Historically Black Protestant 6%\n\t+ Catholic 16%\n\t+ Mormon 1%\n\t+ Orthodox Christian \\<1%\n\t+ Jehovah's Witness \\<1%\n\t+ Other Christian \\<1%\n* Non\\-Christian Religions 3%\n\t+ Jewish \\<1%\n\t+ Muslim \\<1%\n\t+ Buddhist 1%\n\t+ Hindu \\<1%\n\t+ Other World Religions \\<1%\n* Unaffiliated (No religion) 20%\n\t+ Atheist 2%\n\t+ Agnostic 3%\n\t+ Nothing in particular 15%\n* Don't know \\<1%",
"The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the [Southern Baptist Convention](/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention \"Southern Baptist Convention\") with 749,685; the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") with 724,315; and the [United Methodist Church](/wiki/United_Methodist_Church \"United Methodist Church\") with 226,409\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/29/rcms2010\\_29\\_state\\_adh\\_2010\\.asp \\|title\\=The Association of Religion Data Archives \\| State Membership Report \\|publisher\\=www.thearda.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233840/http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/29/rcms2010\\_29\\_state\\_adh\\_2010\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=December 2, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Among the other denominations there are approximately 93,000 Mormons in 253 congregations, 25,000 Jewish adherents in 21 [synagogues](/wiki/Synagogue \"Synagogue\"), 12,000 Muslims in 39 [masjids](/wiki/Masjid \"Masjid\"), 7,000 Buddhists in 34 temples, 20,000 Hindus in 17 temples, 2,500 [Unitarians](/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism \"Unitarian Universalism\") in nine congregations, 2,000 of the [Baháʼí Faith](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith \"Baháʼí Faith\") in 17 temples, five [Sikh](/wiki/Sikh \"Sikh\") temples, a [Zoroastrian](/wiki/Zoroastrian \"Zoroastrian\") temple, a [Jain](/wiki/Jain \"Jain\") temple and an uncounted number of [neopagans](/wiki/Neopagans \"Neopagans\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Fox apologizes for comments on Wiccans at University of Missouri\\|author\\=Kellie Moore\\|publisher\\=Religious News Service\\|url\\=http://www.religionnews.com/2013/02/25/fox\\-apologizes\\-for\\-comments\\-on\\-wiccans\\-at\\-university\\-of\\-missouri/\\|date\\=February 25, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224122607/http://www.religionnews.com/2013/02/25/fox\\-apologizes\\-for\\-comments\\-on\\-wiccans\\-at\\-university\\-of\\-missouri/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 24, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Several religious organizations have headquarters in Missouri, including the [Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod](/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod \"Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod\"), which has its headquarters in [Kirkwood](/wiki/Kirkwood%2C_Missouri \"Kirkwood, Missouri\"), as well as the [United Pentecostal Church International](/wiki/United_Pentecostal_Church_International \"United Pentecostal Church International\") in [Hazelwood](/wiki/Hazelwood%2C_Missouri \"Hazelwood, Missouri\"), both outside St. Louis.",
"[Independence](/wiki/Independence%2C_Missouri \"Independence, Missouri\"), near Kansas City, is the headquarters for the [Community of Christ](/wiki/Community_of_Christ \"Community of Christ\") (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints), the [Church of Christ (Temple Lot)](/wiki/Church_of_Christ_%28Temple_Lot%29 \"Church of Christ (Temple Lot)\") and the group [Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/Remnant_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter_Day_Saints \"Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints\"). This area and other parts of Missouri are also of significant religious and historical importance to [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\") (LDS Church), which maintains several sites and visitor centers.",
"[Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Missouri \"Springfield, Missouri\") is the headquarters of the [Assemblies of God USA](/wiki/Assemblies_of_God_USA \"Assemblies of God USA\") and the [Baptist Bible Fellowship International](/wiki/Baptist_Bible_Fellowship_International \"Baptist Bible Fellowship International\"). The [General Association of General Baptists](/wiki/General_Association_of_General_Baptists \"General Association of General Baptists\") has its headquarters in [Poplar Bluff](/wiki/Poplar_Bluff%2C_Missouri \"Poplar Bluff, Missouri\"). The [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church \"Unity Church\") is headquartered in [Unity Village](/wiki/Unity_Village%2C_Missouri \"Unity Village, Missouri\"). Springfield is particularly known as a Christian center in the state{{Cite web\\|last\\=Pokin\\|first\\=Steve\\|title\\=Which do we have more of? Churches or Chinese restaurants?\\|url\\=https://www.news\\-leader.com/story/news/local/ozarks/2018/02/09/pokin\\-around\\-whos\\-no\\-1\\-springfield\\-which\\-do\\-we\\-have\\-more/310688002/\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2021\\|website\\=Springfield News\\-Leader\\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415182328/https://www.news\\-leader.com/story/news/local/ozarks/2018/02/09/pokin\\-around\\-whos\\-no\\-1\\-springfield\\-which\\-do\\-we\\-have\\-more/310688002/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and is considered by some to be a \"buckle\" of the [Bible Belt](/wiki/Bible_Belt \"Bible Belt\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Springfield Area Congregations Study: Profile and Community Engagement\\|url\\=https://sociology.missouristate.edu/Assets/soc\\-ant/SpringfieldCongregationsStudy\\_small.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415182330/https://sociology.missouristate.edu/Assets/soc\\-ant/SpringfieldCongregationsStudy\\_small.pdf}}",
"The [Hindu Temple of St. Louis](/wiki/Hindu_Temple_of_St._Louis \"Hindu Temple of St. Louis\") is the largest Hindu Temple in Missouri, serving more than 14,000 Hindus.",
"",
""
] |
Law and government
------------------
{{Main\|Law and government of Missouri\|List of Governors of Missouri}}
{{Missouri Government}}
[thumb\|The [Missouri State Capitol](/wiki/Missouri_State_Capitol "Missouri State Capitol") in [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri "Jefferson City, Missouri")](/wiki/File:MissouriCapitol.jpg "MissouriCapitol.jpg")
[thumb\|The [Missouri Governor's Mansion](/wiki/Missouri_Governor%27s_Mansion "Missouri Governor's Mansion") is included in the [Missouri State Capitol Historic District](/wiki/Missouri_State_Capitol_Historic_District "Missouri State Capitol Historic District").](/wiki/File:Missouri-governor-mansion.jpg "Missouri-governor-mansion.jpg")
The Constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945\. It provides for three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The legislative branch consists of two bodies: the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Missouri_House_of_Representatives "Missouri House of Representatives") and the [Senate](/wiki/Missouri_Senate "Missouri Senate"). These bodies comprise the [Missouri General Assembly](/wiki/Missouri_General_Assembly "Missouri General Assembly").
