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Education --------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2020}} {{Main\|Education in Missouri}} {{Further\|Missouri Virtual Instruction Program}} ### Missouri State Board of Education The [Missouri State Board of Education](/wiki/Missouri_State_Board_of_Education "Missouri State Board of Education") has general authority over all public education in the state of Missouri. It is made up of eight citizens appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Missouri Senate. ### Primary and secondary schools {{See also\|List of school districts in Missouri\|List of high schools in Missouri}} Education is compulsory from ages seven to seventeen. It is required that any parent, guardian, or another person with custody of a child between the ages of seven and seventeen, the compulsory attendance age for the district, must ensure the child is enrolled in and regularly attends public, private, parochial school, home school or a combination of schools for the full term of the school year. Compulsory attendance also ends when children complete sixteen credits in high school. Children in Missouri between the ages of five and seven are not required to be enrolled in school. However, if they are enrolled in a public school, their parent, guardian, or custodian must ensure they regularly attend. Missouri schools are commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school") or [junior high school](/wiki/Junior_high_school "Junior high school") and high school. The public school system includes kindergarten to 12th grade. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle, and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district. As another example, special education and related services for students in the twenty\-two school districts of St. Louis County are provided by staff employed by a special school district, a local education agency that serves students county\-wide. High school athletics and competitions are governed by the [Missouri State High School Activities Association](/wiki/Missouri_State_High_School_Activities_Association "Missouri State High School Activities Association") (MSHSAA). [Homeschooling](/wiki/Homeschooling "Homeschooling") is legal in Missouri and is an option to meet the compulsory education requirement. It is neither monitored nor regulated by the state's Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.{{cite web \|author\=Missouri Department Of Elementary And Secondary Education \|url\=http://www.dese.mo.gov/schoollaw/HomeSch/ \|title\=Home Schooling \|publisher\=Dese.mo.gov \|date\=September 2, 2009 \|access\-date\=February 20, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514195922/http://dese.mo.gov/schoollaw/HomeSch/ \|archive\-date\=May 14, 2011 }} Another gifted school is the [Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing](/wiki/Missouri_Academy_of_Science%2C_Mathematics_and_Computing "Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing"), which is at the [Northwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_University "Northwest Missouri State University"). ### Colleges and universities {{See also\|List of colleges and universities in Missouri\|List of defunct colleges and universities in Missouri}} [thumb\|[Jesse Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Hall "Jesse Hall") on the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri "University of Missouri") campus](/wiki/File:University_of_Missouri_-_Jesse_Hall.jpg "University of Missouri - Jesse Hall.jpg") [thumb\|Brookings Hall at [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis "Washington University in St. Louis")](/wiki/File:Brookings.jpg "Brookings.jpg") The [University of Missouri System](/wiki/University_of_Missouri_System "University of Missouri System") is Missouri's statewide public university system. The flagship institution and largest university in the state is the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri "University of Missouri") in [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia%2C_Missouri "Columbia, Missouri"). The others in the system are [University of Missouri–Kansas City](/wiki/University_of_Missouri%E2%80%93Kansas_City "University of Missouri–Kansas City"), [University of Missouri–St. Louis](/wiki/University_of_Missouri%E2%80%93St._Louis "University of Missouri–St. Louis"), and [Missouri University of Science and Technology](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology "Missouri University of Science and Technology") in [Rolla](/wiki/Rolla%2C_Missouri "Rolla, Missouri"). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the state established a series of [normal schools](/wiki/Normal_school "Normal school") in each region of the state, originally named after the geographic districts: Northeast Missouri State University (now [Truman State University](/wiki/Truman_State_University "Truman State University")) (1867\), Central Missouri State University (now the [University of Central Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Central_Missouri "University of Central Missouri")) (1871\), [Southeast Missouri State University](/wiki/Southeast_Missouri_State_University "Southeast Missouri State University") (1873\), Southwest Missouri State University (now [Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University "Missouri State University")) (1905\), [Northwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_University "Northwest Missouri State University") (1905\), [Missouri Western State University](/wiki/Missouri_Western_State_University "Missouri Western State University") (1915\), [Maryville University](/wiki/Maryville_University "Maryville University") (1872\) and [Missouri Southern State University](/wiki/Missouri_Southern_State_University "Missouri Southern State University") (1937\). [Lincoln University](/wiki/Lincoln_University_%28Missouri%29 "Lincoln University (Missouri)") and [Harris–Stowe State University](/wiki/Harris%E2%80%93Stowe_State_University "Harris–Stowe State University") were established in the mid\-nineteenth century and are [historically black colleges and universities](/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities "Historically black colleges and universities"). Among private institutions [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis "Washington University in St. Louis") and [Saint Louis University](/wiki/Saint_Louis_University "Saint Louis University") are two top ranked schools in the US."[America's Best Colleges 2008: National Universities: Top Schools.](http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php)" USNews.com: . January 18, 2008\. {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730131502/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc\_brief.php \|date\=July 30, 2008 }} There are numerous junior colleges, trade schools, church universities and other private universities in the state. [A.T. Still University](/wiki/A.T._Still_University "A.T. Still University") was the first [osteopathic](/wiki/Osteopathic "Osteopathic") medical school in the world. [Hannibal–LaGrange University](/wiki/Hannibal%E2%80%93LaGrange_University "Hannibal–LaGrange University") in Hannibal, Missouri, was one of the first colleges west of the Mississippi (founded 1858 in LaGrange, Missouri, and moved to Hannibal in 1928\).{{cite web \|author\=Don Colborn, PhD \|url\=http://www.hlg.edu/newsinfo/about.php \|title\=HLGU—About HLG \|publisher\=Hlg.edu \|access\-date\=December 10, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122153408/http://www.hlg.edu/newsinfo/about.php \|archive\-date\=November 22, 2011 \|url\-status\=live }} The state funds a $3000, renewable merit\-based scholarship, [Bright Flight](/wiki/Bright_Flight_%28Missouri_scholarship%29 "Bright Flight (Missouri scholarship)"), given to the top three percent of Missouri high school graduates who attend a university in\-state. The 19th\-century border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri "University of Missouri") and [University of Kansas](/wiki/University_of_Kansas "University of Kansas"). The rivalry was chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities, but since Missouri left the [Big 12 Conference](/wiki/Big_12_Conference "Big 12 Conference") in 2012, the teams no longer regularly play one another. It was the oldest college rivalry west of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River") and the second\-oldest in the nation. Each year when the universities met to play, the game was coined the "Border War". Following the game, an exchange occurred where the winner took a historic Indian War Drum, which had been passed back and forth for decades. Though Missouri and Kansas no longer have an annual game after the University of Missouri moved to the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference "Southeastern Conference"), rivalry still exists between them.
[ "Education\n---------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2020}}\n{{Main\\|Education in Missouri}}\n{{Further\\|Missouri Virtual Instruction Program}}", "### Missouri State Board of Education", "The [Missouri State Board of Education](/wiki/Missouri_State_Board_of_Education \"Missouri State Board of Education\") has general authority over all public education in the state of Missouri. It is made up of eight citizens appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Missouri Senate.", "### Primary and secondary schools", "{{See also\\|List of school districts in Missouri\\|List of high schools in Missouri}}", "Education is compulsory from ages seven to seventeen. It is required that any parent, guardian, or another person with custody of a child between the ages of seven and seventeen, the compulsory attendance age for the district, must ensure the child is enrolled in and regularly attends public, private, parochial school, home school or a combination of schools for the full term of the school year. Compulsory attendance also ends when children complete sixteen credits in high school.", "Children in Missouri between the ages of five and seven are not required to be enrolled in school. However, if they are enrolled in a public school, their parent, guardian, or custodian must ensure they regularly attend.", "Missouri schools are commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\") or [junior high school](/wiki/Junior_high_school \"Junior high school\") and high school. The public school system includes kindergarten to 12th grade. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle, and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district. As another example, special education and related services for students in the twenty\\-two school districts of St. Louis County are provided by staff employed by a special school district, a local education agency that serves students county\\-wide. High school athletics and competitions are governed by the [Missouri State High School Activities Association](/wiki/Missouri_State_High_School_Activities_Association \"Missouri State High School Activities Association\") (MSHSAA).", "[Homeschooling](/wiki/Homeschooling \"Homeschooling\") is legal in Missouri and is an option to meet the compulsory education requirement. It is neither monitored nor regulated by the state's Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.{{cite web \\|author\\=Missouri Department Of Elementary And Secondary Education \\|url\\=http://www.dese.mo.gov/schoollaw/HomeSch/ \\|title\\=Home Schooling \\|publisher\\=Dese.mo.gov \\|date\\=September 2, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514195922/http://dese.mo.gov/schoollaw/HomeSch/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 14, 2011 }}", "Another gifted school is the [Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing](/wiki/Missouri_Academy_of_Science%2C_Mathematics_and_Computing \"Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing\"), which is at the [Northwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_University \"Northwest Missouri State University\").", "### Colleges and universities", "{{See also\\|List of colleges and universities in Missouri\\|List of defunct colleges and universities in Missouri}}\n[thumb\\|[Jesse Hall](/wiki/Jesse_Hall \"Jesse Hall\") on the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri \"University of Missouri\") campus](/wiki/File:University_of_Missouri_-_Jesse_Hall.jpg \"University of Missouri - Jesse Hall.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Brookings Hall at [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis \"Washington University in St. Louis\")](/wiki/File:Brookings.jpg \"Brookings.jpg\")", "The [University of Missouri System](/wiki/University_of_Missouri_System \"University of Missouri System\") is Missouri's statewide public university system. The flagship institution and largest university in the state is the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri \"University of Missouri\") in [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia%2C_Missouri \"Columbia, Missouri\"). The others in the system are [University of Missouri–Kansas City](/wiki/University_of_Missouri%E2%80%93Kansas_City \"University of Missouri–Kansas City\"), [University of Missouri–St. Louis](/wiki/University_of_Missouri%E2%80%93St._Louis \"University of Missouri–St. Louis\"), and [Missouri University of Science and Technology](/wiki/Missouri_University_of_Science_and_Technology \"Missouri University of Science and Technology\") in [Rolla](/wiki/Rolla%2C_Missouri \"Rolla, Missouri\").", "During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the state established a series of [normal schools](/wiki/Normal_school \"Normal school\") in each region of the state, originally named after the geographic districts: Northeast Missouri State University (now [Truman State University](/wiki/Truman_State_University \"Truman State University\")) (1867\\), Central Missouri State University (now the [University of Central Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Central_Missouri \"University of Central Missouri\")) (1871\\), [Southeast Missouri State University](/wiki/Southeast_Missouri_State_University \"Southeast Missouri State University\") (1873\\), Southwest Missouri State University (now [Missouri State University](/wiki/Missouri_State_University \"Missouri State University\")) (1905\\), [Northwest Missouri State University](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_University \"Northwest Missouri State University\") (1905\\), [Missouri Western State University](/wiki/Missouri_Western_State_University \"Missouri Western State University\") (1915\\), [Maryville University](/wiki/Maryville_University \"Maryville University\") (1872\\) and [Missouri Southern State University](/wiki/Missouri_Southern_State_University \"Missouri Southern State University\") (1937\\). [Lincoln University](/wiki/Lincoln_University_%28Missouri%29 \"Lincoln University (Missouri)\") and [Harris–Stowe State University](/wiki/Harris%E2%80%93Stowe_State_University \"Harris–Stowe State University\") were established in the mid\\-nineteenth century and are [historically black colleges and universities](/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities \"Historically black colleges and universities\").", "Among private institutions [Washington University in St. Louis](/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis \"Washington University in St. Louis\") and [Saint Louis University](/wiki/Saint_Louis_University \"Saint Louis University\") are two top ranked schools in the US.\"[America's Best Colleges 2008: National Universities: Top Schools.](http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php)\" USNews.com: . January 18, 2008\\. {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730131502/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc\\_brief.php \\|date\\=July 30, 2008 }} There are numerous junior colleges, trade schools, church universities and other private universities in the state. [A.T. Still University](/wiki/A.T._Still_University \"A.T. Still University\") was the first [osteopathic](/wiki/Osteopathic \"Osteopathic\") medical school in the world. [Hannibal–LaGrange University](/wiki/Hannibal%E2%80%93LaGrange_University \"Hannibal–LaGrange University\") in Hannibal, Missouri, was one of the first colleges west of the Mississippi (founded 1858 in LaGrange, Missouri, and moved to Hannibal in 1928\\).{{cite web \\|author\\=Don Colborn, PhD \\|url\\=http://www.hlg.edu/newsinfo/about.php \\|title\\=HLGU—About HLG \\|publisher\\=Hlg.edu \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122153408/http://www.hlg.edu/newsinfo/about.php \\|archive\\-date\\=November 22, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The state funds a $3000, renewable merit\\-based scholarship, [Bright Flight](/wiki/Bright_Flight_%28Missouri_scholarship%29 \"Bright Flight (Missouri scholarship)\"), given to the top three percent of Missouri high school graduates who attend a university in\\-state.", "The 19th\\-century border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the [University of Missouri](/wiki/University_of_Missouri \"University of Missouri\") and [University of Kansas](/wiki/University_of_Kansas \"University of Kansas\"). The rivalry was chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities, but since Missouri left the [Big 12 Conference](/wiki/Big_12_Conference \"Big 12 Conference\") in 2012, the teams no longer regularly play one another. It was the oldest college rivalry west of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") and the second\\-oldest in the nation. Each year when the universities met to play, the game was coined the \"Border War\". Following the game, an exchange occurred where the winner took a historic Indian War Drum, which had been passed back and forth for decades. Though Missouri and Kansas no longer have an annual game after the University of Missouri moved to the [Southeastern Conference](/wiki/Southeastern_Conference \"Southeastern Conference\"), rivalry still exists between them.", "" ]
Intellivision and Electronic Arts in the 1980s ---------------------------------------------- In 1980, Daglow was hired as one of the original five in\-house [Intellivision](/wiki/Intellivision "Intellivision") programmers at [Mattel](/wiki/Mattel "Mattel") during the first [console wars](/wiki/Console_wars "Console wars").Olsen, Jennifer (July 2001\). "Profiles: Don Daglow—breaking typecasts", *[Game Developer](/wiki/Game_Developer_%28magazine%29 "Game Developer (magazine)")* **8** (7\): 18\.{{cite magazine \| title\=The Changing Role of Computer Game Designers \| magazine\=\[\[Computer Gaming World]] \| issue\=50 \| date\=August 1988 \| url\=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/issues/cgw\_50\.pdf \| access\-date\=23 April 2016 \| last\=Daglow \| first\=Don L. \| page\=18}} Intellivision titles where he did programming and extensive ongoing design include: * *[Geography Challenge](/wiki/Geography_Challenge "Geography Challenge")* (1981\) — an educational title for the ill\-fated Intellivision [Keyboard component](/wiki/Keyboard_component "Keyboard component"). * *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28video_game%29 "Utopia (video game)")* — the first [sim game](/wiki/Construction_and_management_simulation_games "Construction and management simulation games") or [god game](/wiki/God_game "God game") (1982\). *Utopia* was a surprise hit and received wide press coverage for its unique design in an arcade\-dominated era. The game has been named to two different video game halls of fame. * *[Intellivision World Series Baseball](/wiki/Intellivision_World_Series_Baseball "Intellivision World Series Baseball")* (1983\) — the first video game to use multiple camera angles to display the action rather than a static playfield; developed with [Eddie Dombrower](/wiki/Eddie_Dombrower "Eddie Dombrower"). As the team grew into what in 1982 became known as the [Blue Sky Rangers](/wiki/Blue_Sky_Rangers "Blue Sky Rangers"), Daglow was promoted to be Director of Intellivision Game Development, where he created the original designs for a number of Mattel titles in 1982\-83 that were enhanced and expanded by other programmers, including: * *[Tron: Deadly Discs](/wiki/Tron:Deadly_Discs "Deadly Discs")* (programmed by Steve Sents) * *[Shark! Shark!](/wiki/Shark%21_Shark%21 "Shark! Shark!")* (programmed by Ji\-Wen Tsao) * *[Buzz Bombers](/wiki/Buzz_Bombers "Buzz Bombers")* (programmed by [Michael Breen](/wiki/Michael_Breen_%28developer%29 "Michael Breen (developer)")) * *[Pinball](/wiki/Pinball_%28Intellivision_game%29 "Pinball (Intellivision game)")* (programmed by Minh\-Chau Tran). During the [Video Game Crash of 1983](/wiki/Video_Game_Crash_of_1983 "Video Game Crash of 1983") Daglow was recruited to join [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts") by founder [Trip Hawkins](/wiki/Trip_Hawkins "Trip Hawkins"), where he joined the EA producer team of [Joe Ybarra](/wiki/Joe_Ybarra "Joe Ybarra") and Stewart Bonn. In addition to Dombrower, at EA, Daglow often worked with former members of the Intellivision team, including programmer [Rick Koenig](/wiki/Rick_Koenig "Rick Koenig"), artist [Connie Goldman](/wiki/Connie_Goldman "Connie Goldman") and musician [Dave Warhol](/wiki/Dave_Warhol "Dave Warhol"). Daglow spent 1987–88 at [Broderbund](/wiki/Broderbund "Broderbund") as head of the company's Entertainment and Education Division. Although he supervised the creation of games like [Jordan Mechner](/wiki/Jordan_Mechner "Jordan Mechner")'s *[Prince of Persia](/wiki/Prince_of_Persia "Prince of Persia")*, *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars_%281983_video_game%29 "Star Wars (1983 video game)")*, the *[Ancient Art of War](/wiki/Ancient_Art_of_War "Ancient Art of War")* series, and *[Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?](/wiki/Where_in_the_World_Is_Carmen_Sandiego%3F_%281985_video_game%29 "Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? (1985 video game)")*, his role was executive rather than creative. He took a lead role in signing the original distribution deal for *[SimCity](/wiki/SimCity_%281989_video_game%29 "SimCity (1989 video game)")* with [Maxis](/wiki/Maxis "Maxis"), and acquired the *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars "Star Wars")* license for Broderbund from [Lucasfilm](/wiki/Lucasfilm "Lucasfilm").
[ "Intellivision and Electronic Arts in the 1980s\n----------------------------------------------", "In 1980, Daglow was hired as one of the original five in\\-house [Intellivision](/wiki/Intellivision \"Intellivision\") programmers at [Mattel](/wiki/Mattel \"Mattel\") during the first [console wars](/wiki/Console_wars \"Console wars\").Olsen, Jennifer (July 2001\\). \"Profiles: Don Daglow—breaking typecasts\", *[Game Developer](/wiki/Game_Developer_%28magazine%29 \"Game Developer (magazine)\")* **8** (7\\): 18\\.{{cite magazine \\| title\\=The Changing Role of Computer Game Designers \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Computer Gaming World]] \\| issue\\=50 \\| date\\=August 1988 \\| url\\=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/issues/cgw\\_50\\.pdf \\| access\\-date\\=23 April 2016 \\| last\\=Daglow \\| first\\=Don L. \\| page\\=18}} Intellivision titles where he did programming and extensive ongoing design include:\n* *[Geography Challenge](/wiki/Geography_Challenge \"Geography Challenge\")* (1981\\) — an educational title for the ill\\-fated Intellivision [Keyboard component](/wiki/Keyboard_component \"Keyboard component\").\n* *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28video_game%29 \"Utopia (video game)\")* — the first [sim game](/wiki/Construction_and_management_simulation_games \"Construction and management simulation games\") or [god game](/wiki/God_game \"God game\") (1982\\). *Utopia* was a surprise hit and received wide press coverage for its unique design in an arcade\\-dominated era. The game has been named to two different video game halls of fame.\n* *[Intellivision World Series Baseball](/wiki/Intellivision_World_Series_Baseball \"Intellivision World Series Baseball\")* (1983\\) — the first video game to use multiple camera angles to display the action rather than a static playfield; developed with [Eddie Dombrower](/wiki/Eddie_Dombrower \"Eddie Dombrower\").", "As the team grew into what in 1982 became known as the [Blue Sky Rangers](/wiki/Blue_Sky_Rangers \"Blue Sky Rangers\"), Daglow was promoted to be Director of Intellivision Game Development, where he created the original designs for a number of Mattel titles in 1982\\-83 that were enhanced and expanded by other programmers, including:\n* *[Tron: Deadly Discs](/wiki/Tron:Deadly_Discs \"Deadly Discs\")* (programmed by Steve Sents)\n* *[Shark! Shark!](/wiki/Shark%21_Shark%21 \"Shark! Shark!\")* (programmed by Ji\\-Wen Tsao)\n* *[Buzz Bombers](/wiki/Buzz_Bombers \"Buzz Bombers\")* (programmed by [Michael Breen](/wiki/Michael_Breen_%28developer%29 \"Michael Breen (developer)\"))\n* *[Pinball](/wiki/Pinball_%28Intellivision_game%29 \"Pinball (Intellivision game)\")* (programmed by Minh\\-Chau Tran).", "During the [Video Game Crash of 1983](/wiki/Video_Game_Crash_of_1983 \"Video Game Crash of 1983\") Daglow was recruited to join [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\") by founder [Trip Hawkins](/wiki/Trip_Hawkins \"Trip Hawkins\"), where he joined the EA producer team of [Joe Ybarra](/wiki/Joe_Ybarra \"Joe Ybarra\") and Stewart Bonn.", "In addition to Dombrower, at EA, Daglow often worked with former members of the Intellivision team, including programmer [Rick Koenig](/wiki/Rick_Koenig \"Rick Koenig\"), artist [Connie Goldman](/wiki/Connie_Goldman \"Connie Goldman\") and musician [Dave Warhol](/wiki/Dave_Warhol \"Dave Warhol\").", "Daglow spent 1987–88 at [Broderbund](/wiki/Broderbund \"Broderbund\") as head of the company's Entertainment and Education Division. Although he supervised the creation of games like [Jordan Mechner](/wiki/Jordan_Mechner \"Jordan Mechner\")'s *[Prince of Persia](/wiki/Prince_of_Persia \"Prince of Persia\")*, *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars_%281983_video_game%29 \"Star Wars (1983 video game)\")*, the *[Ancient Art of War](/wiki/Ancient_Art_of_War \"Ancient Art of War\")* series, and *[Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?](/wiki/Where_in_the_World_Is_Carmen_Sandiego%3F_%281985_video_game%29 \"Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? (1985 video game)\")*, his role was executive rather than creative. He took a lead role in signing the original distribution deal for *[SimCity](/wiki/SimCity_%281989_video_game%29 \"SimCity (1989 video game)\")* with [Maxis](/wiki/Maxis \"Maxis\"), and acquired the *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars \"Star Wars\")* license for Broderbund from [Lucasfilm](/wiki/Lucasfilm \"Lucasfilm\").", "" ]
Application ----------- The concept of cumulative learning can, and has been, applied to real\-world situations. A very simple example is the saying 'you can't run before you can walk'; the [procedural memory](/wiki/Procedural_memory "Procedural memory") built while learning to walk is necessary before one can start to learn to run. Pronouncing words is impossible without first learning to pronounce the vowels and consonants that make them up (hence babies' [babbling](/wiki/Babbling "Babbling")). This is an essential cognitive capacity, allowing prior development to produce new foundations for further cognitive development. There is plenty of literature surrounding the use of cumulative learning in artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificially general intelligent systems use cumulative learning, as they need to handle unknown dynamic environments where information isn't known upfront \- precisely as described in the principle of cumulative learning. With regard to machine learning, information is compared and put into a framework for use with future processes or problem\-solving tasks. Mechanisms in learning that can result in the development of knowledge and skills are cumulative and structural in nature. Arguably, all learning is cumulative learning, as all learning depends on previous learning.Richey, Rita C. "The future role of Robert M. Gagne in instructional design." The Legacy of Robert M. Gagne (2000\): 255\-281\. Cumulative learning consolidates the knowledge one has obtained through experiences, allowing it to be reproduced and exploited for subsequent learning situations through cumulative interaction between prior knowledge and new information. On a similar note, cumulative cultural learning is the idea that children inherit group\-specific knowledge from the cultural ecologies they inhabit.{{cite journal \|last1\=Legare \|first1\=Cristine H. \|title\=The Development of Cumulative Cultural Learning \|journal\=Annual Review of Developmental Psychology \|date\=24 December 2019 \|volume\=1 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=119–147 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-devpsych\-121318\-084848\|pmid\=38250669 \|s2cid\=210130442 \|pmc\=10798662 }} Children construct new knowledge by updating and revising previous beliefs, learning through observations, participation and imitation. It shows how the principle of cumulative learning can be applied to situations from an early age, and is present in all learning opportunities throughout a person's lifetime. This type of cumulative learning is also reflected in the policy rhetoric \- there is a continuous building of knowledge, addition of new skills and new meanings given to existing abilities.; something which is required for the development of new policies. Experiments are deemed valuable because they promote cumulative learning \- the replication and extension of experimental designs are the most reliable route to it.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dunning \|first1\=Thad \|title\=Transparency, Replication, and Cumulative Learning: What Experiments Alone Cannot Achieve \|journal\=Annual Review of Political Science \|date\=11 May 2016 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=S1–S23 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-polisci\-072516\-014127\|doi\-access\=free }} They provide learning opportunities as if a test doesn't go as planned, a researcher can use the information gained to adapt the methods used in the next experiment. However, relying on the naturally occurring replication of experimental research may not suffice to promote cumulative learning because interventions and outcomes measures are different across disparate contexts.
[ "Application\n-----------", "The concept of cumulative learning can, and has been, applied to real\\-world situations. A very simple example is the saying 'you can't run before you can walk'; the [procedural memory](/wiki/Procedural_memory \"Procedural memory\") built while learning to walk is necessary before one can start to learn to run. Pronouncing words is impossible without first learning to pronounce the vowels and consonants that make them up (hence babies' [babbling](/wiki/Babbling \"Babbling\")). This is an essential cognitive capacity, allowing prior development to produce new foundations for further cognitive development.", "There is plenty of literature surrounding the use of cumulative learning in artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificially general intelligent systems use cumulative learning, as they need to handle unknown dynamic environments where information isn't known upfront \\- precisely as described in the principle of cumulative learning. With regard to machine learning, information is compared and put into a framework for use with future processes or problem\\-solving tasks. Mechanisms in learning that can result in the development of knowledge and skills are cumulative and structural in nature.", "Arguably, all learning is cumulative learning, as all learning depends on previous learning.Richey, Rita C. \"The future role of Robert M. Gagne in instructional design.\" The Legacy of Robert M. Gagne (2000\\): 255\\-281\\. Cumulative learning consolidates the knowledge one has obtained through experiences, allowing it to be reproduced and exploited for subsequent learning situations through cumulative interaction between prior knowledge and new information.", "On a similar note, cumulative cultural learning is the idea that children inherit group\\-specific knowledge from the cultural ecologies they inhabit.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Legare \\|first1\\=Cristine H. \\|title\\=The Development of Cumulative Cultural Learning \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Developmental Psychology \\|date\\=24 December 2019 \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=119–147 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-devpsych\\-121318\\-084848\\|pmid\\=38250669 \\|s2cid\\=210130442 \\|pmc\\=10798662 }} Children construct new knowledge by updating and revising previous beliefs, learning through observations, participation and imitation. It shows how the principle of cumulative learning can be applied to situations from an early age, and is present in all learning opportunities throughout a person's lifetime. This type of cumulative learning is also reflected in the policy rhetoric \\- there is a continuous building of knowledge, addition of new skills and new meanings given to existing abilities.; something which is required for the development of new policies.", "Experiments are deemed valuable because they promote cumulative learning \\- the replication and extension of experimental designs are the most reliable route to it.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dunning \\|first1\\=Thad \\|title\\=Transparency, Replication, and Cumulative Learning: What Experiments Alone Cannot Achieve \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Political Science \\|date\\=11 May 2016 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=S1–S23 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-polisci\\-072516\\-014127\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} They provide learning opportunities as if a test doesn't go as planned, a researcher can use the information gained to adapt the methods used in the next experiment. However, relying on the naturally occurring replication of experimental research may not suffice to promote cumulative learning because interventions and outcomes measures are different across disparate contexts.", "" ]
Operation --------- ### Preliminaries The Lublin Aircraft Factory was heavily damaged in air raids during the [German invasion of Poland](/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland "German invasion of Poland"), and manufacturing facilities were converted by the Germans into the warehouses and a minor POW camp. During 1940\-1942 it was utilized as horse stables, the [Waffen SS](/wiki/Waffen_SS "Waffen SS") Clothing Storehouses as well as the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") technical service unit. By July 1940 a temporary labor camp for the rounded\-up Jews was created on the premises for dismantling works, which was disbanded upon the completion of the works. During 1941\-1942 the SS Garment Factory operated on the premises, which employed Jewish tailors and furriers. A part of the activities of the garment factory was sorting and recycling of fur goods confiscated during the so\-called *Pelzaktion* ("Fur Action" Sybille Steinbacher, "In the Shadow of Auschwitz. The Murder of the Jews of East Upper Silesia", In:*National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies*, 2000, {{ISBN\|1571817514}}, [p. 287](https://books.google.com/books?id=AAx-Gfo163EC&pg=PA287)) The factory was replaced with the storehouse which sorted goods looted from the Jews during the [Operation Reinhard](/wiki/Operation_Reinhard "Operation Reinhard"). Since Winter 1942 a permanent forced labor camp was organized for Polish and Jewish females. Since 1943 it confined only Jewish females. ### Actual airfield camp In 1942 the construction of the actual Lublin airfield camp was commenced, and in September it was ready to confine some 1,200 construction workers. Later it was decided to relocate the female camp to the newly constructed airfield camp as well. During Operation Reinhard the camp was used as sorting grounds to separate skilled laborers from the arriving transports of the Jews. In Fall 1943 all nearby *[Ostarbeiter](/wiki/Ostarbeiter "Ostarbeiter")* labor camps were formally resubordinated from [Ostindustrie](/wiki/Ostindustrie "Ostindustrie") to [Majdanek](/wiki/Majdanek "Majdanek") camp system. In the case of the Flugplatz camp this was never implemented because in November 1943 the [Operation Harvest Festival](/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival "Operation Harvest Festival") to murder Jewish forced laborers in [Lublin District](/wiki/Lublin_District "Lublin District") was carried out. The Jewish inmates of the camp [were marched out](/wiki/Death_marches_%28Holocaust%29 "Death marches (Holocaust)") to Majdanek and nearly all were killed there. The camp was liquidated at the same time.
[ "Operation\n---------", "### Preliminaries", "The Lublin Aircraft Factory was heavily damaged in air raids during the [German invasion of Poland](/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland \"German invasion of Poland\"), and manufacturing facilities were converted by the Germans into the warehouses and a minor POW camp. During 1940\\-1942 it was utilized as horse stables, the [Waffen SS](/wiki/Waffen_SS \"Waffen SS\") Clothing Storehouses as well as the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") technical service unit.", "By July 1940 a temporary labor camp for the rounded\\-up Jews was created on the premises for dismantling works, which was disbanded upon the completion of the works.", "During 1941\\-1942 the SS Garment Factory operated on the premises, which employed Jewish tailors and furriers. A part of the activities of the garment factory was sorting and recycling of fur goods confiscated during the so\\-called *Pelzaktion* (\"Fur Action\" Sybille Steinbacher, \"In the Shadow of Auschwitz. The Murder of the Jews of East Upper Silesia\", In:*National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies*, 2000, {{ISBN\\|1571817514}}, [p. 287](https://books.google.com/books?id=AAx-Gfo163EC&pg=PA287)) The factory was replaced with the storehouse which sorted goods looted from the Jews during the [Operation Reinhard](/wiki/Operation_Reinhard \"Operation Reinhard\").", "Since Winter 1942 a permanent forced labor camp was organized for Polish and Jewish females. Since 1943 it confined only Jewish females.", "### Actual airfield camp", "In 1942 the construction of the actual Lublin airfield camp was commenced, and in September it was ready to confine some 1,200 construction workers. Later it was decided to relocate the female camp to the newly constructed airfield camp as well.", "During Operation Reinhard the camp was used as sorting grounds to separate skilled laborers from the arriving transports of the Jews.", "In Fall 1943 all nearby *[Ostarbeiter](/wiki/Ostarbeiter \"Ostarbeiter\")* labor camps were formally resubordinated from [Ostindustrie](/wiki/Ostindustrie \"Ostindustrie\") to [Majdanek](/wiki/Majdanek \"Majdanek\") camp system.\nIn the case of the Flugplatz camp this was never implemented because in November 1943 the [Operation Harvest Festival](/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival \"Operation Harvest Festival\") to murder Jewish forced laborers in [Lublin District](/wiki/Lublin_District \"Lublin District\") was carried out. The Jewish inmates of the camp [were marched out](/wiki/Death_marches_%28Holocaust%29 \"Death marches (Holocaust)\") to Majdanek and nearly all were killed there. The camp was liquidated at the same time.", "" ]
History ------- ### Founders of Hinulawan Toledo City came from Old Hinulawan and New Hinulawan. Old Hinulawan, presently called Daanglungsod, was founded by Mariano Libre, Fulgencio Lebumfacil, Areston Macapaz, Adriano Blanco, and Tranquilino Blanco. New Hinulawan, presently called Toledo (on the present site), was founded by Fermin Poloyapoy, Máximo Macapobre, Jacinto López, Jestoni P. Estrada,Servando de Jesus, Juan Libre, Agapito Nieves, Francisco Blanco,Geresola,Compra,Amaquin, Paraba,Concina,Camoro,Laspoña, and Sñr. Noel Dayot ### Destruction of Old Hinulawan On June 3, 1863 a series of earthquakes shook Hinulawan. The first tremor toppled the newly built school, leveled several houses to the ground, and caused the church facade to collapse. It caused injuries and death to several residents from falling debris. The quake that followed brought greater damage: complete destruction of the church and the convent; cracking of the lowlands in all directions; crumbling of the stonewalls along the Hinulawan river bank; and sagging of the ground, causing water from the sea and the river to rush in and flood the settlement to waist level. A third temblor totally destroyed Pueblo Hinulawan. The survivors were rescued by residents of neighboring highland localities. ### New Hinulawan The refugees who survived the Hinulawan earthquakes slowly rebuilt their lives in the days that followed. With the help of the people of Barangay Tubod, some of the survivors cleared portions of the virgin forest and plateau in the vicinity of Tubod and constructed houses with roof made of cogon grass. Those who did now want to live in the new clearings built their homes at the foot of the Tubod highlands. They buried their dead in a cemetery in a certain part of the plateau not far from where they lived. The area occupied by this particular group, a majority of the survivors, subsequently evolved into the New Hinulawan. A minority of the refugees decided to migrate to other places: the hinterlands of Da\-o, Bulok\-bulok, Landahan, and Sam\-ang as well as the pioneering settlements in the seafronts of Cabito\-onan and Batohanon. In those days pirate attacks against pueblos situated near the shores of Tañon Strait were rampant. To protect themselves against such attacks, the residents of New Hinulawan built a baluarte, or bulwark, made of chopped stone blocks piled along the shoreline. With the passage of time, however, the bulwark became dilapidated and fell apart, its remnants forever buried in the sand during the construction of the first municipio, or Municipal Hall building. The municipio itself was destroyed by Philippine Commonwealth troops and Cebuano guerrillas in World War II. Many years later, a few among those who resettled in New Hinulawan decided to return to their former homes in Old Hinulawan when the depressed lowlands gradually became habitable. Old Hinulawan is the present\-day Barangay Daanglungsod. The majority who opted to remain in New Hinulawan worked hard to regain the prosperity they had achieved before Old Hinulawan was wiped out by catastrophe. ### Pueblo Toledo Two significant events happened in mid\-1869 which led to the change of name of New Hinulawan: Carlos María de la Torre (1869\-1872\) became the new Spanish Governor\-general of the Philippines. Father Mariano Brazal (1869\-1876\), who championed the Filipinization of parishes, assumed the duties as parish priest of New Hinulawan, replacing Father Servando Seoane who was transferred to another parish. Fr. Brazal and the new Governor\-general were proponents of political liberalism which was on the rise in Spain during that period following the fall of Queen Isabel II. Meanwhile, the alcalde mayor of Cebu (equivalent to the modern\-day Cebu Provincial Governor), Esteban Perez, was the boyhood friend of governor\-general De la Torre in their hometown Toledo, Spain. Perez was married to a Philippine woman and used to spend his vacation with his family in Talavera, a part of New Hinulawan, where he owned a beach resort. He and Fr. Brazal were also good friends. A welcome banquet was given in the governor\-general's palace in Manila in the evening of July 12, 1869 which was attended by students, priests, and Filipino leaders to express their gratitude to De la Torre's liberal policies. During that happy occasion Carlos Maria de la Torre and Esteban Perez had the opportunity to reminisce their boyhood days in Spain in the presence of Fr. Mariano Brazal. In the course of their recollection of the happy past, Perez told the governor\-general about New Hinulawan and his special affection for the place because his Filipina wife was a native of Talavera, a barangay of New Hinulawan. He told De la Torre about how similar the environment of New Hinulawan was to their homeland Toledo, Spain and how the winding river of Hinulawan was comparable to Rio Tagus Tajo in Spain. That evening Perez and Fr. Brazal recommended to the governor\-general that the name of New Hinulawan be changed to Toledo. Governor\-general De la Torre delightfully approved the recommendation at once. He even announced to all people present in the banquet the promulgation of a decree changing the name of pueblo New Hinulawan in the province of Cebu into pueblo Toledo, the name of his beloved birthplace in Spain. ### Second World War In 1942 the Japanese Imperial forces captured and occupied the town of Toledo. In 1945, local Filipino forces of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the [8th](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 "8th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)"), [82nd](/wiki/82nd_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 "82nd Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)"), [83rd](/wiki/83rd_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 "83rd Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)"), [85th](/wiki/85th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 "85th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)") and [86th Infantry Division](/wiki/86th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 "86th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)") aided by Cebuano guerrilla resistance fighters, battled against the Japanese Imperial forces and liberated the town of Toledo. ### Cityhood {{main\|Cities of the Philippines}} On June 19, 1960, Toledo became a chartered city under Republic Act No. 2688\. It was made into a city through the efforts of then Congressman Manuel A. Zosa, representative of the old Sixth District Cebu, who authored Republic Act No. 2688\. Although not as progressive as Cebu's other cities, it is unique in that it is the only city in the province on the western seaboard facing [Negros Oriental](/wiki/Negros_Oriental "Negros Oriental") – and therefore strategically located. ([Danao](/wiki/Danao%2C_Cebu "Danao, Cebu"), [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue "Mandaue"), [Lapu\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu "Lapu-Lapu"), [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City"), [Talisay](/wiki/Talisay%2C_Cebu "Talisay, Cebu"), [Naga](/wiki/Naga%2C_Cebu "Naga, Cebu"), and [Carcar](/wiki/Carcar "Carcar") are on the east. One more city, [Bogo](/wiki/Bogo%2C_Cebu "Bogo, Cebu"), is in the north, on the eastern side.) ### Shrine of Saint Pedro Calungsod Following the canonization on October 21, 2012, of Visayan teen martyr [Pedro Calungsod](/wiki/Pedro_Calungsod "Pedro Calungsod") (1672\), the hilltop parish of Cantabaco became the first shrine and church named after the second Filipino saint.{{sfn\|Philippine Star\|2012}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Founders of Hinulawan", "Toledo City came from Old Hinulawan and New Hinulawan.\nOld Hinulawan, presently called Daanglungsod, was founded by Mariano Libre, Fulgencio Lebumfacil, Areston Macapaz, Adriano Blanco, and Tranquilino Blanco.", "New Hinulawan, presently called Toledo (on the present site), was founded by Fermin Poloyapoy, Máximo Macapobre, Jacinto López, Jestoni P. Estrada,Servando de Jesus, Juan Libre, Agapito Nieves, Francisco Blanco,Geresola,Compra,Amaquin, Paraba,Concina,Camoro,Laspoña, and Sñr. Noel Dayot", "### Destruction of Old Hinulawan", "On June 3, 1863 a series of earthquakes shook Hinulawan.\nThe first tremor toppled the newly built school, leveled several houses to the ground, and caused the church facade to collapse. It caused injuries and death to several residents from falling debris.", "The quake that followed brought greater damage: complete destruction of the church and the convent; cracking of the lowlands in all directions; crumbling of the stonewalls along the Hinulawan river bank; and sagging of the ground, causing water from the sea and the river to rush in and flood the settlement to waist level.", "A third temblor totally destroyed Pueblo Hinulawan.", "The survivors were rescued by residents of neighboring highland localities.", "### New Hinulawan", "The refugees who survived the Hinulawan earthquakes slowly rebuilt their lives in the days that followed. With the help of the people of Barangay Tubod, some of the survivors cleared portions of the virgin forest and plateau in the vicinity of Tubod and constructed houses with roof made of cogon grass. Those who did now want to live in the new clearings built their homes at the foot of the Tubod highlands. They buried their dead in a cemetery in a certain part of the plateau not far from where they lived.", "The area occupied by this particular group, a majority of the survivors, subsequently evolved into the New Hinulawan.", "A minority of the refugees decided to migrate to other places: the hinterlands of Da\\-o, Bulok\\-bulok, Landahan, and Sam\\-ang as well as the pioneering settlements in the seafronts of Cabito\\-onan and Batohanon.", "In those days pirate attacks against pueblos situated near the shores of Tañon Strait were rampant. To protect themselves against such attacks, the residents of New Hinulawan built a baluarte, or bulwark, made of chopped stone blocks piled along the shoreline. With the passage of time, however, the bulwark became dilapidated and fell apart, its remnants forever buried in the sand during the construction of the first municipio, or Municipal Hall building. The municipio itself was destroyed by Philippine Commonwealth troops and Cebuano guerrillas in World War II.", "Many years later, a few among those who resettled in New Hinulawan decided to return to their former homes in Old Hinulawan when the depressed lowlands gradually became habitable. Old Hinulawan is the present\\-day Barangay Daanglungsod.", "The majority who opted to remain in New Hinulawan worked hard to regain the prosperity they had achieved before Old Hinulawan was wiped out by catastrophe.", "### Pueblo Toledo", "Two significant events happened in mid\\-1869 which led to the change of name of New Hinulawan:", "Carlos María de la Torre (1869\\-1872\\) became the new Spanish Governor\\-general of the Philippines.\nFather Mariano Brazal (1869\\-1876\\), who championed the Filipinization of parishes, assumed the duties as parish priest of New Hinulawan, replacing Father Servando Seoane who was transferred to another parish.\nFr. Brazal and the new Governor\\-general were proponents of political liberalism which was on the rise in Spain during that period following the fall of Queen Isabel II.", "Meanwhile, the alcalde mayor of Cebu (equivalent to the modern\\-day Cebu Provincial Governor), Esteban Perez, was the boyhood friend of governor\\-general De la Torre in their hometown Toledo, Spain. Perez was married to a Philippine woman and used to spend his vacation with his family in Talavera, a part of New Hinulawan, where he owned a beach resort. He and Fr. Brazal were also good friends.", "A welcome banquet was given in the governor\\-general's palace in Manila in the evening of July 12, 1869 which was attended by students, priests, and Filipino leaders to express their gratitude to De la Torre's liberal policies.", "During that happy occasion Carlos Maria de la Torre and Esteban Perez had the opportunity to reminisce their boyhood days in Spain in the presence of Fr. Mariano Brazal. In the course of their recollection of the happy past, Perez told the governor\\-general about New Hinulawan and his special affection for the place because his Filipina wife was a native of Talavera, a barangay of New Hinulawan. He told De la Torre about how similar the environment of New Hinulawan was to their homeland Toledo, Spain and how the winding river of Hinulawan was comparable to Rio Tagus Tajo in Spain.", "That evening Perez and Fr. Brazal recommended to the governor\\-general that the name of New Hinulawan be changed to Toledo.", "Governor\\-general De la Torre delightfully approved the recommendation at once. He even announced to all people present in the banquet the promulgation of a decree changing the name of pueblo New Hinulawan in the province of Cebu into pueblo Toledo, the name of his beloved birthplace in Spain.", "### Second World War", "In 1942 the Japanese Imperial forces captured and occupied the town of Toledo.", "In 1945, local Filipino forces of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the [8th](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 \"8th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)\"), [82nd](/wiki/82nd_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 \"82nd Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)\"), [83rd](/wiki/83rd_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 \"83rd Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)\"), [85th](/wiki/85th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 \"85th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)\") and [86th Infantry Division](/wiki/86th_Infantry_Division_%28Philippine_Commonwealth_Army%29 \"86th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)\") aided by Cebuano guerrilla resistance fighters, battled against the Japanese Imperial forces and liberated the town of Toledo.", "### Cityhood", "{{main\\|Cities of the Philippines}}\nOn June 19, 1960, Toledo became a chartered city under Republic Act No. 2688\\. It was made into a city through the efforts of then Congressman Manuel A. Zosa, representative of the old Sixth District Cebu, who authored Republic Act No. 2688\\.", "Although not as progressive as Cebu's other cities, it is unique in that it is the only city in the province on the western seaboard facing [Negros Oriental](/wiki/Negros_Oriental \"Negros Oriental\") – and therefore strategically located. ([Danao](/wiki/Danao%2C_Cebu \"Danao, Cebu\"), [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue \"Mandaue\"), [Lapu\\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu \"Lapu-Lapu\"), [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\"), [Talisay](/wiki/Talisay%2C_Cebu \"Talisay, Cebu\"), [Naga](/wiki/Naga%2C_Cebu \"Naga, Cebu\"), and [Carcar](/wiki/Carcar \"Carcar\") are on the east. One more city, [Bogo](/wiki/Bogo%2C_Cebu \"Bogo, Cebu\"), is in the north, on the eastern side.)", "### Shrine of Saint Pedro Calungsod", "Following the canonization on October 21, 2012, of Visayan teen martyr [Pedro Calungsod](/wiki/Pedro_Calungsod \"Pedro Calungsod\") (1672\\), the hilltop parish of Cantabaco became the first shrine and church named after the second Filipino saint.{{sfn\\|Philippine Star\\|2012}}", "" ]
### New Hinulawan The refugees who survived the Hinulawan earthquakes slowly rebuilt their lives in the days that followed. With the help of the people of Barangay Tubod, some of the survivors cleared portions of the virgin forest and plateau in the vicinity of Tubod and constructed houses with roof made of cogon grass. Those who did now want to live in the new clearings built their homes at the foot of the Tubod highlands. They buried their dead in a cemetery in a certain part of the plateau not far from where they lived. The area occupied by this particular group, a majority of the survivors, subsequently evolved into the New Hinulawan. A minority of the refugees decided to migrate to other places: the hinterlands of Da\-o, Bulok\-bulok, Landahan, and Sam\-ang as well as the pioneering settlements in the seafronts of Cabito\-onan and Batohanon. In those days pirate attacks against pueblos situated near the shores of Tañon Strait were rampant. To protect themselves against such attacks, the residents of New Hinulawan built a baluarte, or bulwark, made of chopped stone blocks piled along the shoreline. With the passage of time, however, the bulwark became dilapidated and fell apart, its remnants forever buried in the sand during the construction of the first municipio, or Municipal Hall building. The municipio itself was destroyed by Philippine Commonwealth troops and Cebuano guerrillas in World War II. Many years later, a few among those who resettled in New Hinulawan decided to return to their former homes in Old Hinulawan when the depressed lowlands gradually became habitable. Old Hinulawan is the present\-day Barangay Daanglungsod. The majority who opted to remain in New Hinulawan worked hard to regain the prosperity they had achieved before Old Hinulawan was wiped out by catastrophe.
[ "### New Hinulawan", "The refugees who survived the Hinulawan earthquakes slowly rebuilt their lives in the days that followed. With the help of the people of Barangay Tubod, some of the survivors cleared portions of the virgin forest and plateau in the vicinity of Tubod and constructed houses with roof made of cogon grass. Those who did now want to live in the new clearings built their homes at the foot of the Tubod highlands. They buried their dead in a cemetery in a certain part of the plateau not far from where they lived.", "The area occupied by this particular group, a majority of the survivors, subsequently evolved into the New Hinulawan.", "A minority of the refugees decided to migrate to other places: the hinterlands of Da\\-o, Bulok\\-bulok, Landahan, and Sam\\-ang as well as the pioneering settlements in the seafronts of Cabito\\-onan and Batohanon.", "In those days pirate attacks against pueblos situated near the shores of Tañon Strait were rampant. To protect themselves against such attacks, the residents of New Hinulawan built a baluarte, or bulwark, made of chopped stone blocks piled along the shoreline. With the passage of time, however, the bulwark became dilapidated and fell apart, its remnants forever buried in the sand during the construction of the first municipio, or Municipal Hall building. The municipio itself was destroyed by Philippine Commonwealth troops and Cebuano guerrillas in World War II.", "Many years later, a few among those who resettled in New Hinulawan decided to return to their former homes in Old Hinulawan when the depressed lowlands gradually became habitable. Old Hinulawan is the present\\-day Barangay Daanglungsod.", "The majority who opted to remain in New Hinulawan worked hard to regain the prosperity they had achieved before Old Hinulawan was wiped out by catastrophe.", "" ]
### Pueblo Toledo Two significant events happened in mid\-1869 which led to the change of name of New Hinulawan: Carlos María de la Torre (1869\-1872\) became the new Spanish Governor\-general of the Philippines. Father Mariano Brazal (1869\-1876\), who championed the Filipinization of parishes, assumed the duties as parish priest of New Hinulawan, replacing Father Servando Seoane who was transferred to another parish. Fr. Brazal and the new Governor\-general were proponents of political liberalism which was on the rise in Spain during that period following the fall of Queen Isabel II. Meanwhile, the alcalde mayor of Cebu (equivalent to the modern\-day Cebu Provincial Governor), Esteban Perez, was the boyhood friend of governor\-general De la Torre in their hometown Toledo, Spain. Perez was married to a Philippine woman and used to spend his vacation with his family in Talavera, a part of New Hinulawan, where he owned a beach resort. He and Fr. Brazal were also good friends. A welcome banquet was given in the governor\-general's palace in Manila in the evening of July 12, 1869 which was attended by students, priests, and Filipino leaders to express their gratitude to De la Torre's liberal policies. During that happy occasion Carlos Maria de la Torre and Esteban Perez had the opportunity to reminisce their boyhood days in Spain in the presence of Fr. Mariano Brazal. In the course of their recollection of the happy past, Perez told the governor\-general about New Hinulawan and his special affection for the place because his Filipina wife was a native of Talavera, a barangay of New Hinulawan. He told De la Torre about how similar the environment of New Hinulawan was to their homeland Toledo, Spain and how the winding river of Hinulawan was comparable to Rio Tagus Tajo in Spain. That evening Perez and Fr. Brazal recommended to the governor\-general that the name of New Hinulawan be changed to Toledo. Governor\-general De la Torre delightfully approved the recommendation at once. He even announced to all people present in the banquet the promulgation of a decree changing the name of pueblo New Hinulawan in the province of Cebu into pueblo Toledo, the name of his beloved birthplace in Spain.
[ "### Pueblo Toledo", "Two significant events happened in mid\\-1869 which led to the change of name of New Hinulawan:", "Carlos María de la Torre (1869\\-1872\\) became the new Spanish Governor\\-general of the Philippines.\nFather Mariano Brazal (1869\\-1876\\), who championed the Filipinization of parishes, assumed the duties as parish priest of New Hinulawan, replacing Father Servando Seoane who was transferred to another parish.\nFr. Brazal and the new Governor\\-general were proponents of political liberalism which was on the rise in Spain during that period following the fall of Queen Isabel II.", "Meanwhile, the alcalde mayor of Cebu (equivalent to the modern\\-day Cebu Provincial Governor), Esteban Perez, was the boyhood friend of governor\\-general De la Torre in their hometown Toledo, Spain. Perez was married to a Philippine woman and used to spend his vacation with his family in Talavera, a part of New Hinulawan, where he owned a beach resort. He and Fr. Brazal were also good friends.", "A welcome banquet was given in the governor\\-general's palace in Manila in the evening of July 12, 1869 which was attended by students, priests, and Filipino leaders to express their gratitude to De la Torre's liberal policies.", "During that happy occasion Carlos Maria de la Torre and Esteban Perez had the opportunity to reminisce their boyhood days in Spain in the presence of Fr. Mariano Brazal. In the course of their recollection of the happy past, Perez told the governor\\-general about New Hinulawan and his special affection for the place because his Filipina wife was a native of Talavera, a barangay of New Hinulawan. He told De la Torre about how similar the environment of New Hinulawan was to their homeland Toledo, Spain and how the winding river of Hinulawan was comparable to Rio Tagus Tajo in Spain.", "That evening Perez and Fr. Brazal recommended to the governor\\-general that the name of New Hinulawan be changed to Toledo.", "Governor\\-general De la Torre delightfully approved the recommendation at once. He even announced to all people present in the banquet the promulgation of a decree changing the name of pueblo New Hinulawan in the province of Cebu into pueblo Toledo, the name of his beloved birthplace in Spain.", "" ]
In a Cartesian coordinate system -------------------------------- ### Axis of symmetry parallel to the *y* axis [thumb\|Parabola with axis parallel to {{math\|''y''}}\-axis; {{math\|''p''}} is the *semi\-latus rectum*](/wiki/File:Parabel-def-p-v.svg "Parabel-def-p-v.svg") If one introduces [Cartesian coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates "Cartesian coordinates"), such that F \= (0, f),\\ f \> 0, and the directrix has the equation y \= \-f, one obtains for a point P \= (x, y) from \|PF\|^2 \= \|Pl\|^2 the equation x^2 \+ (y \- f)^2 \= (y \+ f)^2. Solving for y yields y \= \\frac{1}{4f} x^2\. This parabola is U\-shaped (*opening to the top*). The horizontal chord through the focus (see picture in opening section) is called the *latus rectum*; one half of it is the *[semi\-latus rectum](/wiki/Conic_section%23Conic_parameters "Conic section#Conic parameters")*. The latus rectum is parallel to the directrix. The semi\-latus rectum is designated by the letter p. From the picture one obtains p \= 2f. The latus rectum is defined similarly for the other two conics – the ellipse and the hyperbola. The latus rectum is the line drawn through a focus of a conic section parallel to the directrix and terminated both ways by the curve. For any case, p is the radius of the [osculating circle](/wiki/Osculating_circle "Osculating circle") at the vertex. For a parabola, the semi\-latus rectum, p, is the distance of the focus from the directrix. Using the parameter p, the equation of the parabola can be rewritten as x^2 \= 2py. More generally, if the vertex is V \= (v\_1, v\_2\), the focus F \= (v\_1, v\_2 \+ f), and the directrix y \= v\_2 \- f , one obtains the equation y \= \\frac{1}{4f} (x \- v\_1\)^2 \+ v\_2 \= \\frac{1}{4f} x^2 \- \\frac{v\_1}{2f} x \+ \\frac{v\_1^2}{4f} \+ v\_2\. **Remarks**: 1. In the case of f \< 0 the parabola has a downward opening. 2. The presumption that the *axis is parallel to the y axis* allows one to consider a parabola as the graph of a [polynomial](/wiki/Polynomial "Polynomial") of degree 2, and conversely: the graph of an arbitrary polynomial of degree 2 is a parabola (see next section). 3. If one exchanges x and y, one obtains equations of the form y^2 \= 2px. These parabolas open to the left (if p \< 0) or to the right (if p \> 0). ### General position [thumb\|Parabola: general position](/wiki/File:Parabel-abc.svg "Parabel-abc.svg") If the focus is F \= (f\_1, f\_2\), and the directrix ax \+ by \+ c \= 0, then one obtains the equation \\frac{(ax \+ by \+ c)^2}{a^2 \+ b^2} \= (x \- f\_1\)^2 \+ (y \- f\_2\)^2 (the left side of the equation uses the [Hesse normal form](/wiki/Hesse_normal_form "Hesse normal form") of a line to calculate the distance \|Pl\|). For a [parametric equation](/wiki/Parametric_equation "Parametric equation") of a parabola in general position see {{slink\|\|2\=As the affine image of the unit parabola}}. The [implicit equation](/wiki/Implicit_equation "Implicit equation") of a parabola is defined by an [irreducible polynomial](/wiki/Irreducible_polynomial "Irreducible polynomial") of degree two: ax^2 \+ bxy \+ cy^2 \+ dx \+ ey \+ f \= 0, such that b^2 \- 4ac \= 0, or, equivalently, such that ax^2 \+ bxy \+ cy^2 is the square of a [linear polynomial](/wiki/Linear_polynomial "Linear polynomial").
[ "In a Cartesian coordinate system\n--------------------------------", "### Axis of symmetry parallel to the *y* axis", "[thumb\\|Parabola with axis parallel to {{math\\|''y''}}\\-axis; {{math\\|''p''}} is the *semi\\-latus rectum*](/wiki/File:Parabel-def-p-v.svg \"Parabel-def-p-v.svg\")\nIf one introduces [Cartesian coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates \"Cartesian coordinates\"), such that F \\= (0, f),\\\\ f \\> 0, and the directrix has the equation y \\= \\-f, one obtains for a point P \\= (x, y) from \\|PF\\|^2 \\= \\|Pl\\|^2 the equation x^2 \\+ (y \\- f)^2 \\= (y \\+ f)^2. Solving for y yields\ny \\= \\\\frac{1}{4f} x^2\\.", "This parabola is U\\-shaped (*opening to the top*).", "The horizontal chord through the focus (see picture in opening section) is called the *latus rectum*; one half of it is the *[semi\\-latus rectum](/wiki/Conic_section%23Conic_parameters \"Conic section#Conic parameters\")*. The latus rectum is parallel to the directrix. The semi\\-latus rectum is designated by the letter p. From the picture one obtains \np \\= 2f.", "The latus rectum is defined similarly for the other two conics – the ellipse and the hyperbola. The latus rectum is the line drawn through a focus of a conic section parallel to the directrix and terminated both ways by the curve. For any case, p is the radius of the [osculating circle](/wiki/Osculating_circle \"Osculating circle\") at the vertex. For a parabola, the semi\\-latus rectum, p, is the distance of the focus from the directrix. Using the parameter p, the equation of the parabola can be rewritten as\nx^2 \\= 2py.", "More generally, if the vertex is V \\= (v\\_1, v\\_2\\), the focus F \\= (v\\_1, v\\_2 \\+ f), and the directrix y \\= v\\_2 \\- f , one obtains the equation\ny \\= \\\\frac{1}{4f} (x \\- v\\_1\\)^2 \\+ v\\_2 \\= \\\\frac{1}{4f} x^2 \\- \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2f} x \\+ \\\\frac{v\\_1^2}{4f} \\+ v\\_2\\.", "**Remarks**:\n1. In the case of f \\< 0 the parabola has a downward opening.\n2. The presumption that the *axis is parallel to the y axis* allows one to consider a parabola as the graph of a [polynomial](/wiki/Polynomial \"Polynomial\") of degree 2, and conversely: the graph of an arbitrary polynomial of degree 2 is a parabola (see next section).\n3. If one exchanges x and y, one obtains equations of the form y^2 \\= 2px. These parabolas open to the left (if p \\< 0) or to the right (if p \\> 0).", "### General position", "[thumb\\|Parabola: general position](/wiki/File:Parabel-abc.svg \"Parabel-abc.svg\")\nIf the focus is F \\= (f\\_1, f\\_2\\), and the directrix ax \\+ by \\+ c \\= 0, then one obtains the equation\n\\\\frac{(ax \\+ by \\+ c)^2}{a^2 \\+ b^2} \\= (x \\- f\\_1\\)^2 \\+ (y \\- f\\_2\\)^2", "(the left side of the equation uses the [Hesse normal form](/wiki/Hesse_normal_form \"Hesse normal form\") of a line to calculate the distance \\|Pl\\|).", "For a [parametric equation](/wiki/Parametric_equation \"Parametric equation\") of a parabola in general position see {{slink\\|\\|2\\=As the affine image of the unit parabola}}.", "The [implicit equation](/wiki/Implicit_equation \"Implicit equation\") of a parabola is defined by an [irreducible polynomial](/wiki/Irreducible_polynomial \"Irreducible polynomial\") of degree two:\nax^2 \\+ bxy \\+ cy^2 \\+ dx \\+ ey \\+ f \\= 0,\nsuch that b^2 \\- 4ac \\= 0, or, equivalently, such that ax^2 \\+ bxy \\+ cy^2 is the square of a [linear polynomial](/wiki/Linear_polynomial \"Linear polynomial\").", "" ]
Conic section and quadratic form -------------------------------- ### Diagram, description, and definitions [thumb\|Cone with cross\-sections](/wiki/image:Parabolic_conic_section.svg "Parabolic conic section.svg") The diagram represents a [cone](/wiki/Cone "Cone") with its axis {{overline\|AV}}. The point A is its [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28geometry%29 "Apex (geometry)"). An inclined [cross\-section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 "Cross section (geometry)") of the cone, shown in pink, is inclined from the axis by the same angle {{mvar\|θ}}, as the side of the cone. According to the definition of a parabola as a conic section, the boundary of this pink cross\-section EPD is a parabola. A cross\-section perpendicular to the axis of the cone passes through the vertex P of the parabola. This cross\-section is circular, but appears [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") when viewed obliquely, as is shown in the diagram. Its centre is V, and {{overline\|PK}} is a diameter. We will call its radius {{mvar\|r}}. Another perpendicular to the axis, circular cross\-section of the cone is farther from the apex A than the one just described. It has a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 "Chord (geometry)") {{overline\|DE}}, which joins the points where the parabola [intersects](/wiki/Intersection_%28Euclidean_geometry%29 "Intersection (Euclidean geometry)") the circle. Another chord {{overline\|BC}} is the [perpendicular bisector](/wiki/Perpendicular_bisector "Perpendicular bisector") of {{overline\|DE}} and is consequently a diameter of the circle. These two chords and the parabola's axis of symmetry {{overline\|PM}} all intersect at the point M. All the labelled points, except D and E, are [coplanar](/wiki/Coplanar "Coplanar"). They are in the plane of symmetry of the whole figure. This includes the point F, which is not mentioned above. It is defined and discussed below, in {{slink\|\|Position of the focus}}. Let us call the length of {{overline\|DM}} and of {{overline\|EM}} {{mvar\|x}}, and the length of {{overline\|PM}} {{mvar\|y}}. ### Derivation of quadratic equation The lengths of {{overline\|BM}} and {{overline\|CM}} are: {{unbulleted list \| style \= padding\-left:1\.6em; \| \\overline\\mathrm{BM} \= 2y\\cos\\theta{{pad\|1em}}(triangle BPM is \[\[isosceles]], because \\overline{PM} \\parallel \\overline{AC} \\implies \\angle PMB \= \\angle ACB \= \\angle ABC \| \\overline\\mathrm{CM} \= 2r{{pad\|1em}}(PMCK is a \[\[parallelogram]]). }} Using the [intersecting chords theorem](/wiki/Chord_theorem "Chord theorem") on the chords {{overline\|BC}} and {{overline\|DE}}, we get \\overline\\mathrm{BM} \\cdot \\overline\\mathrm{CM} \= \\overline\\mathrm{DM} \\cdot \\overline\\mathrm{EM}. Substituting: 4ry\\cos\\theta \= x^2\. Rearranging: y \= \\frac{x^2}{4r\\cos\\theta}. For any given cone and parabola, {{mvar\|r}} and {{mvar\|θ}} are constants, but {{mvar\|x}} and {{mvar\|y}} are variables that depend on the arbitrary height at which the horizontal cross\-section BECD is made. This last equation shows the relationship between these variables. They can be interpreted as [Cartesian coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system "Cartesian coordinate system") of the points D and E, in a system in the pink plane with P as its origin. Since {{mvar\|x}} is squared in the equation, the fact that D and E are on opposite sides of the {{mvar\|y}} axis is unimportant. If the horizontal cross\-section moves up or down, toward or away from the apex of the cone, D and E move along the parabola, always maintaining the relationship between {{mvar\|x}} and {{mvar\|y}} shown in the equation. The parabolic curve is therefore the [locus](/wiki/Locus_%28mathematics%29 "Locus (mathematics)") of points where the equation is satisfied, which makes it a [Cartesian graph](/wiki/Graph_of_a_function "Graph of a function") of the quadratic function in the equation. ### Focal length It is proved in a [preceding section](/wiki/%23In_a_cartesian_coordinate_system "#In a cartesian coordinate system") that if a parabola has its vertex at the origin, and if it opens in the positive {{mvar\|y}} direction, then its equation is {{math\|1\=''y'' \= {{sfrac\|''x''2\|4''f''}}}}, where {{mvar\|f}} is its focal length.{{efn\|As stated above in the lead, the focal length of a parabola is the distance between its vertex and focus.}} Comparing this with the last equation above shows that the focal length of the parabola in the cone is {{math\|''r'' sin ''θ''}}. ### Position of the focus In the diagram above, the point V is the [foot of the perpendicular](/wiki/Perpendicular%23Foot_of_a_perpendicular "Perpendicular#Foot of a perpendicular") from the vertex of the parabola to the axis of the cone. *The point F is the foot of the perpendicular from the point V to the plane of the parabola.*{{efn\|The point V is the centre of the smaller circular cross\-section of the cone. The point F is in the (pink) plane of the parabola, and the line {{overline\|VF}} is perpendicular to the plane of the parabola.}} By symmetry, F is on the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Angle VPF is [complementary](/wiki/Complementary_angles "Complementary angles") to {{mvar\|θ}}, and angle PVF is complementary to angle VPF, therefore angle PVF is {{mvar\|θ}}. Since the length of {{overline\|PV}} is {{mvar\|r}}, the distance of F from the vertex of the parabola is {{math\|''r'' sin ''θ''}}. It is shown above that this distance equals the focal length of the parabola, which is the distance from the vertex to the focus. The focus and the point F are therefore equally distant from the vertex, along the same line, which implies that they are the same point. Therefore, *the point F, defined above, is the focus of the parabola*. This discussion started from the definition of a parabola as a conic section, but it has now led to a description as a graph of a quadratic function. This shows that these two descriptions are equivalent. They both define curves of exactly the same shape. ### Alternative proof with Dandelin spheres [thumb\|Parabola (red): side projection view and top projection view of a cone with a Dandelin sphere](/wiki/image:Dandelin-parabel.svg "Dandelin-parabel.svg") An alternative proof can be done using [Dandelin spheres](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres "Dandelin spheres"). It works without calculation and uses elementary geometric considerations only (see the derivation below). The intersection of an upright cone by a plane \\pi, whose inclination from vertical is the same as a [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix "Generatrix") (a.k.a. generator line, a line containing the apex and a point on the cone surface) m\_0 of the cone, is a parabola (red curve in the diagram). This generatrix m\_0 is the only generatrix of the cone that is parallel to plane \\pi. Otherwise, if there are two generatrices parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be a [hyperbola](/wiki/Hyperbola "Hyperbola") (or [degenerate hyperbola](/wiki/Degenerate_conic "Degenerate conic"), if the two generatrices are in the intersecting plane). If there is no generatrix parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be an [ellipse](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") or a [circle](/wiki/Circle "Circle") (or [a point](/wiki/Degenerate_conic "Degenerate conic")). Let plane \\sigma be the plane that contains the vertical axis of the cone and line m\_0. The inclination of plane \\pi from vertical is the same as line m\_0 means that, viewing from the side (that is, the plane \\pi is perpendicular to plane \\sigma), m\_0 \\parallel \\pi. In order to prove the directrix property of a parabola (see {{slink\|\|Definition as a locus of points}} above), one uses a [Dandelin sphere](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres "Dandelin spheres") d, which is a sphere that touches the cone along a circle c and plane \\pi at point F. The plane containing the circle c intersects with plane \\pi at line l. There is a [mirror symmetry](/wiki/Reflection_symmetry "Reflection symmetry") in the system consisting of plane \\pi, Dandelin sphere d and the cone (the [plane of symmetry](/wiki/Plane_of_symmetry "Plane of symmetry") is \\sigma). Since the plane containing the circle c is perpendicular to plane \\sigma, and \\pi \\perp \\sigma, their intersection line l must also be perpendicular to plane \\sigma. Since line m\_0 is in plane \\sigma, l \\perp m\_0. It turns out that F is the *focus* of the parabola, and l is the *directrix* of the parabola. 1. Let P be an arbitrary point of the intersection curve. 2. The [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix "Generatrix") of the cone containing P intersects circle c at point A. 3. The line segments \\overline{PF} and \\overline{PA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length. 4. Generatrix m\_0 intersects the circle c at point D. The line segments \\overline{ZD} and \\overline{ZA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length. 5. Let line q be the line parallel to m\_0 and passing through point P. Since m\_0 \\parallel \\pi, and point P is in plane \\pi, line q must be in plane \\pi. Since m\_0 \\perp l, we know that q \\perp l as well. 6. Let point B be *the foot of the perpendicular* from point P to line l, that is, \\overline{PB} is a segment of line q, and hence \\overline{PB} \\parallel \\overline{ZD}. 7. From [intercept theorem](/wiki/Intercept_theorem "Intercept theorem") and \\overline{ZD} \= \\overline {ZA} we know that \\overline{PA} \= \\overline {PB}. Since \\overline{PA} \= \\overline {PF}, we know that \\overline{PF} \= \\overline {PB}, which means that the distance from P to the focus F is equal to the distance from P to the directrix l.
[ "Conic section and quadratic form\n--------------------------------", "### Diagram, description, and definitions", "[thumb\\|Cone with cross\\-sections](/wiki/image:Parabolic_conic_section.svg \"Parabolic conic section.svg\")", "The diagram represents a [cone](/wiki/Cone \"Cone\") with its axis {{overline\\|AV}}. The point A is its [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28geometry%29 \"Apex (geometry)\"). An inclined [cross\\-section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 \"Cross section (geometry)\") of the cone, shown in pink, is inclined from the axis by the same angle {{mvar\\|θ}}, as the side of the cone. According to the definition of a parabola as a conic section, the boundary of this pink cross\\-section EPD is a parabola.", "A cross\\-section perpendicular to the axis of the cone passes through the vertex P of the parabola. This cross\\-section is circular, but appears [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") when viewed obliquely, as is shown in the diagram. Its centre is V, and {{overline\\|PK}} is a diameter. We will call its radius {{mvar\\|r}}.", "Another perpendicular to the axis, circular cross\\-section of the cone is farther from the apex A than the one just described. It has a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 \"Chord (geometry)\") {{overline\\|DE}}, which joins the points where the parabola [intersects](/wiki/Intersection_%28Euclidean_geometry%29 \"Intersection (Euclidean geometry)\") the circle. Another chord {{overline\\|BC}} is the [perpendicular bisector](/wiki/Perpendicular_bisector \"Perpendicular bisector\") of {{overline\\|DE}} and is consequently a diameter of the circle. These two chords and the parabola's axis of symmetry {{overline\\|PM}} all intersect at the point M.", "All the labelled points, except D and E, are [coplanar](/wiki/Coplanar \"Coplanar\"). They are in the plane of symmetry of the whole figure. This includes the point F, which is not mentioned above. It is defined and discussed below, in {{slink\\|\\|Position of the focus}}.", "Let us call the length of {{overline\\|DM}} and of {{overline\\|EM}} {{mvar\\|x}}, and the length of {{overline\\|PM}} {{mvar\\|y}}.", "### Derivation of quadratic equation", "The lengths of {{overline\\|BM}} and {{overline\\|CM}} are:\n{{unbulleted list \\| style \\= padding\\-left:1\\.6em;\n\\| \\\\overline\\\\mathrm{BM} \\= 2y\\\\cos\\\\theta{{pad\\|1em}}(triangle BPM is \\[\\[isosceles]], because \\\\overline{PM} \\\\parallel \\\\overline{AC} \\\\implies \\\\angle PMB \\= \\\\angle ACB \\= \\\\angle ABC\n\\| \\\\overline\\\\mathrm{CM} \\= 2r{{pad\\|1em}}(PMCK is a \\[\\[parallelogram]]).\n}}\nUsing the [intersecting chords theorem](/wiki/Chord_theorem \"Chord theorem\") on the chords {{overline\\|BC}} and {{overline\\|DE}}, we get\n\\\\overline\\\\mathrm{BM} \\\\cdot \\\\overline\\\\mathrm{CM} \\= \\\\overline\\\\mathrm{DM} \\\\cdot \\\\overline\\\\mathrm{EM}.", "Substituting:\n4ry\\\\cos\\\\theta \\= x^2\\.", "Rearranging:\ny \\= \\\\frac{x^2}{4r\\\\cos\\\\theta}.", "For any given cone and parabola, {{mvar\\|r}} and {{mvar\\|θ}} are constants, but {{mvar\\|x}} and {{mvar\\|y}} are variables that depend on the arbitrary height at which the horizontal cross\\-section BECD is made. This last equation shows the relationship between these variables. They can be interpreted as [Cartesian coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system \"Cartesian coordinate system\") of the points D and E, in a system in the pink plane with P as its origin. Since {{mvar\\|x}} is squared in the equation, the fact that D and E are on opposite sides of the {{mvar\\|y}} axis is unimportant. If the horizontal cross\\-section moves up or down, toward or away from the apex of the cone, D and E move along the parabola, always maintaining the relationship between {{mvar\\|x}} and {{mvar\\|y}} shown in the equation. The parabolic curve is therefore the [locus](/wiki/Locus_%28mathematics%29 \"Locus (mathematics)\") of points where the equation is satisfied, which makes it a [Cartesian graph](/wiki/Graph_of_a_function \"Graph of a function\") of the quadratic function in the equation.", "### Focal length", "It is proved in a [preceding section](/wiki/%23In_a_cartesian_coordinate_system \"#In a cartesian coordinate system\") that if a parabola has its vertex at the origin, and if it opens in the positive {{mvar\\|y}} direction, then its equation is {{math\\|1\\=''y'' \\= {{sfrac\\|''x''2\\|4''f''}}}}, where {{mvar\\|f}} is its focal length.{{efn\\|As stated above in the lead, the focal length of a parabola is the distance between its vertex and focus.}} Comparing this with the last equation above shows that the focal length of the parabola in the cone is {{math\\|''r'' sin ''θ''}}.", "### Position of the focus", "In the diagram above, the point V is the [foot of the perpendicular](/wiki/Perpendicular%23Foot_of_a_perpendicular \"Perpendicular#Foot of a perpendicular\") from the vertex of the parabola to the axis of the cone. *The point F is the foot of the perpendicular from the point V to the plane of the parabola.*{{efn\\|The point V is the centre of the smaller circular cross\\-section of the cone. The point F is in the (pink) plane of the parabola, and the line {{overline\\|VF}} is perpendicular to the plane of the parabola.}} By symmetry, F is on the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Angle VPF is [complementary](/wiki/Complementary_angles \"Complementary angles\") to {{mvar\\|θ}}, and angle PVF is complementary to angle VPF, therefore angle PVF is {{mvar\\|θ}}. Since the length of {{overline\\|PV}} is {{mvar\\|r}}, the distance of F from the vertex of the parabola is {{math\\|''r'' sin ''θ''}}. It is shown above that this distance equals the focal length of the parabola, which is the distance from the vertex to the focus. The focus and the point F are therefore equally distant from the vertex, along the same line, which implies that they are the same point. Therefore, *the point F, defined above, is the focus of the parabola*.", "This discussion started from the definition of a parabola as a conic section, but it has now led to a description as a graph of a quadratic function. This shows that these two descriptions are equivalent. They both define curves of exactly the same shape.", "### Alternative proof with Dandelin spheres", "[thumb\\|Parabola (red): side projection view and top projection view of a cone with a Dandelin sphere](/wiki/image:Dandelin-parabel.svg \"Dandelin-parabel.svg\")\nAn alternative proof can be done using [Dandelin spheres](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres \"Dandelin spheres\"). It works without calculation and uses elementary geometric considerations only (see the derivation below).", "The intersection of an upright cone by a plane \\\\pi, whose inclination from vertical is the same as a [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix \"Generatrix\") (a.k.a. generator line, a line containing the apex and a point on the cone surface) m\\_0 of the cone, is a parabola (red curve in the diagram).", "This generatrix m\\_0 is the only generatrix of the cone that is parallel to plane \\\\pi. Otherwise, if there are two generatrices parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be a [hyperbola](/wiki/Hyperbola \"Hyperbola\") (or [degenerate hyperbola](/wiki/Degenerate_conic \"Degenerate conic\"), if the two generatrices are in the intersecting plane). If there is no generatrix parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be an [ellipse](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") or a [circle](/wiki/Circle \"Circle\") (or [a point](/wiki/Degenerate_conic \"Degenerate conic\")).", "Let plane \\\\sigma be the plane that contains the vertical axis of the cone and line m\\_0. The inclination of plane \\\\pi from vertical is the same as line m\\_0 means that, viewing from the side (that is, the plane \\\\pi is perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma), m\\_0 \\\\parallel \\\\pi.", "In order to prove the directrix property of a parabola (see {{slink\\|\\|Definition as a locus of points}} above), one uses a [Dandelin sphere](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres \"Dandelin spheres\") d, which is a sphere that touches the cone along a circle c and plane \\\\pi at point F. The plane containing the circle c intersects with plane \\\\pi at line l. There is a [mirror symmetry](/wiki/Reflection_symmetry \"Reflection symmetry\") in the system consisting of plane \\\\pi, Dandelin sphere d and the cone (the [plane of symmetry](/wiki/Plane_of_symmetry \"Plane of symmetry\") is \\\\sigma).", "Since the plane containing the circle c is perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma, and \\\\pi \\\\perp \\\\sigma, their intersection line l must also be perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma. Since line m\\_0 is in plane \\\\sigma, l \\\\perp m\\_0.", "It turns out that F is the *focus* of the parabola, and l is the *directrix* of the parabola.", "1. Let P be an arbitrary point of the intersection curve.\n2. The [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix \"Generatrix\") of the cone containing P intersects circle c at point A.\n3. The line segments \\\\overline{PF} and \\\\overline{PA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length.\n4. Generatrix m\\_0 intersects the circle c at point D. The line segments \\\\overline{ZD} and \\\\overline{ZA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length.\n5. Let line q be the line parallel to m\\_0 and passing through point P. Since m\\_0 \\\\parallel \\\\pi, and point P is in plane \\\\pi, line q must be in plane \\\\pi. Since m\\_0 \\\\perp l, we know that q \\\\perp l as well.\n6. Let point B be *the foot of the perpendicular* from point P to line l, that is, \\\\overline{PB} is a segment of line q, and hence \\\\overline{PB} \\\\parallel \\\\overline{ZD}.\n7. From [intercept theorem](/wiki/Intercept_theorem \"Intercept theorem\") and \\\\overline{ZD} \\= \\\\overline {ZA} we know that \\\\overline{PA} \\= \\\\overline {PB}. Since \\\\overline{PA} \\= \\\\overline {PF}, we know that \\\\overline{PF} \\= \\\\overline {PB}, which means that the distance from P to the focus F is equal to the distance from P to the directrix l." ]
### Diagram, description, and definitions [thumb\|Cone with cross\-sections](/wiki/image:Parabolic_conic_section.svg "Parabolic conic section.svg") The diagram represents a [cone](/wiki/Cone "Cone") with its axis {{overline\|AV}}. The point A is its [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28geometry%29 "Apex (geometry)"). An inclined [cross\-section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 "Cross section (geometry)") of the cone, shown in pink, is inclined from the axis by the same angle {{mvar\|θ}}, as the side of the cone. According to the definition of a parabola as a conic section, the boundary of this pink cross\-section EPD is a parabola. A cross\-section perpendicular to the axis of the cone passes through the vertex P of the parabola. This cross\-section is circular, but appears [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") when viewed obliquely, as is shown in the diagram. Its centre is V, and {{overline\|PK}} is a diameter. We will call its radius {{mvar\|r}}. Another perpendicular to the axis, circular cross\-section of the cone is farther from the apex A than the one just described. It has a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 "Chord (geometry)") {{overline\|DE}}, which joins the points where the parabola [intersects](/wiki/Intersection_%28Euclidean_geometry%29 "Intersection (Euclidean geometry)") the circle. Another chord {{overline\|BC}} is the [perpendicular bisector](/wiki/Perpendicular_bisector "Perpendicular bisector") of {{overline\|DE}} and is consequently a diameter of the circle. These two chords and the parabola's axis of symmetry {{overline\|PM}} all intersect at the point M. All the labelled points, except D and E, are [coplanar](/wiki/Coplanar "Coplanar"). They are in the plane of symmetry of the whole figure. This includes the point F, which is not mentioned above. It is defined and discussed below, in {{slink\|\|Position of the focus}}. Let us call the length of {{overline\|DM}} and of {{overline\|EM}} {{mvar\|x}}, and the length of {{overline\|PM}} {{mvar\|y}}.
[ "### Diagram, description, and definitions", "[thumb\\|Cone with cross\\-sections](/wiki/image:Parabolic_conic_section.svg \"Parabolic conic section.svg\")", "The diagram represents a [cone](/wiki/Cone \"Cone\") with its axis {{overline\\|AV}}. The point A is its [apex](/wiki/Apex_%28geometry%29 \"Apex (geometry)\"). An inclined [cross\\-section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28geometry%29 \"Cross section (geometry)\") of the cone, shown in pink, is inclined from the axis by the same angle {{mvar\\|θ}}, as the side of the cone. According to the definition of a parabola as a conic section, the boundary of this pink cross\\-section EPD is a parabola.", "A cross\\-section perpendicular to the axis of the cone passes through the vertex P of the parabola. This cross\\-section is circular, but appears [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") when viewed obliquely, as is shown in the diagram. Its centre is V, and {{overline\\|PK}} is a diameter. We will call its radius {{mvar\\|r}}.", "Another perpendicular to the axis, circular cross\\-section of the cone is farther from the apex A than the one just described. It has a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 \"Chord (geometry)\") {{overline\\|DE}}, which joins the points where the parabola [intersects](/wiki/Intersection_%28Euclidean_geometry%29 \"Intersection (Euclidean geometry)\") the circle. Another chord {{overline\\|BC}} is the [perpendicular bisector](/wiki/Perpendicular_bisector \"Perpendicular bisector\") of {{overline\\|DE}} and is consequently a diameter of the circle. These two chords and the parabola's axis of symmetry {{overline\\|PM}} all intersect at the point M.", "All the labelled points, except D and E, are [coplanar](/wiki/Coplanar \"Coplanar\"). They are in the plane of symmetry of the whole figure. This includes the point F, which is not mentioned above. It is defined and discussed below, in {{slink\\|\\|Position of the focus}}.", "Let us call the length of {{overline\\|DM}} and of {{overline\\|EM}} {{mvar\\|x}}, and the length of {{overline\\|PM}} {{mvar\\|y}}.", "" ]
### Alternative proof with Dandelin spheres [thumb\|Parabola (red): side projection view and top projection view of a cone with a Dandelin sphere](/wiki/image:Dandelin-parabel.svg "Dandelin-parabel.svg") An alternative proof can be done using [Dandelin spheres](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres "Dandelin spheres"). It works without calculation and uses elementary geometric considerations only (see the derivation below). The intersection of an upright cone by a plane \\pi, whose inclination from vertical is the same as a [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix "Generatrix") (a.k.a. generator line, a line containing the apex and a point on the cone surface) m\_0 of the cone, is a parabola (red curve in the diagram). This generatrix m\_0 is the only generatrix of the cone that is parallel to plane \\pi. Otherwise, if there are two generatrices parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be a [hyperbola](/wiki/Hyperbola "Hyperbola") (or [degenerate hyperbola](/wiki/Degenerate_conic "Degenerate conic"), if the two generatrices are in the intersecting plane). If there is no generatrix parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be an [ellipse](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") or a [circle](/wiki/Circle "Circle") (or [a point](/wiki/Degenerate_conic "Degenerate conic")). Let plane \\sigma be the plane that contains the vertical axis of the cone and line m\_0. The inclination of plane \\pi from vertical is the same as line m\_0 means that, viewing from the side (that is, the plane \\pi is perpendicular to plane \\sigma), m\_0 \\parallel \\pi. In order to prove the directrix property of a parabola (see {{slink\|\|Definition as a locus of points}} above), one uses a [Dandelin sphere](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres "Dandelin spheres") d, which is a sphere that touches the cone along a circle c and plane \\pi at point F. The plane containing the circle c intersects with plane \\pi at line l. There is a [mirror symmetry](/wiki/Reflection_symmetry "Reflection symmetry") in the system consisting of plane \\pi, Dandelin sphere d and the cone (the [plane of symmetry](/wiki/Plane_of_symmetry "Plane of symmetry") is \\sigma). Since the plane containing the circle c is perpendicular to plane \\sigma, and \\pi \\perp \\sigma, their intersection line l must also be perpendicular to plane \\sigma. Since line m\_0 is in plane \\sigma, l \\perp m\_0. It turns out that F is the *focus* of the parabola, and l is the *directrix* of the parabola. 1. Let P be an arbitrary point of the intersection curve. 2. The [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix "Generatrix") of the cone containing P intersects circle c at point A. 3. The line segments \\overline{PF} and \\overline{PA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length. 4. Generatrix m\_0 intersects the circle c at point D. The line segments \\overline{ZD} and \\overline{ZA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length. 5. Let line q be the line parallel to m\_0 and passing through point P. Since m\_0 \\parallel \\pi, and point P is in plane \\pi, line q must be in plane \\pi. Since m\_0 \\perp l, we know that q \\perp l as well. 6. Let point B be *the foot of the perpendicular* from point P to line l, that is, \\overline{PB} is a segment of line q, and hence \\overline{PB} \\parallel \\overline{ZD}. 7. From [intercept theorem](/wiki/Intercept_theorem "Intercept theorem") and \\overline{ZD} \= \\overline {ZA} we know that \\overline{PA} \= \\overline {PB}. Since \\overline{PA} \= \\overline {PF}, we know that \\overline{PF} \= \\overline {PB}, which means that the distance from P to the focus F is equal to the distance from P to the directrix l.