The House of Representatives has 163 members apportioned based on the last [decennial census](/wiki/United_States_Census "United States Census"). The Senate consists of 34 members from districts of approximately equal populations. The judicial department comprises the [Supreme Court of Missouri](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Missouri "Supreme Court of Missouri"), which has seven judges, the [Missouri Court of Appeals](/wiki/Missouri_Court_of_Appeals "Missouri Court of Appeals") (an intermediate [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court "Appellate court") divided into three districts), sitting in Kansas City, St. Louis, and Springfield, and 45 Circuit Courts which function as local trial courts. The executive branch is headed by the [Governor of Missouri](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Missouri "List of Governors of Missouri") and includes five other statewide elected offices. Following the departure from office of State Auditor [Nicole Galloway](/wiki/Nicole_Galloway "Nicole Galloway") on January 9, 2023, there are no Democrats holding statewide elected positions in Missouri.["Scott Fitzpatrick sworn in as Missouri Auditor, vows to monitor school spending"](https://www.kcur.org/politics-elections-and-government/2023-01-09/scott-fitzpatrick-sworn-in-as-missouri-auditor-vows-to-monitor-school-spending) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110135817/https://www.kcur.org/politics\-elections\-and\-government/2023\-01\-09/scott\-fitzpatrick\-sworn\-in\-as\-missouri\-auditor\-vows\-to\-monitor\-school\-spending \|date\=January 10, 2023 }}, [KCUR](/wiki/KCUR "KCUR"), January 9, 2023
[Harry S Truman](/wiki/Harry_S_Truman "Harry S Truman") (1884–1972\), the 33rd President of the United States (Democrat, 1945–1953\), was born in [Lamar](/wiki/Lamar%2C_Missouri "Lamar, Missouri"). He was a judge in [Jackson County](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Missouri "Jackson County, Missouri") and then [represented the state](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Senators_from_Missouri "List of United States Senators from Missouri") in the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") for ten years, before being elected vice\-president in [1944](/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election "1944 United States presidential election"). He lived in Independence after retiring as president in 1953\.
In a 2020 study, Missouri was ranked as 48th on the [Cost of Voting Index](/wiki/Cost_of_Voting_Index "Cost of Voting Index") with only Texas and Georgia ranking higher.{{cite journal \|last1\=J. Pomante II \|first1\=Michael \|last2\=Li \|first2\=Quan \|title\=Cost of Voting in the American States: 2020 \|journal\=Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy \|date\=December 15, 2020 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=503–509 \|doi\=10\.1089/elj.2020\.0666 \|s2cid\=225139517 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Missouri retains the [death penalty](/wiki/Death_penalty "Death penalty"). Authorized methods of execution include the [gas chamber](/wiki/Gas_chamber "Gas chamber").{{cite web \| url\=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/methods\-of\-execution \| title\=Methods of Execution \| access\-date\=March 20, 2023 \| archive\-date\=July 1, 2018 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701043600/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/methods\-execution \| url\-status\=live }} [Abortion](/wiki/Abortion_in_Missouri "Abortion in Missouri") is near\-completely banned in Missouri.{{cite web \|title\=Missouri \|url\=https://reproductiverights.org/maps/state/missouri \|website\=Center for Reproductive Rights \|access\-date\=18 September 2024}}
### Former status as a political bellwether
{{Main\|Missouri bellwether}}
{{further\|Political party strength in Missouri}}
Missouri was widely regarded as a bellwether in American politics, often making it a [swing state](/wiki/Swing_state "Swing state"). The state had a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having voted with the nation in every election from 1904 to 2004 with a single exception: [1956](/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election "1956 United States presidential election") when Democratic candidate [Adlai Stevenson](/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II "Adlai Stevenson II") of neighboring Illinois lost the election despite carrying Missouri. However, in recent years, areas of the state outside Kansas City, St. Louis, and Columbia have shifted heavily to the right, making Missouri a safe Republican state on the whole. The last Democrat to win the state's electoral votes was [Bill Clinton in 1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election_in_Missouri "1996 United States presidential election in Missouri"). It rejected Democrat [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") of neighboring Illinois in both of his successful campaigns in 2008 and 2012\. Missouri voted for [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney "Mitt Romney") by nearly 10% in 2012 and voted for [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") by over 18% in 2016 and 15% in 2020\.
On October 24, 2012, there were 4,190,936 registered voters.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sos.mo.gov/elections/registeredvoters.asp?rvmID\=0012 \|title\=Registered Voters in Missouri 2012 \|publisher\=Missouri Secretary of State \|date\=October 24, 2012 \|access\-date\=October 28, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025023240/http://www.sos.mo.gov/elections/registeredvoters.asp?rvmID\=0012 \|archive\-date\=October 25, 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} At the state level, both Democratic Senator [Claire McCaskill](/wiki/Claire_McCaskill "Claire McCaskill") and Democratic Governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon "Jay Nixon") were re\-elected.
On November 3, 2020, there were 4,318,758 registered voters, with 3,026,028 voting (70\.1%).{{cite web \|url\=https://www.sos.mo.gov/CMSImages/ElectionResultStatistics/Nov2020OfficialVoterTurnout.pdf \|title\=Voter Turnout Report: 2020 General Election \|publisher\=Missouri Secretary of State \|date\=December 8, 2020 \|access\-date\=June 14, 2021 }}{{Dead link\|date\=December 2021 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} By this time, the state had favored more Republican candidates for federal offices. The offices held by Democratic party officials a decade before were subsequently held by Republican Senator [Josh Hawley](/wiki/Josh_Hawley "Josh Hawley") and Republican Governor [Mike Parson](/wiki/Mike_Parson "Mike Parson").
Missouri's accuracy rate for the last 29 presidential elections is now 89\.66%. This percentage is on par with that of Ohio, which has voted for the winner of every presidential election since 1896, except in [1944](/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election "1944 United States presidential election"), [1960](/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election "1960 United States presidential election") and [2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election "2020 United States presidential election"), with no Republican ever winning the White House without the state. Nevada has been carried by the winner of every presidential election since 1912, with only two exceptions: [1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election") and [2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election"). New Mexico has voted for the winner of every presidential election since its statehood in 1912, except in [1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election"), [2000](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election "2000 United States presidential election") and [2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election").
{{PresHead\|place\=Missouri\|whig\=yes\|source\={{cite web\|url\=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/compare.php?year\=2008\&fips\=29\&f\=1\&off\=0\&elect\=0\&type\=state\|title\=Presidential General Election Results Comparison—Missouri\|publisher\=US Election Atlas\|access\-date\=December 16, 2020\|author\=Leip, David\|archive\-date\=December 1, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201134222/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/compare.php?year\=2008\&fips\=29\&f\=1\&off\=0\&elect\=0\&type\=state\|url\-status\=live}}}}
{{PresRow\|2020\|Republican\|1,718,736\|1,253,014\|58,998\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|2016\|Republican\|1,594,511\|1,071,068\|162,687\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|2012\|Republican\|1,482,440\|1,223,796\|57,453\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|2008\|Republican\|1,445,814\|1,441,911\|41,386\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|2004\|Republican\|1,455,713\|1,259,171\|16,480\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|2000\|Republican\|1,189,924\|1,111,138\|58,830\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1996\|Democratic\|890,016\|1,025,935\|242,114\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1992\|Democratic\|811,159\|1,053,873\|526,533\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1988\|Republican\|1,084,953\|1,001,619\|6,656\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1984\|Republican\|1,274,188\|848,583\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1980\|Republican\|1,074,181\|931,182\|94,461\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1976\|Democratic\|927,443\|998,387\|27,770\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1972\|Republican\|1,154,058\|698,531\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1968\|Republican\|811,932\|791,444\|206,126\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1964\|Democratic\|653,535\|1,164,344\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1960\|Democratic\|962,221\|972,201\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1956\|Democratic\|914,289\|918,273\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1952\|Republican\|959,429\|929,830\|2,803\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1948\|Democratic\|655,039\|917,315\|6,274\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1944\|Democratic\|761,524\|807,804\|3,146\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1940\|Democratic\|871,009\|958,476\|4,244\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1936\|Democratic\|697,891\|1,111,043\|19,701\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1932\|Democratic\|564,713\|1,025,406\|19,775\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1928\|Republican\|834,080\|662,562\|4,079\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1924\|Republican\|648,486\|572,753\|86,719\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1920\|Republican\|727,162\|574,799\|30,839\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1916\|Democratic\|369,339\|398,032\|19,398\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1912\|Democratic\|207,821\|330,746\|159,999\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1908\|Republican\|347,203\|346,574\|22,150\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1904\|Republican\|321,449\|296,312\|26,100\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1900\|Democratic\|314,092\|351,922\|17,642\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1896\|Democratic\|304,940\|363,667\|5,299\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1892\|Democratic\|227,646\|268,400\|45,537\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1888\|Democratic\|236,252\|261,943\|23,165\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1884\|Democratic\|203,081\|236,023\|2,164\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1880\|Democratic\|153,647\|208,600\|35,042\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1876\|Democratic\|145,027\|202,086\|3,497\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1872\|Democratic\|119,196\|151,434\|2,429\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1868\|Republican\|86,860\|65,628\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1864\|Republican\|72,750\|31,596\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1860\|Democratic\|17,028\|58,801\|89,734\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1856\|Democratic\|0\|57,964\|48,522\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1852\|Democratic\|29,984\|38,817\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1848\|Democratic\|32,671\|40,077\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1844\|Democratic\|31,200\|41,322\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresRow\|1840\|Democratic\|22,954\|29,969\|0\|Missouri}}
{{PresFoot\|1836\|Democratic\|7,337\|10,995\|0\|Missouri}}
### Laissez\-faire alcohol and tobacco laws
{{Main\|Alcohol laws of Missouri\|List of smoking bans in the United States\#Missouri}}
Missouri has been known for its population's generally "stalwart, conservative, noncredulous" attitude toward regulatory regimes, which is one of the origins of the state's unofficial nickname, the "Show\-Me State".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp \|title\=Missouri Secretary of State—State Archives—Origin of "Show Me" slogan \|publisher\=Sos.mo.gov \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724211551/http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp \|archive\-date\=July 24, 2010 \|url\-status\=live }} As a result, and combined with the fact that Missouri is one of America's leading alcohol states, regulation of alcohol and tobacco in Missouri is among the most [laissez\-faire](/wiki/Laissez-faire "Laissez-faire") in America. For 2013, the annual "Freedom in the 50 States" study prepared by the [Mercatus Center](/wiki/Mercatus_Center "Mercatus Center") at [George Mason University](/wiki/George_Mason_University "George Mason University") ranked Missouri as \#3 in America for alcohol freedom and \#1 for tobacco freedom (\#7 for freedom overall).{{cite web \|url\=http://freedominthe50states.org/overall/missouri \|title\=''Freedom in the 50 States\-Missouri'' \|author\=Mercatus Center \|date\=March 28, 2013 \|website\=Freedom in the 50 States \|publisher\=\[\[George Mason University]] \|access\-date\=March 29, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407162026/http://freedominthe50states.org/overall/missouri \|archive\-date\=April 7, 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|author\-link\=Mercatus Center }} The study notes that Missouri's "alcohol regime is one of the least restrictive in the United States, with no [blue laws](/wiki/Blue_laws "Blue laws") and taxes well below average", and that "Missouri ranks best in the nation on tobacco freedom".