[ "### Alternative proof with Dandelin spheres", "[thumb\\|Parabola (red): side projection view and top projection view of a cone with a Dandelin sphere](/wiki/image:Dandelin-parabel.svg \"Dandelin-parabel.svg\")\nAn alternative proof can be done using [Dandelin spheres](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres \"Dandelin spheres\"). It works without calculation and uses elementary geometric considerations only (see the derivation below).", "The intersection of an upright cone by a plane \\\\pi, whose inclination from vertical is the same as a [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix \"Generatrix\") (a.k.a. generator line, a line containing the apex and a point on the cone surface) m\\_0 of the cone, is a parabola (red curve in the diagram).", "This generatrix m\\_0 is the only generatrix of the cone that is parallel to plane \\\\pi. Otherwise, if there are two generatrices parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be a [hyperbola](/wiki/Hyperbola \"Hyperbola\") (or [degenerate hyperbola](/wiki/Degenerate_conic \"Degenerate conic\"), if the two generatrices are in the intersecting plane). If there is no generatrix parallel to the intersecting plane, the intersection curve will be an [ellipse](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") or a [circle](/wiki/Circle \"Circle\") (or [a point](/wiki/Degenerate_conic \"Degenerate conic\")).", "Let plane \\\\sigma be the plane that contains the vertical axis of the cone and line m\\_0. The inclination of plane \\\\pi from vertical is the same as line m\\_0 means that, viewing from the side (that is, the plane \\\\pi is perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma), m\\_0 \\\\parallel \\\\pi.", "In order to prove the directrix property of a parabola (see {{slink\\|\\|Definition as a locus of points}} above), one uses a [Dandelin sphere](/wiki/Dandelin_spheres \"Dandelin spheres\") d, which is a sphere that touches the cone along a circle c and plane \\\\pi at point F. The plane containing the circle c intersects with plane \\\\pi at line l. There is a [mirror symmetry](/wiki/Reflection_symmetry \"Reflection symmetry\") in the system consisting of plane \\\\pi, Dandelin sphere d and the cone (the [plane of symmetry](/wiki/Plane_of_symmetry \"Plane of symmetry\") is \\\\sigma).", "Since the plane containing the circle c is perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma, and \\\\pi \\\\perp \\\\sigma, their intersection line l must also be perpendicular to plane \\\\sigma. Since line m\\_0 is in plane \\\\sigma, l \\\\perp m\\_0.", "It turns out that F is the *focus* of the parabola, and l is the *directrix* of the parabola.", "1. Let P be an arbitrary point of the intersection curve.\n2. The [generatrix](/wiki/Generatrix \"Generatrix\") of the cone containing P intersects circle c at point A.\n3. The line segments \\\\overline{PF} and \\\\overline{PA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length.\n4. Generatrix m\\_0 intersects the circle c at point D. The line segments \\\\overline{ZD} and \\\\overline{ZA} are tangential to the sphere d, and hence are of equal length.\n5. Let line q be the line parallel to m\\_0 and passing through point P. Since m\\_0 \\\\parallel \\\\pi, and point P is in plane \\\\pi, line q must be in plane \\\\pi. Since m\\_0 \\\\perp l, we know that q \\\\perp l as well.\n6. Let point B be *the foot of the perpendicular* from point P to line l, that is, \\\\overline{PB} is a segment of line q, and hence \\\\overline{PB} \\\\parallel \\\\overline{ZD}.\n7. From [intercept theorem](/wiki/Intercept_theorem \"Intercept theorem\") and \\\\overline{ZD} \\= \\\\overline {ZA} we know that \\\\overline{PA} \\= \\\\overline {PB}. Since \\\\overline{PA} \\= \\\\overline {PF}, we know that \\\\overline{PF} \\= \\\\overline {PB}, which means that the distance from P to the focus F is equal to the distance from P to the directrix l." ]
Proof of the reflective property -------------------------------- [thumb\|right\|Reflective property of a parabola](/wiki/File:Parabel_2.svg "Parabel 2.svg") The reflective property states that if a parabola can reflect light, then light that enters it travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry is reflected toward the focus. This is derived from [geometrical optics](/wiki/Geometrical_optics "Geometrical optics"), based on the assumption that light travels in rays. Consider the parabola {{math\|1\=''y'' \= ''x''2}}. Since all parabolas are similar, this simple case represents all others. ### Construction and definitions The point E is an arbitrary point on the parabola. The focus is F, the vertex is A (the origin), and the line {{overline\|FA}} is the axis of symmetry. The line {{overline\|EC}} is parallel to the axis of symmetry, intersects the {{mvar\|x}} axis at D and intersects the directrix at C. The point B is the midpoint of the line segment {{overline\|FC}}. ### Deductions The vertex A is equidistant from the focus F and from the directrix. Since C is on the directrix, the {{mvar\|y}} coordinates of F and C are equal in absolute value and opposite in sign. B is the midpoint of {{overline\|FC}}. Its {{mvar\|x}} coordinate is half that of D, that is, {{math\|''x''/2}}. The slope of the line {{overline\|BE}} is the quotient of the lengths of {{overline\|ED}} and {{overline\|BD}}, which is {{math\|1\={{sfrac\|''x''2\|''x''/2}} \= 2''x''}}. But {{math\|2''x''}} is also the slope (first derivative) of the parabola at E. Therefore, the line {{overline\|BE}} is the tangent to the parabola at E. The distances {{overline\|EF}} and {{overline\|EC}} are equal because E is on the parabola, F is the focus and C is on the directrix. Therefore, since B is the midpoint of {{overline\|FC}}, triangles △FEB and △CEB are congruent (three sides), which implies that the angles marked {{mvar\|α}} are congruent. (The angle above E is vertically opposite angle ∠BEC.) This means that a ray of light that enters the parabola and arrives at E travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry will be reflected by the line {{overline\|BE}} so it travels along the line {{overline\|EF}}, as shown in red in the diagram (assuming that the lines can somehow reflect light). Since {{overline\|BE}} is the tangent to the parabola at E, the same reflection will be done by an infinitesimal arc of the parabola at E. Therefore, light that enters the parabola and arrives at E travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola is reflected by the parabola toward its focus. This conclusion about reflected light applies to all points on the parabola, as is shown on the left side of the diagram. This is the reflective property. ### Other consequences There are other theorems that can be deduced simply from the above argument. #### Tangent bisection property The above proof and the accompanying diagram show that the tangent {{overline\|BE}} bisects the angle ∠FEC. In other words, the tangent to the parabola at any point bisects the angle between the lines joining the point to the focus and perpendicularly to the directrix. #### Intersection of a tangent and perpendicular from focus [thumb\|right\|200px\|Perpendicular from focus to tangent](/wiki/File:Parabola-antipodera.gif "Parabola-antipodera.gif") Since triangles △FBE and △CBE are congruent, {{overline\|FB}} is perpendicular to the tangent {{overline\|BE}}. Since B is on the {{mvar\|x}} axis, which is the tangent to the parabola at its vertex, it follows that the point of intersection between any tangent to a parabola and the perpendicular from the focus to that tangent lies on the line that is tangential to the parabola at its vertex. See animated diagram{{cite journal \|last\=Tsukerman \|first\=Emmanuel \|title\=On Polygons Admitting a Simson Line as Discrete Analogs of Parabolas \|journal\=Forum Geometricorum \|volume\=13 \|date\=2013 \|pages\=197–208 \| url\=http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2013volume13/FG201321\.pdf}} and [pedal curve](/wiki/Pedal_curve "Pedal curve"). #### Reflection of light striking the convex side If light travels along the line {{overline\|CE}}, it moves parallel to the axis of symmetry and strikes the convex side of the parabola at E. It is clear from the above diagram that this light will be reflected directly away from the focus, along an extension of the segment {{overline\|FE}}. ### Alternative proofs [thumb\|right\|200px\|Parabola and tangent](/wiki/File:Par%C3%A1bola_y_tangente-prueba.svg "Parábola y tangente-prueba.svg") The above proofs of the reflective and tangent bisection properties use a line of calculus. Here a geometric proof is presented. In this diagram, F is the focus of the parabola, and T and U lie on its directrix. P is an arbitrary point on the parabola. {{overline\|PT}} is perpendicular to the directrix, and the line {{overline\|MP}} bisects angle ∠FPT. Q is another point on the parabola, with {{overline\|QU}} perpendicular to the directrix. We know that {{overline\|FP}} \= {{overline\|PT}} and {{overline\|FQ}} \= {{overline\|QU}}. Clearly, {{overline\|QT}} \> {{overline\|QU}}, so {{overline\|QT}} \> {{overline\|FQ}}. All points on the bisector {{overline\|MP}} are equidistant from F and T, but Q is closer to F than to T. This means that Q is to the left of {{overline\|MP}}, that is, on the same side of it as the focus. The same would be true if Q were located anywhere else on the parabola (except at the point P), so the entire parabola, except the point P, is on the focus side of {{overline\|MP}}. Therefore, {{overline\|MP}} is the tangent to the parabola at P. Since it bisects the angle ∠FPT, this proves the tangent bisection property. The logic of the last paragraph can be applied to modify the above proof of the reflective property. It effectively proves the line {{overline\|BE}} to be the tangent to the parabola at E if the angles {{mvar\|α}} are equal. The reflective property follows as shown previously.
[ "Proof of the reflective property\n--------------------------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|Reflective property of a parabola](/wiki/File:Parabel_2.svg \"Parabel 2.svg\")\nThe reflective property states that if a parabola can reflect light, then light that enters it travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry is reflected toward the focus. This is derived from [geometrical optics](/wiki/Geometrical_optics \"Geometrical optics\"), based on the assumption that light travels in rays.", "Consider the parabola {{math\\|1\\=''y'' \\= ''x''2}}. Since all parabolas are similar, this simple case represents all others.", "### Construction and definitions", "The point E is an arbitrary point on the parabola. The focus is F, the vertex is A (the origin), and the line {{overline\\|FA}} is the axis of symmetry. The line {{overline\\|EC}} is parallel to the axis of symmetry, intersects the {{mvar\\|x}} axis at D and intersects the directrix at C. The point B is the midpoint of the line segment {{overline\\|FC}}.", "### Deductions", "The vertex A is equidistant from the focus F and from the directrix. Since C is on the directrix, the {{mvar\\|y}} coordinates of F and C are equal in absolute value and opposite in sign. B is the midpoint of {{overline\\|FC}}. Its {{mvar\\|x}} coordinate is half that of D, that is, {{math\\|''x''/2}}. The slope of the line {{overline\\|BE}} is the quotient of the lengths of {{overline\\|ED}} and {{overline\\|BD}}, which is {{math\\|1\\={{sfrac\\|''x''2\\|''x''/2}} \\= 2''x''}}. But {{math\\|2''x''}} is also the slope (first derivative) of the parabola at E. Therefore, the line {{overline\\|BE}} is the tangent to the parabola at E.", "The distances {{overline\\|EF}} and {{overline\\|EC}} are equal because E is on the parabola, F is the focus and C is on the directrix. Therefore, since B is the midpoint of {{overline\\|FC}}, triangles △FEB and △CEB are congruent (three sides), which implies that the angles marked {{mvar\\|α}} are congruent. (The angle above E is vertically opposite angle ∠BEC.) This means that a ray of light that enters the parabola and arrives at E travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry will be reflected by the line {{overline\\|BE}} so it travels along the line {{overline\\|EF}}, as shown in red in the diagram (assuming that the lines can somehow reflect light). Since {{overline\\|BE}} is the tangent to the parabola at E, the same reflection will be done by an infinitesimal arc of the parabola at E. Therefore, light that enters the parabola and arrives at E travelling parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola is reflected by the parabola toward its focus.", "This conclusion about reflected light applies to all points on the parabola, as is shown on the left side of the diagram. This is the reflective property.", "### Other consequences", "There are other theorems that can be deduced simply from the above argument.", "#### Tangent bisection property", "The above proof and the accompanying diagram show that the tangent {{overline\\|BE}} bisects the angle ∠FEC. In other words, the tangent to the parabola at any point bisects the angle between the lines joining the point to the focus and perpendicularly to the directrix.", "#### Intersection of a tangent and perpendicular from focus", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Perpendicular from focus to tangent](/wiki/File:Parabola-antipodera.gif \"Parabola-antipodera.gif\")\nSince triangles △FBE and △CBE are congruent, {{overline\\|FB}} is perpendicular to the tangent {{overline\\|BE}}. Since B is on the {{mvar\\|x}} axis, which is the tangent to the parabola at its vertex, it follows that the point of intersection between any tangent to a parabola and the perpendicular from the focus to that tangent lies on the line that is tangential to the parabola at its vertex. See animated diagram{{cite journal \\|last\\=Tsukerman \\|first\\=Emmanuel \\|title\\=On Polygons Admitting a Simson Line as Discrete Analogs of Parabolas \\|journal\\=Forum Geometricorum \\|volume\\=13 \\|date\\=2013 \\|pages\\=197–208 \\| url\\=http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2013volume13/FG201321\\.pdf}} and [pedal curve](/wiki/Pedal_curve \"Pedal curve\").", "#### Reflection of light striking the convex side", "If light travels along the line {{overline\\|CE}}, it moves parallel to the axis of symmetry and strikes the convex side of the parabola at E. It is clear from the above diagram that this light will be reflected directly away from the focus, along an extension of the segment {{overline\\|FE}}.", "### Alternative proofs", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Parabola and tangent](/wiki/File:Par%C3%A1bola_y_tangente-prueba.svg \"Parábola y tangente-prueba.svg\")\nThe above proofs of the reflective and tangent bisection properties use a line of calculus. Here a geometric proof is presented.", "In this diagram, F is the focus of the parabola, and T and U lie on its directrix. P is an arbitrary point on the parabola. {{overline\\|PT}} is perpendicular to the directrix, and the line {{overline\\|MP}} bisects angle ∠FPT. Q is another point on the parabola, with {{overline\\|QU}} perpendicular to the directrix. We know that {{overline\\|FP}} \\= {{overline\\|PT}} and {{overline\\|FQ}} \\= {{overline\\|QU}}. Clearly, {{overline\\|QT}} \\> {{overline\\|QU}}, so {{overline\\|QT}} \\> {{overline\\|FQ}}. All points on the bisector {{overline\\|MP}} are equidistant from F and T, but Q is closer to F than to T. This means that Q is to the left of {{overline\\|MP}}, that is, on the same side of it as the focus. The same would be true if Q were located anywhere else on the parabola (except at the point P), so the entire parabola, except the point P, is on the focus side of {{overline\\|MP}}. Therefore, {{overline\\|MP}} is the tangent to the parabola at P. Since it bisects the angle ∠FPT, this proves the tangent bisection property.", "The logic of the last paragraph can be applied to modify the above proof of the reflective property. It effectively proves the line {{overline\\|BE}} to be the tangent to the parabola at E if the angles {{mvar\\|α}} are equal. The reflective property follows as shown previously.", "" ]
Facts related to chords and arcs {{anchor\|Chords\|Arcs}} --------------------------------------------------------- ### Focal length calculated from parameters of a chord Suppose a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 "Chord (geometry)") crosses a parabola perpendicular to its axis of symmetry. Let the length of the chord between the points where it intersects the parabola be {{mvar\|c}} and the distance from the vertex of the parabola to the chord, measured along the axis of symmetry, be {{mvar\|d}}. The focal length, {{mvar\|f}}, of the parabola is given by f \= \\frac{c^2}{16d}. {{math proof \| proof \= Suppose a system of Cartesian coordinates is used such that the vertex of the parabola is at the origin, and the axis of symmetry is the {{mvar\|y}} axis. The parabola opens upward. It is shown elsewhere in this article that the equation of the parabola is {{math\|1\=4''fy'' \= ''x''2}}, where {{mvar\|f}} is the focal length. At the positive {{mvar\|x}} end of the chord, {{math\|1\=''x'' \= {{sfrac\|''c''\|2}}}} and {{math\|1\=''y'' \= ''d''}}. Since this point is on the parabola, these coordinates must satisfy the equation above. Therefore, by substitution, 4fd \= \\left(\\tfrac{c}{2}\\right)^2. From this, f \= \\tfrac{c^2}{16d}.}} ### Area enclosed between a parabola and a chord [thumb\|Parabola (magenta) and line (lower light blue) including a chord (blue). The area enclosed between them is in pink. The chord itself ends at the points where the line intersects the parabola.](/wiki/File:Area_between_a_parabola_and_a_chord.svg "Area between a parabola and a chord.svg") The area enclosed between a parabola and a chord (see diagram) is two\-thirds of the area of a parallelogram that surrounds it. One side of the parallelogram is the chord, and the opposite side is a tangent to the parabola.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/parabola/area\-of\-parabola.php \|title\=Sovrn Container \|publisher\=Mathwarehouse.com \|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30}}{{cite web \|url\=http://mysite.du.edu/\~jcalvert/math/parabola.htm \|title\=Parabola \|publisher\=Mysite.du.edu \|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30}} The slope of the other parallel sides is irrelevant to the area. Often, as here, they are drawn parallel with the parabola's axis of symmetry, but this is arbitrary. A theorem equivalent to this one, but different in details, was derived by [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes "Archimedes") in the 3rd century BCE. He used the areas of triangles, rather than that of the parallelogram.{{efn\|Archimedes proved that the area of the enclosed parabolic segment was 4/3 as large as that of a triangle that he inscribed within the enclosed segment. It can easily be shown that the parallelogram has twice the area of the triangle, so Archimedes' proof also proves the theorem with the parallelogram.}} See [The Quadrature of the Parabola](/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola "The Quadrature of the Parabola"). If the chord has length {{mvar\|b}} and is perpendicular to the parabola's axis of symmetry, and if the perpendicular distance from the parabola's vertex to the chord is {{mvar\|h}}, the parallelogram is a rectangle, with sides of {{mvar\|b}} and {{mvar\|h}}. The area {{mvar\|A}} of the parabolic segment enclosed by the parabola and the chord is therefore A \= \\frac{2}{3} bh. This formula can be compared with the area of a triangle: {{math\|{{sfrac\|1\|2}}''bh''}}. In general, the enclosed area can be calculated as follows. First, locate the point on the parabola where its slope equals that of the chord. This can be done with calculus, or by using a line that is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola and passes through the midpoint of the chord. The required point is where this line intersects the parabola.{{efn\|This method can be easily proved correct by calculus. It was also known and used by Archimedes, although he lived nearly 2000 years before calculus was invented.}} Then, using the formula given in [Distance from a point to a line](/wiki/Distance_from_a_point_to_a_line "Distance from a point to a line"), calculate the perpendicular distance from this point to the chord. Multiply this by the length of the chord to get the area of the parallelogram, then by 2/3 to get the required enclosed area. ### Corollary concerning midpoints and endpoints of chords [thumb\|Midpoints of parallel chords](/wiki/File:Parabel-psehnen-s.svg "Parabel-psehnen-s.svg") A corollary of the above discussion is that if a parabola has several parallel chords, their midpoints all lie on a line parallel to the axis of symmetry. If tangents to the parabola are drawn through the endpoints of any of these chords, the two tangents intersect on this same line parallel to the axis of symmetry (see [Axis\-direction of a parabola](/wiki/Parabola%23Axis-direction_of_a_parabola "Parabola#Axis-direction of a parabola")).{{efn\|A proof of this sentence can be inferred from the proof of the \[\[\#Orthoptic property\|orthoptic property]], above. It is shown there that the tangents to the parabola {{math\|1\=''y'' \= ''x''2}} at {{math\|(''p'', ''p''2)}} and {{math\|(''q'', ''q''2)}} intersect at a point whose {{mvar\|x}} coordinate is the mean of {{mvar\|p}} and {{mvar\|q}}. Thus if there is a chord between these two points, the intersection point of the tangents has the same {{mvar\|x}} coordinate as the midpoint of the chord.}} ### Arc length If a point X is located on a parabola with focal length {{mvar\|f}}, and if {{mvar\|p}} is the [perpendicular distance](/wiki/Distance_from_a_point_to_a_line "Distance from a point to a line") from X to the axis of symmetry of the parabola, then the lengths of [arcs](/wiki/Arc_%28geometry%29 "Arc (geometry)") of the parabola that terminate at X can be calculated from {{mvar\|f}} and {{mvar\|p}} as follows, assuming they are all expressed in the same units.{{efn\|In this calculation, the \[\[square root]] {{mvar\|q}} must be positive. The quantity {{math\|ln ''a''}} is the \[\[natural logarithm]] of {{mvar\|a}}.}} \\begin{align} ``` h &= \frac{p}{2}, \\ q &= \sqrt{f^2 + h^2}, \\ s &= \frac{hq}{f} + f \ln\frac{h + q}{f}. ``` \\end{align} This quantity {{mvar\|s}} is the length of the arc between X and the vertex of the parabola. The length of the arc between X and the symmetrically opposite point on the other side of the parabola is {{math\|2''s''}}. The perpendicular distance {{mvar\|p}} can be given a positive or negative sign to indicate on which side of the axis of symmetry X is situated. Reversing the sign of {{mvar\|p}} reverses the signs of {{mvar\|h}} and {{mvar\|s}} without changing their absolute values. If these quantities are signed, *the length of the arc between* any *two points on the parabola is always shown by the difference between their values of {{mvar\|s}}*. The calculation can be simplified by using the properties of logarithms: s\_1 \- s\_2 \= \\frac{h\_1 q\_1 \- h\_2 q\_2}{f} \+ f \\ln\\frac{h\_1 \+ q\_1}{h\_2 \+ q\_2}. This can be useful, for example, in calculating the size of the material needed to make a [parabolic reflector](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector") or [parabolic trough](/wiki/Parabolic_trough "Parabolic trough"). This calculation can be used for a parabola in any orientation. It is not restricted to the situation where the axis of symmetry is parallel to the *y* axis.
[ "Facts related to chords and arcs {{anchor\\|Chords\\|Arcs}}\n---------------------------------------------------------", "### Focal length calculated from parameters of a chord", "Suppose a [chord](/wiki/Chord_%28geometry%29 \"Chord (geometry)\") crosses a parabola perpendicular to its axis of symmetry. Let the length of the chord between the points where it intersects the parabola be {{mvar\\|c}} and the distance from the vertex of the parabola to the chord, measured along the axis of symmetry, be {{mvar\\|d}}. The focal length, {{mvar\\|f}}, of the parabola is given by\nf \\= \\\\frac{c^2}{16d}.", "{{math proof \\| proof \\= Suppose a system of Cartesian coordinates is used such that the vertex of the parabola is at the origin, and the axis of symmetry is the {{mvar\\|y}} axis. The parabola opens upward. It is shown elsewhere in this article that the equation of the parabola is {{math\\|1\\=4''fy'' \\= ''x''2}}, where {{mvar\\|f}} is the focal length. At the positive {{mvar\\|x}} end of the chord, {{math\\|1\\=''x'' \\= {{sfrac\\|''c''\\|2}}}} and {{math\\|1\\=''y'' \\= ''d''}}. Since this point is on the parabola, these coordinates must satisfy the equation above. Therefore, by substitution, 4fd \\= \\\\left(\\\\tfrac{c}{2}\\\\right)^2. From this, f \\= \\\\tfrac{c^2}{16d}.}}", "### Area enclosed between a parabola and a chord", "[thumb\\|Parabola (magenta) and line (lower light blue) including a chord (blue). The area enclosed between them is in pink. The chord itself ends at the points where the line intersects the parabola.](/wiki/File:Area_between_a_parabola_and_a_chord.svg \"Area between a parabola and a chord.svg\")", "The area enclosed between a parabola and a chord (see diagram) is two\\-thirds of the area of a parallelogram that surrounds it. One side of the parallelogram is the chord, and the opposite side is a tangent to the parabola.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/parabola/area\\-of\\-parabola.php \\|title\\=Sovrn Container \\|publisher\\=Mathwarehouse.com \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mysite.du.edu/\\~jcalvert/math/parabola.htm \\|title\\=Parabola \\|publisher\\=Mysite.du.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30}} The slope of the other parallel sides is irrelevant to the area. Often, as here, they are drawn parallel with the parabola's axis of symmetry, but this is arbitrary.", "A theorem equivalent to this one, but different in details, was derived by [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes \"Archimedes\") in the 3rd century BCE. He used the areas of triangles, rather than that of the parallelogram.{{efn\\|Archimedes proved that the area of the enclosed parabolic segment was 4/3 as large as that of a triangle that he inscribed within the enclosed segment. It can easily be shown that the parallelogram has twice the area of the triangle, so Archimedes' proof also proves the theorem with the parallelogram.}} See [The Quadrature of the Parabola](/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola \"The Quadrature of the Parabola\").", "If the chord has length {{mvar\\|b}} and is perpendicular to the parabola's axis of symmetry, and if the perpendicular distance from the parabola's vertex to the chord is {{mvar\\|h}}, the parallelogram is a rectangle, with sides of {{mvar\\|b}} and {{mvar\\|h}}. The area {{mvar\\|A}} of the parabolic segment enclosed by the parabola and the chord is therefore\nA \\= \\\\frac{2}{3} bh.", "This formula can be compared with the area of a triangle: {{math\\|{{sfrac\\|1\\|2}}''bh''}}.", "In general, the enclosed area can be calculated as follows. First, locate the point on the parabola where its slope equals that of the chord. This can be done with calculus, or by using a line that is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola and passes through the midpoint of the chord. The required point is where this line intersects the parabola.{{efn\\|This method can be easily proved correct by calculus. It was also known and used by Archimedes, although he lived nearly 2000 years before calculus was invented.}} Then, using the formula given in [Distance from a point to a line](/wiki/Distance_from_a_point_to_a_line \"Distance from a point to a line\"), calculate the perpendicular distance from this point to the chord. Multiply this by the length of the chord to get the area of the parallelogram, then by 2/3 to get the required enclosed area.", "### Corollary concerning midpoints and endpoints of chords", "[thumb\\|Midpoints of parallel chords](/wiki/File:Parabel-psehnen-s.svg \"Parabel-psehnen-s.svg\")", "A corollary of the above discussion is that if a parabola has several parallel chords, their midpoints all lie on a line parallel to the axis of symmetry. If tangents to the parabola are drawn through the endpoints of any of these chords, the two tangents intersect on this same line parallel to the axis of symmetry (see [Axis\\-direction of a parabola](/wiki/Parabola%23Axis-direction_of_a_parabola \"Parabola#Axis-direction of a parabola\")).{{efn\\|A proof of this sentence can be inferred from the proof of the \\[\\[\\#Orthoptic property\\|orthoptic property]], above. It is shown there that the tangents to the parabola {{math\\|1\\=''y'' \\= ''x''2}} at {{math\\|(''p'', ''p''2)}} and {{math\\|(''q'', ''q''2)}} intersect at a point whose {{mvar\\|x}} coordinate is the mean of {{mvar\\|p}} and {{mvar\\|q}}. Thus if there is a chord between these two points, the intersection point of the tangents has the same {{mvar\\|x}} coordinate as the midpoint of the chord.}}", "### Arc length", "If a point X is located on a parabola with focal length {{mvar\\|f}}, and if {{mvar\\|p}} is the [perpendicular distance](/wiki/Distance_from_a_point_to_a_line \"Distance from a point to a line\") from X to the axis of symmetry of the parabola, then the lengths of [arcs](/wiki/Arc_%28geometry%29 \"Arc (geometry)\") of the parabola that terminate at X can be calculated from {{mvar\\|f}} and {{mvar\\|p}} as follows, assuming they are all expressed in the same units.{{efn\\|In this calculation, the \\[\\[square root]] {{mvar\\|q}} must be positive. The quantity {{math\\|ln ''a''}} is the \\[\\[natural logarithm]] of {{mvar\\|a}}.}}\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\nh &= \\frac{p}{2}, \\\\\nq &= \\sqrt{f^2 + h^2}, \\\\\ns &= \\frac{hq}{f} + f \\ln\\frac{h + q}{f}.", "```\n\\\\end{align}", "This quantity {{mvar\\|s}} is the length of the arc between X and the vertex of the parabola.", "The length of the arc between X and the symmetrically opposite point on the other side of the parabola is {{math\\|2''s''}}.", "The perpendicular distance {{mvar\\|p}} can be given a positive or negative sign to indicate on which side of the axis of symmetry X is situated. Reversing the sign of {{mvar\\|p}} reverses the signs of {{mvar\\|h}} and {{mvar\\|s}} without changing their absolute values. If these quantities are signed, *the length of the arc between* any *two points on the parabola is always shown by the difference between their values of {{mvar\\|s}}*. The calculation can be simplified by using the properties of logarithms:\ns\\_1 \\- s\\_2 \\= \\\\frac{h\\_1 q\\_1 \\- h\\_2 q\\_2}{f} \\+ f \\\\ln\\\\frac{h\\_1 \\+ q\\_1}{h\\_2 \\+ q\\_2}.", "This can be useful, for example, in calculating the size of the material needed to make a [parabolic reflector](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\") or [parabolic trough](/wiki/Parabolic_trough \"Parabolic trough\").", "This calculation can be used for a parabola in any orientation. It is not restricted to the situation where the axis of symmetry is parallel to the *y* axis.", "" ]
A geometrical construction to find a sector area ------------------------------------------------ [400px\|Sector area proposition 30](/wiki/File:Sector_Area_Prop_30.png "Sector Area Prop 30.png") S is the focus, and V is the principal vertex of the parabola VG. Draw VX perpendicular to SV. Take any point B on VG and drop a perpendicular BQ from B to VX. Draw perpendicular ST intersecting BQ, extended if necessary, at T. At B draw the perpendicular BJ, intersecting VX at J. For the parabola, the segment VBV, the area enclosed by the chord VB and the arc VB, is equal to ∆VBQ / 3, also BQ \= \\frac{VQ^2}{4SV}. The area of the parabolic sector SVB \= \\triangle SVB \+ \\frac{\\triangle VBQ}{3} \= \\frac{SV \\cdot VQ}{2} \+ \\frac{VQ \\cdot BQ}{6}. Since triangles TSB and QBJ are similar, VJ \= VQ \- JQ \= VQ \- \\frac{BQ \\cdot TB}{ST} \= VQ \- \\frac{BQ \\cdot (SV \- BQ)}{VQ} \= \\frac{3VQ}{4} \+ \\frac{VQ \\cdot BQ}{4SV}. Therefore, the area of the parabolic sector SVB \= \\frac{2SV \\cdot VJ}{3} and can be found from the length of VJ, as found above. A circle through S, V and B also passes through J. Conversely, if a point, B on the parabola VG is to be found so that the area of the sector SVB is equal to a specified value, determine the point J on VX and construct a circle through S, V and J. Since SJ is the diameter, the center of the circle is at its midpoint, and it lies on the perpendicular bisector of SV, a distance of one half VJ from SV. The required point B is where this circle intersects the parabola. If a body traces the path of the parabola due to an inverse square force directed towards S, the area SVB increases at a constant rate as point B moves forward. It follows that J moves at constant speed along VX as B moves along the parabola. If the speed of the body at the vertex where it is moving perpendicularly to SV is *v*, then the speed of J is equal to {{math\|3''v''/4}}. The construction can be extended simply to include the case where neither radius coincides with the axis SV as follows. Let A be a fixed point on VG between V and B, and point H be the intersection on VX with the perpendicular to SA at A. From the above, the area of the parabolic sector SAB \= \\frac{2SV \\cdot (VJ \- VH)}{3} \= \\frac{2SV \\cdot HJ}{3}. Conversely, if it is required to find the point B for a particular area SAB, find point J from HJ and point B as before. By Book 1, Proposition 16, Corollary 6 of Newton's [*Principia*](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica"), the speed of a body moving along a parabola with a force directed towards the focus is inversely proportional to the square root of the radius. If the speed at A is *v*, then at the vertex V it is \\sqrt{\\frac{SA}{SV}} v, and point J moves at a constant speed of \\frac{3v}{4} \\sqrt{\\frac{SA}{SV}}. The above construction was devised by Isaac Newton and can be found in Book 1 of [Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica") as Proposition 30\.
[ "A geometrical construction to find a sector area\n------------------------------------------------", "[400px\\|Sector area proposition 30](/wiki/File:Sector_Area_Prop_30.png \"Sector Area Prop 30.png\")", "S is the focus, and V is the principal vertex of the parabola VG. Draw VX perpendicular to SV.", "Take any point B on VG and drop a perpendicular BQ from B to VX. Draw perpendicular ST intersecting BQ, extended if necessary, at T. At B draw the perpendicular BJ, intersecting VX at J.", "For the parabola, the segment VBV, the area enclosed by the chord VB and the arc VB, is equal to ∆VBQ / 3, also BQ \\= \\\\frac{VQ^2}{4SV}.", "The area of the parabolic sector SVB \\= \\\\triangle SVB \\+ \\\\frac{\\\\triangle VBQ}{3} \\= \\\\frac{SV \\\\cdot VQ}{2} \\+ \\\\frac{VQ \\\\cdot BQ}{6}.", "Since triangles TSB and QBJ are similar,\nVJ \\= VQ \\- JQ \\= VQ \\- \\\\frac{BQ \\\\cdot TB}{ST} \\= VQ \\- \\\\frac{BQ \\\\cdot (SV \\- BQ)}{VQ} \\= \\\\frac{3VQ}{4} \\+ \\\\frac{VQ \\\\cdot BQ}{4SV}.", "Therefore, the area of the parabolic sector SVB \\= \\\\frac{2SV \\\\cdot VJ}{3} and can be found from the length of VJ, as found above.", "A circle through S, V and B also passes through J.", "Conversely, if a point, B on the parabola VG is to be found so that the area of the sector SVB is equal to a specified value, determine the point J on VX and construct a circle through S, V and J. Since SJ is the diameter, the center of the circle is at its midpoint, and it lies on the perpendicular bisector of SV, a distance of one half VJ from SV. The required point B is where this circle intersects the parabola.", "If a body traces the path of the parabola due to an inverse square force directed towards S, the area SVB increases at a constant rate as point B moves forward. It follows that J moves at constant speed along VX as B moves along the parabola.", "If the speed of the body at the vertex where it is moving perpendicularly to SV is *v*, then the speed of J is equal to {{math\\|3''v''/4}}.", "The construction can be extended simply to include the case where neither radius coincides with the axis SV as follows. Let A be a fixed point on VG between V and B, and point H be the intersection on VX with the perpendicular to SA at A. From the above, the area of the parabolic sector SAB \\= \\\\frac{2SV \\\\cdot (VJ \\- VH)}{3} \\= \\\\frac{2SV \\\\cdot HJ}{3}.", "Conversely, if it is required to find the point B for a particular area SAB, find point J from HJ and point B as before. By Book 1, Proposition 16, Corollary 6 of Newton's [*Principia*](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\"), the speed of a body moving along a parabola with a force directed towards the focus is inversely proportional to the square root of the radius. If the speed at A is *v*, then at the vertex V it is \\\\sqrt{\\\\frac{SA}{SV}} v, and point J moves at a constant speed of \\\\frac{3v}{4} \\\\sqrt{\\\\frac{SA}{SV}}.", "The above construction was devised by Isaac Newton and can be found in Book 1 of [Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\") as Proposition 30\\.", "" ]
As the affine image of the unit parabola ---------------------------------------- [thumb\|Parabola as an affine image of the unit parabola](/wiki/File:Parabel-aff-s.svg "Parabel-aff-s.svg") Another definition of a parabola uses [affine transformations](/wiki/Affine_transformation "Affine transformation"): {{block indent \| em \= 1\.5 \| text \= Any ''parabola'' is the affine image of the unit parabola with equation y \= x^2.}} ### Parametric representation An affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form \\vec x \\to \\vec f\_0 \+ A \\vec x, where A is a regular matrix ([determinant](/wiki/Determinant "Determinant") is not 0\), and \\vec f\_0 is an arbitrary vector. If \\vec f\_1, \\vec f\_2 are the column vectors of the matrix A, the unit parabola (t, t^2\),\\ t \\in \\R is mapped onto the parabola \\vec x \= \\vec p(t) \= \\vec f\_0 \+\\vec f\_1 t \+\\vec f\_2 t^2, where * \\vec f\_0 is a *point* of the parabola, * \\vec f\_1 is a *tangent vector* at point \\vec f\_0, * \\vec f\_2 is *parallel to the axis* of the parabola (axis of symmetry through the vertex). ### Vertex In general, the two vectors \\vec f\_1, \\vec f\_2 are not perpendicular, and \\vec f\_0 is *not* the vertex, unless the affine transformation is a [similarity](/wiki/Similarity_%28geometry%29 "Similarity (geometry)"). The tangent vector at the point \\vec p(t) is \\vec p'(t) \= \\vec f\_1 \+ 2t \\vec f\_2. At the vertex the tangent vector is orthogonal to \\vec f\_2. Hence the parameter t\_0 of the vertex is the solution of the equation \\vec p'(t) \\cdot \\vec f\_2 \= \\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2 \+ 2t f\_2^2 \= 0, which is t\_0 \= \-\\frac{\\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2}{2 f\_2^2}, and the *vertex* is \\vec p(t\_0\) \= \\vec f\_0 \- \\frac{\\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2}{2 f\_2^2} \\vec f\_1 \+ \\frac{(\\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2\)^2}{4(f\_2^2\)^2} \\vec f\_2\. ### Focal length and focus The *focal length* can be determined by a suitable parameter transformation (which does not change the geometric shape of the parabola). The focal length is f \= \\frac{f\_1^2 \\, f\_2^2 \- (\\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2\)^2}{4\|f\_2\|^3}. Hence the *focus* of the parabola is F:\\ \\vec f\_0 \- \\frac{\\vec f\_1 \\cdot \\vec f\_2}{2 f\_2^2} \\vec f\_1 \+ \\frac{f\_1^2 \\, f\_2^2}{4(f\_2^2\)^2} \\vec f\_2\. ### Implicit representation Solving the parametric representation for \\; t, t^2\\; by [Cramer's rule](/wiki/Cramer%27s_rule "Cramer's rule") and using \\;t\\cdot t\-t^2 \=0\\; , one gets the implicit representation \\det(\\vec x\\!\-\\!\\vec f\\!\_0,\\vec f\\!\_2\)^2\-\\det(\\vec f\\!\_1,\\vec x\\!\-\\!\\vec f\\!\_0\)\\det(\\vec f\\!\_1,\\vec f\\!\_2\) \= 0\. ### Parabola in space The definition of a parabola in this section gives a parametric representation of an arbitrary parabola, even in space, if one allows \\vec f\\!\_0, \\vec f\\!\_1, \\vec f\\!\_2 to be vectors in space.
[ "As the affine image of the unit parabola\n----------------------------------------", "[thumb\\|Parabola as an affine image of the unit parabola](/wiki/File:Parabel-aff-s.svg \"Parabel-aff-s.svg\")\nAnother definition of a parabola uses [affine transformations](/wiki/Affine_transformation \"Affine transformation\"):\n{{block indent \\| em \\= 1\\.5 \\| text \\= Any ''parabola'' is the affine image of the unit parabola with equation y \\= x^2.}}", "### Parametric representation", "An affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form \\\\vec x \\\\to \\\\vec f\\_0 \\+ A \\\\vec x, where A is a regular matrix ([determinant](/wiki/Determinant \"Determinant\") is not 0\\), and \\\\vec f\\_0 is an arbitrary vector. If \\\\vec f\\_1, \\\\vec f\\_2 are the column vectors of the matrix A, the unit parabola (t, t^2\\),\\\\ t \\\\in \\\\R is mapped onto the parabola\n\\\\vec x \\= \\\\vec p(t) \\= \\\\vec f\\_0 \\+\\\\vec f\\_1 t \\+\\\\vec f\\_2 t^2,\nwhere\n* \\\\vec f\\_0 is a *point* of the parabola,\n* \\\\vec f\\_1 is a *tangent vector* at point \\\\vec f\\_0,\n* \\\\vec f\\_2 is *parallel to the axis* of the parabola (axis of symmetry through the vertex).", "### Vertex", "In general, the two vectors \\\\vec f\\_1, \\\\vec f\\_2 are not perpendicular, and \\\\vec f\\_0 is *not* the vertex, unless the affine transformation is a [similarity](/wiki/Similarity_%28geometry%29 \"Similarity (geometry)\").", "The tangent vector at the point \\\\vec p(t) is \\\\vec p'(t) \\= \\\\vec f\\_1 \\+ 2t \\\\vec f\\_2. At the vertex the tangent vector is orthogonal to \\\\vec f\\_2. Hence the parameter t\\_0 of the vertex is the solution of the equation\n\\\\vec p'(t) \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2 \\= \\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2 \\+ 2t f\\_2^2 \\= 0,\nwhich is\nt\\_0 \\= \\-\\\\frac{\\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2}{2 f\\_2^2},\nand the *vertex* is\n\\\\vec p(t\\_0\\) \\= \\\\vec f\\_0 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2}{2 f\\_2^2} \\\\vec f\\_1 \\+ \\\\frac{(\\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2\\)^2}{4(f\\_2^2\\)^2} \\\\vec f\\_2\\.", "### Focal length and focus", "The *focal length* can be determined by a suitable parameter transformation (which does not change the geometric shape of the parabola). The focal length is\nf \\= \\\\frac{f\\_1^2 \\\\, f\\_2^2 \\- (\\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2\\)^2}{4\\|f\\_2\\|^3}.\nHence the *focus* of the parabola is\nF:\\\\ \\\\vec f\\_0 \\- \\\\frac{\\\\vec f\\_1 \\\\cdot \\\\vec f\\_2}{2 f\\_2^2} \\\\vec f\\_1 \\+ \\\\frac{f\\_1^2 \\\\, f\\_2^2}{4(f\\_2^2\\)^2} \\\\vec f\\_2\\.", "### Implicit representation", "Solving the parametric representation for \\\\; t, t^2\\\\; by [Cramer's rule](/wiki/Cramer%27s_rule \"Cramer's rule\") and using \\\\;t\\\\cdot t\\-t^2 \\=0\\\\; , one gets the implicit representation\n\\\\det(\\\\vec x\\\\!\\-\\\\!\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_0,\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_2\\)^2\\-\\\\det(\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_1,\\\\vec x\\\\!\\-\\\\!\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_0\\)\\\\det(\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_1,\\\\vec f\\\\!\\_2\\) \\= 0\\.", "### Parabola in space", "The definition of a parabola in this section gives a parametric representation of an arbitrary parabola, even in space, if one allows \\\\vec f\\\\!\\_0, \\\\vec f\\\\!\\_1, \\\\vec f\\\\!\\_2 to be vectors in space.", "" ]
In the physical world --------------------- In nature, approximations of parabolas and paraboloids are found in many diverse situations. The best\-known instance of the parabola in the history of [physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics") is the [trajectory](/wiki/Trajectory "Trajectory") of a particle or body in motion under the influence of a uniform [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field "Gravitational field") without [air resistance](/wiki/Air_resistance "Air resistance") (for instance, a ball flying through the air, neglecting air [friction](/wiki/Friction "Friction")). The [parabolic trajectory of projectiles](/wiki/Projectile_motion "Projectile motion") was discovered experimentally in the early 17th century by [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo "Galileo"), who performed experiments with balls rolling on inclined planes. He also later proved this [mathematically](/wiki/Mathematical "Mathematical") in his book *Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences*.Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences (1638\) (The Motion of Projectiles: Theorem 1\).{{efn\|However, this parabolic shape, as Newton recognized, is only an approximation of the actual elliptical shape of the trajectory and is obtained by assuming that the gravitational force is constant (not pointing toward the center of the Earth) in the area of interest. Often, this difference is negligible and leads to a simpler formula for tracking motion.}} For objects extended in space, such as a diver jumping from a diving board, the object itself follows a complex motion as it rotates, but the [center of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass "Center of mass") of the object nevertheless moves along a parabola. As in all cases in the physical world, the trajectory is always an approximation of a parabola. The presence of air resistance, for example, always distorts the shape, although at low speeds, the shape is a good approximation of a parabola. At higher speeds, such as in ballistics, the shape is highly distorted and does not resemble a parabola. Another [hypothetical](/wiki/Hypothetical "Hypothetical") situation in which parabolas might arise, according to the theories of physics described in the 17th and 18th centuries by [Sir Isaac Newton](/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton "Sir Isaac Newton"), is in [two\-body orbits](/wiki/Two-body_orbit "Two-body orbit"), for example, the path of a small planetoid or other object under the influence of the gravitation of the [Sun](/wiki/Sun "Sun"). [Parabolic orbits](/wiki/Parabolic_orbit "Parabolic orbit") do not occur in nature; simple orbits most commonly resemble [hyperbolas](/wiki/Hyperbola "Hyperbola") or [ellipses](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse"). The parabolic orbit is the [degenerate](/wiki/Degeneracy_%28math%29 "Degeneracy (math)") intermediate case between those two types of ideal orbit. An object following a parabolic orbit would travel at the exact [escape velocity](/wiki/Escape_velocity "Escape velocity") of the object it orbits; objects in [elliptical](/wiki/Elliptical_orbit "Elliptical orbit") or [hyperbolic](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orbit "Hyperbolic orbit") orbits travel at less or greater than escape velocity, respectively. Long\-period [comets](/wiki/Comet "Comet") travel close to the Sun's escape velocity while they are moving through the inner Solar system, so their paths are nearly parabolic. Approximations of parabolas are also found in the shape of the main cables on a simple [suspension bridge](/wiki/Suspension_bridge "Suspension bridge"). The curve of the chains of a suspension bridge is always an intermediate curve between a parabola and a [catenary](/wiki/Catenary "Catenary"), but in practice the curve is generally nearer to a parabola due to the weight of the load (i.e. the road) being much larger than the cables themselves, and in calculations the second\-degree polynomial formula of a parabola is used.{{cite book \|title\=Bridge engineering: a global perspective \|first1\=Leonardo Fernández \|last1\=Troyano \|publisher\=Thomas Telford \|year\=2003 \|isbn\=0\-7277\-3215\-3 \|page\=536 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0u5G8E3uPUAC\&pg\=PA536}} {{cite book \|title\=A memoir of suspension bridges \|first1\=Charles Stewart \|last1\=Drewry \|publisher\=Oxford University \|year\=1832 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/amemoironsuspen00drewgoog/page/n183 159] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/amemoironsuspen00drewgoog}} Under the influence of a uniform load (such as a horizontal suspended deck), the otherwise catenary\-shaped cable is deformed toward a parabola (see {{slink\|Catenary\#Suspension bridge curve}}). Unlike an inelastic chain, a freely hanging spring of zero unstressed length takes the shape of a parabola. Suspension\-bridge cables are, ideally, purely in tension, without having to carry other forces, for example, bending. Similarly, the structures of parabolic arches are purely in compression. Paraboloids arise in several physical situations as well. The best\-known instance is the [parabolic reflector](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector"), which is a mirror or similar reflective device that concentrates light or other forms of [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation "Electromagnetic radiation") to a common [focal point](/wiki/Focus_%28optics%29 "Focus (optics)"), or conversely, collimates light from a point source at the focus into a parallel beam. The principle of the parabolic reflector may have been discovered in the 3rd century BC by the geometer [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes "Archimedes"), who, according to a dubious legend,{{cite journal \|last \= Middleton \|first \= W. E. Knowles \|date \= December 1961 \|title \= Archimedes, Kircher, Buffon, and the Burning\-Mirrors \|journal \= Isis \|volume \= 52 \|issue \= 4 \|publisher \= Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society \|pages \= 533–543 \|doi \= 10\.1086/349498 \|jstor \= 228646\|s2cid \= 145385010 }} constructed parabolic mirrors to defend [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Italy "Syracuse, Italy") against the [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") fleet, by concentrating the sun's rays to set fire to the decks of the Roman ships. The principle was applied to [telescopes](/wiki/Telescope "Telescope") in the 17th century. Today, paraboloid reflectors can be commonly observed throughout much of the world in [microwave](/wiki/Microwave "Microwave") and satellite\-dish receiving and transmitting antennas. In [parabolic microphones](/wiki/Parabolic_microphone "Parabolic microphone"), a parabolic reflector is used to focus sound onto a microphone, giving it highly directional performance. Paraboloids are also observed in the surface of a liquid confined to a container and rotated around the central axis. In this case, the [centrifugal force](/wiki/Centrifugal_force "Centrifugal force") causes the liquid to climb the walls of the container, forming a parabolic surface. This is the principle behind the [liquid\-mirror telescope](/wiki/Liquid-mirror_telescope "Liquid-mirror telescope"). [Aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft "Aircraft") used to create a [weightless state](/wiki/Weightlessness "Weightlessness") for purposes of experimentation, such as [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s "[Vomit Comet](/wiki/Vomit_Comet "Vomit Comet")", follow a vertically parabolic trajectory for brief periods in order to trace the course of an object in [free fall](/wiki/Free_fall "Free fall"), which produces the same effect as zero gravity for most purposes. ### Gallery File:Bouncing ball strobe edit.jpg\|A \[\[bouncing ball]] captured with a stroboscopic flash at 25 images per second. The ball becomes significantly non\-spherical after each bounce, especially after the first. That, along with spin and \[\[air resistance]], causes the curve swept out to deviate slightly from the expected perfect parabola. File:ParabolicWaterTrajectory.jpg\|Parabolic trajectories of water in a fountain. File:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391\.svg\|The path (in red) of \[\[Comet Kohoutek]] as it passed through the inner Solar system, showing its nearly parabolic shape. The blue orbit is the Earth's. File:Laxmanjhula.jpg\|The supporting cables of \[\[suspension bridge]]s follow a curve that is intermediate between a parabola and a \[\[catenary]]. File:Rainbow Bridge(2\).jpg\|The \[\[Rainbow Bridge (Niagara Falls)\|Rainbow Bridge]] across the \[\[Niagara River]], connecting \[\[Canada]] (left) to the \[\[United States]] (right). The parabolic arch is in compression and carries the weight of the road. File:Celler de Sant Cugat lateral.JPG\|Parabolic arches used in architecture File:Parabola shape in rotating layers of fluid.jpg\|Parabolic shape formed by a liquid surface under rotation. Two liquids of different densities completely fill a narrow space between two sheets of transparent plastic. The gap between the sheets is closed at the bottom, sides and top. The whole assembly is rotating around a vertical axis passing through the centre. (See \[\[Rotating furnace]]) File:ALSOL.jpg\|\[\[Solar cooker]] with \[\[parabolic reflector]] File:Antenna 03\.JPG\|\[\[Parabolic antenna]] File:ParabolicMicrophone.jpg\|\[\[Parabolic microphone]] with optically transparent plastic reflector used at an American college football game. File:Solar Array.jpg\|Array of \[\[parabolic trough]]s to collect \[\[solar energy]] File:Ed d21m.jpg\|\[\[Thomas Edison\|Edison]]'s searchlight, mounted on a cart. The light had a parabolic reflector. File:Physicist Stephen Hawking in Zero Gravity NASA.jpg\|Physicist \[\[Stephen Hawking]] in an aircraft flying a parabolic trajectory to simulate zero gravity {{clear}}
[ "In the physical world\n---------------------", "In nature, approximations of parabolas and paraboloids are found in many diverse situations. The best\\-known instance of the parabola in the history of [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\") is the [trajectory](/wiki/Trajectory \"Trajectory\") of a particle or body in motion under the influence of a uniform [gravitational field](/wiki/Gravitational_field \"Gravitational field\") without [air resistance](/wiki/Air_resistance \"Air resistance\") (for instance, a ball flying through the air, neglecting air [friction](/wiki/Friction \"Friction\")).", "The [parabolic trajectory of projectiles](/wiki/Projectile_motion \"Projectile motion\") was discovered experimentally in the early 17th century by [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo \"Galileo\"), who performed experiments with balls rolling on inclined planes. He also later proved this [mathematically](/wiki/Mathematical \"Mathematical\") in his book *Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences*.Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences (1638\\) (The Motion of Projectiles: Theorem 1\\).{{efn\\|However, this parabolic shape, as Newton recognized, is only an approximation of the actual elliptical shape of the trajectory and is obtained by assuming that the gravitational force is constant (not pointing toward the center of the Earth) in the area of interest. Often, this difference is negligible and leads to a simpler formula for tracking motion.}} For objects extended in space, such as a diver jumping from a diving board, the object itself follows a complex motion as it rotates, but the [center of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass \"Center of mass\") of the object nevertheless moves along a parabola. As in all cases in the physical world, the trajectory is always an approximation of a parabola. The presence of air resistance, for example, always distorts the shape, although at low speeds, the shape is a good approximation of a parabola. At higher speeds, such as in ballistics, the shape is highly distorted and does not resemble a parabola.", "Another [hypothetical](/wiki/Hypothetical \"Hypothetical\") situation in which parabolas might arise, according to the theories of physics described in the 17th and 18th centuries by [Sir Isaac Newton](/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton \"Sir Isaac Newton\"), is in [two\\-body orbits](/wiki/Two-body_orbit \"Two-body orbit\"), for example, the path of a small planetoid or other object under the influence of the gravitation of the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). [Parabolic orbits](/wiki/Parabolic_orbit \"Parabolic orbit\") do not occur in nature; simple orbits most commonly resemble [hyperbolas](/wiki/Hyperbola \"Hyperbola\") or [ellipses](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\"). The parabolic orbit is the [degenerate](/wiki/Degeneracy_%28math%29 \"Degeneracy (math)\") intermediate case between those two types of ideal orbit. An object following a parabolic orbit would travel at the exact [escape velocity](/wiki/Escape_velocity \"Escape velocity\") of the object it orbits; objects in [elliptical](/wiki/Elliptical_orbit \"Elliptical orbit\") or [hyperbolic](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orbit \"Hyperbolic orbit\") orbits travel at less or greater than escape velocity, respectively. Long\\-period [comets](/wiki/Comet \"Comet\") travel close to the Sun's escape velocity while they are moving through the inner Solar system, so their paths are nearly parabolic.", "Approximations of parabolas are also found in the shape of the main cables on a simple [suspension bridge](/wiki/Suspension_bridge \"Suspension bridge\"). The curve of the chains of a suspension bridge is always an intermediate curve between a parabola and a [catenary](/wiki/Catenary \"Catenary\"), but in practice the curve is generally nearer to a parabola due to the weight of the load (i.e. the road) being much larger than the cables themselves, and in calculations the second\\-degree polynomial formula of a parabola is used.{{cite book\n\\|title\\=Bridge engineering: a global perspective\n\\|first1\\=Leonardo Fernández\n\\|last1\\=Troyano\n\\|publisher\\=Thomas Telford\n\\|year\\=2003\n\\|isbn\\=0\\-7277\\-3215\\-3\n\\|page\\=536\n\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0u5G8E3uPUAC\\&pg\\=PA536}}\n{{cite book\n\\|title\\=A memoir of suspension bridges\n\\|first1\\=Charles Stewart\n\\|last1\\=Drewry\n\\|publisher\\=Oxford University\n\\|year\\=1832\n\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/amemoironsuspen00drewgoog/page/n183 159]\n\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/amemoironsuspen00drewgoog}}\n Under the influence of a uniform load (such as a horizontal suspended deck), the otherwise catenary\\-shaped cable is deformed toward a parabola (see {{slink\\|Catenary\\#Suspension bridge curve}}). Unlike an inelastic chain, a freely hanging spring of zero unstressed length takes the shape of a parabola. Suspension\\-bridge cables are, ideally, purely in tension, without having to carry other forces, for example, bending. Similarly, the structures of parabolic arches are purely in compression.", "Paraboloids arise in several physical situations as well. The best\\-known instance is the [parabolic reflector](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\"), which is a mirror or similar reflective device that concentrates light or other forms of [electromagnetic radiation](/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation \"Electromagnetic radiation\") to a common [focal point](/wiki/Focus_%28optics%29 \"Focus (optics)\"), or conversely, collimates light from a point source at the focus into a parallel beam. The principle of the parabolic reflector may have been discovered in the 3rd century BC by the geometer [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes \"Archimedes\"), who, according to a dubious legend,{{cite journal\n\\|last \\= Middleton\n\\|first \\= W. E. Knowles\n\\|date \\= December 1961\n\\|title \\= Archimedes, Kircher, Buffon, and the Burning\\-Mirrors\n\\|journal \\= Isis\n\\|volume \\= 52\n\\|issue \\= 4\n\\|publisher \\= Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society\n\\|pages \\= 533–543\n\\|doi \\= 10\\.1086/349498\n\\|jstor \\= 228646\\|s2cid \\= 145385010\n}} constructed parabolic mirrors to defend [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Italy \"Syracuse, Italy\") against the [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") fleet, by concentrating the sun's rays to set fire to the decks of the Roman ships. The principle was applied to [telescopes](/wiki/Telescope \"Telescope\") in the 17th century. Today, paraboloid reflectors can be commonly observed throughout much of the world in [microwave](/wiki/Microwave \"Microwave\") and satellite\\-dish receiving and transmitting antennas.", "In [parabolic microphones](/wiki/Parabolic_microphone \"Parabolic microphone\"), a parabolic reflector is used to focus sound onto a microphone, giving it highly directional performance.", "Paraboloids are also observed in the surface of a liquid confined to a container and rotated around the central axis. In this case, the [centrifugal force](/wiki/Centrifugal_force \"Centrifugal force\") causes the liquid to climb the walls of the container, forming a parabolic surface. This is the principle behind the [liquid\\-mirror telescope](/wiki/Liquid-mirror_telescope \"Liquid-mirror telescope\").", "[Aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft \"Aircraft\") used to create a [weightless state](/wiki/Weightlessness \"Weightlessness\") for purposes of experimentation, such as [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s \"[Vomit Comet](/wiki/Vomit_Comet \"Vomit Comet\")\", follow a vertically parabolic trajectory for brief periods in order to trace the course of an object in [free fall](/wiki/Free_fall \"Free fall\"), which produces the same effect as zero gravity for most purposes.", "### Gallery", "", "File:Bouncing ball strobe edit.jpg\\|A \\[\\[bouncing ball]] captured with a stroboscopic flash at 25 images per second. The ball becomes significantly non\\-spherical after each bounce, especially after the first. That, along with spin and \\[\\[air resistance]], causes the curve swept out to deviate slightly from the expected perfect parabola.\nFile:ParabolicWaterTrajectory.jpg\\|Parabolic trajectories of water in a fountain.\nFile:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391\\.svg\\|The path (in red) of \\[\\[Comet Kohoutek]] as it passed through the inner Solar system, showing its nearly parabolic shape. The blue orbit is the Earth's.\nFile:Laxmanjhula.jpg\\|The supporting cables of \\[\\[suspension bridge]]s follow a curve that is intermediate between a parabola and a \\[\\[catenary]].\nFile:Rainbow Bridge(2\\).jpg\\|The \\[\\[Rainbow Bridge (Niagara Falls)\\|Rainbow Bridge]] across the \\[\\[Niagara River]], connecting \\[\\[Canada]] (left) to the \\[\\[United States]] (right). The parabolic arch is in compression and carries the weight of the road.\nFile:Celler de Sant Cugat lateral.JPG\\|Parabolic arches used in architecture\nFile:Parabola shape in rotating layers of fluid.jpg\\|Parabolic shape formed by a liquid surface under rotation. Two liquids of different densities completely fill a narrow space between two sheets of transparent plastic. The gap between the sheets is closed at the bottom, sides and top. The whole assembly is rotating around a vertical axis passing through the centre. (See \\[\\[Rotating furnace]])\nFile:ALSOL.jpg\\|\\[\\[Solar cooker]] with \\[\\[parabolic reflector]]\nFile:Antenna 03\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Parabolic antenna]]\nFile:ParabolicMicrophone.jpg\\|\\[\\[Parabolic microphone]] with optically transparent plastic reflector used at an American college football game.\nFile:Solar Array.jpg\\|Array of \\[\\[parabolic trough]]s to collect \\[\\[solar energy]]\nFile:Ed d21m.jpg\\|\\[\\[Thomas Edison\\|Edison]]'s searchlight, mounted on a cart. The light had a parabolic reflector.\nFile:Physicist Stephen Hawking in Zero Gravity NASA.jpg\\|Physicist \\[\\[Stephen Hawking]] in an aircraft flying a parabolic trajectory to simulate zero gravity", "", "{{clear}}", "" ]
Literacy techniques and genres ------------------------------ Wenyuan Yinghua includes literature of all forms, including poems, lyrics, and articles. These writings cover a wide range of topics, from the story of a heroic act to the poet's philosophical emotion about an object. ### Poems, songs, hymns Poems and songs are famous types of literature genres in the Tang and Song dynasties. They have different names in Chinese, such as "[Fu](/wiki/Fu_%28poetry%29 "Fu (poetry)")", "[Shi](/wiki/Shi_%28poetry%29 "Shi (poetry)")", "[Ci](/wiki/C%C3%AD_%28poetry%29 "Cí (poetry)")", "[Yuefu Shi](/wiki/Yuefu "Yuefu")", and "[Jue Ju](/wiki/Jueju "Jueju")". They are all types of poems, but each represents different poetic composition rules and forms. Many of the works of the highest regard in Wenyuan Yinghua combine the writer's description of events and the expression of opinions. The writers usually start describing an event or object in the first few lines and carry on to expressing their ideas deriving from the event. [thumb\|Tang poems are written on papers in this format](/wiki/File:Three_Hundred_Tang_Poems_%2813%29.jpg "Three Hundred Tang Poems (13).jpg") The poems in Wenyuan Yinghua come with a lot of quotations. It is a way for writers to show their erudition to audiences, majorly fellow writers with certain cultural attainment. The work they quoted could be Chinese classics dating further back, such as "[Zhuang Zi](/wiki/Zhuangzi_%28book%29 "Zhuangzi (book)")", "[Zuo Zhuan](/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan "Zuo Zhuan")", or "[Lun Yu](/wiki/Analects "Analects")". Those examples listed are all classics required for Chinese scholars to memorize for the imperial exam, so the audience would not have problems understanding the quoted reference. In "酬乐天扬州初逢席上见赠," the verse "到乡翻似烂柯人" literally means "as if I'm the man carrying a broken ax after I return home." The quotation "the man carrying a broken ax" comes from a story in "Jing shu" (The history of Jing). The story tells a man who went chopping the woods in the forest, and when he gets back home, he discovers everything has changed. A few years have passed in his few days in the woods. By quoting this, the author [Bai Juyi](/wiki/Bai_Juyi "Bai Juyi") expresses the shocking emotion that everything moved forth while he was away from home.{{Cite journal \|last\=Nienhauser \|first\=William H. \|date\=1977 \|title\=A Structural Reading of the Chuan in the Wen\-yüan ying\-hua \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1017/s0021911800075859 \|journal\=The Journal of Asian Studies \|volume\=36 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=443–456 \|doi\=10\.1017/s0021911800075859 \|issn\=0021\-9118}} Some authors use symbolism to present the work in depth. For instance, [Du Fu](/wiki/Du_Fu "Du Fu")'s poem "Li Ren Xin" included a detailed description of the banquet in the palace. Although it seemed to be depicting the scene, Du implies the extravagant lifestyle of nobles is built on the hardship of ordinary people, secretly conveying discontent. Those works have a market among ordinary citizens while spreading unnoticed by authorities. Symbolism is prevalent in Wenyuan Yinghua's poems. Like many western poets like [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"), [Emily Dickinson](/wiki/Emily_Dickinson "Emily Dickinson"), and [E. E. Cummings](/wiki/E._E._Cummings "E. E. Cummings"), their middle\-aged colleagues in China also have keen sights of their surroundings. Poets in Tang and Song left comments on the tenancy of nature, praising the firmness and persistence of bamboos and orchids. They were lit up by the lone plum in the snow and astounded by the pines growing from rocks. They learned from the cruelness and beauty of nature. The authors polish their works, illustrating traits of good virtue vividly with symbolism. Poems in Wenyuan Yinghua include many analogies and metaphors. Since lyrics come in verses of seven Chinese characters, poets need to express as efficiently as possible in limited space. Metaphors and analogy serve the purpose of saving words of description here since they use the commonly known character of one object to describe another lesser\-known thing.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lee \|first1\=John \|last2\=Kong \|first2\=Yin Hei \|last3\=Luo \|first3\=Mengqi \|date\=2017\-01\-07 \|title\=Syntactic patterns in classical Chinese poems: A quantitative study \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/dsh/article\-lookup/doi/10\.1093/llc/fqw059 \|journal\=Digital Scholarship in the Humanities \|volume\=33 \|language\=en \|pages\=82–95 \|doi\=10\.1093/llc/fqw059 \|issn\=2055\-7671}} ### Other forms of literature Wenyuan Yinghua included other literary forms such as narrative tales and stories. Some works are articles or even bibliographies by poets describing the achievement in their life. A type of story worthy of note is "[Zhi guai](/wiki/Zhiguai_xiaoshuo "Zhiguai xiaoshuo")," stories about ghosts and supernatural phenomena. It was popular in Song society, combining myth and legends with writers' creations. The type led to the trend of stories in Song and eventually developed into novels about "Zhi guai" in later dynasties. The literature forms other than poems in Wenyuan Yinghua are much less famous than poems and little studied.
[ "Literacy techniques and genres\n------------------------------", "Wenyuan Yinghua includes literature of all forms, including poems, lyrics, and articles. These writings cover a wide range of topics, from the story of a heroic act to the poet's philosophical emotion about an object.", "### Poems, songs, hymns", "Poems and songs are famous types of literature genres in the Tang and Song dynasties. They have different names in Chinese, such as \"[Fu](/wiki/Fu_%28poetry%29 \"Fu (poetry)\")\", \"[Shi](/wiki/Shi_%28poetry%29 \"Shi (poetry)\")\", \"[Ci](/wiki/C%C3%AD_%28poetry%29 \"Cí (poetry)\")\", \"[Yuefu Shi](/wiki/Yuefu \"Yuefu\")\", and \"[Jue Ju](/wiki/Jueju \"Jueju\")\". They are all types of poems, but each represents different poetic composition rules and forms.", "Many of the works of the highest regard in Wenyuan Yinghua combine the writer's description of events and the expression of opinions. The writers usually start describing an event or object in the first few lines and carry on to expressing their ideas deriving from the event. \n[thumb\\|Tang poems are written on papers in this format](/wiki/File:Three_Hundred_Tang_Poems_%2813%29.jpg \"Three Hundred Tang Poems (13).jpg\")", "The poems in Wenyuan Yinghua come with a lot of quotations. It is a way for writers to show their erudition to audiences, majorly fellow writers with certain cultural attainment. The work they quoted could be Chinese classics dating further back, such as \"[Zhuang Zi](/wiki/Zhuangzi_%28book%29 \"Zhuangzi (book)\")\", \"[Zuo Zhuan](/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan \"Zuo Zhuan\")\", or \"[Lun Yu](/wiki/Analects \"Analects\")\". Those examples listed are all classics required for Chinese scholars to memorize for the imperial exam, so the audience would not have problems understanding the quoted reference. In \"酬乐天扬州初逢席上见赠,\" the verse \"到乡翻似烂柯人\" literally means \"as if I'm the man carrying a broken ax after I return home.\" The quotation \"the man carrying a broken ax\" comes from a story in \"Jing shu\" (The history of Jing). The story tells a man who went chopping the woods in the forest, and when he gets back home, he discovers everything has changed. A few years have passed in his few days in the woods. By quoting this, the author [Bai Juyi](/wiki/Bai_Juyi \"Bai Juyi\") expresses the shocking emotion that everything moved forth while he was away from home.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Nienhauser \\|first\\=William H. \\|date\\=1977 \\|title\\=A Structural Reading of the Chuan in the Wen\\-yüan ying\\-hua \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1017/s0021911800075859 \\|journal\\=The Journal of Asian Studies \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=443–456 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/s0021911800075859 \\|issn\\=0021\\-9118}}", "Some authors use symbolism to present the work in depth. For instance, [Du Fu](/wiki/Du_Fu \"Du Fu\")'s poem \"Li Ren Xin\" included a detailed description of the banquet in the palace. Although it seemed to be depicting the scene, Du implies the extravagant lifestyle of nobles is built on the hardship of ordinary people, secretly conveying discontent. Those works have a market among ordinary citizens while spreading unnoticed by authorities.", "Symbolism is prevalent in Wenyuan Yinghua's poems. Like many western poets like [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"), [Emily Dickinson](/wiki/Emily_Dickinson \"Emily Dickinson\"), and [E. E. Cummings](/wiki/E._E._Cummings \"E. E. Cummings\"), their middle\\-aged colleagues in China also have keen sights of their surroundings. Poets in Tang and Song left comments on the tenancy of nature, praising the firmness and persistence of bamboos and orchids. They were lit up by the lone plum in the snow and astounded by the pines growing from rocks. They learned from the cruelness and beauty of nature. The authors polish their works, illustrating traits of good virtue vividly with symbolism.", "Poems in Wenyuan Yinghua include many analogies and metaphors. Since lyrics come in verses of seven Chinese characters, poets need to express as efficiently as possible in limited space. Metaphors and analogy serve the purpose of saving words of description here since they use the commonly known character of one object to describe another lesser\\-known thing.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lee \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Kong \\|first2\\=Yin Hei \\|last3\\=Luo \\|first3\\=Mengqi \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-07 \\|title\\=Syntactic patterns in classical Chinese poems: A quantitative study \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/dsh/article\\-lookup/doi/10\\.1093/llc/fqw059 \\|journal\\=Digital Scholarship in the Humanities \\|volume\\=33 \\|language\\=en \\|pages\\=82–95 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/llc/fqw059 \\|issn\\=2055\\-7671}}", "### Other forms of literature", "Wenyuan Yinghua included other literary forms such as narrative tales and stories. Some works are articles or even bibliographies by poets describing the achievement in their life.", "A type of story worthy of note is \"[Zhi guai](/wiki/Zhiguai_xiaoshuo \"Zhiguai xiaoshuo\"),\" stories about ghosts and supernatural phenomena. It was popular in Song society, combining myth and legends with writers' creations. The type led to the trend of stories in Song and eventually developed into novels about \"Zhi guai\" in later dynasties.", "The literature forms other than poems in Wenyuan Yinghua are much less famous than poems and little studied.", "" ]
History ------- Sudet were originally established in [Viipuri](/wiki/Viipuri "Viipuri") (Vyborg) on 13 December 1912 under the name Wiipurin Bandy \& Jalkapalloseura (WB \& JS). The name was changed in 1924 to Wiipurin Sudet. In 1940 the [Winter War](/wiki/Winter_War "Winter War") resulted in the club moving to Helsinki as the city of Viipuri fell into Soviet hands. From 1950 the name was changed to its current form, Sudet. In 1962 the club made its final move to Kouvola. In the early decades of the twentieth century WB \& JS were very successful at [bandy](/wiki/Bandy "Bandy") winning their first Finnish Championship in 1914\. The club won no fewer than six consecutive Finnish Championships and has won 14 in total as of 2014\. In 2014, the women's bandy team of Sudet claimed the women's national championship for the first time. Sudet also made great progress at football and reached the semi\-finals of the Finnish Championship in 1924, 1925, 1928 and 1929\. They were promoted to the new [Mestaruussarja](/wiki/Mestaruussarja "Mestaruussarja") at the end of the 1930 season.{{cite news \|title\=Finland – List of league First Level Tables \|year\=2010 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finhist.html \|accessdate\=25 June 2010}} In total the club played 15 seasons in the Finnish Football Championship ([Mestaruussarja](/wiki/Mestaruussarja "Mestaruussarja")) in 1931–38, 1940/41\-46/47, 1948 and 1951\.{{cite news \|title\=Finland – List of league First Level Tables \|year\=2010 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finhist.html \|accessdate\=25 June 2010}} On 28 July 1940 Sudet won the Finnish Championship by beating [TPS Turku](/wiki/Turun_Palloseura "Turun Palloseura") 2–0 in the Final. The Mestaruussarja could not be played as a league in [1940](/wiki/Mestaruussarja_1940 "Mestaruussarja 1940") so a cup competition was held instead. Sudet played 18 seasons in the Suomensarja (Finland League), the second tier of [Finnish football](/wiki/Finnish_football_league_system "Finnish football league system") in 1939, 1947/48, 1949–50, 1952–61 and 1963–66\. They also have had two spells in the third tier, the [Kakkonen](/wiki/Kakkonen "Kakkonen") (the Second Division), in 1981 and 1985–90\. {{cite news \|title\=Finland – Divisional Movements 1930–2009 \|year\=2010 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finall.html \|accessdate\=25 June 2010}} Sudet's recent history has been less spectacular. After a period of inactivity in the 1990s the club was revived in 2001 following a cooperative venture with Kymen Salibandy and FC Kouvola. Sudet is now a strong club, which has benefited by an increase of around 300 in the number of members. The club currently remains in the [Kolmonen](/wiki/Kolmonen "Kolmonen") (Third Division) but their potential was demonstrated in the [2010 Finnish Cup](/wiki/2010_Finnish_Cup "2010 Finnish Cup") when they battled their way through to the Sixth Round before going down 0–1 at home to [FC Haka](/wiki/FC_Haka "FC Haka") from the [Veikkausliiga](/wiki/Veikkausliiga "Veikkausliiga") watched by 514 spectators. The highest ever attendance for a Sudet match was in 1937 in [Viipuri](/wiki/Viipuri "Viipuri") when 3,264 people attended the home game with [Turun Palloseura](/wiki/Turun_Palloseura "Turun Palloseura").{{cite book \|title\= Jalkapallokirja 1986 \|year\=1986 \|publisher\= Suomen Palloliitto \|isbn\=951\-9392\-12\-2}}
[ "History\n-------", "Sudet were originally established in [Viipuri](/wiki/Viipuri \"Viipuri\") (Vyborg) on 13 December 1912 under the name Wiipurin Bandy \\& Jalkapalloseura (WB \\& JS). The name was changed in 1924 to Wiipurin Sudet. In 1940 the [Winter War](/wiki/Winter_War \"Winter War\") resulted in the club moving to Helsinki as the city of Viipuri fell into Soviet hands. From 1950 the name was changed to its current form, Sudet. In 1962 the club made its final move to Kouvola.", "In the early decades of the twentieth century WB \\& JS were very successful at [bandy](/wiki/Bandy \"Bandy\") winning their first Finnish Championship in 1914\\. The club won no fewer than six consecutive Finnish Championships and has won 14 in total as of 2014\\. In 2014, the women's bandy team of Sudet claimed the women's national championship for the first time.", "Sudet also made great progress at football and reached the semi\\-finals of the Finnish Championship in 1924, 1925, 1928 and 1929\\. They were promoted to the new [Mestaruussarja](/wiki/Mestaruussarja \"Mestaruussarja\") at the end of the 1930 season.{{cite news \\|title\\=Finland – List of league First Level Tables \\|year\\=2010 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finhist.html \\|accessdate\\=25 June 2010}}", "In total the club played 15 seasons in the Finnish Football Championship ([Mestaruussarja](/wiki/Mestaruussarja \"Mestaruussarja\")) in 1931–38, 1940/41\\-46/47, 1948 and 1951\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Finland – List of league First Level Tables \\|year\\=2010 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finhist.html \\|accessdate\\=25 June 2010}} On 28 July 1940 Sudet won the Finnish Championship by beating [TPS Turku](/wiki/Turun_Palloseura \"Turun Palloseura\") 2–0 in the Final. The Mestaruussarja could not be played as a league in [1940](/wiki/Mestaruussarja_1940 \"Mestaruussarja 1940\") so a cup competition was held instead.", "Sudet played 18 seasons in the Suomensarja (Finland League), the second tier of [Finnish football](/wiki/Finnish_football_league_system \"Finnish football league system\") in 1939, 1947/48, 1949–50, 1952–61 and 1963–66\\. They also have had two spells in the third tier, the [Kakkonen](/wiki/Kakkonen \"Kakkonen\") (the Second Division), in 1981 and 1985–90\\.\n{{cite news \\|title\\=Finland – Divisional Movements 1930–2009 \\|year\\=2010 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/finall.html \\|accessdate\\=25 June 2010}}", "Sudet's recent history has been less spectacular. After a period of inactivity in the 1990s the club was revived in 2001 following a cooperative venture with Kymen Salibandy and FC Kouvola. Sudet is now a strong club, which has benefited by an increase of around 300 in the number of members.", "The club currently remains in the [Kolmonen](/wiki/Kolmonen \"Kolmonen\") (Third Division) but their potential was demonstrated in the [2010 Finnish Cup](/wiki/2010_Finnish_Cup \"2010 Finnish Cup\") when they battled their way through to the Sixth Round before going down 0–1 at home to [FC Haka](/wiki/FC_Haka \"FC Haka\") from the [Veikkausliiga](/wiki/Veikkausliiga \"Veikkausliiga\") watched by 514 spectators.", "The highest ever attendance for a Sudet match was in 1937 in [Viipuri](/wiki/Viipuri \"Viipuri\") when 3,264 people attended the home game with [Turun Palloseura](/wiki/Turun_Palloseura \"Turun Palloseura\").{{cite book \\|title\\= Jalkapallokirja 1986 \\|year\\=1986 \\|publisher\\= Suomen Palloliitto \\|isbn\\=951\\-9392\\-12\\-2}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Founding and ownership The name of the 2i's derived from earlier owners, brothers Freddie and Bakhtyar (Buck) Irani,Incorrect notation in Musicstorytellers reference who ran the venue until 1955\. [Musicstorytellers: People With 2i’s](http://musicstorytellers.wordpress.com/people-with-2i%E2%80%99s/). Retrieved 24 October 2013 It was then taken over by [Paul Lincoln](/wiki/Paul_Lincoln "Paul Lincoln"), an Australian [professional wrestler](/wiki/Professional_wrestler "Professional wrestler") known as "Dr Death", and Ray Hunter, a wrestling [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28entertainment%29 "Promoter (entertainment)") and professional wrestler known as Rebel Ray Hunter. They opened it as a coffee bar on 22 April 1956\.[2 I's Coffee bar, The Birthplace of British Rock](http://2iscoffeebar5670.blogspot.co.uk/). Retrieved 25 October 2013{{cite book \|last\=Glinert \|first\=Ed \|title\=The London Compendium \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lsajhUAqX\_wC\&dq\=%222i%27s%22\+\+\+irani\&pg\=PT508 \|publisher\=Penguin Books \|date\=July 2004 \|access\-date\=21 December 2014 \|isbn\=9780141907253}} Tom Littlewood, previously its doorman and a [judo](/wiki/Judo "Judo") instructor, became its manager in 1958\. According to Brian Gregg, former bassist for [Johnny Kidd \& the Pirates](/wiki/Johnny_Kidd_%26_the_Pirates "Johnny Kidd & the Pirates") and [The Tornados](/wiki/The_Tornados "The Tornados"), Lincoln's interest in the property was initially less to do with the coffee bar and more to do with the storeys above it, which provided temporary accommodation for foreign wrestlers whom Lincoln and Hunter were promoting.{{cite magazine \|author\= \|title\=A Cellarful Of Noise \|url\=https://recordcollectormag.com/articles/a\-cellarful\-of\-noise \|magazine\=\[\[Record Collector]] \|date\=8 October 2007 \|access\-date\=6 September 2021}} ### Features The basement of the coffee bar had live music; the acts made use of a small, 18\-inch\-high stage. Lincoln and Hunter started putting on [skiffle](/wiki/Skiffle "Skiffle") groups; the first resident group were [the Vipers](/wiki/The_Vipers_Skiffle_Group "The Vipers Skiffle Group"), who included [Wally Whyton](/wiki/Wally_Whyton "Wally Whyton"). According to the band's washboard player John Pilgrim, they secured the residency after Whyton entered the 2i's when it started raining during a set the band were playing on the back of a lorry nearby during the Soho Fair. Within a couple of weeks the band's performances at the venue had begun to attract a large following through word of mouth. It soon won a clientele attracted because of its [rock'n'roll](/wiki/Rock%27n%27roll "Rock'n'roll") music, and for a time became "the most famous music venue in England," and attracted talent spotters and music promoters such as [Jack Good](/wiki/Jack_Good_%28producer%29 "Jack Good (producer)"), [Larry Parnes](/wiki/Larry_Parnes "Larry Parnes") and [Don Arden](/wiki/Don_Arden "Don Arden"). In November 1957 Good arranged for an episode of the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC")'s *[Six\-Five Special](/wiki/Six-Five_Special "Six-Five Special")* to be broadcast from the 2i's, with Tommy Steele as host. The broadcast is particularly notable for launching the career of [Adam Faith](/wiki/Adam_Faith "Adam Faith"), who appeared as vocalist with the then resident band, the Worried Men. The coffee bar allowed standing room for about 20 people, and had a serving counter with an espresso coffee machine, orange juice dispenser, and sandwich display case. The coffee bar was run by Jon Vickers\-Jones who was the assistant manager. He would help with setting up the stage area for the musicians and would often record them rehearsing on a Grundig Tape recorder. A door at the back led to the manager's office, and a narrow stairway led down to a "dismal and dark cellar about the size of a large bedroom, lit by a couple of weak bulbs. At one end was the small 18\-inch stage made of milk crates with planks on top of them. There was just one microphone, left over from the [Boer War](/wiki/Boer_War "Boer War"), and some speakers up on the wall." The stage area can very briefly be seen in Rank Studio's 1959 episode "Coffee Bar", from their *[Look at Life](/wiki/Look_at_Life_%28film_series%29 "Look at Life (film series)")*, available on Network DVD, in a clip featuring future [Shadows](/wiki/The_Shadows "The Shadows") drummer Brian Bennett. ### Roster of stars Several recording stars were discovered at, or performed at, the 2i's coffee bar, including [Rory Blackwell](/wiki/Rory_Blackwell "Rory Blackwell"), [Tommy Steele](/wiki/Tommy_Steele "Tommy Steele"), The [Vipers Skiffle Group](/wiki/Vipers_Skiffle_Group "Vipers Skiffle Group"), [Cliff Richard](/wiki/Cliff_Richard "Cliff Richard"), [Hank Marvin](/wiki/Hank_Marvin "Hank Marvin"), [Bruce Welch](/wiki/Bruce_Welch "Bruce Welch"), [Brian Bennett](/wiki/Brian_Bennett_%28musician%29 "Brian Bennett (musician)"), [Tony Meehan](/wiki/Tony_Meehan "Tony Meehan"), [Jet Harris](/wiki/Jet_Harris "Jet Harris"), [Brian 'Licorice' Locking](/wiki/Brian_Locking "Brian Locking"), [Vince Eager](/wiki/Vince_Eager "Vince Eager"), [Terry Dene](/wiki/Terry_Dene "Terry Dene"), [Wee Willie Harris](/wiki/Wee_Willie_Harris "Wee Willie Harris"), Adam Faith, [Carlo Little](/wiki/Carlo_Little "Carlo Little"), [Joe Brown](/wiki/Joe_Brown_%28singer%29 "Joe Brown (singer)"), [Clem Cattini](/wiki/Clem_Cattini "Clem Cattini") ([The Tornados](/wiki/The_Tornados "The Tornados")), [Eden Kane](/wiki/Eden_Kane "Eden Kane"), [Screaming Lord Sutch](/wiki/Screaming_Lord_Sutch "Screaming Lord Sutch"), [Tony Sheridan](/wiki/Tony_Sheridan "Tony Sheridan"), [Keith Kelly](/wiki/Keith_Kelly_%28singer%29 "Keith Kelly (singer)"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/keith\-kelly\-mn0003343287\|title\=Keith Kelly – Biography \& History\|publisher\=\[\[AllMusic]]\|access\-date\=15 December 2018}} [Russ Sainty](/wiki/Russ_Sainty "Russ Sainty"), [Lance Fortune](/wiki/Lance_Fortune "Lance Fortune"), [Albert Lee](/wiki/Albert_Lee "Albert Lee"), [Johnny Kidd](/wiki/Johnny_Kidd_%28singer%29 "Johnny Kidd (singer)"), Paul Gadd (later to be known as Paul Raven and then [Gary Glitter](/wiki/Gary_Glitter "Gary Glitter")), [Ritchie Blackmore](/wiki/Ritchie_Blackmore "Ritchie Blackmore"), [Alex Wharton](/wiki/Alex_Wharton "Alex Wharton"), [Mickie Most](/wiki/Mickie_Most "Mickie Most") (as the Most Brothers),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kentgigs.com/musicbiz/People.html\#billkent\|title\=Kent MusicBiz – Musicians – People\|publisher\=Kentgigs.com\|access\-date\=21 December 2014}} [Big Jim Sullivan](/wiki/Big_Jim_Sullivan "Big Jim Sullivan"), [Joe Moretti](/wiki/Joe_Moretti "Joe Moretti"), [Vince Taylor](/wiki/Vince_Taylor "Vince Taylor"), [Duffy Power](/wiki/Duffy_Power "Duffy Power"), [Johnny Gentle](/wiki/Johnny_Gentle "Johnny Gentle"), [Michael Cox](/wiki/Michael_Cox_%28singer%29 "Michael Cox (singer)"), [Kris Kristofferson](/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson "Kris Kristofferson"), [Derry and the Seniors](/wiki/Derry_and_the_Seniors "Derry and the Seniors") and [Georgie Fame](/wiki/Georgie_Fame "Georgie Fame"). Notable non\-musical names among the 2i's clientele included [Diana Dors](/wiki/Diana_Dors "Diana Dors"), [Michael Caine](/wiki/Michael_Caine "Michael Caine"), [Terence Stamp](/wiki/Terence_Stamp "Terence Stamp") and [Francis Bacon](/wiki/Francis_Bacon_%28artist%29 "Francis Bacon (artist)"). ### Famous personnel According to an article in *Time*,*Time,* Monday, 15 April 1957 [skiffle](/wiki/Skiffle "Skiffle") was new to the UK, and the 2i's Coffee Bar and, nearby venue, [The Cat's Whisker](/wiki/The_Cat%27s_Whisker "The Cat's Whisker"), founded by [Peter Evans](/wiki/Peter_Evans_%28restaurateur%29 "Peter Evans (restaurateur)"), were where "Soho hipsters swelter and suffocate for it... and... generally the musicians were paid with coffee and cokes".McDevitt, Chas: *Skiffle: The Definitive Inside Story*. Robson Books. {{ISBN\|1\-86105\-140\-9}} Evans later started the [Angus Steak Houses](/wiki/Aberdeen_Angus_Steak_Houses "Aberdeen Angus Steak Houses") from the bar. Songwriter [Lionel Bart](/wiki/Lionel_Bart "Lionel Bart") and music producer [Mickie Most](/wiki/Mickie_Most "Mickie Most") worked there as waiters, whilst Wee Willie Harris worked as a cleaner and waiter and musician and future member of [The Shadows](/wiki/The_Shadows "The Shadows") Jet Harris worked behind the bar. According to [Chas McDevitt](/wiki/Chas_McDevitt "Chas McDevitt"), Bart was responsible for painting the cellar, decorating it with a "black ceiling, large, stylised eyes on the walls, and cubist shapes behind the small stage platform". Bruce Welch has stated that parts of Bart's artwork were retrieved by himself and Bart when they were removed during building work in the 1990s. [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin")'s manager, [Peter Grant](/wiki/Peter_Grant_%28music_manager%29 "Peter Grant (music manager)"), was a bouncer at the 2i's prior to his career in the music business.{{cite book\|last\=Welch\|first\=Chris\|year\=2002\|title\=Peter Grant: The Man Who Led Zeppelin\|location\=London\|publisher\=Omnibus Press\|page\=19\|isbn\=0\-7119\-9195\-2}} The 2i's rapid success led to the opening of a second branch at 44 [Gerrard Street](/wiki/Gerrard_Street%2C_London "Gerrard Street, London"), in what had been a folk and skiffle club run by [John Hasted](/wiki/John_Hasted "John Hasted"), before the end of 1956, although it soon closed due to intimidation by organised crime. The 2i's closed in 1970\. It later became the Dome Café Bar and then the Boulevard Bar. The site then became The House of Ho, a modern Vietnamese restaurant owned by chef [Bobby Chinn](/wiki/Bobby_Chinn "Bobby Chinn").{{cite web\|url\=http://musicstorytellers.wordpress.com/the\-history\-of\-the\-2i%E2%80%99s\-coffee\-bar/\|title\=THE HISTORY OF THE 2i's COFFEE BAR\|work\=Musicstorytellers\|date\=5 June 2009\|access\-date\=21 December 2014}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.houseofho.co.uk/blog/introducing\-bobbys\-rocknroll\-brunch/\|title\=House of Ho\|publisher\=Houseofho.co.uk\|access\-date\=21 December 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108033249/http://www.houseofho.co.uk/blog/introducing\-bobbys\-rocknroll\-brunch/\|archive\-date\=8 November 2014\|df\=dmy\-all}} From July 2016 the site has been the Soho Poppies Fish \& Chips restaurant.