Missouri law makes it "an improper employment practice" for an employer to refuse to hire, to fire, or otherwise to disadvantage any person because that person lawfully uses alcohol or tobacco products outside of work.{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C200\-299/2900000145\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 290\.145 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808034636/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C200\-299/2900000145\.HTM \|archive\-date\=August 8, 2010 }}
With a large German immigrant population and the development of a brewing industry, Missouri always has had among the most permissive [alcohol laws in the United States](/wiki/Alcohol_laws_of_the_United_States_by_state "Alcohol laws of the United States by state"). It has never enacted statewide [prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States"). Missouri voters rejected prohibition in three separate referendums in 1910, 1912, and 1918\. Alcohol regulation did not begin in Missouri until 1934\.
Today, alcohol laws are controlled by the state government, and local jurisdictions are prohibited from going beyond those state laws. Missouri has no statewide [open container law](/wiki/United_States_open_container_laws "United States open container laws") or prohibition on [drinking in public](/wiki/Drinking_in_public "Drinking in public"), no alcohol\-related [blue laws](/wiki/Blue_law "Blue law"), no [local option](/wiki/Local_option "Local option"), no precise locations for selling liquor by the package (allowing even [drug stores](/wiki/Drug_store "Drug store") and [filling stations](/wiki/Filling_station "Filling station") to sell any kind of liquor), and no differentiation of laws based on alcohol percentage. State law protects persons from arrest or criminal penalty for [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication "Public intoxication").{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C000\-099/0670000305\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 67\.305 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701093303/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C000\-099/0670000305\.HTM \|archive\-date\=July 1, 2010 }}
Missouri law expressly prohibits any jurisdiction from going [dry](/wiki/Dry_county "Dry county").{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000170\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\.170 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830160839/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000170\.HTM \|archive\-date\=August 30, 2010 }} Missouri law also expressly allows parents and guardians to serve alcohol to their children.{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000310\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\.310 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527124105/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000310\.HTM \|archive\-date\=May 27, 2010 }} The [Power \& Light District](/wiki/Power_%26_Light_District "Power & Light District") in Kansas City is one of the few places in the United States where a state law explicitly allows persons over 21 to possess and consume open containers of alcohol in the street (as long as the beverage is in a plastic cup).{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000086\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\.086 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829203656/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\-399/3110000086\.HTM \|archive\-date\=August 29, 2010 }}
As for tobacco (as of July 2016\), Missouri has the lowest cigarette excise taxes in the United States, at 17 cents per pack,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0097\.pdf \|title\=State Cigarette Excise Tax Rates \|access\-date\=November 9, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004215627/http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0097\.pdf \|archive\-date\=October 4, 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} and the state electorate voted in 2002, 2006, 2012, and twice in 2016 to keep it that way."A burning issue", *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch*, November 12, 2006{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt\-and\-politics/missouri\-keeps\-tobacco\-tax\-as\-the\-lowest\-in\-the\-nation/article\_636bb3bb\-4634\-5eea\-adf7\-51f16cc0b333\.html\|title\=Missouri keeps tobacco tax as the lowest in the nation\|first\=Tim\|last\=O'Neil\|website\=stltoday.com\|date\=November 6, 2012 \|access\-date\=February 5, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713143016/https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt\-and\-politics/missouri\-keeps\-tobacco\-tax\-as\-the\-lowest\-in\-the\-nation/article\_636bb3bb\-4634\-5eea\-adf7\-51f16cc0b333\.html\|archive\-date\=July 13, 2018\|url\-status\=live}} In 2007, *[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes "Forbes")* named Missouri's largest metropolitan area, [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), America's "best city for smokers".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/business/2007/11/01/tobacco\-smoking\-north\-carolina\-biz\-cx\_tvr\_1101smoking.html \|title\=Best Cities for Smokers \|date\=November 1, 2007 \|work\=Forbes \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531204142/http://www.forbes.com/2007/11/01/tobacco\-smoking\-north\-carolina\-biz\-cx\_tvr\_1101smoking.html\|archive\-date\=May 31, 2010}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.ky3\.com/content/news/missouri\-congress\-races\-400490581\.html \|title\=Missouri voters reject tobacco tax hikes \|work\=KY3\-TV \|access\-date\=November 9, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109221450/http://www.ky3\.com/content/news/missouri\-congress\-races\-400490581\.html \|archive\-date\=November 9, 2016 \|url\-status\=live }}
According to the [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"), in 2008 Missouri had the fourth highest percentage of adult smokers among U.S. states, at 24\.5%.{{cite web\|url\=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat\=TU\&yr\=2008\&qkey\=4396\&state\=All \|title\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System—Adults who are current smokers", September 19, 2008 \|publisher\=Apps.nccd.cdc.gov \|date\=May 15, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310192932/http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat\=TU\&yr\=2008\&qkey\=4396\&state\=All \|archive\-date\=March 10, 2010 }} Although federal law prohibits the sale of tobacco to persons under 21, tobacco products can be distributed to persons under 21 by family members on private property.{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C400\-499/4070000931\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 407\.931\.3 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815012627/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C400\-499/4070000931\.HTM \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2010 }}
No statewide [smoking ban](/wiki/Smoking_ban "Smoking ban") ever has been seriously entertained before the [Missouri General Assembly](/wiki/Missouri_General_Assembly "Missouri General Assembly"), and in October 2008, a statewide survey by the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services found that only 27\.5% of Missourians support a statewide ban on smoking in all bars and restaurants.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dhss.mo.gov/County\_level\_study/header.php?cnty\=929\&profile\_type\=2\&chkBox\=C \|title\=Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, ''County Level Survey 2007: Secondhand Smoke for Missouri Adults'', October 1, 2008 \|publisher\=Dhss.mo.gov \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216141745/http://www.dhss.mo.gov/County\_level\_study/header.php?cnty\=929\&profile\_type\=2\&chkBox\=C \|archive\-date\=December 16, 2008 }} Missouri state law permits restaurants seating less than 50 people, bars, bowling alleys, and billiard parlors to decide their own smoking policies, without limitation.{{cite web\|url\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C100\-199/1910000769\.HTM \|title\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 191\.769 \|publisher\=Moga.mo.gov \|date\=August 28, 2009 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210110244/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C100\-199/1910000769\.HTM \|archive\-date\=December 10, 2011 }}
[thumb\|right\|[Treemap](/wiki/Treemap "Treemap") of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election](/wiki/File:United_States_presidential_election_in_Missouri%2C_2016.svg "United States presidential election in Missouri, 2016.svg")
### Cannabis laws
{{See also\|Cannabis in Missouri}}
In 2014, a Republican\-led legislature and Democratic governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon "Jay Nixon") enacted a series of laws to partially decriminalize possession of cannabis by making first\-time possession of up to 10 grams no longer punishable with jail time and legalizing [CBD](/wiki/Cannabidiol "Cannabidiol") oil. In November 2018, [66% of voters approved](/wiki/Cannabis_in_Missouri "Cannabis in Missouri") a constitutional amendment that established a right to medical marijuana and a system for licensing, regulating, and taxing medical marijuana.