[ "History\n-------", "### Founding and ownership", "The name of the 2i's derived from earlier owners, brothers Freddie and Bakhtyar (Buck) Irani,Incorrect notation in Musicstorytellers reference who ran the venue until 1955\\. [Musicstorytellers: People With 2i’s](http://musicstorytellers.wordpress.com/people-with-2i%E2%80%99s/). Retrieved 24 October 2013 It was then taken over by [Paul Lincoln](/wiki/Paul_Lincoln \"Paul Lincoln\"), an Australian [professional wrestler](/wiki/Professional_wrestler \"Professional wrestler\") known as \"Dr Death\", and Ray Hunter, a wrestling [promoter](/wiki/Promoter_%28entertainment%29 \"Promoter (entertainment)\") and professional wrestler known as Rebel Ray Hunter. They opened it as a coffee bar on 22 April 1956\\.[2 I's Coffee bar, The Birthplace of British Rock](http://2iscoffeebar5670.blogspot.co.uk/). Retrieved 25 October 2013{{cite book \\|last\\=Glinert \\|first\\=Ed \\|title\\=The London Compendium \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lsajhUAqX\\_wC\\&dq\\=%222i%27s%22\\+\\+\\+irani\\&pg\\=PT508 \\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\|date\\=July 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2014 \\|isbn\\=9780141907253}} Tom Littlewood, previously its doorman and a [judo](/wiki/Judo \"Judo\") instructor, became its manager in 1958\\. According to Brian Gregg, former bassist for [Johnny Kidd \\& the Pirates](/wiki/Johnny_Kidd_%26_the_Pirates \"Johnny Kidd & the Pirates\") and [The Tornados](/wiki/The_Tornados \"The Tornados\"), Lincoln's interest in the property was initially less to do with the coffee bar and more to do with the storeys above it, which provided temporary accommodation for foreign wrestlers whom Lincoln and Hunter were promoting.{{cite magazine \\|author\\= \\|title\\=A Cellarful Of Noise \\|url\\=https://recordcollectormag.com/articles/a\\-cellarful\\-of\\-noise \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Record Collector]] \\|date\\=8 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2021}}", "### Features", "The basement of the coffee bar had live music; the acts made use of a small, 18\\-inch\\-high stage. Lincoln and Hunter started putting on [skiffle](/wiki/Skiffle \"Skiffle\") groups; the first resident group were [the Vipers](/wiki/The_Vipers_Skiffle_Group \"The Vipers Skiffle Group\"), who included [Wally Whyton](/wiki/Wally_Whyton \"Wally Whyton\"). According to the band's washboard player John Pilgrim, they secured the residency after Whyton entered the 2i's when it started raining during a set the band were playing on the back of a lorry nearby during the Soho Fair. Within a couple of weeks the band's performances at the venue had begun to attract a large following through word of mouth. It soon won a clientele attracted because of its [rock'n'roll](/wiki/Rock%27n%27roll \"Rock'n'roll\") music, and for a time became \"the most famous music venue in England,\" and attracted talent spotters and music promoters such as [Jack Good](/wiki/Jack_Good_%28producer%29 \"Jack Good (producer)\"), [Larry Parnes](/wiki/Larry_Parnes \"Larry Parnes\") and [Don Arden](/wiki/Don_Arden \"Don Arden\"). In November 1957 Good arranged for an episode of the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\")'s *[Six\\-Five Special](/wiki/Six-Five_Special \"Six-Five Special\")* to be broadcast from the 2i's, with Tommy Steele as host. The broadcast is particularly notable for launching the career of [Adam Faith](/wiki/Adam_Faith \"Adam Faith\"), who appeared as vocalist with the then resident band, the Worried Men.", "The coffee bar allowed standing room for about 20 people, and had a serving counter with an espresso coffee machine, orange juice dispenser, and sandwich display case. The coffee bar was run by Jon Vickers\\-Jones who was the assistant manager. He would help with setting up the stage area for the musicians and would often record them rehearsing on a Grundig Tape recorder. A door at the back led to the manager's office, and a narrow stairway led down to a \"dismal and dark cellar about the size of a large bedroom, lit by a couple of weak bulbs. At one end was the small 18\\-inch stage made of milk crates with planks on top of them. There was just one microphone, left over from the [Boer War](/wiki/Boer_War \"Boer War\"), and some speakers up on the wall.\" The stage area can very briefly be seen in Rank Studio's 1959 episode \"Coffee Bar\", from their *[Look at Life](/wiki/Look_at_Life_%28film_series%29 \"Look at Life (film series)\")*, available on Network DVD, in a clip featuring future [Shadows](/wiki/The_Shadows \"The Shadows\") drummer Brian Bennett.", "### Roster of stars", "Several recording stars were discovered at, or performed at, the 2i's coffee bar, including [Rory Blackwell](/wiki/Rory_Blackwell \"Rory Blackwell\"), [Tommy Steele](/wiki/Tommy_Steele \"Tommy Steele\"), The [Vipers Skiffle Group](/wiki/Vipers_Skiffle_Group \"Vipers Skiffle Group\"), [Cliff Richard](/wiki/Cliff_Richard \"Cliff Richard\"), [Hank Marvin](/wiki/Hank_Marvin \"Hank Marvin\"), [Bruce Welch](/wiki/Bruce_Welch \"Bruce Welch\"), [Brian Bennett](/wiki/Brian_Bennett_%28musician%29 \"Brian Bennett (musician)\"), [Tony Meehan](/wiki/Tony_Meehan \"Tony Meehan\"), [Jet Harris](/wiki/Jet_Harris \"Jet Harris\"), [Brian 'Licorice' Locking](/wiki/Brian_Locking \"Brian Locking\"), [Vince Eager](/wiki/Vince_Eager \"Vince Eager\"), [Terry Dene](/wiki/Terry_Dene \"Terry Dene\"), [Wee Willie Harris](/wiki/Wee_Willie_Harris \"Wee Willie Harris\"), Adam Faith, [Carlo Little](/wiki/Carlo_Little \"Carlo Little\"), [Joe Brown](/wiki/Joe_Brown_%28singer%29 \"Joe Brown (singer)\"), [Clem Cattini](/wiki/Clem_Cattini \"Clem Cattini\") ([The Tornados](/wiki/The_Tornados \"The Tornados\")), [Eden Kane](/wiki/Eden_Kane \"Eden Kane\"), [Screaming Lord Sutch](/wiki/Screaming_Lord_Sutch \"Screaming Lord Sutch\"), [Tony Sheridan](/wiki/Tony_Sheridan \"Tony Sheridan\"), [Keith Kelly](/wiki/Keith_Kelly_%28singer%29 \"Keith Kelly (singer)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/keith\\-kelly\\-mn0003343287\\|title\\=Keith Kelly – Biography \\& History\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[AllMusic]]\\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2018}} [Russ Sainty](/wiki/Russ_Sainty \"Russ Sainty\"), [Lance Fortune](/wiki/Lance_Fortune \"Lance Fortune\"), [Albert Lee](/wiki/Albert_Lee \"Albert Lee\"), [Johnny Kidd](/wiki/Johnny_Kidd_%28singer%29 \"Johnny Kidd (singer)\"), Paul Gadd (later to be known as Paul Raven and then [Gary Glitter](/wiki/Gary_Glitter \"Gary Glitter\")), [Ritchie Blackmore](/wiki/Ritchie_Blackmore \"Ritchie Blackmore\"), [Alex Wharton](/wiki/Alex_Wharton \"Alex Wharton\"), [Mickie Most](/wiki/Mickie_Most \"Mickie Most\") (as the Most Brothers),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kentgigs.com/musicbiz/People.html\\#billkent\\|title\\=Kent MusicBiz – Musicians – People\\|publisher\\=Kentgigs.com\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2014}} [Big Jim Sullivan](/wiki/Big_Jim_Sullivan \"Big Jim Sullivan\"), [Joe Moretti](/wiki/Joe_Moretti \"Joe Moretti\"), [Vince Taylor](/wiki/Vince_Taylor \"Vince Taylor\"), [Duffy Power](/wiki/Duffy_Power \"Duffy Power\"), [Johnny Gentle](/wiki/Johnny_Gentle \"Johnny Gentle\"), [Michael Cox](/wiki/Michael_Cox_%28singer%29 \"Michael Cox (singer)\"), [Kris Kristofferson](/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson \"Kris Kristofferson\"), [Derry and the Seniors](/wiki/Derry_and_the_Seniors \"Derry and the Seniors\") and [Georgie Fame](/wiki/Georgie_Fame \"Georgie Fame\"). Notable non\\-musical names among the 2i's clientele included [Diana Dors](/wiki/Diana_Dors \"Diana Dors\"), [Michael Caine](/wiki/Michael_Caine \"Michael Caine\"), [Terence Stamp](/wiki/Terence_Stamp \"Terence Stamp\") and [Francis Bacon](/wiki/Francis_Bacon_%28artist%29 \"Francis Bacon (artist)\").", "### Famous personnel", "According to an article in *Time*,*Time,* Monday, 15 April 1957 [skiffle](/wiki/Skiffle \"Skiffle\") was new to the UK, and the 2i's Coffee Bar and, nearby venue, [The Cat's Whisker](/wiki/The_Cat%27s_Whisker \"The Cat's Whisker\"), founded by [Peter Evans](/wiki/Peter_Evans_%28restaurateur%29 \"Peter Evans (restaurateur)\"), were where \"Soho hipsters swelter and suffocate for it... and... generally the musicians were paid with coffee and cokes\".McDevitt, Chas: *Skiffle: The Definitive Inside Story*. Robson Books. {{ISBN\\|1\\-86105\\-140\\-9}} Evans later started the [Angus Steak Houses](/wiki/Aberdeen_Angus_Steak_Houses \"Aberdeen Angus Steak Houses\") from the bar.", "Songwriter [Lionel Bart](/wiki/Lionel_Bart \"Lionel Bart\") and music producer [Mickie Most](/wiki/Mickie_Most \"Mickie Most\") worked there as waiters, whilst Wee Willie Harris worked as a cleaner and waiter and musician and future member of [The Shadows](/wiki/The_Shadows \"The Shadows\") Jet Harris worked behind the bar. According to [Chas McDevitt](/wiki/Chas_McDevitt \"Chas McDevitt\"), Bart was responsible for painting the cellar, decorating it with a \"black ceiling, large, stylised eyes on the walls, and cubist shapes behind the small stage platform\". Bruce Welch has stated that parts of Bart's artwork were retrieved by himself and Bart when they were removed during building work in the 1990s. [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\")'s manager, [Peter Grant](/wiki/Peter_Grant_%28music_manager%29 \"Peter Grant (music manager)\"), was a bouncer at the 2i's prior to his career in the music business.{{cite book\\|last\\=Welch\\|first\\=Chris\\|year\\=2002\\|title\\=Peter Grant: The Man Who Led Zeppelin\\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=Omnibus Press\\|page\\=19\\|isbn\\=0\\-7119\\-9195\\-2}}", "The 2i's rapid success led to the opening of a second branch at 44 [Gerrard Street](/wiki/Gerrard_Street%2C_London \"Gerrard Street, London\"), in what had been a folk and skiffle club run by [John Hasted](/wiki/John_Hasted \"John Hasted\"), before the end of 1956, although it soon closed due to intimidation by organised crime. The 2i's closed in 1970\\. It later became the Dome Café Bar and then the Boulevard Bar. The site then became The House of Ho, a modern Vietnamese restaurant owned by chef [Bobby Chinn](/wiki/Bobby_Chinn \"Bobby Chinn\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://musicstorytellers.wordpress.com/the\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-2i%E2%80%99s\\-coffee\\-bar/\\|title\\=THE HISTORY OF THE 2i's COFFEE BAR\\|work\\=Musicstorytellers\\|date\\=5 June 2009\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2014}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.houseofho.co.uk/blog/introducing\\-bobbys\\-rocknroll\\-brunch/\\|title\\=House of Ho\\|publisher\\=Houseofho.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108033249/http://www.houseofho.co.uk/blog/introducing\\-bobbys\\-rocknroll\\-brunch/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2014\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} From July 2016 the site has been the Soho Poppies Fish \\& Chips restaurant.", "" ]
Plot ---- In 1845, [James Howlett](/wiki/Logan_%28film_series_character%29 "Logan (film series character)"), a boy living in the [Northwest Territories](/wiki/North-Western_Territory "North-Western Territory"), witnesses his father's murder by groundskeeper [Thomas Logan](/wiki/Thomas_Logan "Thomas Logan"). Anxiety activates the boy's mutation: bone claws that protrude from his knuckles, and he impales Thomas, who reveals that he is James' biological father before dying. James flees with Thomas' other son, [Victor Creed](/wiki/Victor_Creed "Victor Creed"), James' half\-brother, who has sharp claw nails and a healing factor mutation like James. They spend the next century as soldiers, fighting in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), both [World Wars](/wiki/World_war "World war"), and the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"). In Vietnam, the increasingly violent Victor attempts to rape a Vietnamese woman and kills a senior officer who tries to stop him. James returns to Victor and, ignorant of his brother's intent, rushes to defend him. The pair are sentenced to [execution by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad "Execution by firing squad"), which they survive. Major [William Stryker](/wiki/William_Stryker "William Stryker") offers them membership in [Team X](/wiki/Team_X_%28comics%29 "Team X (comics)"), a group of mutants including marksman [Agent Zero](/wiki/David_North_%28comics%29 "David North (comics)"), katana\-wielding mercenary [Wade Wilson](/wiki/Wade_Wilson_%28film_character%29 "Wade Wilson (film character)"), teleporter [John Wraith](/wiki/Kestrel_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Kestrel (Marvel Comics)"), super\-strong and invulnerable [Fred Dukes](/wiki/Blob_%28comics%29 "Blob (comics)"), and technopath [Chris Bradley](/wiki/Chris_Bradley "Chris Bradley"). They join the team for a few missions, with James using the alias Logan, but Victor and the group's lack of self\-control and [empathy](/wiki/Empathy "Empathy") causes Logan to leave. Six years later, Logan works as a logger in Canada, where he lives with his girlfriend [Kayla Silverfox](/wiki/Silver_Fox_%28comics%29 "Silver Fox (comics)"). Stryker and Zero approach Logan, reporting that Wade and Bradley have been killed, revealing someone is targeting the team. Logan refuses to rejoin Stryker, but after finding Kayla's bloodied body in the woods, he realizes that Victor is responsible. He finds Victor at a bar but loses the subsequent fight. Stryker explains that Victor has gone rogue and offers Logan a way to become strong enough to get his revenge. Logan undergoes a painful operation to reinforce his skeleton with [adamantium](/wiki/Adamantium "Adamantium"), a virtually indestructible metal. Stryker orders that Logan's memory be erased so he can be used as their personal weapon, but Logan overhears and escapes to a nearby farm, where an elderly couple takes him in. Zero kills the couple the following morning and tries to kill Logan, but Logan takes down Zero's helicopter, killing him as he swears to kill both Stryker and Victor. Logan locates Wraith and Dukes at a boxing gym in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas"). Dukes, who has ballooned in size due to a guilt\-induced eating disorder, explains that Victor still works for Stryker, hunting down mutants for Stryker to experiment on at his new laboratory, located at "The Island". Dukes also mentions [Remy "Gambit" LeBeau](/wiki/Gambit_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Gambit (Marvel Comics)"), the only one who escaped from the island and therefore knew its location. Wraith and Logan find Gambit in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), and then both fight Victor, who kills Wraith and extracts his DNA. Agreeing to help release mutants that Stryker has captured, Gambit takes Logan to Stryker's facility on [Three Mile Island](/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_Nuclear_Generating_Station "Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station"). Logan learns that Kayla is alive, having been forced by Stryker into surveilling him in exchange for her sister's safety. However, Stryker refuses to release her sister and denies Victor the adamantium bonding promised for his service, claiming that test results revealed Victor would not survive the operation. Stryker activates Wade, now known as Weapon XI, a "mutant killer" with the powers of multiple mutants. As Logan and Victor fight off Weapon XI, Kayla is mortally wounded while leading the captive mutants to [Professor Charles Xavier](/wiki/Charles_Xavier_%28film_series_character%29 "Charles Xavier (film series character)") and safety. After Logan kills Weapon XI, Stryker arrives and shoots Logan in the head with an adamantium bullet, rendering him unconscious. Before Stryker can shoot Kayla, she grabs him and uses her mutant power to persuade him to turn around and walk away until his feet bleed, then succumbs to her injuries. Logan regains consciousness but has [lost his memory](/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia "Retrograde amnesia"). He notices his dog tags read "Logan" on one side and "Wolverine" on the other; he pauses upon noticing Kayla's body but does not recognize her. In a mid\-credits scene, Stryker is detained for questioning by [MPs](/wiki/Military_police "Military police") in connection with the death of General Munson, whom Stryker murdered to protect his experiment. In a post\-credits scene, Weapon XI's hand crawls out of the rocks and touches his head, which awakens and shushes the screen, revealing that he has survived being decapitated.
[ "Plot\n----", "In 1845, [James Howlett](/wiki/Logan_%28film_series_character%29 \"Logan (film series character)\"), a boy living in the [Northwest Territories](/wiki/North-Western_Territory \"North-Western Territory\"), witnesses his father's murder by groundskeeper [Thomas Logan](/wiki/Thomas_Logan \"Thomas Logan\"). Anxiety activates the boy's mutation: bone claws that protrude from his knuckles, and he impales Thomas, who reveals that he is James' biological father before dying. James flees with Thomas' other son, [Victor Creed](/wiki/Victor_Creed \"Victor Creed\"), James' half\\-brother, who has sharp claw nails and a healing factor mutation like James. They spend the next century as soldiers, fighting in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), both [World Wars](/wiki/World_war \"World war\"), and the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"). In Vietnam, the increasingly violent Victor attempts to rape a Vietnamese woman and kills a senior officer who tries to stop him. James returns to Victor and, ignorant of his brother's intent, rushes to defend him. The pair are sentenced to [execution by firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad \"Execution by firing squad\"), which they survive. Major [William Stryker](/wiki/William_Stryker \"William Stryker\") offers them membership in [Team X](/wiki/Team_X_%28comics%29 \"Team X (comics)\"), a group of mutants including marksman [Agent Zero](/wiki/David_North_%28comics%29 \"David North (comics)\"), katana\\-wielding mercenary [Wade Wilson](/wiki/Wade_Wilson_%28film_character%29 \"Wade Wilson (film character)\"), teleporter [John Wraith](/wiki/Kestrel_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Kestrel (Marvel Comics)\"), super\\-strong and invulnerable [Fred Dukes](/wiki/Blob_%28comics%29 \"Blob (comics)\"), and technopath [Chris Bradley](/wiki/Chris_Bradley \"Chris Bradley\"). They join the team for a few missions, with James using the alias Logan, but Victor and the group's lack of self\\-control and [empathy](/wiki/Empathy \"Empathy\") causes Logan to leave.", "Six years later, Logan works as a logger in Canada, where he lives with his girlfriend [Kayla Silverfox](/wiki/Silver_Fox_%28comics%29 \"Silver Fox (comics)\"). Stryker and Zero approach Logan, reporting that Wade and Bradley have been killed, revealing someone is targeting the team. Logan refuses to rejoin Stryker, but after finding Kayla's bloodied body in the woods, he realizes that Victor is responsible. He finds Victor at a bar but loses the subsequent fight. Stryker explains that Victor has gone rogue and offers Logan a way to become strong enough to get his revenge. Logan undergoes a painful operation to reinforce his skeleton with [adamantium](/wiki/Adamantium \"Adamantium\"), a virtually indestructible metal. Stryker orders that Logan's memory be erased so he can be used as their personal weapon, but Logan overhears and escapes to a nearby farm, where an elderly couple takes him in. Zero kills the couple the following morning and tries to kill Logan, but Logan takes down Zero's helicopter, killing him as he swears to kill both Stryker and Victor.", "Logan locates Wraith and Dukes at a boxing gym in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\"). Dukes, who has ballooned in size due to a guilt\\-induced eating disorder, explains that Victor still works for Stryker, hunting down mutants for Stryker to experiment on at his new laboratory, located at \"The Island\". Dukes also mentions [Remy \"Gambit\" LeBeau](/wiki/Gambit_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Gambit (Marvel Comics)\"), the only one who escaped from the island and therefore knew its location. Wraith and Logan find Gambit in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), and then both fight Victor, who kills Wraith and extracts his DNA. Agreeing to help release mutants that Stryker has captured, Gambit takes Logan to Stryker's facility on [Three Mile Island](/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_Nuclear_Generating_Station \"Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station\"). Logan learns that Kayla is alive, having been forced by Stryker into surveilling him in exchange for her sister's safety. However, Stryker refuses to release her sister and denies Victor the adamantium bonding promised for his service, claiming that test results revealed Victor would not survive the operation. Stryker activates Wade, now known as Weapon XI, a \"mutant killer\" with the powers of multiple mutants.", "As Logan and Victor fight off Weapon XI, Kayla is mortally wounded while leading the captive mutants to [Professor Charles Xavier](/wiki/Charles_Xavier_%28film_series_character%29 \"Charles Xavier (film series character)\") and safety. After Logan kills Weapon XI, Stryker arrives and shoots Logan in the head with an adamantium bullet, rendering him unconscious. Before Stryker can shoot Kayla, she grabs him and uses her mutant power to persuade him to turn around and walk away until his feet bleed, then succumbs to her injuries. Logan regains consciousness but has [lost his memory](/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia \"Retrograde amnesia\"). He notices his dog tags read \"Logan\" on one side and \"Wolverine\" on the other; he pauses upon noticing Kayla's body but does not recognize her.", "In a mid\\-credits scene, Stryker is detained for questioning by [MPs](/wiki/Military_police \"Military police\") in connection with the death of General Munson, whom Stryker murdered to protect his experiment. In a post\\-credits scene, Weapon XI's hand crawls out of the rocks and touches his head, which awakens and shushes the screen, revealing that he has survived being decapitated.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|deleted\=yes \|1950\= 389 \|1960\= 382 \|1970\= 344 \|1980\= 349 \|1990\= 338 \|2000\= 292 \|2010\= 277 \|estyear\=2016 \|estimate\=276 \|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2016\.html\|title\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\|access\-date\=June 9, 2017}} \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} Vinita Terrace merged into the city of Vinita Park in 2017\. ### 2010 census | \+**Vinita Terrace, Missouri – Racial and ethnic composition**{{nobold\|''Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.''}} | Race / Ethnicity (*NH \= Non\-Hispanic*) | Pop 2000{{Cite web\|title\=P004 Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – Vinita Terrace village, Missouri \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALSF12000\.P004?g\=160XX00US2976264\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} | {{partial\|Pop 2010}}{{Cite web\|title\=P2 Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\-171\) – Vinita Terrace village, Missouri \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\=p2\&g\=160XX00US2976264\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2010\.P2\|website\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]}} | % 2000 | {{partial\|% 2010}} | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") alone (NH) | 75 |60 21\.66% | 21\.66% | [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans") alone (NH) | 215 |202 73\.63% | 72\.92% | [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native") alone (NH) | 0 |0 0\.00% | 0\.00% | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") alone (NH) | 1 |1 0\.34% | 0\.36% | [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans") alone (NH) | 0 |0 0\.00% | 0\.00% | [Some Other Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") alone (NH) | 0 |1 0\.00% | 0\.36% | [Mixed Race or Multi\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 1 |10 0\.34% | 3\.61% | [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") (any race) | 0 |3 0\.00% | 1\.08% | **Total** | **292** |**277** **100\.00%** | **100\.00%** As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-08}} of 2010, there were 277 people, 108 households, and 73 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|4616\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 116 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1933\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 22\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 72\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 3\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.1% of the population. There were 108 households, of which 32\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 23\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\.4% were non\-families. 26\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.56 and the average family size was 3\.07\. The median age in the village was 39\.3 years. 22\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26\.3% were from 25 to 44; 32\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 11\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 45\.1% male and 54\.9% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 292 people, 117 households, and 85 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|4,722\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 124 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|2,005\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 25\.68% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 73\.63% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.34% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.34% from two or more races. There were 117 households, out of which 29\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 21\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\.5% were non\-families. 23\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.50 and the average family size was 2\.93\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 22\.9% under the age of 18, 7\.5% from 18 to 24, 26\.0% from 25 to 44, 30\.5% from 45 to 64, and 13\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 90\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\.9 males. The median income for a household in the village was $46,250, and the median income for a family was $56,250\. Males had a median income of $47,500 versus $28,125 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $23,752\. About 5\.0% of families and 7\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 12\.7% of those under the age of eighteen and 15\.9% of those 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|deleted\\=yes\n\\|1950\\= 389\n\\|1960\\= 382\n\\|1970\\= 344\n\\|1980\\= 349\n\\|1990\\= 338\n\\|2000\\= 292\n\\|2010\\= 277\n\\|estyear\\=2016\n\\|estimate\\=276\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2016\\.html\\|title\\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\\|access\\-date\\=June 9, 2017}}\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "Vinita Terrace merged into the city of Vinita Park in 2017\\.", "### 2010 census", "", "| \\+**Vinita Terrace, Missouri – Racial and ethnic composition**{{nobold\\|''Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.''}} | Race / Ethnicity (*NH \\= Non\\-Hispanic*) | Pop 2000{{Cite web\\|title\\=P004 Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – Vinita Terrace village, Missouri \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALSF12000\\.P004?g\\=160XX00US2976264\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} | {{partial\\|Pop 2010}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=P2 Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\\-171\\) – Vinita Terrace village, Missouri \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\\=p2\\&g\\=160XX00US2976264\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2010\\.P2\\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]}} | % 2000 | {{partial\\|% 2010}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") alone (NH) | 75 |60", "21\\.66% |\n21\\.66%", "| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans \"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans\") alone (NH) | 215 |202", "73\\.63% |\n72\\.92%", "| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\") alone (NH) | 0 |0", "0\\.00% |\n0\\.00%", "| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") alone (NH) | 1 |1", "0\\.34% |\n0\\.36%", "| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\") alone (NH) | 0 |0", "0\\.00% |\n0\\.00%", "| [Some Other Race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") alone (NH) | 0 |1", "0\\.00% |\n0\\.36%", "| [Mixed Race or Multi\\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 1 |10", "0\\.34% |\n3\\.61%", "| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") (any race) | 0 |3", "0\\.00% |\n1\\.08%", "| **Total** | **292** |**277**", "**100\\.00%** |\n**100\\.00%**", "", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-08}} of 2010, there were 277 people, 108 households, and 73 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|4616\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 116 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1933\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 22\\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 72\\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 3\\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.1% of the population.", "There were 108 households, of which 32\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 23\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\\.4% were non\\-families. 26\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.56 and the average family size was 3\\.07\\.", "The median age in the village was 39\\.3 years. 22\\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26\\.3% were from 25 to 44; 32\\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 11\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 45\\.1% male and 54\\.9% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 292 people, 117 households, and 85 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|4,722\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 124 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|2,005\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 25\\.68% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 73\\.63% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.34% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.34% from two or more races.", "There were 117 households, out of which 29\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 21\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\\.5% were non\\-families. 23\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.50 and the average family size was 2\\.93\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 22\\.9% under the age of 18, 7\\.5% from 18 to 24, 26\\.0% from 25 to 44, 30\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 90\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\\.9 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $46,250, and the median income for a family was $56,250\\. Males had a median income of $47,500 versus $28,125 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $23,752\\. About 5\\.0% of families and 7\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 12\\.7% of those under the age of eighteen and 15\\.9% of those 65 or over.", "" ]
The bounded boundary layer description -------------------------------------- Bounded boundary layers is a name used to designate fluid flow along an interior wall such that the other interior walls induce a pressure effect on the fluid flow along the wall under consideration. The defining characteristic of this type of boundary layer is that the velocity profile normal to the wall often smoothly asymptotes to a constant velocity value denoted as *u*e(*x*). The bounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady flow entering the lower half of a thin flat plate 2\-D channel of height *H* in Figure 1 (the flow and the plate extends in the positive/negative direction perpendicular to the *x\-y*\-plane). Examples of this type of boundary layer flow occur for fluid flow through most pipes, channels, and wind tunnels. The 2\-D channel depicted in Figure 1 is stationary with fluid flowing along the interior wall with time\-averaged velocity *u*(*x*,*y*) where *x* is the flow direction and *y* is the normal to the wall. The *H*/2 dashed line is added to acknowledge that this is an interior pipe or channel flow situation and that there is a top wall located above the pictured lower wall. Figure 1 depicts flow behavior for *H* values that are larger than the maximum boundary layer thickness but less than thickness at which the flow starts to behave as an exterior flow. If the wall\-to\-wall distance, *H*, is less than the viscous boundary layer thickness then the velocity profile, defined as *u*(*x*,*y*) at *x* for all *y*, takes on a parabolic profile in the *y*\-direction and the boundary layer thickness is just *H*/2\. At the solid walls of the plate the fluid has zero velocity ([no\-slip boundary condition](/wiki/No-slip_boundary_condition "No-slip boundary condition")), but as you move away from the wall, the velocity of the flow increases without peaking, and then approaches a constant mean velocity *u*e(*x*). This asymptotic velocity may or may not change along the wall depending on the wall geometry. The point where the velocity profile essentially reaches the asymptotic velocity is the boundary layer thickness. The boundary layer thickness is depicted as the curved dashed line originating at the channel entrance in Figure 1\. It is impossible to define an exact location at which the velocity profile reaches the asymptotic velocity. As a result, a number of boundary layer thickness parameters, generally denoted as \\delta(x), are used to describe characteristic thickness scales in the boundary layer region. Also of interest is the velocity profile shape which is useful in differentiating laminar from turbulent boundary layer flows. The profile shape refers to the *y*\-behavior of the velocity profile as it transitions to *u*e(*x*). [thumb\|center\|400px\|Figure 1: Schematic drawing depicting fluid flow entering the bottom half of a 2\-D channel with plate\-to\-plate spacing of *H*. The flow and channel extend perpendicular to the *x\-y*\-plane.](/wiki/File:Bounded_Boundary_Layer_Thickness_Figure_1.jpg "Bounded Boundary Layer Thickness Figure 1.jpg") ### The 99% boundary layer thickness The boundary layer thickness, \\delta, is the distance normal to the wall to a point where the flow velocity has essentially reached the 'asymptotic' velocity, u\_e. Prior to the development of the Moment Method, the lack of an obvious method of defining the boundary layer thickness led much of the flow community in the later half of the 1900s to adopt the location y\_{99}, denoted as \\delta \_{99} and given by u(x,y\_{99}) \= 0\.99u\_e(x) \\quad , as the boundary layer thickness. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate channel that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer "Blasius boundary layer") conditions, the \\delta \_{99} value is closely approximated bySchlichting, p.140 \\delta \_{99}(x)\\approx 5\.0 \\sqrt{ {\\nu x}\\over u\_0} \= 5\.0 {x \\over \\sqrt{\\mathrm{Re}\_x}} \\quad , where u\_e \\approx u\_0 is constant, and where \\mathrm{Re}\_x is the [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number "Reynolds number"), u\_0 is the freestream velocity, u\_e is the asymptotic velocity, x is the distance downstream from the start of the boundary layer, and \\nu is the kinematic viscosity. For turbulent boundary layers along a flat plate channel, the boundary layer thickness, \\delta , is given bySchlichting, p. 638 \\delta (x) \\approx 0\.37 {x \\over {\\mathrm{Re}\_x}^{1/5}} \\quad . This turbulent boundary layer thickness formula assumes 1\) the flow is turbulent right from the start of the boundary layer and 2\) the turbulent boundary layer behaves in a geometrically similar mannerSchlichting, p.152 (i.e. the velocity profiles are [geometrically similar](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 "Similitude (model)") along with the flow in the x\-direction, differing only by scaling parameters in y and u(x,y)). Neither one of these assumptions is true for the general turbulent boundary layer case so care must be exercised in applying this formula. ### Displacement thickness The displacement thickness, \\delta\_1 or \\delta^\*, is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity u\_e that has the same flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer.Schlichting, p. 140 The displacement thickness essentially modifies the shape of a body immersed in a fluid to allow, in principle, an inviscid solution if the displacement thicknesses were known *a priori*. The definition of the displacement thickness for [compressible](/wiki/Compressibility "Compressibility") flow, based on mass flow rate, is {\\delta\_1(x)}\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {\\left(1\-{\\rho(x,y) u(x,y)\\over \\rho\_e u\_e(x)}\\right) \\,\\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where \\rho (x,y) is the density. For [incompressible](/wiki/Compressibility "Compressibility") flow, the density is constant so the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes {\\delta\_1(x)}\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {\\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\,\\mathrm{d}y} \\quad . For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time\-averaged density and velocity are used. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer "Blasius boundary layer") conditions, the displacement thickness isSchlichting, p. 141 \\delta\_1(x) \\approx 1\.72 \\sqrt{{\\nu x}\\over u\_0} \\quad , where u\_e \\approx u\_0 is constant. The displacement thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as \\delta\_1 \\approx \\delta /3.Schlichting, p. 28 It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. It also shows up in various formulas in the Moment Method. ### Momentum thickness The momentum thickness, \\theta or \\delta\_2, is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity u\_e that has the same momentum flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer.Schlichting, p. 141 The momentum thickness definition for [compressible](/wiki/Compressibility "Compressibility") flow based on the mass flow rate isSchlichting, p. 354Whitfield, p. 13Schlichting, p. 258 \\delta\_2(x) \= \\int\_0^{H/2} {{\\rho(x,y) u(x,y)\\over \\rho\_e u\_e(x)} {\\left(1 \- {u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)} \\right)}} \\,\\mathrm{d}y \\quad . For [incompressible](/wiki/Compressibility "Compressibility") flow, the density is constant so that the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes \\delta\_2(x) \= \\int\_0^{H/2} {{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)} {\\left(1 \- {u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right)}} \\,\\mathrm{d}y \\quad , where \\rho are the density and u\_e is the 'asymptotic' velocity. For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time averaged density and velocity are used. For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer "Blasius boundary layer") conditions, the momentum thickness isSchlichting, p. 141 \\delta\_2(x) \\approx 0\.664 \\sqrt{{\\nu x}\\over u\_0} \\quad , where u\_e \\approx u\_0 is constant. The momentum thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as \\delta\_2 \\approx \\delta /6.Schlichting, p. 161 It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. A related parameter called the Energy ThicknessSchlichting, p. 354 is sometimes mentioned in reference to turbulent energy distribution but is rarely used. ### Shape factor A shape factor is used in boundary layer flow to help to differentiate laminar and turbulent flow. It also shows up in various approximate treatments of the boundary layer including the Thwaites method for laminar flows. The formal definition is given by H\_{12}(x) \= \\frac {\\delta\_1(x)}{\\delta\_2(x)} \\quad , where *H\_{12}* is the shape factor, \\delta\_1 is the displacement thickness and \\delta\_2 is the momentum thickness. Conventionally, *H\_{12}* \= 2\.59 (Blasius boundary layer) is typical of laminar flows, while *H\_{12}* \= 1\.3 \- 1\.4 is typical of turbulent flows near the laminar\-turbulent transition.Schlichting, p. 454\. For turbulent flows near separation, H\_{12} \\approx 2\.7\.X. Wang, W. George, L. Castillo, 2004 The dividing line defining laminar\-transitional and transitional\-turbulent H\_{12} values is dependent on a number of factors so it is not always a definitive parameter for differentiating laminar, transitional, or turbulent boundary layers. ### Moment method A relatively new methodWeyburne, 2006Weyburne, 2014 for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer uses the [mathematical moment methodology](/wiki/Moment_%28mathematics%29 "Moment (mathematics)") which is commonly used to characterize [statistical probability functions](/wiki/Probability_distribution "Probability distribution"). The boundary layer moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the [Blasius boundary layer](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer "Blasius boundary layer") for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. The implication of the second derivative Gaussian\-like shape is that the velocity profile shape for laminar flow is closely approximated as a twice integrated Gaussian function.Weyburne, 2006, p. 1678 The moment method is based on simple integrals of the velocity profile that use the entire profile, not just a few tail region data points as does \\delta\_{99}. The moment method introduces four new parameters that help describe the thickness and shape of the boundary layer. These four parameters are the mean location, the boundary layer [width](/wiki/Variance "Variance"), the velocity profile [skewness](/wiki/Skewness "Skewness"), and the velocity profile [excess](/wiki/Kurtosis "Kurtosis"). The skewness and excess are true shape parameters as opposed to the simple ratio parameters like the *H*12. Applying the moment method to the first and second derivatives of the velocity profile generates additional parameters that, for example, determine the location, shape, and thickness of the viscous forces in a turbulent boundary layer. A unique property of the moment method parameters is that it is possible to prove that many of these velocity thickness parameters are also similarity scaling parameters. That is, if [similarity](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 "Similitude (model)") is present in a set of velocity profiles, then these thickness parameters must also be similarity length scaling parameters.Weyburne, 2017 It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable integral kernels. The central moments based on the scaled velocity profiles are defined as {\\zeta\_n(x)}\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {(y\-m(x))^n {1\\over\\delta\_1(x)} \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where \\delta\_1(x) is the displacement thickness and the mean location, m(x) is given by m(x) \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { y {1\\over\\delta\_1(x)} \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad . There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central moments given by {\\kappa\_n(x)} \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { (y\-{\\delta\_1(x)})^n {d \\{u(x,y)/u\_e(x) \\} \\over dy} \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where the first derivative mean location is the displacement thickness \\delta\_1(x). Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by {\\lambda\_n(x)} \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { (y\-{\\mu\_1(x)})^n {d^2 \\{\-\\mu\_1(x) u(x,y)/u\_e(x) \\} \\over dy^2} \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where the second derivative mean location, \\mu\_1(x), is given by {\\mu\_1(x)} \= {u\_{e}(x) \\over \\left.{\\frac{{du(x,y)}}{{dy}}} \\right\|\_{y \= 0}} \= {\\upsilon u\_e(x) \\over \\tau\_w(x)} \\quad , where \\upsilon is the viscosity and where \\tau\_w(x) is the wall [shear stress](/wiki/Shear_stress "Shear stress"). The mean location, \\mu\_1, for this case is formally defined as *u*e(*x*) divided by the area under the second derivative curve. The above equations work for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as long as the time\-averaged velocity is used for the turbulent case. With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be described in terms of the boundary layer widths ([variance](/wiki/Variance "Variance")), [skewnesses](/wiki/Skewness "Skewness"), and excesses ([excess kurtosis](/wiki/Kurtosis "Kurtosis")). Experimentally, it is found that the thickness defined as \\delta\_m \= m \+ 3\\sigma\_m where \\sigma\_m\=\\zeta\_2^{1/2}, tracks the \\delta\_{99} very well for turbulent boundary layer flows.Weyburne, 2014, p. 26 Taking a cue from the [boundary layer momentum balance equations](/wiki/Fluid_dynamics "Fluid dynamics"), the second derivative boundary layer moments, {\\lambda\_n} track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the laminar boundary layer and the inner viscous region of turbulent boundary layers using {\\lambda\_n} moments whereas the boundary layer thickness and shape of the total turbulent boundary layer is tracked using {\\zeta\_n} and {\\kappa\_n} moments. Calculation of the 2nd derivative moments can be problematic since under certain conditions the second derivatives can become positive in the very near\-wall region (in general, it is negative). This appears to be the case for interior flow with an [adverse pressure gradient](/wiki/Adverse_pressure_gradient "Adverse pressure gradient") (APG). Integrand values do not change sign in standard probability framework so the application of the moment methodology to the second derivative case will result in biased moment measures. A simple fixWeyburne, 2020a is to exclude the problematic values and define a new set of moments for a truncated second derivative profile starting at the second derivative minimum. If the width, {\\sigma\_v}, is calculated using the minimum as the mean location, then the viscous boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the second derivative profile becomes negligible above the wall, can be properly identified with this modified approach. For derivative moments whose integrands do not change sign, the moments can be calculated without the need to take derivatives by using integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness kernel given by {\\alpha\_n}(x)\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {y^n \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad . For example, the second derivative \\sigma\_v value is \\sigma\_v \= \\sqrt{{\-\\mu\_1}^2\+2\\mu\_1 \\alpha\_0} and the first derivative skewness, \\gamma\_1, can be calculated as \\gamma\_{1}(x) \= \\kappa\_3/\\kappa\_{2}^{3/2} \= (2\\delta\_1^{3} \- 6\\delta\_1 \\alpha\_1 \+ 3\\alpha\_2\)/(2\\alpha\_1 \- \\delta\_1^{2})^{3/2} \\quad . This parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition.Weyburne, 2014, p. 25 Numerical errors encountered in calculating the moments, especially the higher\-order moments, are a serious concern. Small experimental or numerical errors can cause the nominally free stream portion of the integrands to blow up. There are certain numerical calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 that can be followed to mitigate these errors.
[ "The bounded boundary layer description\n--------------------------------------", "Bounded boundary layers is a name used to designate fluid flow along an interior wall such that the other interior walls induce a pressure effect on the fluid flow along the wall under consideration. The defining characteristic of this type of boundary layer is that the velocity profile normal to the wall often smoothly asymptotes to a constant velocity value denoted as *u*e(*x*). The bounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady flow entering the lower half of a thin flat plate 2\\-D channel of height *H* in Figure 1 (the flow and the plate extends in the positive/negative direction perpendicular to the *x\\-y*\\-plane). Examples of this type of boundary layer flow occur for fluid flow through most pipes, channels, and wind tunnels. The 2\\-D channel depicted in Figure 1 is stationary with fluid flowing along the interior wall with time\\-averaged velocity *u*(*x*,*y*) where *x* is the flow direction and *y* is the normal to the wall. The *H*/2 dashed line is added to acknowledge that this is an interior pipe or channel flow situation and that there is a top wall located above the pictured lower wall. Figure 1 depicts flow behavior for *H* values that are larger than the maximum boundary layer thickness but less than thickness at which the flow starts to behave as an exterior flow. If the wall\\-to\\-wall distance, *H*, is less than the viscous boundary layer thickness then the velocity profile, defined as *u*(*x*,*y*) at *x* for all *y*, takes on a parabolic profile in the *y*\\-direction and the boundary layer thickness is just *H*/2\\.", "At the solid walls of the plate the fluid has zero velocity ([no\\-slip boundary condition](/wiki/No-slip_boundary_condition \"No-slip boundary condition\")), but as you move away from the wall, the velocity of the flow increases without peaking, and then approaches a constant mean velocity *u*e(*x*). This asymptotic velocity may or may not change along the wall depending on the wall geometry. The point where the velocity profile essentially reaches the asymptotic velocity is the boundary layer thickness. The boundary layer thickness is depicted as the curved dashed line originating at the channel entrance in Figure 1\\. It is impossible to define an exact location at which the velocity profile reaches the asymptotic velocity. As a result, a number of boundary layer thickness parameters, generally denoted as \\\\delta(x), are used to describe characteristic thickness scales in the boundary layer region. Also of interest is the velocity profile shape which is useful in differentiating laminar from turbulent boundary layer flows. The profile shape refers to the *y*\\-behavior of the velocity profile as it transitions to *u*e(*x*).\n[thumb\\|center\\|400px\\|Figure 1: Schematic drawing depicting fluid flow entering the bottom half of a 2\\-D channel with plate\\-to\\-plate spacing of *H*. The flow and channel extend perpendicular to the *x\\-y*\\-plane.](/wiki/File:Bounded_Boundary_Layer_Thickness_Figure_1.jpg \"Bounded Boundary Layer Thickness Figure 1.jpg\")", "### The 99% boundary layer thickness", "The boundary layer thickness, \\\\delta, is the distance normal to the wall to a point where the flow velocity has essentially reached the 'asymptotic' velocity, u\\_e. Prior to the development of the Moment Method, the lack of an obvious method of defining the boundary layer thickness led much of the flow community in the later half of the 1900s to adopt the location y\\_{99}, denoted as \\\\delta \\_{99} and given by\nu(x,y\\_{99}) \\= 0\\.99u\\_e(x) \\\\quad ,\nas the boundary layer thickness.", "", "For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate channel that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer \"Blasius boundary layer\") conditions, the \\\\delta \\_{99} value is closely approximated bySchlichting, p.140\n \\\\delta \\_{99}(x)\\\\approx 5\\.0 \\\\sqrt{ {\\\\nu x}\\\\over u\\_0} \\= 5\\.0 {x \\\\over \\\\sqrt{\\\\mathrm{Re}\\_x}} \\\\quad ,\nwhere u\\_e \\\\approx u\\_0 is constant, and where", "\\\\mathrm{Re}\\_x is the [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number \"Reynolds number\"),\nu\\_0 is the freestream velocity,\nu\\_e is the asymptotic velocity,\nx is the distance downstream from the start of the boundary layer, and\n\\\\nu is the kinematic viscosity.\nFor turbulent boundary layers along a flat plate channel, the boundary layer thickness, \\\\delta , is given bySchlichting, p. 638\n \\\\delta (x) \\\\approx 0\\.37 {x \\\\over {\\\\mathrm{Re}\\_x}^{1/5}} \\\\quad .", "This turbulent boundary layer thickness formula assumes 1\\) the flow is turbulent right from the start of the boundary layer and 2\\) the turbulent boundary layer behaves in a geometrically similar mannerSchlichting, p.152 (i.e. the velocity profiles are [geometrically similar](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 \"Similitude (model)\") along with the flow in the x\\-direction, differing only by scaling parameters in y and u(x,y)). Neither one of these assumptions is true for the general turbulent boundary layer case so care must be exercised in applying this formula.", "### Displacement thickness", "The displacement thickness, \\\\delta\\_1 or \\\\delta^\\*, is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity u\\_e that has the same flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer.Schlichting, p. 140", "The displacement thickness essentially modifies the shape of a body immersed in a fluid to allow, in principle, an inviscid solution if the displacement thicknesses were known *a priori*.", "The definition of the displacement thickness for [compressible](/wiki/Compressibility \"Compressibility\") flow, based on mass flow rate, is", "{\\\\delta\\_1(x)}\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {\\\\left(1\\-{\\\\rho(x,y) u(x,y)\\\\over \\\\rho\\_e u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,\nwhere \\\\rho (x,y) is the density. For [incompressible](/wiki/Compressibility \"Compressibility\") flow, the density is constant so the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes\n {\\\\delta\\_1(x)}\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {\\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad .", "For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time\\-averaged density and velocity are used.", "For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer \"Blasius boundary layer\") conditions, the displacement thickness isSchlichting, p. 141", "\\\\delta\\_1(x) \\\\approx 1\\.72 \\\\sqrt{{\\\\nu x}\\\\over u\\_0} \\\\quad ,\nwhere u\\_e \\\\approx u\\_0 is constant.\nThe displacement thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as \\\\delta\\_1 \\\\approx \\\\delta /3.Schlichting, p. 28 It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. It also shows up in various formulas in the Moment Method.", "### Momentum thickness", "The momentum thickness, \\\\theta or \\\\delta\\_2, is the normal distance to a reference plane representing the lower edge of a hypothetical inviscid fluid of uniform velocity u\\_e that has the same momentum flow rate as occurs in the real fluid with the boundary layer.Schlichting, p. 141", "The momentum thickness definition for [compressible](/wiki/Compressibility \"Compressibility\") flow based on the mass flow rate isSchlichting, p. 354Whitfield, p. 13Schlichting, p. 258", "\\\\delta\\_2(x) \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {{\\\\rho(x,y) u(x,y)\\\\over \\\\rho\\_e u\\_e(x)} {\\\\left(1 \\- {u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)} \\\\right)}} \\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y \\\\quad .\nFor [incompressible](/wiki/Compressibility \"Compressibility\") flow, the density is constant so that the definition based on volumetric flow rate becomes", "\\\\delta\\_2(x) \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)} {\\\\left(1 \\- {u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right)}} \\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y \\\\quad ,\nwhere \\\\rho are the density and u\\_e is the 'asymptotic' velocity.", "For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time averaged density and velocity are used.", "For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the [Blasius solution](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer \"Blasius boundary layer\") conditions, the momentum thickness isSchlichting, p. 141", "\\\\delta\\_2(x) \\\\approx 0\\.664 \\\\sqrt{{\\\\nu x}\\\\over u\\_0} \\\\quad ,\nwhere u\\_e \\\\approx u\\_0 is constant.\nThe momentum thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as \\\\delta\\_2 \\\\approx \\\\delta /6.Schlichting, p. 161 It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor.", "A related parameter called the Energy ThicknessSchlichting, p. 354 is sometimes mentioned in reference to turbulent energy distribution but is rarely used.", "### Shape factor", "A shape factor is used in boundary layer flow to help to differentiate laminar and turbulent flow. It also shows up in various approximate treatments of the boundary layer including the Thwaites method for laminar flows. The formal definition is given by", "H\\_{12}(x) \\= \\\\frac {\\\\delta\\_1(x)}{\\\\delta\\_2(x)} \\\\quad ,\nwhere *H\\_{12}* is the shape factor, \\\\delta\\_1 is the displacement thickness and \\\\delta\\_2 is the momentum thickness.", "Conventionally, *H\\_{12}* \\= 2\\.59 (Blasius boundary layer) is typical of laminar flows, while *H\\_{12}* \\= 1\\.3 \\- 1\\.4 is typical of turbulent flows near the laminar\\-turbulent transition.Schlichting, p. 454\\. For turbulent flows near separation, H\\_{12} \\\\approx 2\\.7\\.X. Wang, W. George, L. Castillo, 2004 The dividing line defining laminar\\-transitional and transitional\\-turbulent H\\_{12} values is dependent on a number of factors so it is not always a definitive parameter for differentiating laminar, transitional, or turbulent boundary layers.", "### Moment method", "A relatively new methodWeyburne, 2006Weyburne, 2014 for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer uses the [mathematical moment methodology](/wiki/Moment_%28mathematics%29 \"Moment (mathematics)\") which is commonly used to characterize [statistical probability functions](/wiki/Probability_distribution \"Probability distribution\"). The boundary layer moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the [Blasius boundary layer](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer \"Blasius boundary layer\") for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. The implication of the second derivative Gaussian\\-like shape is that the velocity profile shape for laminar flow is closely approximated as a twice integrated Gaussian function.Weyburne, 2006, p. 1678", "The moment method is based on simple integrals of the velocity profile that use the entire profile, not just a few tail region data points as does \\\\delta\\_{99}. The moment method introduces four new parameters that help describe the thickness and shape of the boundary layer. These four parameters are the mean location, the boundary layer [width](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\"), the velocity profile [skewness](/wiki/Skewness \"Skewness\"), and the velocity profile [excess](/wiki/Kurtosis \"Kurtosis\"). The skewness and excess are true shape parameters as opposed to the simple ratio parameters like the *H*12. Applying the moment method to the first and second derivatives of the velocity profile generates additional parameters that, for example, determine the location, shape, and thickness of the viscous forces in a turbulent boundary layer. A unique property of the moment method parameters is that it is possible to prove that many of these velocity thickness parameters are also similarity scaling parameters. That is, if [similarity](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 \"Similitude (model)\") is present in a set of velocity profiles, then these thickness parameters must also be similarity length scaling parameters.Weyburne, 2017", "It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable integral kernels.", "The central moments based on the scaled velocity profiles are defined as\n {\\\\zeta\\_n(x)}\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {(y\\-m(x))^n {1\\\\over\\\\delta\\_1(x)} \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where \\\\delta\\_1(x) is the displacement thickness and the mean location, m(x) is given by \n m(x) \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { y {1\\\\over\\\\delta\\_1(x)} \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad .", "There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central moments given by\n {\\\\kappa\\_n(x)} \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { (y\\-{\\\\delta\\_1(x)})^n {d \\\\{u(x,y)/u\\_e(x) \\\\} \\\\over dy} \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where the first derivative mean location is the displacement thickness \\\\delta\\_1(x).", "Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by\n {\\\\lambda\\_n(x)} \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { (y\\-{\\\\mu\\_1(x)})^n {d^2 \\\\{\\-\\\\mu\\_1(x) u(x,y)/u\\_e(x) \\\\} \\\\over dy^2} \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where the second derivative mean location, \\\\mu\\_1(x), is given by\n {\\\\mu\\_1(x)} \\= {u\\_{e}(x) \\\\over \\\\left.{\\\\frac{{du(x,y)}}{{dy}}} \\\\right\\|\\_{y \\= 0}} \\= {\\\\upsilon u\\_e(x) \\\\over \\\\tau\\_w(x)} \\\\quad ,", "where \\\\upsilon is the viscosity and where \\\\tau\\_w(x) is the wall [shear stress](/wiki/Shear_stress \"Shear stress\"). The mean location, \\\\mu\\_1, for this case is formally defined as *u*e(*x*) divided by the area under the second derivative curve.", "The above equations work for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as long as the time\\-averaged velocity is used for the turbulent case.", "With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be described in terms of the boundary layer widths ([variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\")), [skewnesses](/wiki/Skewness \"Skewness\"), and excesses ([excess kurtosis](/wiki/Kurtosis \"Kurtosis\")). Experimentally, it is found that the thickness defined as \\\\delta\\_m \\= m \\+ 3\\\\sigma\\_m where \\\\sigma\\_m\\=\\\\zeta\\_2^{1/2}, tracks the \\\\delta\\_{99} very well for turbulent boundary layer flows.Weyburne, 2014, p. 26", "Taking a cue from the [boundary layer momentum balance equations](/wiki/Fluid_dynamics \"Fluid dynamics\"), the second derivative boundary layer moments, {\\\\lambda\\_n} track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the laminar boundary layer and the inner viscous region of turbulent boundary layers using {\\\\lambda\\_n} moments whereas the boundary layer thickness and shape of the total turbulent boundary layer is tracked using {\\\\zeta\\_n} and {\\\\kappa\\_n} moments.", "Calculation of the 2nd derivative moments can be problematic since under certain conditions the second derivatives can become positive in the very near\\-wall region (in general, it is negative). This appears to be the case for interior flow with an [adverse pressure gradient](/wiki/Adverse_pressure_gradient \"Adverse pressure gradient\") (APG). Integrand values do not change sign in standard probability framework so the application of the moment methodology to the second derivative case will result in biased moment measures. A simple fixWeyburne, 2020a is to exclude the problematic values and define a new set of moments for a truncated second derivative profile starting at the second derivative minimum. If the width, {\\\\sigma\\_v}, is calculated using the minimum as the mean location, then the viscous boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the second derivative profile becomes negligible above the wall, can be properly identified with this modified approach.", "For derivative moments whose integrands do not change sign, the moments can be calculated without the need to take derivatives by using integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness kernel given by\n {\\\\alpha\\_n}(x)\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {y^n \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad .\nFor example, the second derivative \\\\sigma\\_v value is \\\\sigma\\_v \\= \\\\sqrt{{\\-\\\\mu\\_1}^2\\+2\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\alpha\\_0} and the first derivative skewness, \\\\gamma\\_1, can be calculated as\n\\\\gamma\\_{1}(x) \\= \\\\kappa\\_3/\\\\kappa\\_{2}^{3/2} \\= (2\\\\delta\\_1^{3} \\- 6\\\\delta\\_1 \\\\alpha\\_1 \\+ 3\\\\alpha\\_2\\)/(2\\\\alpha\\_1 \\- \\\\delta\\_1^{2})^{3/2} \\\\quad .\nThis parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition.Weyburne, 2014, p. 25", "Numerical errors encountered in calculating the moments, especially the higher\\-order moments, are a serious concern. Small experimental or numerical errors can cause the nominally free stream portion of the integrands to blow up. There are certain numerical calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 that can be followed to mitigate these errors.", "" ]
### Moment method A relatively new methodWeyburne, 2006Weyburne, 2014 for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer uses the [mathematical moment methodology](/wiki/Moment_%28mathematics%29 "Moment (mathematics)") which is commonly used to characterize [statistical probability functions](/wiki/Probability_distribution "Probability distribution"). The boundary layer moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the [Blasius boundary layer](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer "Blasius boundary layer") for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. The implication of the second derivative Gaussian\-like shape is that the velocity profile shape for laminar flow is closely approximated as a twice integrated Gaussian function.Weyburne, 2006, p. 1678 The moment method is based on simple integrals of the velocity profile that use the entire profile, not just a few tail region data points as does \\delta\_{99}. The moment method introduces four new parameters that help describe the thickness and shape of the boundary layer. These four parameters are the mean location, the boundary layer [width](/wiki/Variance "Variance"), the velocity profile [skewness](/wiki/Skewness "Skewness"), and the velocity profile [excess](/wiki/Kurtosis "Kurtosis"). The skewness and excess are true shape parameters as opposed to the simple ratio parameters like the *H*12. Applying the moment method to the first and second derivatives of the velocity profile generates additional parameters that, for example, determine the location, shape, and thickness of the viscous forces in a turbulent boundary layer. A unique property of the moment method parameters is that it is possible to prove that many of these velocity thickness parameters are also similarity scaling parameters. That is, if [similarity](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 "Similitude (model)") is present in a set of velocity profiles, then these thickness parameters must also be similarity length scaling parameters.Weyburne, 2017 It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable integral kernels. The central moments based on the scaled velocity profiles are defined as {\\zeta\_n(x)}\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {(y\-m(x))^n {1\\over\\delta\_1(x)} \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where \\delta\_1(x) is the displacement thickness and the mean location, m(x) is given by m(x) \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { y {1\\over\\delta\_1(x)} \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad . There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central moments given by {\\kappa\_n(x)} \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { (y\-{\\delta\_1(x)})^n {d \\{u(x,y)/u\_e(x) \\} \\over dy} \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where the first derivative mean location is the displacement thickness \\delta\_1(x). Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by {\\lambda\_n(x)} \= \\int\_0^{H/2} { (y\-{\\mu\_1(x)})^n {d^2 \\{\-\\mu\_1(x) u(x,y)/u\_e(x) \\} \\over dy^2} \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad , where the second derivative mean location, \\mu\_1(x), is given by {\\mu\_1(x)} \= {u\_{e}(x) \\over \\left.{\\frac{{du(x,y)}}{{dy}}} \\right\|\_{y \= 0}} \= {\\upsilon u\_e(x) \\over \\tau\_w(x)} \\quad , where \\upsilon is the viscosity and where \\tau\_w(x) is the wall [shear stress](/wiki/Shear_stress "Shear stress"). The mean location, \\mu\_1, for this case is formally defined as *u*e(*x*) divided by the area under the second derivative curve. The above equations work for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as long as the time\-averaged velocity is used for the turbulent case. With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be described in terms of the boundary layer widths ([variance](/wiki/Variance "Variance")), [skewnesses](/wiki/Skewness "Skewness"), and excesses ([excess kurtosis](/wiki/Kurtosis "Kurtosis")). Experimentally, it is found that the thickness defined as \\delta\_m \= m \+ 3\\sigma\_m where \\sigma\_m\=\\zeta\_2^{1/2}, tracks the \\delta\_{99} very well for turbulent boundary layer flows.Weyburne, 2014, p. 26 Taking a cue from the [boundary layer momentum balance equations](/wiki/Fluid_dynamics "Fluid dynamics"), the second derivative boundary layer moments, {\\lambda\_n} track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the laminar boundary layer and the inner viscous region of turbulent boundary layers using {\\lambda\_n} moments whereas the boundary layer thickness and shape of the total turbulent boundary layer is tracked using {\\zeta\_n} and {\\kappa\_n} moments. Calculation of the 2nd derivative moments can be problematic since under certain conditions the second derivatives can become positive in the very near\-wall region (in general, it is negative). This appears to be the case for interior flow with an [adverse pressure gradient](/wiki/Adverse_pressure_gradient "Adverse pressure gradient") (APG). Integrand values do not change sign in standard probability framework so the application of the moment methodology to the second derivative case will result in biased moment measures. A simple fixWeyburne, 2020a is to exclude the problematic values and define a new set of moments for a truncated second derivative profile starting at the second derivative minimum. If the width, {\\sigma\_v}, is calculated using the minimum as the mean location, then the viscous boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the second derivative profile becomes negligible above the wall, can be properly identified with this modified approach. For derivative moments whose integrands do not change sign, the moments can be calculated without the need to take derivatives by using integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness kernel given by {\\alpha\_n}(x)\= \\int\_0^{H/2} {y^n \\left(1\-{u(x,y)\\over u\_e(x)}\\right) \\mathrm{d}y} \\quad . For example, the second derivative \\sigma\_v value is \\sigma\_v \= \\sqrt{{\-\\mu\_1}^2\+2\\mu\_1 \\alpha\_0} and the first derivative skewness, \\gamma\_1, can be calculated as \\gamma\_{1}(x) \= \\kappa\_3/\\kappa\_{2}^{3/2} \= (2\\delta\_1^{3} \- 6\\delta\_1 \\alpha\_1 \+ 3\\alpha\_2\)/(2\\alpha\_1 \- \\delta\_1^{2})^{3/2} \\quad . This parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition.Weyburne, 2014, p. 25 Numerical errors encountered in calculating the moments, especially the higher\-order moments, are a serious concern. Small experimental or numerical errors can cause the nominally free stream portion of the integrands to blow up. There are certain numerical calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 that can be followed to mitigate these errors.
[ "### Moment method", "A relatively new methodWeyburne, 2006Weyburne, 2014 for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer uses the [mathematical moment methodology](/wiki/Moment_%28mathematics%29 \"Moment (mathematics)\") which is commonly used to characterize [statistical probability functions](/wiki/Probability_distribution \"Probability distribution\"). The boundary layer moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the [Blasius boundary layer](/wiki/Blasius_boundary_layer \"Blasius boundary layer\") for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. The implication of the second derivative Gaussian\\-like shape is that the velocity profile shape for laminar flow is closely approximated as a twice integrated Gaussian function.Weyburne, 2006, p. 1678", "The moment method is based on simple integrals of the velocity profile that use the entire profile, not just a few tail region data points as does \\\\delta\\_{99}. The moment method introduces four new parameters that help describe the thickness and shape of the boundary layer. These four parameters are the mean location, the boundary layer [width](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\"), the velocity profile [skewness](/wiki/Skewness \"Skewness\"), and the velocity profile [excess](/wiki/Kurtosis \"Kurtosis\"). The skewness and excess are true shape parameters as opposed to the simple ratio parameters like the *H*12. Applying the moment method to the first and second derivatives of the velocity profile generates additional parameters that, for example, determine the location, shape, and thickness of the viscous forces in a turbulent boundary layer. A unique property of the moment method parameters is that it is possible to prove that many of these velocity thickness parameters are also similarity scaling parameters. That is, if [similarity](/wiki/Similitude_%28model%29 \"Similitude (model)\") is present in a set of velocity profiles, then these thickness parameters must also be similarity length scaling parameters.Weyburne, 2017", "It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable integral kernels.", "The central moments based on the scaled velocity profiles are defined as\n {\\\\zeta\\_n(x)}\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {(y\\-m(x))^n {1\\\\over\\\\delta\\_1(x)} \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where \\\\delta\\_1(x) is the displacement thickness and the mean location, m(x) is given by \n m(x) \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { y {1\\\\over\\\\delta\\_1(x)} \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad .", "There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central moments given by\n {\\\\kappa\\_n(x)} \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { (y\\-{\\\\delta\\_1(x)})^n {d \\\\{u(x,y)/u\\_e(x) \\\\} \\\\over dy} \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where the first derivative mean location is the displacement thickness \\\\delta\\_1(x).", "Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by\n {\\\\lambda\\_n(x)} \\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} { (y\\-{\\\\mu\\_1(x)})^n {d^2 \\\\{\\-\\\\mu\\_1(x) u(x,y)/u\\_e(x) \\\\} \\\\over dy^2} \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad ,", "where the second derivative mean location, \\\\mu\\_1(x), is given by\n {\\\\mu\\_1(x)} \\= {u\\_{e}(x) \\\\over \\\\left.{\\\\frac{{du(x,y)}}{{dy}}} \\\\right\\|\\_{y \\= 0}} \\= {\\\\upsilon u\\_e(x) \\\\over \\\\tau\\_w(x)} \\\\quad ,", "where \\\\upsilon is the viscosity and where \\\\tau\\_w(x) is the wall [shear stress](/wiki/Shear_stress \"Shear stress\"). The mean location, \\\\mu\\_1, for this case is formally defined as *u*e(*x*) divided by the area under the second derivative curve.", "The above equations work for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as long as the time\\-averaged velocity is used for the turbulent case.", "With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be described in terms of the boundary layer widths ([variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\")), [skewnesses](/wiki/Skewness \"Skewness\"), and excesses ([excess kurtosis](/wiki/Kurtosis \"Kurtosis\")). Experimentally, it is found that the thickness defined as \\\\delta\\_m \\= m \\+ 3\\\\sigma\\_m where \\\\sigma\\_m\\=\\\\zeta\\_2^{1/2}, tracks the \\\\delta\\_{99} very well for turbulent boundary layer flows.Weyburne, 2014, p. 26", "Taking a cue from the [boundary layer momentum balance equations](/wiki/Fluid_dynamics \"Fluid dynamics\"), the second derivative boundary layer moments, {\\\\lambda\\_n} track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the laminar boundary layer and the inner viscous region of turbulent boundary layers using {\\\\lambda\\_n} moments whereas the boundary layer thickness and shape of the total turbulent boundary layer is tracked using {\\\\zeta\\_n} and {\\\\kappa\\_n} moments.", "Calculation of the 2nd derivative moments can be problematic since under certain conditions the second derivatives can become positive in the very near\\-wall region (in general, it is negative). This appears to be the case for interior flow with an [adverse pressure gradient](/wiki/Adverse_pressure_gradient \"Adverse pressure gradient\") (APG). Integrand values do not change sign in standard probability framework so the application of the moment methodology to the second derivative case will result in biased moment measures. A simple fixWeyburne, 2020a is to exclude the problematic values and define a new set of moments for a truncated second derivative profile starting at the second derivative minimum. If the width, {\\\\sigma\\_v}, is calculated using the minimum as the mean location, then the viscous boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the second derivative profile becomes negligible above the wall, can be properly identified with this modified approach.", "For derivative moments whose integrands do not change sign, the moments can be calculated without the need to take derivatives by using integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness kernel given by\n {\\\\alpha\\_n}(x)\\= \\\\int\\_0^{H/2} {y^n \\\\left(1\\-{u(x,y)\\\\over u\\_e(x)}\\\\right) \\\\mathrm{d}y} \\\\quad .\nFor example, the second derivative \\\\sigma\\_v value is \\\\sigma\\_v \\= \\\\sqrt{{\\-\\\\mu\\_1}^2\\+2\\\\mu\\_1 \\\\alpha\\_0} and the first derivative skewness, \\\\gamma\\_1, can be calculated as\n\\\\gamma\\_{1}(x) \\= \\\\kappa\\_3/\\\\kappa\\_{2}^{3/2} \\= (2\\\\delta\\_1^{3} \\- 6\\\\delta\\_1 \\\\alpha\\_1 \\+ 3\\\\alpha\\_2\\)/(2\\\\alpha\\_1 \\- \\\\delta\\_1^{2})^{3/2} \\\\quad .\nThis parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition.Weyburne, 2014, p. 25", "Numerical errors encountered in calculating the moments, especially the higher\\-order moments, are a serious concern. Small experimental or numerical errors can cause the nominally free stream portion of the integrands to blow up. There are certain numerical calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 that can be followed to mitigate these errors.", "" ]
The unbounded boundary layer description ---------------------------------------- Unbounded boundary layers, as the name implies, are typically exterior boundary layer flows along walls (and some very large gap interior flows in channels and pipes). Although not widely appreciated, the defining characteristic of this type of flow is that the velocity profile goes through a peak near the viscous boundary layer edge and then slowly asymptotes to the free stream velocity *u*0. An example of this type of boundary layer flow is near\-wall air flow over a wing in flight. The unbounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady laminar flow along a flat plate in Figure 2\. The lower dashed curve represents the location of the maximum velocity *u*max(*x*) and the upper dashed curve represents the location where *u*(*x*,*y*) essentially becomes *u*0, *i.e*. the boundary layer thickness location. For the very thin flat plate case, the peak is small resulting in the flat plate exterior boundary layer closely resembling the interior flow flat channel case. This has led much of the fluid flow literature to incorrectly treat the bounded and unbounded cases as equivalent. The problem with this equivalence thinking is that the maximum peak value can easily exceed 10\-15% of *u*0 for flow along a wing in flight.Weyburne, 2020a The differences between the bounded and unbounded boundary layer was explored in a series of Air Force Reports.Weyburne, 2020aWeyburne, 2020bWeyburne, 2020c The unbounded boundary layer peak means that some of the velocity profile thickness and shape parameters that are used for interior bounded boundary layer flows need to be revised for this case. Among other differences, the laminar unbounded boundary layer case includes viscous and inertial dominated regions similar to turbulent boundary layer flows. [thumb\|center\|500px\|Figure 2: The depiction of the laminar “unbounded” boundary layer along a 2\-D flat plate with the flow and plate extending perpendicular to the *x\-y*\-plane.](/wiki/File:Unbounded_Boundary_Layer_Thickness.jpg "Unbounded Boundary Layer Thickness.jpg") ### Moment method For exterior unbounded boundary layer flows, it is necessary to modify the moment equations to achieve the desired goal of estimating the various boundary layer thickness locations. The peaking behavior of the velocity profile means the area normalization of the \\zeta\_n(x) moments becomes problematic. To avoid this problem, it has been suggestedWeyburne, 2020a that the unbounded boundary layer be divided into viscous and inertial regions and that the boundary layer thickness can then be calculated using separate moment integrals specific to that region. That is, the inner viscous region of laminar and turbulent unbounded boundary layer regions can be tracked using modified {\\lambda\_n} moments whereas the inertial boundary layer thickness can be tracked using modified {\\zeta\_n} and {\\kappa\_n} moments. The slow rate at which the peak asymptotes to the free stream velocity means that the calculated boundary layer thickness values are typically much larger than the bounded boundary layer case. The modified {\\zeta\_n} and {\\kappa\_n} moments for the inertial boundary layer region are created by: 1\) replacing the lower integral limit by the location of the velocity peak designated by {\\delta\_{max}}, 2\) changing the upper integral limit to *h* where *h* is located deep in the free stream, and 3\) changing the velocity scale from u\_e to u\_0. The displacement thickness in the modified moments must be calculated using the same integral limits as the modified moment integrals. By taking \\delta\_{max} as the mean location, the modified 3\-sigma boundary layer thickness becomes \\delta\_m \= \\delta\_{max} \+ 3\\sigma\_i where \\sigma\_i is the modified {\\zeta\_2^{1/2}} width. The modified {\\lambda\_n} second derivative moments can be calculated using the same integrals as defined above but with \\delta\_{max} replacing *H*/2 for the upper integral limit. To avoid numerical errors, certain calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 should be followed. The same concerns for the second derivative moments in regards to APG bounded boundary layers for the bounded case above also apply to the modified moments for the unbounded case. An example of the modified moments are shown for unbounded boundary layer flow along a wing section in Figure 3\.Weyburne, 2020a This figure was generated from a 2\-D [simulation](/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics "Computational fluid dynamics")R. Swanson and S. Langer, 2016 for laminar airflow over a NACA\_0012 wing section. Included in this figure are the modified 3\-sigma \\delta \_{m}, the modified 3\-sigma \\delta \_{v}, and the \\delta \_{99} locations. The modified \\delta \_{m}/\\delta \_{99} ratio value is 311, the modified \\delta \_{v}/\\delta \_{99} ratio value is \~2, and the u\_{max} value is 9% higher than the u\_{0} value. The large difference between the \\delta \_{m} and \\delta \_{v} compared to the \\delta \_{99} value demonstrates the inadequacy of the \\delta \_{99} boundary layer thickness. Furthermore, the large velocity peak demonstrates the problem with treating interior bounded boundary layers as equivalent to exterior unbounded boundary layers. [thumb\|center\|500px\|Figure 3: The velocity profile from a NACA0012 airfoil simulation at x/c \= 0\.3\.R. Swanson and S. Langer, 2016](/wiki/File:A_Boundary_Layer_Profile_for_Air_Flow_over_a_NACA0012_Wing.jpg "A Boundary Layer Profile for Air Flow over a NACA0012 Wing.jpg") ### *δ*max thickness The location of the velocity peak, denoted as \\delta\_{max} is an obvious demarcation location for the unbounded boundary layer. The main appeal of this choice is that this location is approximately the dividing location between the viscous and inertial regions. For the laminar flow simulation along a wing,Weyburne, 2020a *u*max located at *δ*max is found to approximate the viscous boundary layer thickness given as \\delta\_{max} \\approx \\delta\_v^{4\.3} \= \\mu\_1 \+ 4\.3\\sigma\_v indicating the velocity peaks just above the viscous boundary layer thickness *δ*v. For the inertial regions of both laminar and turbulent flows, \\delta\_{max} is a convenient lower boundary for the moment integrals. If the width, {\\sigma\_i}, is calculated using \\delta\_{max} as the mean location then the boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the velocity essentially becomes *u*0 above the wall, can then be properly identified. ### The 99% boundary layer thickness A significant implication of the peaking behavior is that the 99% thickness, \\delta \_{99}, is NOT recommendedWeyburne, 2020a as a thickness parameter for the exterior flow, unbounded boundary layer since it no longer corresponds to a boundary layer location of consequence. It is only useful for unbounded laminar flow along a very thin flat plate at zero incidence angle to the flow direction since the peak for this case will be very small and the velocity profile will be closely approximated as the bounded boundary layer case. For thick plates\-walls, non\-zero incidence angles, or flow around most solid surfaces, the excess flow due to [form drag](/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29 "Drag (physics)") results in a near\-wall peak in the velocity profile making \\delta \_{99} not useful. ### Displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor The displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor can, in principle, all be calculated using the same approach described above for the bounded boundary layer case. However, the peaked nature of the unbounded boundary layer means the inertial section of the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will tend to cancel the near wall portion. Hence, the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will behave differently for the bounded and unbounded cases. One option to make the unbounded displacement thickness and momentum thickness approximately behave as the bounded case is to use *u*max as the scaling parameter and *δ*max as the upper integral limit.
[ "The unbounded boundary layer description\n----------------------------------------", "Unbounded boundary layers, as the name implies, are typically exterior boundary layer flows along walls (and some very large gap interior flows in channels and pipes). Although not widely appreciated, the defining characteristic of this type of flow is that the velocity profile goes through a peak near the viscous boundary layer edge and then slowly asymptotes to the free stream velocity *u*0. An example of this type of boundary layer flow is near\\-wall air flow over a wing in flight. The unbounded boundary layer concept is depicted for steady laminar flow along a flat plate in Figure 2\\. The lower dashed curve represents the location of the maximum velocity *u*max(*x*) and the upper dashed curve represents the location where *u*(*x*,*y*) essentially becomes *u*0, *i.e*. the boundary layer thickness location.\nFor the very thin flat plate case, the peak is small resulting in the flat plate exterior boundary layer closely resembling the interior flow flat channel case. This has led much of the fluid flow literature to incorrectly treat the bounded and unbounded cases as equivalent. The problem with this equivalence thinking is that the maximum peak value can easily exceed 10\\-15% of *u*0 for flow along a wing in flight.Weyburne, 2020a The differences between the bounded and unbounded boundary layer was explored in a series of Air Force Reports.Weyburne, 2020aWeyburne, 2020bWeyburne, 2020c", "The unbounded boundary layer peak means that some of the velocity profile thickness and shape parameters that are used for interior bounded boundary layer flows need to be revised for this case. Among other differences, the laminar unbounded boundary layer case includes viscous and inertial dominated regions similar to turbulent boundary layer flows.", "[thumb\\|center\\|500px\\|Figure 2: The depiction of the laminar “unbounded” boundary layer along a 2\\-D flat plate with the flow and plate extending perpendicular to the *x\\-y*\\-plane.](/wiki/File:Unbounded_Boundary_Layer_Thickness.jpg \"Unbounded Boundary Layer Thickness.jpg\")", "### Moment method", "For exterior unbounded boundary layer flows, it is necessary to modify the moment equations to achieve the desired goal of estimating the various boundary layer thickness locations. The peaking behavior of the velocity profile means the area normalization of the \\\\zeta\\_n(x) moments becomes problematic. To avoid this problem, it has been suggestedWeyburne, 2020a that the unbounded boundary layer be divided into viscous and inertial regions and that the boundary layer thickness can then be calculated using separate moment integrals specific to that region. That is, the inner viscous region of laminar and turbulent unbounded boundary layer regions can be tracked using modified {\\\\lambda\\_n} moments whereas the inertial boundary layer thickness can be tracked using modified {\\\\zeta\\_n} and {\\\\kappa\\_n} moments. The slow rate at which the peak asymptotes to the free stream velocity means that the calculated boundary layer thickness values are typically much larger than the bounded boundary layer case.", "The modified {\\\\zeta\\_n} and {\\\\kappa\\_n} moments for the inertial boundary layer region are created by: 1\\) replacing the lower integral limit by the location of the velocity peak designated by {\\\\delta\\_{max}}, 2\\) changing the upper integral limit to *h* where *h* is located deep in the free stream, and 3\\) changing the velocity scale from u\\_e to u\\_0. The displacement thickness in the modified moments must be calculated using the same integral limits as the modified moment integrals. By taking \\\\delta\\_{max} as the mean location, the modified 3\\-sigma boundary layer thickness becomes \\\\delta\\_m \\= \\\\delta\\_{max} \\+ 3\\\\sigma\\_i where \\\\sigma\\_i is the modified {\\\\zeta\\_2^{1/2}} width.", "The modified {\\\\lambda\\_n} second derivative moments can be calculated using the same integrals as defined above but with \\\\delta\\_{max} replacing *H*/2 for the upper integral limit. To avoid numerical errors, certain calculation recommendationsWeyburne, 2014 should be followed. The same concerns for the second derivative moments in regards to APG bounded boundary layers for the bounded case above also apply to the modified moments for the unbounded case.", "An example of the modified moments are shown for unbounded boundary layer flow along a wing section in Figure 3\\.Weyburne, 2020a This figure was generated from a 2\\-D [simulation](/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics \"Computational fluid dynamics\")R. Swanson and S. Langer, 2016 for laminar airflow over a NACA\\_0012 wing section. Included in this figure are the modified 3\\-sigma \\\\delta \\_{m}, the modified 3\\-sigma \\\\delta \\_{v}, and the \\\\delta \\_{99} locations. The modified \\\\delta \\_{m}/\\\\delta \\_{99} ratio value is 311, the modified \\\\delta \\_{v}/\\\\delta \\_{99} ratio value is \\~2, and the u\\_{max} value is 9% higher than the u\\_{0} value. The large difference between the \\\\delta \\_{m} and \\\\delta \\_{v} compared to the \\\\delta \\_{99} value demonstrates the inadequacy of the \\\\delta \\_{99} boundary layer thickness. Furthermore, the large velocity peak demonstrates the problem with treating interior bounded boundary layers as equivalent to exterior unbounded boundary layers.", "[thumb\\|center\\|500px\\|Figure 3: The velocity profile from a NACA0012 airfoil simulation at x/c \\= 0\\.3\\.R. Swanson and S. Langer, 2016](/wiki/File:A_Boundary_Layer_Profile_for_Air_Flow_over_a_NACA0012_Wing.jpg \"A Boundary Layer Profile for Air Flow over a NACA0012 Wing.jpg\")", "### *δ*max thickness", "The location of the velocity peak, denoted as \\\\delta\\_{max} is an obvious demarcation location for the unbounded boundary layer. The main appeal of this choice is that this location is approximately the dividing location between the viscous and inertial regions. For the laminar flow simulation along a wing,Weyburne, 2020a *u*max located at *δ*max is found to approximate the viscous boundary layer thickness given as \\\\delta\\_{max} \\\\approx \\\\delta\\_v^{4\\.3} \\= \\\\mu\\_1 \\+ 4\\.3\\\\sigma\\_v indicating the velocity peaks just above the viscous boundary layer thickness *δ*v. For the inertial regions of both laminar and turbulent flows, \\\\delta\\_{max} is a convenient lower boundary for the moment integrals. If the width, {\\\\sigma\\_i}, is calculated using \\\\delta\\_{max} as the mean location then the boundary layer thickness, defined as the point where the velocity essentially becomes *u*0 above the wall, can then be properly identified.", "### The 99% boundary layer thickness", "A significant implication of the peaking behavior is that the 99% thickness, \\\\delta \\_{99}, is NOT recommendedWeyburne, 2020a as a thickness parameter for the exterior flow, unbounded boundary layer since it no longer corresponds to a boundary layer location of consequence. It is only useful for unbounded laminar flow along a very thin flat plate at zero incidence angle to the flow direction since the peak for this case will be very small and the velocity profile will be closely approximated as the bounded boundary layer case. For thick plates\\-walls, non\\-zero incidence angles, or flow around most solid surfaces, the excess flow due to [form drag](/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29 \"Drag (physics)\") results in a near\\-wall peak in the velocity profile making \\\\delta \\_{99} not useful.", "### Displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor", "The displacement thickness, momentum thickness, and shape factor can, in principle, all be calculated using the same approach described above for the bounded boundary layer case. However, the peaked nature of the unbounded boundary layer means the inertial section of the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will tend to cancel the near wall portion. Hence, the displacement thickness and momentum thickness will behave differently for the bounded and unbounded cases. One option to make the unbounded displacement thickness and momentum thickness approximately behave as the bounded case is to use *u*max as the scaling parameter and *δ*max as the upper integral limit.", "" ]
Definition ---------- In mathematics texts it is customary to denote permutations using lowercase Greek letters. Commonly, either \\alpha,\\beta,\\gamma or \\sigma, \\tau,\\rho,\\pi are used.{{cite book \|last1\=Scheinerman \|first1\=Edward A. \|date\=March 5, 2012 \|chapter\=Chapter 5: Functions \|title\=Mathematics: A Discrete Introduction \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DZBHGD2sEYwC\&pg\=PA188 \|url\-status\=live \|edition\=3rd \|publisher\=Cengage Learning \|page\=188 \|isbn\=978\-0840049421 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205212843/https://books.google.com/books?id\=DZBHGD2sEYwC\&pg\=PA188 \|archive\-date\=February 5, 2020 \|access\-date\=February 5, 2020 \|quote\=It is customary to use lowercase Greek letters (especially π, σ, and τ) to stand for permutations.}} A permutation can be defined as a [bijection](/wiki/Bijection "Bijection") (an invertible mapping, a one\-to\-one and onto function) from a set {{math\|''S''}} to itself: > \\sigma : S\\ \\stackrel{\\sim}{\\longrightarrow}\\ S. The [identity permutation](/wiki/Identity_permutation "Identity permutation") is defined by \\sigma(x) \= x for all elements x\\in S , and can be denoted by the number 1,{{efn\|1 is frequently used to represent the \[\[identity element]] in a non\-commutative group}} by \\text{id}\= \\text{id}\_S , or by a single 1\-cycle (x).{{harvnb\|Rotman\|2002\|p\=41}}{{harvnb\|Bogart\|1990\|p\=487}} The set of all permutations of a set with *n* elements forms the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group "Symmetric group") S\_n, where the [group operation](/wiki/Group_operation "Group operation") is [composition of functions](/wiki/Composition_of_functions "Composition of functions"). Thus for two permutations \\sigma and \\tau in the group S\_n, their product \\pi \= \\sigma\\tau is defined by: > \\pi(i)\=\\sigma(\\tau(i)). Composition is usually written without a dot or other sign. In general, composition of two permutations is not [commutative](/wiki/Commutative "Commutative"): \\tau\\sigma \\neq \\sigma\\tau. As a bijection from a set to itself, a permutation is a function that *performs* a rearrangement of a set, termed an *active permutation* or *substitution*. An older viewpoint sees a permutation as an ordered arrangement or list of all the elements of *S*, called a *passive permutation*.{{sfn\|Cameron\|1994\|loc\=p. 29, footnote 3}} According to this definition, all permutations in {{Section link\|\|One\-line notation}} are passive. This meaning is subtly distinct from how passive (i.e. *alias*) is used in [Active and passive transformation](/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation "Active and passive transformation") and elsewhere,{{cite book \|last1\=Conway \|first1\=John H. \|last2\=Burgiel \|first2\=Heidi \|last3\=Goodman\-Strauss \|first3\=Chaim \|date\=2008 \|title\=The Symmetries of Things \|publisher\=A K Peters \|page\=179 \|quote\=A permutation\-\-\-say, of the names of a number of people\-\-\-can be thought of as moving either the names or the people. The alias viewpoint regards the permutation as assigning a new name or ''alias'' to each person (from the Latin ''alias'' \= otherwise). Alternatively, from the alibi viewoint we move the people to the places corresponding to their new names (from the Latin ''alibi'' \= in another place.) }}{{Cite web \|title\=Permutation notation \- Wikiversity \|url\=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Permutation\_notation \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=en.wikiversity.org \|language\=en}} which would consider all permutations open to passive interpretation (regardless of whether they are in one\-line notation, two\-line notation, etc.). A permutation \\sigma can be decomposed into one or more disjoint *cycles* which are the [orbits](/wiki/Orbit_%28group_theory%29 "Orbit (group theory)") of the cyclic group \\langle\\sigma\\rangle \= \\{1, \\sigma, \\sigma^2,\\ldots\\} [acting](/wiki/Group_action "Group action") on the set *S*. A cycle is found by repeatedly applying the permutation to an element: x, \\sigma(x),\\sigma(\\sigma(x)),\\ldots, \\sigma^{k\-1}(x), where we assume \\sigma^k(x)\=x . A cycle consisting of *k* elements is called a *k*\-cycle. (See {{Section link\|\|Cycle notation}} below.) A [fixed point](/wiki/Fixed_point_%28mathematics%29 "Fixed point (mathematics)") of a permutation \\sigma is an element *x* which is taken to itself, that is \\sigma(x)\=x , forming a 1\-cycle (\\,x\\,). A permutation with no fixed points is called a [derangement](/wiki/Derangement "Derangement"). A permutation exchanging two elements (a single 2\-cycle) and leaving the others fixed is called a [transposition](/wiki/Transposition_%28mathematics%29 "Transposition (mathematics)").
[ "Definition\n----------", "In mathematics texts it is customary to denote permutations using lowercase Greek letters. Commonly, either \\\\alpha,\\\\beta,\\\\gamma or \\\\sigma, \\\\tau,\\\\rho,\\\\pi are used.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Scheinerman \\|first1\\=Edward A. \\|date\\=March 5, 2012 \\|chapter\\=Chapter 5: Functions \\|title\\=Mathematics: A Discrete Introduction \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DZBHGD2sEYwC\\&pg\\=PA188 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|edition\\=3rd \\|publisher\\=Cengage Learning \\|page\\=188 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0840049421 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205212843/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DZBHGD2sEYwC\\&pg\\=PA188 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2020 \\|quote\\=It is customary to use lowercase Greek letters (especially π, σ, and τ) to stand for permutations.}}", "A permutation can be defined as a [bijection](/wiki/Bijection \"Bijection\") (an invertible mapping, a one\\-to\\-one and onto function) from a set {{math\\|''S''}} to itself: \n> \\\\sigma : S\\\\ \\\\stackrel{\\\\sim}{\\\\longrightarrow}\\\\ S.", "The [identity permutation](/wiki/Identity_permutation \"Identity permutation\") is defined by \\\\sigma(x) \\= x for all elements x\\\\in S , and can be denoted by the number 1,{{efn\\|1 is frequently used to represent the \\[\\[identity element]] in a non\\-commutative group}} by \\\\text{id}\\= \\\\text{id}\\_S , or by a single 1\\-cycle (x).{{harvnb\\|Rotman\\|2002\\|p\\=41}}{{harvnb\\|Bogart\\|1990\\|p\\=487}}", "The set of all permutations of a set with *n* elements forms the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group \"Symmetric group\") S\\_n, where the [group operation](/wiki/Group_operation \"Group operation\") is [composition of functions](/wiki/Composition_of_functions \"Composition of functions\"). Thus for two permutations \\\\sigma and \\\\tau in the group S\\_n, their product \\\\pi \\= \\\\sigma\\\\tau is defined by: \n> \\\\pi(i)\\=\\\\sigma(\\\\tau(i)).", "Composition is usually written without a dot or other sign. In general, composition of two permutations is not [commutative](/wiki/Commutative \"Commutative\"): \\\\tau\\\\sigma \\\\neq \\\\sigma\\\\tau.", "As a bijection from a set to itself, a permutation is a function that *performs* a rearrangement of a set, termed an *active permutation* or *substitution*. An older viewpoint sees a permutation as an ordered arrangement or list of all the elements of *S*, called a *passive permutation*.{{sfn\\|Cameron\\|1994\\|loc\\=p. 29, footnote 3}} According to this definition, all permutations in {{Section link\\|\\|One\\-line notation}} are passive. This meaning is subtly distinct from how passive (i.e. *alias*) is used in [Active and passive transformation](/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation \"Active and passive transformation\") and elsewhere,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Conway \\|first1\\=John H. \\|last2\\=Burgiel \\|first2\\=Heidi \\|last3\\=Goodman\\-Strauss \\|first3\\=Chaim \\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=The Symmetries of Things \\|publisher\\=A K Peters \\|page\\=179 \\|quote\\=A permutation\\-\\-\\-say, of the names of a number of people\\-\\-\\-can be thought of as moving either the names or the people. The alias viewpoint regards the permutation as assigning a new name or ''alias'' to each person (from the Latin ''alias'' \\= otherwise). Alternatively, from the alibi viewoint we move the people to the places corresponding to their new names (from the Latin ''alibi'' \\= in another place.) }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Permutation notation \\- Wikiversity \\|url\\=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Permutation\\_notation \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=en.wikiversity.org \\|language\\=en}} which would consider all permutations open to passive interpretation (regardless of whether they are in one\\-line notation, two\\-line notation, etc.).", "A permutation \\\\sigma can be decomposed into one or more disjoint *cycles* which are the [orbits](/wiki/Orbit_%28group_theory%29 \"Orbit (group theory)\") of the cyclic group \\\\langle\\\\sigma\\\\rangle \\= \\\\{1, \\\\sigma, \\\\sigma^2,\\\\ldots\\\\} [acting](/wiki/Group_action \"Group action\") on the set *S*. A cycle is found by repeatedly applying the permutation to an element: x, \\\\sigma(x),\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x)),\\\\ldots, \\\\sigma^{k\\-1}(x), where we assume \\\\sigma^k(x)\\=x . A cycle consisting of *k* elements is called a *k*\\-cycle. (See {{Section link\\|\\|Cycle notation}} below.)", "A [fixed point](/wiki/Fixed_point_%28mathematics%29 \"Fixed point (mathematics)\") of a permutation \\\\sigma is an element *x* which is taken to itself, that is \\\\sigma(x)\\=x , forming a 1\\-cycle (\\\\,x\\\\,). A permutation with no fixed points is called a [derangement](/wiki/Derangement \"Derangement\"). A permutation exchanging two elements (a single 2\\-cycle) and leaving the others fixed is called a [transposition](/wiki/Transposition_%28mathematics%29 \"Transposition (mathematics)\").", "" ]
Notations --------- {{anchor\|Two\-line notation}} Several notations are widely used to represent permutations conveniently. *Cycle notation* is a popular choice, as it is compact and shows the permutation's structure clearly. This article will use cycle notation unless otherwise specified. ### Two\-line notation [Cauchy](/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy "Augustin-Louis Cauchy")'s *two\-line notation*{{cite journal \|last1\=Cauchy \|first1\=A. L. \|title\=Mémoire Sur le Nombre des Valeurs qu'une Fonction peut acquérir, lorsqu'on y permute de toutes les manières possibles les quantités qu'elle renferme \|journal\=Journal de l'École polytechnique \|date\=January 1815 \|volume\=10 \|pages\=1–28 \|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=mdp.39015074785612\&seq\=9 \|trans\-title\=Memoir on the number of values which a function can acquire when one permutes within it, in all possible ways, the variables which it contains \|language\=French}} See p. 4\. [English translation](https://nonagon.org/ExLibris/cauchys-memoire-sur-le-nombre-des-valeurs)* {{citation\|title\=The Genesis of the Abstract Group Concept: A Contribution to the History of the Origin of Abstract Group Theory\|first\=Hans\|last\=Wussing\|publisher\=Courier Dover Publications\|year\=2007\|isbn\=9780486458687\|page\=94\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Xp3JymnfAq4C\&pg\=PA94\|quote\=Cauchy used his permutation notation—in which the arrangements are written one below the other and both are enclosed in parentheses—for the first time in 1815\.}} lists the elements of *S* in the first row, and the image of each element below it in the second row. For example, the permutation of *S* \= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} given by the function > \\sigma(1\) \= 2, \\ \\ \\sigma(2\) \= 6, \\ \\ \\sigma(3\) \= 5, \\ \\ \\sigma(4\) \= 4, \\ \\ \\sigma(5\) \= 3, \\ \\ \\sigma(6\) \= 1 can be written as \\sigma \= \\begin{pmatrix} ``` 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\ 2 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1 ``` \\end{pmatrix}. The elements of *S* may appear in any order in the first row, so this permutation could also be written: \\sigma \= \\begin{pmatrix} ``` 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 1 \\ 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 2 ``` \\end{pmatrix} \= \\begin{pmatrix} ``` 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 2 ``` \\end{pmatrix}. ### One\-line notation If there is a "natural" order for the elements of *S*,{{efn\|The order is often implicitly understood. A set of integers is naturally written from smallest to largest; a set of letters is written in lexicographic order. For other sets, a natural order needs to be specified explicitly.}} say x\_1, x\_2, \\ldots, x\_n, then one uses this for the first row of the two\-line notation: \\sigma \= \\begin{pmatrix} ``` x_1 & x_2 & x_3 & \cdots & x_n \\ \sigma(x_1) & \sigma(x_2) & \sigma(x_3) & \cdots & \sigma(x_n) ``` \\end{pmatrix}. Under this assumption, one may omit the first row and write the permutation in *one\-line notation* as \\sigma \= \\sigma(x\_1\) \\; \\sigma(x\_2\) \\; \\sigma(x\_3\) \\; \\cdots \\; \\sigma(x\_n) , that is, as an ordered arrangement of the elements of *S*.{{harvnb\|Bogart\|1990\|p\=17}}{{harvnb\|Gerstein\|1987\|p\=217}} Care must be taken to distinguish one\-line notation from the cycle notation described below: a common usage is to omit parentheses or other enclosing marks for one\-line notation, while using parentheses for cycle notation. The one\-line notation is also called the *[word](/wiki/Word_%28mathematics%29 "Word (mathematics)") representation*. The example above would then be: > \\sigma \= \\begin{pmatrix} > > ``` > 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\ > 2 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1 > > ``` > \\end{pmatrix} > \= 2 6 5 4 3 1\. (It is typical to use commas to separate these entries only if some have two or more digits.) This compact form is common in elementary [combinatorics](/wiki/Combinatorics "Combinatorics") and [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science "Computer science"). It is especially useful in applications where the permutations are to be compared as [larger or smaller](/wiki/Partially_ordered_set "Partially ordered set") using [lexicographic order](/wiki/Lexicographic_order "Lexicographic order"). ### Cycle notation Cycle notation describes the effect of repeatedly applying the permutation on the elements of the set *S*, with an orbit being called a *cycle*. The permutation is written as a list of cycles; since distinct cycles involve [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets "Disjoint sets") sets of elements, this is referred to as "decomposition into disjoint cycles". To write down the permutation \\sigma in cycle notation, one proceeds as follows: 1. Write an opening bracket followed by an arbitrary element *x* of S: (\\,x 2. Trace the orbit of *x*, writing down the values under successive applications of \\sigma: (\\,x,\\sigma(x),\\sigma(\\sigma(x)),\\ldots 3. Repeat until the value returns to *x,* and close the parenthesis without repeating *x*: (\\,x\\,\\sigma(x)\\,\\sigma(\\sigma(x))\\,\\ldots\\,) 4. Continue with an element *y* of *S* which was not yet written, and repeat the above process: (\\,x\\,\\sigma(x)\\,\\sigma(\\sigma(x))\\,\\ldots\\,)(\\,y\\,\\ldots\\,) 5. Repeat until all elements of *S* are written in cycles. Also, it is common to omit 1\-cycles, since these can be inferred: for any element *x* in *S* not appearing in any cycle, one implicitly assumes \\sigma(x) \= x.{{harvnb\|Hall\|1959\|p\=54}} Following the convention of omitting 1\-cycles, one may interpret an individual cycle as a permutation which fixes all the elements not in the cycle (a [cyclic permutation](/wiki/Cyclic_permutation "Cyclic permutation") having only one cycle of length greater than 1\). Then the list of disjoint cycles can be seen as the composition of these cyclic permutations. For example, the one\-line permutation \\sigma \= 2 6 5 4 3 1 can be written in cycle notation as: > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\)(4\) \= (126\)(35\). This may be seen as the composition \\sigma \= \\kappa\_1 \\kappa\_2 of cyclic permutations: > \\kappa\_1 \= (126\) \= (126\)(3\)(4\)(5\),\\quad \\kappa\_2 \= (35\)\= (35\)(1\)(2\)(6\). While permutations in general do not commute, disjoint cycles do; for example: > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\) \= (35\)(126\). Also, each cycle can be rewritten from a different starting point; for example, > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\) \= (261\)(53\). Thus one may write the disjoint cycles of a given permutation in many different ways. A convenient feature of cycle notation is that inverting the permutation is given by reversing the order of the elements in each cycle. For example, > \\sigma^{\-1} \= \\left(\\vphantom{A^2}(126\)(35\)\\right)^{\-1} \= (621\)(53\). ### Canonical cycle notation In some combinatorial contexts it is useful to fix a certain order for the elements in the cycles and of the (disjoint) cycles themselves. [Miklós Bóna](/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_B%C3%B3na "Miklós Bóna") calls the following ordering choices the *canonical cycle notation:* * in each cycle the *largest* element is listed first * the cycles are sorted in *increasing* order of their first element, not omitting 1\-cycles For example, > (513\)(6\)(827\)(94\) is a permutation of *S \=* {1, 2, . . . , 9} in canonical cycle notation.{{harvnb\|Bona\|2012\|loc\=p.87}} \[The book has a typo/error here, as it gives (45\) instead of (54\).] [Richard Stanley](/wiki/Richard_P._Stanley "Richard P. Stanley") calls this the "standard representation" of a permutation,{{cite book \|last\=Stanley \|first\=Richard P. \|title\=Enumerative Combinatorics: Volume I, Second Edition \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2012 \|isbn\=978\-1\-107\-01542\-5 \|page\=30, Prop 1\.3\.1}} and Martin Aigner uses "standard form".{{cite book\|first\=Martin\|last\= Aigner\|title\=A Course in Enumeration\|url\=https://archive.org/details/courseenumeratio00aign\_007\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Springer GTM 238\|isbn\=978\-3\-540\-39035\-0\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/courseenumeratio00aign\_007/page/n32 24]–25}} [Sergey Kitaev](/wiki/Sergey_Kitaev "Sergey Kitaev") also uses the "standard form" terminology, but reverses both choices; that is, each cycle lists its minimal element first, and the cycles are sorted in decreasing order of their minimal elements.{{cite book\|first\=Sergey \|last\=Kitaev\|title\=Patterns in Permutations and Words\|year\=2011\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-17333\-2\|page\=119}} ### Composition of permutations There are two ways to denote the composition of two permutations. In the most common notation, \\sigma\\cdot \\tau is the function that maps any element *x* to \\sigma(\\tau(x)). The rightmost permutation is applied to the argument first, {{cite book \| last1\=Biggs \| first1\=Norman L. \| last2\=White \| first2\=A. T. \|year\=1979 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|title\=Permutation groups and combinatorial structures \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-22287\-7 }} because the argument is written to the right of the function. A *different* rule for multiplying permutations comes from writing the argument to the left of the function, so that the leftmost permutation acts first. {{cite book \|last1\=Dixon \|first1\=John D. \|url\=https://archive.org/details/permutationgroup0000dixo \|title\=Permutation Groups \|last2\=Mortimer \|first2\=Brian \|publisher\=Springer \|year\=1996 \|isbn\=978\-0\-387\-94599\-6 \|url\-access\=registration}} {{cite book \|last1\=Cameron \|first1\=Peter J. \|url\=https://archive.org/details/permutationgroup0000came \|title\=Permutation groups \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-65302\-2 \|url\-access\=registration}} {{cite journal \|last1\=Jerrum \|first1\=M. \|year\=1986 \|title\=A compact representation of permutation groups \|journal\=J. Algorithms \|volume\=7 \|pages\=60–78 \|doi\=10\.1016/0196\-6774(86\)90038\-6 \|s2cid\=18896625 \|number\=1}} In this notation, the permutation is often written as an exponent, so *σ* acting on *x* is written *x**σ*; then the product is defined by x^{\\sigma\\cdot\\tau} \= (x^\\sigma)^\\tau. This article uses the first definition, where the rightmost permutation is applied first. The [function composition](/wiki/Function_composition "Function composition") operation satisfies the axioms of a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 "Group (mathematics)"). It is [associative](/wiki/Associative_property "Associative property"), meaning (\\rho\\sigma)\\tau \= \\rho(\\sigma\\tau), and products of more than two permutations are usually written without parentheses. The composition operation also has an identity element (the identity permutation \\text{id}), and each permutation \\sigma has an inverse \\sigma^{\-1} (its [inverse function](/wiki/Inverse_function "Inverse function")) with \\sigma^{\-1}\\sigma \= \\sigma\\sigma^{\-1}\=\\text{id}.
[ "Notations\n---------", "{{anchor\\|Two\\-line notation}} Several notations are widely used to represent permutations conveniently. *Cycle notation* is a popular choice, as it is compact and shows the permutation's structure clearly. This article will use cycle notation unless otherwise specified.", "### Two\\-line notation", "[Cauchy](/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy \"Augustin-Louis Cauchy\")'s *two\\-line notation*{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Cauchy \\|first1\\=A. L. \\|title\\=Mémoire Sur le Nombre des Valeurs qu'une Fonction peut acquérir, lorsqu'on y permute de toutes les manières possibles les quantités qu'elle renferme \\|journal\\=Journal de l'École polytechnique \\|date\\=January 1815 \\|volume\\=10 \\|pages\\=1–28 \\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=mdp.39015074785612\\&seq\\=9 \\|trans\\-title\\=Memoir on the number of values which a function can acquire when one permutes within it, in all possible ways, the variables which it contains \\|language\\=French}} See p. 4\\.\n [English translation](https://nonagon.org/ExLibris/cauchys-memoire-sur-le-nombre-des-valeurs)* {{citation\\|title\\=The Genesis of the Abstract Group Concept: A Contribution to the History of the Origin of Abstract Group Theory\\|first\\=Hans\\|last\\=Wussing\\|publisher\\=Courier Dover Publications\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=9780486458687\\|page\\=94\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Xp3JymnfAq4C\\&pg\\=PA94\\|quote\\=Cauchy used his permutation notation—in which the arrangements are written one below the other and both are enclosed in parentheses—for the first time in 1815\\.}} lists the elements of *S* in the first row, and the image of each element below it in the second row. For example, the permutation of *S* \\= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} given by the function\n> \\\\sigma(1\\) \\= 2, \\\\ \\\\ \\\\sigma(2\\) \\= 6, \\\\ \\\\ \\\\sigma(3\\) \\= 5, \\\\ \\\\ \\\\sigma(4\\) \\= 4, \\\\ \\\\ \\\\sigma(5\\) \\= 3, \\\\ \\\\ \\\\sigma(6\\) \\= 1", "can be written as", "\\\\sigma \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}", "```\n 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\\\\n 2 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1", "```\n\\\\end{pmatrix}.\nThe elements of *S* may appear in any order in the first row, so this permutation could also be written:\n \\\\sigma \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}", "```\n 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 1 \\\\\n 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 2", "```\n\\\\end{pmatrix}\n\\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}", "```\n 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 \\\\\n 1 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 2", "```\n\\\\end{pmatrix}.", "### One\\-line notation", "If there is a \"natural\" order for the elements of *S*,{{efn\\|The order is often implicitly understood. A set of integers is naturally written from smallest to largest; a set of letters is written in lexicographic order. For other sets, a natural order needs to be specified explicitly.}} say x\\_1, x\\_2, \\\\ldots, x\\_n, then one uses this for the first row of the two\\-line notation:\n \\\\sigma \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}", "```\n x_1 & x_2 & x_3 & \\cdots & x_n \\\\\n \\sigma(x_1) & \\sigma(x_2) & \\sigma(x_3) & \\cdots & \\sigma(x_n)", "```\n\\\\end{pmatrix}.", "Under this assumption, one may omit the first row and write the permutation in *one\\-line notation* as\n \\\\sigma \\= \\\\sigma(x\\_1\\) \\\\; \\\\sigma(x\\_2\\) \\\\; \\\\sigma(x\\_3\\) \\\\; \\\\cdots \\\\; \\\\sigma(x\\_n) ,\nthat is, as an ordered arrangement of the elements of *S*.{{harvnb\\|Bogart\\|1990\\|p\\=17}}{{harvnb\\|Gerstein\\|1987\\|p\\=217}} Care must be taken to distinguish one\\-line notation from the cycle notation described below: a common usage is to omit parentheses or other enclosing marks for one\\-line notation, while using parentheses for cycle notation. The one\\-line notation is also called the *[word](/wiki/Word_%28mathematics%29 \"Word (mathematics)\") representation*.", "The example above would then be:\n> \\\\sigma \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}\n> \n> ```\n> 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\\\\n> 2 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 1\n> \n> ```\n> \\\\end{pmatrix} \n> \\= 2 6 5 4 3 1\\.", "(It is typical to use commas to separate these entries only if some have two or more digits.)", "This compact form is common in elementary [combinatorics](/wiki/Combinatorics \"Combinatorics\") and [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\"). It is especially useful in applications where the permutations are to be compared as [larger or smaller](/wiki/Partially_ordered_set \"Partially ordered set\") using [lexicographic order](/wiki/Lexicographic_order \"Lexicographic order\").", "### Cycle notation", "Cycle notation describes the effect of repeatedly applying the permutation on the elements of the set *S*, with an orbit being called a *cycle*. The permutation is written as a list of cycles; since distinct cycles involve [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets \"Disjoint sets\") sets of elements, this is referred to as \"decomposition into disjoint cycles\".", "To write down the permutation \\\\sigma in cycle notation, one proceeds as follows:", "1. Write an opening bracket followed by an arbitrary element *x* of S: (\\\\,x\n2. Trace the orbit of *x*, writing down the values under successive applications of \\\\sigma: (\\\\,x,\\\\sigma(x),\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x)),\\\\ldots\n3. Repeat until the value returns to *x,* and close the parenthesis without repeating *x*: (\\\\,x\\\\,\\\\sigma(x)\\\\,\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x))\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)\n4. Continue with an element *y* of *S* which was not yet written, and repeat the above process: (\\\\,x\\\\,\\\\sigma(x)\\\\,\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x))\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)(\\\\,y\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)\n5. Repeat until all elements of *S* are written in cycles.", "Also, it is common to omit 1\\-cycles, since these can be inferred: for any element *x* in *S* not appearing in any cycle, one implicitly assumes \\\\sigma(x) \\= x.{{harvnb\\|Hall\\|1959\\|p\\=54}}", "Following the convention of omitting 1\\-cycles, one may interpret an individual cycle as a permutation which fixes all the elements not in the cycle (a [cyclic permutation](/wiki/Cyclic_permutation \"Cyclic permutation\") having only one cycle of length greater than 1\\). Then the list of disjoint cycles can be seen as the composition of these cyclic permutations. For example, the one\\-line permutation \\\\sigma \\= 2 6 5 4 3 1 can be written in cycle notation as:\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\)(4\\) \\= (126\\)(35\\).", "This may be seen as the composition \\\\sigma \\= \\\\kappa\\_1 \\\\kappa\\_2 of cyclic permutations:\n> \\\\kappa\\_1 \\= (126\\) \\= (126\\)(3\\)(4\\)(5\\),\\\\quad \\\\kappa\\_2 \\= (35\\)\\= (35\\)(1\\)(2\\)(6\\).", "While permutations in general do not commute, disjoint cycles do; for example:\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\) \\= (35\\)(126\\).", "Also, each cycle can be rewritten from a different starting point; for example,\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\) \\= (261\\)(53\\).", "Thus one may write the disjoint cycles of a given permutation in many different ways.", "A convenient feature of cycle notation is that inverting the permutation is given by reversing the order of the elements in each cycle. For example, \n> \\\\sigma^{\\-1} \\= \\\\left(\\\\vphantom{A^2}(126\\)(35\\)\\\\right)^{\\-1} \\= (621\\)(53\\).", "", "### Canonical cycle notation", "In some combinatorial contexts it is useful to fix a certain order for the elements in the cycles and of the (disjoint) cycles themselves. [Miklós Bóna](/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_B%C3%B3na \"Miklós Bóna\") calls the following ordering choices the *canonical cycle notation:*\n* in each cycle the *largest* element is listed first\n* the cycles are sorted in *increasing* order of their first element, not omitting 1\\-cycles", "For example, \n> (513\\)(6\\)(827\\)(94\\)", "is a permutation of *S \\=* {1, 2, . . . , 9} in canonical cycle notation.{{harvnb\\|Bona\\|2012\\|loc\\=p.87}} \\[The book has a typo/error here, as it gives (45\\) instead of (54\\).]", "[Richard Stanley](/wiki/Richard_P._Stanley \"Richard P. Stanley\") calls this the \"standard representation\" of a permutation,{{cite book \\|last\\=Stanley \\|first\\=Richard P. \\|title\\=Enumerative Combinatorics: Volume I, Second Edition \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-107\\-01542\\-5 \\|page\\=30, Prop 1\\.3\\.1}} and Martin Aigner uses \"standard form\".{{cite book\\|first\\=Martin\\|last\\= Aigner\\|title\\=A Course in Enumeration\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/courseenumeratio00aign\\_007\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Springer GTM 238\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-540\\-39035\\-0\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/courseenumeratio00aign\\_007/page/n32 24]–25}} [Sergey Kitaev](/wiki/Sergey_Kitaev \"Sergey Kitaev\") also uses the \"standard form\" terminology, but reverses both choices; that is, each cycle lists its minimal element first, and the cycles are sorted in decreasing order of their minimal elements.{{cite book\\|first\\=Sergey \\|last\\=Kitaev\\|title\\=Patterns in Permutations and Words\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-17333\\-2\\|page\\=119}}", "### Composition of permutations", "There are two ways to denote the composition of two permutations. In the most common notation, \\\\sigma\\\\cdot \\\\tau is the function that maps any element *x* to \\\\sigma(\\\\tau(x)). The rightmost permutation is applied to the argument first,\n{{cite book \\| last1\\=Biggs \\| first1\\=Norman L. \\| last2\\=White \\| first2\\=A. T.\n\\|year\\=1979\n\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\n\\|title\\=Permutation groups and combinatorial structures\n\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-22287\\-7\n}}", "because the argument is written to the right of the function.", "A *different* rule for multiplying permutations comes from writing the argument to the left of the function, so that the leftmost permutation acts first.\n{{cite book \\|last1\\=Dixon \\|first1\\=John D. \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/permutationgroup0000dixo \\|title\\=Permutation Groups \\|last2\\=Mortimer \\|first2\\=Brian \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|year\\=1996 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-387\\-94599\\-6 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cameron \\|first1\\=Peter J. \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/permutationgroup0000came \\|title\\=Permutation groups \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-65302\\-2 \\|url\\-access\\=registration}}", "{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Jerrum \\|first1\\=M. \\|year\\=1986 \\|title\\=A compact representation of permutation groups \\|journal\\=J. Algorithms \\|volume\\=7 \\|pages\\=60–78 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0196\\-6774(86\\)90038\\-6 \\|s2cid\\=18896625 \\|number\\=1}}", "In this notation, the permutation is often written as an exponent, so *σ* acting on *x* is written *x**σ*; then the product is defined by x^{\\\\sigma\\\\cdot\\\\tau} \\= (x^\\\\sigma)^\\\\tau. This article uses the first definition, where the rightmost permutation is applied first.", "The [function composition](/wiki/Function_composition \"Function composition\") operation satisfies the axioms of a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 \"Group (mathematics)\"). It is [associative](/wiki/Associative_property \"Associative property\"), meaning (\\\\rho\\\\sigma)\\\\tau \\= \\\\rho(\\\\sigma\\\\tau), and products of more than two permutations are usually written without parentheses. The composition operation also has an identity element (the identity permutation \\\\text{id}), and each permutation \\\\sigma has an inverse \\\\sigma^{\\-1} (its [inverse function](/wiki/Inverse_function \"Inverse function\")) with \\\\sigma^{\\-1}\\\\sigma \\= \\\\sigma\\\\sigma^{\\-1}\\=\\\\text{id}.", "" ]
### Cycle notation Cycle notation describes the effect of repeatedly applying the permutation on the elements of the set *S*, with an orbit being called a *cycle*. The permutation is written as a list of cycles; since distinct cycles involve [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets "Disjoint sets") sets of elements, this is referred to as "decomposition into disjoint cycles". To write down the permutation \\sigma in cycle notation, one proceeds as follows: 1. Write an opening bracket followed by an arbitrary element *x* of S: (\\,x 2. Trace the orbit of *x*, writing down the values under successive applications of \\sigma: (\\,x,\\sigma(x),\\sigma(\\sigma(x)),\\ldots 3. Repeat until the value returns to *x,* and close the parenthesis without repeating *x*: (\\,x\\,\\sigma(x)\\,\\sigma(\\sigma(x))\\,\\ldots\\,) 4. Continue with an element *y* of *S* which was not yet written, and repeat the above process: (\\,x\\,\\sigma(x)\\,\\sigma(\\sigma(x))\\,\\ldots\\,)(\\,y\\,\\ldots\\,) 5. Repeat until all elements of *S* are written in cycles. Also, it is common to omit 1\-cycles, since these can be inferred: for any element *x* in *S* not appearing in any cycle, one implicitly assumes \\sigma(x) \= x.{{harvnb\|Hall\|1959\|p\=54}} Following the convention of omitting 1\-cycles, one may interpret an individual cycle as a permutation which fixes all the elements not in the cycle (a [cyclic permutation](/wiki/Cyclic_permutation "Cyclic permutation") having only one cycle of length greater than 1\). Then the list of disjoint cycles can be seen as the composition of these cyclic permutations. For example, the one\-line permutation \\sigma \= 2 6 5 4 3 1 can be written in cycle notation as: > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\)(4\) \= (126\)(35\). This may be seen as the composition \\sigma \= \\kappa\_1 \\kappa\_2 of cyclic permutations: > \\kappa\_1 \= (126\) \= (126\)(3\)(4\)(5\),\\quad \\kappa\_2 \= (35\)\= (35\)(1\)(2\)(6\). While permutations in general do not commute, disjoint cycles do; for example: > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\) \= (35\)(126\). Also, each cycle can be rewritten from a different starting point; for example, > \\sigma \= (126\)(35\) \= (261\)(53\). Thus one may write the disjoint cycles of a given permutation in many different ways. A convenient feature of cycle notation is that inverting the permutation is given by reversing the order of the elements in each cycle. For example, > \\sigma^{\-1} \= \\left(\\vphantom{A^2}(126\)(35\)\\right)^{\-1} \= (621\)(53\).
[ "### Cycle notation", "Cycle notation describes the effect of repeatedly applying the permutation on the elements of the set *S*, with an orbit being called a *cycle*. The permutation is written as a list of cycles; since distinct cycles involve [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets \"Disjoint sets\") sets of elements, this is referred to as \"decomposition into disjoint cycles\".", "To write down the permutation \\\\sigma in cycle notation, one proceeds as follows:", "1. Write an opening bracket followed by an arbitrary element *x* of S: (\\\\,x\n2. Trace the orbit of *x*, writing down the values under successive applications of \\\\sigma: (\\\\,x,\\\\sigma(x),\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x)),\\\\ldots\n3. Repeat until the value returns to *x,* and close the parenthesis without repeating *x*: (\\\\,x\\\\,\\\\sigma(x)\\\\,\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x))\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)\n4. Continue with an element *y* of *S* which was not yet written, and repeat the above process: (\\\\,x\\\\,\\\\sigma(x)\\\\,\\\\sigma(\\\\sigma(x))\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)(\\\\,y\\\\,\\\\ldots\\\\,)\n5. Repeat until all elements of *S* are written in cycles.", "Also, it is common to omit 1\\-cycles, since these can be inferred: for any element *x* in *S* not appearing in any cycle, one implicitly assumes \\\\sigma(x) \\= x.{{harvnb\\|Hall\\|1959\\|p\\=54}}", "Following the convention of omitting 1\\-cycles, one may interpret an individual cycle as a permutation which fixes all the elements not in the cycle (a [cyclic permutation](/wiki/Cyclic_permutation \"Cyclic permutation\") having only one cycle of length greater than 1\\). Then the list of disjoint cycles can be seen as the composition of these cyclic permutations. For example, the one\\-line permutation \\\\sigma \\= 2 6 5 4 3 1 can be written in cycle notation as:\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\)(4\\) \\= (126\\)(35\\).", "This may be seen as the composition \\\\sigma \\= \\\\kappa\\_1 \\\\kappa\\_2 of cyclic permutations:\n> \\\\kappa\\_1 \\= (126\\) \\= (126\\)(3\\)(4\\)(5\\),\\\\quad \\\\kappa\\_2 \\= (35\\)\\= (35\\)(1\\)(2\\)(6\\).", "While permutations in general do not commute, disjoint cycles do; for example:\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\) \\= (35\\)(126\\).", "Also, each cycle can be rewritten from a different starting point; for example,\n> \\\\sigma \\= (126\\)(35\\) \\= (261\\)(53\\).", "Thus one may write the disjoint cycles of a given permutation in many different ways.", "A convenient feature of cycle notation is that inverting the permutation is given by reversing the order of the elements in each cycle. For example, \n> \\\\sigma^{\\-1} \\= \\\\left(\\\\vphantom{A^2}(126\\)(35\\)\\\\right)^{\\-1} \\= (621\\)(53\\).", "", "" ]
Other uses of the term *permutation* ------------------------------------ The concept of a permutation as an ordered arrangement admits several generalizations that have been called *permutations*, especially in older literature. ### *k*\-permutations of *n* In older literature and elementary textbooks, a ***k*\-permutation of* n*** (sometimes called a **[partial permutation](/wiki/Partial_permutation%23Restricted_partial_permutations "Partial permutation#Restricted partial permutations")**, **sequence without repetition**, **variation**, or **arrangement**) means an ordered arrangement (list) of a *k*\-element subset of an *n*\-set.{{efn\|More precisely, ''variations without repetition''. The term is still common in other languages and appears in modern English most often in translation.}}{{Cite web \|title\=Combinations and Permutations \|url\=https://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations\-permutations.html \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-10 \|website\=www.mathsisfun.com}}{{Cite web \|last\=Weisstein \|first\=Eric W. \|title\=Permutation \|url\=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Permutation.html \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-10 \|website\=mathworld.wolfram.com \|language\=en}} The number of such *k*\-permutations (*k*\-arrangements) of n is denoted variously by such symbols as P^n\_k, \_nP\_k, ^n\\!P\_k, P\_{n,k}, P(n,k), or A^k\_n,{{harvnb\|Uspensky\|1937\|p\=18}} computed by the formula:{{cite book\|author\=Charalambides, Ch A.\|title\=Enumerative Combinatorics\|publisher\=CRC Press\|year\=2002\|isbn\=978\-1\-58488\-290\-9\|page\=42\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PDMGA\-v5G54C\&pg\=PA42}} P(n,k) \= \\underbrace{n\\cdot(n\-1\)\\cdot(n\-2\)\\cdots(n\-k\+1\)}\_{k\\ \\mathrm{factors}}, which is 0 when {{math\|''k'' \> ''n''}}, and otherwise is equal to \\frac{n!}{(n\-k)!}. The product is well defined without the assumption that n is a non\-negative integer, and is of importance outside combinatorics as well; it is known as the [Pochhammer symbol](/wiki/Pochhammer_symbol "Pochhammer symbol") (n)\_k or as the k\-th falling factorial power n^{\\underline k}: > P(n,k)\={\_n} P\_k \=(n)\_k \= n^{\\underline{k}} . This usage of the term *permutation* is closely associated with the term *[combination](/wiki/Combination "Combination")* to mean a subset. A *k\-combination* of a set *S* is a *k\-*element subset of *S*: the elements of a combination are not ordered. Ordering the *k*\-combinations of *S* in all possible ways produces the *k*\-permutations of *S*. The number of *k*\-combinations of an *n*\-set, *C*(*n*,*k*), is therefore related to the number of *k*\-permutations of *n* by: C(n,k) \= \\frac{P(n,k)}{P(k,k)}\= \\frac{n^{\\underline{k}}}{k!} \= \\frac{n!}{(n\-k)!\\,k!}. These numbers are also known as [binomial coefficients](/wiki/Binomial_coefficient "Binomial coefficient"), usually denoted \\tbinom{n}{k}: > C(n,k)\={\_n} C\_k \=\\binom{n}{k} . ### Permutations with repetition Ordered arrangements of *k* elements of a set *S*, where repetition is allowed, are called [*k*\-tuples](/wiki/Tuple "Tuple"). They have sometimes been referred to as **permutations with repetition**, although they are not permutations in the usual sense. They are also called [words](/wiki/Word_%28mathematics%29 "Word (mathematics)") or [strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 "String (computer science)") over the alphabet *S*. If the set *S* has *n* elements, the number of *k*\-tuples over *S* is n^k. ### Permutations of multisets [thumb\|Permutations without repetition on the left, with repetition to their right](/wiki/File:Permutations_with_repetition_cropped.svg "Permutations with repetition cropped.svg") If *M* is a finite [multiset](/wiki/Multiset "Multiset"), then a **multiset permutation** is an ordered arrangement of elements of *M* in which each element appears a number of times equal exactly to its multiplicity in *M*. An [anagram](/wiki/Anagram "Anagram") of a word having some repeated letters is an example of a multiset permutation.{{efn\|The natural order in this example is the order of the letters in the original word.}} If the multiplicities of the elements of *M* (taken in some order) are m\_1, m\_2, ..., m\_l and their sum (that is, the size of *M*) is *n*, then the number of multiset permutations of *M* is given by the [multinomial coefficient](/wiki/Multinomial_coefficient%23Multinomial_coefficients "Multinomial coefficient#Multinomial coefficients"),{{harvnb\|Brualdi\|2010\|loc\=p. 46, Theorem 2\.4\.2}} ``` {n \choose m_1, m_2, \ldots, m_l} = \frac{n!}{m_1!\, m_2!\, \cdots\, m_l!} = \frac{\left(\sum_{i=1}^l{m_i}\right)!}{\prod_{i=1}^l{m_i!}}. ``` For example, the number of distinct anagrams of the word MISSISSIPPI is:{{harvnb\|Brualdi\|2010\|p\=47}} \\frac{11!}{1!\\, 4!\\, 4!\\, 2!} \= 34650. A ***k*\-permutation** of a multiset *M* is a sequence of *k* elements of *M* in which each element appears *a number of times less than or equal to* its multiplicity in *M* (an element's *repetition number*). ### Circular permutations {{see also\|Cyclic order\#Finite cycles}} Permutations, when considered as arrangements, are sometimes referred to as *linearly ordered* arrangements. If, however, the objects are arranged in a circular manner this distinguished ordering is weakened: there is no "first element" in the arrangement, as any element can be considered as the start. An arrangement of distinct objects in a circular manner is called a **circular permutation**.{{harvnb\|Brualdi\|2010\|p\=39}}{{efn\|In older texts ''circular permutation'' was sometimes used as a synonym for \[\[cyclic permutation]], but this is no longer done. See {{harvtxt\|Carmichael\|1956\|p\=7}}}} These can be formally defined as [equivalence classes](/wiki/Equivalence_classes "Equivalence classes") of ordinary permutations of these objects, for the [equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation "Equivalence relation") generated by moving the final element of the linear arrangement to its front. Two circular permutations are equivalent if one can be rotated into the other. The following four circular permutations on four letters are considered to be the same. ``` 1 4 2 3 4 3 2 1 3 4 1 2 2 3 1 4 ``` The circular arrangements are to be read counter\-clockwise, so the following two are not equivalent since no rotation can bring one to the other. ``` 1 1 4 3 3 4 2 2 ``` There are (*n* – 1\)! circular permutations of a set with *n* elements.
[ "Other uses of the term *permutation*\n------------------------------------", "The concept of a permutation as an ordered arrangement admits several generalizations that have been called *permutations*, especially in older literature.", "### *k*\\-permutations of *n*", "In older literature and elementary textbooks, a ***k*\\-permutation of* n*** (sometimes called a **[partial permutation](/wiki/Partial_permutation%23Restricted_partial_permutations \"Partial permutation#Restricted partial permutations\")**, **sequence without repetition**, **variation**, or **arrangement**) means an ordered arrangement (list) of a *k*\\-element subset of an *n*\\-set.{{efn\\|More precisely, ''variations without repetition''. The term is still common in other languages and appears in modern English most often in translation.}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Combinations and Permutations \\|url\\=https://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations\\-permutations.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-10 \\|website\\=www.mathsisfun.com}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Weisstein \\|first\\=Eric W. \\|title\\=Permutation \\|url\\=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Permutation.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-10 \\|website\\=mathworld.wolfram.com \\|language\\=en}} The number of such *k*\\-permutations (*k*\\-arrangements) of n is denoted variously by such symbols as P^n\\_k, \\_nP\\_k, ^n\\\\!P\\_k, P\\_{n,k}, P(n,k), or A^k\\_n,{{harvnb\\|Uspensky\\|1937\\|p\\=18}} computed by the formula:{{cite book\\|author\\=Charalambides, Ch A.\\|title\\=Enumerative Combinatorics\\|publisher\\=CRC Press\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58488\\-290\\-9\\|page\\=42\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PDMGA\\-v5G54C\\&pg\\=PA42}}\n P(n,k) \\= \\\\underbrace{n\\\\cdot(n\\-1\\)\\\\cdot(n\\-2\\)\\\\cdots(n\\-k\\+1\\)}\\_{k\\\\ \\\\mathrm{factors}},", "which is 0 when {{math\\|''k'' \\> ''n''}}, and otherwise is equal to\n \\\\frac{n!}{(n\\-k)!}.", "The product is well defined without the assumption that n is a non\\-negative integer, and is of importance outside combinatorics as well; it is known as the [Pochhammer symbol](/wiki/Pochhammer_symbol \"Pochhammer symbol\") (n)\\_k or as the k\\-th falling factorial power n^{\\\\underline k}:\n> P(n,k)\\={\\_n} P\\_k \\=(n)\\_k \\= n^{\\\\underline{k}} .", "This usage of the term *permutation* is closely associated with the term *[combination](/wiki/Combination \"Combination\")* to mean a subset. A *k\\-combination* of a set *S* is a *k\\-*element subset of *S*: the elements of a combination are not ordered. Ordering the *k*\\-combinations of *S* in all possible ways produces the *k*\\-permutations of *S*. The number of *k*\\-combinations of an *n*\\-set, *C*(*n*,*k*), is therefore related to the number of *k*\\-permutations of *n* by:\n C(n,k) \\= \\\\frac{P(n,k)}{P(k,k)}\\= \\\\frac{n^{\\\\underline{k}}}{k!} \\= \\\\frac{n!}{(n\\-k)!\\\\,k!}.", "These numbers are also known as [binomial coefficients](/wiki/Binomial_coefficient \"Binomial coefficient\"), usually denoted \\\\tbinom{n}{k}:\n> C(n,k)\\={\\_n} C\\_k \\=\\\\binom{n}{k} .", "", "### Permutations with repetition", "Ordered arrangements of *k* elements of a set *S*, where repetition is allowed, are called [*k*\\-tuples](/wiki/Tuple \"Tuple\"). They have sometimes been referred to as **permutations with repetition**, although they are not permutations in the usual sense. They are also called [words](/wiki/Word_%28mathematics%29 \"Word (mathematics)\") or [strings](/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29 \"String (computer science)\") over the alphabet *S*. If the set *S* has *n* elements, the number of *k*\\-tuples over *S* is n^k.", "### Permutations of multisets", "[thumb\\|Permutations without repetition on the left, with repetition to their right](/wiki/File:Permutations_with_repetition_cropped.svg \"Permutations with repetition cropped.svg\")", "If *M* is a finite [multiset](/wiki/Multiset \"Multiset\"), then a **multiset permutation** is an ordered arrangement of elements of *M* in which each element appears a number of times equal exactly to its multiplicity in *M*. An [anagram](/wiki/Anagram \"Anagram\") of a word having some repeated letters is an example of a multiset permutation.{{efn\\|The natural order in this example is the order of the letters in the original word.}} If the multiplicities of the elements of *M* (taken in some order) are m\\_1, m\\_2, ..., m\\_l and their sum (that is, the size of *M*) is *n*, then the number of multiset permutations of *M* is given by the [multinomial coefficient](/wiki/Multinomial_coefficient%23Multinomial_coefficients \"Multinomial coefficient#Multinomial coefficients\"),{{harvnb\\|Brualdi\\|2010\\|loc\\=p. 46, Theorem 2\\.4\\.2}}", "```\n {n \\choose m_1, m_2, \\ldots, m_l} =\n \\frac{n!}{m_1!\\, m_2!\\, \\cdots\\, m_l!} =\n \\frac{\\left(\\sum_{i=1}^l{m_i}\\right)!}{\\prod_{i=1}^l{m_i!}}.", "```", "", "For example, the number of distinct anagrams of the word MISSISSIPPI is:{{harvnb\\|Brualdi\\|2010\\|p\\=47}}\n\\\\frac{11!}{1!\\\\, 4!\\\\, 4!\\\\, 2!} \\= 34650.", "A ***k*\\-permutation** of a multiset *M* is a sequence of *k* elements of *M* in which each element appears *a number of times less than or equal to* its multiplicity in *M* (an element's *repetition number*).", "### Circular permutations", "{{see also\\|Cyclic order\\#Finite cycles}}\nPermutations, when considered as arrangements, are sometimes referred to as *linearly ordered* arrangements. If, however, the objects are arranged in a circular manner this distinguished ordering is weakened: there is no \"first element\" in the arrangement, as any element can be considered as the start. An arrangement of distinct objects in a circular manner is called a **circular permutation**.{{harvnb\\|Brualdi\\|2010\\|p\\=39}}{{efn\\|In older texts ''circular permutation'' was sometimes used as a synonym for \\[\\[cyclic permutation]], but this is no longer done. See {{harvtxt\\|Carmichael\\|1956\\|p\\=7}}}} These can be formally defined as [equivalence classes](/wiki/Equivalence_classes \"Equivalence classes\") of ordinary permutations of these objects, for the [equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation \"Equivalence relation\") generated by moving the final element of the linear arrangement to its front.", "Two circular permutations are equivalent if one can be rotated into the other. The following four circular permutations on four letters are considered to be the same.", "", "```", "1 4 2 3\n 4 3 2 1 3 4 1 2\n 2 3 1 4", "```", "The circular arrangements are to be read counter\\-clockwise, so the following two are not equivalent since no rotation can bring one to the other.", "```", "1 1\n 4 3 3 4\n 2 2\n```", "", "There are (*n* – 1\\)! circular permutations of a set with *n* elements.", "" ]
Properties ---------- The number of permutations of {{math\|''n''}} distinct objects is {{math\|''n''}}!. The number of {{math\|''n''}}\-permutations with {{math\|''k''}} disjoint cycles is the signless [Stirling number of the first kind](/wiki/Stirling_number_of_the_first_kind "Stirling number of the first kind"), denoted c(n,k) or \[\\begin{smallmatrix}n \\\\ k\\end{smallmatrix}].{{sfn\|Bona\|2012\|pp\=97–103}} ### Cycle type The cycles (including the fixed points) of a permutation \\sigma of a set with {{mvar\|n}} elements partition that set; so the lengths of these cycles form an [integer partition](/wiki/Integer_partition "Integer partition") of {{mvar\|n}}, which is called the **cycle type** (or sometimes **cycle structure** or **cycle shape**) of \\sigma. There is a "1" in the cycle type for every fixed point of \\sigma, a "2" for every transposition, and so on. The cycle type of \\beta \= (1\\,2\\,5\\,)(\\,3\\,4\\,)(6\\,8\\,)(\\,7\\,) is (3, 2, 2, 1\). This may also be written in a more compact form as {{math\|\[112231]}}. More precisely, the general form is \[1^{\\alpha\_1}2^{\\alpha\_2}\\dotsm n^{\\alpha\_n}], where \\alpha\_1,\\ldots,\\alpha\_n are the numbers of cycles of respective length. The number of permutations of a given cycle type is{{citation\|last \= Sagan\|first \= Bruce\|title \= The Symmetric Group\|publisher \= Springer \| date \= 2001 \| edition \= 2 \| page \= 3}} \\frac{n!}{1^{\\alpha\_1}2^{\\alpha\_2}\\dotsm n^{\\alpha\_n}\\alpha\_1!\\alpha\_2!\\dotsm \\alpha\_n!}. The number of cycle types of a set with {{mvar\|n}} elements equals the value of the [partition function](/wiki/Partition_function_%28number_theory%29 "Partition function (number theory)") p(n). [Polya](/wiki/P%C3%B3lya_enumeration_theorem "Pólya enumeration theorem")'s [cycle index](/wiki/Cycle_index "Cycle index") polynomial is a [generating function](/wiki/Generating_function "Generating function") which counts permutations by their cycle type. ### Conjugating permutations In general, composing permutations written in cycle notation follows no easily described pattern – the cycles of the composition can be different from those being composed. However the cycle type is preserved in the special case of [conjugating](/wiki/Conjugacy_class "Conjugacy class") a permutation \\sigma by another permutation \\pi, which means forming the product \\pi\\sigma\\pi^{\-1}. Here, \\pi\\sigma\\pi^{\-1} is the *conjugate* of \\sigma by \\pi and its cycle notation can be obtained by taking the cycle notation for \\sigma and applying \\pi to all the entries in it.{{sfn\|Humphreys\|1996\|p\=84}} It follows that two permutations are conjugate exactly when they have the same cycle type. ### Order of a permutation The order of a permutation \\sigma is the smallest positive integer *m* so that \\sigma^m \= \\mathrm{id}. It is the [least common multiple](/wiki/Least_common_multiple "Least common multiple") of the lengths of its cycles. For example, the order of \\sigma\=(152\)(34\) is \\text{lcm}(3,2\) \= 6. ### Parity of a permutation {{main\|Parity of a permutation}} Every permutation of a finite set can be expressed as the product of transpositions.{{harvnb\|Hall\|1959\|p\=60}} Although many such expressions for a given permutation may exist, either they all contain an even number of transpositions or they all contain an odd number of transpositions. Thus all permutations can be classified as [even or odd](/wiki/Even_and_odd_permutations "Even and odd permutations") depending on this number. This result can be extended so as to assign a *sign*, written \\operatorname{sgn}\\sigma, to each permutation. \\operatorname{sgn}\\sigma \= \+1 if \\sigma is even and \\operatorname{sgn}\\sigma \= \-1 if \\sigma is odd. Then for two permutations \\sigma and \\pi \\operatorname{sgn}(\\sigma\\pi) \= \\operatorname{sgn}\\sigma\\cdot\\operatorname{sgn}\\pi. It follows that \\operatorname{sgn}\\left(\\sigma\\sigma^{\-1}\\right) \= \+1\. The sign of a permutation is equal to the determinant of its permutation matrix (below). ### Matrix representation {{main\|Permutation matrix}} A *permutation matrix* is an [*n* × *n* matrix](/wiki/Square_matrix "Square matrix") that has exactly one entry 1 in each column and in each row, and all other entries are 0\. There are several ways to assign a permutation matrix to a permutation of {1, 2, ..., *n*}. One natural approach is to define L\_{\\sigma} to be the [linear transformation](/wiki/Linear_map "Linear map") of \\mathbb{R}^n which permutes the [standard basis](/wiki/Standard_basis "Standard basis") \\{\\mathbf{e}\_1,\\ldots,\\mathbf{e}\_n\\} by L\_\\sigma(\\mathbf{e}\_j)\=\\mathbf{e}\_{\\sigma(j)}, and define M\_{\\sigma} to be its matrix. That is, M\_{\\sigma} has its *j*th column equal to the n × 1 column vector \\mathbf{e}\_{\\sigma(j)}: its (*i*, *j*) entry is to 1 if *i* \= *σ*(*j*), and 0 otherwise. Since composition of linear mappings is described by matrix multiplication, it follows that this construction is compatible with composition of permutations: > M\_\\sigma M\_\\tau \= M\_{\\sigma\\tau}. For example, the one\-line permutations \\sigma\=213,\\ \\tau\=231 have product \\sigma\\tau \= 132, and the corresponding matrices are: M\_{\\sigma} M\_{\\tau} \= \\begin{pmatrix} 0\&1\&0\\\\1\&0\&0\\\\0\&0\&1\\end{pmatrix} \\begin{pmatrix} 0\&0\&1\\\\1\&0\&0\\\\0\&1\&0\\end{pmatrix} \= \\begin{pmatrix} 1\&0\&0\\\\0\&0\&1\\\\0\&1\&0\\end{pmatrix} \= M\_{\\sigma\\tau}. [thumb\|Composition of permutations corresponding to a multiplication of permutation matrices.](/wiki/File:Symmetric_group_3%3B_Cayley_table%3B_matrices.svg "Symmetric group 3; Cayley table; matrices.svg") It is also common in the literature to find the inverse convention, where a permutation *σ* is associated to the matrix P\_{\\sigma} \= (M\_{\\sigma})^{\-1} \= (M\_{\\sigma})^{T} whose (*i*, *j*) entry is 1 if *j* \= *σ*(*i*) and is 0 otherwise. In this convention, permutation matrices multiply in the opposite order from permutations, that is, P\_\\sigma P\_{\\tau} \= P\_{\\tau\\sigma}. In this correspondence, permutation matrices act on the right side of the standard 1 \\times n row vectors ({\\bf e}\_i)^T: ({\\bf e}\_i)^T P\_{\\sigma} \= ({\\bf e}\_{\\sigma(i)})^T. The [Cayley table](/wiki/Cayley_table "Cayley table") on the right shows these matrices for permutations of 3 elements.
[ "Properties\n----------", "The number of permutations of {{math\\|''n''}} distinct objects is {{math\\|''n''}}!.", "The number of {{math\\|''n''}}\\-permutations with {{math\\|''k''}} disjoint cycles is the signless [Stirling number of the first kind](/wiki/Stirling_number_of_the_first_kind \"Stirling number of the first kind\"), denoted c(n,k) or \\[\\\\begin{smallmatrix}n \\\\\\\\ k\\\\end{smallmatrix}].{{sfn\\|Bona\\|2012\\|pp\\=97–103}}", "### Cycle type", "The cycles (including the fixed points) of a permutation \\\\sigma of a set with {{mvar\\|n}} elements partition that set; so the lengths of these cycles form an [integer partition](/wiki/Integer_partition \"Integer partition\") of {{mvar\\|n}}, which is called the **cycle type** (or sometimes **cycle structure** or **cycle shape**) of \\\\sigma. There is a \"1\" in the cycle type for every fixed point of \\\\sigma, a \"2\" for every transposition, and so on. The cycle type of \\\\beta \\= (1\\\\,2\\\\,5\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,4\\\\,)(6\\\\,8\\\\,)(\\\\,7\\\\,) is (3, 2, 2, 1\\).", "This may also be written in a more compact form as {{math\\|\\[112231]}}.\nMore precisely, the general form is \\[1^{\\\\alpha\\_1}2^{\\\\alpha\\_2}\\\\dotsm n^{\\\\alpha\\_n}], where \\\\alpha\\_1,\\\\ldots,\\\\alpha\\_n are the numbers of cycles of respective length. The number of permutations of a given cycle type is{{citation\\|last \\= Sagan\\|first \\= Bruce\\|title \\= The Symmetric Group\\|publisher \\= Springer \\| date \\= 2001 \\| edition \\= 2 \\| page \\= 3}}\n \\\\frac{n!}{1^{\\\\alpha\\_1}2^{\\\\alpha\\_2}\\\\dotsm n^{\\\\alpha\\_n}\\\\alpha\\_1!\\\\alpha\\_2!\\\\dotsm \\\\alpha\\_n!}.", "The number of cycle types of a set with {{mvar\\|n}} elements equals the value of the [partition function](/wiki/Partition_function_%28number_theory%29 \"Partition function (number theory)\") p(n).", "[Polya](/wiki/P%C3%B3lya_enumeration_theorem \"Pólya enumeration theorem\")'s [cycle index](/wiki/Cycle_index \"Cycle index\") polynomial is a [generating function](/wiki/Generating_function \"Generating function\") which counts permutations by their cycle type.", "### Conjugating permutations", "In general, composing permutations written in cycle notation follows no easily described pattern – the cycles of the composition can be different from those being composed. However the cycle type is preserved in the special case of [conjugating](/wiki/Conjugacy_class \"Conjugacy class\") a permutation \\\\sigma by another permutation \\\\pi, which means forming the product \\\\pi\\\\sigma\\\\pi^{\\-1}. Here, \\\\pi\\\\sigma\\\\pi^{\\-1} is the *conjugate* of \\\\sigma by \\\\pi and its cycle notation can be obtained by taking the cycle notation for \\\\sigma and applying \\\\pi to all the entries in it.{{sfn\\|Humphreys\\|1996\\|p\\=84}} It follows that two permutations are conjugate exactly when they have the same cycle type.", "### Order of a permutation", "The order of a permutation \\\\sigma is the smallest positive integer *m* so that \\\\sigma^m \\= \\\\mathrm{id}. It is the [least common multiple](/wiki/Least_common_multiple \"Least common multiple\") of the lengths of its cycles. For example, the order of \\\\sigma\\=(152\\)(34\\) is \\\\text{lcm}(3,2\\) \\= 6.", "### Parity of a permutation", "{{main\\|Parity of a permutation}}", "Every permutation of a finite set can be expressed as the product of transpositions.{{harvnb\\|Hall\\|1959\\|p\\=60}}\nAlthough many such expressions for a given permutation may exist, either they all contain an even number of transpositions or they all contain an odd number of transpositions. Thus all permutations can be classified as [even or odd](/wiki/Even_and_odd_permutations \"Even and odd permutations\") depending on this number.", "This result can be extended so as to assign a *sign*, written \\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\sigma, to each permutation. \\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\sigma \\= \\+1 if \\\\sigma is even and \\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\sigma \\= \\-1 if \\\\sigma is odd. Then for two permutations \\\\sigma and \\\\pi", "\\\\operatorname{sgn}(\\\\sigma\\\\pi) \\= \\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\sigma\\\\cdot\\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\pi.\nIt follows that \\\\operatorname{sgn}\\\\left(\\\\sigma\\\\sigma^{\\-1}\\\\right) \\= \\+1\\.", "The sign of a permutation is equal to the determinant of its permutation matrix (below).", "### Matrix representation", "{{main\\|Permutation matrix}}", "A *permutation matrix* is an [*n* × *n* matrix](/wiki/Square_matrix \"Square matrix\") that has exactly one entry 1 in each column and in each row, and all other entries are 0\\. There are several ways to assign a permutation matrix to a permutation of {1, 2, ..., *n*}. One natural approach is to define L\\_{\\\\sigma} to be the [linear transformation](/wiki/Linear_map \"Linear map\") of \\\\mathbb{R}^n which permutes the [standard basis](/wiki/Standard_basis \"Standard basis\") \\\\{\\\\mathbf{e}\\_1,\\\\ldots,\\\\mathbf{e}\\_n\\\\} by L\\_\\\\sigma(\\\\mathbf{e}\\_j)\\=\\\\mathbf{e}\\_{\\\\sigma(j)}, and define M\\_{\\\\sigma} to be its matrix. That is, M\\_{\\\\sigma} has its *j*th column equal to the n × 1 column vector \\\\mathbf{e}\\_{\\\\sigma(j)}: its (*i*, *j*) entry is to 1 if *i* \\= *σ*(*j*), and 0 otherwise. Since composition of linear mappings is described by matrix multiplication, it follows that this construction is compatible with composition of permutations:\n> M\\_\\\\sigma M\\_\\\\tau \\= M\\_{\\\\sigma\\\\tau}.", "For example, the one\\-line permutations \\\\sigma\\=213,\\\\ \\\\tau\\=231 have product \\\\sigma\\\\tau \\= 132, and the corresponding matrices are:\nM\\_{\\\\sigma} M\\_{\\\\tau} \n\\= \\\\begin{pmatrix} 0\\&1\\&0\\\\\\\\1\\&0\\&0\\\\\\\\0\\&0\\&1\\\\end{pmatrix}\n\\\\begin{pmatrix} 0\\&0\\&1\\\\\\\\1\\&0\\&0\\\\\\\\0\\&1\\&0\\\\end{pmatrix} \n\\= \\\\begin{pmatrix} 1\\&0\\&0\\\\\\\\0\\&0\\&1\\\\\\\\0\\&1\\&0\\\\end{pmatrix} \n\\= M\\_{\\\\sigma\\\\tau}.", "[thumb\\|Composition of permutations corresponding to a multiplication of permutation matrices.](/wiki/File:Symmetric_group_3%3B_Cayley_table%3B_matrices.svg \"Symmetric group 3; Cayley table; matrices.svg\")\nIt is also common in the literature to find the inverse convention, where a permutation *σ* is associated to the matrix P\\_{\\\\sigma} \\= (M\\_{\\\\sigma})^{\\-1} \\= (M\\_{\\\\sigma})^{T} whose (*i*, *j*) entry is 1 if *j* \\= *σ*(*i*) and is 0 otherwise. In this convention, permutation matrices multiply in the opposite order from permutations, that is, P\\_\\\\sigma P\\_{\\\\tau} \\= P\\_{\\\\tau\\\\sigma}. In this correspondence, permutation matrices act on the right side of the standard 1 \\\\times n row vectors ({\\\\bf e}\\_i)^T: ({\\\\bf e}\\_i)^T P\\_{\\\\sigma} \\= ({\\\\bf e}\\_{\\\\sigma(i)})^T.", "The [Cayley table](/wiki/Cayley_table \"Cayley table\") on the right shows these matrices for permutations of 3 elements.", "" ]
Permutations of totally ordered sets ------------------------------------ In some applications, the elements of the set being permuted will be compared with each other. This requires that the set *S* has a [total order](/wiki/Total_order "Total order") so that any two elements can be compared. The set {1, 2, ..., *n*} with the usual ≤ relation is the most frequently used set in these applications. A number of properties of a permutation are directly related to the total ordering of *S,* considering the permutation written in one\-line notation as a sequence \\sigma \= \\sigma(1\)\\sigma(2\)\\cdots\\sigma(n). ### Ascents, descents, runs, exceedances, records {{anchor\|Descents}} An *ascent* of a permutation *σ* of *n* is any position *i* \< *n* where the following value is bigger than the current one. That is, *i* is an ascent if \\sigma(i)\<\\sigma(i{\+}1\). For example, the permutation 3452167 has ascents (at positions) 1, 2, 5, and 6\. Similarly, a *descent* is a position *i* \< *n* with \\sigma(i)\>\\sigma(i{\+}1\), so every *i* with 1 \\leq i\<n is either an ascent or a descent. An *ascending run* of a permutation is a nonempty increasing contiguous subsequence that cannot be extended at either end; it corresponds to a maximal sequence of successive ascents (the latter may be empty: between two successive descents there is still an ascending run of length 1\). By contrast an *increasing subsequence* of a permutation is not necessarily contiguous: it is an increasing sequence obtained by omitting some of the values of the one\-line notation. For example, the permutation 2453167 has the ascending runs 245, 3, and 167, while it has an increasing subsequence 2367\. If a permutation has *k* − 1 descents, then it must be the union of *k* ascending runs.{{sfn\|Bóna\|2004\|p\=4f}} The number of permutations of *n* with *k* ascents is (by definition) the [Eulerian number](/wiki/Eulerian_number "Eulerian number") \\textstyle\\left\\langle{n\\atop k}\\right\\rangle; this is also the number of permutations of *n* with *k* descents. Some authors however define the Eulerian number \\textstyle\\left\\langle{n\\atop k}\\right\\rangle as the number of permutations with *k* ascending runs, which corresponds to {{math\|''k'' − 1}} descents.{{sfn\|Bona\|2012\|pages\=4–5}} An exceedance of a permutation *σ*1*σ*2...*σ**n* is an index *j* such that {{math\|''σ''''j'' \> ''j''}}. If the inequality is not strict (that is, {{math\|''σ''''j'' ≥ ''j''}}), then *j* is called a *weak exceedance*. The number of *n*\-permutations with *k* exceedances coincides with the number of *n*\-permutations with *k* descents.{{sfn\|Bona\|2012\|page\=25}} A *record* or *left\-to\-right maximum* of a permutation *σ* is an element *i* such that *σ*(*j*) \< *σ*(*i*) for all *j \< i*. ### Foata's transition lemma [Foata](/wiki/Dominique_Foata "Dominique Foata")'s *fundamental bijection* transforms a permutation \\sigma with a given canonical cycle form into the permutation f(\\sigma) \= \\hat\\sigma whose one\-line notation has the same sequence of elements with parentheses removed.{{sfn\|Bona\|2012\|pp\=109–110}} For example: > \\sigma \= (513\)(6\)(827\)(94\) > \= \\begin{pmatrix} > 1\&2\&3\&4\&5\&6\&7\&8\&9\\\\ > 3\&7\&5\&9\&1\&6\&8\&2\&4 > \\end{pmatrix}, \\hat\\sigma \= 513682794 \= \\begin{pmatrix} 1\&2\&3\&4\&5\&6\&7\&8\&9\\\\ 5\&1\&3\&6\&8\&2\&7\&9\&4 \\end{pmatrix}. Here the first element in each canonical cycle of \\sigma becomes a record (left\-to\-right maximum) of \\hat\\sigma . Given \\hat\\sigma , one may find its records and insert parentheses to construct the inverse transformation \\sigma\=f^{\-1}(\\hat\\sigma) . Underlining the records in the above example: \\hat\\sigma \= \\underline{5}\\, 1\\, 3\\, \\underline{6}\\, \\underline{8}\\,2\\,7\\,\\underline{9}\\,4 , which allows the reconstruction of the cycles of \\sigma . The following table shows \\hat\\sigma and \\sigma for the six permutations of *S* \= {1, 2, 3}, with the bold text on each side showing the notation used in the bijection: one\-line notation for \\hat\\sigma and canonical cycle notation for \\sigma . | \\hat\\sigma \= f(\\sigma) | \\sigma\=f^{\-1}(\\hat\\sigma) | | --- | --- | | \\mathbf{123}\=(\\,1\\,)(\\,2\\,)(\\,3\\,) | 123\=\\mathbf{(\\,1\\,)(\\,2\\,)(\\,3\\,)} | | \\mathbf{132}\=(\\,1\\,)(\\,3\\,2\\,) | 132\=\\mathbf{(\\,1\\,)(\\,3\\,2\\,)} | | \\mathbf{213}\=(\\,2\\,1\\,)(\\,3\\,) | 213\=\\mathbf{(\\,2\\,1\\,)(\\,3\\,)} | | \\mathbf{231}\=(\\,3\\,1\\,2\\,) | 321\=\\mathbf{(\\,2\\,)(\\,3\\,1\\,)} | | \\mathbf{312}\=(\\,3\\,2\\,1\\,) | 231\=\\mathbf{(\\,3\\,1\\,2\\,)} | | \\mathbf{321}\=(\\,2\\,)(\\,3\\,1\\,) | 312\=\\mathbf{(\\,3\\,2\\,1\\,)} | As a first corollary, the number of *n*\-permutations with exactly *k* records is equal to the number of *n*\-permutations with exactly *k* cycles: this last number is the signless [Stirling number of the first kind](/wiki/Stirling_number_of_the_first_kind "Stirling number of the first kind"), c(n, k). Furthermore, Foata's mapping takes an *n*\-permutation with *k* weak exceedances to an *n*\-permutation with {{math\|''k'' − 1}} ascents.{{sfn\|Bona\|2012\|pp\=109–110}} For example, (2\)(31\) \= 321 has *k \=* 2 weak exceedances (at index 1 and 2\), whereas {{math\|''f''(321\) {{\=}} 231}} has {{math\|1\=''k'' − 1 \= 1}} ascent (at index 1; that is, from 2 to 3\). ### Inversions {{main\|Inversion (discrete mathematics)}} [thumb\|In the [15 puzzle](/wiki/15_puzzle "15 puzzle") the goal is to get the squares in ascending order. Initial positions which have an odd number of inversions are impossible to solve.{{cite web \| last1 \= Slocum \| first1 \= Jerry \| last2 \= Weisstein \| first2 \= Eric W. \| title \= 15 – puzzle \| work \= MathWorld \| publisher \= Wolfram Research, Inc. \| date \= 1999 \| url \= http://mathworld.wolfram.com/15Puzzle.html \| access\-date \= October 4, 2014 }}](/wiki/Image:15-Puzzle.jpg "15-Puzzle.jpg") An *[inversion](/wiki/Inversion_%28discrete_mathematics%29 "Inversion (discrete mathematics)")* of a permutation *σ* is a pair {{math\|(''i'', ''j'')}} of positions where the entries of a permutation are in the opposite order: i \< j and \\sigma(i)\> \\sigma(j).{{sfn\|Bóna\|2004\|p\=43}} Thus a descent is an inversion at two adjacent positions. For example, {{math\|''σ'' {{\=}} 23154}} has (*i*, *j*) \= (1, 3\), (2, 3\), and (4, 5\), where (*σ*(*i*), *σ*(*j*)) \= (2, 1\), (3, 1\), and (5, 4\). Sometimes an inversion is defined as the pair of values (*σ*(*i*), *σ*(*j*)); this makes no difference for the *number* of inversions, and the reverse pair (*σ*(*j*), *σ*(*i*)) is an inversion in the above sense for the inverse permutation *σ*−1. The number of inversions is an important measure for the degree to which the entries of a permutation are out of order; it is the same for *σ* and for *σ*−1. To bring a permutation with *k* inversions into order (that is, transform it into the identity permutation), by successively applying (right\-multiplication by) [adjacent transpositions](/wiki/Adjacent_transposition "Adjacent transposition"), is always possible and requires a sequence of *k* such operations. Moreover, any reasonable choice for the adjacent transpositions will work: it suffices to choose at each step a transposition of *i* and {{math\|''i'' \+ 1}} where *i* is a descent of the permutation as modified so far (so that the transposition will remove this particular descent, although it might create other descents). This is so because applying such a transposition reduces the number of inversions by 1; as long as this number is not zero, the permutation is not the identity, so it has at least one descent. [Bubble sort](/wiki/Bubble_sort "Bubble sort") and [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort "Insertion sort") can be interpreted as particular instances of this procedure to put a sequence into order. Incidentally this procedure proves that any permutation *σ* can be written as a product of adjacent transpositions; for this one may simply reverse any sequence of such transpositions that transforms *σ* into the identity. In fact, by enumerating all sequences of adjacent transpositions that would transform *σ* into the identity, one obtains (after reversal) a *complete* list of all expressions of minimal length writing *σ* as a product of adjacent transpositions. The number of permutations of *n* with *k* inversions is expressed by a [Mahonian number](/wiki/Mahonian_number "Mahonian number").{{sfn\|Bóna\|2004\|pp\=43ff}} This is the coefficient of q^k in the expansion of the product \[n]\_q! \= \\prod\_{m\=1}^n\\sum\_{i\=0}^{m\-1}q^i \= 1 \\left(1 \+ q\\right)\\left(1 \+ q \+ q^2\\right) \\cdots \\left(1 \+ q \+ q^2 \+ \\cdots \+ q^{n\-1}\\right), The notation \[n]\_q! denotes the [q\-factorial](/wiki/Q-factorial "Q-factorial"). This expansion commonly appears in the study of [necklaces](/wiki/Necklace_%28combinatorics%29 "Necklace (combinatorics)"). Let \\sigma \\in S\_n, i, j\\in \\{1, 2, \\dots, n\\} such that i\<j and \\sigma(i)\>\\sigma(j). In this case, say the weight of the inversion (i, j) is \\sigma(i)\-\\sigma(j). Kobayashi (2011\) proved the enumeration formula \\sum\_{i\<j, \\sigma(i)\>\\sigma(j)}(\\sigma(i)\-\\sigma(j)) \= \|\\{\\tau \\in S\_n \\mid \\tau\\le \\sigma, \\tau \\text{ is bigrassmannian}\\} where \\le denotes [Bruhat order](/wiki/Bruhat_order "Bruhat order") in the [symmetric groups](/wiki/Symmetric_group "Symmetric group"). This graded partial order often appears in the context of [Coxeter groups](/wiki/Coxeter_group "Coxeter group").