### Counties
{{See also\|List of counties in Missouri}}
Missouri has 114 counties and one [independent city](/wiki/Independent_city_%28United_States%29 "Independent city (United States)"), St. Louis, which is Missouri's most densely populated—5,140 people per square mile.
The largest counties by population are [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis_County%2C_Missouri "St. Louis County, Missouri") (996,726\), [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Missouri "Jackson County, Missouri") (698,895\), and [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles_County%2C_Missouri "St. Charles County, Missouri") (395,504\). Worth County is the smallest (2,057\).
The largest counties by size are [Texas](/wiki/Texas_County%2C_Missouri "Texas County, Missouri") (1,179 square miles) and [Shannon](/wiki/Shannon_County%2C_Missouri "Shannon County, Missouri") (1,004\). [Worth County](/wiki/Worth_County%2C_Missouri "Worth County, Missouri") is the smallest (266\).
|
[
"Law and government\n------------------",
"{{Main\\|Law and government of Missouri\\|List of Governors of Missouri}}\n{{Missouri Government}}\n[thumb\\|The [Missouri State Capitol](/wiki/Missouri_State_Capitol \"Missouri State Capitol\") in [Jefferson City](/wiki/Jefferson_City%2C_Missouri \"Jefferson City, Missouri\")](/wiki/File:MissouriCapitol.jpg \"MissouriCapitol.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The [Missouri Governor's Mansion](/wiki/Missouri_Governor%27s_Mansion \"Missouri Governor's Mansion\") is included in the [Missouri State Capitol Historic District](/wiki/Missouri_State_Capitol_Historic_District \"Missouri State Capitol Historic District\").](/wiki/File:Missouri-governor-mansion.jpg \"Missouri-governor-mansion.jpg\")",
"The Constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945\\. It provides for three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The legislative branch consists of two bodies: the [House of Representatives](/wiki/Missouri_House_of_Representatives \"Missouri House of Representatives\") and the [Senate](/wiki/Missouri_Senate \"Missouri Senate\"). These bodies comprise the [Missouri General Assembly](/wiki/Missouri_General_Assembly \"Missouri General Assembly\").",
"The House of Representatives has 163 members apportioned based on the last [decennial census](/wiki/United_States_Census \"United States Census\"). The Senate consists of 34 members from districts of approximately equal populations. The judicial department comprises the [Supreme Court of Missouri](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Missouri \"Supreme Court of Missouri\"), which has seven judges, the [Missouri Court of Appeals](/wiki/Missouri_Court_of_Appeals \"Missouri Court of Appeals\") (an intermediate [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court \"Appellate court\") divided into three districts), sitting in Kansas City, St. Louis, and Springfield, and 45 Circuit Courts which function as local trial courts. The executive branch is headed by the [Governor of Missouri](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Missouri \"List of Governors of Missouri\") and includes five other statewide elected offices. Following the departure from office of State Auditor [Nicole Galloway](/wiki/Nicole_Galloway \"Nicole Galloway\") on January 9, 2023, there are no Democrats holding statewide elected positions in Missouri.[\"Scott Fitzpatrick sworn in as Missouri Auditor, vows to monitor school spending\"](https://www.kcur.org/politics-elections-and-government/2023-01-09/scott-fitzpatrick-sworn-in-as-missouri-auditor-vows-to-monitor-school-spending) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110135817/https://www.kcur.org/politics\\-elections\\-and\\-government/2023\\-01\\-09/scott\\-fitzpatrick\\-sworn\\-in\\-as\\-missouri\\-auditor\\-vows\\-to\\-monitor\\-school\\-spending \\|date\\=January 10, 2023 }}, [KCUR](/wiki/KCUR \"KCUR\"), January 9, 2023",
"[Harry S Truman](/wiki/Harry_S_Truman \"Harry S Truman\") (1884–1972\\), the 33rd President of the United States (Democrat, 1945–1953\\), was born in [Lamar](/wiki/Lamar%2C_Missouri \"Lamar, Missouri\"). He was a judge in [Jackson County](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Missouri \"Jackson County, Missouri\") and then [represented the state](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Senators_from_Missouri \"List of United States Senators from Missouri\") in the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") for ten years, before being elected vice\\-president in [1944](/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election \"1944 United States presidential election\"). He lived in Independence after retiring as president in 1953\\.",
"In a 2020 study, Missouri was ranked as 48th on the [Cost of Voting Index](/wiki/Cost_of_Voting_Index \"Cost of Voting Index\") with only Texas and Georgia ranking higher.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=J. Pomante II \\|first1\\=Michael \\|last2\\=Li \\|first2\\=Quan \\|title\\=Cost of Voting in the American States: 2020 \\|journal\\=Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy \\|date\\=December 15, 2020 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=503–509 \\|doi\\=10\\.1089/elj.2020\\.0666 \\|s2cid\\=225139517 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Missouri retains the [death penalty](/wiki/Death_penalty \"Death penalty\"). Authorized methods of execution include the [gas chamber](/wiki/Gas_chamber \"Gas chamber\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/methods\\-of\\-execution \\| title\\=Methods of Execution \\| access\\-date\\=March 20, 2023 \\| archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2018 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701043600/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/methods\\-execution \\| url\\-status\\=live }} [Abortion](/wiki/Abortion_in_Missouri \"Abortion in Missouri\") is near\\-completely banned in Missouri.{{cite web \\|title\\=Missouri \\|url\\=https://reproductiverights.org/maps/state/missouri \\|website\\=Center for Reproductive Rights \\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2024}}",
"### Former status as a political bellwether",
"{{Main\\|Missouri bellwether}}\n{{further\\|Political party strength in Missouri}}",
"Missouri was widely regarded as a bellwether in American politics, often making it a [swing state](/wiki/Swing_state \"Swing state\"). The state had a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having voted with the nation in every election from 1904 to 2004 with a single exception: [1956](/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election \"1956 United States presidential election\") when Democratic candidate [Adlai Stevenson](/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II \"Adlai Stevenson II\") of neighboring Illinois lost the election despite carrying Missouri. However, in recent years, areas of the state outside Kansas City, St. Louis, and Columbia have shifted heavily to the right, making Missouri a safe Republican state on the whole. The last Democrat to win the state's electoral votes was [Bill Clinton in 1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election_in_Missouri \"1996 United States presidential election in Missouri\"). It rejected Democrat [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") of neighboring Illinois in both of his successful campaigns in 2008 and 2012\\. Missouri voted for [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney \"Mitt Romney\") by nearly 10% in 2012 and voted for [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") by over 18% in 2016 and 15% in 2020\\.",