[ "Permutations of totally ordered sets\n------------------------------------", "In some applications, the elements of the set being permuted will be compared with each other. This requires that the set *S* has a [total order](/wiki/Total_order \"Total order\") so that any two elements can be compared. The set {1, 2, ..., *n*} with the usual ≤ relation is the most frequently used set in these applications.", "A number of properties of a permutation are directly related to the total ordering of *S,* considering the permutation written in one\\-line notation as a sequence \\\\sigma \\= \\\\sigma(1\\)\\\\sigma(2\\)\\\\cdots\\\\sigma(n).", "### Ascents, descents, runs, exceedances, records", "{{anchor\\|Descents}}\nAn *ascent* of a permutation *σ* of *n* is any position *i* \\< *n* where the following value is bigger than the current one. That is, *i* is an ascent if \\\\sigma(i)\\<\\\\sigma(i{\\+}1\\). For example, the permutation 3452167 has ascents (at positions) 1, 2, 5, and 6\\.", "Similarly, a *descent* is a position *i* \\< *n* with \\\\sigma(i)\\>\\\\sigma(i{\\+}1\\), so every *i* with 1 \\\\leq i\\<n is either an ascent or a descent.", "An *ascending run* of a permutation is a nonempty increasing contiguous subsequence that cannot be extended at either end; it corresponds to a maximal sequence of successive ascents (the latter may be empty: between two successive descents there is still an ascending run of length 1\\). By contrast an *increasing subsequence* of a permutation is not necessarily contiguous: it is an increasing sequence obtained by omitting some of the values of the one\\-line notation.\nFor example, the permutation 2453167 has the ascending runs 245, 3, and 167, while it has an increasing subsequence 2367\\.", "If a permutation has *k* − 1 descents, then it must be the union of *k* ascending runs.{{sfn\\|Bóna\\|2004\\|p\\=4f}}", "The number of permutations of *n* with *k* ascents is (by definition) the [Eulerian number](/wiki/Eulerian_number \"Eulerian number\") \\\\textstyle\\\\left\\\\langle{n\\\\atop k}\\\\right\\\\rangle; this is also the number of permutations of *n* with *k* descents. Some authors however define the Eulerian number \\\\textstyle\\\\left\\\\langle{n\\\\atop k}\\\\right\\\\rangle as the number of permutations with *k* ascending runs, which corresponds to {{math\\|''k'' − 1}} descents.{{sfn\\|Bona\\|2012\\|pages\\=4–5}}", "An exceedance of a permutation *σ*1*σ*2...*σ**n* is an index *j* such that {{math\\|''σ''''j'' \\> ''j''}}. If the inequality is not strict (that is, {{math\\|''σ''''j'' ≥ ''j''}}), then *j* is called a *weak exceedance*. The number of *n*\\-permutations with *k* exceedances coincides with the number of *n*\\-permutations with *k* descents.{{sfn\\|Bona\\|2012\\|page\\=25}}", "A *record* or *left\\-to\\-right maximum* of a permutation *σ* is an element *i* such that *σ*(*j*) \\< *σ*(*i*) for all *j \\< i*.", "### Foata's transition lemma", "[Foata](/wiki/Dominique_Foata \"Dominique Foata\")'s *fundamental bijection* transforms a permutation \\\\sigma with a given canonical cycle form into the permutation f(\\\\sigma) \\= \\\\hat\\\\sigma whose one\\-line notation has the same sequence of elements with parentheses removed.{{sfn\\|Bona\\|2012\\|pp\\=109–110}} For example:\n> \\\\sigma \\= (513\\)(6\\)(827\\)(94\\)\n> \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}\n> 1\\&2\\&3\\&4\\&5\\&6\\&7\\&8\\&9\\\\\\\\\n> 3\\&7\\&5\\&9\\&1\\&6\\&8\\&2\\&4\n> \\\\end{pmatrix},", "", "\\\\hat\\\\sigma \\= 513682794\n\\= \\\\begin{pmatrix}\n1\\&2\\&3\\&4\\&5\\&6\\&7\\&8\\&9\\\\\\\\\n5\\&1\\&3\\&6\\&8\\&2\\&7\\&9\\&4\n\\\\end{pmatrix}.\n Here the first element in each canonical cycle of \\\\sigma becomes a record (left\\-to\\-right maximum) of \\\\hat\\\\sigma", ". Given \\\\hat\\\\sigma", ", one may find its records and insert parentheses to construct the inverse transformation \\\\sigma\\=f^{\\-1}(\\\\hat\\\\sigma)", ". Underlining the records in the above example: \\\\hat\\\\sigma \\= \\\\underline{5}\\\\, 1\\\\, 3\\\\, \\\\underline{6}\\\\, \\\\underline{8}\\\\,2\\\\,7\\\\,\\\\underline{9}\\\\,4", ", which allows the reconstruction of the cycles of \\\\sigma .", "The following table shows \\\\hat\\\\sigma and \\\\sigma for the six permutations of *S* \\= {1, 2, 3}, with the bold text on each side showing the notation used in the bijection: one\\-line notation for \\\\hat\\\\sigma and canonical cycle notation for \\\\sigma .", "", "| \\\\hat\\\\sigma \\= f(\\\\sigma) | \\\\sigma\\=f^{\\-1}(\\\\hat\\\\sigma) |\n| --- | --- |\n| \\\\mathbf{123}\\=(\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,2\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,) | 123\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,2\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,)} |\n| \\\\mathbf{132}\\=(\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,2\\\\,) | 132\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,2\\\\,)} |\n| \\\\mathbf{213}\\=(\\\\,2\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,) | 213\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,2\\\\,1\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,)} |\n| \\\\mathbf{231}\\=(\\\\,3\\\\,1\\\\,2\\\\,) | 321\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,2\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,1\\\\,)} |\n| \\\\mathbf{312}\\=(\\\\,3\\\\,2\\\\,1\\\\,) | 231\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,3\\\\,1\\\\,2\\\\,)} |\n| \\\\mathbf{321}\\=(\\\\,2\\\\,)(\\\\,3\\\\,1\\\\,) | 312\\=\\\\mathbf{(\\\\,3\\\\,2\\\\,1\\\\,)} |", "As a first corollary, the number of *n*\\-permutations with exactly *k* records is equal to the number of *n*\\-permutations with exactly *k* cycles: this last number is the signless [Stirling number of the first kind](/wiki/Stirling_number_of_the_first_kind \"Stirling number of the first kind\"), c(n, k). Furthermore, Foata's mapping takes an *n*\\-permutation with *k* weak exceedances to an *n*\\-permutation with {{math\\|''k'' − 1}} ascents.{{sfn\\|Bona\\|2012\\|pp\\=109–110}} For example, (2\\)(31\\) \\= 321 has *k \\=* 2 weak exceedances (at index 1 and 2\\), whereas {{math\\|''f''(321\\) {{\\=}} 231}} has {{math\\|1\\=''k'' − 1 \\= 1}} ascent (at index 1; that is, from 2 to 3\\).", "### Inversions", "{{main\\|Inversion (discrete mathematics)}}\n[thumb\\|In the [15 puzzle](/wiki/15_puzzle \"15 puzzle\") the goal is to get the squares in ascending order. Initial positions which have an odd number of inversions are impossible to solve.{{cite web\n \\| last1 \\= Slocum\n \\| first1 \\= Jerry\n \\| last2 \\= Weisstein\n \\| first2 \\= Eric W.\n \\| title \\= 15 – puzzle\n \\| work \\= MathWorld\n \\| publisher \\= Wolfram Research, Inc.\n \\| date \\= 1999\n \\| url \\= http://mathworld.wolfram.com/15Puzzle.html\n \\| access\\-date \\= October 4, 2014\n}}](/wiki/Image:15-Puzzle.jpg \"15-Puzzle.jpg\")", "An *[inversion](/wiki/Inversion_%28discrete_mathematics%29 \"Inversion (discrete mathematics)\")* of a permutation *σ* is a pair {{math\\|(''i'', ''j'')}} of positions where the entries of a permutation are in the opposite order: i \\< j and \\\\sigma(i)\\> \\\\sigma(j).{{sfn\\|Bóna\\|2004\\|p\\=43}} Thus a descent is an inversion at two adjacent positions. For example, {{math\\|''σ'' {{\\=}} 23154}} has (*i*, *j*) \\= (1, 3\\), (2, 3\\), and (4, 5\\), where (*σ*(*i*), *σ*(*j*)) \\= (2, 1\\), (3, 1\\), and (5, 4\\).", "Sometimes an inversion is defined as the pair of values (*σ*(*i*), *σ*(*j*)); this makes no difference for the *number* of inversions, and the reverse pair (*σ*(*j*), *σ*(*i*)) is an inversion in the above sense for the inverse permutation *σ*−1.", "The number of inversions is an important measure for the degree to which the entries of a permutation are out of order; it is the same for *σ* and for *σ*−1. To bring a permutation with *k* inversions into order (that is, transform it into the identity permutation), by successively applying (right\\-multiplication by) [adjacent transpositions](/wiki/Adjacent_transposition \"Adjacent transposition\"), is always possible and requires a sequence of *k* such operations. Moreover, any reasonable choice for the adjacent transpositions will work: it suffices to choose at each step a transposition of *i* and {{math\\|''i'' \\+ 1}} where *i* is a descent of the permutation as modified so far (so that the transposition will remove this particular descent, although it might create other descents). This is so because applying such a transposition reduces the number of inversions by 1; as long as this number is not zero, the permutation is not the identity, so it has at least one descent. [Bubble sort](/wiki/Bubble_sort \"Bubble sort\") and [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort \"Insertion sort\") can be interpreted as particular instances of this procedure to put a sequence into order. Incidentally this procedure proves that any permutation *σ* can be written as a product of adjacent transpositions; for this one may simply reverse any sequence of such transpositions that transforms *σ* into the identity. In fact, by enumerating all sequences of adjacent transpositions that would transform *σ* into the identity, one obtains (after reversal) a *complete* list of all expressions of minimal length writing *σ* as a product of adjacent transpositions.", "The number of permutations of *n* with *k* inversions is expressed by a [Mahonian number](/wiki/Mahonian_number \"Mahonian number\").{{sfn\\|Bóna\\|2004\\|pp\\=43ff}} This is the coefficient of q^k in the expansion of the product", "\\[n]\\_q! \\= \\\\prod\\_{m\\=1}^n\\\\sum\\_{i\\=0}^{m\\-1}q^i \\= \n1 \\\\left(1 \\+ q\\\\right)\\\\left(1 \\+ q \\+ q^2\\\\right) \\\\cdots \\\\left(1 \\+ q \\+ q^2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ q^{n\\-1}\\\\right),", "The notation \\[n]\\_q! denotes the [q\\-factorial](/wiki/Q-factorial \"Q-factorial\"). This expansion commonly appears in the study of [necklaces](/wiki/Necklace_%28combinatorics%29 \"Necklace (combinatorics)\").", "Let \\\\sigma \\\\in S\\_n, i, j\\\\in \\\\{1, 2, \\\\dots, n\\\\} such that i\\<j and \\\\sigma(i)\\>\\\\sigma(j).\nIn this case, say the weight of the inversion (i, j) is \\\\sigma(i)\\-\\\\sigma(j).\nKobayashi (2011\\) proved the enumeration formula \n\\\\sum\\_{i\\<j, \\\\sigma(i)\\>\\\\sigma(j)}(\\\\sigma(i)\\-\\\\sigma(j)) \\= \\|\\\\{\\\\tau \\\\in S\\_n \\\\mid \\\\tau\\\\le \\\\sigma, \\\\tau \\\\text{ is bigrassmannian}\\\\}", "where \\\\le denotes [Bruhat order](/wiki/Bruhat_order \"Bruhat order\") in the [symmetric groups](/wiki/Symmetric_group \"Symmetric group\"). This graded partial order often appears in the context of [Coxeter groups](/wiki/Coxeter_group \"Coxeter group\").", "" ]
Permutations in computing ------------------------- ### Numbering permutations One way to represent permutations of *n* things is by an integer *N* with 0 ≤ *N* \< *n*!, provided convenient methods are given to convert between the number and the representation of a permutation as an ordered arrangement (sequence). This gives the most compact representation of arbitrary permutations, and in computing is particularly attractive when *n* is small enough that *N* can be held in a machine word; for 32\-bit words this means *n* ≤ 12, and for 64\-bit words this means *n* ≤ 20\. The conversion can be done via the intermediate form of a sequence of numbers *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1, where *d**i* is a non\-negative integer less than *i* (one may omit *d*1, as it is always 0, but its presence makes the subsequent conversion to a permutation easier to describe). The first step then is to simply express *N* in the *[factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system")*, which is just a particular [mixed radix](/wiki/Mixed_radix "Mixed radix") representation, where, for numbers less than *n*!, the bases (place values or multiplication factors) for successive digits are {{math\|(''n'' − 1\)!}}, {{math\|(''n'' − 2\)!}}, ..., 2!, 1!. The second step interprets this sequence as a [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code "Lehmer code") or (almost equivalently) as an inversion table. | \+ Rothe diagram for \\sigma \= (6, 3, 8, 1, 4, 9, 7, 2, 5\) | | --- | | {{diagonal split header\|''i''\| ''σ''''i''}} | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | Lehmer code | | 1 | × | × | × | × | × | • | | | | *d*9 \= 5 | | 2 | × | × | • | | | | | | | *d*8 \= 2 | | 3 | × | × | | × | × | | × | • | | *d*7 \= 5 | | 4 | • | | | | | | | | | *d*6 \= 0 | | 5 | | × | | • | | | | | | *d*5 \= 1 | | 6 | | × | | | × | | × | | • | *d*4 \= 3 | | 7 | | × | | | × | | • | | | *d*3 \= 2 | | 8 | | • | | | | | | | | *d*2 \= 0 | | 9 | | | | | • | | | | | *d*1 \= 0 | | Inversion table | 3 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | | In the **Lehmer code** for a permutation *σ*, the number *d**n* represents the choice made for the first term *σ*1, the number *d**n*−1 represents the choice made for the second term *σ*2 among the remaining {{math\|''n'' − 1}} elements of the set, and so forth. More precisely, each *d**n*\+1−*i* gives the number of *remaining* elements strictly less than the term *σ**i*. Since those remaining elements are bound to turn up as some later term *σ**j*, the digit *d**n*\+1−*i* counts the *inversions* (*i*,*j*) involving *i* as smaller index (the number of values *j* for which *i* \< *j* and *σ**i* \> *σ**j*). The **inversion table** for *σ* is quite similar, but here *d**n*\+1−*k* counts the number of inversions (*i*,*j*) where *k* \= *σ**j* occurs as the smaller of the two values appearing in inverted order.{{sfn\|Knuth\|1973\|p\=12}} Both encodings can be visualized by an *n* by *n* **Rothe diagram**{{\#tag:ref\|\[\[Heinrich August Rothe\|H. A. Rothe]], ''Sammlung combinatorisch\-analytischer Abhandlungen'' '''2''' (Leipzig, 1800\), 263–305\. Cited in {{harvnb\|Knuth\|1973\|p\=14}}}} (named after [Heinrich August Rothe](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Rothe "Heinrich August Rothe")) in which dots at (*i*,*σ**i*) mark the entries of the permutation, and a cross at (*i*,*σ**j*) marks the inversion (*i*,*j*); by the definition of inversions a cross appears in any square that comes both before the dot (*j*,*σ**j*) in its column, and before the dot (*i*,*σ**i*) in its row. The Lehmer code lists the numbers of crosses in successive rows, while the inversion table lists the numbers of crosses in successive columns; it is just the Lehmer code for the inverse permutation, and vice versa. To effectively convert a Lehmer code *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 into a permutation of an ordered set *S*, one can start with a list of the elements of *S* in increasing order, and for *i* increasing from 1 to *n* set *σ**i* to the element in the list that is preceded by *d**n*\+1−*i* other ones, and remove that element from the list. To convert an inversion table *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 into the corresponding permutation, one can traverse the numbers from *d*1 to *d**n* while inserting the elements of *S* from largest to smallest into an initially empty sequence; at the step using the number *d* from the inversion table, the element from *S* inserted into the sequence at the point where it is preceded by *d* elements already present. Alternatively one could process the numbers from the inversion table and the elements of *S* both in the opposite order, starting with a row of *n* empty slots, and at each step place the element from *S* into the empty slot that is preceded by *d* other empty slots. Converting successive natural numbers to the factorial number system produces those sequences in [lexicographic order](/wiki/Lexicographic_order "Lexicographic order") (as is the case with any mixed radix number system), and further converting them to permutations preserves the lexicographic ordering, provided the Lehmer code interpretation is used (using inversion tables, one gets a different ordering, where one starts by comparing permutations by the *place* of their entries 1 rather than by the value of their first entries). The sum of the numbers in the factorial number system representation gives the number of inversions of the permutation, and the parity of that sum gives the [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28permutation%29 "Signature (permutation)") of the permutation. Moreover, the positions of the zeroes in the inversion table give the values of left\-to\-right maxima of the permutation (in the example 6, 8, 9\) while the positions of the zeroes in the Lehmer code are the positions of the right\-to\-left minima (in the example positions the 4, 8, 9 of the values 1, 2, 5\); this allows computing the distribution of such extrema among all permutations. A permutation with Lehmer code *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 has an ascent {{math\|''n'' − ''i''}} if and only if {{math\|''d''''i'' ≥ ''d''''i''\+1}}. ### Algorithms to generate permutations In computing it may be required to generate permutations of a given sequence of values. The methods best adapted to do this depend on whether one wants some randomly chosen permutations, or all permutations, and in the latter case if a specific ordering is required. Another question is whether possible equality among entries in the given sequence is to be taken into account; if so, one should only generate distinct multiset permutations of the sequence. An obvious way to generate permutations of *n* is to generate values for the [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code "Lehmer code") (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system") representation of integers up to *n*!), and convert those into the corresponding permutations. However, the latter step, while straightforward, is hard to implement efficiently, because it requires *n* operations each of selection from a sequence and deletion from it, at an arbitrary position; of the obvious representations of the sequence as an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure "Array data structure") or a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list "Linked list"), both require (for different reasons) about *n*2/4 operations to perform the conversion. With *n* likely to be rather small (especially if generation of all permutations is needed) that is not too much of a problem, but it turns out that both for random and for systematic generation there are simple alternatives that do considerably better. For this reason it does not seem useful, although certainly possible, to employ a special data structure that would allow performing the conversion from Lehmer code to permutation in [*O*(*n* log *n*)](/wiki/Big_O_notation "Big O notation") time. #### Random generation of permutations {{Main\|Fisher–Yates shuffle}} For generating [random permutations](/wiki/Random_permutation "Random permutation") of a given sequence of *n* values, it makes no difference whether one applies a randomly selected permutation of *n* to the sequence, or chooses a random element from the set of distinct (multiset) permutations of the sequence. This is because, even though in case of repeated values there can be many distinct permutations of *n* that result in the same permuted sequence, the number of such permutations is the same for each possible result. Unlike for systematic generation, which becomes unfeasible for large *n* due to the growth of the number *n*!, there is no reason to assume that *n* will be small for random generation. The basic idea to generate a random permutation is to generate at random one of the *n*! sequences of integers *d*1,*d*2,...,*d**n* satisfying {{math\|0 ≤ ''d''''i'' \< ''i''}} (since *d*1 is always zero it may be omitted) and to convert it to a permutation through a [bijective](/wiki/Bijective "Bijective") correspondence. For the latter correspondence one could interpret the (reverse) sequence as a Lehmer code, and this gives a generation method first published in 1938 by [Ronald Fisher](/wiki/Ronald_Fisher "Ronald Fisher") and [Frank Yates](/wiki/Frank_Yates "Frank Yates").{{cite book \|author1\=Fisher, R.A. \|author2\=Yates, F. \| title \= Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research \| orig\-year \= 1938 \| edition \= 3rd \| year \= 1948 \| pages \= 26–27 \| publisher \= Oliver \& Boyd \| location \= London \| oclc \= 14222135 }} While at the time computer implementation was not an issue, this method suffers from the difficulty sketched above to convert from Lehmer code to permutation efficiently. This can be remedied by using a different bijective correspondence: after using *d**i* to select an element among *i* remaining elements of the sequence (for decreasing values of *i*), rather than removing the element and compacting the sequence by shifting down further elements one place, one [swaps](/wiki/Swap_%28computer_science%29 "Swap (computer science)") the element with the final remaining element. Thus the elements remaining for selection form a consecutive range at each point in time, even though they may not occur in the same order as they did in the original sequence. The mapping from sequence of integers to permutations is somewhat complicated, but it can be seen to produce each permutation in exactly one way, by an immediate [induction](/wiki/Induction_%28mathematics%29 "Induction (mathematics)"). When the selected element happens to be the final remaining element, the swap operation can be omitted. This does not occur sufficiently often to warrant testing for the condition, but the final element must be included among the candidates of the selection, to guarantee that all permutations can be generated. The resulting algorithm for generating a random permutation of `a[0], a[1], ..., a[n − 1]` can be described as follows in [pseudocode](/wiki/Pseudocode "Pseudocode"): **for** *i* **from** *n* **downto** 2 **do** *di* ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* − 1 } **swap** *a*\[*di*] and *a*\[*i* − 1] This can be combined with the initialization of the array `a[i] = i` as follows **for** *i* **from** 0 **to** *n*−1 **do** *d**i*\+1 ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* } *a*\[*i*] ← *a*\[*d**i*\+1] *a*\[*d**i*\+1] ← *i* If *d**i*\+1 \= *i*, the first assignment will copy an uninitialized value, but the second will overwrite it with the correct value *i*. However, Fisher\-Yates is not the fastest algorithm for generating a permutation, because Fisher\-Yates is essentially a sequential algorithm and "divide and conquer" procedures can achieve the same result in parallel.{{cite news\|author1\=Bacher, A. \|author2\=Bodini, O.\|author3\=Hwang, H.K.\|author4\=Tsai, T.H. \| title \= Generating Random Permutations by Coin Tossing: Classical Algorithms, New Analysis, and Modern Implementation. \| edition \= ACM Trans. Algorithms 13(2\): 24:1–24:43 \| year \= 2017 \| pages \= 24–43 }} #### Generation in lexicographic order There are many ways to systematically generate all permutations of a given sequence.{{cite journal \|last\=Sedgewick\|first\=R \|title\=Permutation generation methods \|journal\=Computing Surveys\|year\=1977\|volume\=9 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=137–164 \|url\=http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\~goodman/22m150\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221185652/http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\~goodman/22m150\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-02\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|doi\=10\.1145/356689\.356692 \|s2cid\=12139332 }} One classic, simple, and flexible algorithm is based upon finding the next permutation in [lexicographic ordering](/wiki/Lexicographic_ordering "Lexicographic ordering"), if it exists. It can handle repeated values, for which case it generates each distinct multiset permutation once. Even for ordinary permutations it is significantly more efficient than generating values for the Lehmer code in lexicographic order (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system")) and converting those to permutations. It begins by sorting the sequence in (weakly) [increasing](/wiki/Increasing "Increasing") order (which gives its lexicographically minimal permutation), and then repeats advancing to the next permutation as long as one is found. The method goes back to [Narayana Pandita](/wiki/Narayana_Pandit "Narayana Pandit") in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} The following algorithm generates the next permutation lexicographically after a given permutation. It changes the given permutation in\-place. 1. Find the largest index *k* such that {{math\|''a''\[''k''] \< ''a''\[''k'' \+ 1]}}. If no such index exists, the permutation is the last permutation. 2. Find the largest index *l* greater than *k* such that {{math\|''a''\[''k''] \< ''a''\[''l'']}}. 3. Swap the value of *a*\[*k*] with that of *a*\[*l*]. 4. Reverse the sequence from *a*\[*k* \+ 1] up to and including the final element *a*\[*n*]. For example, given the sequence \[1, 2, 3, 4] (which is in increasing order), and given that the index is [zero\-based](/wiki/Zero-based_numbering "Zero-based numbering"), the steps are as follows: 5. Index *k* \= 2, because 3 is placed at an index that satisfies condition of being the largest index that is still less than *a*\[*k* \+ 1] which is 4\. 6. Index *l* \= 3, because 4 is the only value in the sequence that is greater than 3 in order to satisfy the condition *a*\[*k*] \< *a*\[*l*]. 7. The values of *a*\[2] and *a*\[3] are swapped to form the new sequence \[1, 2, 4, 3]. 8. The sequence after *k*\-index *a*\[2] to the final element is reversed. Because only one value lies after this index (the 3\), the sequence remains unchanged in this instance. Thus the lexicographic successor of the initial state is permuted: \[1, 2, 4, 3]. Following this algorithm, the next lexicographic permutation will be \[1, 3, 2, 4], and the 24th permutation will be \[4, 3, 2, 1] at which point *a*\[*k*] \< *a*\[*k* \+ 1] does not exist, indicating that this is the last permutation. This method uses about 3 comparisons and 1\.5 swaps per permutation, amortized over the whole sequence, not counting the initial sort.{{cite web\|title\=std::next\_permutation\|url\=http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/algorithm/next\_permutation\|access\-date\=31 March 2018\|work\=cppreference.com\|date\=4 December 2017}} #### Generation with minimal changes {{main\|Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\|Heap's algorithm}} An alternative to the above algorithm, the [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm "Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm"), generates an ordering on all the permutations of a given sequence with the property that any two consecutive permutations in its output differ by swapping two adjacent values. This ordering on the permutations was known to 17th\-century English bell ringers, among whom it was known as "plain changes". One advantage of this method is that the small amount of change from one permutation to the next allows the method to be implemented in constant time per permutation. The same can also easily generate the subset of even permutations, again in constant time per permutation, by skipping every other output permutation.{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} An alternative to Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter is [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm "Heap's algorithm"),{{cite journal\|last\=Heap\|first\=B. R.\|title\=Permutations by Interchanges\|journal\=The Computer Journal\|year\=1963\|volume\=6\|issue\=3\|pages\=293–298\|doi\=10\.1093/comjnl/6\.3\.293\|doi\-access\=free}} said by [Robert Sedgewick](/wiki/Robert_Sedgewick_%28computer_scientist%29 "Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)") in 1977 to be the fastest algorithm of generating permutations in applications. The following figure shows the output of all three aforementioned algorithms for generating all permutations of length n\=4, and of six additional algorithms described in the literature. [thumb\|center\|upright\=2\.2\|Ordering of all permutations of length n\=4 generated by different algorithms. The permutations are color\-coded, where {{legend\-inline\|red\|1}}, {{legend\-inline\|yellow\|2}}, {{legend\-inline\|green\|3}}, {{legend\-inline\|blue\|4}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://combos.org/perm\|title\=Generate permutations\|last1\=Mütze\|first1\=Torsten\|last2\=Sawada\|first2\=Joe\|last3\=Williams\|first3\=Aaron\|website\=Combinatorial Object Server\|access\-date\=May 29, 2019}}](/wiki/File:Permutation_generation_algorithms10.svg "Permutation generation algorithms10.svg") 1. Lexicographic ordering; 2. [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm "Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm"); 3. [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm "Heap's algorithm"); 4. Ehrlich's star\-transposition algorithm:{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} in each step, the first entry of the permutation is exchanged with a later entry; 5. Zaks' prefix reversal algorithm:{{cite journal\|last\=Zaks\|first\=S.\|title\=A new algorithm for generation of permutations\|journal\=\[\[BIT Numerical Mathematics]]\|year\=1984\|volume\=24\|issue\=2\|pages\=196–204\|doi\=10\.1007/BF01937486\|s2cid\=30234652}} in each step, a prefix of the current permutation is reversed to obtain the next permutation; 6. Sawada\-Williams' algorithm:{{cite conference \|title\=A Hamilton path for the sigma\-tau problem \|last1\=Sawada \|first1\=Joe \|last2\=Williams \|first2\=Aaron \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=\[\[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics]] (SIAM) \| book\-title\=Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, SODA 2018 \|pages\=568–575 \|location\=New Orleans, Louisiana \|doi\=10\.1137/1\.9781611975031\.37\|doi\-access\=free }} each permutation differs from the previous one either by a cyclic left\-shift by one position, or an exchange of the first two entries; 7. Corbett's algorithm:{{cite journal\|last\=Corbett\|first\=P. F.\|title\=Rotator graphs: An efficient topology for point\-to\-point multiprocessor networks\|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems\|year\=1992\|volume\=3\|issue\=5\|pages\=622–626\|doi\=10\.1109/71\.159045}} each permutation differs from the previous one by a cyclic left\-shift of some prefix by one position; 8. Single\-track ordering:{{cite book \|author\-last\=Arndt \|author\-first\=Jörg\|title\=Matters Computational. Ideas, Algorithms, Source Code\| date\=2011\| publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media\|Springer]]\| doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-642\-14764\-7\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-14763\-0}} each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns; 9. Single\-track Gray code: each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns, plus any two consecutive permutations differ only in one or two transpositions. 10. Nested swaps generating algorithm in steps connected to the nested subgroups S\_k\\subset S\_{k\+1}. Each permutation is obtained from the previous by a transposition multiplication to the left. Algorithm is connected to the [Factorial\_number\_system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system") of the index. #### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book \|author1\=Popp, O.T. \| title \= Quickly Handling Big Permutations \| orig\-year \= \| edition \= \| year \= 2002 \| pages \= \| publisher \= priv. comm. \| location \= \| oclc \= }} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\_{k\-1}, continue retrieving S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} by cosets S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_i of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\tau\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\lambda\_m\\in S\_m. So, after generating S\_{k\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} has to be \\tau\_1\=(p\_1k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for some 1\\leq p\_1\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\_{k\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\tau\_2\=(p\_2k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1. Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\tau\_j\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for the cosets of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k; the ordered set (p\_1,\\ldots , p\_{k\-1}) (0\\leq p\_i\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\tau\_j(\\tau\_i)^{\-1}\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{j\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i\+1}k)\=\\varkappa\_{ij}\\in S\_{k\-1}, that is, \\varkappa\_{ij} (k)\=k. Concluding, permutations \\tau\_i\\in S\_k\-S\_{k\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\>j\>i\\geq 1, (\\lambda\_{k\-1})^{j\-i}p\_{i}\\neq p\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\lambda\_k\=\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-2}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure. EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\lambda\_2 one has \\lambda\_2\=(12\); to build \\lambda\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\_1\=p\_2\=1 leads to \\lambda\_3\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2\=(13\). To continue generating S\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\_1\=1, p\_2\=2, p\_3\=3, leading to \\lambda\_4\=(13\)(1234\)(13\)\=(1432\). Then, to build \\lambda\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\_1\=p\_2\=p\_3\=p\_4\=1, leading to \\lambda\_5\=(15\). From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\_{k} in S\_{k\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\dots , k). With such choices the "last" permutation is \\lambda\_k\=(1k) for k odd and \\lambda\_k\=(1k\_\-)(12\\cdots k)(1k\_\-) for k even (k\_\-\=k\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\=5(5!)\+4(4!)\+1(2!)\+1(1!) is: \\sigma\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(56\)\\lambda\_5(46\)\\lambda\_5(36\)\\lambda\_5(26\)\\lambda\_5(16\)\\lambda\_5\= \\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2((15\)\\lambda\_4\)^4(\\lambda\_5\)^{\-1}\\lambda\_6\=(23\)(14325\)^{\-1}(15\)(15\)(123456\)(15\)\=(23\)(15234\)(123456\)(15\), yelding finally, \\sigma\=(1653\)(24\). Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap. ### Applications Permutations are used in the [interleaver](/wiki/Interleaver "Interleaver") component of the [error detection and correction](/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction "Error detection and correction") algorithms, such as [turbo codes](/wiki/Turbo_codes "Turbo codes"), for example [3GPP Long Term Evolution](/wiki/3GPP_Long_Term_Evolution "3GPP Long Term Evolution") mobile telecommunication standard uses these ideas (see 3GPP technical specification 36\.212{{cite web\| url \= http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html\-info/36212\.htm\| title \= 3GPP TS 36\.212}}). Such applications raise the question of fast generation of permutations satisfying certain desirable properties. One of the methods is based on the [permutation polynomials](/wiki/Permutation_polynomials "Permutation polynomials"). Also as a base for optimal hashing in Unique Permutation Hashing.{{cite journal \|first1\=Shlomi \|last1\=Dolev \|first2\=Limor \|last2\=Lahiani \|first3\=Yinnon \|last3\=Haviv \|title\=Unique permutation hashing \|journal\=Theoretical Computer Science \|volume\=475 \|year\=2013 \|pages\=59–65 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.tcs.2012\.12\.047 \|doi\-access\=free }}
[ "Permutations in computing\n-------------------------", "### Numbering permutations", "One way to represent permutations of *n* things is by an integer *N* with 0 ≤ *N* \\< *n*!, provided convenient methods are given to convert between the number and the representation of a permutation as an ordered arrangement (sequence). This gives the most compact representation of arbitrary permutations, and in computing is particularly attractive when *n* is small enough that *N* can be held in a machine word; for 32\\-bit words this means *n* ≤ 12, and for 64\\-bit words this means *n* ≤ 20\\. The conversion can be done via the intermediate form of a sequence of numbers *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1, where *d**i* is a non\\-negative integer less than *i* (one may omit *d*1, as it is always 0, but its presence makes the subsequent conversion to a permutation easier to describe). The first step then is to simply express *N* in the *[factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\")*, which is just a particular [mixed radix](/wiki/Mixed_radix \"Mixed radix\") representation, where, for numbers less than *n*!, the bases (place values or multiplication factors) for successive digits are {{math\\|(''n'' − 1\\)!}}, {{math\\|(''n'' − 2\\)!}}, ..., 2!, 1!. The second step interprets this sequence as a [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code \"Lehmer code\") or (almost equivalently) as an inversion table.", "", "| \\+ Rothe diagram for \\\\sigma \\= (6, 3, 8, 1, 4, 9, 7, 2, 5\\) |\n| --- |\n| {{diagonal split header\\|''i''\\| ''σ''''i''}} | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | Lehmer code |\n| 1 | × | × | × | × | × | • | | | | *d*9 \\= 5 |\n| 2 | × | × | • | | | | | | | *d*8 \\= 2 |\n| 3 | × | × | | × | × | | × | • | | *d*7 \\= 5 |\n| 4 | • | | | | | | | | | *d*6 \\= 0 |\n| 5 | | × | | • | | | | | | *d*5 \\= 1 |\n| 6 | | × | | | × | | × | | • | *d*4 \\= 3 |\n| 7 | | × | | | × | | • | | | *d*3 \\= 2 |\n| 8 | | • | | | | | | | | *d*2 \\= 0 |\n| 9 | | | | | • | | | | | *d*1 \\= 0 |\n| Inversion table | 3 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | |", "In the **Lehmer code** for a permutation *σ*, the number *d**n* represents the choice made for the first term *σ*1, the number *d**n*−1 represents the choice made for the second term\n*σ*2 among the remaining {{math\\|''n'' − 1}} elements of the set, and so forth. More precisely, each *d**n*\\+1−*i* gives the number of *remaining* elements strictly less than the term *σ**i*. Since those remaining elements are bound to turn up as some later term *σ**j*, the digit *d**n*\\+1−*i* counts the *inversions* (*i*,*j*) involving *i* as smaller index (the number of values *j* for which *i* \\< *j* and *σ**i* \\> *σ**j*). The **inversion table** for *σ* is quite similar, but here *d**n*\\+1−*k* counts the number of inversions (*i*,*j*) where *k* \\= *σ**j* occurs as the smaller of the two values appearing in inverted order.{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|1973\\|p\\=12}}", "Both encodings can be visualized by an *n* by *n* **Rothe diagram**{{\\#tag:ref\\|\\[\\[Heinrich August Rothe\\|H. A. Rothe]], ''Sammlung combinatorisch\\-analytischer Abhandlungen'' '''2''' (Leipzig, 1800\\), 263–305\\. Cited in {{harvnb\\|Knuth\\|1973\\|p\\=14}}}} (named after [Heinrich August Rothe](/wiki/Heinrich_August_Rothe \"Heinrich August Rothe\")) in which dots at (*i*,*σ**i*) mark the entries of the permutation, and a cross at (*i*,*σ**j*) marks the inversion (*i*,*j*); by the definition of inversions a cross appears in any square that comes both before the dot (*j*,*σ**j*) in its column, and before the dot (*i*,*σ**i*) in its row. The Lehmer code lists the numbers of crosses in successive rows, while the inversion table lists the numbers of crosses in successive columns; it is just the Lehmer code for the inverse permutation, and vice versa.", "To effectively convert a Lehmer code *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 into a permutation of an ordered set *S*, one can start with a list of the elements of *S* in increasing order, and for *i* increasing from 1 to *n* set *σ**i* to the element in the list that is preceded by *d**n*\\+1−*i* other ones, and remove that element from the list. To convert an inversion table *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 into the corresponding permutation, one can traverse the numbers from *d*1 to *d**n* while inserting the elements of *S* from largest to smallest into an initially empty sequence; at the step using the number *d* from the inversion table, the element from *S* inserted into the sequence at the point where it is preceded by *d* elements already present. Alternatively one could process the numbers from the inversion table and the elements of *S* both in the opposite order, starting with a row of *n* empty slots, and at each step place the element from *S* into the empty slot that is preceded by *d* other empty slots.", "Converting successive natural numbers to the factorial number system produces those sequences in [lexicographic order](/wiki/Lexicographic_order \"Lexicographic order\") (as is the case with any mixed radix number system), and further converting them to permutations preserves the lexicographic ordering, provided the Lehmer code interpretation is used (using inversion tables, one gets a different ordering, where one starts by comparing permutations by the *place* of their entries 1 rather than by the value of their first entries). The sum of the numbers in the factorial number system representation gives the number of inversions of the permutation, and the parity of that sum gives the [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28permutation%29 \"Signature (permutation)\") of the permutation. Moreover, the positions of the zeroes in the inversion table give the values of left\\-to\\-right maxima of the permutation (in the example 6, 8, 9\\) while the positions of the zeroes in the Lehmer code are the positions of the right\\-to\\-left minima (in the example positions the 4, 8, 9 of the values 1, 2, 5\\); this allows computing the distribution of such extrema among all permutations. A permutation with Lehmer code *d**n*, *d**n*−1, ..., *d*2, *d*1 has an ascent {{math\\|''n'' − ''i''}} if and only if {{math\\|''d''''i'' ≥ ''d''''i''\\+1}}.", "### Algorithms to generate permutations", "In computing it may be required to generate permutations of a given sequence of values. The methods best adapted to do this depend on whether one wants some randomly chosen permutations, or all permutations, and in the latter case if a specific ordering is required. Another question is whether possible equality among entries in the given sequence is to be taken into account; if so, one should only generate distinct multiset permutations of the sequence.", "An obvious way to generate permutations of *n* is to generate values for the [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code \"Lehmer code\") (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\") representation of integers up to *n*!), and convert those into the corresponding permutations. However, the latter step, while straightforward, is hard to implement efficiently, because it requires *n* operations each of selection from a sequence and deletion from it, at an arbitrary position; of the obvious representations of the sequence as an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure \"Array data structure\") or a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list \"Linked list\"), both require (for different reasons) about *n*2/4 operations to perform the conversion. With *n* likely to be rather small (especially if generation of all permutations is needed) that is not too much of a problem, but it turns out that both for random and for systematic generation there are simple alternatives that do considerably better. For this reason it does not seem useful, although certainly possible, to employ a special data structure that would allow performing the conversion from Lehmer code to permutation in [*O*(*n* log *n*)](/wiki/Big_O_notation \"Big O notation\") time.", "#### Random generation of permutations", "{{Main\\|Fisher–Yates shuffle}}\nFor generating [random permutations](/wiki/Random_permutation \"Random permutation\") of a given sequence of *n* values, it makes no difference whether one applies a randomly selected permutation of *n* to the sequence, or chooses a random element from the set of distinct (multiset) permutations of the sequence. This is because, even though in case of repeated values there can be many distinct permutations of *n* that result in the same permuted sequence, the number of such permutations is the same for each possible result. Unlike for systematic generation, which becomes unfeasible for large *n* due to the growth of the number *n*!, there is no reason to assume that *n* will be small for random generation.", "The basic idea to generate a random permutation is to generate at random one of the *n*! sequences of integers *d*1,*d*2,...,*d**n* satisfying {{math\\|0 ≤ ''d''''i'' \\< ''i''}} (since *d*1 is always zero it may be omitted) and to convert it to a permutation through a [bijective](/wiki/Bijective \"Bijective\") correspondence. For the latter correspondence one could interpret the (reverse) sequence as a Lehmer code, and this gives a generation method first published in 1938 by [Ronald Fisher](/wiki/Ronald_Fisher \"Ronald Fisher\") and [Frank Yates](/wiki/Frank_Yates \"Frank Yates\").{{cite book\n\\|author1\\=Fisher, R.A. \\|author2\\=Yates, F. \\| title \\= Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research\n\\| orig\\-year \\= 1938\n\\| edition \\= 3rd\n\\| year \\= 1948\n\\| pages \\= 26–27\n\\| publisher \\= Oliver \\& Boyd\n\\| location \\= London\n\\| oclc \\= 14222135\n}}\nWhile at the time computer implementation was not an issue, this method suffers from the difficulty sketched above to convert from Lehmer code to permutation efficiently. This can be remedied by using a different bijective correspondence: after using *d**i* to select an element among *i* remaining elements of the sequence (for decreasing values of *i*), rather than removing the element and compacting the sequence by shifting down further elements one place, one [swaps](/wiki/Swap_%28computer_science%29 \"Swap (computer science)\") the element with the final remaining element. Thus the elements remaining for selection form a consecutive range at each point in time, even though they may not occur in the same order as they did in the original sequence. The mapping from sequence of integers to permutations is somewhat complicated, but it can be seen to produce each permutation in exactly one way, by an immediate [induction](/wiki/Induction_%28mathematics%29 \"Induction (mathematics)\"). When the selected element happens to be the final remaining element, the swap operation can be omitted. This does not occur sufficiently often to warrant testing for the condition, but the final element must be included among the candidates of the selection, to guarantee that all permutations can be generated.", "The resulting algorithm for generating a random permutation of `a[0], a[1], ..., a[n − 1]` can be described as follows in [pseudocode](/wiki/Pseudocode \"Pseudocode\"):", "**for** *i* **from** *n* **downto** 2 **do**\n*di* ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* − 1 }\n **swap** *a*\\[*di*] and *a*\\[*i* − 1]", "This can be combined with the initialization of the array `a[i] = i` as follows", "**for** *i* **from** 0 **to** *n*−1 **do**\n*d**i*\\+1 ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* }\n *a*\\[*i*] ← *a*\\[*d**i*\\+1]\n *a*\\[*d**i*\\+1] ← *i*", "If *d**i*\\+1 \\= *i*, the first assignment will copy an uninitialized value, but the second will overwrite it with the correct value *i*.", "However, Fisher\\-Yates is not the fastest algorithm for generating a permutation, because Fisher\\-Yates is essentially a sequential algorithm and \"divide and conquer\" procedures can achieve the same result in parallel.{{cite news\\|author1\\=Bacher, A. \\|author2\\=Bodini, O.\\|author3\\=Hwang, H.K.\\|author4\\=Tsai, T.H. \\| title \\= Generating Random Permutations by Coin Tossing: Classical Algorithms, New Analysis, and Modern Implementation.\n\\| edition \\= ACM Trans. Algorithms 13(2\\): 24:1–24:43\n\\| year \\= 2017\n\\| pages \\= 24–43\n}}", "#### Generation in lexicographic order", "There are many ways to systematically generate all permutations of a given sequence.{{cite journal\n\\|last\\=Sedgewick\\|first\\=R\n\\|title\\=Permutation generation methods\n\\|journal\\=Computing Surveys\\|year\\=1977\\|volume\\=9\n\\|issue\\=2\n\\|pages\\=137–164\n\\|url\\=http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\\~goodman/22m150\\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221185652/http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\\~goodman/22m150\\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\n\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/356689\\.356692\n\\|s2cid\\=12139332\n}}\nOne classic, simple, and flexible algorithm is based upon finding the next permutation in [lexicographic ordering](/wiki/Lexicographic_ordering \"Lexicographic ordering\"), if it exists. It can handle repeated values, for which case it generates each distinct multiset permutation once. Even for ordinary permutations it is significantly more efficient than generating values for the Lehmer code in lexicographic order (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\")) and converting those to permutations. It begins by sorting the sequence in (weakly) [increasing](/wiki/Increasing \"Increasing\") order (which gives its lexicographically minimal permutation), and then repeats advancing to the next permutation as long as one is found. The method goes back to [Narayana Pandita](/wiki/Narayana_Pandit \"Narayana Pandit\") in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}}", "The following algorithm generates the next permutation lexicographically after a given permutation. It changes the given permutation in\\-place.", "1. Find the largest index *k* such that {{math\\|''a''\\[''k''] \\< ''a''\\[''k'' \\+ 1]}}. If no such index exists, the permutation is the last permutation.\n2. Find the largest index *l* greater than *k* such that {{math\\|''a''\\[''k''] \\< ''a''\\[''l'']}}.\n3. Swap the value of *a*\\[*k*] with that of *a*\\[*l*].\n4. Reverse the sequence from *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] up to and including the final element *a*\\[*n*].\nFor example, given the sequence \\[1, 2, 3, 4] (which is in increasing order), and given that the index is [zero\\-based](/wiki/Zero-based_numbering \"Zero-based numbering\"), the steps are as follows:\n5. Index *k* \\= 2, because 3 is placed at an index that satisfies condition of being the largest index that is still less than *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] which is 4\\.\n6. Index *l* \\= 3, because 4 is the only value in the sequence that is greater than 3 in order to satisfy the condition *a*\\[*k*] \\< *a*\\[*l*].\n7. The values of *a*\\[2] and *a*\\[3] are swapped to form the new sequence \\[1, 2, 4, 3].\n8. The sequence after *k*\\-index *a*\\[2] to the final element is reversed. Because only one value lies after this index (the 3\\), the sequence remains unchanged in this instance. Thus the lexicographic successor of the initial state is permuted: \\[1, 2, 4, 3].\nFollowing this algorithm, the next lexicographic permutation will be \\[1, 3, 2, 4], and the 24th permutation will be \\[4, 3, 2, 1] at which point *a*\\[*k*] \\< *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] does not exist, indicating that this is the last permutation.", "This method uses about 3 comparisons and 1\\.5 swaps per permutation, amortized over the whole sequence, not counting the initial sort.{{cite web\\|title\\=std::next\\_permutation\\|url\\=http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/algorithm/next\\_permutation\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2018\\|work\\=cppreference.com\\|date\\=4 December 2017}}", "#### Generation with minimal changes", "{{main\\|Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\\|Heap's algorithm}}\nAn alternative to the above algorithm, the [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm \"Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\"), generates an ordering on all the permutations of a given sequence with the property that any two consecutive permutations in its output differ by swapping two adjacent values. This ordering on the permutations was known to 17th\\-century English bell ringers, among whom it was known as \"plain changes\". One advantage of this method is that the small amount of change from one permutation to the next allows the method to be implemented in constant time per permutation. The same can also easily generate the subset of even permutations, again in constant time per permutation, by skipping every other output permutation.{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}}", "An alternative to Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter is [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm \"Heap's algorithm\"),{{cite journal\\|last\\=Heap\\|first\\=B. R.\\|title\\=Permutations by Interchanges\\|journal\\=The Computer Journal\\|year\\=1963\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=293–298\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/comjnl/6\\.3\\.293\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} said by [Robert Sedgewick](/wiki/Robert_Sedgewick_%28computer_scientist%29 \"Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)\") in 1977 to be the fastest algorithm of generating permutations in applications.", "The following figure shows the output of all three aforementioned algorithms for generating all permutations of length n\\=4, and of six additional algorithms described in the literature.\n[thumb\\|center\\|upright\\=2\\.2\\|Ordering of all permutations of length n\\=4 generated by different algorithms. The permutations are color\\-coded, where {{legend\\-inline\\|red\\|1}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|yellow\\|2}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|green\\|3}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|blue\\|4}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://combos.org/perm\\|title\\=Generate permutations\\|last1\\=Mütze\\|first1\\=Torsten\\|last2\\=Sawada\\|first2\\=Joe\\|last3\\=Williams\\|first3\\=Aaron\\|website\\=Combinatorial Object Server\\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019}}](/wiki/File:Permutation_generation_algorithms10.svg \"Permutation generation algorithms10.svg\")", "1. Lexicographic ordering;\n2. [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm \"Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\");\n3. [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm \"Heap's algorithm\");\n4. Ehrlich's star\\-transposition algorithm:{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}} in each step, the first entry of the permutation is exchanged with a later entry;\n5. Zaks' prefix reversal algorithm:{{cite journal\\|last\\=Zaks\\|first\\=S.\\|title\\=A new algorithm for generation of permutations\\|journal\\=\\[\\[BIT Numerical Mathematics]]\\|year\\=1984\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=196–204\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF01937486\\|s2cid\\=30234652}} in each step, a prefix of the current permutation is reversed to obtain the next permutation;\n6. Sawada\\-Williams' algorithm:{{cite conference \\|title\\=A Hamilton path for the sigma\\-tau problem \\|last1\\=Sawada \\|first1\\=Joe \\|last2\\=Williams \\|first2\\=Aaron \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics]] (SIAM) \\| book\\-title\\=Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM\\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, SODA 2018 \\|pages\\=568–575 \\|location\\=New Orleans, Louisiana \\|doi\\=10\\.1137/1\\.9781611975031\\.37\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} each permutation differs from the previous one either by a cyclic left\\-shift by one position, or an exchange of the first two entries;\n7. Corbett's algorithm:{{cite journal\\|last\\=Corbett\\|first\\=P. F.\\|title\\=Rotator graphs: An efficient topology for point\\-to\\-point multiprocessor networks\\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems\\|year\\=1992\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=622–626\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/71\\.159045}} each permutation differs from the previous one by a cyclic left\\-shift of some prefix by one position;\n8. Single\\-track ordering:{{cite book \\|author\\-last\\=Arndt \\|author\\-first\\=Jörg\\|title\\=Matters Computational. Ideas, Algorithms, Source Code\\| date\\=2011\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media\\|Springer]]\\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-642\\-14764\\-7\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-14763\\-0}} each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns;\n9. Single\\-track Gray code: each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns, plus any two consecutive permutations differ only in one or two transpositions.\n10. Nested swaps generating algorithm in steps connected to the nested subgroups S\\_k\\\\subset S\\_{k\\+1}. Each permutation is obtained from the previous by a transposition multiplication to the left. Algorithm is connected to the [Factorial\\_number\\_system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\") of the index.", "#### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps", "Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book\n\\|author1\\=Popp, O.T. \\| title \\= Quickly Handling Big Permutations\n\\| orig\\-year \\= \n\\| edition \\= \n\\| year \\= 2002\n\\| pages \\= \n\\| publisher \\= priv. comm.\n\\| location \\= \n\\| oclc \\= \n}} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\\_{k\\-1}, continue retrieving S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} by cosets S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_i of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\\\tau\\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\\\lambda\\_m\\\\in S\\_m. So, after generating S\\_{k\\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} has to be \\\\tau\\_1\\=(p\\_1k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for some 1\\\\leq p\\_1\\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\\_{k\\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\\\tau\\_2\\=(p\\_2k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1.", "Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\\\tau\\_j\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for the cosets of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k; the ordered set (p\\_1,\\\\ldots , p\\_{k\\-1}) (0\\\\leq p\\_i\\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\\\tau\\_j(\\\\tau\\_i)^{\\-1}\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{j\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i\\+1}k)\\=\\\\varkappa\\_{ij}\\\\in S\\_{k\\-1}, that is, \\\\varkappa\\_{ij} (k)\\=k. Concluding, permutations \\\\tau\\_i\\\\in S\\_k\\-S\\_{k\\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\\>j\\>i\\\\geq 1, (\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1})^{j\\-i}p\\_{i}\\\\neq p\\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\\\lambda\\_k\\=\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-2}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure.", "EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\\\lambda\\_2 one has \\\\lambda\\_2\\=(12\\); to build \\\\lambda\\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=1 leads to \\\\lambda\\_3\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2\\=(13\\). To continue generating S\\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\\_1\\=1, p\\_2\\=2, p\\_3\\=3, leading to \\\\lambda\\_4\\=(13\\)(1234\\)(13\\)\\=(1432\\). Then, to build \\\\lambda\\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=p\\_3\\=p\\_4\\=1, leading to \\\\lambda\\_5\\=(15\\).", "From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\\_{k} in S\\_{k\\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\\\dots , k). With such choices the \"last\" permutation is \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k) for k odd and \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k\\_\\-)(12\\\\cdots k)(1k\\_\\-) for k even (k\\_\\-\\=k\\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\\=5(5!)\\+4(4!)\\+1(2!)\\+1(1!) is: \\\\sigma\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(56\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(46\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(36\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(26\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(16\\)\\\\lambda\\_5\\= \\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2((15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4\\)^4(\\\\lambda\\_5\\)^{\\-1}\\\\lambda\\_6\\=(23\\)(14325\\)^{\\-1}(15\\)(15\\)(123456\\)(15\\)\\=(23\\)(15234\\)(123456\\)(15\\), yelding finally, \\\\sigma\\=(1653\\)(24\\).", "Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap.", "### Applications", "Permutations are used in the [interleaver](/wiki/Interleaver \"Interleaver\") component of the [error detection and correction](/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction \"Error detection and correction\") algorithms, such as [turbo codes](/wiki/Turbo_codes \"Turbo codes\"), for example [3GPP Long Term Evolution](/wiki/3GPP_Long_Term_Evolution \"3GPP Long Term Evolution\") mobile telecommunication standard uses these ideas (see 3GPP technical specification 36\\.212{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html\\-info/36212\\.htm\\| title \\= 3GPP TS 36\\.212}}).\nSuch applications raise the question of fast generation of permutations satisfying certain desirable properties. One of the methods is based on the [permutation polynomials](/wiki/Permutation_polynomials \"Permutation polynomials\"). Also as a base for optimal hashing in Unique Permutation Hashing.{{cite journal \\|first1\\=Shlomi \\|last1\\=Dolev \\|first2\\=Limor \\|last2\\=Lahiani \\|first3\\=Yinnon \\|last3\\=Haviv \\|title\\=Unique permutation hashing \\|journal\\=Theoretical Computer Science \\|volume\\=475 \\|year\\=2013 \\|pages\\=59–65 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.tcs.2012\\.12\\.047 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "" ]
### Algorithms to generate permutations In computing it may be required to generate permutations of a given sequence of values. The methods best adapted to do this depend on whether one wants some randomly chosen permutations, or all permutations, and in the latter case if a specific ordering is required. Another question is whether possible equality among entries in the given sequence is to be taken into account; if so, one should only generate distinct multiset permutations of the sequence. An obvious way to generate permutations of *n* is to generate values for the [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code "Lehmer code") (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system") representation of integers up to *n*!), and convert those into the corresponding permutations. However, the latter step, while straightforward, is hard to implement efficiently, because it requires *n* operations each of selection from a sequence and deletion from it, at an arbitrary position; of the obvious representations of the sequence as an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure "Array data structure") or a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list "Linked list"), both require (for different reasons) about *n*2/4 operations to perform the conversion. With *n* likely to be rather small (especially if generation of all permutations is needed) that is not too much of a problem, but it turns out that both for random and for systematic generation there are simple alternatives that do considerably better. For this reason it does not seem useful, although certainly possible, to employ a special data structure that would allow performing the conversion from Lehmer code to permutation in [*O*(*n* log *n*)](/wiki/Big_O_notation "Big O notation") time. #### Random generation of permutations {{Main\|Fisher–Yates shuffle}} For generating [random permutations](/wiki/Random_permutation "Random permutation") of a given sequence of *n* values, it makes no difference whether one applies a randomly selected permutation of *n* to the sequence, or chooses a random element from the set of distinct (multiset) permutations of the sequence. This is because, even though in case of repeated values there can be many distinct permutations of *n* that result in the same permuted sequence, the number of such permutations is the same for each possible result. Unlike for systematic generation, which becomes unfeasible for large *n* due to the growth of the number *n*!, there is no reason to assume that *n* will be small for random generation. The basic idea to generate a random permutation is to generate at random one of the *n*! sequences of integers *d*1,*d*2,...,*d**n* satisfying {{math\|0 ≤ ''d''''i'' \< ''i''}} (since *d*1 is always zero it may be omitted) and to convert it to a permutation through a [bijective](/wiki/Bijective "Bijective") correspondence. For the latter correspondence one could interpret the (reverse) sequence as a Lehmer code, and this gives a generation method first published in 1938 by [Ronald Fisher](/wiki/Ronald_Fisher "Ronald Fisher") and [Frank Yates](/wiki/Frank_Yates "Frank Yates").{{cite book \|author1\=Fisher, R.A. \|author2\=Yates, F. \| title \= Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research \| orig\-year \= 1938 \| edition \= 3rd \| year \= 1948 \| pages \= 26–27 \| publisher \= Oliver \& Boyd \| location \= London \| oclc \= 14222135 }} While at the time computer implementation was not an issue, this method suffers from the difficulty sketched above to convert from Lehmer code to permutation efficiently. This can be remedied by using a different bijective correspondence: after using *d**i* to select an element among *i* remaining elements of the sequence (for decreasing values of *i*), rather than removing the element and compacting the sequence by shifting down further elements one place, one [swaps](/wiki/Swap_%28computer_science%29 "Swap (computer science)") the element with the final remaining element. Thus the elements remaining for selection form a consecutive range at each point in time, even though they may not occur in the same order as they did in the original sequence. The mapping from sequence of integers to permutations is somewhat complicated, but it can be seen to produce each permutation in exactly one way, by an immediate [induction](/wiki/Induction_%28mathematics%29 "Induction (mathematics)"). When the selected element happens to be the final remaining element, the swap operation can be omitted. This does not occur sufficiently often to warrant testing for the condition, but the final element must be included among the candidates of the selection, to guarantee that all permutations can be generated. The resulting algorithm for generating a random permutation of `a[0], a[1], ..., a[n − 1]` can be described as follows in [pseudocode](/wiki/Pseudocode "Pseudocode"): **for** *i* **from** *n* **downto** 2 **do** *di* ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* − 1 } **swap** *a*\[*di*] and *a*\[*i* − 1] This can be combined with the initialization of the array `a[i] = i` as follows **for** *i* **from** 0 **to** *n*−1 **do** *d**i*\+1 ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* } *a*\[*i*] ← *a*\[*d**i*\+1] *a*\[*d**i*\+1] ← *i* If *d**i*\+1 \= *i*, the first assignment will copy an uninitialized value, but the second will overwrite it with the correct value *i*. However, Fisher\-Yates is not the fastest algorithm for generating a permutation, because Fisher\-Yates is essentially a sequential algorithm and "divide and conquer" procedures can achieve the same result in parallel.{{cite news\|author1\=Bacher, A. \|author2\=Bodini, O.\|author3\=Hwang, H.K.\|author4\=Tsai, T.H. \| title \= Generating Random Permutations by Coin Tossing: Classical Algorithms, New Analysis, and Modern Implementation. \| edition \= ACM Trans. Algorithms 13(2\): 24:1–24:43 \| year \= 2017 \| pages \= 24–43 }} #### Generation in lexicographic order There are many ways to systematically generate all permutations of a given sequence.{{cite journal \|last\=Sedgewick\|first\=R \|title\=Permutation generation methods \|journal\=Computing Surveys\|year\=1977\|volume\=9 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=137–164 \|url\=http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\~goodman/22m150\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221185652/http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\~goodman/22m150\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-02\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|doi\=10\.1145/356689\.356692 \|s2cid\=12139332 }} One classic, simple, and flexible algorithm is based upon finding the next permutation in [lexicographic ordering](/wiki/Lexicographic_ordering "Lexicographic ordering"), if it exists. It can handle repeated values, for which case it generates each distinct multiset permutation once. Even for ordinary permutations it is significantly more efficient than generating values for the Lehmer code in lexicographic order (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system")) and converting those to permutations. It begins by sorting the sequence in (weakly) [increasing](/wiki/Increasing "Increasing") order (which gives its lexicographically minimal permutation), and then repeats advancing to the next permutation as long as one is found. The method goes back to [Narayana Pandita](/wiki/Narayana_Pandit "Narayana Pandit") in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} The following algorithm generates the next permutation lexicographically after a given permutation. It changes the given permutation in\-place. 1. Find the largest index *k* such that {{math\|''a''\[''k''] \< ''a''\[''k'' \+ 1]}}. If no such index exists, the permutation is the last permutation. 2. Find the largest index *l* greater than *k* such that {{math\|''a''\[''k''] \< ''a''\[''l'']}}. 3. Swap the value of *a*\[*k*] with that of *a*\[*l*]. 4. Reverse the sequence from *a*\[*k* \+ 1] up to and including the final element *a*\[*n*]. For example, given the sequence \[1, 2, 3, 4] (which is in increasing order), and given that the index is [zero\-based](/wiki/Zero-based_numbering "Zero-based numbering"), the steps are as follows: 5. Index *k* \= 2, because 3 is placed at an index that satisfies condition of being the largest index that is still less than *a*\[*k* \+ 1] which is 4\. 6. Index *l* \= 3, because 4 is the only value in the sequence that is greater than 3 in order to satisfy the condition *a*\[*k*] \< *a*\[*l*]. 7. The values of *a*\[2] and *a*\[3] are swapped to form the new sequence \[1, 2, 4, 3]. 8. The sequence after *k*\-index *a*\[2] to the final element is reversed. Because only one value lies after this index (the 3\), the sequence remains unchanged in this instance. Thus the lexicographic successor of the initial state is permuted: \[1, 2, 4, 3]. Following this algorithm, the next lexicographic permutation will be \[1, 3, 2, 4], and the 24th permutation will be \[4, 3, 2, 1] at which point *a*\[*k*] \< *a*\[*k* \+ 1] does not exist, indicating that this is the last permutation. This method uses about 3 comparisons and 1\.5 swaps per permutation, amortized over the whole sequence, not counting the initial sort.{{cite web\|title\=std::next\_permutation\|url\=http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/algorithm/next\_permutation\|access\-date\=31 March 2018\|work\=cppreference.com\|date\=4 December 2017}} #### Generation with minimal changes {{main\|Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\|Heap's algorithm}} An alternative to the above algorithm, the [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm "Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm"), generates an ordering on all the permutations of a given sequence with the property that any two consecutive permutations in its output differ by swapping two adjacent values. This ordering on the permutations was known to 17th\-century English bell ringers, among whom it was known as "plain changes". One advantage of this method is that the small amount of change from one permutation to the next allows the method to be implemented in constant time per permutation. The same can also easily generate the subset of even permutations, again in constant time per permutation, by skipping every other output permutation.{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} An alternative to Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter is [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm "Heap's algorithm"),{{cite journal\|last\=Heap\|first\=B. R.\|title\=Permutations by Interchanges\|journal\=The Computer Journal\|year\=1963\|volume\=6\|issue\=3\|pages\=293–298\|doi\=10\.1093/comjnl/6\.3\.293\|doi\-access\=free}} said by [Robert Sedgewick](/wiki/Robert_Sedgewick_%28computer_scientist%29 "Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)") in 1977 to be the fastest algorithm of generating permutations in applications. The following figure shows the output of all three aforementioned algorithms for generating all permutations of length n\=4, and of six additional algorithms described in the literature. [thumb\|center\|upright\=2\.2\|Ordering of all permutations of length n\=4 generated by different algorithms. The permutations are color\-coded, where {{legend\-inline\|red\|1}}, {{legend\-inline\|yellow\|2}}, {{legend\-inline\|green\|3}}, {{legend\-inline\|blue\|4}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://combos.org/perm\|title\=Generate permutations\|last1\=Mütze\|first1\=Torsten\|last2\=Sawada\|first2\=Joe\|last3\=Williams\|first3\=Aaron\|website\=Combinatorial Object Server\|access\-date\=May 29, 2019}}](/wiki/File:Permutation_generation_algorithms10.svg "Permutation generation algorithms10.svg") 1. Lexicographic ordering; 2. [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm "Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm"); 3. [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm "Heap's algorithm"); 4. Ehrlich's star\-transposition algorithm:{{sfn\|Knuth\|2005\|pp\=1–26}} in each step, the first entry of the permutation is exchanged with a later entry; 5. Zaks' prefix reversal algorithm:{{cite journal\|last\=Zaks\|first\=S.\|title\=A new algorithm for generation of permutations\|journal\=\[\[BIT Numerical Mathematics]]\|year\=1984\|volume\=24\|issue\=2\|pages\=196–204\|doi\=10\.1007/BF01937486\|s2cid\=30234652}} in each step, a prefix of the current permutation is reversed to obtain the next permutation; 6. Sawada\-Williams' algorithm:{{cite conference \|title\=A Hamilton path for the sigma\-tau problem \|last1\=Sawada \|first1\=Joe \|last2\=Williams \|first2\=Aaron \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=\[\[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics]] (SIAM) \| book\-title\=Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, SODA 2018 \|pages\=568–575 \|location\=New Orleans, Louisiana \|doi\=10\.1137/1\.9781611975031\.37\|doi\-access\=free }} each permutation differs from the previous one either by a cyclic left\-shift by one position, or an exchange of the first two entries; 7. Corbett's algorithm:{{cite journal\|last\=Corbett\|first\=P. F.\|title\=Rotator graphs: An efficient topology for point\-to\-point multiprocessor networks\|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems\|year\=1992\|volume\=3\|issue\=5\|pages\=622–626\|doi\=10\.1109/71\.159045}} each permutation differs from the previous one by a cyclic left\-shift of some prefix by one position; 8. Single\-track ordering:{{cite book \|author\-last\=Arndt \|author\-first\=Jörg\|title\=Matters Computational. Ideas, Algorithms, Source Code\| date\=2011\| publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media\|Springer]]\| doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-642\-14764\-7\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-14763\-0}} each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns; 9. Single\-track Gray code: each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns, plus any two consecutive permutations differ only in one or two transpositions. 10. Nested swaps generating algorithm in steps connected to the nested subgroups S\_k\\subset S\_{k\+1}. Each permutation is obtained from the previous by a transposition multiplication to the left. Algorithm is connected to the [Factorial\_number\_system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system "Factorial number system") of the index. #### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book \|author1\=Popp, O.T. \| title \= Quickly Handling Big Permutations \| orig\-year \= \| edition \= \| year \= 2002 \| pages \= \| publisher \= priv. comm. \| location \= \| oclc \= }} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\_{k\-1}, continue retrieving S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} by cosets S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_i of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\tau\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\lambda\_m\\in S\_m. So, after generating S\_{k\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} has to be \\tau\_1\=(p\_1k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for some 1\\leq p\_1\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\_{k\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\tau\_2\=(p\_2k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1. Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\tau\_j\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for the cosets of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k; the ordered set (p\_1,\\ldots , p\_{k\-1}) (0\\leq p\_i\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\tau\_j(\\tau\_i)^{\-1}\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{j\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i\+1}k)\=\\varkappa\_{ij}\\in S\_{k\-1}, that is, \\varkappa\_{ij} (k)\=k. Concluding, permutations \\tau\_i\\in S\_k\-S\_{k\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\>j\>i\\geq 1, (\\lambda\_{k\-1})^{j\-i}p\_{i}\\neq p\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\lambda\_k\=\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-2}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure. EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\lambda\_2 one has \\lambda\_2\=(12\); to build \\lambda\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\_1\=p\_2\=1 leads to \\lambda\_3\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2\=(13\). To continue generating S\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\_1\=1, p\_2\=2, p\_3\=3, leading to \\lambda\_4\=(13\)(1234\)(13\)\=(1432\). Then, to build \\lambda\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\_1\=p\_2\=p\_3\=p\_4\=1, leading to \\lambda\_5\=(15\). From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\_{k} in S\_{k\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\dots , k). With such choices the "last" permutation is \\lambda\_k\=(1k) for k odd and \\lambda\_k\=(1k\_\-)(12\\cdots k)(1k\_\-) for k even (k\_\-\=k\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\=5(5!)\+4(4!)\+1(2!)\+1(1!) is: \\sigma\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(56\)\\lambda\_5(46\)\\lambda\_5(36\)\\lambda\_5(26\)\\lambda\_5(16\)\\lambda\_5\= \\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2((15\)\\lambda\_4\)^4(\\lambda\_5\)^{\-1}\\lambda\_6\=(23\)(14325\)^{\-1}(15\)(15\)(123456\)(15\)\=(23\)(15234\)(123456\)(15\), yelding finally, \\sigma\=(1653\)(24\). Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap.
[ "### Algorithms to generate permutations", "In computing it may be required to generate permutations of a given sequence of values. The methods best adapted to do this depend on whether one wants some randomly chosen permutations, or all permutations, and in the latter case if a specific ordering is required. Another question is whether possible equality among entries in the given sequence is to be taken into account; if so, one should only generate distinct multiset permutations of the sequence.", "An obvious way to generate permutations of *n* is to generate values for the [Lehmer code](/wiki/Lehmer_code \"Lehmer code\") (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\") representation of integers up to *n*!), and convert those into the corresponding permutations. However, the latter step, while straightforward, is hard to implement efficiently, because it requires *n* operations each of selection from a sequence and deletion from it, at an arbitrary position; of the obvious representations of the sequence as an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure \"Array data structure\") or a [linked list](/wiki/Linked_list \"Linked list\"), both require (for different reasons) about *n*2/4 operations to perform the conversion. With *n* likely to be rather small (especially if generation of all permutations is needed) that is not too much of a problem, but it turns out that both for random and for systematic generation there are simple alternatives that do considerably better. For this reason it does not seem useful, although certainly possible, to employ a special data structure that would allow performing the conversion from Lehmer code to permutation in [*O*(*n* log *n*)](/wiki/Big_O_notation \"Big O notation\") time.", "#### Random generation of permutations", "{{Main\\|Fisher–Yates shuffle}}\nFor generating [random permutations](/wiki/Random_permutation \"Random permutation\") of a given sequence of *n* values, it makes no difference whether one applies a randomly selected permutation of *n* to the sequence, or chooses a random element from the set of distinct (multiset) permutations of the sequence. This is because, even though in case of repeated values there can be many distinct permutations of *n* that result in the same permuted sequence, the number of such permutations is the same for each possible result. Unlike for systematic generation, which becomes unfeasible for large *n* due to the growth of the number *n*!, there is no reason to assume that *n* will be small for random generation.", "The basic idea to generate a random permutation is to generate at random one of the *n*! sequences of integers *d*1,*d*2,...,*d**n* satisfying {{math\\|0 ≤ ''d''''i'' \\< ''i''}} (since *d*1 is always zero it may be omitted) and to convert it to a permutation through a [bijective](/wiki/Bijective \"Bijective\") correspondence. For the latter correspondence one could interpret the (reverse) sequence as a Lehmer code, and this gives a generation method first published in 1938 by [Ronald Fisher](/wiki/Ronald_Fisher \"Ronald Fisher\") and [Frank Yates](/wiki/Frank_Yates \"Frank Yates\").{{cite book\n\\|author1\\=Fisher, R.A. \\|author2\\=Yates, F. \\| title \\= Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research\n\\| orig\\-year \\= 1938\n\\| edition \\= 3rd\n\\| year \\= 1948\n\\| pages \\= 26–27\n\\| publisher \\= Oliver \\& Boyd\n\\| location \\= London\n\\| oclc \\= 14222135\n}}\nWhile at the time computer implementation was not an issue, this method suffers from the difficulty sketched above to convert from Lehmer code to permutation efficiently. This can be remedied by using a different bijective correspondence: after using *d**i* to select an element among *i* remaining elements of the sequence (for decreasing values of *i*), rather than removing the element and compacting the sequence by shifting down further elements one place, one [swaps](/wiki/Swap_%28computer_science%29 \"Swap (computer science)\") the element with the final remaining element. Thus the elements remaining for selection form a consecutive range at each point in time, even though they may not occur in the same order as they did in the original sequence. The mapping from sequence of integers to permutations is somewhat complicated, but it can be seen to produce each permutation in exactly one way, by an immediate [induction](/wiki/Induction_%28mathematics%29 \"Induction (mathematics)\"). When the selected element happens to be the final remaining element, the swap operation can be omitted. This does not occur sufficiently often to warrant testing for the condition, but the final element must be included among the candidates of the selection, to guarantee that all permutations can be generated.", "The resulting algorithm for generating a random permutation of `a[0], a[1], ..., a[n − 1]` can be described as follows in [pseudocode](/wiki/Pseudocode \"Pseudocode\"):", "**for** *i* **from** *n* **downto** 2 **do**\n*di* ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* − 1 }\n **swap** *a*\\[*di*] and *a*\\[*i* − 1]", "This can be combined with the initialization of the array `a[i] = i` as follows", "**for** *i* **from** 0 **to** *n*−1 **do**\n*d**i*\\+1 ← random element of { 0, ..., *i* }\n *a*\\[*i*] ← *a*\\[*d**i*\\+1]\n *a*\\[*d**i*\\+1] ← *i*", "If *d**i*\\+1 \\= *i*, the first assignment will copy an uninitialized value, but the second will overwrite it with the correct value *i*.", "However, Fisher\\-Yates is not the fastest algorithm for generating a permutation, because Fisher\\-Yates is essentially a sequential algorithm and \"divide and conquer\" procedures can achieve the same result in parallel.{{cite news\\|author1\\=Bacher, A. \\|author2\\=Bodini, O.\\|author3\\=Hwang, H.K.\\|author4\\=Tsai, T.H. \\| title \\= Generating Random Permutations by Coin Tossing: Classical Algorithms, New Analysis, and Modern Implementation.\n\\| edition \\= ACM Trans. Algorithms 13(2\\): 24:1–24:43\n\\| year \\= 2017\n\\| pages \\= 24–43\n}}", "#### Generation in lexicographic order", "There are many ways to systematically generate all permutations of a given sequence.{{cite journal\n\\|last\\=Sedgewick\\|first\\=R\n\\|title\\=Permutation generation methods\n\\|journal\\=Computing Surveys\\|year\\=1977\\|volume\\=9\n\\|issue\\=2\n\\|pages\\=137–164\n\\|url\\=http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\\~goodman/22m150\\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221185652/http://www.math.uiowa.edu/\\~goodman/22m150\\.dir/2007/Permutation%20Generation%20Methods.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\n\\|doi\\=10\\.1145/356689\\.356692\n\\|s2cid\\=12139332\n}}\nOne classic, simple, and flexible algorithm is based upon finding the next permutation in [lexicographic ordering](/wiki/Lexicographic_ordering \"Lexicographic ordering\"), if it exists. It can handle repeated values, for which case it generates each distinct multiset permutation once. Even for ordinary permutations it is significantly more efficient than generating values for the Lehmer code in lexicographic order (possibly using the [factorial number system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\")) and converting those to permutations. It begins by sorting the sequence in (weakly) [increasing](/wiki/Increasing \"Increasing\") order (which gives its lexicographically minimal permutation), and then repeats advancing to the next permutation as long as one is found. The method goes back to [Narayana Pandita](/wiki/Narayana_Pandit \"Narayana Pandit\") in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}}", "The following algorithm generates the next permutation lexicographically after a given permutation. It changes the given permutation in\\-place.", "1. Find the largest index *k* such that {{math\\|''a''\\[''k''] \\< ''a''\\[''k'' \\+ 1]}}. If no such index exists, the permutation is the last permutation.\n2. Find the largest index *l* greater than *k* such that {{math\\|''a''\\[''k''] \\< ''a''\\[''l'']}}.\n3. Swap the value of *a*\\[*k*] with that of *a*\\[*l*].\n4. Reverse the sequence from *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] up to and including the final element *a*\\[*n*].\nFor example, given the sequence \\[1, 2, 3, 4] (which is in increasing order), and given that the index is [zero\\-based](/wiki/Zero-based_numbering \"Zero-based numbering\"), the steps are as follows:\n5. Index *k* \\= 2, because 3 is placed at an index that satisfies condition of being the largest index that is still less than *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] which is 4\\.\n6. Index *l* \\= 3, because 4 is the only value in the sequence that is greater than 3 in order to satisfy the condition *a*\\[*k*] \\< *a*\\[*l*].\n7. The values of *a*\\[2] and *a*\\[3] are swapped to form the new sequence \\[1, 2, 4, 3].\n8. The sequence after *k*\\-index *a*\\[2] to the final element is reversed. Because only one value lies after this index (the 3\\), the sequence remains unchanged in this instance. Thus the lexicographic successor of the initial state is permuted: \\[1, 2, 4, 3].\nFollowing this algorithm, the next lexicographic permutation will be \\[1, 3, 2, 4], and the 24th permutation will be \\[4, 3, 2, 1] at which point *a*\\[*k*] \\< *a*\\[*k* \\+ 1] does not exist, indicating that this is the last permutation.", "This method uses about 3 comparisons and 1\\.5 swaps per permutation, amortized over the whole sequence, not counting the initial sort.{{cite web\\|title\\=std::next\\_permutation\\|url\\=http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/algorithm/next\\_permutation\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2018\\|work\\=cppreference.com\\|date\\=4 December 2017}}", "#### Generation with minimal changes", "{{main\\|Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\\|Heap's algorithm}}\nAn alternative to the above algorithm, the [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm \"Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\"), generates an ordering on all the permutations of a given sequence with the property that any two consecutive permutations in its output differ by swapping two adjacent values. This ordering on the permutations was known to 17th\\-century English bell ringers, among whom it was known as \"plain changes\". One advantage of this method is that the small amount of change from one permutation to the next allows the method to be implemented in constant time per permutation. The same can also easily generate the subset of even permutations, again in constant time per permutation, by skipping every other output permutation.{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}}", "An alternative to Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter is [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm \"Heap's algorithm\"),{{cite journal\\|last\\=Heap\\|first\\=B. R.\\|title\\=Permutations by Interchanges\\|journal\\=The Computer Journal\\|year\\=1963\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=293–298\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/comjnl/6\\.3\\.293\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} said by [Robert Sedgewick](/wiki/Robert_Sedgewick_%28computer_scientist%29 \"Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)\") in 1977 to be the fastest algorithm of generating permutations in applications.", "The following figure shows the output of all three aforementioned algorithms for generating all permutations of length n\\=4, and of six additional algorithms described in the literature.\n[thumb\\|center\\|upright\\=2\\.2\\|Ordering of all permutations of length n\\=4 generated by different algorithms. The permutations are color\\-coded, where {{legend\\-inline\\|red\\|1}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|yellow\\|2}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|green\\|3}}, {{legend\\-inline\\|blue\\|4}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://combos.org/perm\\|title\\=Generate permutations\\|last1\\=Mütze\\|first1\\=Torsten\\|last2\\=Sawada\\|first2\\=Joe\\|last3\\=Williams\\|first3\\=Aaron\\|website\\=Combinatorial Object Server\\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019}}](/wiki/File:Permutation_generation_algorithms10.svg \"Permutation generation algorithms10.svg\")", "1. Lexicographic ordering;\n2. [Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm](/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Johnson%E2%80%93Trotter_algorithm \"Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm\");\n3. [Heap's algorithm](/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm \"Heap's algorithm\");\n4. Ehrlich's star\\-transposition algorithm:{{sfn\\|Knuth\\|2005\\|pp\\=1–26}} in each step, the first entry of the permutation is exchanged with a later entry;\n5. Zaks' prefix reversal algorithm:{{cite journal\\|last\\=Zaks\\|first\\=S.\\|title\\=A new algorithm for generation of permutations\\|journal\\=\\[\\[BIT Numerical Mathematics]]\\|year\\=1984\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=196–204\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF01937486\\|s2cid\\=30234652}} in each step, a prefix of the current permutation is reversed to obtain the next permutation;\n6. Sawada\\-Williams' algorithm:{{cite conference \\|title\\=A Hamilton path for the sigma\\-tau problem \\|last1\\=Sawada \\|first1\\=Joe \\|last2\\=Williams \\|first2\\=Aaron \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics]] (SIAM) \\| book\\-title\\=Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM\\-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, SODA 2018 \\|pages\\=568–575 \\|location\\=New Orleans, Louisiana \\|doi\\=10\\.1137/1\\.9781611975031\\.37\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} each permutation differs from the previous one either by a cyclic left\\-shift by one position, or an exchange of the first two entries;\n7. Corbett's algorithm:{{cite journal\\|last\\=Corbett\\|first\\=P. F.\\|title\\=Rotator graphs: An efficient topology for point\\-to\\-point multiprocessor networks\\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems\\|year\\=1992\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=622–626\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/71\\.159045}} each permutation differs from the previous one by a cyclic left\\-shift of some prefix by one position;\n8. Single\\-track ordering:{{cite book \\|author\\-last\\=Arndt \\|author\\-first\\=Jörg\\|title\\=Matters Computational. Ideas, Algorithms, Source Code\\| date\\=2011\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media\\|Springer]]\\| doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-642\\-14764\\-7\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-14763\\-0}} each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns;\n9. Single\\-track Gray code: each column is a cyclic shift of the other columns, plus any two consecutive permutations differ only in one or two transpositions.\n10. Nested swaps generating algorithm in steps connected to the nested subgroups S\\_k\\\\subset S\\_{k\\+1}. Each permutation is obtained from the previous by a transposition multiplication to the left. Algorithm is connected to the [Factorial\\_number\\_system](/wiki/Factorial_number_system \"Factorial number system\") of the index.", "#### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps", "Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book\n\\|author1\\=Popp, O.T. \\| title \\= Quickly Handling Big Permutations\n\\| orig\\-year \\= \n\\| edition \\= \n\\| year \\= 2002\n\\| pages \\= \n\\| publisher \\= priv. comm.\n\\| location \\= \n\\| oclc \\= \n}} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\\_{k\\-1}, continue retrieving S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} by cosets S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_i of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\\\tau\\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\\\lambda\\_m\\\\in S\\_m. So, after generating S\\_{k\\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} has to be \\\\tau\\_1\\=(p\\_1k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for some 1\\\\leq p\\_1\\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\\_{k\\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\\\tau\\_2\\=(p\\_2k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1.", "Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\\\tau\\_j\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for the cosets of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k; the ordered set (p\\_1,\\\\ldots , p\\_{k\\-1}) (0\\\\leq p\\_i\\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\\\tau\\_j(\\\\tau\\_i)^{\\-1}\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{j\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i\\+1}k)\\=\\\\varkappa\\_{ij}\\\\in S\\_{k\\-1}, that is, \\\\varkappa\\_{ij} (k)\\=k. Concluding, permutations \\\\tau\\_i\\\\in S\\_k\\-S\\_{k\\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\\>j\\>i\\\\geq 1, (\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1})^{j\\-i}p\\_{i}\\\\neq p\\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\\\lambda\\_k\\=\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-2}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure.", "EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\\\lambda\\_2 one has \\\\lambda\\_2\\=(12\\); to build \\\\lambda\\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=1 leads to \\\\lambda\\_3\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2\\=(13\\). To continue generating S\\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\\_1\\=1, p\\_2\\=2, p\\_3\\=3, leading to \\\\lambda\\_4\\=(13\\)(1234\\)(13\\)\\=(1432\\). Then, to build \\\\lambda\\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=p\\_3\\=p\\_4\\=1, leading to \\\\lambda\\_5\\=(15\\).", "From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\\_{k} in S\\_{k\\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\\\dots , k). With such choices the \"last\" permutation is \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k) for k odd and \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k\\_\\-)(12\\\\cdots k)(1k\\_\\-) for k even (k\\_\\-\\=k\\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\\=5(5!)\\+4(4!)\\+1(2!)\\+1(1!) is: \\\\sigma\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(56\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(46\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(36\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(26\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(16\\)\\\\lambda\\_5\\= \\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2((15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4\\)^4(\\\\lambda\\_5\\)^{\\-1}\\\\lambda\\_6\\=(23\\)(14325\\)^{\\-1}(15\\)(15\\)(123456\\)(15\\)\\=(23\\)(15234\\)(123456\\)(15\\), yelding finally, \\\\sigma\\=(1653\\)(24\\).", "Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap.", "" ]
#### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book \|author1\=Popp, O.T. \| title \= Quickly Handling Big Permutations \| orig\-year \= \| edition \= \| year \= 2002 \| pages \= \| publisher \= priv. comm. \| location \= \| oclc \= }} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\_{k\-1}, continue retrieving S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} by cosets S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_i of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\tau\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\lambda\_m\\in S\_m. So, after generating S\_{k\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\_{k}\\backslash S\_{k\-1} has to be \\tau\_1\=(p\_1k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for some 1\\leq p\_1\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\_{k\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\tau\_2\=(p\_2k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\tau\_1. Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\tau\_j\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} for the cosets of S\_{k\-1} in S\_k; the ordered set (p\_1,\\ldots , p\_{k\-1}) (0\\leq p\_i\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\tau\_j(\\tau\_i)^{\-1}\=(p\_{j}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{j\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots \\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{i\+1}k)\=\\varkappa\_{ij}\\in S\_{k\-1}, that is, \\varkappa\_{ij} (k)\=k. Concluding, permutations \\tau\_i\\in S\_k\-S\_{k\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\>j\>i\\geq 1, (\\lambda\_{k\-1})^{j\-i}p\_{i}\\neq p\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\lambda\_k\=\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{k\-2}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1}\\cdots\\lambda\_{k\-1}(p\_{1}k)\\lambda\_{k\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure. EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\lambda\_2 one has \\lambda\_2\=(12\); to build \\lambda\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\_1\=p\_2\=1 leads to \\lambda\_3\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2\=(13\). To continue generating S\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\_1\=1, p\_2\=2, p\_3\=3, leading to \\lambda\_4\=(13\)(1234\)(13\)\=(1432\). Then, to build \\lambda\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\_1\=p\_2\=p\_3\=p\_4\=1, leading to \\lambda\_5\=(15\). From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\_{k} in S\_{k\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\dots , k). With such choices the "last" permutation is \\lambda\_k\=(1k) for k odd and \\lambda\_k\=(1k\_\-)(12\\cdots k)(1k\_\-) for k even (k\_\-\=k\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\=5(5!)\+4(4!)\+1(2!)\+1(1!) is: \\sigma\=\\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(15\)\\lambda\_4(56\)\\lambda\_5(46\)\\lambda\_5(36\)\\lambda\_5(26\)\\lambda\_5(16\)\\lambda\_5\= \\lambda\_2(13\)\\lambda\_2((15\)\\lambda\_4\)^4(\\lambda\_5\)^{\-1}\\lambda\_6\=(23\)(14325\)^{\-1}(15\)(15\)(123456\)(15\)\=(23\)(15234\)(123456\)(15\), yelding finally, \\sigma\=(1653\)(24\). Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap.
[ "#### Generation of permutations in nested swap steps", "Explicit sequence of swaps (transpositions, 2\\-cycles (pq)), is described here, each swap applied (on the left) to the previous chain providing a new permutation, such that all the permutations can be retrieved, each only once.{{cite book\n\\|author1\\=Popp, O.T. \\| title \\= Quickly Handling Big Permutations\n\\| orig\\-year \\= \n\\| edition \\= \n\\| year \\= 2002\n\\| pages \\= \n\\| publisher \\= priv. comm.\n\\| location \\= \n\\| oclc \\= \n}} This counting/generating procedure has an additional structure (call it nested), as it is given in steps: after completely retrieving S\\_{k\\-1}, continue retrieving S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} by cosets S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_i of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k, by appropriately choosing the coset representatives \\\\tau\\_i to be described below. Note that, since each S\\_m is sequentially generated, there is a *last element* \\\\lambda\\_m\\\\in S\\_m. So, after generating S\\_{k\\-1} by swaps, the next permutation in S\\_{k}\\\\backslash S\\_{k\\-1} has to be \\\\tau\\_1\\=(p\\_1k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for some 1\\\\leq p\\_1\\<k. Then all swaps that generated S\\_{k\\-1} are repeated, generating the whole coset S\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1, reaching the last permutation in that coset \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1; the next swap has to move the permutation to representative of another coset \\\\tau\\_2\\=(p\\_2k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\tau\\_1.", "Continuing the same way, one gets coset representatives \\\\tau\\_j\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} for the cosets of S\\_{k\\-1} in S\\_k; the ordered set (p\\_1,\\\\ldots , p\\_{k\\-1}) (0\\\\leq p\\_i\\<k) is called the set of coset beginnings. Two of these representatives are in the same coset if and only if \\\\tau\\_j(\\\\tau\\_i)^{\\-1}\\=(p\\_{j}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{j\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots \\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{i\\+1}k)\\=\\\\varkappa\\_{ij}\\\\in S\\_{k\\-1}, that is, \\\\varkappa\\_{ij} (k)\\=k. Concluding, permutations \\\\tau\\_i\\\\in S\\_k\\-S\\_{k\\-1} are all representatives of distinct cosets if and only if for any k\\>j\\>i\\\\geq 1, (\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1})^{j\\-i}p\\_{i}\\\\neq p\\_j (no repeat condition). In particular, for all generated permutations to be distinct it is not necessary for the p\\_i values to be distinct. In the process, one gets that \\\\lambda\\_k\\=\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{k\\-2}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}\\\\cdots\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1}(p\\_{1}k)\\\\lambda\\_{k\\-1} and this provides the recursion procedure.", "EXAMPLES: obviously, for \\\\lambda\\_2 one has \\\\lambda\\_2\\=(12\\); to build \\\\lambda\\_3 there are only two possibilities for the coset beginnings satisfying the no repeat condition; the choice p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=1 leads to \\\\lambda\\_3\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2\\=(13\\). To continue generating S\\_4 one needs appropriate coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition): there is a convenient choice: p\\_1\\=1, p\\_2\\=2, p\\_3\\=3, leading to \\\\lambda\\_4\\=(13\\)(1234\\)(13\\)\\=(1432\\). Then, to build \\\\lambda\\_5 a convenient choice for the coset beginnings (satisfying the no repeat condition) is p\\_1\\=p\\_2\\=p\\_3\\=p\\_4\\=1, leading to \\\\lambda\\_5\\=(15\\).", "From examples above one can inductively go to higher k in a similar way, choosing coset beginnings of S\\_{k} in S\\_{k\\+1}, as follows: for k even choosing all coset beginnings equal to 1 and for k odd choosing coset beginnings equal to (1, 2,\\\\dots , k). With such choices the \"last\" permutation is \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k) for k odd and \\\\lambda\\_k\\=(1k\\_\\-)(12\\\\cdots k)(1k\\_\\-) for k even (k\\_\\-\\=k\\-1). Using these explicit formulae one can easily compute the permutation of certain index in the counting/generation steps with minimum computation. For this, writing the index in factorial base is useful. For example, the permutation for index 699\\=5(5!)\\+4(4!)\\+1(2!)\\+1(1!) is: \\\\sigma\\=\\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4(56\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(46\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(36\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(26\\)\\\\lambda\\_5(16\\)\\\\lambda\\_5\\= \\\\lambda\\_2(13\\)\\\\lambda\\_2((15\\)\\\\lambda\\_4\\)^4(\\\\lambda\\_5\\)^{\\-1}\\\\lambda\\_6\\=(23\\)(14325\\)^{\\-1}(15\\)(15\\)(123456\\)(15\\)\\=(23\\)(15234\\)(123456\\)(15\\), yelding finally, \\\\sigma\\=(1653\\)(24\\).", "Because multiplying by swap permutation takes short computing time and every new generated permutation requires only one such swap multiplication, this generation procedure is quite efficient. Moreover as there is a simple formula, having the last permutation in each S\\_k can save even more time to go directly to a permutation with certain index in fewer steps than expected as it can be done in blocks of subgroups rather than swap by swap.", "" ]
Career ------ Susan began her studies with [Eleanor Sokoloff](/wiki/Eleanor_Sokoloff "Eleanor Sokoloff"){{cite news \|last \= Dobrin \|first \= Peter \|url \= https://www.inquirer.com/obituaries/curtis\-institute\-philadelphia\-eleanor\-sokoloff\-20200712\.html \|title \= Eleanor Sokoloff, 106, who taught at Curtis Institute for more than eight decades, dies \|newspaper \= \[\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \|date \= July 12, 2020 \|access\-date \= July 13, 2020}} at age four. Starr began her studies at the [Curtis Institute of Music](/wiki/Curtis_Institute_of_Music "Curtis Institute of Music") at the age of seven where she studied with [Rudolf Serkin](/wiki/Rudolf_Serkin "Rudolf Serkin") from the age of thirteen until her graduation in 1961, and was one of the youngest pianists to have studied at the institute. She was a Silver Medalist at the 1962 [Tchaikovsky Competition](/wiki/Tchaikovsky_Competition "Tchaikovsky Competition").{{cite magazine\| url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,896196,00\.html \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127152014/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,896196,00\.html \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=January 27, 2008 \| magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\| title\=Music: The Musical Life \| date\=May 18, 1962 \| access\-date\=May 24, 2010}} Starr performed on more than fifty occasions with the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra "Philadelphia Orchestra"), since her debut at age six, an engagement that marked her as the youngest soloist to ever appear with a major orchestra.{{Cite web \|title\=Susan Starr (Piano) – Short Biography \|url\=https://www.bach\-cantatas.com/Bio/Starr\-Susan.htm\#google\_vignette \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-19 \|website\=www.bach\-cantatas.com}} She has also been heard with the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic"), first appearing with them at age eight, and marking the start of her becoming a Steinway Artist, as well as the [Chicago Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Orchestra "Chicago Symphony Orchestra"), Moscow State Symphony, and the [National Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra "National Symphony Orchestra") and the orchestras of Atlanta, Baltimore, Dallas, St. Louis, Denver, Houston, Pittsburgh, Indianapolis, Memphis, Milwaukee, Minnesota, Montreal, New Jersey, New Orleans, and Vancouver, among others. In 1977, Starr performed at the White House at the invitation of [President Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter"). Among the eminent conductors who have chosen Starr as soloist throughout her career are [Charles Dutoit](/wiki/Charles_Dutoit "Charles Dutoit"), [Aldo Ceccato](/wiki/Aldo_Ceccato "Aldo Ceccato"), [Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos](/wiki/Rafael_Fr%C3%BChbeck_de_Burgos "Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos"), [Erich Kunzel](/wiki/Erich_Kunzel "Erich Kunzel"), [Raymond Leppard](/wiki/Raymond_Leppard "Raymond Leppard"), [Sir Neville Marriner](/wiki/Sir_Neville_Marriner "Sir Neville Marriner"), [Gennady Rozhdestvensky](/wiki/Gennady_Rozhdestvensky "Gennady Rozhdestvensky"), [Maxim Shostakovich](/wiki/Maxim_Shostakovich "Maxim Shostakovich"), [Joseph Silverstein](/wiki/Joseph_Silverstein "Joseph Silverstein"), [Stanisław Skrowaczewski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Skrowaczewski "Stanisław Skrowaczewski"), and [Leonard Slatkin](/wiki/Leonard_Slatkin "Leonard Slatkin") as well as the late conductors [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein"), [Arthur Fiedler](/wiki/Arthur_Fiedler "Arthur Fiedler"), [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy "Eugene Ormandy"), [Max Rudolf](/wiki/Max_Rudolf_%28conductor%29 "Max Rudolf (conductor)"), [Robert Shaw](/wiki/Robert_Shaw_%28conductor%29 "Robert Shaw (conductor)"), and [William Steinberg](/wiki/William_Steinberg "William Steinberg"). More recently she has performed under the baton of conductors such as [Kenneth Schermerhorn](/wiki/Kenneth_Schermerhorn "Kenneth Schermerhorn"), [Leif Bjaland](/wiki/Leif_Bjaland "Leif Bjaland"), [Emil de Cou](/wiki/Emil_de_Cou "Emil de Cou"), Gerhardt Zimmerman, [George Hanson](/wiki/George_Hanson "George Hanson"), Alastair Neale, [Richard Westerfield](/wiki/Richard_Westerfield "Richard Westerfield"), [Miguel Harth\-Bedoya](/wiki/Miguel_Harth-Bedoya "Miguel Harth-Bedoya"), [Michael Christie](/wiki/Michael_Christie_%28conductor%29 "Michael Christie (conductor)"), and [William Eddins](/wiki/William_Eddins "William Eddins"). Starr's active international career has taken her on three tours of the Soviet Union, more than a dozen trips to the Far East and South America, as well as to Belgium, England, Germany, Greece, Italy and Sweden, and Hong Kong. Starr returned to Moscow later in 1994 as one of the judges of the Tchaikovsky Competition. Over the span of her career, she has judged many international competitions. She remains busy performing and teaching. Students from all over the world seek her instruction. Many have met her through summer festivals including the [Sarasota Music Festival](/wiki/Sarasota_Music_Festival "Sarasota Music Festival") or the Piano Institute at New Paltz. In the United States, she has also made appearances at the [Ravinia](/wiki/Ravinia_Festival "Ravinia Festival"), [Chautauqua](/wiki/Chautauqua%23Music "Chautauqua#Music"), [Mann Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Mann_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts "Mann Center for the Performing Arts"), Grand Teton Music Festival, and Ann Arbor May{{cite web \|url\=http://events.detnews.com/ann\-arbor\-mi/venues/show/47850\-hill\-auditorium \|title\=Hill Auditorium \- Ann Arbor, MI \- Detroit News \|website\=events.detnews.com \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120707224521/http://events.detnews.com/ann\-arbor\-mi/venues/show/47850\-hill\-auditorium \|archive\-date\=7 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} festivals. Among her engagements for September, 2004–2005 season are performances of the Mendelssohn Piano Concerto and Sergei Rachmaninov–Paganini Variations with the Augusta Symphony; Schumann Piano Concerto with the Curtis Institute Orchestra in Kimmel Center's Verizon Hall; Shostakovich Concerto No. 1 with the Philadelphia Classical Symphony and S. Rachmaninov\-Paganini Variations with Rutgers University Orchestra in Isaac Stern Auditorium at Carnegie Hall. Starr was a Distinguished Professor at [Mason Gross School of the Arts](/wiki/Mason_Gross_School_of_the_Arts "Mason Gross School of the Arts") at [Rutgers University](/wiki/Rutgers_University "Rutgers University").{{cite web \|url\=http://musicweb.rutgers.edu/info/fac\-bio/starr.htm \|title\=Susan Starr \|website\=musicweb.rutgers.edu \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20000122041532/http://musicweb.rutgers.edu/info/fac\-bio/starr.htm \|archive\-date\=22 January 2000 \|url\-status\=dead}} She has appeared on hundreds of television programs including The Tonight Show. The most recent one is *[Performance Today](/wiki/Performance_Today "Performance Today")*.{{cite web\|author\=\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=1013552 \|title\=Pianist Susan Starr, A Winner \|publisher\=\[\[NPR]]\|date\=1998\-07\-15 \|access\-date\=2017\-03\-05}}
[ "Career\n------", "Susan began her studies with [Eleanor Sokoloff](/wiki/Eleanor_Sokoloff \"Eleanor Sokoloff\"){{cite news \\|last \\= Dobrin \\|first \\= Peter \\|url \\= https://www.inquirer.com/obituaries/curtis\\-institute\\-philadelphia\\-eleanor\\-sokoloff\\-20200712\\.html \\|title \\= Eleanor Sokoloff, 106, who taught at Curtis Institute for more than eight decades, dies \\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] \\|date \\= July 12, 2020 \\|access\\-date \\= July 13, 2020}} at age four. Starr began her studies at the [Curtis Institute of Music](/wiki/Curtis_Institute_of_Music \"Curtis Institute of Music\") at the age of seven where she studied with [Rudolf Serkin](/wiki/Rudolf_Serkin \"Rudolf Serkin\") from the age of thirteen until her graduation in 1961, and was one of the youngest pianists to have studied at the institute. She was a Silver Medalist at the 1962 [Tchaikovsky Competition](/wiki/Tchaikovsky_Competition \"Tchaikovsky Competition\").{{cite magazine\\| url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,896196,00\\.html \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127152014/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,896196,00\\.html \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=January 27, 2008 \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\| title\\=Music: The Musical Life \\| date\\=May 18, 1962 \\| access\\-date\\=May 24, 2010}}", "Starr performed on more than fifty occasions with the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra \"Philadelphia Orchestra\"), since her debut at age six, an engagement that marked her as the youngest soloist to ever appear with a major orchestra.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Susan Starr (Piano) – Short Biography \\|url\\=https://www.bach\\-cantatas.com/Bio/Starr\\-Susan.htm\\#google\\_vignette \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-19 \\|website\\=www.bach\\-cantatas.com}} She has also been heard with the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\"), first appearing with them at age eight, and marking the start of her becoming a Steinway Artist, as well as the [Chicago Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Orchestra \"Chicago Symphony Orchestra\"), Moscow State Symphony, and the [National Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra \"National Symphony Orchestra\") and the orchestras of Atlanta, Baltimore, Dallas, St. Louis, Denver, Houston, Pittsburgh, Indianapolis, Memphis, Milwaukee, Minnesota, Montreal, New Jersey, New Orleans, and Vancouver, among others. In 1977, Starr performed at the White House at the invitation of [President Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\").", "Among the eminent conductors who have chosen Starr as soloist throughout her career are [Charles Dutoit](/wiki/Charles_Dutoit \"Charles Dutoit\"), [Aldo Ceccato](/wiki/Aldo_Ceccato \"Aldo Ceccato\"), [Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos](/wiki/Rafael_Fr%C3%BChbeck_de_Burgos \"Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos\"), [Erich Kunzel](/wiki/Erich_Kunzel \"Erich Kunzel\"), [Raymond Leppard](/wiki/Raymond_Leppard \"Raymond Leppard\"), [Sir Neville Marriner](/wiki/Sir_Neville_Marriner \"Sir Neville Marriner\"), [Gennady Rozhdestvensky](/wiki/Gennady_Rozhdestvensky \"Gennady Rozhdestvensky\"), [Maxim Shostakovich](/wiki/Maxim_Shostakovich \"Maxim Shostakovich\"), [Joseph Silverstein](/wiki/Joseph_Silverstein \"Joseph Silverstein\"), [Stanisław Skrowaczewski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Skrowaczewski \"Stanisław Skrowaczewski\"), and [Leonard Slatkin](/wiki/Leonard_Slatkin \"Leonard Slatkin\") as well as the late conductors [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), [Arthur Fiedler](/wiki/Arthur_Fiedler \"Arthur Fiedler\"), [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\"), [Max Rudolf](/wiki/Max_Rudolf_%28conductor%29 \"Max Rudolf (conductor)\"), [Robert Shaw](/wiki/Robert_Shaw_%28conductor%29 \"Robert Shaw (conductor)\"), and [William Steinberg](/wiki/William_Steinberg \"William Steinberg\"). More recently she has performed under the baton of conductors such as [Kenneth Schermerhorn](/wiki/Kenneth_Schermerhorn \"Kenneth Schermerhorn\"), [Leif Bjaland](/wiki/Leif_Bjaland \"Leif Bjaland\"), [Emil de Cou](/wiki/Emil_de_Cou \"Emil de Cou\"), Gerhardt Zimmerman, [George Hanson](/wiki/George_Hanson \"George Hanson\"), Alastair Neale, [Richard Westerfield](/wiki/Richard_Westerfield \"Richard Westerfield\"), [Miguel Harth\\-Bedoya](/wiki/Miguel_Harth-Bedoya \"Miguel Harth-Bedoya\"), [Michael Christie](/wiki/Michael_Christie_%28conductor%29 \"Michael Christie (conductor)\"), and [William Eddins](/wiki/William_Eddins \"William Eddins\").", "Starr's active international career has taken her on three tours of the Soviet Union, more than a dozen trips to the Far East and South America, as well as to Belgium, England, Germany, Greece, Italy and Sweden, and Hong Kong. Starr returned to Moscow later in 1994 as one of the judges of the Tchaikovsky Competition. Over the span of her career, she has judged many international competitions.", "She remains busy performing and teaching. Students from all over the world seek her instruction. Many have met her through summer festivals including the [Sarasota Music Festival](/wiki/Sarasota_Music_Festival \"Sarasota Music Festival\") or the Piano Institute at New Paltz. In the United States, she has also made appearances at the [Ravinia](/wiki/Ravinia_Festival \"Ravinia Festival\"), [Chautauqua](/wiki/Chautauqua%23Music \"Chautauqua#Music\"), [Mann Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Mann_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts \"Mann Center for the Performing Arts\"), Grand Teton Music Festival, and Ann Arbor May{{cite web \\|url\\=http://events.detnews.com/ann\\-arbor\\-mi/venues/show/47850\\-hill\\-auditorium \\|title\\=Hill Auditorium \\- Ann Arbor, MI \\- Detroit News \\|website\\=events.detnews.com \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120707224521/http://events.detnews.com/ann\\-arbor\\-mi/venues/show/47850\\-hill\\-auditorium \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} festivals.", "Among her engagements for September, 2004–2005 season are performances of the Mendelssohn Piano Concerto and Sergei Rachmaninov–Paganini Variations with the Augusta Symphony; Schumann Piano Concerto with the Curtis Institute Orchestra in Kimmel Center's Verizon Hall; Shostakovich Concerto No. 1 with the Philadelphia Classical Symphony and S. Rachmaninov\\-Paganini Variations with Rutgers University Orchestra in Isaac Stern Auditorium at Carnegie Hall.", "Starr was a Distinguished Professor at [Mason Gross School of the Arts](/wiki/Mason_Gross_School_of_the_Arts \"Mason Gross School of the Arts\") at [Rutgers University](/wiki/Rutgers_University \"Rutgers University\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://musicweb.rutgers.edu/info/fac\\-bio/starr.htm \\|title\\=Susan Starr \\|website\\=musicweb.rutgers.edu \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20000122041532/http://musicweb.rutgers.edu/info/fac\\-bio/starr.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=22 January 2000 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "She has appeared on hundreds of television programs including The Tonight Show. The most recent one is *[Performance Today](/wiki/Performance_Today \"Performance Today\")*.{{cite web\\|author\\=\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=1013552 \\|title\\=Pianist Susan Starr, A Winner \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NPR]]\\|date\\=1998\\-07\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-05}}", "" ]
Politics -------- {{Main\|Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War\#Causes}} [left\|thumb\|The Burgundian Party adopted a [St. Andrew's Cross](/wiki/Saltire "Saltire") formed from two rough cut branches with buds as its symbol. This symbol is the predecessor to the [Cross of Burgundy](/wiki/Cross_of_Burgundy "Cross of Burgundy").](/wiki/Image:Coa_Illustration_Cross_Of_Burgundy.svg "Coa Illustration Cross Of Burgundy.svg") Partisan use of the term "Burgundian" arose from a feud between [John II, Duke of Burgundy](/wiki/John_the_Fearless "John the Fearless") and [Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Louis_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Louis I, Duke of Orléans"). The latter was the brother of King [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France "Charles VI of France"), the former was his cousin. When Charles VI’s mental illness interrupted his ability to rule, John II and Louis I vied for power in a bitter dispute. Popular rumor attributed an adulterous affair to the Duke of Orléans and French queen [Isabeau of Bavaria](/wiki/Isabeau_of_Bavaria "Isabeau of Bavaria"). Supporters of the two dukes became known as "Burgundians" and "Orleanists", respectively. Other than in Burgundy's own lands, the Duke's supporters were particularly powerful in Paris, where the butchers' guild, notably, closely supported him. The partisan terms outlasted the lives of these two men. John, Duke of Burgundy ordered the [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_Louis_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orléans") of Louis of Orléans in 1407\.{{cite book \|last1\=Small \|first1\=Graeme \|editor1\-last\=Curry \|editor1\-first\=Anne \|title\=The Hundred Years War Revisited \|date\=24 August 2019 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1\-137\-38987\-9 \|page\=45 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XI9KEAAAQBAJ \|language\=en \|chapter\=French politics during the Hundred Years War}} Burgundian partisans at the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris "University of Paris") published a treatise justifying this as [tyrannicide](/wiki/Tyrannicide "Tyrannicide") in the belief that the Duke of Orléans had been plotting to kill the king and usurp the throne. Leadership of his party passed nominally to his son, [Charles](/wiki/Charles%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Charles, Duke of Orléans"), but in fact to the young duke's father\-in\-law, [Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac](/wiki/Bernard_VII%2C_Count_of_Armagnac "Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac"). Bernard VII would form a league in opposition to the Burgundians in [Gien](/wiki/Gien "Gien"), the [Armagnac party](/wiki/Armagnac_%28party%29 "Armagnac (party)"). Both parties sought the support of the Kingdom of England. The Armagnacs through [treaty](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bourges "Treaty of Bourges") with the English King [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England "Henry IV of England"), to secure his military aid; the Burgundians by remaining neutral when the English invaded Normandy. That neutrality led to Orléans's capture by the English at [Agincourt](/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt "Battle of Agincourt") in 1415\. After Armagnac's murder by a Burgundian mob in Paris in 1418, leadership of the party devolved upon the young [Dauphin](/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France "Charles VII of France"), who retreated to [Bourges](/wiki/Bourges "Bourges"). After 1418, then, Burgundy controlled both Paris and the person of the king. However, the whole dispute was proving deleterious to the war effort against the English, as both sides focused more on fighting one another than on preventing the English from conquering [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy"). In 1419, the Duke and the Dauphin negotiated a truce to allow both sides to focus on fighting the English. However, in a further parley, the Duke was murdered by the Dauphin's supporters as revenge for the murder of Orléans twelve years before. Burgundian party leadership passed to [Philip III, Duke of Burgundy](/wiki/Philip_the_Good "Philip the Good"). Duke Philip entered an alliance with England. Due to his influence and that of the queen, Isabeau, who had by now joined the Burgundian party, the mad king was induced to sign the [Treaty of Troyes](/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes "Treaty of Troyes") with England in 1420, by which Charles VI recognized [Henry V of England](/wiki/Henry_V_of_England "Henry V of England") as his heir, disinheriting his own son the Dauphin. When Henry V and Charles VI both died within months of each other, leaving Henry's son [Henry VI of England](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England "Henry VI of England") as heir to both England and France, Philip the Good and the Burgundians continued to support the English. Nevertheless, dissension grew between Philip and the English regent, [John, Duke of Bedford](/wiki/John_of_Lancaster%2C_1st_Duke_of_Bedford "John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford"). Although family ties between Burgundy and Bedford (who had married the Duke's sister) prevented an outright rupture during Bedford's lifetime. Burgundy gradually withdrew support for the English and began to seek an understanding with the Dauphin, by now [Charles VII of France](/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France "Charles VII of France"). The two sides finally reconciled at the [Congress of Arras](/wiki/Congress_of_Arras "Congress of Arras") in 1435, resulting in a treaty which allowed the French king to finally return to his capital.