"On October 24, 2012, there were 4,190,936 registered voters.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sos.mo.gov/elections/registeredvoters.asp?rvmID\\=0012 \\|title\\=Registered Voters in Missouri 2012 \\|publisher\\=Missouri Secretary of State \\|date\\=October 24, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025023240/http://www.sos.mo.gov/elections/registeredvoters.asp?rvmID\\=0012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} At the state level, both Democratic Senator [Claire McCaskill](/wiki/Claire_McCaskill \"Claire McCaskill\") and Democratic Governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon \"Jay Nixon\") were re\\-elected.",
"On November 3, 2020, there were 4,318,758 registered voters, with 3,026,028 voting (70\\.1%).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.sos.mo.gov/CMSImages/ElectionResultStatistics/Nov2020OfficialVoterTurnout.pdf \\|title\\=Voter Turnout Report: 2020 General Election \\|publisher\\=Missouri Secretary of State \\|date\\=December 8, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2021 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2021 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} By this time, the state had favored more Republican candidates for federal offices. The offices held by Democratic party officials a decade before were subsequently held by Republican Senator [Josh Hawley](/wiki/Josh_Hawley \"Josh Hawley\") and Republican Governor [Mike Parson](/wiki/Mike_Parson \"Mike Parson\").",
"Missouri's accuracy rate for the last 29 presidential elections is now 89\\.66%. This percentage is on par with that of Ohio, which has voted for the winner of every presidential election since 1896, except in [1944](/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election \"1944 United States presidential election\"), [1960](/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election \"1960 United States presidential election\") and [2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election \"2020 United States presidential election\"), with no Republican ever winning the White House without the state. Nevada has been carried by the winner of every presidential election since 1912, with only two exceptions: [1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election \"1976 United States presidential election\") and [2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\"). New Mexico has voted for the winner of every presidential election since its statehood in 1912, except in [1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election \"1976 United States presidential election\"), [2000](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election \"2000 United States presidential election\") and [2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\").",
"{{PresHead\\|place\\=Missouri\\|whig\\=yes\\|source\\={{cite web\\|url\\=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/compare.php?year\\=2008\\&fips\\=29\\&f\\=1\\&off\\=0\\&elect\\=0\\&type\\=state\\|title\\=Presidential General Election Results Comparison—Missouri\\|publisher\\=US Election Atlas\\|access\\-date\\=December 16, 2020\\|author\\=Leip, David\\|archive\\-date\\=December 1, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201134222/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/compare.php?year\\=2008\\&fips\\=29\\&f\\=1\\&off\\=0\\&elect\\=0\\&type\\=state\\|url\\-status\\=live}}}}\n{{PresRow\\|2020\\|Republican\\|1,718,736\\|1,253,014\\|58,998\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|2016\\|Republican\\|1,594,511\\|1,071,068\\|162,687\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|2012\\|Republican\\|1,482,440\\|1,223,796\\|57,453\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|2008\\|Republican\\|1,445,814\\|1,441,911\\|41,386\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|2004\\|Republican\\|1,455,713\\|1,259,171\\|16,480\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|2000\\|Republican\\|1,189,924\\|1,111,138\\|58,830\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1996\\|Democratic\\|890,016\\|1,025,935\\|242,114\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1992\\|Democratic\\|811,159\\|1,053,873\\|526,533\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1988\\|Republican\\|1,084,953\\|1,001,619\\|6,656\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1984\\|Republican\\|1,274,188\\|848,583\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1980\\|Republican\\|1,074,181\\|931,182\\|94,461\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1976\\|Democratic\\|927,443\\|998,387\\|27,770\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1972\\|Republican\\|1,154,058\\|698,531\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1968\\|Republican\\|811,932\\|791,444\\|206,126\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1964\\|Democratic\\|653,535\\|1,164,344\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1960\\|Democratic\\|962,221\\|972,201\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1956\\|Democratic\\|914,289\\|918,273\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1952\\|Republican\\|959,429\\|929,830\\|2,803\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1948\\|Democratic\\|655,039\\|917,315\\|6,274\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1944\\|Democratic\\|761,524\\|807,804\\|3,146\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1940\\|Democratic\\|871,009\\|958,476\\|4,244\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1936\\|Democratic\\|697,891\\|1,111,043\\|19,701\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1932\\|Democratic\\|564,713\\|1,025,406\\|19,775\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1928\\|Republican\\|834,080\\|662,562\\|4,079\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1924\\|Republican\\|648,486\\|572,753\\|86,719\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1920\\|Republican\\|727,162\\|574,799\\|30,839\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1916\\|Democratic\\|369,339\\|398,032\\|19,398\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1912\\|Democratic\\|207,821\\|330,746\\|159,999\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1908\\|Republican\\|347,203\\|346,574\\|22,150\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1904\\|Republican\\|321,449\\|296,312\\|26,100\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1900\\|Democratic\\|314,092\\|351,922\\|17,642\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1896\\|Democratic\\|304,940\\|363,667\\|5,299\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1