[ "Politics\n--------", "{{Main\\|Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War\\#Causes}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|The Burgundian Party adopted a [St. Andrew's Cross](/wiki/Saltire \"Saltire\") formed from two rough cut branches with buds as its symbol. This symbol is the predecessor to the [Cross of Burgundy](/wiki/Cross_of_Burgundy \"Cross of Burgundy\").](/wiki/Image:Coa_Illustration_Cross_Of_Burgundy.svg \"Coa Illustration Cross Of Burgundy.svg\")\nPartisan use of the term \"Burgundian\" arose from a feud between [John II, Duke of Burgundy](/wiki/John_the_Fearless \"John the Fearless\") and [Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Louis_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Louis I, Duke of Orléans\"). The latter was the brother of King [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France \"Charles VI of France\"), the former was his cousin. When Charles VI’s mental illness interrupted his ability to rule, John II and Louis I vied for power in a bitter dispute. Popular rumor attributed an adulterous affair to the Duke of Orléans and French queen [Isabeau of Bavaria](/wiki/Isabeau_of_Bavaria \"Isabeau of Bavaria\"). Supporters of the two dukes became known as \"Burgundians\" and \"Orleanists\", respectively.", "Other than in Burgundy's own lands, the Duke's supporters were particularly powerful in Paris, where the butchers' guild, notably, closely supported him.", "The partisan terms outlasted the lives of these two men. John, Duke of Burgundy ordered the [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_Louis_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orléans\") of Louis of Orléans in 1407\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Small \\|first1\\=Graeme \\|editor1\\-last\\=Curry \\|editor1\\-first\\=Anne \\|title\\=The Hundred Years War Revisited \\|date\\=24 August 2019 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-137\\-38987\\-9 \\|page\\=45 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XI9KEAAAQBAJ \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=French politics during the Hundred Years War}} Burgundian partisans at the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris \"University of Paris\") published a treatise justifying this as [tyrannicide](/wiki/Tyrannicide \"Tyrannicide\") in the belief that the Duke of Orléans had been plotting to kill the king and usurp the throne. Leadership of his party passed nominally to his son, [Charles](/wiki/Charles%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Charles, Duke of Orléans\"), but in fact to the young duke's father\\-in\\-law, [Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac](/wiki/Bernard_VII%2C_Count_of_Armagnac \"Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac\"). Bernard VII would form a league in opposition to the Burgundians in [Gien](/wiki/Gien \"Gien\"), the [Armagnac party](/wiki/Armagnac_%28party%29 \"Armagnac (party)\"). Both parties sought the support of the Kingdom of England. The Armagnacs through [treaty](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bourges \"Treaty of Bourges\") with the English King [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England \"Henry IV of England\"), to secure his military aid; the Burgundians by remaining neutral when the English invaded Normandy. That neutrality led to Orléans's capture by the English at [Agincourt](/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt \"Battle of Agincourt\") in 1415\\. After Armagnac's murder by a Burgundian mob in Paris in 1418, leadership of the party devolved upon the young [Dauphin](/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France \"Charles VII of France\"), who retreated to [Bourges](/wiki/Bourges \"Bourges\").", "After 1418, then, Burgundy controlled both Paris and the person of the king. However, the whole dispute was proving deleterious to the war effort against the English, as both sides focused more on fighting one another than on preventing the English from conquering [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\"). In 1419, the Duke and the Dauphin negotiated a truce to allow both sides to focus on fighting the English. However, in a further parley, the Duke was murdered by the Dauphin's supporters as revenge for the murder of Orléans twelve years before.", "Burgundian party leadership passed to [Philip III, Duke of Burgundy](/wiki/Philip_the_Good \"Philip the Good\"). Duke Philip entered an alliance with England. Due to his influence and that of the queen, Isabeau, who had by now joined the Burgundian party, the mad king was induced to sign the [Treaty of Troyes](/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes \"Treaty of Troyes\") with England in 1420, by which Charles VI recognized [Henry V of England](/wiki/Henry_V_of_England \"Henry V of England\") as his heir, disinheriting his own son the Dauphin.", "When Henry V and Charles VI both died within months of each other, leaving Henry's son [Henry VI of England](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England \"Henry VI of England\") as heir to both England and France, Philip the Good and the Burgundians continued to support the English. Nevertheless, dissension grew between Philip and the English regent, [John, Duke of Bedford](/wiki/John_of_Lancaster%2C_1st_Duke_of_Bedford \"John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford\"). Although family ties between Burgundy and Bedford (who had married the Duke's sister) prevented an outright rupture during Bedford's lifetime. Burgundy gradually withdrew support for the English and began to seek an understanding with the Dauphin, by now [Charles VII of France](/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France \"Charles VII of France\"). The two sides finally reconciled at the [Congress of Arras](/wiki/Congress_of_Arras \"Congress of Arras\") in 1435, resulting in a treaty which allowed the French king to finally return to his capital.", "" ]
Baseball career --------------- Born in [Laurinburg, North Carolina](/wiki/Laurinburg%2C_North_Carolina "Laurinburg, North Carolina"), Covington attended Laurinburg High School then transferred and graduated from [Hillside High School](/wiki/Hillside_High_School_%28Durham%2C_North_Carolina%29 "Hillside High School (Durham, North Carolina)") in Durham, where he was a football star. He didn't begin playing baseball until 1950 but his skills caught the eye of Boston Braves scout Dewey Griggs.{{Cite web \|url\=https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\-covington/ \|title\=Wes Covington – Society for American Baseball Research \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925042027/https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\-covington/ \|url\-status\=live }} Covington was offered a contract and assigned to the Class C [Eau Claire Bears](/wiki/Eau_Claire_Bears "Eau Claire Bears") in 1952\. While playing for the Eau Claire Bears, he first met team\-mate [Hank Aaron](/wiki/Hank_Aaron "Hank Aaron") Covington roomed with Aaron and catcher [Julie Bowers](/wiki/Julie_Bowers "Julie Bowers"), who had played in the [Negro leagues](/wiki/Negro_leagues "Negro leagues"), at the local [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA "YMCA") that season.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\-staten\-islanders\-who\-played\-in\-the\-negro\-leagues\-julie\-bowers\-career\-had\-major\-league\-impact.html \|title\=Honoring Staten Islanders who played in the Negro Leagues: Julie Bowers' career had major league impact \|publisher\=silive.com \|date\= \|access\-date\=2021\-12\-05 \|archive\-date\=2021\-02\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203052922/https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\-staten\-islanders\-who\-played\-in\-the\-negro\-leagues\-julie\-bowers\-career\-had\-major\-league\-impact.html \|url\-status\=live }} Aaron and Covington became friends that year. Aaron said, “My closest friends on the Eau Clair Bears were (Wes) Covington and especially Julie Bowers. I often wonder what happened to Bowers … I haven’t heard from since 1952\.”[https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\-staten\-islanders\-who\-played\-in\-the\-negro\-leagues\-julie\-bowers\-career\-had\-major\-league\-impact.html](https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring-staten-islanders-who-played-in-the-negro-leagues-julie-bowers-career-had-major-league-impact.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921115856/https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\-staten\-islanders\-who\-played\-in\-the\-negro\-leagues\-julie\-bowers\-career\-had\-major\-league\-impact.html \|date\=2020\-09\-21 }}\> In 1957, Covington again found himself in the minors playing for the [Wichita Braves](/wiki/Wichita_Braves "Wichita Braves"). Braves had elected to go with [Bobby Thomson](/wiki/Bobby_Thomson "Bobby Thomson"). Covington was not happy about this development and when he tried to find out why he was demoted he got the run\-around from management. He was finally called up after the Braves had traded Thomson away to the [New York Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants "San Francisco Giants") with [Ray Crone](/wiki/Ray_Crone "Ray Crone") and [Danny O'Connell](/wiki/Danny_O%27Connell "Danny O'Connell") for [Red Schoendienst](/wiki/Red_Schoendienst "Red Schoendienst"). Covington's return sparked the [1957 Braves](/wiki/1957_Milwaukee_Braves_season "1957 Milwaukee Braves season") down the stretch and helped them win the [World Series](/wiki/1957_World_Series "1957 World Series").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/125052799\.html \|title\=Milwaukee\-Wisconsin Journal Sentinel – Wes Covington sparked '57 Braves \|access\-date\=2011\-07\-07 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210529/http://www.jsonline.com/sports/125052799\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Covington hit .284, with 21 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run "Home run"), and [drove in](/wiki/Run_batted_in "Run batted in") 65 runs, in just 96 games over the second half of the {{baseball year\|1957}} season. Covington's defensive play in the 1957 World Series was stellar. His two breathtaking catches in left field in game 2 and in game 5 helped to preserve victories for the Braves and pitcher [Lew Burdette](/wiki/Lew_Burdette "Lew Burdette").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseballhappenings.net/2011/07/wes\-covington\-79\-1957\-world\-series\-hero.html \|title\=Wes Covington \| 1957 World Series hero dies at 79 \~ Baseball Happenings \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919101259/https://www.baseballhappenings.net/2011/07/wes\-covington\-79\-1957\-world\-series\-hero.html \|url\-status\=live }} Covington hit .208 for the series with 6 strike\-outs and stole a base.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/postseason/1957\_WS.shtml \|title\=1957 World Series \- MLN vs. NYY \- Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2008\-06\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622160216/http://www.baseball\-reference.com/postseason/1957\_WS.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} In 1958 Covington had career\-high numbers when he hit .330 with 24 home runs with 74 RBIs in 90 games.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-almanac.com/players/player.php?p\=covinwe01 \|title\=Wes Covington Baseball Stats by Baseball Almanac \|publisher\=Baseball\-almanac.com \|date\= \|access\-date\=2021\-12\-05 \|archive\-date\=2021\-07\-29 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729202711/https://www.baseball\-almanac.com/players/player.php?p\=covinwe01 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/c/covinwe01\.shtml \|title\=Wes Covington Stats \| Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2018\-03\-27 \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-29 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529230623/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/c/covinwe01\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} In a game on May 31, 1958, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, against starter [Ron Kline](/wiki/Ron_Kline "Ron Kline"), Aaron, Mathews and Covington hit back to back to back home runs in the first inning in a game the Braves won 8–5\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/PIT/PIT195805310\.shtml \|title\=Milwaukee Braves at Pittsburgh Pirates Box Score, May 31, 1958 \| Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2020\-08\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830134224/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/PIT/PIT195805310\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} Once again the Braves went to the World Series where they again met the Yankees, only to lose the series in 7 games.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/postseason/1958\_WS.shtml \|title\=1958 World Series \- NYY vs. MLN \- Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2008\-06\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622173448/http://www.baseball\-reference.com/postseason/1958\_WS.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} Covington played in all 7 games and hit 269 with no home runs and 4 RBIs. Covington first started having problems with his knees in 1958 when he slide into 2nd base in spring training game and was out of action until May 2\. On August 20, 1959, he tore an ankle ligament and missed the remainder of the regular season. In 1961, he reported to camp out\-of\-shape and held out before the season. The Braves placed Covington on waivers after appearing in 9 games. By this time, he had developed bad knees which would hamper his playing time for the remainder of his career. The [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox") signed him on May 10\. He played 22 games for them, driving in 15 runs, with 4 home runs, and a .288 batting average.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/CHW/1961\.shtml \|title\=1961 Chicago White Sox Statistics \| Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927200824/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/CHW/1961\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} On June 10, he was traded along with [Stan Johnson](/wiki/Stan_Johnson "Stan Johnson"), [Bob Shaw](/wiki/Bob_Shaw_%28baseball%29 "Bob Shaw (baseball)") and [Gerry Staley](/wiki/Gerry_Staley "Gerry Staley") to the [Kansas City Athletics](/wiki/Kansas_City_Athletics "Kansas City Athletics") for [Andy Carey](/wiki/Andy_Carey "Andy Carey"), [Ray Herbert](/wiki/Ray_Herbert "Ray Herbert"), [Don Larsen](/wiki/Don_Larsen "Don Larsen") and [Al Pilarcik](/wiki/Al_Pilarcik "Al Pilarcik") on June 10\. From 1961 until 1965, Covington found a home with the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies "Philadelphia Phillies") as a part\-time outfielder and pinch\-hitter. His five years with the Phillies saw his number almost match those with the Braves.[https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\-](https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes-) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205232913/https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\-bankston/ \|date\=2021\-12\-05 }} covington/ He batted .284, with 61 home runs and 237 RBIs with the team. The Phillies were the last National League team to integrate. In 1957 the team hired its first black ballplayer \- 30 year\-old shortstop, [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy_%28shortstop%29 "John Kennedy (shortstop)"). Kennedy played a total of 5 games for the Phillies before he was shipped back to the minors.[https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the\-story\-of\-john\-kennedy\-the\-phillies\-](https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the-story-of-john-kennedy-the-phillies-) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205232850/https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the\-story\-of\-john\-kennedy\-the\-phillies\-forgotten\-first\-black\-player/ \|date\=2021\-12\-05 }} forgotten\-first\-black\-player/ When Covington joined, he became the first African\-American to play a major role with the team. His five years with the Phillies saw his numbers almost match those he had with the Braves. In an 11\-year career, Covington was a .279 hitter, with 131 homers, and 499 runs batted in, a .337 on\-base percentage, and a .466 slugging percentage, in 1,075 games. His best season came in 1958, when he posted career numbers in average (.330\), home runs (24\), and RBI (74\). After his knee injuries, Covington had the reputation of being a poor fielder and a slow runner. He said about this, "What someone else says about me being a bad outfielder doesn't bother me. I've heard it all before. They don't pay outfielders for what they do with the glove."\- Wes Covington in Crossing The Line: Black Major Leaguers, 1947\-1959 (Larry Moffi, Bison Books, 12/01/2006, Page 146\) Covington ended his Major League in 1966 with the [Los Angeles Dodgers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers "Los Angeles Dodgers"). He had started the season as a member of [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs "Chicago Cubs"). On May 11, the team released him. On May 28, 1966, he signed as a Free Agent with the Dodgers. The Dodgers went on to the World Series that year where they lost in four games to the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles"). Covington appeared in his last World Series game, as a pinch\-hitter, batting for relief pitcher [Bob Miller](/wiki/Bob_Miller_%28baseball%2C_born_1939%29 "Bob Miller (baseball, born 1939)") in game 1, striking out.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/LAN/LAN196610050\.shtml \|title\=1966 World Series Game 1, Baltimore Orioles at Los Angeles Dodgers, October 5, 1966 \| Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920041714/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/LAN/LAN196610050\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} After the season the Dodgers released him.
[ "Baseball career\n---------------", "Born in [Laurinburg, North Carolina](/wiki/Laurinburg%2C_North_Carolina \"Laurinburg, North Carolina\"), Covington attended Laurinburg High School then transferred and graduated from [Hillside High School](/wiki/Hillside_High_School_%28Durham%2C_North_Carolina%29 \"Hillside High School (Durham, North Carolina)\") in Durham, where he was a football star. He didn't begin playing baseball until 1950 but his skills caught the eye of Boston Braves scout Dewey Griggs.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\\-covington/ \\|title\\=Wes Covington – Society for American Baseball Research \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925042027/https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\\-covington/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Covington was offered a contract and assigned to the Class C [Eau Claire Bears](/wiki/Eau_Claire_Bears \"Eau Claire Bears\") in 1952\\. While playing for the Eau Claire Bears, he first met team\\-mate [Hank Aaron](/wiki/Hank_Aaron \"Hank Aaron\") Covington roomed with Aaron and catcher [Julie Bowers](/wiki/Julie_Bowers \"Julie Bowers\"), who had played in the [Negro leagues](/wiki/Negro_leagues \"Negro leagues\"), at the local [YMCA](/wiki/YMCA \"YMCA\") that season.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\\-staten\\-islanders\\-who\\-played\\-in\\-the\\-negro\\-leagues\\-julie\\-bowers\\-career\\-had\\-major\\-league\\-impact.html \\|title\\=Honoring Staten Islanders who played in the Negro Leagues: Julie Bowers' career had major league impact \\|publisher\\=silive.com \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203052922/https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\\-staten\\-islanders\\-who\\-played\\-in\\-the\\-negro\\-leagues\\-julie\\-bowers\\-career\\-had\\-major\\-league\\-impact.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Aaron and Covington became friends that year. Aaron said, “My closest friends on the Eau Clair Bears were (Wes) Covington and especially Julie Bowers. I often wonder what happened to Bowers … I haven’t heard from since 1952\\.”[https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\\-staten\\-islanders\\-who\\-played\\-in\\-the\\-negro\\-leagues\\-julie\\-bowers\\-career\\-had\\-major\\-league\\-impact.html](https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring-staten-islanders-who-played-in-the-negro-leagues-julie-bowers-career-had-major-league-impact.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921115856/https://www.silive.com/sports/2020/09/honoring\\-staten\\-islanders\\-who\\-played\\-in\\-the\\-negro\\-leagues\\-julie\\-bowers\\-career\\-had\\-major\\-league\\-impact.html \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-21 }}\\>", "In 1957, Covington again found himself in the minors playing for the [Wichita Braves](/wiki/Wichita_Braves \"Wichita Braves\"). Braves had elected to go with [Bobby Thomson](/wiki/Bobby_Thomson \"Bobby Thomson\"). Covington was not happy about this development and when he tried to find out why he was demoted he got the run\\-around from management. He was finally called up after the Braves had traded Thomson away to the [New York Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants \"San Francisco Giants\") with [Ray Crone](/wiki/Ray_Crone \"Ray Crone\") and [Danny O'Connell](/wiki/Danny_O%27Connell \"Danny O'Connell\") for [Red Schoendienst](/wiki/Red_Schoendienst \"Red Schoendienst\"). Covington's return sparked the [1957 Braves](/wiki/1957_Milwaukee_Braves_season \"1957 Milwaukee Braves season\") down the stretch and helped them win the [World Series](/wiki/1957_World_Series \"1957 World Series\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/125052799\\.html \\|title\\=Milwaukee\\-Wisconsin Journal Sentinel – Wes Covington sparked '57 Braves \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210529/http://www.jsonline.com/sports/125052799\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Covington hit .284, with 21 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\"), and [drove in](/wiki/Run_batted_in \"Run batted in\") 65 runs, in just 96 games over the second half of the {{baseball year\\|1957}} season.", "Covington's defensive play in the 1957 World Series was stellar. His two breathtaking catches in left field in game 2 and in game 5 helped to preserve victories for the Braves and pitcher [Lew Burdette](/wiki/Lew_Burdette \"Lew Burdette\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseballhappenings.net/2011/07/wes\\-covington\\-79\\-1957\\-world\\-series\\-hero.html \\|title\\=Wes Covington \\| 1957 World Series hero dies at 79 \\~ Baseball Happenings \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919101259/https://www.baseballhappenings.net/2011/07/wes\\-covington\\-79\\-1957\\-world\\-series\\-hero.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Covington hit .208 for the series with 6 strike\\-outs and stole a base.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/postseason/1957\\_WS.shtml \\|title\\=1957 World Series \\- MLN vs. NYY \\- Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-06\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622160216/http://www.baseball\\-reference.com/postseason/1957\\_WS.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 1958 Covington had career\\-high numbers when he hit .330 with 24 home runs with 74 RBIs in 90 games.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-almanac.com/players/player.php?p\\=covinwe01 \\|title\\=Wes Covington Baseball Stats by Baseball Almanac \\|publisher\\=Baseball\\-almanac.com \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-29 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729202711/https://www.baseball\\-almanac.com/players/player.php?p\\=covinwe01 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/c/covinwe01\\.shtml \\|title\\=Wes Covington Stats \\| Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-29 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529230623/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/c/covinwe01\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In a game on May 31, 1958, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, against starter [Ron Kline](/wiki/Ron_Kline \"Ron Kline\"), Aaron, Mathews and Covington hit back to back to back home runs in the first inning in a game the Braves won 8–5\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/PIT/PIT195805310\\.shtml \\|title\\=Milwaukee Braves at Pittsburgh Pirates Box Score, May 31, 1958 \\| Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830134224/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/PIT/PIT195805310\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Once again the Braves went to the World Series where they again met the Yankees, only to lose the series in 7 games.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/postseason/1958\\_WS.shtml \\|title\\=1958 World Series \\- NYY vs. MLN \\- Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-06\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622173448/http://www.baseball\\-reference.com/postseason/1958\\_WS.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Covington played in all 7 games and hit 269 with no home runs and 4 RBIs.", "Covington first started having problems with his knees in 1958 when he slide into 2nd base in spring training game and was out of action until May 2\\. On August 20, 1959, he tore an ankle ligament and missed the remainder of the regular season.", "In 1961, he reported to camp out\\-of\\-shape and held out before the season. The Braves placed Covington on waivers after appearing in 9 games. By this time, he had developed bad knees which would hamper his playing time for the remainder of his career. The [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\") signed him on May 10\\. He played 22 games for them, driving in 15 runs, with 4 home runs, and a .288 batting average.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/CHW/1961\\.shtml \\|title\\=1961 Chicago White Sox Statistics \\| Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927200824/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/CHW/1961\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On June 10, he was traded along with [Stan Johnson](/wiki/Stan_Johnson \"Stan Johnson\"), [Bob Shaw](/wiki/Bob_Shaw_%28baseball%29 \"Bob Shaw (baseball)\") and [Gerry Staley](/wiki/Gerry_Staley \"Gerry Staley\") to the [Kansas City Athletics](/wiki/Kansas_City_Athletics \"Kansas City Athletics\") for [Andy Carey](/wiki/Andy_Carey \"Andy Carey\"), [Ray Herbert](/wiki/Ray_Herbert \"Ray Herbert\"), [Don Larsen](/wiki/Don_Larsen \"Don Larsen\") and [Al Pilarcik](/wiki/Al_Pilarcik \"Al Pilarcik\") on June 10\\.", "From 1961 until 1965, Covington found a home with the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies \"Philadelphia Phillies\") as a part\\-time outfielder and pinch\\-hitter. His five years with the Phillies saw his number almost \nmatch those with the Braves.[https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\\-](https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes-) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205232913/https://sabr.org/bioproj/person/wes\\-bankston/ \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-05 }}\ncovington/ He batted .284, with 61 home runs and 237 RBIs with the team.", "The Phillies were the last National League team to integrate. In 1957 the team hired its first black ballplayer \\- 30 year\\-old shortstop, [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy_%28shortstop%29 \"John Kennedy (shortstop)\"). Kennedy played a total of 5 games for the Phillies before he was shipped back to the minors.[https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the\\-story\\-of\\-john\\-kennedy\\-the\\-phillies\\-](https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the-story-of-john-kennedy-the-phillies-) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205232850/https://billypenn.com/2017/02/01/the\\-story\\-of\\-john\\-kennedy\\-the\\-phillies\\-forgotten\\-first\\-black\\-player/ \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-05 }}\nforgotten\\-first\\-black\\-player/ When Covington joined, he became the first African\\-American to play a major role with the team. His five years with the Phillies saw his numbers almost \nmatch those he had with the Braves.", "In an 11\\-year career, Covington was a .279 hitter, with 131 homers, and 499 runs batted in, a .337 on\\-base percentage, and a .466 slugging percentage, in 1,075 games. His best season came in 1958, when he posted career numbers in average (.330\\), home runs (24\\), and RBI (74\\).", "After his knee injuries, Covington had the reputation of being a poor fielder and a slow runner. He said about this, \"What someone else says about me being a bad outfielder doesn't bother me. I've heard it all before. They don't pay outfielders for what they do with the glove.\"\\- Wes Covington in Crossing The Line: Black Major Leaguers, 1947\\-1959 (Larry Moffi, Bison Books, 12/01/2006, Page 146\\)", "Covington ended his Major League in 1966 with the [Los Angeles Dodgers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers \"Los Angeles Dodgers\"). He had started the season as a member of [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs \"Chicago Cubs\"). On May 11, the team released him.", "On May 28, 1966, he signed as a Free Agent with the Dodgers. The Dodgers went on to the World Series that year where they lost in four games to the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\"). Covington appeared in his last World Series game, as a pinch\\-hitter, batting for relief pitcher [Bob Miller](/wiki/Bob_Miller_%28baseball%2C_born_1939%29 \"Bob Miller (baseball, born 1939)\") in game 1, striking out.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/LAN/LAN196610050\\.shtml \\|title\\=1966 World Series Game 1, Baltimore Orioles at Los Angeles Dodgers, October 5, 1966 \\| Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920041714/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/LAN/LAN196610050\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After the season the Dodgers released him.", "" ]
Plot ---- Five days after the assault on the Abnegation faction by the Erudite leader Jeanine and her mind\-controlled Dauntless soldiers, Jeanine has declared [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law"), insisting the Divergents and their allies are the enemy. Among the Abnegation wreckage, the Dauntless leaders Max and Eric recover a box with all five faction symbols on its sides. Jeanine presumes that it contains data from the city's founders and the means to end the Divergence problem. As only Divergents can open the box, she orders all of them to be captured. The 17\-year\-old Divergent Tris; her Divergent boyfriend, Four, her Erudite brother Caleb; and the Dauntless troublemaker Peter hide within the Amity compound, led by Amity leader Johanna Rayes. Eric leads a Dauntless crew to test all the occupants for Divergence. Peter discloses the group's location as the others escape and board a train headed into Factionless territory. Four reveals to the Factionless that his real name is Tobias Eaton, the son of their leader Evelyn, whom he still resents for leaving him with his abusive father, Marcus. At the Factionless compound, Evelyn suggests that Dauntless and Factionless unite against Erudite, but Four declines. The next morning, the three leave for Candor to meet up with the remaining Dauntless who were given shelter there, including Tori and Tris's best friend, Christina. During the trek, a disheartened Caleb splits from the group. Upon arrival, Tris and Four are arrested and brought before Candor leader Jack Kang, who intends to deliver them to Jeanine. However, Four pleads for a trial with the use of Candor's [truth serum](/wiki/Truth_serum "Truth serum"). The serum reveals the real events, and they are absolved, but Tris tearfully admits killing Christina's lover, Will, which angers her. The Dauntless who have sided with Jeanine attack Candor, and many Candor members are shot with metal disks. Max and Eric capture Tris and discover that she has a Divergent reading of 100%, making her the perfect subject to open the box. Four arrives to save Tris and executes Eric for his crimes. Meanwhile, Jeanine, frustrated that none of the Divergent subjects has survived the simulations required to open the box, is approached by Peter, who suggests the best way to get to Tris is by exploiting her selfless Abnegation upbringing. Back at the Factionless base, Four reluctantly agrees with Evelyn that war is inevitable. Jeanine activates the disks, which are a [mind control](/wiki/Brainwashing "Brainwashing") device that causes Christina and her friends Marlene and Hector to walk robotically towards a ledge and ask for Tris's surrender. Tris and Tori manage to grab Christina and Hector in time, but Marlene plunges to her death. Overcome by guilt, Tris decides to turn herself in to Jeanine. At the Erudite headquarters, Tris threatens to kill herself, rather than comply, but she is stopped by the presence of Caleb, who is fully recommitted to Erudite. Tris agrees to undergo the trials if the suicides cease. Under Jeanine, Caleb, and Peter's watch, Tris overcomes the first four simulations before she requires rest. The next day, after discovering that Four was captured while he tried to rescue her, Tris fails the Amity trial, and her vital signs cease, shocking Jeanine. Peter takes her body to Four, reveals he faked her death, and assists him in overpowering the guards. Tris is now determined to unveil the box's message and so, with Peter's help, they return to the simulation room, and she successfully opens the box in front of everyone. A [hologram](/wiki/Hologram "Hologram") explains that the walled city and the faction system were part of an experiment, with the Divergents as its ultimate goal. The world is waiting outside for them to rejoin it. Realizing that she has lost all of her power, Jeanine orders the box to be buried and Four and Tris to be executed. However, the Factionless break into the room, incapacitate Max, and rescue the pair. Jeanine and Caleb are arrested and the message is broadcast to the entire city. Hailed as a hero, Tris is eager to explore the outside world. In her cell, Jeanine wonders what might lie beyond the wall. Evelyn tells her that she will never find out, then kills her.
[ "Plot\n----", "Five days after the assault on the Abnegation faction by the Erudite leader Jeanine and her mind\\-controlled Dauntless soldiers, Jeanine has declared [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\"), insisting the Divergents and their allies are the enemy.", "Among the Abnegation wreckage, the Dauntless leaders Max and Eric recover a box with all five faction symbols on its sides. Jeanine presumes that it contains data from the city's founders and the means to end the Divergence problem. As only Divergents can open the box, she orders all of them to be captured.", "The 17\\-year\\-old Divergent Tris; her Divergent boyfriend, Four, her Erudite brother Caleb; and the Dauntless troublemaker Peter hide within the Amity compound, led by Amity leader Johanna Rayes. Eric leads a Dauntless crew to test all the occupants for Divergence. Peter discloses the group's location as the others escape and board a train headed into Factionless territory.", "Four reveals to the Factionless that his real name is Tobias Eaton, the son of their leader Evelyn, whom he still resents for leaving him with his abusive father, Marcus. At the Factionless compound, Evelyn suggests that Dauntless and Factionless unite against Erudite, but Four declines.", "The next morning, the three leave for Candor to meet up with the remaining Dauntless who were given shelter there, including Tori and Tris's best friend, Christina. During the trek, a disheartened Caleb splits from the group.", "Upon arrival, Tris and Four are arrested and brought before Candor leader Jack Kang, who intends to deliver them to Jeanine. However, Four pleads for a trial with the use of Candor's [truth serum](/wiki/Truth_serum \"Truth serum\"). The serum reveals the real events, and they are absolved, but Tris tearfully admits killing Christina's lover, Will, which angers her.", "The Dauntless who have sided with Jeanine attack Candor, and many Candor members are shot with metal disks. Max and Eric capture Tris and discover that she has a Divergent reading of 100%, making her the perfect subject to open the box.", "Four arrives to save Tris and executes Eric for his crimes. Meanwhile, Jeanine, frustrated that none of the Divergent subjects has survived the simulations required to open the box, is approached by Peter, who suggests the best way to get to Tris is by exploiting her selfless Abnegation upbringing.", "Back at the Factionless base, Four reluctantly agrees with Evelyn that war is inevitable. Jeanine activates the disks, which are a [mind control](/wiki/Brainwashing \"Brainwashing\") device that causes Christina and her friends Marlene and Hector to walk robotically towards a ledge and ask for Tris's surrender. Tris and Tori manage to grab Christina and Hector in time, but Marlene plunges to her death. Overcome by guilt, Tris decides to turn herself in to Jeanine.", "At the Erudite headquarters, Tris threatens to kill herself, rather than comply, but she is stopped by the presence of Caleb, who is fully recommitted to Erudite. Tris agrees to undergo the trials if the suicides cease. Under Jeanine, Caleb, and Peter's watch, Tris overcomes the first four simulations before she requires rest.", "The next day, after discovering that Four was captured while he tried to rescue her, Tris fails the Amity trial, and her vital signs cease, shocking Jeanine. Peter takes her body to Four, reveals he faked her death, and assists him in overpowering the guards.", "Tris is now determined to unveil the box's message and so, with Peter's help, they return to the simulation room, and she successfully opens the box in front of everyone. A [hologram](/wiki/Hologram \"Hologram\") explains that the walled city and the faction system were part of an experiment, with the Divergents as its ultimate goal. The world is waiting outside for them to rejoin it.", "Realizing that she has lost all of her power, Jeanine orders the box to be buried and Four and Tris to be executed. However, the Factionless break into the room, incapacitate Max, and rescue the pair.", "Jeanine and Caleb are arrested and the message is broadcast to the entire city. Hailed as a hero, Tris is eager to explore the outside world. In her cell, Jeanine wonders what might lie beyond the wall. Evelyn tells her that she will never find out, then kills her.", "" ]
History ------- ### World War II #### Organization and training in the United States The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") was first activated on 15 April 1942 at [Harding Field](/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Metropolitan_Airport "Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport") as the **324th Bombardment Squadron**, one of the three original bombardment squadrons of the [91st Bombardment Group](/wiki/91st_Bombardment_Group "91st Bombardment Group").The group was also assigned a reconnaissance squadron, but this unit was quickly redesignated as the group's fourth bombardment squadron. Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 490–491 It was equipped with the [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"). It completed First Phase training at [MacDill Field](/wiki/MacDill_Field "MacDill Field") under [Third Air Force](/wiki/Third_Air_Force "Third Air Force"), with Second and Third Phase training at [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field "Walla Walla Army Air Field") under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force "Second Air Force") in Washington.{{Cite web\|url\= https://www.afhra.af.mil/About\-Us/Fact\-Sheets/Display/Article/432753/91\-operations\-group\-afspc/ \|title\=Factsheet 90 Operations Group (AFSPC) \|last1\=Lahue\|first1\=Melissa\|date\=1 September 2022\|publisher\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\|access\-date\=January 6, 2023}}Freeman, pp. 243\-244 The squadron's ground echelon left for [Fort Dix](/wiki/Fort_Dix "Fort Dix") in early September 1942, then boarded the {{RMS\|Queen Mary}} for transport to England. The air echelon moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field "Gowen Field"), Idaho on 24 August 1942, and began receiving new B\-17s there. It becan flying them from [Dow Field](/wiki/Dow_Field "Dow Field"), Maine in September, although it was not fully equipped with new aircraft until October. #### Combat in Europe [thumb\|91st Bombardment Group B\-17 at RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/File:RAF_Bassingbourn_-_91st_Bombardment_Group_-_B-17_43-38083.jpg "RAF Bassingbourn - 91st Bombardment Group - B-17 43-38083.jpg") The ground echelon was established temporarily at [RAF Kimbolton](/wiki/RAF_Kimbolton "RAF Kimbolton") by 13 September 1942\. However, the runways at Kimbolton were not up to handling heavy bombers,Freeman, p. 20 and the unit moved to what would be its permanent station in the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations "European Theater of Operations"), [RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/RAF_Bassingbourn "RAF Bassingbourn"), on 14 October 1942\. Bassingbourn had been a prewar [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") station, so the squadron found itself in more comfortable quarters than most of its contemporaries. The squadron primarily engaged in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe "Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe"), and flew its first mission on 7 November, an attack against [submarine pens](/wiki/Submarine_pen "Submarine pen") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France").Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 156\-158 Until the middle of 1943, The squadron concentrated its attacks on naval targets, including submarine pens, dockyards, ship construction facilities and harbors, although it also struck [airfields](/wiki/Airfield "Airfield"), factories, and communications facilities. On 27 January 1943, the unit attacked the [Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine "Kriegsmarine") yard at [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven "Wilhelmshaven") as part of the first penetration by bombers of [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command") to a target in Germany. On 4 March 1943, it attacked [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard "Marshalling yard") at [Hamm](/wiki/Hamm%2C_North_Rhine-Westphalia "Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia"), Germany despite adverse weather and heavy enemy opposition. For this action, it was awarded its first [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") (DUC). From the middle of 1943 to the end of the war, the squadron concentrated on attacks on German aviation, including attacks on aircraft factories, including ones at [Oranienburg](/wiki/Oranienburg "Oranienburg") and [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"); airfields at [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Air_Base "Oldenburg Air Base") and [Villacoublay](/wiki/V%C3%A9lizy-Villacoublay_Air_Base "Vélizy-Villacoublay Air Base"); the [ball bearing plants at Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt%E2%80%93Regensburg_mission "Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission"); chemical plants at [Leverkusen](/wiki/Leverkusen "Leverkusen") and [Peenemunde](/wiki/Peenemunde "Peenemunde"); and industrial facilities in [Ludwigshafen](/wiki/Ludwigshafen "Ludwigshafen"), [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main "Frankfurt am Main") and Wilhemshaven. As part of this attack on the German aircraft industry, on 11 January, the squadron penetrated into central Germany, despite bad weather, poor fighter cover, and strong attacks by enemy [interceptor aircraft](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft "Interceptor aircraft"), the unit succeeded in bombing its target, earning a second DUC. The squadron also performed [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction "Interdiction") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support "Air support") missions. It helped prepare for [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord"), the invasion of Normandy, by bombing [gun emplacements](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall "Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall") and troop concentrations near the beachhead area. It aided [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra "Operation Cobra"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo "Saint Lo"), in July 1944 by attacking enemy troop positions. It supported troops on the front lines near [Caen](/wiki/Caen "Caen") in August 1944 and attacked [lines of communications](/wiki/Lines_of_communications "Lines of communications") near the battlefield during the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge") in December 1944 and January 1945\. It attacked airfields, bridges, and railroads to support [Operation Lumberjack](/wiki/Operation_Lumberjack "Operation Lumberjack"), the push across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") in Germany, in 1945\. Following [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the squadron evacuated [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war "Prisoners of war") from German camps. The first B\-17 left Bassingbourn for the United States on 27 May 1945\. The ground echelon sailed aboard the {{RMS\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 24 June 1945\. The squadron was reestablished at [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field "Drew Field"), Florida in early July, with the intention of deploying it to the Pacific, but it was not fully manned or equipped, and inactivated on 7 November 1945\. ### Strategic reconnaissance {{unreferenced section\|date\=January 2023}} The squadron was reactivated in 1947 as a [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command") long\-range strategic reconnaissance squadron, although it was not manned or equipped until July 1948\. It used B\-17 and B\-29 bombers refitted for reconnaissance missions. The squadron deployed to Japan in 1950, and performed strategic reconnaissance missions over Korea and the Northern Pacific coast of People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The 324th re\-equipped with [North American RB\-45 Tornado](/wiki/North_American_RB-45_Tornado "North American RB-45 Tornado") jet reconnaissance aircraft, flying reconnaissance and mapping combat missions over Korea until returning to the United States in mid\-1952\. The squadron re\-equipped with RB\-47E Stratojets and performed various reconnaissance missions on a worldwide scale until inactivation in 1957\. ### Provisional unit In 2009, the squadron was converted to provisional status as the **324th Expeditionary Reconnaissance Squadron** and assigned to [United States Air Forces Europe](/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_Europe "United States Air Forces Europe") to activate or inactivate as needed. It was active at [Ramstein Air Base](/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base "Ramstein Air Base"), Germany from July to December 2009 and again from March to June of 2010\. It was active agan at [Naval Station Rota](/wiki/Naval_Station_Rota "Naval Station Rota"), Spain from July to October 2010\. It was most recently activated at [Naval Air Station Sigonella](/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Sigonella "Naval Air Station Sigonella"), Sicily, Italy in March 2011, and has been part of the [409th Air Expeditionary Group](/wiki/409th_Air_Expeditionary_Group "409th Air Expeditionary Group") since 2012\. It performs launch and recovery operations supporting [intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance](/wiki/Intelligence%2C_surveillance_and_reconnaissance "Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance") aircraft; first with the [General Atomics MQ\-1 Predator](/wiki/General_Atomics_MQ-1_Predator "General Atomics MQ-1 Predator") and currently the [General Atomics MQ\-9 Reaper](/wiki/General_Atomics_MQ-9_Reaper "General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper"). The 324th provides the Commander of [Air Forces Africa](/wiki/Air_Forces_Africa "Air Forces Africa") with real\-time intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance and kinetic strike in support of counter\-terrorism campaign plans through MQ\-9 launch, recovery and maintenance.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.usafe.af.mil/Units/435th\-Air\-Expeditionary\-Wing/News/Article/1313673/324\-ers\-change\-of\-command\-ceremony/ \|last1\=Newberry\|first1\=SSG Joshua R.M.\|title\=324 ERS Change of Command Ceremony\|date\=September 27, 2017\|publisher\=United States Air Forces in Europe and Air Forces Africa Public Affairs\|access\-date\=January 10, 2023}}
[ "History\n-------", "### World War II", "#### Organization and training in the United States", "The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") was first activated on 15 April 1942 at [Harding Field](/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Metropolitan_Airport \"Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport\") as the **324th Bombardment Squadron**, one of the three original bombardment squadrons of the [91st Bombardment Group](/wiki/91st_Bombardment_Group \"91st Bombardment Group\").The group was also assigned a reconnaissance squadron, but this unit was quickly redesignated as the group's fourth bombardment squadron. Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 490–491 It was equipped with the [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"). It completed First Phase training at [MacDill Field](/wiki/MacDill_Field \"MacDill Field\") under [Third Air Force](/wiki/Third_Air_Force \"Third Air Force\"), with Second and Third Phase training at [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field \"Walla Walla Army Air Field\") under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force \"Second Air Force\") in Washington.{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://www.afhra.af.mil/About\\-Us/Fact\\-Sheets/Display/Article/432753/91\\-operations\\-group\\-afspc/ \\|title\\=Factsheet 90 Operations Group (AFSPC) \\|last1\\=Lahue\\|first1\\=Melissa\\|date\\=1 September 2022\\|publisher\\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2023}}Freeman, pp. 243\\-244 The squadron's ground echelon left for [Fort Dix](/wiki/Fort_Dix \"Fort Dix\") in early September 1942, then boarded the {{RMS\\|Queen Mary}} for transport to England. The air echelon moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field \"Gowen Field\"), Idaho on 24 August 1942, and began receiving new B\\-17s there. It becan flying them from [Dow Field](/wiki/Dow_Field \"Dow Field\"), Maine in September, although it was not fully equipped with new aircraft until October.", "#### Combat in Europe", "[thumb\\|91st Bombardment Group B\\-17 at RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/File:RAF_Bassingbourn_-_91st_Bombardment_Group_-_B-17_43-38083.jpg \"RAF Bassingbourn - 91st Bombardment Group - B-17 43-38083.jpg\")\nThe ground echelon was established temporarily at [RAF Kimbolton](/wiki/RAF_Kimbolton \"RAF Kimbolton\") by 13 September 1942\\. However, the runways at Kimbolton were not up to handling heavy bombers,Freeman, p. 20 and the unit moved to what would be its permanent station in the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations \"European Theater of Operations\"), [RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/RAF_Bassingbourn \"RAF Bassingbourn\"), on 14 October 1942\\. Bassingbourn had been a prewar [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") station, so the squadron found itself in more comfortable quarters than most of its contemporaries. The squadron primarily engaged in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe \"Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe\"), and flew its first mission on 7 November, an attack against [submarine pens](/wiki/Submarine_pen \"Submarine pen\") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\").Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 156\\-158", "Until the middle of 1943, The squadron concentrated its attacks on naval targets, including submarine pens, dockyards, ship construction facilities and harbors, although it also struck [airfields](/wiki/Airfield \"Airfield\"), factories, and communications facilities. On 27 January 1943, the unit attacked the [Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine \"Kriegsmarine\") yard at [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven \"Wilhelmshaven\") as part of the first penetration by bombers of [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\") to a target in Germany. On 4 March 1943, it attacked [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard \"Marshalling yard\") at [Hamm](/wiki/Hamm%2C_North_Rhine-Westphalia \"Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia\"), Germany despite adverse weather and heavy enemy opposition. For this action, it was awarded its first [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") (DUC).", "From the middle of 1943 to the end of the war, the squadron concentrated on attacks on German aviation, including attacks on aircraft factories, including ones at [Oranienburg](/wiki/Oranienburg \"Oranienburg\") and [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"); airfields at [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Air_Base \"Oldenburg Air Base\") and [Villacoublay](/wiki/V%C3%A9lizy-Villacoublay_Air_Base \"Vélizy-Villacoublay Air Base\"); the [ball bearing plants at Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt%E2%80%93Regensburg_mission \"Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission\"); chemical plants at [Leverkusen](/wiki/Leverkusen \"Leverkusen\") and [Peenemunde](/wiki/Peenemunde \"Peenemunde\"); and industrial facilities in [Ludwigshafen](/wiki/Ludwigshafen \"Ludwigshafen\"), [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main \"Frankfurt am Main\") and Wilhemshaven. As part of this attack on the German aircraft industry, on 11 January, the squadron penetrated into central Germany, despite bad weather, poor fighter cover, and strong attacks by enemy [interceptor aircraft](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft \"Interceptor aircraft\"), the unit succeeded in bombing its target, earning a second DUC.", "The squadron also performed [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction \"Interdiction\") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support \"Air support\") missions. It helped prepare for [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\"), the invasion of Normandy, by bombing [gun emplacements](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall \"Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall\") and troop concentrations near the beachhead area. It aided [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra \"Operation Cobra\"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo \"Saint Lo\"), in July 1944 by attacking enemy troop positions. It supported troops on the front lines near [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\") in August 1944 and attacked [lines of communications](/wiki/Lines_of_communications \"Lines of communications\") near the battlefield during the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\") in December 1944 and January 1945\\. It attacked airfields, bridges, and railroads to support [Operation Lumberjack](/wiki/Operation_Lumberjack \"Operation Lumberjack\"), the push across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") in Germany, in 1945\\.", "Following [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the squadron evacuated [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war \"Prisoners of war\") from German camps. The first B\\-17 left Bassingbourn for the United States on 27 May 1945\\. The ground echelon sailed aboard the {{RMS\\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 24 June 1945\\. The squadron was reestablished at [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field \"Drew Field\"), Florida in early July, with the intention of deploying it to the Pacific, but it was not fully manned or equipped, and inactivated on 7 November 1945\\.", "### Strategic reconnaissance", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=January 2023}}\nThe squadron was reactivated in 1947 as a [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\") long\\-range strategic reconnaissance squadron, although it was not manned or equipped until July 1948\\. It used B\\-17 and B\\-29 bombers refitted for reconnaissance missions. The squadron deployed to Japan in 1950, and performed strategic reconnaissance missions over Korea and the Northern Pacific coast of People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The 324th re\\-equipped with [North American RB\\-45 Tornado](/wiki/North_American_RB-45_Tornado \"North American RB-45 Tornado\") jet reconnaissance aircraft, flying reconnaissance and mapping combat missions over Korea until returning to the United States in mid\\-1952\\. The squadron re\\-equipped with RB\\-47E Stratojets and performed various reconnaissance missions on a worldwide scale until inactivation in 1957\\.", "### Provisional unit", "In 2009, the squadron was converted to provisional status as the **324th Expeditionary Reconnaissance Squadron** and assigned to [United States Air Forces Europe](/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_Europe \"United States Air Forces Europe\") to activate or inactivate as needed. It was active at [Ramstein Air Base](/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base \"Ramstein Air Base\"), Germany from July to December 2009 and again from March to June of 2010\\. It was active agan at [Naval Station Rota](/wiki/Naval_Station_Rota \"Naval Station Rota\"), Spain from July to October 2010\\. It was most recently activated at [Naval Air Station Sigonella](/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Sigonella \"Naval Air Station Sigonella\"), Sicily, Italy in March 2011, and has been part of the [409th Air Expeditionary Group](/wiki/409th_Air_Expeditionary_Group \"409th Air Expeditionary Group\") since 2012\\. It performs launch and recovery operations supporting [intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance](/wiki/Intelligence%2C_surveillance_and_reconnaissance \"Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance\") aircraft; first with the [General Atomics MQ\\-1 Predator](/wiki/General_Atomics_MQ-1_Predator \"General Atomics MQ-1 Predator\") and currently the [General Atomics MQ\\-9 Reaper](/wiki/General_Atomics_MQ-9_Reaper \"General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper\"). The 324th provides the Commander of [Air Forces Africa](/wiki/Air_Forces_Africa \"Air Forces Africa\") with real\\-time intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance and kinetic strike in support of counter\\-terrorism campaign plans through MQ\\-9 launch, recovery and maintenance.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.usafe.af.mil/Units/435th\\-Air\\-Expeditionary\\-Wing/News/Article/1313673/324\\-ers\\-change\\-of\\-command\\-ceremony/ \\|last1\\=Newberry\\|first1\\=SSG Joshua R.M.\\|title\\=324 ERS Change of Command Ceremony\\|date\\=September 27, 2017\\|publisher\\=United States Air Forces in Europe and Air Forces Africa Public Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=January 10, 2023}}", "" ]
### World War II #### Organization and training in the United States The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") was first activated on 15 April 1942 at [Harding Field](/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Metropolitan_Airport "Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport") as the **324th Bombardment Squadron**, one of the three original bombardment squadrons of the [91st Bombardment Group](/wiki/91st_Bombardment_Group "91st Bombardment Group").The group was also assigned a reconnaissance squadron, but this unit was quickly redesignated as the group's fourth bombardment squadron. Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 490–491 It was equipped with the [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"). It completed First Phase training at [MacDill Field](/wiki/MacDill_Field "MacDill Field") under [Third Air Force](/wiki/Third_Air_Force "Third Air Force"), with Second and Third Phase training at [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field "Walla Walla Army Air Field") under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force "Second Air Force") in Washington.{{Cite web\|url\= https://www.afhra.af.mil/About\-Us/Fact\-Sheets/Display/Article/432753/91\-operations\-group\-afspc/ \|title\=Factsheet 90 Operations Group (AFSPC) \|last1\=Lahue\|first1\=Melissa\|date\=1 September 2022\|publisher\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\|access\-date\=January 6, 2023}}Freeman, pp. 243\-244 The squadron's ground echelon left for [Fort Dix](/wiki/Fort_Dix "Fort Dix") in early September 1942, then boarded the {{RMS\|Queen Mary}} for transport to England. The air echelon moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field "Gowen Field"), Idaho on 24 August 1942, and began receiving new B\-17s there. It becan flying them from [Dow Field](/wiki/Dow_Field "Dow Field"), Maine in September, although it was not fully equipped with new aircraft until October. #### Combat in Europe [thumb\|91st Bombardment Group B\-17 at RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/File:RAF_Bassingbourn_-_91st_Bombardment_Group_-_B-17_43-38083.jpg "RAF Bassingbourn - 91st Bombardment Group - B-17 43-38083.jpg") The ground echelon was established temporarily at [RAF Kimbolton](/wiki/RAF_Kimbolton "RAF Kimbolton") by 13 September 1942\. However, the runways at Kimbolton were not up to handling heavy bombers,Freeman, p. 20 and the unit moved to what would be its permanent station in the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations "European Theater of Operations"), [RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/RAF_Bassingbourn "RAF Bassingbourn"), on 14 October 1942\. Bassingbourn had been a prewar [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") station, so the squadron found itself in more comfortable quarters than most of its contemporaries. The squadron primarily engaged in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe "Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe"), and flew its first mission on 7 November, an attack against [submarine pens](/wiki/Submarine_pen "Submarine pen") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France").Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 156\-158 Until the middle of 1943, The squadron concentrated its attacks on naval targets, including submarine pens, dockyards, ship construction facilities and harbors, although it also struck [airfields](/wiki/Airfield "Airfield"), factories, and communications facilities. On 27 January 1943, the unit attacked the [Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine "Kriegsmarine") yard at [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven "Wilhelmshaven") as part of the first penetration by bombers of [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command") to a target in Germany. On 4 March 1943, it attacked [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard "Marshalling yard") at [Hamm](/wiki/Hamm%2C_North_Rhine-Westphalia "Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia"), Germany despite adverse weather and heavy enemy opposition. For this action, it was awarded its first [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") (DUC). From the middle of 1943 to the end of the war, the squadron concentrated on attacks on German aviation, including attacks on aircraft factories, including ones at [Oranienburg](/wiki/Oranienburg "Oranienburg") and [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"); airfields at [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Air_Base "Oldenburg Air Base") and [Villacoublay](/wiki/V%C3%A9lizy-Villacoublay_Air_Base "Vélizy-Villacoublay Air Base"); the [ball bearing plants at Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt%E2%80%93Regensburg_mission "Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission"); chemical plants at [Leverkusen](/wiki/Leverkusen "Leverkusen") and [Peenemunde](/wiki/Peenemunde "Peenemunde"); and industrial facilities in [Ludwigshafen](/wiki/Ludwigshafen "Ludwigshafen"), [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main "Frankfurt am Main") and Wilhemshaven. As part of this attack on the German aircraft industry, on 11 January, the squadron penetrated into central Germany, despite bad weather, poor fighter cover, and strong attacks by enemy [interceptor aircraft](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft "Interceptor aircraft"), the unit succeeded in bombing its target, earning a second DUC. The squadron also performed [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction "Interdiction") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support "Air support") missions. It helped prepare for [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord"), the invasion of Normandy, by bombing [gun emplacements](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall "Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall") and troop concentrations near the beachhead area. It aided [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra "Operation Cobra"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo "Saint Lo"), in July 1944 by attacking enemy troop positions. It supported troops on the front lines near [Caen](/wiki/Caen "Caen") in August 1944 and attacked [lines of communications](/wiki/Lines_of_communications "Lines of communications") near the battlefield during the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge") in December 1944 and January 1945\. It attacked airfields, bridges, and railroads to support [Operation Lumberjack](/wiki/Operation_Lumberjack "Operation Lumberjack"), the push across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") in Germany, in 1945\. Following [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the squadron evacuated [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war "Prisoners of war") from German camps. The first B\-17 left Bassingbourn for the United States on 27 May 1945\. The ground echelon sailed aboard the {{RMS\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 24 June 1945\. The squadron was reestablished at [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field "Drew Field"), Florida in early July, with the intention of deploying it to the Pacific, but it was not fully manned or equipped, and inactivated on 7 November 1945\.
[ "### World War II", "#### Organization and training in the United States", "The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") was first activated on 15 April 1942 at [Harding Field](/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Metropolitan_Airport \"Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport\") as the **324th Bombardment Squadron**, one of the three original bombardment squadrons of the [91st Bombardment Group](/wiki/91st_Bombardment_Group \"91st Bombardment Group\").The group was also assigned a reconnaissance squadron, but this unit was quickly redesignated as the group's fourth bombardment squadron. Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 490–491 It was equipped with the [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"). It completed First Phase training at [MacDill Field](/wiki/MacDill_Field \"MacDill Field\") under [Third Air Force](/wiki/Third_Air_Force \"Third Air Force\"), with Second and Third Phase training at [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field \"Walla Walla Army Air Field\") under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force \"Second Air Force\") in Washington.{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://www.afhra.af.mil/About\\-Us/Fact\\-Sheets/Display/Article/432753/91\\-operations\\-group\\-afspc/ \\|title\\=Factsheet 90 Operations Group (AFSPC) \\|last1\\=Lahue\\|first1\\=Melissa\\|date\\=1 September 2022\\|publisher\\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2023}}Freeman, pp. 243\\-244 The squadron's ground echelon left for [Fort Dix](/wiki/Fort_Dix \"Fort Dix\") in early September 1942, then boarded the {{RMS\\|Queen Mary}} for transport to England. The air echelon moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field \"Gowen Field\"), Idaho on 24 August 1942, and began receiving new B\\-17s there. It becan flying them from [Dow Field](/wiki/Dow_Field \"Dow Field\"), Maine in September, although it was not fully equipped with new aircraft until October.", "#### Combat in Europe", "[thumb\\|91st Bombardment Group B\\-17 at RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/File:RAF_Bassingbourn_-_91st_Bombardment_Group_-_B-17_43-38083.jpg \"RAF Bassingbourn - 91st Bombardment Group - B-17 43-38083.jpg\")\nThe ground echelon was established temporarily at [RAF Kimbolton](/wiki/RAF_Kimbolton \"RAF Kimbolton\") by 13 September 1942\\. However, the runways at Kimbolton were not up to handling heavy bombers,Freeman, p. 20 and the unit moved to what would be its permanent station in the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations \"European Theater of Operations\"), [RAF Bassingbourn](/wiki/RAF_Bassingbourn \"RAF Bassingbourn\"), on 14 October 1942\\. Bassingbourn had been a prewar [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") station, so the squadron found itself in more comfortable quarters than most of its contemporaries. The squadron primarily engaged in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe \"Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe\"), and flew its first mission on 7 November, an attack against [submarine pens](/wiki/Submarine_pen \"Submarine pen\") at [Brest, France](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\").Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 156\\-158", "Until the middle of 1943, The squadron concentrated its attacks on naval targets, including submarine pens, dockyards, ship construction facilities and harbors, although it also struck [airfields](/wiki/Airfield \"Airfield\"), factories, and communications facilities. On 27 January 1943, the unit attacked the [Kriegsmarine](/wiki/Kriegsmarine \"Kriegsmarine\") yard at [Wilhelmshaven](/wiki/Wilhelmshaven \"Wilhelmshaven\") as part of the first penetration by bombers of [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\") to a target in Germany. On 4 March 1943, it attacked [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard \"Marshalling yard\") at [Hamm](/wiki/Hamm%2C_North_Rhine-Westphalia \"Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia\"), Germany despite adverse weather and heavy enemy opposition. For this action, it was awarded its first [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") (DUC).", "From the middle of 1943 to the end of the war, the squadron concentrated on attacks on German aviation, including attacks on aircraft factories, including ones at [Oranienburg](/wiki/Oranienburg \"Oranienburg\") and [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"); airfields at [Oldenburg](/wiki/Oldenburg_Air_Base \"Oldenburg Air Base\") and [Villacoublay](/wiki/V%C3%A9lizy-Villacoublay_Air_Base \"Vélizy-Villacoublay Air Base\"); the [ball bearing plants at Schweinfurt](/wiki/Schweinfurt%E2%80%93Regensburg_mission \"Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission\"); chemical plants at [Leverkusen](/wiki/Leverkusen \"Leverkusen\") and [Peenemunde](/wiki/Peenemunde \"Peenemunde\"); and industrial facilities in [Ludwigshafen](/wiki/Ludwigshafen \"Ludwigshafen\"), [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main \"Frankfurt am Main\") and Wilhemshaven. As part of this attack on the German aircraft industry, on 11 January, the squadron penetrated into central Germany, despite bad weather, poor fighter cover, and strong attacks by enemy [interceptor aircraft](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft \"Interceptor aircraft\"), the unit succeeded in bombing its target, earning a second DUC.", "The squadron also performed [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction \"Interdiction\") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support \"Air support\") missions. It helped prepare for [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\"), the invasion of Normandy, by bombing [gun emplacements](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall \"Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall\") and troop concentrations near the beachhead area. It aided [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra \"Operation Cobra\"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo \"Saint Lo\"), in July 1944 by attacking enemy troop positions. It supported troops on the front lines near [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\") in August 1944 and attacked [lines of communications](/wiki/Lines_of_communications \"Lines of communications\") near the battlefield during the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\") in December 1944 and January 1945\\. It attacked airfields, bridges, and railroads to support [Operation Lumberjack](/wiki/Operation_Lumberjack \"Operation Lumberjack\"), the push across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") in Germany, in 1945\\.", "Following [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the squadron evacuated [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war \"Prisoners of war\") from German camps. The first B\\-17 left Bassingbourn for the United States on 27 May 1945\\. The ground echelon sailed aboard the {{RMS\\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 24 June 1945\\. The squadron was reestablished at [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field \"Drew Field\"), Florida in early July, with the intention of deploying it to the Pacific, but it was not fully manned or equipped, and inactivated on 7 November 1945\\.", "" ]
Activism -------- ### RTPC \& The Toronto Police #### *News and Views* On March 15, 1979, the RTPC circulated copies of *News and Views*, the official publication of the [Toronto Police Association](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Association "Toronto Police Association"), which featured racist and homophobic articles. By April 5, 1979 the RTPC had organized a meeting with the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to discuss concerns about Tom Moclair's homophobic article "The Homosexual Fad," which had been published in the March 1979 issue of *News and Views*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://torontoist.com/2016/06/historicist\-all\-the\-news\-views\-that\-arent\-fit\-to\-print/\|title\=Historicist: Racism and Homophobia in the Pages of a Police Magazine\|last\=Bradburn\|first\=Jamie\|date\=June 4, 2016\|website\=Torontoist\|access\-date\=April 12, 2017}} At the meeting, they gay delegation presented the police board with a brief entitled *Our Police Force Too!* which outlined ten demands, one of which asked for the establishment of a permanent, Toronto gay\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\|date\=May 1979\|title\=Uproar over bigoted cop mag forces apology from police chief\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic52toro\#page/8/mode/2up\|journal\=The Body Politic\|volume\=52\|pages\=8}} The brief was written by John Alan Lee, Peter Maloney, and [George Hislop](/wiki/George_Hislop "George Hislop"). The Board of Commissioners responded on May 31, 1979 with a seventy\-page brief entitled "Declaration of Concern and Intent (Standing Order 25\)," which made no specific mention of sexual orientation. Community minority groups denounced the brief and demanded further action. In June 1979 both Metro Council and the City of Toronto Council passed resolutions that called on the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to answer specific demands by the gay and minority communities. However, the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Police_Commission "Ontario Police Commission") later released a report that denied these requests and dismissed demands for a civilian\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\|date\=August 1979\|title\=Gays vs the police commission: a chronology\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic55toro\#page/12/mode/2up\|journal\=The Body Politic\|volume\=55\|pages\=12}} #### Raid of Don Franco's Home On June 6, Don Franco was charged with keeping a common bawdy house in his home. Franco, a teacher, advertised for partners in The Body Politic and had been one of many arrested in the December 9, 1978 Barracks raids. He also served as the RTPC's membership secretary. The police informed the school where Franco was working of his activities, and confiscated several items, such as membership lists for the RTPC and the NDP Gay Caucus. The raid was condemned by the gay community as an act of revenge by the police, and the case made history as it was the first home, where no prostitution or sex with minors was occurring, to be charged under [bawdy house law](/wiki/Bawdy_house_law "Bawdy house law"). #### Police Harassment The RTPC and the Working Group on Police Minority Relations, at a press conference they held on June 18, 1979, called on the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Civilian_Police_Commission "Ontario Civilian Police Commission") to investigate harassment of gays within the Metro Toronto Police Force. They demanded the resignation of Toronto Police Chief [Harold Adamson](/wiki/Harold_Adamson_%28police_officer%29 "Harold Adamson (police officer)") if he was unable to control the behaviour of his officers. On June 25, a meeting was held by ReforMetro to discuss continuing police harassment of gays and other minorities. Rev. Brent Hawkes again called for the resignation of Chief Harold Adamson, and the meeting culminated in a spontaneous demonstration outside police headquarters. #### Bathhouse Raids Beginning with the December 9, 1979 raid on the Barracks bathhouse, the RTPC continued to support men charged in future raids bawdy house offences. This included the October 11, 1979 raid on the Hot Tub Club, 9 Isabella Street, four apartments, and a cottage in [Northumberland County](/wiki/Northumberland_County%2C_Ontario "Northumberland County, Ontario"), however larger raids occurred later. On February 5, 1981, after six months of preparation, [Metro Toronto Police](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Service "Toronto Police Service") simultaneously raided four of the city’s most prominent steam baths and charged 304 men as found\-ins and 20 men as keepers. It was both the largest raid against gay establishments at that time, and the biggest mass arrest in Toronto’s history after the [War Measures Act](/wiki/War_Measures_Act "War Measures Act") of 1970\.{{Cite book\|title\=Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada\|last\=Warner\|first\=Tom\|publisher\=University of Toronto Press\|year\=2002\|location\=Toronto}} In response to the raids, which police had codenamed [Operation Soap](/wiki/Operation_Soap "Operation Soap"), the RTPC with the Coalition for Gay Rights, the [Metropolitan Community Church](/wiki/Metropolitan_Community_Church_of_Toronto "Metropolitan Community Church of Toronto"), and the Body Politic, organized a demonstration for February 6, 1981\. The demonstration, a march to Toronto police headquarters and then to the [Ontario Legislature](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario "Legislative Assembly of Ontario"), grew from 300 people to 3,000 as the night went on. Eleven people were arrested as a result, and reports later revealed that several plainclothes officers acted as *[agents provocateurs](/wiki/Agent_provocateur "Agent provocateur")* during the demonstration, provoking protestors to acts of violence or destruction of property and then arresting them. The RTPC then formed a Public Action Committee and held a second demonstration, both of which called for the repeal of bawdy house laws. Another large raid occurred on June 16, 1981 when twenty\-three police officers simultaneously raided the International Steam Bath and the Back Door Gym and Sauna. Later, on June 20, 1981, the RTPC organized a demonstration. As the peaceful demonstration of around 1,000 people was ending, a group of protestors leaving the demonstration were attacked on the corner of Church and Charles by an anti\-gay group. When the peaceful demonstrators fought back, police rescued the anti\-gay group while turning their nightsticks against the demonstrators. Six people were injured, and six people were arrested. The event later became known as **The Battle of Church Street.** Rev. Brent Hawkes and [Ken Popert](/wiki/Ken_Popert "Ken Popert") were injured by the police, but both failed in their attempts to press charges. ### Subsidiaries In 1981, due to an increase in violence against gays, the RTPC founded the **Toronto Gay Street Patrol**, a group of gay and lesbian men and women trained in self\-defence, which patrolled various neighbourhoods and attempted to protect gay and lesbians from attack, or [gay bashing](/wiki/Gay_bashing "Gay bashing"), and to deal with the sometimes negative attitudes of police after an attack had been reported. The group was helmed by Dennis Findlay. In further attempts to protect gays and lesbians, the RTPC also established, in July 1982, **Gay Court Watch**. Gay Court Watch sent volunteers to observe gay\-related trials, especially trials related to the bawdy house law and various bathhouse raids. The group also regularly published reports on the frequency and location of arrests related to gay crimes in the Body Politic and [Xtra!](/wiki/Xtra%21 "Xtra!"), and published pocket reference guides of places to avoid for safe, semi\-public sex in Toronto. Gay Court Watch was active until December, 1991\. In order to oversee the large amounts of funding raised to defend men charged during the bath raids, the RTPC established the **Right to Privacy Foundation** to ensure the equitable distribution of money. The RTPC had raised over $80,000 the year after the raids through events, dances, and direct mail campaigns. ### Other Demonstrations, Conferences \& Campaigns The RTPC participated in many other demonstrations, conferences and campaigns, including: * June 2, 1979: A march to the Toronto police headquarters on 590 Jarvis street, in response to their raids on, and seizures of material from, the Barracks and [The Body Politic](/wiki/The_Body_Politic_%28magazine%29 "The Body Politic (magazine)"). The group, helmed by John Argue, presented Deputy Chief [Jack Ackroyd](/wiki/Jack_Ackroyd "Jack Ackroyd") with a "People's Writ of Return." * March 7, 1981: A march through downtown Toronto, under the banners of the RTPC and Gays and Lesbians Against the Right Everywhere (GLARE), in support of [International Women's Day](/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day "International Women's Day"). * May, 1981: The "Boycott Ontario" advertisement campaign, which warned gay tourists away from visiting Toronto due to the continued bathhouse raids. The ad was included in [Travel Agent](/wiki/Travel_Agent_%28magazine%29 "Travel Agent (magazine)"), Travel Weekly, and the [New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times") travel section. * May 9, 1981: A discussion entitled "Being Gay in Toronto Now," which explored new ways to develop a strong sense of gay community in Toronto. * June 2, 1981: A press conference with representatives from forty different Metro Toronto minority organizations which denounced the inadequacies of the May 15, 1981 police complaints bill passed through the Ontario legislature. * June 12, 1981: A demonstration, in response to the verdict of the Barracks trial and in solidarity with the Pisces Spa raid in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton"), at the corner of Yonge and Wellesley which included over 2,000 people. * September 24, 1981: A victory march celebrating the acquittal of Don Franco. * June 2, 1982: A full\-page advertisement in the [Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail") demanding the repeal of the bawdy house laws. ### Legislation The RTPC has made submissions to the following: * 1981: The Brumner Commission on relations between the Toronto police and gay community * 1982: Parliamentary Committee considering changes to bawdy house laws * 1984: House of Commons Special Committee on Pornography and Prostitution * 1984: Justice Committee of the Ontario Legislature regarding Bill 7 (prohibited sexual orientation as a ground of discrimination in Ontario) * 1986: Ontario Human Rights Code (addition of sexual orientation){{Cite book\|title\=On the Fringe: Gays and Lesbians in Politics\|last\=Morton Rayside\|first\=David\|publisher\=Cornell University Press\|year\=1998\|isbn\=0\-8014\-8374\-3\|location\=Ithaca}}
[ "Activism\n--------", "### RTPC \\& The Toronto Police", "#### *News and Views*", "On March 15, 1979, the RTPC circulated copies of *News and Views*, the official publication of the [Toronto Police Association](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Association \"Toronto Police Association\"), which featured racist and homophobic articles. By April 5, 1979 the RTPC had organized a meeting with the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to discuss concerns about Tom Moclair's homophobic article \"The Homosexual Fad,\" which had been published in the March 1979 issue of *News and Views*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://torontoist.com/2016/06/historicist\\-all\\-the\\-news\\-views\\-that\\-arent\\-fit\\-to\\-print/\\|title\\=Historicist: Racism and Homophobia in the Pages of a Police Magazine\\|last\\=Bradburn\\|first\\=Jamie\\|date\\=June 4, 2016\\|website\\=Torontoist\\|access\\-date\\=April 12, 2017}} At the meeting, they gay delegation presented the police board with a brief entitled *Our Police Force Too!* which outlined ten demands, one of which asked for the establishment of a permanent, Toronto gay\\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=May 1979\\|title\\=Uproar over bigoted cop mag forces apology from police chief\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic52toro\\#page/8/mode/2up\\|journal\\=The Body Politic\\|volume\\=52\\|pages\\=8}} The brief was written by John Alan Lee, Peter Maloney, and [George Hislop](/wiki/George_Hislop \"George Hislop\"). The Board of Commissioners responded on May 31, 1979 with a seventy\\-page brief entitled \"Declaration of Concern and Intent (Standing Order 25\\),\" which made no specific mention of sexual orientation. Community minority groups denounced the brief and demanded further action. In June 1979 both Metro Council and the City of Toronto Council passed resolutions that called on the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to answer specific demands by the gay and minority communities. However, the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Police_Commission \"Ontario Police Commission\") later released a report that denied these requests and dismissed demands for a civilian\\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=August 1979\\|title\\=Gays vs the police commission: a chronology\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic55toro\\#page/12/mode/2up\\|journal\\=The Body Politic\\|volume\\=55\\|pages\\=12}}", "#### Raid of Don Franco's Home", "On June 6, Don Franco was charged with keeping a common bawdy house in his home. Franco, a teacher, advertised for partners in The Body Politic and had been one of many arrested in the December 9, 1978 Barracks raids. He also served as the RTPC's membership secretary. The police informed the school where Franco was working of his activities, and confiscated several items, such as membership lists for the RTPC and the NDP Gay Caucus. The raid was condemned by the gay community as an act of revenge by the police, and the case made history as it was the first home, where no prostitution or sex with minors was occurring, to be charged under [bawdy house law](/wiki/Bawdy_house_law \"Bawdy house law\").", "#### Police Harassment", "The RTPC and the Working Group on Police Minority Relations, at a press conference they held on June 18, 1979, called on the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Civilian_Police_Commission \"Ontario Civilian Police Commission\") to investigate harassment of gays within the Metro Toronto Police Force. They demanded the resignation of Toronto Police Chief [Harold Adamson](/wiki/Harold_Adamson_%28police_officer%29 \"Harold Adamson (police officer)\") if he was unable to control the behaviour of his officers. On June 25, a meeting was held by ReforMetro to discuss continuing police harassment of gays and other minorities. Rev. Brent Hawkes again called for the resignation of Chief Harold Adamson, and the meeting culminated in a spontaneous demonstration outside police headquarters.", "#### Bathhouse Raids", "Beginning with the December 9, 1979 raid on the Barracks bathhouse, the RTPC continued to support men charged in future raids bawdy house offences. This included the October 11, 1979 raid on the Hot Tub Club, 9 Isabella Street, four apartments, and a cottage in [Northumberland County](/wiki/Northumberland_County%2C_Ontario \"Northumberland County, Ontario\"), however larger raids occurred later.", "On February 5, 1981, after six months of preparation, [Metro Toronto Police](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Service \"Toronto Police Service\") simultaneously raided four of the city’s most prominent steam baths and charged 304 men as found\\-ins and 20 men as keepers. It was both the largest raid against gay establishments at that time, and the biggest mass arrest in Toronto’s history after the [War Measures Act](/wiki/War_Measures_Act \"War Measures Act\") of 1970\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada\\|last\\=Warner\\|first\\=Tom\\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press\\|year\\=2002\\|location\\=Toronto}} In response to the raids, which police had codenamed [Operation Soap](/wiki/Operation_Soap \"Operation Soap\"), the RTPC with the Coalition for Gay Rights, the [Metropolitan Community Church](/wiki/Metropolitan_Community_Church_of_Toronto \"Metropolitan Community Church of Toronto\"), and the Body Politic, organized a demonstration for February 6, 1981\\. The demonstration, a march to Toronto police headquarters and then to the [Ontario Legislature](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario \"Legislative Assembly of Ontario\"), grew from 300 people to 3,000 as the night went on. Eleven people were arrested as a result, and reports later revealed that several plainclothes officers acted as *[agents provocateurs](/wiki/Agent_provocateur \"Agent provocateur\")* during the demonstration, provoking protestors to acts of violence or destruction of property and then arresting them. The RTPC then formed a Public Action Committee and held a second demonstration, both of which called for the repeal of bawdy house laws.", "Another large raid occurred on June 16, 1981 when twenty\\-three police officers simultaneously raided the International Steam Bath and the Back Door Gym and Sauna. Later, on June 20, 1981, the RTPC organized a demonstration. As the peaceful demonstration of around 1,000 people was ending, a group of protestors leaving the demonstration were attacked on the corner of Church and Charles by an anti\\-gay group. When the peaceful demonstrators fought back, police rescued the anti\\-gay group while turning their nightsticks against the demonstrators. Six people were injured, and six people were arrested. The event later became known as **The Battle of Church Street.** Rev. Brent Hawkes and [Ken Popert](/wiki/Ken_Popert \"Ken Popert\") were injured by the police, but both failed in their attempts to press charges.", "### Subsidiaries", "In 1981, due to an increase in violence against gays, the RTPC founded the **Toronto Gay Street Patrol**, a group of gay and lesbian men and women trained in self\\-defence, which patrolled various neighbourhoods and attempted to protect gay and lesbians from attack, or [gay bashing](/wiki/Gay_bashing \"Gay bashing\"), and to deal with the sometimes negative attitudes of police after an attack had been reported. The group was helmed by Dennis Findlay. In further attempts to protect gays and lesbians, the RTPC also established, in July 1982, **Gay Court Watch**. Gay Court Watch sent volunteers to observe gay\\-related trials, especially trials related to the bawdy house law and various bathhouse raids. The group also regularly published reports on the frequency and location of arrests related to gay crimes in the Body Politic and [Xtra!](/wiki/Xtra%21 \"Xtra!\"), and published pocket reference guides of places to avoid for safe, semi\\-public sex in Toronto. Gay Court Watch was active until December, 1991\\.", "In order to oversee the large amounts of funding raised to defend men charged during the bath raids, the RTPC established the **Right to Privacy Foundation** to ensure the equitable distribution of money. The RTPC had raised over $80,000 the year after the raids through events, dances, and direct mail campaigns.", "### Other Demonstrations, Conferences \\& Campaigns", "The RTPC participated in many other demonstrations, conferences and campaigns, including:\n* June 2, 1979: A march to the Toronto police headquarters on 590 Jarvis street, in response to their raids on, and seizures of material from, the Barracks and [The Body Politic](/wiki/The_Body_Politic_%28magazine%29 \"The Body Politic (magazine)\"). The group, helmed by John Argue, presented Deputy Chief [Jack Ackroyd](/wiki/Jack_Ackroyd \"Jack Ackroyd\") with a \"People's Writ of Return.\"\n* March 7, 1981: A march through downtown Toronto, under the banners of the RTPC and Gays and Lesbians Against the Right Everywhere (GLARE), in support of [International Women's Day](/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day \"International Women's Day\").\n* May, 1981: The \"Boycott Ontario\" advertisement campaign, which warned gay tourists away from visiting Toronto due to the continued bathhouse raids. The ad was included in [Travel Agent](/wiki/Travel_Agent_%28magazine%29 \"Travel Agent (magazine)\"), Travel Weekly, and the [New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\") travel section.\n* May 9, 1981: A discussion entitled \"Being Gay in Toronto Now,\" which explored new ways to develop a strong sense of gay community in Toronto.\n* June 2, 1981: A press conference with representatives from forty different Metro Toronto minority organizations which denounced the inadequacies of the May 15, 1981 police complaints bill passed through the Ontario legislature.\n* June 12, 1981: A demonstration, in response to the verdict of the Barracks trial and in solidarity with the Pisces Spa raid in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\"), at the corner of Yonge and Wellesley which included over 2,000 people.\n* September 24, 1981: A victory march celebrating the acquittal of Don Franco.\n* June 2, 1982: A full\\-page advertisement in the [Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\") demanding the repeal of the bawdy house laws.", "### Legislation", "The RTPC has made submissions to the following:\n* 1981: The Brumner Commission on relations between the Toronto police and gay community\n* 1982: Parliamentary Committee considering changes to bawdy house laws\n* 1984: House of Commons Special Committee on Pornography and Prostitution\n* 1984: Justice Committee of the Ontario Legislature regarding Bill 7 (prohibited sexual orientation as a ground of discrimination in Ontario)\n* 1986: Ontario Human Rights Code (addition of sexual orientation){{Cite book\\|title\\=On the Fringe: Gays and Lesbians in Politics\\|last\\=Morton Rayside\\|first\\=David\\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press\\|year\\=1998\\|isbn\\=0\\-8014\\-8374\\-3\\|location\\=Ithaca}}", "" ]
### RTPC \& The Toronto Police #### *News and Views* On March 15, 1979, the RTPC circulated copies of *News and Views*, the official publication of the [Toronto Police Association](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Association "Toronto Police Association"), which featured racist and homophobic articles. By April 5, 1979 the RTPC had organized a meeting with the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to discuss concerns about Tom Moclair's homophobic article "The Homosexual Fad," which had been published in the March 1979 issue of *News and Views*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://torontoist.com/2016/06/historicist\-all\-the\-news\-views\-that\-arent\-fit\-to\-print/\|title\=Historicist: Racism and Homophobia in the Pages of a Police Magazine\|last\=Bradburn\|first\=Jamie\|date\=June 4, 2016\|website\=Torontoist\|access\-date\=April 12, 2017}} At the meeting, they gay delegation presented the police board with a brief entitled *Our Police Force Too!* which outlined ten demands, one of which asked for the establishment of a permanent, Toronto gay\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\|date\=May 1979\|title\=Uproar over bigoted cop mag forces apology from police chief\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic52toro\#page/8/mode/2up\|journal\=The Body Politic\|volume\=52\|pages\=8}} The brief was written by John Alan Lee, Peter Maloney, and [George Hislop](/wiki/George_Hislop "George Hislop"). The Board of Commissioners responded on May 31, 1979 with a seventy\-page brief entitled "Declaration of Concern and Intent (Standing Order 25\)," which made no specific mention of sexual orientation. Community minority groups denounced the brief and demanded further action. In June 1979 both Metro Council and the City of Toronto Council passed resolutions that called on the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to answer specific demands by the gay and minority communities. However, the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Police_Commission "Ontario Police Commission") later released a report that denied these requests and dismissed demands for a civilian\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\|date\=August 1979\|title\=Gays vs the police commission: a chronology\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic55toro\#page/12/mode/2up\|journal\=The Body Politic\|volume\=55\|pages\=12}} #### Raid of Don Franco's Home On June 6, Don Franco was charged with keeping a common bawdy house in his home. Franco, a teacher, advertised for partners in The Body Politic and had been one of many arrested in the December 9, 1978 Barracks raids. He also served as the RTPC's membership secretary. The police informed the school where Franco was working of his activities, and confiscated several items, such as membership lists for the RTPC and the NDP Gay Caucus. The raid was condemned by the gay community as an act of revenge by the police, and the case made history as it was the first home, where no prostitution or sex with minors was occurring, to be charged under [bawdy house law](/wiki/Bawdy_house_law "Bawdy house law"). #### Police Harassment The RTPC and the Working Group on Police Minority Relations, at a press conference they held on June 18, 1979, called on the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Civilian_Police_Commission "Ontario Civilian Police Commission") to investigate harassment of gays within the Metro Toronto Police Force. They demanded the resignation of Toronto Police Chief [Harold Adamson](/wiki/Harold_Adamson_%28police_officer%29 "Harold Adamson (police officer)") if he was unable to control the behaviour of his officers. On June 25, a meeting was held by ReforMetro to discuss continuing police harassment of gays and other minorities. Rev. Brent Hawkes again called for the resignation of Chief Harold Adamson, and the meeting culminated in a spontaneous demonstration outside police headquarters. #### Bathhouse Raids Beginning with the December 9, 1979 raid on the Barracks bathhouse, the RTPC continued to support men charged in future raids bawdy house offences. This included the October 11, 1979 raid on the Hot Tub Club, 9 Isabella Street, four apartments, and a cottage in [Northumberland County](/wiki/Northumberland_County%2C_Ontario "Northumberland County, Ontario"), however larger raids occurred later. On February 5, 1981, after six months of preparation, [Metro Toronto Police](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Service "Toronto Police Service") simultaneously raided four of the city’s most prominent steam baths and charged 304 men as found\-ins and 20 men as keepers. It was both the largest raid against gay establishments at that time, and the biggest mass arrest in Toronto’s history after the [War Measures Act](/wiki/War_Measures_Act "War Measures Act") of 1970\.{{Cite book\|title\=Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada\|last\=Warner\|first\=Tom\|publisher\=University of Toronto Press\|year\=2002\|location\=Toronto}} In response to the raids, which police had codenamed [Operation Soap](/wiki/Operation_Soap "Operation Soap"), the RTPC with the Coalition for Gay Rights, the [Metropolitan Community Church](/wiki/Metropolitan_Community_Church_of_Toronto "Metropolitan Community Church of Toronto"), and the Body Politic, organized a demonstration for February 6, 1981\. The demonstration, a march to Toronto police headquarters and then to the [Ontario Legislature](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario "Legislative Assembly of Ontario"), grew from 300 people to 3,000 as the night went on. Eleven people were arrested as a result, and reports later revealed that several plainclothes officers acted as *[agents provocateurs](/wiki/Agent_provocateur "Agent provocateur")* during the demonstration, provoking protestors to acts of violence or destruction of property and then arresting them. The RTPC then formed a Public Action Committee and held a second demonstration, both of which called for the repeal of bawdy house laws. Another large raid occurred on June 16, 1981 when twenty\-three police officers simultaneously raided the International Steam Bath and the Back Door Gym and Sauna. Later, on June 20, 1981, the RTPC organized a demonstration. As the peaceful demonstration of around 1,000 people was ending, a group of protestors leaving the demonstration were attacked on the corner of Church and Charles by an anti\-gay group. When the peaceful demonstrators fought back, police rescued the anti\-gay group while turning their nightsticks against the demonstrators. Six people were injured, and six people were arrested. The event later became known as **The Battle of Church Street.** Rev. Brent Hawkes and [Ken Popert](/wiki/Ken_Popert "Ken Popert") were injured by the police, but both failed in their attempts to press charges.
[ "### RTPC \\& The Toronto Police", "#### *News and Views*", "On March 15, 1979, the RTPC circulated copies of *News and Views*, the official publication of the [Toronto Police Association](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Association \"Toronto Police Association\"), which featured racist and homophobic articles. By April 5, 1979 the RTPC had organized a meeting with the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to discuss concerns about Tom Moclair's homophobic article \"The Homosexual Fad,\" which had been published in the March 1979 issue of *News and Views*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://torontoist.com/2016/06/historicist\\-all\\-the\\-news\\-views\\-that\\-arent\\-fit\\-to\\-print/\\|title\\=Historicist: Racism and Homophobia in the Pages of a Police Magazine\\|last\\=Bradburn\\|first\\=Jamie\\|date\\=June 4, 2016\\|website\\=Torontoist\\|access\\-date\\=April 12, 2017}} At the meeting, they gay delegation presented the police board with a brief entitled *Our Police Force Too!* which outlined ten demands, one of which asked for the establishment of a permanent, Toronto gay\\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=May 1979\\|title\\=Uproar over bigoted cop mag forces apology from police chief\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic52toro\\#page/8/mode/2up\\|journal\\=The Body Politic\\|volume\\=52\\|pages\\=8}} The brief was written by John Alan Lee, Peter Maloney, and [George Hislop](/wiki/George_Hislop \"George Hislop\"). The Board of Commissioners responded on May 31, 1979 with a seventy\\-page brief entitled \"Declaration of Concern and Intent (Standing Order 25\\),\" which made no specific mention of sexual orientation. Community minority groups denounced the brief and demanded further action. In June 1979 both Metro Council and the City of Toronto Council passed resolutions that called on the Metropolitan Board of Commissioners of Police to answer specific demands by the gay and minority communities. However, the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Police_Commission \"Ontario Police Commission\") later released a report that denied these requests and dismissed demands for a civilian\\-police liaison.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=August 1979\\|title\\=Gays vs the police commission: a chronology\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/bodypolitic55toro\\#page/12/mode/2up\\|journal\\=The Body Politic\\|volume\\=55\\|pages\\=12}}", "#### Raid of Don Franco's Home", "On June 6, Don Franco was charged with keeping a common bawdy house in his home. Franco, a teacher, advertised for partners in The Body Politic and had been one of many arrested in the December 9, 1978 Barracks raids. He also served as the RTPC's membership secretary. The police informed the school where Franco was working of his activities, and confiscated several items, such as membership lists for the RTPC and the NDP Gay Caucus. The raid was condemned by the gay community as an act of revenge by the police, and the case made history as it was the first home, where no prostitution or sex with minors was occurring, to be charged under [bawdy house law](/wiki/Bawdy_house_law \"Bawdy house law\").", "#### Police Harassment", "The RTPC and the Working Group on Police Minority Relations, at a press conference they held on June 18, 1979, called on the [Ontario Police Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Civilian_Police_Commission \"Ontario Civilian Police Commission\") to investigate harassment of gays within the Metro Toronto Police Force. They demanded the resignation of Toronto Police Chief [Harold Adamson](/wiki/Harold_Adamson_%28police_officer%29 \"Harold Adamson (police officer)\") if he was unable to control the behaviour of his officers. On June 25, a meeting was held by ReforMetro to discuss continuing police harassment of gays and other minorities. Rev. Brent Hawkes again called for the resignation of Chief Harold Adamson, and the meeting culminated in a spontaneous demonstration outside police headquarters.", "#### Bathhouse Raids", "Beginning with the December 9, 1979 raid on the Barracks bathhouse, the RTPC continued to support men charged in future raids bawdy house offences. This included the October 11, 1979 raid on the Hot Tub Club, 9 Isabella Street, four apartments, and a cottage in [Northumberland County](/wiki/Northumberland_County%2C_Ontario \"Northumberland County, Ontario\"), however larger raids occurred later.", "On February 5, 1981, after six months of preparation, [Metro Toronto Police](/wiki/Toronto_Police_Service \"Toronto Police Service\") simultaneously raided four of the city’s most prominent steam baths and charged 304 men as found\\-ins and 20 men as keepers. It was both the largest raid against gay establishments at that time, and the biggest mass arrest in Toronto’s history after the [War Measures Act](/wiki/War_Measures_Act \"War Measures Act\") of 1970\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Never Going Back: A History of Queer Activism in Canada\\|last\\=Warner\\|first\\=Tom\\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press\\|year\\=2002\\|location\\=Toronto}} In response to the raids, which police had codenamed [Operation Soap](/wiki/Operation_Soap \"Operation Soap\"), the RTPC with the Coalition for Gay Rights, the [Metropolitan Community Church](/wiki/Metropolitan_Community_Church_of_Toronto \"Metropolitan Community Church of Toronto\"), and the Body Politic, organized a demonstration for February 6, 1981\\. The demonstration, a march to Toronto police headquarters and then to the [Ontario Legislature](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario \"Legislative Assembly of Ontario\"), grew from 300 people to 3,000 as the night went on. Eleven people were arrested as a result, and reports later revealed that several plainclothes officers acted as *[agents provocateurs](/wiki/Agent_provocateur \"Agent provocateur\")* during the demonstration, provoking protestors to acts of violence or destruction of property and then arresting them. The RTPC then formed a Public Action Committee and held a second demonstration, both of which called for the repeal of bawdy house laws.", "Another large raid occurred on June 16, 1981 when twenty\\-three police officers simultaneously raided the International Steam Bath and the Back Door Gym and Sauna. Later, on June 20, 1981, the RTPC organized a demonstration. As the peaceful demonstration of around 1,000 people was ending, a group of protestors leaving the demonstration were attacked on the corner of Church and Charles by an anti\\-gay group. When the peaceful demonstrators fought back, police rescued the anti\\-gay group while turning their nightsticks against the demonstrators. Six people were injured, and six people were arrested. The event later became known as **The Battle of Church Street.** Rev. Brent Hawkes and [Ken Popert](/wiki/Ken_Popert \"Ken Popert\") were injured by the police, but both failed in their attempts to press charges.", "" ]
Plot ---- The story concerns the Malhotra family's three daughters \- Raji, Soni and Mahi and their younger brother Prince live in [Jalandhar](/wiki/Jalandhar "Jalandhar") City of [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2CIndia "Punjab,India"). Initially, the show focuses on the eldest daughter, Raji, who marries a police officer Veer and tries hard to adjust to the lifestyle of his family. Mahi falls in love with Veer's brother Jeet but he actually loves Soni though he confuses the two sisters. Mahi is so heartbroken that she tries to commit suicide. Veer and Jeet's mother Durga Khurana, calls Mr. Sareen (her sister's husband) to create problems for the Malhotra family. Mahi becomes a model and Sareen's son, Shabd falls in love with her, in order to save her family from Mr. Sareen, Mahi marries Shabd, then a bomb explodes at the Malhotras' house, killing Raji and most of her family. The only survivors are Soni and Mahi. After their maayka (parental home) is destroyed, the girls struggle for survival, Soni, through a twist of fate, marries her sister's former husband, Veer, when Shabd finds out that Mahi is not as successful as he had thought, he feels cheated and begins to hate his new wife, Shabd's uncle and aunt help repair his marriage to Mahi. Mahi finds out that Shabd's sister, Kamya behaves oddly because she witnessed her father burn her mother alive because her mother had supported Kamya's love affair. Mahi exposes Mr. Sareen and takes care of a distraught Shabd. Shabd realises Mahi's value, Jeet marries Cherry since he thinks Soni betrayed him, when Cherry discovers Soni and Jeet's past, she begins to plot killing Soni, Cherry's plan instead ends with Veer's death, Soni is left a pregnant widow, later, Jeet and Soni marry though Soni miscarries. Mohini (Soni and Mahi's mother) is found alive and she goes to live with Mahi at her house. Misunderstandings arise between the two sisters when Mohini leaves Mahi's home without telling anyone and reached to [Patiala](/wiki/Patiala "Patiala") and try to build a maayka for their daughters, Mahi gives birth to two daughters, giving one baby to Soni as Soni cannot conceive. But after sometime, under pressure from Shabd's family, she asks for her daughter back.
[ "Plot\n----", "The story concerns the Malhotra family's three daughters \\- Raji, Soni and Mahi and their younger brother Prince live in [Jalandhar](/wiki/Jalandhar \"Jalandhar\") City of [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2CIndia \"Punjab,India\"). Initially, the show focuses on the eldest daughter, Raji, who marries a police officer Veer and tries hard to adjust to the lifestyle of his family. Mahi falls in love with Veer's brother Jeet but he actually loves Soni though he confuses the two sisters. Mahi is so heartbroken that she tries to commit suicide.", "Veer and Jeet's mother Durga Khurana, calls Mr. Sareen (her sister's husband) to create problems for the Malhotra family. Mahi becomes a model and Sareen's son, Shabd falls in love with her, in order to save her family from Mr. Sareen, Mahi marries Shabd, then a bomb explodes at the Malhotras' house, killing Raji and most of her family. The only survivors are Soni and Mahi.", "After their maayka (parental home) is destroyed, the girls struggle for survival, Soni, through a twist of fate, marries her sister's former husband, Veer, when Shabd finds out that Mahi is not as successful as he had thought, he feels cheated and begins to hate his new wife, Shabd's uncle and aunt help repair his marriage to Mahi. Mahi finds out that Shabd's sister, Kamya behaves oddly because she witnessed her father burn her mother alive because her mother had supported Kamya's love affair. Mahi exposes Mr. Sareen and takes care of a distraught Shabd.", "Shabd realises Mahi's value, Jeet marries Cherry since he thinks Soni betrayed him, when Cherry discovers Soni and Jeet's past, she begins to plot killing Soni, Cherry's plan instead ends with Veer's death, Soni is left a pregnant widow, later, Jeet and Soni marry though Soni miscarries. Mohini (Soni and Mahi's mother) is found alive and she goes to live with Mahi at her house.", "Misunderstandings arise between the two sisters when Mohini leaves Mahi's home without telling anyone and reached to [Patiala](/wiki/Patiala \"Patiala\") and try to build a maayka for their daughters, Mahi gives birth to two daughters, giving one baby to Soni as Soni cannot conceive. But after sometime, under pressure from Shabd's family, she asks for her daughter back.", "" ]
The Eastern Palace (Great Palace) --------------------------------- The Eastern Palace, also known as the Great Palace (*al\-Qasr al\-Kabir*),{{Cite book \|last1\=Anderson \|first1\=Glaire D. \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6YgpDwAAQBAJ\&dq\=golden\+palace\+fatimid\&pg\=PA229 \|title\=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture \|last2\=Pruitt \|first2\=Jennifer \|publisher\=Wiley Blackwell \|year\=2017 \|isbn\=9781119068662 \|editor\-last\=Flood \|editor\-first\=Finbarr Barry \|volume\=1 \|pages\=223–249 \|language\=en \|chapter\=The Three Caliphates, a Comparative Approach \|editor\-last2\=Necipoğlu \|editor\-first2\=Gülru}} was the larger of the two, and is believed to have occupied about {{cvt\|9\|ha}}, or one\-fifth of the total area of Cairo at the time. It was begun under al\-Mu'izz and finished under al\-Aziz, although work of various kinds continued for decades, even under [al\-Hakim](/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah "Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah") and under the [vizier](/wiki/Vizier_%28Fatimid_Caliphate%29 "Vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)") [al\-Ma'mun al\-Bata'ihi](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun_al-Bata%27ihi "Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi") in the 12th century. The palace opened to the rest of the city through nine gates (three to the west, one to the north, three to the east, and two to the south), but it was also separated from the city around it by gardens and open squares. This sprawling but secluded layout in the center of the city kept with a tradition, already established by the [Abbasid caliphs](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate"), of isolating the caliph from the public sphere.{{Cite book\|title\=Cairo: Histories of a City\|last\=AlSayyad\|first\=Nezar\|publisher\=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press\|year\=2011\|location\=Cambridge, MA\|pages\=61, 65}} Members of the [Isma'ili](/wiki/Isma%27ili "Isma'ili") religious establishment (scholars and clerics) were also housed in or around the palace, which had its own [muezzin](/wiki/Mu%27azzin "Mu'azzin") and thus did not rely on the [call to prayer](/wiki/Adhan "Adhan") of the al\-Azhar Mosque. The Eastern Palace was composed of many great halls, the most important of which were preceded by courtyards (called *dihliz*). The palace also featured many gardens or courtyards, often bordered by [porticos](/wiki/Portico "Portico") and featuring pavilions and fountains, where court life unfolded. Visitors who wrote about the palaces reported marble pavements of different colors, central fountains, gold fixtures and ornamentation, and animals on display to impress guests. The palace's official grand entrance was through its central western gate called *Bab al\-Dhahab* ("The Golden Gate"), which opened off the *Bayn al\-Qasrayn* plaza. (Its location would have been facing the present\-day [Mausoleum of Qalawun](/wiki/Qalawun_complex "Qalawun complex") across the street.) It apparently featured gold brought from [Ifriqiya](/wiki/Ifriqiya "Ifriqiya") (present\-day Tunisia). Above the gate was a balcony at which the caliph would appear to the public on occasions. This entrance led to the "Golden Hall" (*Qa'at al\-Dhahab* or *Dar al\-Dhahab*) via a vaulted passage around 30 meters long. The Golden Hall acted as a throne room where the caliph held his daily audiences and where official receptions and some religious festivals took place. Another important hall was known as the Great Iwan, which was crowned by a dome. This was the venue were the Isma'ili clerics and missionaries (*[da'i](/wiki/Da%27i "Da'i")*s) would hold sermons for the palace residents, as well as some of the most important religious festivals. In this hall the caliph's seat was hidden behind a screen or grille known as the *Shubbak al\-Khalifa* ("Caliph's Window"). Both the Golden Hall and the Great Iwan were built or completed under al\-Aziz. About one quarter of the palace to the northeast was taken up by a great square called *Rahbat al\-Eid* ("Festival Square"), measuring 157 by 105 meters, which was the starting point for the caliph's processions through the city. One of the eastern gates, called *Bab al\-Zumurrud* ("Emerald Gate"), opened off this square and gave access to the part of the palace known as the Emerald Palace, the private residence of the caliph. Another gate opening off the southern side of the square was called *Bab al\-Eid*. An arsenal hall, called *Khizanat al\-Bunud* (roughly the "Arsenal of Banners/Flags"), lay to the east of the palace, as did a gate known as *Bab Qasr al\-Sharq* ("Eastern Palace Gate"). The southeastern gate, *Bab Daylam* ("Gate of the [Daylamites](/wiki/Daylamites "Daylamites")"), led to the monument that later became the shrine of [al\-Husayn](/wiki/Al-Husayn "Al-Husayn") (see below), while the southwestern gate was called *Bab Turbat al\-Za'faraan* (or *Bab al\-Za'faraan*), after the name of the adjacent royal mausoleum (see below). The southwestern part of the palace was occupied by the kitchens, which also provided food for the poor during the fasting month of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan"). The southernmost of the western gates, located here, became known as *Bab Zuhuma*, named after the odors of food emanating from the kitchens. The only northern gate of the palace, *Bab al\-Rih* ("Gate of the Wind"), was the entrance used by the *da'i*s. This gate may also have been the last one to disappear in the post\-Fatimid period, having survived at least until 1408 and having been seen by Maqrizi. In the 12th century, the vizier al\-Ma'mun al\-Bata'ihi (in office from 1122 to 1125\) added three more pavilions to the palace. He was also responsible for building the [al\-Aqmar Mosque](/wiki/Aqmar_Mosque "Aqmar Mosque"), which still stands today, at the northwestern edge of the palace. ### The mausoleum: *Turbat al\-Za'faraan* Attached to the southern end of the eastern palace was a mausoleum known as *Turbat al\-Za'faraan* ("The Saffron Tomb"), which served as the burial site of the caliphs.Lev, Y. 2001\. "Aspects of the Egyptian Society in the Fatimid Period". In Vermeulen, Urbain \& J. van Steenbergen (eds.). *Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Eras III: Proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998, and 1999*. Peeters Publishers. p. 20\.{{rp\|57}} Even the remains of the Fatimid caliphs in Tunisia were transferred here when the caliphate moved to Egypt. The tombs were eventually completely demolished by the [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") [amir](/wiki/Emir "Emir") Jaharka al\-Khalili to make way for the [Khan al\-Khalili](/wiki/Khan_el-Khalili "Khan el-Khalili") in the late 14th century, which gave its name to the surrounding [souq](/wiki/Souq "Souq") area still present today.{{Cite book\|title\=Le Khan al\-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle\|publisher\=Institut français d'archéologie orientale\|year\=1999\|editor\-last\=Denoix\|editor\-first\=Sylvie\|location\=Cairo\|editor\-last2\=Depaule\|editor\-first2\=Jean\-Charles\|editor\-last3\=Tuchscherer\|editor\-first3\=Michel}}{{Cite book\|title\=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide\|last\=Williams\|first\=Caroline\|publisher\=The American University in Cairo Press\|year\=2018\|edition\=7th\|location\=Cairo}} Jaharkas reportedly disposed of the bones of the Fatimid royal family by throwing them into the rubbish hills east of the city. Also adjacent to the caliphs' mausoleum was the later 12th\-century shrine which allegedly housed the head of al\-Husayn, the son of [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib "Ali ibn Abi Talib") who was slain at the [Battle of Karbala](/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala "Battle of Karbala") in 680 and is revered as a martyr by the [Shi'a](/wiki/Shia_Islam "Shia Islam"). His head was originally believed to be interred at [Ascalon](/wiki/Ashkelon "Ashkelon"), but the Fatimids brought it to Cairo in 1153 when Ascalon was threatened by the [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades"). Since the Fatimids claimed descent through al\-Husayn's mother, [Fatima](/wiki/Fatimah "Fatimah"), the creation of this shrine was an important symbolic and religious act. The shrine still exists today (albeit rebuilt many times) in the [al\-Hussein Mosque](/wiki/Al-Hussein_Mosque "Al-Hussein Mosque"), which is heavily visited by Muslims.
[ "The Eastern Palace (Great Palace)\n---------------------------------", "The Eastern Palace, also known as the Great Palace (*al\\-Qasr al\\-Kabir*),{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Anderson \\|first1\\=Glaire D. \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6YgpDwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=golden\\+palace\\+fatimid\\&pg\\=PA229 \\|title\\=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture \\|last2\\=Pruitt \\|first2\\=Jennifer \\|publisher\\=Wiley Blackwell \\|year\\=2017 \\|isbn\\=9781119068662 \\|editor\\-last\\=Flood \\|editor\\-first\\=Finbarr Barry \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=223–249 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=The Three Caliphates, a Comparative Approach \\|editor\\-last2\\=Necipoğlu \\|editor\\-first2\\=Gülru}} was the larger of the two, and is believed to have occupied about {{cvt\\|9\\|ha}}, or one\\-fifth of the total area of Cairo at the time. It was begun under al\\-Mu'izz and finished under al\\-Aziz, although work of various kinds continued for decades, even under [al\\-Hakim](/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah \"Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah\") and under the [vizier](/wiki/Vizier_%28Fatimid_Caliphate%29 \"Vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)\") [al\\-Ma'mun al\\-Bata'ihi](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun_al-Bata%27ihi \"Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi\") in the 12th century. The palace opened to the rest of the city through nine gates (three to the west, one to the north, three to the east, and two to the south), but it was also separated from the city around it by gardens and open squares. This sprawling but secluded layout in the center of the city kept with a tradition, already established by the [Abbasid caliphs](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\"), of isolating the caliph from the public sphere.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Cairo: Histories of a City\\|last\\=AlSayyad\\|first\\=Nezar\\|publisher\\=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press\\|year\\=2011\\|location\\=Cambridge, MA\\|pages\\=61, 65}} Members of the [Isma'ili](/wiki/Isma%27ili \"Isma'ili\") religious establishment (scholars and clerics) were also housed in or around the palace, which had its own [muezzin](/wiki/Mu%27azzin \"Mu'azzin\") and thus did not rely on the [call to prayer](/wiki/Adhan \"Adhan\") of the al\\-Azhar Mosque.\nThe Eastern Palace was composed of many great halls, the most important of which were preceded by courtyards (called *dihliz*). The palace also featured many gardens or courtyards, often bordered by [porticos](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") and featuring pavilions and fountains, where court life unfolded. Visitors who wrote about the palaces reported marble pavements of different colors, central fountains, gold fixtures and ornamentation, and animals on display to impress guests.", "The palace's official grand entrance was through its central western gate called *Bab al\\-Dhahab* (\"The Golden Gate\"), which opened off the *Bayn al\\-Qasrayn* plaza. (Its location would have been facing the present\\-day [Mausoleum of Qalawun](/wiki/Qalawun_complex \"Qalawun complex\") across the street.) It apparently featured gold brought from [Ifriqiya](/wiki/Ifriqiya \"Ifriqiya\") (present\\-day Tunisia). Above the gate was a balcony at which the caliph would appear to the public on occasions. This entrance led to the \"Golden Hall\" (*Qa'at al\\-Dhahab* or *Dar al\\-Dhahab*) via a vaulted passage around 30 meters long. The Golden Hall acted as a throne room where the caliph held his daily audiences and where official receptions and some religious festivals took place. Another important hall was known as the Great Iwan, which was crowned by a dome. This was the venue were the Isma'ili clerics and missionaries (*[da'i](/wiki/Da%27i \"Da'i\")*s) would hold sermons for the palace residents, as well as some of the most important religious festivals. In this hall the caliph's seat was hidden behind a screen or grille known as the *Shubbak al\\-Khalifa* (\"Caliph's Window\"). Both the Golden Hall and the Great Iwan were built or completed under al\\-Aziz.", "About one quarter of the palace to the northeast was taken up by a great square called *Rahbat al\\-Eid* (\"Festival Square\"), measuring 157 by 105 meters, which was the starting point for the caliph's processions through the city. One of the eastern gates, called *Bab al\\-Zumurrud* (\"Emerald Gate\"), opened off this square and gave access to the part of the palace known as the Emerald Palace, the private residence of the caliph. Another gate opening off the southern side of the square was called *Bab al\\-Eid*. An arsenal hall, called *Khizanat al\\-Bunud* (roughly the \"Arsenal of Banners/Flags\"), lay to the east of the palace, as did a gate known as *Bab Qasr al\\-Sharq* (\"Eastern Palace Gate\"). The southeastern gate, *Bab Daylam* (\"Gate of the [Daylamites](/wiki/Daylamites \"Daylamites\")\"), led to the monument that later became the shrine of [al\\-Husayn](/wiki/Al-Husayn \"Al-Husayn\") (see below), while the southwestern gate was called *Bab Turbat al\\-Za'faraan* (or *Bab al\\-Za'faraan*), after the name of the adjacent royal mausoleum (see below). The southwestern part of the palace was occupied by the kitchens, which also provided food for the poor during the fasting month of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan \"Ramadan\"). The southernmost of the western gates, located here, became known as *Bab Zuhuma*, named after the odors of food emanating from the kitchens. The only northern gate of the palace, *Bab al\\-Rih* (\"Gate of the Wind\"), was the entrance used by the *da'i*s. This gate may also have been the last one to disappear in the post\\-Fatimid period, having survived at least until 1408 and having been seen by Maqrizi.", "In the 12th century, the vizier al\\-Ma'mun al\\-Bata'ihi (in office from 1122 to 1125\\) added three more pavilions to the palace. He was also responsible for building the [al\\-Aqmar Mosque](/wiki/Aqmar_Mosque \"Aqmar Mosque\"), which still stands today, at the northwestern edge of the palace.", "### The mausoleum: *Turbat al\\-Za'faraan*", "Attached to the southern end of the eastern palace was a mausoleum known as *Turbat al\\-Za'faraan* (\"The Saffron Tomb\"), which served as the burial site of the caliphs.Lev, Y. 2001\\. \"Aspects of the Egyptian Society in the Fatimid Period\". In Vermeulen, Urbain \\& J. van Steenbergen (eds.). *Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Eras III: Proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998, and 1999*. Peeters Publishers. p. 20\\.{{rp\\|57}} Even the remains of the Fatimid caliphs in Tunisia were transferred here when the caliphate moved to Egypt. The tombs were eventually completely demolished by the [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") [amir](/wiki/Emir \"Emir\") Jaharka al\\-Khalili to make way for the [Khan al\\-Khalili](/wiki/Khan_el-Khalili \"Khan el-Khalili\") in the late 14th century, which gave its name to the surrounding [souq](/wiki/Souq \"Souq\") area still present today.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Le Khan al\\-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle\\|publisher\\=Institut français d'archéologie orientale\\|year\\=1999\\|editor\\-last\\=Denoix\\|editor\\-first\\=Sylvie\\|location\\=Cairo\\|editor\\-last2\\=Depaule\\|editor\\-first2\\=Jean\\-Charles\\|editor\\-last3\\=Tuchscherer\\|editor\\-first3\\=Michel}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide\\|last\\=Williams\\|first\\=Caroline\\|publisher\\=The American University in Cairo Press\\|year\\=2018\\|edition\\=7th\\|location\\=Cairo}} Jaharkas reportedly disposed of the bones of the Fatimid royal family by throwing them into the rubbish hills east of the city.", "Also adjacent to the caliphs' mausoleum was the later 12th\\-century shrine which allegedly housed the head of al\\-Husayn, the son of [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib \"Ali ibn Abi Talib\") who was slain at the [Battle of Karbala](/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala \"Battle of Karbala\") in 680 and is revered as a martyr by the [Shi'a](/wiki/Shia_Islam \"Shia Islam\"). His head was originally believed to be interred at [Ascalon](/wiki/Ashkelon \"Ashkelon\"), but the Fatimids brought it to Cairo in 1153 when Ascalon was threatened by the [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\"). Since the Fatimids claimed descent through al\\-Husayn's mother, [Fatima](/wiki/Fatimah \"Fatimah\"), the creation of this shrine was an important symbolic and religious act. The shrine still exists today (albeit rebuilt many times) in the [al\\-Hussein Mosque](/wiki/Al-Hussein_Mosque \"Al-Hussein Mosque\"), which is heavily visited by Muslims.", "" ]
Background ---------- {{Main\|Fall of the Sasanian Empire}} After the assassination of [Byzantine emperor Maurice](/wiki/Maurice_%28emperor%29 "Maurice (emperor)") by pretender [Emperor Phocas](/wiki/Phocas "Phocas"), the shah of the Sasanian Empire, [Khosrow II](/wiki/Khosrow_II "Khosrow II"), declared war on the [Byzantine empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire"), starting the [Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628 "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628"). [Forces of the Sasanian Empire](/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire "Military of the Sasanian Empire") invaded and captured [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), and [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia"), and carried the [True Cross](/wiki/True_Cross "True Cross") away in triumph. After [being deposed in 610](/wiki/Heraclian_revolt "Heraclian revolt"), Phocas was succeeded by [Heraclius](/wiki/Heraclius "Heraclius"), who led the Byzantines in a war of reconquest, successfully regaining territory lost to the Sasanians. Heraclius defeated a small Persian army at the final [Battle of Nineveh](/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_%28627%29 "Battle of Nineveh (627)") and advanced towards [Ctesiphon](/wiki/Ctesiphon "Ctesiphon"). During this period, Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by one of his sons, [Kavadh II](/wiki/Kavadh_II "Kavadh II"). Kavadh subsequently made peace with the Byzantines and returned all captured territories as well as the True Cross. The [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks "Göktürks"), attacking the north of Persia with a massive army during peace proceedings, were ordered by Heraclius to retreat after the signing of the pact with Kavadh. ### Internal conflicts of succession After a few short months of reign, Kavadh II suddenly died of the [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 "Plague (disease)"); the ensuing power vacuum quickly led to a civil war. [Ardashir III](/wiki/Ardashir_III "Ardashir III") ({{circa\|621}}–630\), son of Kavadh II, was raised to the throne at age seven, but was killed 18 months later by his general, [Shahrbaraz](/wiki/Shahrbaraz "Shahrbaraz"), who then declared himself ruler. In 613 and 614, Shahrbaraz took both [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") and [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") from the Byzantine Empire, respectively. On 9 June 629, Shahrbaraz was killed during an invasion from Armenia by a [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar "Khazar")–[Göktürk](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk "Göktürk") force under [Chorpan Tarkhan](/wiki/Chorpan_Tarkhan "Chorpan Tarkhan"). He was succeeded by [Boran](/wiki/Boran "Boran"), the daughter of Khosrow II. She was the 26th sovereign monarch of Persia, ruling from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630, and was one of only two women to sit on the Sasanian throne, the other being her sister [Azarmidokht](/wiki/Azarmidokht "Azarmidokht"). She was made [empress regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant "Queen regnant") on the understanding that she would vacate the throne upon [Yazdegerd III](/wiki/Yazdegerd_III "Yazdegerd III") (632\-651\), the son of Shahriyar and Grandson of Khosrow II, attaining majority. Boran attempted to bring stability to the empire by implementing justice, reconstructing and fixing infrastructure, lowering taxes, minting coins, and signing a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire. She also appointed [Rostam Farrokhzād](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhz%C4%81d "Rostam Farrokhzād") as the commander\-in\-chief of the Persian army. However, Boran was largely unsuccessful in restoring the power to the central authority, which had been weakened considerably by civil wars, and either resigned or was murdered soon after ascending to the throne. She was replaced by her sister Azarmidokht, who in turn was replaced by [Hormizd VI](/wiki/Hormizd_VI "Hormizd VI"), a noble of the Persian court. After five years of internal power struggle, Yazdegerd III, grandson of Khosrow II, became emperor at the age of eight in 632\.{{sfn\|Shahbazi\|2005}} The real power of the Persian state was held in the hands of generals Rostam Farrokhzād and [Piruz Khosrow](/wiki/Piruz_Khosrow "Piruz Khosrow") (also known as Piruzan). The coronation of Yazdegerd III infused new life into the Sasanian Empire.
[ "Background\n----------", "{{Main\\|Fall of the Sasanian Empire}}\nAfter the assassination of [Byzantine emperor Maurice](/wiki/Maurice_%28emperor%29 \"Maurice (emperor)\") by pretender [Emperor Phocas](/wiki/Phocas \"Phocas\"), the shah of the Sasanian Empire, [Khosrow II](/wiki/Khosrow_II \"Khosrow II\"), declared war on the [Byzantine empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\"), starting the [Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628 \"Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628\"). [Forces of the Sasanian Empire](/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire \"Military of the Sasanian Empire\") invaded and captured [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), and [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\"), and carried the [True Cross](/wiki/True_Cross \"True Cross\") away in triumph.", "After [being deposed in 610](/wiki/Heraclian_revolt \"Heraclian revolt\"), Phocas was succeeded by [Heraclius](/wiki/Heraclius \"Heraclius\"), who led the Byzantines in a war of reconquest, successfully regaining territory lost to the Sasanians. Heraclius defeated a small Persian army at the final [Battle of Nineveh](/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_%28627%29 \"Battle of Nineveh (627)\") and advanced towards [Ctesiphon](/wiki/Ctesiphon \"Ctesiphon\").", "During this period, Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by one of his sons, [Kavadh II](/wiki/Kavadh_II \"Kavadh II\"). Kavadh subsequently made peace with the Byzantines and returned all captured territories as well as the True Cross. The [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks \"Göktürks\"), attacking the north of Persia with a massive army during peace proceedings, were ordered by Heraclius to retreat after the signing of the pact with Kavadh.", "### Internal conflicts of succession", "After a few short months of reign, Kavadh II suddenly died of the [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 \"Plague (disease)\"); the ensuing power vacuum quickly led to a civil war. [Ardashir III](/wiki/Ardashir_III \"Ardashir III\") ({{circa\\|621}}–630\\), son of Kavadh II, was raised to the throne at age seven, but was killed 18 months later by his general, [Shahrbaraz](/wiki/Shahrbaraz \"Shahrbaraz\"), who then declared himself ruler. In 613 and 614, Shahrbaraz took both [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\") and [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") from the Byzantine Empire, respectively.", "On 9 June 629, Shahrbaraz was killed during an invasion from Armenia by a [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar \"Khazar\")–[Göktürk](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk \"Göktürk\") force under [Chorpan Tarkhan](/wiki/Chorpan_Tarkhan \"Chorpan Tarkhan\"). He was succeeded by [Boran](/wiki/Boran \"Boran\"), the daughter of Khosrow II. She was the 26th sovereign monarch of Persia, ruling from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630, and was one of only two women to sit on the Sasanian throne, the other being her sister [Azarmidokht](/wiki/Azarmidokht \"Azarmidokht\"). She was made [empress regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant \"Queen regnant\") on the understanding that she would vacate the throne upon [Yazdegerd III](/wiki/Yazdegerd_III \"Yazdegerd III\") (632\\-651\\), the son of Shahriyar and Grandson of Khosrow II, attaining majority.", "Boran attempted to bring stability to the empire by implementing justice, reconstructing and fixing infrastructure, lowering taxes, minting coins, and signing a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire. She also appointed [Rostam Farrokhzād](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhz%C4%81d \"Rostam Farrokhzād\") as the commander\\-in\\-chief of the Persian army.", "However, Boran was largely unsuccessful in restoring the power to the central authority, which had been weakened considerably by civil wars, and either resigned or was murdered soon after ascending to the throne. She was replaced by her sister Azarmidokht, who in turn was replaced by [Hormizd VI](/wiki/Hormizd_VI \"Hormizd VI\"), a noble of the Persian court.", "After five years of internal power struggle, Yazdegerd III, grandson of Khosrow II, became emperor at the age of eight in 632\\.{{sfn\\|Shahbazi\\|2005}} The real power of the Persian state was held in the hands of generals Rostam Farrokhzād and [Piruz Khosrow](/wiki/Piruz_Khosrow \"Piruz Khosrow\") (also known as Piruzan).", "The coronation of Yazdegerd III infused new life into the Sasanian Empire.", "" ]
### Internal conflicts of succession After a few short months of reign, Kavadh II suddenly died of the [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 "Plague (disease)"); the ensuing power vacuum quickly led to a civil war. [Ardashir III](/wiki/Ardashir_III "Ardashir III") ({{circa\|621}}–630\), son of Kavadh II, was raised to the throne at age seven, but was killed 18 months later by his general, [Shahrbaraz](/wiki/Shahrbaraz "Shahrbaraz"), who then declared himself ruler. In 613 and 614, Shahrbaraz took both [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") and [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") from the Byzantine Empire, respectively. On 9 June 629, Shahrbaraz was killed during an invasion from Armenia by a [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar "Khazar")–[Göktürk](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk "Göktürk") force under [Chorpan Tarkhan](/wiki/Chorpan_Tarkhan "Chorpan Tarkhan"). He was succeeded by [Boran](/wiki/Boran "Boran"), the daughter of Khosrow II. She was the 26th sovereign monarch of Persia, ruling from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630, and was one of only two women to sit on the Sasanian throne, the other being her sister [Azarmidokht](/wiki/Azarmidokht "Azarmidokht"). She was made [empress regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant "Queen regnant") on the understanding that she would vacate the throne upon [Yazdegerd III](/wiki/Yazdegerd_III "Yazdegerd III") (632\-651\), the son of Shahriyar and Grandson of Khosrow II, attaining majority. Boran attempted to bring stability to the empire by implementing justice, reconstructing and fixing infrastructure, lowering taxes, minting coins, and signing a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire. She also appointed [Rostam Farrokhzād](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhz%C4%81d "Rostam Farrokhzād") as the commander\-in\-chief of the Persian army. However, Boran was largely unsuccessful in restoring the power to the central authority, which had been weakened considerably by civil wars, and either resigned or was murdered soon after ascending to the throne. She was replaced by her sister Azarmidokht, who in turn was replaced by [Hormizd VI](/wiki/Hormizd_VI "Hormizd VI"), a noble of the Persian court. After five years of internal power struggle, Yazdegerd III, grandson of Khosrow II, became emperor at the age of eight in 632\.{{sfn\|Shahbazi\|2005}} The real power of the Persian state was held in the hands of generals Rostam Farrokhzād and [Piruz Khosrow](/wiki/Piruz_Khosrow "Piruz Khosrow") (also known as Piruzan). The coronation of Yazdegerd III infused new life into the Sasanian Empire.
[ "### Internal conflicts of succession", "After a few short months of reign, Kavadh II suddenly died of the [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 \"Plague (disease)\"); the ensuing power vacuum quickly led to a civil war. [Ardashir III](/wiki/Ardashir_III \"Ardashir III\") ({{circa\\|621}}–630\\), son of Kavadh II, was raised to the throne at age seven, but was killed 18 months later by his general, [Shahrbaraz](/wiki/Shahrbaraz \"Shahrbaraz\"), who then declared himself ruler. In 613 and 614, Shahrbaraz took both [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\") and [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") from the Byzantine Empire, respectively.", "On 9 June 629, Shahrbaraz was killed during an invasion from Armenia by a [Khazar](/wiki/Khazar \"Khazar\")–[Göktürk](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk \"Göktürk\") force under [Chorpan Tarkhan](/wiki/Chorpan_Tarkhan \"Chorpan Tarkhan\"). He was succeeded by [Boran](/wiki/Boran \"Boran\"), the daughter of Khosrow II. She was the 26th sovereign monarch of Persia, ruling from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630, and was one of only two women to sit on the Sasanian throne, the other being her sister [Azarmidokht](/wiki/Azarmidokht \"Azarmidokht\"). She was made [empress regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant \"Queen regnant\") on the understanding that she would vacate the throne upon [Yazdegerd III](/wiki/Yazdegerd_III \"Yazdegerd III\") (632\\-651\\), the son of Shahriyar and Grandson of Khosrow II, attaining majority.", "Boran attempted to bring stability to the empire by implementing justice, reconstructing and fixing infrastructure, lowering taxes, minting coins, and signing a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire. She also appointed [Rostam Farrokhzād](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhz%C4%81d \"Rostam Farrokhzād\") as the commander\\-in\\-chief of the Persian army.", "However, Boran was largely unsuccessful in restoring the power to the central authority, which had been weakened considerably by civil wars, and either resigned or was murdered soon after ascending to the throne. She was replaced by her sister Azarmidokht, who in turn was replaced by [Hormizd VI](/wiki/Hormizd_VI \"Hormizd VI\"), a noble of the Persian court.", "After five years of internal power struggle, Yazdegerd III, grandson of Khosrow II, became emperor at the age of eight in 632\\.{{sfn\\|Shahbazi\\|2005}} The real power of the Persian state was held in the hands of generals Rostam Farrokhzād and [Piruz Khosrow](/wiki/Piruz_Khosrow \"Piruz Khosrow\") (also known as Piruzan).", "The coronation of Yazdegerd III infused new life into the Sasanian Empire.", "" ]
Troop deployment ---------------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=November 2013}} Modern estimates suggest that the size of the Sassanid forces was about 30,000 strong and that of the Muslims was around 30,000 strong after being reinforced by the Syrian contingent on the second day of the battle. These figures come from studying the logistical capabilities of the combatants, the sustainability of their respective bases of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affecting the Sassanids and Muslims. Most scholars, however, agree that the Sassanid army and their allies outnumbered the Muslim Arabs by a sizable margin. ### Sassanid Persia The Persian army reached Qadisiyyah in July 636 and established their highly fortified camps on the eastern bank of the Ateeq river. There was a bridge over the Ateeq river, the only crossing to the main Sassanid camps, although they had boats available in reserve to cross the river. The Sassanid Persian army, about 60,000 strong, fell into three main categories, [infantry](/wiki/Infantry "Infantry"), [heavy cavalry](/wiki/Heavy_cavalry "Heavy cavalry"), and the [Elephant corps](/wiki/War_elephant "War elephant"). The Elephant corps was also known as the Indian corps, for the elephants were trained and brought from Persian provinces in India. On 16 November 636, the Sassanid army crossed over the west bank of Ateeq, and Rostam deployed his 45,000 infantry in four divisions, each about 150 meters apart from the other. 15,000 cavalry were divided among four divisions to be used as a reserve for counter\-attack and offensives. At Qadisiyyah, about 33 elephants were present, eight with each of the four divisions of the army. The battle front was about 4 km long. The Sassanid Persians' right wing was commanded by Hormuzan, the right centre by Jalinus, the rear guard by Piruzan, and the left wing by Mihran. Rostam himself was stationed at an elevated seat, shaded by a canopy, near the west bank of the river and behind the right centre, where he enjoyed a wide view of the battlefield. By his side waved the *[Derafsh\-e\-Kāveyān](/wiki/Derafsh_Kaviani "Derafsh Kaviani")* (in [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language"): درفش کاویان, the 'flag of [Kāveh](/wiki/Kaveh_the_blacksmith "Kaveh the blacksmith")'), the standard of the Sassanid Persians. Rostam placed men at certain intervals between the battlefield and the Sassanid capital, Ctesiphon, to transmit information. ### Rashidun In July 636, the main [Muslim army](/wiki/Rashidun_army "Rashidun army") marched from Sharaf to Qadisiyyah. After establishing camp, organizing defences, and securing river heads, Sa'd sent parties inside Suwad to conduct raids. Sa'd was continuously in contact with Caliph Umar, to whom he sent a detailed report of the geographical features of the land where the Muslims encamped and the land between Qadisiyyah, Madinah, and the region where the Persians were concentrating their forces. The Muslim army at this point was about 30,000 strong, including 7,000 cavalry. Its strength rose to 36,000 members once it was reinforced by the contingent from Syria and by local Arab allies. Sa'd developed [sciatica](/wiki/Sciatica "Sciatica"), and had boils all over his body. He took a seat in the old royal palace at Qadisiyyah from where he directed the war operations and had a good view of the battlefield. He appointed as his deputy [Khalid ibn Urfuta](/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Urfuta "Khalid ibn Urfuta"),{{sfn\|Crawford\|2013\|p\=138}} who carried out his instructions to the battlefield through the chains of messengers. The Rashidun infantry was deployed in four corps, each with its own cavalry regiment stationed at the rear for counterattacks. Each corps was positioned about 150 meters from the other. The army was formed on a tribal and clan basis so that every man fought next to well\-known comrades and so that tribes were held accountable for any weakness. #### Weapons The Muslim forces wore gilded helmets similar to the silver helmets of the Sassanid soldiers. [Chain Mail](/wiki/Chain_mail "Chain mail") was commonly used to protect the face, neck, and cheeks, either as an [aventail](/wiki/Aventail "Aventail") from the helmet or as a mail coif. Heavy leather sandals, as well as Roman\-type sandal boots, were also typical of the early Muslim soldiers. Armor included hardened leather scale or [lamellar armour](/wiki/Lamellar_armour "Lamellar armour") and [mail](/wiki/Mail_%28armour%29 "Mail (armour)"). The infantry was more heavily armoured than the cavalry. [Hauberks](/wiki/Hauberk "Hauberk") and large wooden or [wickerwork](/wiki/Wickerwork "Wickerwork") [shields](/wiki/Shield "Shield") were used as well as long\-shafted spears. Infantry spears were about 2\.5 meters long and those of the cavalry were up to 5\.5 meters long. The swords used were similar to that of the Roman [gladius](/wiki/Gladius "Gladius") and the Sassanid long sword. Both were worn and hung from a [baldric](/wiki/Baldric "Baldric"). Bows were about two meters long when un\-braced, about the same size as the famous [English longbow](/wiki/English_longbow "English longbow"), with a maximum range of about 150 meters. Muslim archers proved very effective against the opposing cavalry. The Rashidun troops at the Sassanid Persian front were lightly armoured compared to those deployed at the Byzantine front.
[ "Troop deployment\n----------------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=November 2013}}\nModern estimates suggest that the size of the Sassanid forces was about 30,000 strong and that of the Muslims was around 30,000 strong after being reinforced by the Syrian contingent on the second day of the battle. These figures come from studying the logistical capabilities of the combatants, the sustainability of their respective bases of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affecting the Sassanids and Muslims. Most scholars, however, agree that the Sassanid army and their allies outnumbered the Muslim Arabs by a sizable margin.", "### Sassanid Persia", "The Persian army reached Qadisiyyah in July 636 and established their highly fortified camps on the eastern bank of the Ateeq river. There was a bridge over the Ateeq river, the only crossing to the main Sassanid camps, although they had boats available in reserve to cross the river.", "The Sassanid Persian army, about 60,000 strong, fell into three main categories, [infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\"), [heavy cavalry](/wiki/Heavy_cavalry \"Heavy cavalry\"), and the [Elephant corps](/wiki/War_elephant \"War elephant\"). The Elephant corps was also known as the Indian corps, for the elephants were trained and brought from Persian provinces in India. On 16 November 636, the Sassanid army crossed over the west bank of Ateeq, and Rostam deployed his 45,000 infantry in four divisions, each about 150 meters apart from the other. 15,000 cavalry were divided among four divisions to be used as a reserve for counter\\-attack and offensives. At Qadisiyyah, about 33 elephants were present, eight with each of the four divisions of the army. The battle front was about 4 km long.\nThe Sassanid Persians' right wing was commanded by Hormuzan, the right centre by Jalinus, the rear guard by Piruzan, and the left wing by Mihran. Rostam himself was stationed at an elevated seat, shaded by a canopy, near the west bank of the river and behind the right centre, where he enjoyed a wide view of the battlefield. By his side waved the *[Derafsh\\-e\\-Kāveyān](/wiki/Derafsh_Kaviani \"Derafsh Kaviani\")* (in [Persian](/wiki/Persian_language \"Persian language\"): درفش کاویان, the 'flag of [Kāveh](/wiki/Kaveh_the_blacksmith \"Kaveh the blacksmith\")'), the standard of the Sassanid Persians. Rostam placed men at certain intervals between the battlefield and the Sassanid capital, Ctesiphon, to transmit information.", "### Rashidun", "In July 636, the main [Muslim army](/wiki/Rashidun_army \"Rashidun army\") marched from Sharaf to Qadisiyyah. After establishing camp, organizing defences, and securing river heads, Sa'd sent parties inside Suwad to conduct raids. Sa'd was continuously in contact with Caliph Umar, to whom he sent a detailed report of the geographical features of the land where the Muslims encamped and the land between Qadisiyyah, Madinah, and the region where the Persians were concentrating their forces.", "The Muslim army at this point was about 30,000 strong, including 7,000 cavalry. Its strength rose to 36,000 members once it was reinforced by the contingent from Syria and by local Arab allies. Sa'd developed [sciatica](/wiki/Sciatica \"Sciatica\"), and had boils all over his body. He took a seat in the old royal palace at Qadisiyyah from where he directed the war operations and had a good view of the battlefield. He appointed as his deputy [Khalid ibn Urfuta](/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Urfuta \"Khalid ibn Urfuta\"),{{sfn\\|Crawford\\|2013\\|p\\=138}} who carried out his instructions to the battlefield through the chains of messengers. The Rashidun infantry was deployed in four corps, each with its own cavalry regiment stationed at the rear for counterattacks. Each corps was positioned about 150 meters from the other. The army was formed on a tribal and clan basis so that every man fought next to well\\-known comrades and so that tribes were held accountable for any weakness.", "#### Weapons", "The Muslim forces wore gilded helmets similar to the silver helmets of the Sassanid soldiers. [Chain Mail](/wiki/Chain_mail \"Chain mail\") was commonly used to protect the face, neck, and cheeks, either as an [aventail](/wiki/Aventail \"Aventail\") from the helmet or as a mail coif. Heavy leather sandals, as well as Roman\\-type sandal boots, were also typical of the early Muslim soldiers. Armor included hardened leather scale or [lamellar armour](/wiki/Lamellar_armour \"Lamellar armour\") and [mail](/wiki/Mail_%28armour%29 \"Mail (armour)\"). The infantry was more heavily armoured than the cavalry. [Hauberks](/wiki/Hauberk \"Hauberk\") and large wooden or [wickerwork](/wiki/Wickerwork \"Wickerwork\") [shields](/wiki/Shield \"Shield\") were used as well as long\\-shafted spears. Infantry spears were about 2\\.5 meters long and those of the cavalry were up to 5\\.5 meters long.", "The swords used were similar to that of the Roman [gladius](/wiki/Gladius \"Gladius\") and the Sassanid long sword. Both were worn and hung from a [baldric](/wiki/Baldric \"Baldric\"). Bows were about two meters long when un\\-braced, about the same size as the famous [English longbow](/wiki/English_longbow \"English longbow\"), with a maximum range of about 150 meters. Muslim archers proved very effective against the opposing cavalry. The Rashidun troops at the Sassanid Persian front were lightly armoured compared to those deployed at the Byzantine front.", "" ]
Battle ------ The Arabs had been camped at al\-Qadisiyyah with 30,000 men since July 636\. Umar ordered Sa'd to send emissaries to Yazdegerd III and the general of the Sasanian army, [Rostam Farrokhzad](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad "Rostam Farrokhzad"), inviting them to convert to [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"). For the next three months, negotiations between the Arabs and Persians continued. On Caliph Umar's instructions, Saad sent an embassy to the court of Persia with instructions to convert the Sassanid emperor to Islam or to get him to agree to pay the [jizyah](/wiki/Jizyah "Jizyah"). [An\-Numan ibn Muqarrin](/wiki/An-Numan_ibn_Muqarrin "An-Numan ibn Muqarrin") led the Muslim emissary to Ctesiphon and met Sasanian Emperor Yazdgerd III, but the mission failed. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Tactical deployment](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-0.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-0.PNG") During one meeting, Yazdgerd III, intent on humiliating the Arabs, ordered his servants to place a basket full of earth on the head of [Asim ibn 'Amr al\-Tamimi](/wiki/Asim_ibn_%27Amr_al-Tamimi "Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi"), a member of the emissary. The optimistic Arab ambassador interpreted this gesture with the following words: "Congratulations! The enemy has voluntarily surrendered its territory to us," (referring to the earth in the basket). Rustam, the Persian general, held a view similar to Asim ibn 'Amr. He allegedly rebuked Yazdgerd III for the basket of the earth because it signified that the Persians voluntarily surrendered their land to the Muslims. Yazdgerd III, upon hearing this, ordered soldiers to pursue the Muslim emissaries and retrieve the basket. However, the emissaries were already at their base camp at that point. As tensions eased on the Syrian front, Caliph Umar instructed that negotiations be halted. This was an open signal to the Persians to prepare for battle. Rostam Farrokhzād, who was at Valashabad, broke camp for Qadisiyyah. He was inclined, however, to avoid fighting and once more opened peace negotiations. Sa'd sent Rabi bin Amir and later Mughirah bin Zurarah to hold talks. Rostam tried to incite Arabs to choose a peaceful outcome: "You are neighbours. Some of you were in our land and we were considerate of them and protected them from harm. We helped them in all manners. They brought their herd to graze in our pastures. We gave them foodstuff from our land. We let them trade in our land. Their livelihood was in good order \[...] When there was a drought in your land and you asked us for help, we sent you dates and barley. I know that you are here because you are poor. I will order that your commander receives clothing and a horse with 1,000 dirhams and that each of you receive a load of dates and two sets of clothing so that you leave our land because I don't want to take you prisoner or kill you." But the emissaries insisted that Persians had to choose between becoming Muslim, paying Jizyah or making war. After the negotiations fell through, both sides prepared for battle. ### Day 1 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Persian left wing pushed back Muslim's right wing](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-1.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-1.PNG") On 16 November 636, an intervening canal was choked up and converted into a road on Rostam's orders and before dawn, the entire Persian army crossed the canal. Rostam now armed himself with a double set of complete armour and requisite weapons. Both armies stood face to face about 500 meters apart. The Rashidun army was deployed facing northeast, while the Sassanid army was deployed facing southwest and had the river at its rear. Just before the battle started, Sa'd sought to encourage the soldiers: "This is your heritage, promised to you by your God. He made it available to you 3 years ago and you have been profiting from it until now, capturing, ransoming and killing its people." Asim ibn 'Amr told the riders: "You are superior to them and God is with you. If you are persistent and strike in the proper way, their riches, women and children will be yours." [thumb\|right\|200px\|A cavalry and infantry regiments from Muslim's right centre reinforce Muslim's right\-wing and fight off Persian's left wing](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-2.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-2.PNG") The battle began with personal duels; Muslim [Mubarizun](/wiki/Mubarizun "Mubarizun") stepped forward and many were slain on both sides. Muslim chronicles record several heroic duels between the Sassanid and Muslim champions. The purpose of these duels was to lower the morale of the opposing army by killing as many champions as possible. Having lost several in duels, Rostam began the battle by ordering his left wing to attack the Muslims' right wing. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Persians right wing and right centre attacks and drove back Muslim's respective corps](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-3.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-3.PNG") The Persian attack began with heavy showers of arrows, which caused considerable damage to the Muslims' right wing. Elephants led the charge from the Persian side. Abdullah ibn Al\-Mutim, the Muslim commander of the right\-wing, ordered Jareer ibn Abdullah (cavalry commander of the right\-wing) to deal with the Sassanid elephants. However, Jareer's cavalry was stopped by the Sassanid heavy cavalry. The elephants continued to advance, and the Muslim infantry began to fall back. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Muslims succeed in routing the Sassanid elephants, following with a two\-prong attack on the Persian right wing and right centre, with cavalry attacks on the flank and infantry from the rear](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-4.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-4.PNG") Saad sent orders to [Al\-Ash'ath ibn Qays](/wiki/Al-Ash%27ath_ibn_Qays "Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays"), commander of the centre\-right cavalry to check the Sassanid cavalry advance. Al\-Ash'ath then led a cavalry regiment that reinforced the right wing cavalry and launched a counterattack at the flank of the Sassanid left wing. Meanwhile, Sa'd sent orders to Zuhra ibn Al\-Hawiyya, commander of the Muslim right centre, to dispatch an infantry regiment to reinforce the infantry of the right wing. An infantry regiment was sent under Hammal ibn Malik that helped the right\-wing infantry launch a counterattack against the Sassanids. The Sassanid left wing retreated under the frontal attack by the infantry of the Muslims' right\-wing reinforced by infantry regiments from the right centre and a flanking attack by the Muslim cavalry reinforced by a cavalry regiment from the right centre. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Muslims general attack on the Persian front](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-5.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-5.PNG") With his initial attacks repulsed, Rostam ordered his right centre and right\-wing to advance against the Muslim cavalry. The Muslim left wing and left centre were first subjected to intense archery, followed by a charge of the Sassanid right wing and right centre. Once again, the Elephant corps led the charge. The Muslim cavalry on the left wing and left centre, already in panic due to the charge of the elephants, were driven back by the combined charge of the Sassanid heavy cavalry and the elephants. Sa'd sent word to Asim ibn 'Amr, commander of the left centre, to overpower the elephants. Asim's strategy was to overcome the archers on the elephants and cut the girths of the saddles. Asim ordered his archers to kill the men on elephants and ordered the infantry to cut the girths of the saddles. The tactic worked, and as the Persians retired the elephants, the Muslims counterattacked. The Sassanid army's centre right retreated followed by the retreat of the entire right wing. By afternoon, the Persian attacks on the Muslim left wing and left centre were also beaten back. Saad, in order to exploit this opportunity, ordered yet another counterattack. The Muslim cavalry then charged from the flanks with full force, a tactic known as *Karr wa farr*. The Muslim attacks were eventually repulsed by Rostam, who plunged into the fray personally and is said to have received several wounds. The fighting ended at dusk. The battle was inconclusive, with considerable losses on both sides. In the Muslim chronicles, the first day of the battle of Qadisiyyah is known as *Yawm al\-Armath* (يوم أرماث) or "The Day of Disorder". ### Day 2 On 17 November, like the previous day, Sa'd decided to start the day with the Mubarizuns to inflict maximum morale damage on the Persians. At noon, while these duels were still going on, reinforcements from Syria arrived for the Muslim army. First, an advance guard under [Al\-Qaqa ibn Amr al\-Tamimi](/wiki/Al-Qaqa_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi "Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi") arrived, followed by the main army under its commander [Hashim ibn Utbah](/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utbah "Hashim ibn Utbah"), nephew of Sa'd. Qa’qa divided his advance guard into several small groups and instructed them to reach the battlefield one after the other, giving the impression that a very large contingent of reinforcements had arrived. This strategy had a very demoralizing effect on the Persian army. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Rustam ordered a general attack on the Muslim front](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-2.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-2.PNG") On this day, Qa’qa is said to have killed the Persian general [Bahman](/wiki/Bahman_Jaduya "Bahman Jaduya"), who had earlier commanded the Sassanid army at the Battle of Bridge. As there were no elephants in the Sassanid fighting force that day, Sa'd sought to exploit this opportunity to gain any breakthrough if possible, so he ordered a general attack. All four Muslim corps surged forward, but the Sassanids stood firm and repulsed repeated attacks. During these charges, Qa’qa resorted to the ingenious device of camouflaging [camels](/wiki/Camel "Camel") to look like strange monsters. These monsters moved to the Sassanid front; seeing them, the Sassanid horses turned and bolted. The disorganization of the Sassanid cavalry left their left center infantry vulnerable. Sa'd ordered the Muslims to intensify the attack. Qa’qa ibn Amr, now acting as the field commander of the Muslim army, planned to kill Rostam and led a group of [Mubarizuns](/wiki/Mubarizun "Mubarizun"), from his Syrian contingent who were also veterans of the [Battle of Yarmouk](/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk "Battle of Yarmouk"), through the Sassanids' right centre towards Rostam's headquarters. Rostam once again personally led a counterattack against the Muslims, but no breakthrough could be achieved. At dusk, the two armies pulled back to their camps. ### Day 3 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Persians attack Muslims using elephant corps](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-3.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-3.PNG") On 18 November, Rostam wanted a quick victory, before more Muslim reinforcements could arrive. The Elephant corps was once again in front of the Sassanid army, giving him the advantage. Pressing this advantage, Rostam ordered a general attack along the Muslim front, using his entire force. All four Sassanid corps moved forward and struck the Muslims on their front. The Persian attack began with the customary volley of arrows and projectiles. The Muslims sustained heavy losses before their archers retaliated. The Persian elephant corps once again led the charge, supported by their infantry and cavalry. At the approach of the Sassanid elephants, the Muslim riders once again became unnerved, leading to confusion in the Muslim ranks. The Sassanids pressed the attack, and the Muslims fell back. Through the gaps that had appeared in the foe's ranks because of the Sassanid advance, Rostam sent a cavalry regiment to capture the old palace where Sa'ad was stationed. Rostam's strategy was that the Muslim Commander\-in\-Chief had to be killed or taken captive to demoralize the Muslims. However, a strong cavalry contingent of Muslims rushed to the spot and drove away the Sassanid cavalry. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Persian attack beaten back, with elephants driven off the field for good](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-3-phase-2.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-3-phase-2.PNG") Sa'd determined that there was only one way to win the battle; to destroy the Sassanid elephant corps that was causing great havoc among the Muslim ranks. He issued orders that the elephants should be overpowered by blinding them and severing their trunks. After a long struggle, the Muslims finally succeeded in mutilating the elephants sufficiently to be driven off. The frightened elephant corps rushed through the Sassanid ranks and made for the river. By noon no elephants were left on the battlefield. The flight of the elephants caused considerable confusion in the Sassanid ranks. To exploit this situation even further, Sa'd ordered a general attack, and the two armies clashed once again. Despite the Muslims' repeated charges, the Sassanids held their ground. In the absence of the Persian elephants, the Muslims once again brought up camels camouflaged as monsters. The trick did not work this time, and the Persian horses stood their ground. The third day of the battle was the hardest for both armies. There were heavy casualties on both sides, and the battlefield was strewn with the dead bodies of fallen warriors. Despite the fatigue after three days of battle, the armies continued the fight, which raged through the night and ended at dawn. It became a battle of stamina, with both sides on the verge of breaking. Sa'd's strategy was to wear down the Persians and snatch victory from them. In the Muslim chronicles, the third day of the battle is known as *Yaum\-ul\-Amas* and the night as Lailat\-ul\-Harir, meaning the "Night of Rumbling Noises". ### Day 4 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Muslims attack the Persian front, Qa'qa's men penetrated the right centre of the Persian army and killed Rustam](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-phase-1.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-4-phase-1.PNG") At sunrise of 19 November 636, the fighting had ceased, but the battle was still inconclusive. Qa'qa, with the consent of Sa'd, was now acting as the field commander of the Muslim troops. He is reported to have addressed his men as follows: {{Blockquote\| ''"If we fight for an hour or so more, the enemy will be defeated. So, warriors of Bani Tameem make one more attempt and victory will be yours."''}} The Muslims' left centre led by Qa’qa surged forward and attacked the Sassanid right centre, followed by the general attack of the Muslim corps. The Sassanids were taken by surprise at the resumption of battle. The Sassanid left wing and left centre were pushed back. Qa’qa again led a group of Mubarizuns against the Sassanids' left centre and by noon, he and his men were able to pierce through the Sassanid centre. However, they were unable to break the Persian army. [thumb\|right\|200px\|Muslim attacks were beaten back by the Persians right wing and right centre](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-phase-2.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-4-phase-2.PNG") ### Final battle On the final day, Rostam was slain, which heralded the defeat of the Persians. Multiple different accounts have been told of his mysterious death: 1\) Qa'qa and his men dashed toward the Sassanid headquarters. Meanwhile, in the middle of a sandstorm, Rostam was found dead with over 5 wounds on his body. The Persians were not aware of his death, though, and continued to fight. The Sassanid right wing counter\-attacked and regained its lost position, and the Muslims' left wing retreated to its original position. The Muslims' left centre, now under Qa’qa's command, when denied the support of their left wing, also retreated to its original position. Sa'd now ordered a general attack on the Sassanid front to drive away the Persians, who were demoralized by the death of their charismatic leader. In the afternoon, the Muslims mounted another attack. 2\) There was a heavy sandstorm facing the Persian army on the final day of the battle. Rostam lay next to a camel to shelter himself from the storm, while some weapons, such as axes, maces, and swords had been loaded on the camel. [Hilāl ibn 'Ullafah](/wiki/Hil%C4%81l_ibn_%27Ullafah "Hilāl ibn 'Ullafah") accidentally cut the girdle of the load on the camel, not knowing that Rostam was behind and under it. The weapons fell on Rostam and broke his back leaving him half\-dead and paralyzed. Hilal beheaded Rostam and shouted, "I swear by the god of Kaaba that I have killed Rostam." Shocked by the head of their legendary leader dangling before their eyes, the Persians were demoralized, and the commanders lost control of the army. Many Persian soldiers were slain in the chaos, many escaped through the river, and finally, the rest of the army surrendered. This account has been dismissed as unlikely due to several problems with the story, including the presence of suspicious literary devices and general inconsistencies in the narrative.{{sfn\|Lewental\|2016}} 3\) A version from [Ya'qubi](/wiki/Ya%27qubi "Ya'qubi") records that [Dhiraar bin Al\-Azwar](/wiki/Dhiraar_bin_Al-Azwar "Dhiraar bin Al-Azwar"), [Tulayha](/wiki/Tulayha "Tulayha"), [Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib](/wiki/Amru_bin_Ma%27adi_Yakrib "Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib"), and Kurt bin Jammah al\-Abdi discovered the corpse of Rostam.{{sfn\|Hitti\|2005\|p\=415}} 4\) Yet another version states that Rostam was killed during single combat with Sa'd during which the former was slain while temporarily blinded by the sandstorm. However, like the Al\-Tabari, is likely an invention of later story\-tellers.{{sfn\|Lewental\|2016}} [thumb\|right\|200px\|Persians retreating across the river](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-last_phase.PNG "Mohammad adil rais-day-4-last phase.PNG") The Sassanid front, after putting up a last stand, finally collapsed; part of the Sassanid army retreated in an organized manner while the rest retreated in panic towards the river. At this stage [Jalinus](/wiki/Jalinus "Jalinus") took command of what was left of the Sassanid army and claimed control of the bridgehead, succeeding in getting the bulk of the army across the bridge safely. The battle of al\-Qadisiyyah was over, and the Muslims were victorious. Sa'd sent the cavalry regiments in various directions to pursue the fleeing Persians. The stragglers that the Muslims met along the way were either killed or taken captive. Heavy casualties were suffered by the Sassanids during these pursuits.
[ "Battle\n------", "The Arabs had been camped at al\\-Qadisiyyah with 30,000 men since July 636\\. Umar ordered Sa'd to send emissaries to Yazdegerd III and the general of the Sasanian army, [Rostam Farrokhzad](/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad \"Rostam Farrokhzad\"), inviting them to convert to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). For the next three months, negotiations between the Arabs and Persians continued. On Caliph Umar's instructions, Saad sent an embassy to the court of Persia with instructions to convert the Sassanid emperor to Islam or to get him to agree to pay the [jizyah](/wiki/Jizyah \"Jizyah\"). [An\\-Numan ibn Muqarrin](/wiki/An-Numan_ibn_Muqarrin \"An-Numan ibn Muqarrin\") led the Muslim emissary to Ctesiphon and met Sasanian Emperor Yazdgerd III, but the mission failed.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Tactical deployment](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-0.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-0.PNG\")\nDuring one meeting, Yazdgerd III, intent on humiliating the Arabs, ordered his servants to place a basket full of earth on the head of [Asim ibn 'Amr al\\-Tamimi](/wiki/Asim_ibn_%27Amr_al-Tamimi \"Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi\"), a member of the emissary. The optimistic Arab ambassador interpreted this gesture with the following words: \"Congratulations! The enemy has voluntarily surrendered its territory to us,\" (referring to the earth in the basket). Rustam, the Persian general, held a view similar to Asim ibn 'Amr. He allegedly rebuked Yazdgerd III for the basket of the earth because it signified that the Persians voluntarily surrendered their land to the Muslims. Yazdgerd III, upon hearing this, ordered soldiers to pursue the Muslim emissaries and retrieve the basket. However, the emissaries were already at their base camp at that point.", "As tensions eased on the Syrian front, Caliph Umar instructed that negotiations be halted. This was an open signal to the Persians to prepare for battle. Rostam Farrokhzād, who was at Valashabad, broke camp for Qadisiyyah. He was inclined, however, to avoid fighting and once more opened peace negotiations. Sa'd sent Rabi bin Amir and later Mughirah bin Zurarah to hold talks. Rostam tried to incite Arabs to choose a peaceful outcome: \"You are neighbours. Some of you were in our land and we were considerate of them and protected them from harm. We helped them in all manners. They brought their herd to graze in our pastures. We gave them foodstuff from our land. We let them trade in our land. Their livelihood was in good order \\[...] When there was a drought in your land and you asked us for help, we sent you dates and barley. I know that you are here because you are poor. I will order that your commander receives clothing and a horse with 1,000 dirhams and that each of you receive a load of dates and two sets of clothing so that you leave our land because I don't want to take you prisoner or kill you.\" But the emissaries insisted that Persians had to choose between becoming Muslim, paying Jizyah or making war. After the negotiations fell through, both sides prepared for battle.", "### Day 1", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Persian left wing pushed back Muslim's right wing](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-1.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-1.PNG\")\nOn 16 November 636, an intervening canal was choked up and converted into a road on Rostam's orders and before dawn, the entire Persian army crossed the canal. Rostam now armed himself with a double set of complete armour and requisite weapons. Both armies stood face to face about 500 meters apart. The Rashidun army was deployed facing northeast, while the Sassanid army was deployed facing southwest and had the river at its rear. Just before the battle started, Sa'd sought to encourage the soldiers: \"This is your heritage, promised to you by your God. He made it available to you 3 years ago and you have been profiting from it until now, capturing, ransoming and killing its people.\" Asim ibn 'Amr told the riders: \"You are superior to them and God is with you. If you are persistent and strike in the proper way, their riches, women and children will be yours.\"", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|A cavalry and infantry regiments from Muslim's right centre reinforce Muslim's right\\-wing and fight off Persian's left wing](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-2.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-2.PNG\")\nThe battle began with personal duels; Muslim [Mubarizun](/wiki/Mubarizun \"Mubarizun\") stepped forward and many were slain on both sides. Muslim chronicles record several heroic duels between the Sassanid and Muslim champions. The purpose of these duels was to lower the morale of the opposing army by killing as many champions as possible. Having lost several in duels, Rostam began the battle by ordering his left wing to attack the Muslims' right wing.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Persians right wing and right centre attacks and drove back Muslim's respective corps](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-3.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-3.PNG\")\nThe Persian attack began with heavy showers of arrows, which caused considerable damage to the Muslims' right wing. Elephants led the charge from the Persian side. Abdullah ibn Al\\-Mutim, the Muslim commander of the right\\-wing, ordered Jareer ibn Abdullah (cavalry commander of the right\\-wing) to deal with the Sassanid elephants. However, Jareer's cavalry was stopped by the Sassanid heavy cavalry. The elephants continued to advance, and the Muslim infantry began to fall back.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Muslims succeed in routing the Sassanid elephants, following with a two\\-prong attack on the Persian right wing and right centre, with cavalry attacks on the flank and infantry from the rear](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-4.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-4.PNG\")", "Saad sent orders to [Al\\-Ash'ath ibn Qays](/wiki/Al-Ash%27ath_ibn_Qays \"Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays\"), commander of the centre\\-right cavalry to check the Sassanid cavalry advance. Al\\-Ash'ath then led a cavalry regiment that reinforced the right wing cavalry and launched a counterattack at the flank of the Sassanid left wing. Meanwhile, Sa'd sent orders to Zuhra ibn Al\\-Hawiyya, commander of the Muslim right centre, to dispatch an infantry regiment to reinforce the infantry of the right wing. An infantry regiment was sent under Hammal ibn Malik that helped the right\\-wing infantry launch a counterattack against the Sassanids. The Sassanid left wing retreated under the frontal attack by the infantry of the Muslims' right\\-wing reinforced by infantry regiments from the right centre and a flanking attack by the Muslim cavalry reinforced by a cavalry regiment from the right centre.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Muslims general attack on the Persian front](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-1-phase-5.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-1-phase-5.PNG\")\nWith his initial attacks repulsed, Rostam ordered his right centre and right\\-wing to advance against the Muslim cavalry. The Muslim left wing and left centre were first subjected to intense archery, followed by a charge of the Sassanid right wing and right centre. Once again, the Elephant corps led the charge. The Muslim cavalry on the left wing and left centre, already in panic due to the charge of the elephants, were driven back by the combined charge of the Sassanid heavy cavalry and the elephants.", "Sa'd sent word to Asim ibn 'Amr, commander of the left centre, to overpower the elephants. Asim's strategy was to overcome the archers on the elephants and cut the girths of the saddles. Asim ordered his archers to kill the men on elephants and ordered the infantry to cut the girths of the saddles. The tactic worked, and as the Persians retired the elephants, the Muslims counterattacked. The Sassanid army's centre right retreated followed by the retreat of the entire right wing. By afternoon, the Persian attacks on the Muslim left wing and left centre were also beaten back. Saad, in order to exploit this opportunity, ordered yet another counterattack. The Muslim cavalry then charged from the flanks with full force, a tactic known as *Karr wa farr*. The Muslim attacks were eventually repulsed by Rostam, who plunged into the fray personally and is said to have received several wounds. The fighting ended at dusk. The battle was inconclusive, with considerable losses on both sides.", "In the Muslim chronicles, the first day of the battle of Qadisiyyah is known as *Yawm al\\-Armath* (يوم أرماث) or \"The Day of Disorder\".", "### Day 2", "On 17 November, like the previous day, Sa'd decided to start the day with the Mubarizuns to inflict maximum morale damage on the Persians. At noon, while these duels were still going on, reinforcements from Syria arrived for the Muslim army. First, an advance guard under [Al\\-Qaqa ibn Amr al\\-Tamimi](/wiki/Al-Qaqa_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi \"Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi\") arrived, followed by the main army under its commander [Hashim ibn Utbah](/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utbah \"Hashim ibn Utbah\"), nephew of Sa'd. Qa’qa divided his advance guard into several small groups and instructed them to reach the battlefield one after the other, giving the impression that a very large contingent of reinforcements had arrived. This strategy had a very demoralizing effect on the Persian army.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Rustam ordered a general attack on the Muslim front](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-2.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-2.PNG\")\nOn this day, Qa’qa is said to have killed the Persian general [Bahman](/wiki/Bahman_Jaduya \"Bahman Jaduya\"), who had earlier commanded the Sassanid army at the Battle of Bridge.\nAs there were no elephants in the Sassanid fighting force that day, Sa'd sought to exploit this opportunity to gain any breakthrough if possible, so he ordered a general attack. All four Muslim corps surged forward, but the Sassanids stood firm and repulsed repeated attacks. During these charges, Qa’qa resorted to the ingenious device of camouflaging [camels](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\") to look like strange monsters. These monsters moved to the Sassanid front; seeing them, the Sassanid horses turned and bolted. The disorganization of the Sassanid cavalry left their left center infantry vulnerable. Sa'd ordered the Muslims to intensify the attack. Qa’qa ibn Amr, now acting as the field commander of the Muslim army, planned to kill Rostam and led a group of [Mubarizuns](/wiki/Mubarizun \"Mubarizun\"), from his Syrian contingent who were also veterans of the [Battle of Yarmouk](/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk \"Battle of Yarmouk\"), through the Sassanids' right centre towards Rostam's headquarters. Rostam once again personally led a counterattack against the Muslims, but no breakthrough could be achieved. At dusk, the two armies pulled back to their camps.", "### Day 3", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Persians attack Muslims using elephant corps](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-3.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-3.PNG\")\nOn 18 November, Rostam wanted a quick victory, before more Muslim reinforcements could arrive.\nThe Elephant corps was once again in front of the Sassanid army, giving him the advantage. Pressing this advantage, Rostam ordered a general attack along the Muslim front, using his entire force. All four Sassanid corps moved forward and struck the Muslims on their front. The Persian attack began with the customary volley of arrows and projectiles. The Muslims sustained heavy losses before their archers retaliated. The Persian elephant corps once again led the charge, supported by their infantry and cavalry. At the approach of the Sassanid elephants, the Muslim riders once again became unnerved, leading to confusion in the Muslim ranks. The Sassanids pressed the attack, and the Muslims fell back.", "Through the gaps that had appeared in the foe's ranks because of the Sassanid advance, Rostam sent a cavalry regiment to capture the old palace where Sa'ad was stationed. Rostam's strategy was that the Muslim Commander\\-in\\-Chief had to be killed or taken captive to demoralize the Muslims. However, a strong cavalry contingent of Muslims rushed to the spot and drove away the Sassanid cavalry.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Persian attack beaten back, with elephants driven off the field for good](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-3-phase-2.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-3-phase-2.PNG\")", "Sa'd determined that there was only one way to win the battle; to destroy the Sassanid elephant corps that was causing great havoc among the Muslim ranks. He issued orders that the elephants should be overpowered by blinding them and severing their trunks. After a long struggle, the Muslims finally succeeded in mutilating the elephants sufficiently to be driven off. The frightened elephant corps rushed through the Sassanid ranks and made for the river. By noon no elephants were left on the battlefield. The flight of the elephants caused considerable confusion in the Sassanid ranks. To exploit this situation even further, Sa'd ordered a general attack, and the two armies clashed once again. Despite the Muslims' repeated charges, the Sassanids held their ground. In the absence of the Persian elephants, the Muslims once again brought up camels camouflaged as monsters. The trick did not work this time, and the Persian horses stood their ground.", "The third day of the battle was the hardest for both armies. There were heavy casualties on both sides, and the battlefield was strewn with the dead bodies of fallen warriors. Despite the fatigue after three days of battle, the armies continued the fight, which raged through the night and ended at dawn. It became a battle of stamina, with both sides on the verge of breaking. Sa'd's strategy was to wear down the Persians and snatch victory from them. In the Muslim chronicles, the third day of the battle is known as *Yaum\\-ul\\-Amas* and the night as Lailat\\-ul\\-Harir, meaning the \"Night of Rumbling Noises\".", "### Day 4", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Muslims attack the Persian front, Qa'qa's men penetrated the right centre of the Persian army and killed Rustam](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-phase-1.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-4-phase-1.PNG\")", "At sunrise of 19 November 636, the fighting had ceased, but the battle was still inconclusive. Qa'qa, with the consent of Sa'd, was now acting as the field commander of the Muslim troops. He is reported to have addressed his men as follows:", "{{Blockquote\\| ''\"If we fight for an hour or so more, the enemy will be defeated. So, warriors of Bani Tameem make one more attempt and victory will be yours.\"''}}", "The Muslims' left centre led by Qa’qa surged forward and attacked the Sassanid right centre, followed by the general attack of the Muslim corps. The Sassanids were taken by surprise at the resumption of battle. The Sassanid left wing and left centre were pushed back. Qa’qa again led a group of Mubarizuns against the Sassanids' left centre and by noon, he and his men were able to pierce through the Sassanid centre. However, they were unable to break the Persian army.", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Muslim attacks were beaten back by the Persians right wing and right centre](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-phase-2.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-4-phase-2.PNG\")", "### Final battle", "On the final day, Rostam was slain, which heralded the defeat of the Persians. Multiple different accounts have been told of his mysterious death:", "1\\) Qa'qa and his men dashed toward the Sassanid headquarters. Meanwhile, in the middle of a sandstorm, Rostam was found dead with over 5 wounds on his body. The Persians were not aware of his death, though, and continued to fight. The Sassanid right wing counter\\-attacked and regained its lost position, and the Muslims' left wing retreated to its original position. The Muslims' left centre, now under Qa’qa's command, when denied the support of their left wing, also retreated to its original position. Sa'd now ordered a general attack on the Sassanid front to drive away the Persians, who were demoralized by the death of their charismatic leader. In the afternoon, the Muslims mounted another attack.", "2\\) There was a heavy sandstorm facing the Persian army on the final day of the battle. Rostam lay next to a camel to shelter himself from the storm, while some weapons, such as axes, maces, and swords had been loaded on the camel. [Hilāl ibn 'Ullafah](/wiki/Hil%C4%81l_ibn_%27Ullafah \"Hilāl ibn 'Ullafah\") accidentally cut the girdle of the load on the camel, not knowing that Rostam was behind and under it. The weapons fell on Rostam and broke his back leaving him half\\-dead and paralyzed. Hilal beheaded Rostam and shouted, \"I swear by the god of Kaaba that I have killed Rostam.\" Shocked by the head of their legendary leader dangling before their eyes, the Persians were demoralized, and the commanders lost control of the army. Many Persian soldiers were slain in the chaos, many escaped through the river, and finally, the rest of the army surrendered. This account has been dismissed as unlikely due to several problems with the story, including the presence of suspicious literary devices and general inconsistencies in the narrative.{{sfn\\|Lewental\\|2016}}", "3\\) A version from [Ya'qubi](/wiki/Ya%27qubi \"Ya'qubi\") records that [Dhiraar bin Al\\-Azwar](/wiki/Dhiraar_bin_Al-Azwar \"Dhiraar bin Al-Azwar\"), [Tulayha](/wiki/Tulayha \"Tulayha\"), [Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib](/wiki/Amru_bin_Ma%27adi_Yakrib \"Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib\"), and Kurt bin Jammah al\\-Abdi discovered the corpse of Rostam.{{sfn\\|Hitti\\|2005\\|p\\=415}}", "4\\) Yet another version states that Rostam was killed during single combat with Sa'd during which the former was slain while temporarily blinded by the sandstorm. However, like the Al\\-Tabari, is likely an invention of later story\\-tellers.{{sfn\\|Lewental\\|2016}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Persians retreating across the river](/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-day-4-last_phase.PNG \"Mohammad adil rais-day-4-last phase.PNG\")\nThe Sassanid front, after putting up a last stand, finally collapsed; part of the Sassanid army retreated in an organized manner while the rest retreated in panic towards the river. At this stage [Jalinus](/wiki/Jalinus \"Jalinus\") took command of what was left of the Sassanid army and claimed control of the bridgehead, succeeding in getting the bulk of the army across the bridge safely. The battle of al\\-Qadisiyyah was over, and the Muslims were victorious. Sa'd sent the cavalry regiments in various directions to pursue the fleeing Persians. The stragglers that the Muslims met along the way were either killed or taken captive. Heavy casualties were suffered by the Sassanids during these pursuits.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1880\= 1882 \|1900\= 1884 \|1910\= 3667 \|1920\= 8262 \|1930\= 13718 \|1940\= 18613 \|1950\= 22362 \|1960\= 26355 \|1970\= 27444 \|1980\= 25412 \|1990\= 24727 \|2000\= 24568 \|2010\= 24023 \|2020\= 26016 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2000 census At the time of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=January 31, 2008 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 24,568 people living in the village, 9,201 households and 6,468 families. The population density was {{convert\|7,496\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 9,419 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|2,874\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}; {{As of\|2004\|lc\=on}},.[http://www.ci.rockville\-centre.ny.us/bn\_state1\.html](http://www.ci.rockville-centre.ny.us/bn_state1.html) {{dead link\|date\=June 2016\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} The racial makeup of the village was 84\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 9\.8% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 7\.8% [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race, 1\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.04% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 3\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.03% from two or more races. There were 9,201 households, of which 33\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\.1% were married couples living together, 9\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\.7% were non\-families. 26\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.64 and the average family size was 3\.25\. The population was spread out, with 25\.8% under the age of 18, 5\.8% from 18 to 24, 26\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\.9% from 45 to 64, and 16\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 women there were 87\.9 men. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 81\.9 men. According to a 2007 estimate,{{cite web\|url\=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?\_event\=Search\&geo\_id\=16000US3658442\&\_geoContext\=01000US%7C04000US36%7C16000US3658442\&\_street\=\&\_county\=rockville\+centre\&\_cityTown\=rockville\+centre\&\_state\=04000US36\&\_zip\=\&\_lang\=en\&\_sse\=on\&ActiveGeoDiv\=geoSelect\&\_useEV\=\&pctxt\=fph\&pgsl\=160\&\_submenuId\=factsheet\_1\&ds\_name\=ACS\_2007\_3YR\_SAFF\&\_ci\_nbr\=null\&qr\_name\=null®\=null%3Anull\&\_keyword\=\&\_industry\=\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200211181334/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?\_event\=Search\&geo\_id\=16000US3658442\&\_geoContext\=01000US%7C04000US36%7C16000US3658442\&\_street\=\&\_county\=rockville\+centre\&\_cityTown\=rockville\+centre\&\_state\=04000US36\&\_zip\=\&\_lang\=en\&\_sse\=on\&ActiveGeoDiv\=geoSelect\&\_useEV\=\&pctxt\=fph\&pgsl\=160\&\_submenuId\=factsheet\_1\&ds\_name\=ACS\_2007\_3YR\_SAFF\&\_ci\_nbr\=null\&qr\_name\=null®\=null:null\&\_keyword\=\&\_industry\=\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 11, 2020\|title\=Rockville Centre village, New York – Fact Sheet – American FactFinder\|publisher\=Factfinder.census.gov\|access\-date\=January 24, 2011}} the median income for a household in the village was $99,299, and the median income for a family was $128,579\. Males had a median income of $70,149 versus $43,800 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $40,739\. 5\.0% of the population and 2\.8% of families were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"). Out of the total population, 7\.0% of those under the age of 18 and 5\.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. ### 2010 census At the time of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid\=DEC\_10\_DP\_DPDP1 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200212055711/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid\=DEC\_10\_DP\_DPDP1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=February 12, 2020 \|title\=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 \|publisher\=Factfinder2\.census.gov \|access\-date\=May 19, 2014}} of 2010, there were 24,111 people living in the village, 9,201 households and 6,468 families. The population density was {{convert\|7,496\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 9,419 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|2,874\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}} {{As of\|2010\|lc\=on}}.[http://www.zip\-codes.com/zip\-code/11570/zip\-code\-11570\-2010\-census.asp](http://www.zip-codes.com/zip-code/11570/zip-code-11570-2010-census.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427104145/http://www.zip\-codes.com/zip\-code/11570/zip\-code\-11570\-2010\-census.asp\|date\=April 27, 2015}} The racial makeup of the village was 78\.3% White, 8\.6% Black or African American, 9\.7% Hispanic or Latino, 0\.1% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2\.0% Asian alone, 0\.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0\.1% Some Other Race, and 1\.2% Two or More Races. There were 10,002 households, of which 32\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\.1% were married couples living together, 9\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\.3% were non\-families. 27\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 32\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.64 and the average family size was 3\.28\. The population was spread out, with 25\.8% under the age of 18, 5\.8% from 18 to 24, 26\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\.9% from 45 to 64, and 16\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 women there were 87\.9 men. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 81\.9 men.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 1882\n\\|1900\\= 1884\n\\|1910\\= 3667\n\\|1920\\= 8262\n\\|1930\\= 13718\n\\|1940\\= 18613\n\\|1950\\= 22362\n\\|1960\\= 26355\n\\|1970\\= 27444\n\\|1980\\= 25412\n\\|1990\\= 24727\n\\|2000\\= 24568\n\\|2010\\= 24023\n\\|2020\\= 26016\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2000 census", "At the time of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 24,568 people living in the village, 9,201 households and 6,468 families. The population density was {{convert\\|7,496\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 9,419 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|2,874\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}; {{As of\\|2004\\|lc\\=on}},.[http://www.ci.rockville\\-centre.ny.us/bn\\_state1\\.html](http://www.ci.rockville-centre.ny.us/bn_state1.html) {{dead link\\|date\\=June 2016\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} The racial makeup of the village was 84\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 9\\.8% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 7\\.8% [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race, 1\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.04% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.03% from two or more races.", "There were 9,201 households, of which 33\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\\.1% were married couples living together, 9\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\\.7% were non\\-families. 26\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.64 and the average family size was 3\\.25\\. The population was spread out, with 25\\.8% under the age of 18, 5\\.8% from 18 to 24, 26\\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 16\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 women there were 87\\.9 men. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 81\\.9 men.", "According to a 2007 estimate,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?\\_event\\=Search\\&geo\\_id\\=16000US3658442\\&\\_geoContext\\=01000US%7C04000US36%7C16000US3658442\\&\\_street\\=\\&\\_county\\=rockville\\+centre\\&\\_cityTown\\=rockville\\+centre\\&\\_state\\=04000US36\\&\\_zip\\=\\&\\_lang\\=en\\&\\_sse\\=on\\&ActiveGeoDiv\\=geoSelect\\&\\_useEV\\=\\&pctxt\\=fph\\&pgsl\\=160\\&\\_submenuId\\=factsheet\\_1\\&ds\\_name\\=ACS\\_2007\\_3YR\\_SAFF\\&\\_ci\\_nbr\\=null\\&qr\\_name\\=null®\\=null%3Anull\\&\\_keyword\\=\\&\\_industry\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200211181334/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?\\_event\\=Search\\&geo\\_id\\=16000US3658442\\&\\_geoContext\\=01000US%7C04000US36%7C16000US3658442\\&\\_street\\=\\&\\_county\\=rockville\\+centre\\&\\_cityTown\\=rockville\\+centre\\&\\_state\\=04000US36\\&\\_zip\\=\\&\\_lang\\=en\\&\\_sse\\=on\\&ActiveGeoDiv\\=geoSelect\\&\\_useEV\\=\\&pctxt\\=fph\\&pgsl\\=160\\&\\_submenuId\\=factsheet\\_1\\&ds\\_name\\=ACS\\_2007\\_3YR\\_SAFF\\&\\_ci\\_nbr\\=null\\&qr\\_name\\=null®\\=null:null\\&\\_keyword\\=\\&\\_industry\\=\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2020\\|title\\=Rockville Centre village, New York – Fact Sheet – American FactFinder\\|publisher\\=Factfinder.census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2011}} the median income for a household in the village was $99,299, and the median income for a family was $128,579\\. Males had a median income of $70,149 versus $43,800 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $40,739\\. 5\\.0% of the population and 2\\.8% of families were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"). Out of the total population, 7\\.0% of those under the age of 18 and 5\\.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.", "### 2010 census", "At the time of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid\\=DEC\\_10\\_DP\\_DPDP1 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200212055711/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid\\=DEC\\_10\\_DP\\_DPDP1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=February 12, 2020 \\|title\\=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 \\|publisher\\=Factfinder2\\.census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2014}} of 2010, there were 24,111 people living in the village, 9,201 households and 6,468 families. The population density was {{convert\\|7,496\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 9,419 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|2,874\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}} {{As of\\|2010\\|lc\\=on}}.[http://www.zip\\-codes.com/zip\\-code/11570/zip\\-code\\-11570\\-2010\\-census.asp](http://www.zip-codes.com/zip-code/11570/zip-code-11570-2010-census.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427104145/http://www.zip\\-codes.com/zip\\-code/11570/zip\\-code\\-11570\\-2010\\-census.asp\\|date\\=April 27, 2015}} The racial makeup of the village was 78\\.3% White, 8\\.6% Black or African American, 9\\.7% Hispanic or Latino, 0\\.1% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2\\.0% Asian alone, 0\\.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0\\.1% Some Other Race, and 1\\.2% Two or More Races.", "There were 10,002 households, of which 32\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56\\.1% were married couples living together, 9\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\\.3% were non\\-families. 27\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 32\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.64 and the average family size was 3\\.28\\. The population was spread out, with 25\\.8% under the age of 18, 5\\.8% from 18 to 24, 26\\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 16\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 women there were 87\\.9 men. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 81\\.9 men.", "" ]
Television ---------- In 1970, he played Teddy, the prospective buyer of a haunted house, in the 'Suspicious Ignorance' episode of *[Tales of Unease](/wiki/Tales_of_Unease "Tales of Unease")*, alongside [Tessa Wyatt](/wiki/Tessa_Wyatt "Tessa Wyatt"). Clyde once guest\-starred in an episode of the American sitcom *[My Three Sons](/wiki/My_Three_Sons "My Three Sons")* (season 8 episode 7, "Liverpool Saga"), when Chip Douglas is introduced to their neighbor's cousin, Paul Drayton, as a well known folk guitarist in Britain, excited that someone from [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool") was coming to visit and expecting him to be a talented musician (implying the success of [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles");{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/my\-three\-sons/episode\-16\-season\-8/liverpool\-saga/100316\|title\=My Three Sons \| TV Guide\|website\=TVGuide.com}} the episode aired during the height of [Beatlemania](/wiki/Beatlemania "Beatlemania")). He appeared in the [BBC TV](/wiki/BBC_TV "BBC TV") adaptation of *[Moll Flanders](/wiki/Moll_Flanders_%28TV_series%29 "Moll Flanders (TV series)")* in 1975\. In 1979, he played [Godfried Schalcken](/wiki/Godfried_Schalcken "Godfried Schalcken") in the BBC's television horror story *[Schalcken the Painter](/wiki/Schalcken_the_Painter "Schalcken the Painter")*. In the late 1970s he appeared alongside [Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase "Lorraine Chase") in a series of television advertisements for [Campari](/wiki/Campari "Campari"). He is perhaps best known for his portrayal of villainous Austrian Imperial Governor Hermann Gessler, in the action series *[Crossbow](/wiki/Crossbow_%28TV_series%29 "Crossbow (TV series)")* (1987–1989\), which incorporated Clyde's ability to convey evil in a distinctly aristocratic way.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.allmovie.com/artist/jeremy\-clyde\-p13771\|title\=Jeremy Clyde \| Biography, Movie Highlights and Photos\|website\=AllMovie}} His other notable acting role was as Dick Spackman in the [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)") sitcom *[Is it Legal?](/wiki/Is_it_Legal%3F "Is it Legal?")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/is\_it\_legal/cast\_crew/\|title\=Is It Legal? cast and crew credits\|first\=British Comedy\|last\=Guide\|website\=British Comedy Guide}} Clyde also portrayed [King Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England") in the BBC series *[By the Sword Divided](/wiki/By_the_Sword_Divided "By the Sword Divided")* (1983–85\), which depicted the English Civil War.{{Cite web \|first\=John \|last\=Derbyshire \|url\=https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/re\-sword\-divided\-john\-derbyshire/\|title\=Re: by The Sword Divided \|date\=17 July 2004 \|website\=National Review}} Clyde also starred as Algernon Moncrieff in 1985 in the *[Great Performances](/wiki/Great_Performances "Great Performances")* production of [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde")'s *[The Importance of Being Earnest](/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest "The Importance of Being Earnest")*, opposite [Gary Bond](/wiki/Gary_Bond "Gary Bond") as Jack Worthing and [Dame Wendy Hiller](/wiki/Dame_Wendy_Hiller "Dame Wendy Hiller") as Lady Bracknell.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1985\-12\-25\-ca\-21306\-story.html\|title\=TV Review: An 'Earnest' Comedy Of Rich Wit And Manners \|date\=25 December 1985 \|website\=Los Angeles Times}} In the same year, he played the civil servant Densher in *[Blott on the Landscape](/wiki/Blott_on_the_Landscape_%28TV_series%29 "Blott on the Landscape (TV series)")*. In 2002, Clyde appeared in *[The Falklands Play](/wiki/The_Falklands_Play "The Falklands Play")* (a BBC dramatisation of the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War "Falklands War")) as Sir [Nicholas Henderson](/wiki/Nicholas_Henderson "Nicholas Henderson"), the British ambassador to the United States at the time.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/1205530/credits.html \|work\=BFI Screenonline \|title\= Falklands Play, The (2002\) \|publisher\=BFI}} In 2004, he appeared in the BBC drama series *[The Alan Clark Diaries](/wiki/The_Alan_Clark_Diaries "The Alan Clark Diaries")* as [British Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") politician [Jonathan Aitken](/wiki/Jonathan_Aitken "Jonathan Aitken"), and also appeared in the BBC drama series *[Ashes To Ashes](/wiki/Ashes_to_Ashes_%28British_TV_series%29 "Ashes to Ashes (British TV series)")* as the Superintendent, which was aired in 2008\.[The Alan Clark Diaries: Foreign Parts](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0074py6) BBC
[ "Television\n----------", "In 1970, he played Teddy, the prospective buyer of a haunted house, in the 'Suspicious Ignorance' episode of *[Tales of Unease](/wiki/Tales_of_Unease \"Tales of Unease\")*, alongside [Tessa Wyatt](/wiki/Tessa_Wyatt \"Tessa Wyatt\").", "Clyde once guest\\-starred in an episode of the American sitcom *[My Three Sons](/wiki/My_Three_Sons \"My Three Sons\")* (season 8 episode 7, \"Liverpool Saga\"), when Chip Douglas is introduced to their neighbor's cousin, Paul Drayton, as a well known folk guitarist in Britain, excited that someone from [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\") was coming to visit and expecting him to be a talented musician (implying the success of [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\");{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/my\\-three\\-sons/episode\\-16\\-season\\-8/liverpool\\-saga/100316\\|title\\=My Three Sons \\| TV Guide\\|website\\=TVGuide.com}} the episode aired during the height of [Beatlemania](/wiki/Beatlemania \"Beatlemania\")).", "He appeared in the [BBC TV](/wiki/BBC_TV \"BBC TV\") adaptation of *[Moll Flanders](/wiki/Moll_Flanders_%28TV_series%29 \"Moll Flanders (TV series)\")* in 1975\\.", "In 1979, he played [Godfried Schalcken](/wiki/Godfried_Schalcken \"Godfried Schalcken\") in the BBC's television horror story *[Schalcken the Painter](/wiki/Schalcken_the_Painter \"Schalcken the Painter\")*.", "In the late 1970s he appeared alongside [Lorraine Chase](/wiki/Lorraine_Chase \"Lorraine Chase\") in a series of television advertisements for [Campari](/wiki/Campari \"Campari\").", "He is perhaps best known for his portrayal of villainous Austrian Imperial Governor Hermann Gessler, in the action series *[Crossbow](/wiki/Crossbow_%28TV_series%29 \"Crossbow (TV series)\")* (1987–1989\\), which incorporated Clyde's ability to convey evil in a distinctly aristocratic way.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmovie.com/artist/jeremy\\-clyde\\-p13771\\|title\\=Jeremy Clyde \\| Biography, Movie Highlights and Photos\\|website\\=AllMovie}}", "His other notable acting role was as Dick Spackman in the [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") sitcom *[Is it Legal?](/wiki/Is_it_Legal%3F \"Is it Legal?\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/is\\_it\\_legal/cast\\_crew/\\|title\\=Is It Legal? cast and crew credits\\|first\\=British Comedy\\|last\\=Guide\\|website\\=British Comedy Guide}}", "Clyde also portrayed [King Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\") in the BBC series *[By the Sword Divided](/wiki/By_the_Sword_Divided \"By the Sword Divided\")* (1983–85\\), which depicted the English Civil War.{{Cite web \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Derbyshire \\|url\\=https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/re\\-sword\\-divided\\-john\\-derbyshire/\\|title\\=Re: by The Sword Divided \\|date\\=17 July 2004 \\|website\\=National Review}}", "Clyde also starred as Algernon Moncrieff in 1985 in the *[Great Performances](/wiki/Great_Performances \"Great Performances\")* production of [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\")'s *[The Importance of Being Earnest](/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest \"The Importance of Being Earnest\")*, opposite [Gary Bond](/wiki/Gary_Bond \"Gary Bond\") as Jack Worthing and [Dame Wendy Hiller](/wiki/Dame_Wendy_Hiller \"Dame Wendy Hiller\") as Lady Bracknell.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1985\\-12\\-25\\-ca\\-21306\\-story.html\\|title\\=TV Review: An 'Earnest' Comedy Of Rich Wit And Manners \\|date\\=25 December 1985 \\|website\\=Los Angeles Times}}", "In the same year, he played the civil servant Densher in *[Blott on the Landscape](/wiki/Blott_on_the_Landscape_%28TV_series%29 \"Blott on the Landscape (TV series)\")*.", "In 2002, Clyde appeared in *[The Falklands Play](/wiki/The_Falklands_Play \"The Falklands Play\")* (a BBC dramatisation of the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\")) as Sir [Nicholas Henderson](/wiki/Nicholas_Henderson \"Nicholas Henderson\"), the British ambassador to the United States at the time.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/1205530/credits.html \\|work\\=BFI Screenonline \\|title\\= Falklands Play, The (2002\\) \\|publisher\\=BFI}}", "In 2004, he appeared in the BBC drama series *[The Alan Clark Diaries](/wiki/The_Alan_Clark_Diaries \"The Alan Clark Diaries\")* as [British Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") politician [Jonathan Aitken](/wiki/Jonathan_Aitken \"Jonathan Aitken\"), and also appeared in the BBC drama series *[Ashes To Ashes](/wiki/Ashes_to_Ashes_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Ashes to Ashes (British TV series)\")* as the Superintendent, which was aired in 2008\\.[The Alan Clark Diaries: Foreign Parts](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0074py6) BBC", "" ]
Technology ---------- ### Tower system Towers were meant to be set up along the border, with varying surveillance and communications equipment depending on the climate, terrain, population density, and other factors. Towers were slated to include radar, long\-range cameras, broadband wireless access points, thermal imaging capabilities, and motion detectors. SBInet was meant to also include some ground sensors for seismic detection as well. ### Command centers All of the information received by sensors were meant to go to command centers, where a "common operating picture" would have been compiled by CBP and shared with other agencies. The common operating picture would have appeared on computer screens as a geospatial map, where border entries are tracked in real time. Command center personnel were supposed to be able to click on a given entry, view the entry, and assess the threat using the long\-range cameras on the towers. They will then dispatch Border Patrol agents accordingly. ### Border Patrol response Border Patrol agents were meant to carry [PDAs](/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant "Personal digital assistant") with [GPS](/wiki/Global_Positioning_System "Global Positioning System") capabilities, to allow the command center to track the location of agents interdicting illegal entries and watch the encounter in real time on the common operating picture. Additionally, the PDAs were supposed to have advanced fingerprint identification technology, to allow Border Patrol agents to identify an individual at the interdiction site immediately and the ability to view and control tower cameras from the PDA. In addition, Border Patrol agents were to be given laptops in the patrol car to provide the information necessary to effectively and safely approach a given threat. ### Airborne sensors Airborne sensors on [unmanned aerial vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle "Unmanned aerial vehicle") (UAVs) were meant to fill in gaps in the "virtual fence" in remote areas where building and maintaining towers was impractical. A small UAV called the Skylark operated by a single individual, was considered. The Skylark was made by [Elbit Systems](/wiki/Elbit_Systems "Elbit Systems"). ### Construction strategy The towers that were initially to be placed in the pilot section were intended to be mobile, so that they could be moved around to discover optimal placement. Once the optimal placement was determined, they would be replaced with permanent towers, and the mobile towers were to be reused to begin construction on the next section of SBInet in a similar manner. At completion, Boeing estimated that it would use approximately 1,800 towers to create its "virtual fence" along the borders. In addition to towers and technology systems, SBInet would include the construction of fences, vehicle barriers and border roads.