892\\|Democratic\\|227,646\\|268,400\\|45,537\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1888\\|Democratic\\|236,252\\|261,943\\|23,165\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1884\\|Democratic\\|203,081\\|236,023\\|2,164\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1880\\|Democratic\\|153,647\\|208,600\\|35,042\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1876\\|Democratic\\|145,027\\|202,086\\|3,497\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1872\\|Democratic\\|119,196\\|151,434\\|2,429\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1868\\|Republican\\|86,860\\|65,628\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1864\\|Republican\\|72,750\\|31,596\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1860\\|Democratic\\|17,028\\|58,801\\|89,734\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1856\\|Democratic\\|0\\|57,964\\|48,522\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1852\\|Democratic\\|29,984\\|38,817\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1848\\|Democratic\\|32,671\\|40,077\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1844\\|Democratic\\|31,200\\|41,322\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresRow\\|1840\\|Democratic\\|22,954\\|29,969\\|0\\|Missouri}}\n{{PresFoot\\|1836\\|Democratic\\|7,337\\|10,995\\|0\\|Missouri}}",
"### Laissez\\-faire alcohol and tobacco laws",
"{{Main\\|Alcohol laws of Missouri\\|List of smoking bans in the United States\\#Missouri}}",
"Missouri has been known for its population's generally \"stalwart, conservative, noncredulous\" attitude toward regulatory regimes, which is one of the origins of the state's unofficial nickname, the \"Show\\-Me State\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp \\|title\\=Missouri Secretary of State—State Archives—Origin of \"Show Me\" slogan \\|publisher\\=Sos.mo.gov \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724211551/http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} As a result, and combined with the fact that Missouri is one of America's leading alcohol states, regulation of alcohol and tobacco in Missouri is among the most [laissez\\-faire](/wiki/Laissez-faire \"Laissez-faire\") in America. For 2013, the annual \"Freedom in the 50 States\" study prepared by the [Mercatus Center](/wiki/Mercatus_Center \"Mercatus Center\") at [George Mason University](/wiki/George_Mason_University \"George Mason University\") ranked Missouri as \\#3 in America for alcohol freedom and \\#1 for tobacco freedom (\\#7 for freedom overall).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://freedominthe50states.org/overall/missouri \\|title\\=''Freedom in the 50 States\\-Missouri'' \\|author\\=Mercatus Center \\|date\\=March 28, 2013 \\|website\\=Freedom in the 50 States \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[George Mason University]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407162026/http://freedominthe50states.org/overall/missouri \\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|author\\-link\\=Mercatus Center }} The study notes that Missouri's \"alcohol regime is one of the least restrictive in the United States, with no [blue laws](/wiki/Blue_laws \"Blue laws\") and taxes well below average\", and that \"Missouri ranks best in the nation on tobacco freedom\".",
"Missouri law makes it \"an improper employment practice\" for an employer to refuse to hire, to fire, or otherwise to disadvantage any person because that person lawfully uses alcohol or tobacco products outside of work.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C200\\-299/2900000145\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 290\\.145 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808034636/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C200\\-299/2900000145\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2010 }}",
"With a large German immigrant population and the development of a brewing industry, Missouri always has had among the most permissive [alcohol laws in the United States](/wiki/Alcohol_laws_of_the_United_States_by_state \"Alcohol laws of the United States by state\"). It has never enacted statewide [prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\"). Missouri voters rejected prohibition in three separate referendums in 1910, 1912, and 1918\\. Alcohol regulation did not begin in Missouri until 1934\\.",
"Today, alcohol laws are controlled by the state government, and local jurisdictions are prohibited from going beyond those state laws. Missouri has no statewide [open container law](/wiki/United_States_open_container_laws \"United States open container laws\") or prohibition on [drinking in public](/wiki/Drinking_in_public \"Drinking in public\"), no alcohol\\-related [blue laws](/wiki/Blue_law \"Blue law\"), no [local option](/wiki/Local_option \"Local option\"), no precise locations for selling liquor by the package (allowing even [drug stores](/wiki/Drug_store \"Drug store\") and [filling stations](/wiki/Filling_station \"Filling station\") to sell any kind of liquor), and no differentiation of laws based on alcohol percentage. State law protects persons from arrest or criminal penalty for [public intoxication](/wiki/Public_intoxication \"Public intoxication\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C000\\-099/0670000305\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 67\\.305 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701093303/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C000\\-099/0670000305\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2010 }}",
"Missouri law expressly prohibits any jurisdiction from going [dry](/wiki/Dry_county \"Dry county\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000170\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\\.170 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830160839/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000170\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=August 30, 2010 }} Missouri law also expressly allows parents and guardians to serve alcohol to their children.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000310\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\\.310 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527124105/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000310\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2010 }} The [Power \\& Light District](/wiki/Power_%26_Light_District \"Power & Light District\") in Kansas City is one of the few places in the United States where a state law explicitly allows persons over 21 to possess and consume open containers of alcohol in the street (as long as the beverage is in a plastic cup).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000086\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 311\\.086 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829203656/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C300\\-399/3110000086\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2010 }}",
"As for tobacco (as of July 2016\\), Missouri has the lowest cigarette excise taxes in the United States, at 17 cents per pack,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0097\\.pdf \\|title\\=State Cigarette Excise Tax Rates \\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004215627/http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0097\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=October 4, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the state electorate voted in 2002, 2006, 2012, and twice in 2016 to keep it that way.\"A burning issue\", *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch*, November 12, 2006{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt\\-and\\-politics/missouri\\-keeps\\-tobacco\\-tax\\-as\\-the\\-lowest\\-in\\-the\\-nation/article\\_636bb3bb\\-4634\\-5eea\\-adf7\\-51f16cc0b333\\.html\\|title\\=Missouri keeps tobacco tax as the lowest in the nation\\|first\\=Tim\\|last\\=O'Neil\\|website\\=stltoday.com\\|date\\=November 6, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713143016/https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt\\-and\\-politics/missouri\\-keeps\\-tobacco\\-tax\\-as\\-the\\-lowest\\-in\\-the\\-nation/article\\_636bb3bb\\-4634\\-5eea\\-adf7\\-51f16cc0b333\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2007, *[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\")* named Missouri's largest metropolitan area, [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), America's \"best city for smokers\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/business/2007/11/01/tobacco\\-smoking\\-north\\-carolina\\-biz\\-cx\\_tvr\\_1101smoking.html \\|title\\=Best Cities for Smokers \\|date\\=November 1, 2007 \\|work\\=Forbes \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531204142/http://www.forbes.com/2007/11/01/tobacco\\-smoking\\-north\\-carolina\\-biz\\-cx\\_tvr\\_1101smoking.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 31, 2010}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.ky3\\.com/content/news/missouri\\-congress\\-races\\-400490581\\.html \\|title\\=Missouri voters reject tobacco tax hikes \\|work\\=KY3\\-TV \\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109221450/http://www.ky3\\.com/content/news/missouri\\-congress\\-races\\-400490581\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=November 9, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"According to the [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\"), in 2008 Missouri had the fourth highest percentage of adult smokers among U.S. states, at 24\\.5%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat\\=TU\\&yr\\=2008\\&qkey\\=4396\\&state\\=All \\|title\\=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \"Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System—Adults who are current smokers\", September 19, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Apps.nccd.cdc.gov \\|date\\=May 15, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310192932/http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat\\=TU\\&yr\\=2008\\&qkey\\=4396\\&state\\=All \\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2010 }} Although federal law prohibits the sale of tobacco to persons under 21, tobacco products can be distributed to persons under 21 by family members on private property.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C400\\-499/4070000931\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 407\\.931\\.3 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815012627/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C400\\-499/4070000931\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2010 }}",
"No statewide [smoking ban](/wiki/Smoking_ban \"Smoking ban\") ever has been seriously entertained before the [Missouri General Assembly](/wiki/Missouri_General_Assembly \"Missouri General Assembly\"), and in October 2008, a statewide survey by the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services found that only 27\\.5% of Missourians support a statewide ban on smoking in all bars and restaurants.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dhss.mo.gov/County\\_level\\_study/header.php?cnty\\=929\\&profile\\_type\\=2\\&chkBox\\=C \\|title\\=Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, ''County Level Survey 2007: Secondhand Smoke for Missouri Adults'', October 1, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Dhss.mo.gov \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216141745/http://www.dhss.mo.gov/County\\_level\\_study/header.php?cnty\\=929\\&profile\\_type\\=2\\&chkBox\\=C \\|archive\\-date\\=December 16, 2008 }} Missouri state law permits restaurants seating less than 50 people, bars, bowling alleys, and billiard parlors to decide their own smoking policies, without limitation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://moga.mo.gov/statutes/C100\\-199/1910000769\\.HTM \\|title\\=Mo. Rev. Stat. § 191\\.769 \\|publisher\\=Moga.mo.gov \\|date\\=August 28, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210110244/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C100\\-199/1910000769\\.HTM \\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2011 }}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Treemap](/wiki/Treemap \"Treemap\") of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election](/wiki/File:United_States_presidential_election_in_Missouri%2C_2016.svg \"United States presidential election in Missouri, 2016.svg\")",
"### Cannabis laws",
"{{See also\\|Cannabis in Missouri}}",
"In 2014, a Republican\\-led legislature and Democratic governor [Jay Nixon](/wiki/Jay_Nixon \"Jay Nixon\") enacted a series of laws to partially decriminalize possession of cannabis by making first\\-time possession of up to 10 grams no longer punishable with jail time and legalizing [CBD](/wiki/Cannabidiol \"Cannabidiol\") oil. In November 2018, [66% of voters approved](/wiki/Cannabis_in_Missouri \"Cannabis in Missouri\") a constitutional amendment that established a right to medical marijuana and a system for licensing, regulating, and taxing medical marijuana.",
"### Counties",
"{{See also\\|List of counties in Missouri}}",
"Missouri has 114 counties and one [independent city](/wiki/Independent_city_%28United_States%29 \"Independent city (United States)\"), St. Louis, which is Missouri's most densely populated—5,140 people per square mile.",
"The largest counties by population are [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis_County%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis County, Missouri\") (996,726\\), [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson_County%2C_Missouri \"Jackson County, Missouri\") (698,895\\), and [St. Charles](/wiki/St._Charles_County%2C_Missouri \"St. Charles County, Missouri\") (395,504\\). Worth County is the smallest (2,057\\).",
"The largest counties by size are [Texas](/wiki/Texas_County%2C_Missouri \"Texas County, Missouri\") (1,179 square miles) and [Shannon](/wiki/Shannon_County%2C_Missouri \"Shannon County, Missouri\") (1,004\\). [Worth County](/wiki/Worth_County%2C_Missouri \"Worth County, Missouri\") is the smallest (266\\).",
"",
"",
""
] |
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