[ "Technology\n----------", "### Tower system", "Towers were meant to be set up along the border, with varying surveillance and communications equipment depending on the climate, terrain, population density, and other factors. Towers were slated to include radar, long\\-range cameras, broadband wireless access points, thermal imaging capabilities, and motion detectors. SBInet was meant to also include some ground sensors for seismic detection as well.", "### Command centers", "All of the information received by sensors were meant to go to command centers, where a \"common operating picture\" would have been compiled by CBP and shared with other agencies. The common operating picture would have appeared on computer screens as a geospatial map, where border entries are tracked in real time. Command center personnel were supposed to be able to click on a given entry, view the entry, and assess the threat using the long\\-range cameras on the towers. They will then dispatch Border Patrol agents accordingly.", "### Border Patrol response", "Border Patrol agents were meant to carry [PDAs](/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant \"Personal digital assistant\") with [GPS](/wiki/Global_Positioning_System \"Global Positioning System\") capabilities, to allow the command center to track the location of agents interdicting illegal entries and watch the encounter in real time on the common operating picture. Additionally, the PDAs were supposed to have advanced fingerprint identification technology, to allow Border Patrol agents to identify an individual at the interdiction site immediately and the ability to view and control tower cameras from the PDA. In addition, Border Patrol agents were to be given laptops in the patrol car to provide the information necessary to effectively and safely approach a given threat.", "### Airborne sensors", "Airborne sensors on [unmanned aerial vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle \"Unmanned aerial vehicle\") (UAVs) were meant to fill in gaps in the \"virtual fence\" in remote areas where building and maintaining towers was impractical. A small UAV called the Skylark operated by a single individual, was considered. The Skylark was made by [Elbit Systems](/wiki/Elbit_Systems \"Elbit Systems\").", "### Construction strategy", "The towers that were initially to be placed in the pilot section were intended to be mobile, so that they could be moved around to discover optimal placement. Once the optimal placement was determined, they would be replaced with permanent towers, and the mobile towers were to be reused to begin construction on the next section of SBInet in a similar manner. At completion, Boeing estimated that it would use approximately 1,800 towers to create its \"virtual fence\" along the borders. In addition to towers and technology systems, SBInet would include the construction of fences, vehicle barriers and border roads.", "" ]
For individuals --------------- Individuals who reside, have a place of business, or own property in the United States may file for bankruptcy in a federal court under Chapter 7 ("straight bankruptcy", or liquidation).{{cite web\|title\=11 U.S. Code § 109 \- Who may be a debtor\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-1/section\-109\-who\-may\-be\-a\-debtor/\|publisher\=United States Government\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122220720/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-1/section\-109\-who\-may\-be\-a\-debtor/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} Chapter 7, as with other bankruptcy chapters, is not available to individuals who have had bankruptcy cases dismissed within the prior 180 days under specified circumstances. In a Chapter 7 bankruptcy, the individual is allowed to keep certain [exempt property](/wiki/Exempt_property "Exempt property"). Most [liens](/wiki/Lien "Lien"), however (such as real estate mortgages and security interests for car loans), survive. The value of property that can be claimed as exempt varies from state to state. Other assets, if any, are sold (*liquidated*) by the trustee to repay creditors. Many types of unsecured debt are legally discharged by the bankruptcy proceeding, but there are various types of debt that are not discharged in a Chapter 7\. Common exceptions to discharge include [child support](/wiki/Child_support "Child support"), income taxes less than three years old, [property taxes](/wiki/Property_taxes "Property taxes"), [student loans](/wiki/Student_loans "Student loans") (unless the debtor prevails in a difficult\-to\-win [adversary proceeding](/wiki/Adversary_proceeding "Adversary proceeding") brought to determine the dischargeability of the student loan), and [fines](/wiki/Fine_%28penalty%29 "Fine (penalty)") and [restitution](/wiki/Restitution "Restitution") imposed by a court for any [crimes](/wiki/Crime "Crime") committed by the debtor. [Spousal support](/wiki/Alimony "Alimony") is likewise not covered by a bankruptcy filing, nor are property settlements through divorce. Despite their potential non\-dischargeability, all debts must be listed on bankruptcy schedules. A Chapter 7 bankruptcy stays on an individual's credit report for ten years from the date of filing the Chapter 7 petition. This contrasts with a Chapter 13 bankruptcy, which stays on an individual's credit report for seven years from the date of filing the Chapter 13 petition. This may make credit less available or may make lending terms less favorable, although high debt can have the same effect. That must be balanced against the removal of actual debt from the filer's record by the bankruptcy, which tends to improve creditworthiness. Consumer credit and creditworthiness is a complex subject, however. Future ability to obtain credit is dependent on multiple factors and difficult to predict. Another aspect to consider is whether the debtor can avoid a challenge by the [United States Trustee](/wiki/United_States_Trustee_Program "United States Trustee Program") to his or her Chapter 7 filing as *abusive*. One factor in considering whether the U.S. Trustee can prevail in a challenge to the debtor's Chapter 7 filing is whether the debtor can otherwise afford to repay some or all of his debts out of [disposable income](/wiki/Disposable_income "Disposable income") in the five year time frame provided by Chapter 13\. If so, then the U.S. Trustee may succeed in preventing the debtor from receiving a discharge under Chapter 7, effectively forcing the debtor into Chapter 13\. Some bankruptcy practitioners{{Who\|date\=May 2012}} assert that the U.S. Trustee has become more aggressive in recent times in pursuing (what the U.S. Trustee believes to be) *abusive* Chapter 7 filings. Through these activities the U.S. Trustee has achieved a regulatory system that Congress and most creditor\-friendly commenters have consistently espoused, i.e., a formal [means test](/wiki/Means_test "Means test") for Chapter 7\. The [Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Bankruptcy_Abuse_Prevention_and_Consumer_Protection_Act "Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act") of 2005 has clarified this area of concern by making changes to the U.S. Bankruptcy Code that include, along with many other reforms, language imposing a means test for Chapter 7 cases. Creditworthiness and the likelihood of receiving a Chapter 7 discharge are some of the issues to be considered in determining whether to file bankruptcy. The effect of bankruptcy on creditworthiness in many cases might not be significant, because by the time many debtors are ready to file for bankruptcy, their [credit score](/wiki/Credit_score "Credit score") is already extremely low. Also, new credit extended post\-petition is not covered by the discharge, so creditors may offer new credit to the newly\-bankrupt.
[ "For individuals\n---------------", "Individuals who reside, have a place of business, or own property in the United States may file for bankruptcy in a federal court under Chapter 7 (\"straight bankruptcy\", or liquidation).{{cite web\\|title\\=11 U.S. Code § 109 \\- Who may be a debtor\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-1/section\\-109\\-who\\-may\\-be\\-a\\-debtor/\\|publisher\\=United States Government\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122220720/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-1/section\\-109\\-who\\-may\\-be\\-a\\-debtor/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} Chapter 7, as with other bankruptcy chapters, is not available to individuals who have had bankruptcy cases dismissed within the prior 180 days under specified circumstances.", "In a Chapter 7 bankruptcy, the individual is allowed to keep certain [exempt property](/wiki/Exempt_property \"Exempt property\"). Most [liens](/wiki/Lien \"Lien\"), however (such as real estate mortgages and security interests for car loans), survive. The value of property that can be claimed as exempt varies from state to state. Other assets, if any, are sold (*liquidated*) by the trustee to repay creditors. Many types of unsecured debt are legally discharged by the bankruptcy proceeding, but there are various types of debt that are not discharged in a Chapter 7\\. Common exceptions to discharge include [child support](/wiki/Child_support \"Child support\"), income taxes less than three years old, [property taxes](/wiki/Property_taxes \"Property taxes\"), [student loans](/wiki/Student_loans \"Student loans\") (unless the debtor prevails in a difficult\\-to\\-win [adversary proceeding](/wiki/Adversary_proceeding \"Adversary proceeding\") brought to determine the dischargeability of the student loan), and [fines](/wiki/Fine_%28penalty%29 \"Fine (penalty)\") and [restitution](/wiki/Restitution \"Restitution\") imposed by a court for any [crimes](/wiki/Crime \"Crime\") committed by the debtor. [Spousal support](/wiki/Alimony \"Alimony\") is likewise not covered by a bankruptcy filing, nor are property settlements through divorce. Despite their potential non\\-dischargeability, all debts must be listed on bankruptcy schedules.", "A Chapter 7 bankruptcy stays on an individual's credit report for ten years from the date of filing the Chapter 7 petition. This contrasts with a Chapter 13 bankruptcy, which stays on an individual's credit report for seven years from the date of filing the Chapter 13 petition. This may make credit less available or may make lending terms less favorable, although high debt can have the same effect. That must be balanced against the removal of actual debt from the filer's record by the bankruptcy, which tends to improve creditworthiness. Consumer credit and creditworthiness is a complex subject, however. Future ability to obtain credit is dependent on multiple factors and difficult to predict.", "Another aspect to consider is whether the debtor can avoid a challenge by the [United States Trustee](/wiki/United_States_Trustee_Program \"United States Trustee Program\") to his or her Chapter 7 filing as *abusive*. One factor in considering whether the U.S. Trustee can prevail in a challenge to the debtor's Chapter 7 filing is whether the debtor can otherwise afford to repay some or all of his debts out of [disposable income](/wiki/Disposable_income \"Disposable income\") in the five year time frame provided by Chapter 13\\. If so, then the U.S. Trustee may succeed in preventing the debtor from receiving a discharge under Chapter 7, effectively forcing the debtor into Chapter 13\\.", "Some bankruptcy practitioners{{Who\\|date\\=May 2012}} assert that the U.S. Trustee has become more aggressive in recent times in pursuing (what the U.S. Trustee believes to be) *abusive* Chapter 7 filings. Through these activities the U.S. Trustee has achieved a regulatory system that Congress and most creditor\\-friendly commenters have consistently espoused, i.e., a formal [means test](/wiki/Means_test \"Means test\") for Chapter 7\\. The [Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Bankruptcy_Abuse_Prevention_and_Consumer_Protection_Act \"Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act\") of 2005 has clarified this area of concern by making changes to the U.S. Bankruptcy Code that include, along with many other reforms, language imposing a means test for Chapter 7 cases.", "Creditworthiness and the likelihood of receiving a Chapter 7 discharge are some of the issues to be considered in determining whether to file bankruptcy. The effect of bankruptcy on creditworthiness in many cases might not be significant, because by the time many debtors are ready to file for bankruptcy, their [credit score](/wiki/Credit_score \"Credit score\") is already extremely low. Also, new credit extended post\\-petition is not covered by the discharge, so creditors may offer new credit to the newly\\-bankrupt.", "" ]
BAPCPA revisions ---------------- {{Main\|Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act}} On October 17, 2005, the [Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Bankruptcy_Abuse_Prevention_and_Consumer_Protection_Act "Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act") (BAPCPA) went into effect. This legislation was the biggest reform to the bankruptcy laws since 1978\. The legislation was enacted after years of lobbying efforts by banks and lending institutions and was intended to prevent abuses of the bankruptcy laws. The changes to Chapter 7 were extensive. ### Means test The most noteworthy change brought by the 2005 BAPCPA amendments occurred within.{{cite web\|title\=U.S. Code › Title 11 › Chapter 7 › Subchapter I › § 707 11 U.S. Code § 707 \- Dismissal of a case or conversion to a case under chapter 11 or 13\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-7\-liquidation/subchapter\-i\-officers\-and\-administration/section\-707\-dismissal\-of\-a\-case\-or\-conversion\-to\-a\-case\-under\-chapter\-11\-or\-13/\|publisher\=United States Government\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155727/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-7\-liquidation/subchapter\-i\-officers\-and\-administration/section\-707\-dismissal\-of\-a\-case\-or\-conversion\-to\-a\-case\-under\-chapter\-11\-or\-13/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} The amendments effectively subject most debtors who have an income, as calculated by the Code, above the debtor's state census median income to a 60\-month disposable income based test. This test is referred to as the "[means test](/wiki/Means_test "Means test")". The means test provides for a finding of abuse if the debtor's disposable monthly income is higher than a specified floor amount or portion of their debts. If a presumption of abuse is found under the means test, it may only be rebutted in the case of "special circumstances." Debtors whose income is below the state's median income are not subject to the means test. Under this test, any debtor with more than $182\.50 in monthly disposable income, under the formula, would face a presumption of abuse. Notably, the Code\-calculated income is based on the prior six months and may be higher or lower than the debtor's actual current income at the time of filing for bankruptcy. This has led some commentators to refer to the bankruptcy code's "current monthly income" as "presumed income". If the debtor's debt is not primarily consumer debt, then the means test is inapplicable. The inapplicability to non\-consumer debt allows business debtors to "abuse" credit without repercussion unless the court finds "cause." "Special circumstances" does not confer judicial discretion; rather, it gives a debtor an opportunity to adjust income by documenting additional expenses or loss of income in situations caused by a medical condition or being called or order to active military service. However, the assumption of abuse is only rebutted where the additional expenses or adjustments for loss of income are significant enough to change the outcome of the means test. Otherwise, abuse is still presumed despite the "special circumstances." ### Credit counseling Another major change to the law enacted by BAPCPA deals with eligibility. §109(h) provides that a debtor will no longer be eligible to file under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 unless within 180 days prior to filing, the debtor received an "individual or group briefing" from a nonprofit budget and credit counseling agency approved by the United States trustee or bankruptcy administrator. The new legislation also requires that all individual debtors in either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 complete an "instructional course concerning personal financial management." If a Chapter 7 debtor does not complete the course, this constitutes grounds for denial of discharge pursuant to new §727(a)(11\).{{cite web\|title\=11 U.S. Code § 727 \- Discharge\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-7\-liquidation/subchapter\-ii\-collection\-liquidation\-and\-distribution\-of\-the\-estate/section\-727\-discharge/\|publisher\=United States Government\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155651/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-7\-liquidation/subchapter\-ii\-collection\-liquidation\-and\-distribution\-of\-the\-estate/section\-727\-discharge/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} The financial management program is experimental and the effectiveness of the program is to be studied for 18 months. Theoretically, if the educational courses prove to be ineffective, the requirement may disappear. ### Applicability of exemptions BAPCPA attempted to eliminate the perceived "forum shopping" by changing the rules on claiming exemptions. Under BAPCPA, a debtor who has moved from one state to another within two years of filing (730 days) the bankruptcy case must use exemptions from the place of the debtor's domicile for the majority of the 180\-day period preceding the two years (730 days) before the filing §522(b)(3\).{{cite web\|title\=11 U.S. Code § 522 \- Exemptions\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-5\-creditors\-the\-debtor\-and\-the\-estate/subchapter\-ii\-debtors\-duties\-and\-benefits/section\-522\-exemptions/\|publisher\=United States Government\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155724/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-5\-creditors\-the\-debtor\-and\-the\-estate/subchapter\-ii\-debtors\-duties\-and\-benefits/section\-522\-exemptions/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} If the new residency requirement would render the debtor ineligible for any exemption, then the debtor can choose the federal exemptions. BAPCPA also "capped" the amount of a [homestead exemption](/wiki/Homestead_exemption "Homestead exemption") that a debtor can claim in bankruptcy, despite state exemption statutes. Also, there is a "cap" placed upon the homestead exemption in situations where the debtor, within 1,215 days (about 3 years and 4 months) preceding the bankruptcy case, added value to a homestead. The provision provides that "any value in excess of $125,000" added to a homestead can not be exempted. The only exception is if the value was transferred from another homestead within the same state or if the homestead is the principal residence of a family farmer (§522(p)). This "cap" would apply in situations where a debtor has purchased a new homestead in a different state, or where the debtor has increased the value to his or her homestead (presumably through a remodeling or addition). ### Lien avoidance Some types of liens may be avoided through a Chapter 7 bankruptcy case. However, BAPCPA limited the ability of debtors to avoid liens through bankruptcy. The definition of "household goods" was changed limiting "electronic equipment" to one radio, one television, one VCR, and one personal computer with related equipment. The definition now excludes works of art not created by the debtor or a relative of the debtor, jewelry worth more than $500 (except wedding rings), and motor vehicles (§522(f)(1\)(B)). Prior to BAPCPA, the definition of household goods was broader so that more items could have been included, including more than one television, VCR, radio, etc. ### Other changes * Decreased the number and type of debts that could be discharged in bankruptcy. Decreased limits for discharge of debts incurred discharging luxury goods. Expanded the scope of student loans not dischargeable without [undue hardship](/wiki/Undue_hardship "Undue hardship"). * Increase the time in which a debtor may have multiple discharges from 6 to 8 years. * Limited the duration of the automatic stay, particularly for debtors who had filed within one year of a previous bankruptcy. Automatic stay may be extended at the discretion of the court. * BAPCPA limited the applicability of the automatic stay in eviction proceedings. If the landlord has already obtained a judgment of possession prior to the bankruptcy case being filed, a debtor must deposit an escrow for rent with the Bankruptcy Court, and the stay may be lifted if the debtor does not pay the landlord in full within 30 days thereafter, §362(b)(22\).{{cite web\|title\=11 U.S. Code § 362 \- Automatic stay\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-3/subchapter\-iv\-administrative\-powers/section\-362\-automatic\-stay/\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155657/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-3/subchapter\-iv\-administrative\-powers/section\-362\-automatic\-stay/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} The stay also would not apply in a situation where the eviction is based on "endangerment" of the rented property or "illegal use of controlled substances" on the property, §362(b)(23\). * BAPCPA enacts a provision that protects creditors from monetary penalties for violating the stay if the debtor did not give "effective" notice pursuant to \[§342(g)].{{cite web\|title\=11 U.S. Code § 342 \- Notice\|url\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-3/subchapter\-iii\-administration/section\-342\-notice/\|publisher\=United States Government\|access\-date\=21 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155706/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\-3/subchapter\-iii\-administration/section\-342\-notice/\|archive\-date\=22 November 2016}} The new notice provisions require the debtor to give notice of the bankruptcy to the creditor at an "address filed by the creditor with the court" or "at an address stated in two communications from the creditor to the debtor within 90 days of the filing of the bankruptcy case".{{cite web \|url\=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2006/09/07/usab5404\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2016\-12\-15 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214130830/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2006/09/07/usab5404\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-14 }} Bankruptcy Abuse and Consumer Protection Act of 2005
[ "BAPCPA revisions\n----------------", "{{Main\\|Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act}}\nOn October 17, 2005, the [Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Bankruptcy_Abuse_Prevention_and_Consumer_Protection_Act \"Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act\") (BAPCPA) went into effect. This legislation was the biggest reform to the bankruptcy laws since 1978\\. The legislation was enacted after years of lobbying efforts by banks and lending institutions and was intended to prevent abuses of the bankruptcy laws.", "The changes to Chapter 7 were extensive.", "### Means test", "The most noteworthy change brought by the 2005 BAPCPA amendments occurred within.{{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Code › Title 11 › Chapter 7 › Subchapter I › § 707 11 U.S. Code § 707 \\- Dismissal of a case or conversion to a case under chapter 11 or 13\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-7\\-liquidation/subchapter\\-i\\-officers\\-and\\-administration/section\\-707\\-dismissal\\-of\\-a\\-case\\-or\\-conversion\\-to\\-a\\-case\\-under\\-chapter\\-11\\-or\\-13/\\|publisher\\=United States Government\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155727/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-7\\-liquidation/subchapter\\-i\\-officers\\-and\\-administration/section\\-707\\-dismissal\\-of\\-a\\-case\\-or\\-conversion\\-to\\-a\\-case\\-under\\-chapter\\-11\\-or\\-13/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} The amendments effectively subject most debtors who have an income, as calculated by the Code, above the debtor's state census median income to a 60\\-month disposable income based test. This test is referred to as the \"[means test](/wiki/Means_test \"Means test\")\". The means test provides for a finding of abuse if the debtor's disposable monthly income is higher than a specified floor amount or portion of their debts. If a presumption of abuse is found under the means test, it may only be rebutted in the case of \"special circumstances.\" Debtors whose income is below the state's median income are not subject to the means test. Under this test, any debtor with more than $182\\.50 in monthly disposable income, under the formula, would face a presumption of abuse.", "Notably, the Code\\-calculated income is based on the prior six months and may be higher or lower than the debtor's actual current income at the time of filing for bankruptcy. This has led some commentators to refer to the bankruptcy code's \"current monthly income\" as \"presumed income\". If the debtor's debt is not primarily consumer debt, then the means test is inapplicable. The inapplicability to non\\-consumer debt allows business debtors to \"abuse\" credit without repercussion unless the court finds \"cause.\"", "\"Special circumstances\" does not confer judicial discretion; rather, it gives a debtor an opportunity to adjust income by documenting additional expenses or loss of income in situations caused by a medical condition or being called or order to active military service. However, the assumption of abuse is only rebutted where the additional expenses or adjustments for loss of income are significant enough to change the outcome of the means test. Otherwise, abuse is still presumed despite the \"special circumstances.\"", "### Credit counseling", "Another major change to the law enacted by BAPCPA deals with eligibility. §109(h) provides that a debtor will no longer be eligible to file under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 unless within 180 days prior to filing, the debtor received an \"individual or group briefing\" from a nonprofit budget and credit counseling agency approved by the United States trustee or bankruptcy administrator.\nThe new legislation also requires that all individual debtors in either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 complete an \"instructional course concerning personal financial management.\" If a Chapter 7 debtor does not complete the course, this constitutes grounds for denial of discharge pursuant to new §727(a)(11\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=11 U.S. Code § 727 \\- Discharge\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-7\\-liquidation/subchapter\\-ii\\-collection\\-liquidation\\-and\\-distribution\\-of\\-the\\-estate/section\\-727\\-discharge/\\|publisher\\=United States Government\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155651/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-7\\-liquidation/subchapter\\-ii\\-collection\\-liquidation\\-and\\-distribution\\-of\\-the\\-estate/section\\-727\\-discharge/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} The financial management program is experimental and the effectiveness of the program is to be studied for 18 months. Theoretically, if the educational courses prove to be ineffective, the requirement may disappear.", "### Applicability of exemptions", "BAPCPA attempted to eliminate the perceived \"forum shopping\" by changing the rules on claiming exemptions. Under BAPCPA, a debtor who has moved from one state to another within two years of filing (730 days) the bankruptcy case must use exemptions from the place of the debtor's domicile for the majority of the 180\\-day period preceding the two years (730 days) before the filing §522(b)(3\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=11 U.S. Code § 522 \\- Exemptions\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-5\\-creditors\\-the\\-debtor\\-and\\-the\\-estate/subchapter\\-ii\\-debtors\\-duties\\-and\\-benefits/section\\-522\\-exemptions/\\|publisher\\=United States Government\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155724/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-5\\-creditors\\-the\\-debtor\\-and\\-the\\-estate/subchapter\\-ii\\-debtors\\-duties\\-and\\-benefits/section\\-522\\-exemptions/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} If the new residency requirement would render the debtor ineligible for any exemption, then the debtor can choose the federal exemptions.", "BAPCPA also \"capped\" the amount of a [homestead exemption](/wiki/Homestead_exemption \"Homestead exemption\") that a debtor can claim in bankruptcy, despite state exemption statutes. Also, there is a \"cap\" placed upon the homestead exemption in situations where the debtor, within 1,215 days (about 3 years and 4 months) preceding the bankruptcy case, added value to a homestead. The provision provides that \"any value in excess of $125,000\" added to a homestead can not be exempted. The only exception is if the value was transferred from another homestead within the same state or if the homestead is the principal residence of a family farmer (§522(p)). This \"cap\" would apply in situations where a debtor has purchased a new homestead in a different state, or where the debtor has increased the value to his or her homestead (presumably through a remodeling or addition).", "### Lien avoidance", "Some types of liens may be avoided through a Chapter 7 bankruptcy case. However, BAPCPA limited the ability of debtors to avoid liens through bankruptcy. The definition of \"household goods\" was changed limiting \"electronic equipment\" to one radio, one television, one VCR, and one personal computer with related equipment. The definition now excludes works of art not created by the debtor or a relative of the debtor, jewelry worth more than $500 (except wedding rings), and motor vehicles (§522(f)(1\\)(B)). Prior to BAPCPA, the definition of household goods was broader so that more items could have been included, including more than one television, VCR, radio, etc.", "### Other changes", "* Decreased the number and type of debts that could be discharged in bankruptcy. Decreased limits for discharge of debts incurred discharging luxury goods. Expanded the scope of student loans not dischargeable without [undue hardship](/wiki/Undue_hardship \"Undue hardship\").\n* Increase the time in which a debtor may have multiple discharges from 6 to 8 years.\n* Limited the duration of the automatic stay, particularly for debtors who had filed within one year of a previous bankruptcy. Automatic stay may be extended at the discretion of the court.\n* BAPCPA limited the applicability of the automatic stay in eviction proceedings. If the landlord has already obtained a judgment of possession prior to the bankruptcy case being filed, a debtor must deposit an escrow for rent with the Bankruptcy Court, and the stay may be lifted if the debtor does not pay the landlord in full within 30 days thereafter, §362(b)(22\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=11 U.S. Code § 362 \\- Automatic stay\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-3/subchapter\\-iv\\-administrative\\-powers/section\\-362\\-automatic\\-stay/\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155657/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-3/subchapter\\-iv\\-administrative\\-powers/section\\-362\\-automatic\\-stay/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} The stay also would not apply in a situation where the eviction is based on \"endangerment\" of the rented property or \"illegal use of controlled substances\" on the property, §362(b)(23\\).\n* BAPCPA enacts a provision that protects creditors from monetary penalties for violating the stay if the debtor did not give \"effective\" notice pursuant to \\[§342(g)].{{cite web\\|title\\=11 U.S. Code § 342 \\- Notice\\|url\\=https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-3/subchapter\\-iii\\-administration/section\\-342\\-notice/\\|publisher\\=United States Government\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122155706/https://www.usbankruptcycode.org/chapter\\-3/subchapter\\-iii\\-administration/section\\-342\\-notice/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2016}} The new notice provisions require the debtor to give notice of the bankruptcy to the creditor at an \"address filed by the creditor with the court\" or \"at an address stated in two communications from the creditor to the debtor within 90 days of the filing of the bankruptcy case\".{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2006/09/07/usab5404\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-15 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214130830/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/usao/legacy/2006/09/07/usab5404\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-14 }} Bankruptcy Abuse and Consumer Protection Act of 2005" ]
Plot ---- In [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata"), petty criminal Kaththi Seenu helps the police capture an escaping prisoner, only to escape himself afterward. He flees to [Hyderabad](/wiki/Hyderabad "Hyderabad"), planning to go to [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok"). However, he changes his mind after encountering Subbalakshmi, his childhood friend, who deceives him into thinking she reciprocates his feelings. Seenu and his assistant Malli witness Seenu's [doppelgänger](/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger "Doppelgänger"), Shankar, being attacked by thugs. They admit Shankar to a hospital, and Seenu decides to impersonate him to evade the police. Under Shankar's identity, Seenu and Malli move into an [old\-age home](/wiki/Retirement_home "Retirement home") run by Shankar, planning to steal ₹25 [lakh](/wiki/Lakh "Lakh"), intended for the home's residents, to fund their Bangkok trip. However, Seenu soon learns about Shankar's mission. Shankar is a [hydrology](/wiki/Hydrology "Hydrology") post\-graduate from Neeruru village in [Rayalaseema](/wiki/Rayalaseema "Rayalaseema"). He discovered [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater "Groundwater") that could irrigate the village and surrounding areas. However, an [MNC](/wiki/Multinational_corporation "Multinational corporation") owned by Aggarwal tricked the villagers into giving up their land for a factory. Shankar was arrested, and six villagers committed suicide to draw media attention and secure his release. Learning of Shankar's plight, Seenu decides to fight for the villagers' cause while still impersonating Shankar. Seenu, the old\-age home residents, and Seenu's supporters approach the jury to advocate for their cause. Seenu intimidates a bribed jury member into siding with them. He also sends a disguised ally to mark Aggarwal's neck with a fingerprint. Aggarwal retaliates by sending 50 men to kill Seenu, but Seenu defeats them with coins given by the Lion Club during a ceremony. Meanwhile, the real Shankar regains consciousness in the Kolkata prison where Seenu was held. With the help of a prisoner Seenu had previously captured, Shankar escapes and heads to Hyderabad with the prisoner's henchmen, unaware of Seenu's efforts there. Seenu tries to raise media awareness about the villagers' plight, but the media dismisses it as non\-sensational news. At the high court, the judge rules in favor of Seenu and the villagers but stipulates that villagers working abroad must refute Aggarwal's false support claims within five days. Unable to bring the villagers back in time, Seenu takes drastic measures to draw attention to their cause. Seenu, Subbalakshmi, Malli, and the old\-age home residents block Hyderabad's water supply by sitting on the pipelines. The resulting water crisis gains national attention, and Seenu emerges to give an emotionally charged speech that moves the nation. Meanwhile, Shankar arrives in Hyderabad but is captured by Aggarwal's henchmen. He watches Seenu's speech on television and is moved by Seenu's efforts to help the villagers. On the eve of the verdict, Seenu's impersonation is exposed, but he assures the residents of his genuine commitment to their cause and promises to rescue Shankar from Aggarwal. Seenu infiltrates Aggarwal's office, rescues Shankar, and they confront Aggarwal together. Shankar kills Aggarwal as he is about to kill Seenu. The next day, the court rules in favor of Shankar and the villagers. The Kolkata police arrest Seenu, but he assures Subbalakshmi that he will return soon.
[ "Plot\n----", "In [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata \"Kolkata\"), petty criminal Kaththi Seenu helps the police capture an escaping prisoner, only to escape himself afterward. He flees to [Hyderabad](/wiki/Hyderabad \"Hyderabad\"), planning to go to [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok \"Bangkok\"). However, he changes his mind after encountering Subbalakshmi, his childhood friend, who deceives him into thinking she reciprocates his feelings.", "Seenu and his assistant Malli witness Seenu's [doppelgänger](/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger \"Doppelgänger\"), Shankar, being attacked by thugs. They admit Shankar to a hospital, and Seenu decides to impersonate him to evade the police. Under Shankar's identity, Seenu and Malli move into an [old\\-age home](/wiki/Retirement_home \"Retirement home\") run by Shankar, planning to steal ₹25 [lakh](/wiki/Lakh \"Lakh\"), intended for the home's residents, to fund their Bangkok trip. However, Seenu soon learns about Shankar's mission.", "Shankar is a [hydrology](/wiki/Hydrology \"Hydrology\") post\\-graduate from Neeruru village in [Rayalaseema](/wiki/Rayalaseema \"Rayalaseema\"). He discovered [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater \"Groundwater\") that could irrigate the village and surrounding areas. However, an [MNC](/wiki/Multinational_corporation \"Multinational corporation\") owned by Aggarwal tricked the villagers into giving up their land for a factory. Shankar was arrested, and six villagers committed suicide to draw media attention and secure his release. Learning of Shankar's plight, Seenu decides to fight for the villagers' cause while still impersonating Shankar.", "Seenu, the old\\-age home residents, and Seenu's supporters approach the jury to advocate for their cause. Seenu intimidates a bribed jury member into siding with them. He also sends a disguised ally to mark Aggarwal's neck with a fingerprint. Aggarwal retaliates by sending 50 men to kill Seenu, but Seenu defeats them with coins given by the Lion Club during a ceremony.", "Meanwhile, the real Shankar regains consciousness in the Kolkata prison where Seenu was held. With the help of a prisoner Seenu had previously captured, Shankar escapes and heads to Hyderabad with the prisoner's henchmen, unaware of Seenu's efforts there.", "Seenu tries to raise media awareness about the villagers' plight, but the media dismisses it as non\\-sensational news. At the high court, the judge rules in favor of Seenu and the villagers but stipulates that villagers working abroad must refute Aggarwal's false support claims within five days. Unable to bring the villagers back in time, Seenu takes drastic measures to draw attention to their cause.", "Seenu, Subbalakshmi, Malli, and the old\\-age home residents block Hyderabad's water supply by sitting on the pipelines. The resulting water crisis gains national attention, and Seenu emerges to give an emotionally charged speech that moves the nation.", "Meanwhile, Shankar arrives in Hyderabad but is captured by Aggarwal's henchmen. He watches Seenu's speech on television and is moved by Seenu's efforts to help the villagers. On the eve of the verdict, Seenu's impersonation is exposed, but he assures the residents of his genuine commitment to their cause and promises to rescue Shankar from Aggarwal.", "Seenu infiltrates Aggarwal's office, rescues Shankar, and they confront Aggarwal together. Shankar kills Aggarwal as he is about to kill Seenu. The next day, the court rules in favor of Shankar and the villagers. The Kolkata police arrest Seenu, but he assures Subbalakshmi that he will return soon.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early years #### Family Ibn Taymiyya was born on 10 Rabi' al\-Awwal 661 AH in [Harran](/wiki/Harran "Harran"), Mamluk Sultanate to a family of traditional Hanbali scholars. He had Arab and Kurdish lineages by way of his Arab father and Kurdish mother.{{Cite web \|date\=2019 \|title\=Lessons From Islamic History: Ibn Taymiyya and the Synthesis of Takfir \|url\=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ibn\-taymiyyah\-and\-the\-syn\_b\_10096820 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-03 \|website\=HuffPost \|language\=en}}{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Rowe\|first1\=Paul\|title\=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2019 \|isbn\=978\-1\-138\-64904\-0 \|location\=New York \|pages\=157}} His father, [Shihab al\-Din Abd al\-Halim ibn Taymiyya](/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Abd_al-Halim_ibn_Taymiyya "Shihab al-Din Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyya"), held the Hanbali chair in Harran and later at the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque "Umayyad Mosque"). At the time, Harran was a part of the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate "Mamluk Sultanate"), near what is today the border of Syria and Turkey, currently in the [Şanlıurfa Province](/wiki/%C5%9Eanl%C4%B1urfa_Province "Şanlıurfa Province"). At the beginning of the Islamic period, Harran was located in [Diyar Mudar](/wiki/Diyar_Mudar "Diyar Mudar"), the land of the [Mudar](/wiki/Mudar "Mudar") tribe.{{EI2\|volume\=2\|last1\=Canard\|first1\=Marius\|author1\-link\=Marius Canard\|last2\=Cahen\|first2\=Claude\|author2\-link\=Claude Cahen\|title\=Diyār Mudar\|pages\=347–348\|url\=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\-of\-islam\-2/diyar\-mudar\-COM\_0174}} Before its [destruction by the Mongols](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Anatolia "Mongol invasions of Anatolia"), Harran was also well\-known since the early days of Islam for its tradition of adhering to the Hanbali school,{{cite book\|title\=Tadhkirat al\-huffaz\|last\=Al\-Dhahabi\|first\=Muhammad ibn Ahmad \|location\=Haidarabad\|page\=48}} to which Ibn Taymiyya's family belonged.{{cite book\|title\=Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics\|last\=Hastings\|first\=James\|publisher\=Morrison and Gibb Limited\|year\=1908 \|page\=72\|volume\=7}} His grandfather, [Majd al\-Din ibn Taymiyya](/wiki/Majd_ad-Din_ibn_Taymiyya "Majd ad-Din ibn Taymiyya"), and his uncle, Fakhr al\-Din, were both reputable scholars of the Hanbali school, and their scholarly achievements well\-known.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} #### Education In 1269, Ibn Taymiyya, aged seven, left Harran together with his father and three brothers; however, the city was completely destroyed by the ensuing Mongol invasion.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}}{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya's family moved and settled in [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus"), Syria, which was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate at the time. In Damascus, his father served as the director of the Sukkariyya Madrasa, a place where Ibn Taymiyya also received his early education.{{cite book\|title\=Studia missionalia\|last\=Michel\|first\=Thomas\|publisher\=Pontificia Università Gregorian\|year\=1985 \|location\=Rome, Italy \|volume\=34\|chapter\=Ibn Taymiyya: Islamic Reformer}} He acquainted himself with the [religious and secular sciences](/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam "Science in medieval Islam") of his time. His religious studies began in his early teens when he [committed the entire Quran to memory](/wiki/Hafiz_%28Quran%29 "Hafiz (Quran)"), and later came to learn the [disciplines of the Quran](/wiki/Tajwid "Tajwid").{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}} From his father, he learnt the religious science of [jurisprudence](/wiki/Fiqh "Fiqh") and [its principles](/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh "Usul al-Fiqh").{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}} Ibn Taymiyya studied the works of [Ahmad ibn Hanbal](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal "Ahmad ibn Hanbal"), [Abu Bakr al\-Khallal](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Khallal "Abu Bakr al-Khallal"), and [Ibn Qudama](/wiki/Ibn_Qudama "Ibn Qudama"), as well as the works of his own grandfather, Majd al\-Din.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} His study of jurisprudence was not limited to the Hanbali tradition, as he also studied the other schools of jurisprudence.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The number of scholars under which he studied [hadith](/wiki/Hadith "Hadith") is said to number more than two\-hundred,{{cite web \|last\=Al\-Matroudi \|first\=Abdul Hakim Ibrahim \|date\=February 14, 2015 \|title\=Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\-Dīn \|url\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0145 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018135558/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0145 \|archive\-date\=October 18, 2017 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2015 \|website\=Oxford Islamic Studies Online \|publisher\=Oxford University Press}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}}{{cite book\|title\=Al\-'Uqud ad\-Dariat\|last\=Al\-Dimashqi al\-Hanbali \|first \=Ibn \`Abdul\-Hadi \|page\=3}} four of whom were women.{{cite book\|title\=Shadharat al\-Dhahab\|last\=Al\-Hanbali\|first\=Ibn al\-\`Imad \|year\=1932 \|location\=Cairo\|pages\=385, 383, 404}} Those who are known by name amount to forty hadith teachers, as recorded by Ibn Taymiyya in his work titled *Arba'un Haditha*.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|pp\=38–44}} Serajul Haque says, based on this, Ibn Taymiyya started to hear hadith from the age of five.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|pp\=38–44}} One of Ibn Taymiyya's teachers was the first Hanbali Chief Justice of Syria, Shams al\-Din al\-Maqdisi, who held the newly created position instituted by [Baibars](/wiki/Baibars "Baibars") as part of a reform of the judiciary.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Al\-Maqdisi later came to give Ibn Taymiyya permission to issue legal verdicts, making him a [judge](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti") at the age of seventeen.{{cite book\|title\=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought\|last\=Michot\|first\=Yahya\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-13484\-0 \|pages\=238–241}}{{cite book\|title\=Sharh Al\-Aqeedat\-il\-Wasitiyah\|last\=Ibn Taimiya\|first\=Taqi ad\-Din\|publisher\=Dar\-us\-Salam\|year\=1996 \|page\=9}} Ibn Taymiyya's secular studies led him to devote attention to the Arabic language and literature by studying Arabic grammar and lexicography under Ali ibn Abd al\-Qawi al\-Tufi.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}}{{cite book\|title\=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia\|last\=Leaman\|first\=Oliver\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-32639\-1\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/n311 280]–282\|url\=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse\|url\-access\=limited}} He went on to master the famous book of Arabic grammar *al\-Kitab*, written by the grammarian [Sibawayhi](/wiki/Sibawayhi "Sibawayhi").{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=6}} He also studied mathematics, algebra, calligraphy, speculative theology, philosophy, history, and heresiography.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}see aqidatul\-waasitiyyah daarussalaam publications With the knowledge he gained from history and philosophy, he set to refute the prevalent philosophical discourses of his time, one of which was [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism "Aristotelianism"). Ibn Taymiyya also learnt about [Sufism](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism") and stated he had reflected on the works of [Sahl al\-Tustari](/wiki/Sahl_al-Tustari "Sahl al-Tustari"), [al\-Junayd al\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Junayd_of_Baghdad "Junayd of Baghdad"), [Abu Talib al\-Makki](/wiki/Abu_Talib_al-Makki "Abu Talib al-Makki"), [Abd al\-Qadir al\-Jilani](/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jilani "Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani"), [Shihab al\-Din Umar al\-Suhrawardi](/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_%27Umar_al-Suhrawardi "Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi"), and [Ibn Arabi](/wiki/Ibn_Arabi "Ibn Arabi").{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} In 1282, Ibn Taymiyya completed his education at the age of 20\.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=8}} ### Life as a scholar [300px\|thumb\|right\|The [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque "Umayyad Mosque") pictured in 1895, where Ibn Taymiyya used to give lessons.](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_%E2%80%A6trialsanderrors_-_Minaret_of_the_Bride%2C_Damascus%2C_Holy_Land%2C_ca._1895.jpg "Flickr - …trialsanderrors - Minaret of the Bride, Damascus, Holy Land, ca. 1895.jpg") After his father died in 1284, he took up the then vacant post as the head of the Sukkariyya madrasa and began giving lessons on Hadith.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0217\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925201127/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0217\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 25, 2020\|title\="Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\-Dīn Aḥmad." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics\|date\=February 14, 2015\|access\-date\=February 14, 2015\|website\=Oxford Islamic Studies Online\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|last1\=Nettler\|first1\=Ronald L.\|last2\=Kéchichian\|first2\=Joseph A.}} A year later he started giving lessons, as chair of the Hanbali [Zawiya](/wiki/Zawiya_%28institution%29 "Zawiya (institution)") on Fridays at the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque "Umayyad Mosque"), on the subject of [tafsir](/wiki/Tafsir "Tafsir") (exegesis of Qur'an). In November 1292, Ibn Taymiyya performed the [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") and after returning 4 months later, he wrote his first book aged twenty nine called *Manasik al\-Hajj* (Rites of the Pilgrimage), in which he criticized and condemned the [religious innovations](/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah "Bidʻah") he saw take place there.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya represented the Hanbali school of thought during this time. The Hanbali school was seen as the most traditional school out of the four legal systems ([Hanafi](/wiki/Hanafi "Hanafi"), [Maliki](/wiki/Maliki "Maliki") and [Shafi'i](/wiki/Shafi%27i "Shafi'i")) because it was "suspicious of the [Hellenist](/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy "Hellenistic philosophy") disciplines of philosophy and [speculative theology](/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam "Ilm al-Kalam")." He remained faithful throughout his life to this school, whose doctrines he had mastered, but he nevertheless called for *[ijtihad](/wiki/Ijtihad "Ijtihad")* (independent reasoning by one who is qualified) and discouraged *[taqlid](/wiki/Taqlid "Taqlid")*.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=8}} Ibn Taymiyya had a simple life, most of which he dedicated to learning, writing, and teaching. He never married nor did he have a female companion throughout his years.{{cite book \|last\=Esposito \|first\=John L. \|title\=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-516886\-0 \|page\=45}} Professor Al\-Matroudi stated that this may be why he was able to engage fully with the political affairs of his time without holding any official position such as that of a *[qadi](/wiki/Qadi "Qadi")*. An offer of an official position was made to him but he never accepted. #### Possible influences Ibn Taymiyya was taught by scholars who were renowned in their time;{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=7}} however, there is no evidence any of them had a significant influence on him.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=7}} A strong influence on Ibn Taymiyya was the founder of the Hanbali school itself, Ahmad ibn Hanbal.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=7}} Ibn Taymiyya was trained in his school by studying [Ahmad's *Musnad*](/wiki/Musnad_Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal "Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal") in great detail, having studied it multiple times.{{cite book \|last\=Al\-Kutubi \|first\=Shakir \|author\-link\=Ibn Shākir al\-Kutubī \|title\=Fawat al\-Wafayat \|year\=1881 \|page\=35}} Though he spent much of his life following this school, he renounced [blind\-following](/wiki/Taqlid "Taqlid") near the end of his life.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=8}} His work was most influenced by the sayings and actions of the [first three generations of Muslims](/wiki/Salaf "Salaf") (*salaf*), which is displayed in his works where he would give preference to their opinions over those of his contemporaries.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=7}} The modern [Salafi movement](/wiki/Salafi_movement "Salafi movement") derives its name from these generations.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=7}} #### Relationship with the authorities Ibn Taymiyya's own relationship, as a religious scholar, with the ruling apparatus was not always amicable. It ranged from silence to open rebellion. On occasions when he shared the same views and aims as the ruling authorities his contributions were welcomed, but when Ibn Taymiyya went against the status quo, he was seen as "uncooperative", and on occasions spent much time in prison. Ibn Taymiyya's attitude towards his own rulers was based on the actions of [Muhammad's companions](/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet "Companions of the Prophet") when they made an oath of allegiance to him as follows; "to obey within obedience to God, even if the one giving the order is unjust; to abstain from disputing the authority of those who exert it; and to speak out the truth, or take up its cause without fear in respect of God, of blame from anyone." Ibn Taymiyya was a [religious scholar](/wiki/Ulema "Ulema") as well as an Islamic political activist. In his efforts he was persecuted and imprisoned on six occasions{{cite book \|last\=An\-Na\`im \|first\=Abdullahi Ahmed \|title\=Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Futnture of Shari'a \|publisher\=Harvard University Press \|year\=2010 \|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-03456\-3 \|page\=76}} with the total time spent inside prison coming to over six years. Other sources say that he spent over twelve years in prison.{{cite web \|last\=Al\-Matroudi \|first\=Abdul\-Hakim \|date\=February 14, 2015 \|title\=Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\-Dīn Aḥmad \|url\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0108 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813212504/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0108 \|archive\-date\=August 13, 2018 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2015 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press}} His detentions were due to the pushback from the clerical establishment of the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate "Mamluk Sultanate"), who opposed certain elements of his creed and his views on some jurisprudential issues. However, according to [Yahya Michot](/wiki/Yahya_Michot "Yahya Michot"), "the real reasons were more trivial". Michot stated five reasons as to why Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned by the Mamluk government, they being: not complying with the "doctrines and practices prevalent among powerful religious and Sufi establishments, an overly outspoken personality, the jealousy of his peers, the risk to public order due to this popular appeal and political intrigues." Baber Johansen stated that the reasons for Ibn Taymiyya's incarcerations were, "as a result of his conflicts with Muslim mystics, jurists, and theologians, who were able to persuade the political authorities of the necessity to limit Ibn Taymiyya's range of action through political censorship and incarceration." Ibn Taymiyya's emergence in the public and political spheres began in 1293 when he was 30 years old, when the authorities asked him to issue a [fatwa](/wiki/Fatwa "Fatwa") (legal verdict) on Assaf al\-Nasrani, a Christian cleric who was accused of insulting Muhammad.{{cite book\|title\=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives\|last\=Hillenbrand\|first\=Carole\|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press\|year\=1999\|isbn\=978\-0\-7486\-0630\-6 \|page\=242}}{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{cite book\|title\=slam and Inter\-Faith Relations: The Gerald Weisfeld Lectures 2006\|last\=Schmidt\-Leukel\|first\=Perry\|publisher\=SCM Press\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-0\-334\-04132\-0 \|page\=125}} He accepted the invitation and delivered his fatwa, calling for the man to receive the death penalty. Despite the fact that public opinion was very much on Ibn Taymiyya's side, the Governor of Syria attempted to resolve the situation by asking Assaf to accept Islam in return for his life, to which he agreed. This resolution was not acceptable to Ibn Taymiyya who then, together with his followers, protested against it outside the governor's palace, demanding that Assaf be put to death, on the grounds that any person—Muslim or non\-Muslim—who insults Muhammad must be killed. His unwillingness to compromise, coupled with his attempt to protest against the governor's actions, resulted in him being punished with a prison sentence, the first of many such imprisonments which were to come.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The French orientalist [Henri Laoust](/wiki/Henri_Laoust "Henri Laoust") says that during his incarceration, Ibn Taymiyya "wrote his first great work, *al\-Ṣārim al\-maslūl ʿalā shātim al\-Rasūl (The Drawn Sword against those who insult the Messenger).*"{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya, together with the help of his disciples, continued with his efforts against what, "he perceived to be un\-Islamic practices" and to implement what he saw as his religious duty of commanding good and forbidding wrong.{{harvnb\|Rapoport\|Ahmed\|2010\|p\=4}} Yahya Michot says that some of these incidences included: "shaving children's heads", leading "an anti\-debauchery campaign in brothels and taverns", hitting an atheist before his public execution, destroying what was thought to be a sacred rock in a mosque, attacking astrologers and obliging "deviant Sufi Shaykhs to make public acts of contrition and adhere to the Sunnah." Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples used to condemn wine sellers and they would attack wine shops in Damascus by breaking wine bottles and pouring them onto the floor.{{cite book\|title\=Ibn Taymiyya and His Times\|last\=Bori\|first\=Caterina\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2010\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-547834\-1 \|chapter\=Ibn Taymiyya wa\-Jama\`atuhu: Authority, Conflict and Consensus in Ibn Taymiyya's Circle}} A few years later in 1296, he took over the position of one of his teachers (Zayn al\-Din Ibn al\-Munadjdjaal), taking the post of professor of Hanbali jurisprudence at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, the oldest such institution of this tradition in Damascus.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{cite book\|title\=State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory\|last\=K. S. Lambton\|first\=Ann\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2004\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-713600\-3 \|page\=143\|chapter\=The extinction of the caliphate: Ibn Jama'a and Ibn Taymiyya}} This is seen by some to be the peak of his scholarly career. The year when he began his post at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, was a time of political turmoil. The Mamluk sultan [Al\-Adil Kitbugha](/wiki/Al-Adil_Kitbugha "Al-Adil Kitbugha") was deposed by his vice\-sultan [Al\-Malik al\-Mansur Lajin](/wiki/Lajin "Lajin") who then ruled from 1297 to 1299\.{{cite book\|title\=State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro\-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250\-1340 C.E.\|last\=Williams Clifford\|first\=Winslow\|publisher\=V\&r Unipress\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-3\-8471\-0091\-1\|page\=163}} Lajin desired to commission an expedition against the Christians of the [Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia "Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia") who formed an alliance with the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire") and participated in the military campaign which lead to the destruction of Baghdad, the capital of the [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate"), and the destruction of Harran, the birthplace of Ibn Taymiyya, for that purpose, he urged Ibn Taymiyya to call the Muslims to Jihad.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} In 1298, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his explanation for the ayat al\-mutashabihat (the unclear verses of the Qur'an) titled Al\-\`Aqidat al\-Hamawiyat al\-Kubra (The creed of the great people of Hama).{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=9}}{{cite book\|title\=Islamic Philosophy and Theology\|last\=Watt\|first\=William Montgomery\|publisher\=Transaction Publishers\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-0\-202\-36272\-4 \|page\=160}} The book is about divine attributes and it served as an answer to a question from the city of [Hama](/wiki/Hama "Hama"), Syria.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=9}} At that particular time [Ash'arites](/wiki/Ash%27ari "Ash'ari") held prominent positions within the Islamic scholarly community in both Syria and Egypt, and they held a certain position on the divine attributes of God.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=9}} Ibn Taymiyya in his book strongly disagreed with their views and this heavy opposition to the common Ash'ari position, caused considerable controversy.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=9}} Once more, Ibn Taymiyya collaborated with the Mamluks in 1300, when he joined the [punitive expedition](/wiki/Keserwan_campaigns_%281292%E2%80%931305%29 "Keserwan campaigns (1292–1305)") against the [Alawites](/wiki/Alawites "Alawites") and [Shiites](/wiki/Shiites "Shiites"), in the Kasrawan region of the [Lebanese mountains](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon "Mount Lebanon").{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya believed that the Alawites were "more heretical than Jews and Christians",{{cite book\|title\=Everyday Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam Among Palestinians in Lebanon\|last\=Rougier\|first\=Bernard\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-03066\-4 \|page\=162}}[Ibn Taymiyya Majmoo\` al\-Fatawa 35/145](http://library.islamweb.net/newlibrary/display_book.php?flag=1&bk_no=22&ID=6111) and according to Carole Hillenbrand, the confrontation with the Alawites occurred because they "were accused of collaborating with Christians and Mongols." Ibn Taymiyya had further active involvements in campaigns against the Mongols and their alleged Alawite allies. In 1305, Ibn Taymiyya took part in a second military offensive against the Alawites and the [Isma\`ilis](/wiki/Isma%27ilism "Isma'ilism"){{Cite book\|title\=Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History\|last\=Lapidus\|first\=Ira M.\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-73298\-7 \|page\=295}} in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains where they were defeated.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=10}} The majority of the Alawis and Ismailis eventually converted to Twelver Shiism and settled in south Lebanon and the Bekaa valley, with a few Shia pockets that survived in the Lebanese mountains.{{cite book\|title\=Lebanon Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments \|publisher\=Int'l Business Publications\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0\-7397\-3913\-6 \|page\=44}}{{cite book\|title\=The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=2010\|isbn\=978\-0\-5217\-6584\-8 \|page\=205}} ### Involvement in the Mongol invasions {{Further\|Mongol invasions of the Levant\|Ilkhanate\|label2\=Ilkhanate empire}} #### First invasion {{See also\|Mongol raids into Palestine\#Mongol campaigns of 1299–1300\|Battle of Wadi al\-Khaznadar\|\|label 1\=Mongol campaign of 1299\-1300\|label 3\=}} The first invasion took place between December 1299 and April 1300 due to the military campaign by the Mamluks against the [Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia "Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia") who were allied with the Mongols.{{cite web\|url\=https://sites.google.com/site/jhoover363/taymiyyan\-studies/jihad\-against\-the\-mongols\|title\=Taymiyyan Studies\|access\-date\=February 14, 2015\|last\=Hoover\|first\=Jon\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215000623/https://sites.google.com/site/jhoover363/taymiyyan\-studies/jihad\-against\-the\-mongols\|archive\-date\=February 15, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} Due to the Mongol legal system that neglected *[sharia](/wiki/Sharia "Sharia")* and implemented [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa "Yassa"); Ibn Taymiyya had declared *[Takfir](/wiki/Takfir "Takfir")* upon the Ilkhanid regime and its armies for ruling by [man\-made laws](/wiki/Man-made_law "Man-made law"), despite these laws being rarely enforced in Muslim majority regions in an extensive manner.{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|page\=7 \|chapter\=1: Introduction \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }}{{Cite book \|last\=Aigle \|first\=Denise \|title\=The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History \|publisher\=Brill \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-27749\-6 \|location\=Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands \|pages\=283–305 \|chapter\=7: Mongol Law versus Islamic Law\- Myth and Reality \|doi\=10\.1163/9789004280649\_015}} Openly rejecting [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan_Khan "Ghazan Khan")'s claim to "*pādishāh al\-islām*" (King of Islam), a title which Ghazan took to legitimise his military campaigns, Ibn Taymiyya denounced him as an "infidel king" and issued numerous *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa "Fatwa")* condemning the political order of the Tatars.{{Cite book \|last\=Aigle \|first\=Denise \|title\=The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History \|publisher\=Brill \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-27749\-6 \|location\=Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands \|pages\=135–136, 256–257, 296–298 \|chapter\= \|doi\=10\.1163/9789004280649\_015}} The Ilkhanate army managed to defeat the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate "Mamluk Sultanate") in [The Third Battle of Homs](/wiki/Battle_of_Wadi_al-Khaznadar "Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar") and reach [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") by the end of December 1299\. Fearful of Mongol atrocities, many scholars, intellectuals and officers began to flee Damascus in panic. Ibn Taymiyya was one of those clerics who stood firm alongside the vulnerable Damascus citizens and called for an uncompromising and heroic resistance to the [Tatar](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars") invaders. Ibn Taymiyya drew parallels of their crisis with the [Riddah wars](/wiki/Ridda_Wars "Ridda Wars") (Apostate wars) fought by the first [Muslim Caliph](/wiki/Rashidun "Rashidun"), [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr "Abu Bakr"), against the renegade [Arabian tribes](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia "Tribes of Arabia") that abandoned *sharia*. Ibn Taymiyya severely rebuked those Muslims escaping in the face of Mongol onslaught and compared their state to the withdrawal of Muslims in the [Battle of Uhud](/wiki/Battle_of_Uhud "Battle of Uhud").{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=15–16, 24 \|chapter\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }} In a passionate letter to the commander of the [Damascene Citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus "Citadel of Damascus"), Ibn Taymiyya appealed: > "Until there stands even a single rock, do everything in your power to not surrender the castle. There is great benefit for the [people of Syria](/wiki/Syrians "Syrians"). [Allah](/wiki/Allah "Allah") declared it a sanctuary for the people of [Shām](/wiki/Sh%C4%81m "Shām")—where it will remain a land of [faith](/wiki/Iman_%28Islam%29 "Iman (Islam)") and *[sunna](/wiki/Sunnah "Sunnah")* until the descent of the [Prophet Jesus](/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam "Jesus in Islam")."{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=15–16 \|chapter\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }} Despite political pressure, Ibn Taymiyya's directives were heeded by the Mamluk officer and Mongol negotiations to surrender the Citadel stalled. Shortly after, Ibn Taymiyya and a number of his acolytes and pupils took part in a [counter\-offensive](/wiki/Counter-offensive "Counter-offensive") targeting various [Shia](/wiki/Shia_Islam "Shia Islam") tribes allied to the Mongols in the peripheral regions of the city; thereby repelling the Mongol attack. Ibn Taymiyya went with a delegation of [Islamic scholars](/wiki/Ulama "Ulama") to talk to [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan "Ghazan"), who was the [Khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 "Khan (title)") of the Mongol [Ilkhanate](/wiki/Ilkhanate "Ilkhanate") of Iran, to plead clemency.{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=15 \|chapter\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }} By early January 1300, the Mongol allies, the Armenians and Georgians, had caused widespread damage to Damascus and they had taken Syrian prisoners. The Mongols effectively occupied Damascus for the first four months of 1303\. Most of the military had fled the city, including most of the civilians. Ibn Taymiyya however, stayed and was one of the leaders of the resistance inside Damascus and he went to speak directly to the Ilkhan, [Mahmud Ghazan](/wiki/Ghazan "Ghazan"), and his vizier [Rashid al\-Din Tabib](/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani "Rashid-al-Din Hamadani"). He sought the release of Muslim and [dhimmi](/wiki/Dhimmi "Dhimmi") prisoners which the Mongols had taken in Syria, and after negotiation, secured their release.[thumb\|300px\|An artist illustrated of [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan_Khan "Ghazan Khan"), a historical figure harshly rebuked by Ibn Taymiyya, mainly due to his constant state of hostility towards the [Mamluks](/wiki/Mamluk "Mamluk") of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt").](/wiki/File:Ghazan%27s_feast.jpg "Ghazan's feast.jpg") #### Second invasion The second invasion lasted between October 1300 and January 1301\. Ibn Taymiyya at this time began giving sermons on jihad at the Umayyad mosque. As the civilians began to flee in panic; Ibn Taymiyya pronounced *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa "Fatwa")* declaring the [religious duty](/wiki/Fard "Fard") upon Muslims to fight the Mongol armies to death, inflict a massive defeat and expel them from Syria in its entirety.{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=16 \|chapter\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }} Ibn Taymiyya also spoke to and encouraged the Governor of Damascus, al\-Afram, to achieve victory over the Mongols. He became involved with al\-Afram once more, when he was sent to get reinforcements from Cairo. Narrating Ibn Taymiyya's fierce stance on fighting the Mongols, Ibn Kathir reports: {{Blockquote\|text\=even if you see me on their side with a Qurʾan on my side, kill them immediately!\|author\= \[\[Ibn Kathir\|Ismail Ibn Kathir]]\|title\=''al\-Bidāya wa\-l\-Nihāya'', vol. 14, 7–8\|source\={{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|chapter\= 2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance\| doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035 \|s2cid\=249087588 }}\|character\=Ibn Taymiyya}} #### Third invasion and *Takfir* of Ilkhanate Allies {{See also\|Takfir\|Takfiri\|label 1\=Excommunication in Islam\|label 2\=Takfirism\|Battle of Marj al\-Saffar (1303\)\|label 3\=}} The year 1303 saw the third [Mongol invasion](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant "Mongol invasions of the Levant") of Syria by Ghazan Khan.{{cite journal\|url\=http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MamlukStudiesReview\_XI\-2\_2007\.pdf\|title\=The Mongol Invasions of Bilād al\-Shām by Ghāzān Khān and Ibn Taymīyah's Three "Anti\-Mongol" Fatwas\|last\=Aigle\|first\=Denise\|date\=2007\|journal\=Mamluk Studies Review\|access\-date\=January 29, 2015\|publisher\=The University of Chicago\|page\=105\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035256/http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MamlukStudiesReview\_XI\-2\_2007\.pdf\|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite book\|title\=Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders\|last\=Hawting\|first\=Gerald\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-0\-7007\-1393\-6\|page\=116}} What has been called Ibn Taymiyya's "most famous" *[fatwā](/wiki/Fatw%C4%81 "Fatwā")*Janin, Hunt. *Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present* by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007 p.79 was his third *fatwa* issued against the Mongols in the [Mamluk's war](/wiki/Mamluk%23Mamluks_and_the_Mongols "Mamluk#Mamluks and the Mongols"). Ibn Taymiyya declared that jihad against the Mongol attack on the Malmuk sultanate was not only permissible, but [obligatory](/wiki/Fard "Fard"). The reason being that the Mongols could not, in his opinion, be true Muslims despite the fact that they had converted to Sunni Islam because they ruled using what he considered 'man\-made laws' (their traditional [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa "Yassa") code) rather than Islamic law or *Sharia*, whilst believing that the Yassa code was better than the Sharia law. Because of this, he reasoned they were living in a state of [jahiliyyah](/wiki/Jahiliyyah "Jahiliyyah"), or [pre\-Islamic](/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia "Pre-Islamic Arabia") [pagan ignorance](/wiki/Arabian_mythology "Arabian mythology").Kepel, Gilles, *The Prophet and the Pharaoh*, (2003\), p.194 Not only were [Ilkhanate](/wiki/Ilkhanate "Ilkhanate") political elites and its military disbelievers in the eyes of Ibn Taymiyya; but anybody who joined their ranks were as guilty of *[riddah](/wiki/Riddah "Riddah")* (apostasy) as them: {{Blockquote\|text\="Whoever joins them—meaning the \[\[Tatars]]—among commanders of the military and non\-commanders, their ruling is the same as theirs, and they have apostatized from the laws \[''\[\[Sharia\|sharāʾiʿ]]'']. If the righteous forbears \[''\[\[salaf]]''] have called the withholders from charity apostates despite their fasting, praying, and not fighting the Muslims, how about those who became murderers of the \[\[Muslims]] with the enemies of Allah and His Messenger?"\|title\=''Majmu’ al\-fatawa, vol. 28, 530''\|source\={{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|chapter\= 2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance\| doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|page\=27\|s2cid\=249087588 }}\|character\=Ibn Taymiyya}} The *fatwa* broke new Islamic legal ground because "no jurist had ever before issued a general authorization for the use of lethal force against Muslims in battle", and would later influence modern\-day [Jihadists](/wiki/Jihadism "Jihadism") in their use of violence against other Muslims whom they deemed as apostates. In his legal verdicts issued to inform the populace, Ibn Taymiyya classified the Tatars and their advocates into four types: * *Kaafir Asli* (i.e, those original non\-Muslims fighting in Tatar armies and who never embraced Islam) * Muslims of other ethnicities who became apostates due to their alliance with Mongols * Irreligious Muslims aligned with Ilkhanids whom Ibn Taymiyya analogized with renegade Arabian tribes of the [Riddah wars](/wiki/Ridda_Wars "Ridda Wars") * Personally pious Muslims affiliated with the Mongol armies. Ibn Taymiyya harshly rebuked these people as the "most evil" faction; and argued that their piety was useless because of their decision to ally with non\-Muslims who ruled by [man\-made laws](/wiki/Man-made_law "Man-made law"). This rationale was also expanded to [excommunicate](/wiki/Takfir "Takfir") those "court scholars" who vindicated the Tatar authorities{{Cite book \|last1\=S. Islam \|first1\=Jaan \|first2\=Adem \|last2\=Eryiğit \|title\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-1\-032\-13183\-2 \|location\=New York \|pages\=24 \|chapter\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \|doi\=10\.4324/9781003228035\|s2cid\=249087588 }} Ibn Taymiyya called on the Muslims to jihad once again and personally participated in the [Battle of Marj al\-Saffar](/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_al-Saffar_%281303%29 "Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)") against the Ilkhanid army; leading his disciples in the field with a sword. The battle began on April 20 of that year. On the same day, Ibn Taymiyya declared a *fatwa* which exempted Mamluk soldiers from fasting during [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan") so that they could preserve their strength.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Within two days the Mongols were severely crushed and the battle was won; thus ending Mongol control of Syria. These incidents greatly increased the scholarly prestige and social stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst the masses, despite opposition from the establishment clergy. He would soon be appointed as the chief professor of the elite scholarly institute "*Kāmiliyya Dār al\-Haḍīth*." #### Contemporary Impact Ibn Taymiyya's three unprecedented *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa "Fatwa")* (legal verdicts) that [excommunicated](/wiki/Takfir "Takfir") the [Ilkhanid](/wiki/Ilkhanate "Ilkhanate") authorities and their supporters as [apostates](/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam "Apostasy in Islam") over their neglect to govern by *Sharia* (Islamic law) and preference of the traditional [Mongol imperial](/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire") code of [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa "Yassa"); would form the theological basis of 20th century [Islamist](/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") and [Jihadist](/wiki/Jihadism "Jihadism") scholars and ideologues. Reviving Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas during the late 20th\-century, Jihadist ideologues like [Sayyid Qutb](/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb "Sayyid Qutb"), [Abd al\-Salam al\-Faraj](/wiki/Muhammad_abd-al-Salam_Faraj "Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj"), [Abdullah Azzam](/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam "Abdullah Yusuf Azzam"), [Usama bin Laden](/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden "Osama bin Laden"), [Ayman al\-Zawahiri](/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri "Ayman al-Zawahiri"), etc. made public *Takfir* (excommunication) of contemporary governments of the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world "Muslim world") and called for their revolutionary overthrowal through armed [Jihad](/wiki/Jihad "Jihad").{{Cite book \|last1\=Haynes \|first1\=Jeffrey \|title\=The Routledge handbook of Religion, Politics and Ideology \|last2\=S. Sheikh \|first2\=Naveed \|publisher\=Routledge: Taylor \& Francis Group \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-0\-367\-41782\-6 \|location\=New York, USA \|pages\=180, 184, 189 \|chapter\=Making Sense of Salafism: Theological foundations, ideological iterations and political manifestations}} ### Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism Ibn Taymiyya was a fervent polemicist who zealously launched theological refutations against various religious sects such as the [Sufis](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism"), [Jahmites](/wiki/Jahmi "Jahmi"), [Ash'arites](/wiki/Ash%27ari "Ash'ari"), [Shias](/wiki/Shias "Shias"), *[Falsafa](/wiki/Falsafa "Falsafa")*, etc., labelling them as heretics responsible for the crisis of [Mongol invasions](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests "Mongol invasions and conquests") across the [Islamic World](/wiki/Muslim_world "Muslim world").{{Cite book \|last\=G. Rabil \|first\=Robert \|title\=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism \|publisher\=Georgetown University Press \|year\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-1\-62616\-116\-0 \|location\=Washington, DC, USA \|pages\=26 \|chapter\=1: The Creed, Ideology, and Manhaj (Methodology) of Salafism: A Historical and Contemporaneous Framework}} He was imprisoned several times for conflicting with the prevailing opinions of the jurists and theologians of his day. A judge from the city of [Wasit](/wiki/Wasit%2C_Iraq "Wasit, Iraq"), Iraq, requested that Ibn Taymiyya write a book on creed. His subsequent creedal work, *[Al\-Aqidah Al\-Waasitiyyah](/wiki/Al-Aqidah_Al-Waasitiyyah "Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah")*, caused him trouble with the authorities. Ibn Taymiyya adopted the view that God should be described as he was literally described in the Qur'an and in the hadith, and that all Muslims were required to believe this because according to him it was the view held by the early Muslim community (*salaf*).{{cite book\|title\=The Law Applied: Contextualizing the Islamic Shari'a\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lawappliedcontex00bear\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Bearman\|first\=Peri\|publisher\=I.B.Tauris\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-1\-84511\-736\-8 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/lawappliedcontex00bear/page/n274 263]–264}} Within the space of two years (1305–1306\) four separate religious council hearings were held to assess the correctness of his creed. The first hearing was held with [Ash'ari](/wiki/Ash%27ari "Ash'ari") scholars who accused Ibn Taymiyya of [anthropomorphism](/wiki/Tashbih "Tashbih"). At the time Ibn Taymiyya was 42 years old. He was protected by the then Governor of Damascus, [Aqqush al\-Afram](/wiki/Aqqush_al-Afram "Aqqush al-Afram"), during the proceedings. The scholars suggested that he accept that his creed was simply that of the Hanbalites and offered this as a way out of the charge. However, if Ibn Taymiyya ascribed his creed to the Hanbali school of law then it would be just one view out of the four schools which one could follow rather than a creed everybody must adhere to. Uncompromising, Ibn Taymiyya maintained that it was obligatory for all scholars to adhere to his creed. Two separate councils were held a year later on January 22 and 28, 1306\.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The first council was in the house of the Governor of Damascus Aqqush al\-Afram, who had protected him the year before when facing the Shafii scholars.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} A second hearing was held six days later where the Indian scholar [Safi al\-Din al\-Hindi](/wiki/Safi_al-Din_al-Hindi "Safi al-Din al-Hindi") found him innocent of all charges and accepted that his creed was in line with the "Qur'an and the Sunnah".{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Regardless, in April 1306 the chief Islamic judges of the Mamluk state declared Ibn Taymiyya guilty and he was incarcerated. He was released four months later in September. After his release in Damascus, the doubts regarding his creed seemed to have resolved but this was not the case.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} A Shafii scholar, Ibn al\-Sarsari, was insistent on starting another hearing against Ibn Taymiyya which was held once again at the house of the Governor of Damascus, Al\-Afram.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} His book *Al\-Aqidah Al\-Waasitiyyah* was still not found at fault.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} At the conclusion of this hearing, Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al\-Sarsari were sent to Cairo to settle the problem. ### Life in Egypt #### His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment On the arrival of Ibn Taymiyya and the Shafi'ite scholar in Cairo in 1306, an open meeting was held.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=10}} The Mamluk sultan at the time was [Al\-Nasir Muhammad](/wiki/Al-Nasir_Muhammad "Al-Nasir Muhammad") and his deputy attended the open meeting.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=10}} Ibn Taymiyya was found innocent.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=10}} Despite the open meeting, objections regarding his creed continued and he was summoned to the Citadel in Cairo for a *munazara* (legal debate), which took place on April 8, 1306\. During the *munazara*, his views on divine attributes, specifically whether a direction could be attributed to God, were debated by the Indian scholar Safi al\-Din al\-Hindi, in the presence of Islamic judges.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=11}}{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya failed to convince the judges of his position and so was incarcerated for the charge of anthropomorphism on the recommendation of al\-Hindi.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=11}}{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Thereafter, he together with his two brothers were imprisoned in the Citadel of the Mountain (*Qal'at al\-Jabal*), in Cairo until September 25, 1307\.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=VII}}{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=11}} He was freed due to the help he received from two *amirs*; [Salar](/wiki/Sayf_al-Din_Salar "Sayf al-Din Salar") and [Muhanna ibn Isa](/wiki/Muhanna_ibn_Isa "Muhanna ibn Isa"), but he was not allowed to go back to Syria.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} He was then again summoned for a legal debate, but this time he convinced the judges that his views were correct and he was allowed to go free.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=11}} #### His trial for intercession and his imprisonment [300px\|thumb\|[Citadel of Cairo](/wiki/Citadel_of_Cairo "Citadel of Cairo"), the place where Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned for 18 months](/wiki/File:Porte_de_la_citadelle_et_mosquee_Mouhammed_Aly.jpg "Porte de la citadelle et mosquee Mouhammed Aly.jpg") Ibn Taymiyya continued to face troubles for his views which were found to be at odds with those of his contemporaries. His strong opposition to what he believed to be religious innovations, caused upset among the prominent Sufis of Egypt including [Ibn Ata Allah](/wiki/Ibn_Ata_Allah "Ibn Ata Allah") and Karim al\-Din al\-Amuli, and the locals who started to protest against him.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Their main contention was Ibn Taymiyya's stance on [tawassul (intercession)](/wiki/Tawassul "Tawassul").{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} In his view, a person could not ask anyone other than God for help except on the [Day of Judgement](/wiki/Day_of_Judgement "Day of Judgement") when intercession in his view would be possible. At the time, the people did not restrict intercession to just the Day of Judgement but rather they said it was allowed in other cases. Due to this, Ibn Taymiyya, now aged 45, was ordered to appear before the Shafi'i judge Badr al\-Din in March 1308 and was questioned on his stance regarding intercession.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Thereafter, he was incarcerated in the prison of the judges in Cairo for some months.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} After his release, he was allowed to return to Syria, should he so wish.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya however stayed in Egypt for a further five years. #### House arrest in Alexandria 1309, the year after his release, saw a new Mamluk sultan accede to the throne, [Baibars al\-Jashnakir](/wiki/Baibars_II "Baibars II"). His reign, marked by economical and political unrest, only lasted a year.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} In August 1309, Ibn Taymiyya was taken into custody and placed under house arrest for seven months in the new sultan's palace in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria").{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} He was freed when al\-Nasir Muhammad retook the position of sultan on March 4, 1310\.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Having returned to Cairo a week later, he was received by al\-Nasir.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The sultan would sometimes consult Ibn Taymiyya on religious affairs and policies during the rest of his three\-year stay in Cairo.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} During this time he continued to teach and wrote his famous book Al\-*Kitab al\-Siyasa al\-shar'iyya* *(Treatise on the Government of the Religious Law)*, a book noted for its account of the role of religion in politics.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{cite book\|title\=Fifty Key Figures in Islam\|url\=https://archive.org/details/fiftykeyfiguresi00jack\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Jackson\|first\=Roy\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-35468\-4 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/fiftykeyfiguresi00jack/page/n146 130]}}{{cite book\|title\=New Political Religions, Or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism\|url\=https://archive.org/details/newpoliticalreli00coop\_700\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Cooper\|first\=Barry\|publisher\=University of Missouri Press\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-0\-8262\-1621\-2 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/newpoliticalreli00coop\_700/page/n109 96]–97}} ### Return to Damascus and later years He spent his last fifteen years in Damascus. Aged 50, Ibn Taymiyya returned to Damascus via Jerusalem on February 28, 1313\.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Damascus was now under the governorship of [Tankiz](/wiki/Tankiz "Tankiz"). There, Ibn Taymiyya continued his teaching role as professor of Hanbali fiqh. This is when he taught his most famous student, [Ibn Qayyim Al\-Jawziyya](/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_Al-Jawziyya "Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya"), who went on to become a noted scholar in Islamic history.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Qayyim was to share in Ibn Taymiyya's renewed persecution. Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyya became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} An agreement had been made in 1316 between the *amir* of [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") and the Ilkhanid ruler [Öljaitü](/wiki/%C3%96ljait%C3%BC "Öljaitü"), brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in the city.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Around the same time the Shia theologian [Al\-Hilli](/wiki/Allamah_Al-Hilli "Allamah Al-Hilli"), who had played a crucial role in the Mongol ruler's decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia,{{cite book\|title\=Islam: The Key Concepts \|url\=https://archive.org/details/islamkeyconcepts00alik \|url\-access\=limited \|last\=Ali \|first\=Kecia \|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-39639\-4 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/islamkeyconcepts00alik/page/n141 125]}}{{cite book\|title\=Rationalism in the School of Bahrain: A Historical Perspective, in Shīʻite Heritage: Essays on Classical and Modern Traditions \|last\=Clarke\|first\=Lynda\|publisher\=Global Academic Publishing\|year\=2001 \|page\=336}} wrote the book [*Minhaj al\-Karamah*](/wiki/Minhaj_al-karamah "Minhaj al-karamah") *(*The Way of Charisma'), which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the [Imamate](/wiki/Imamate_%28Twelver_doctrine%29 "Imamate (Twelver doctrine)") and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the [caliphate](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate").{{cite book\|title\=The Formation of the Classical Tafsīr Tradition\|last\=A. Saleh \|first\=Walid\|publisher\=Brill Academic Pub\|year\=2004\|isbn\=978\-9004127777 \|page\=220}} In response, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his famous book, *[Minhaj as\-Sunnah an\-Nabawiyyah](/wiki/Minhaj_as-Sunnah_an-Nabawiyyah "Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah")*, as a refutation of Al\-Hilli's work.{{cite book\|title\=Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion\|last\=N. Keaney\|first\=Heather\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-82852\-9 \|page\=108}} #### His fatwa on divorce and imprisonment In 1318, Ibn Taymiyya wrote a treatise that would curtail the ease with which a Muslim man could [divorce](/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam "Divorce in Islam") his wife. Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on divorce was not accepted by the majority of scholars of the time and this continued into the [Ottoman era](/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate "Ottoman Caliphate").{{cite book\|title\=Ibn Taymiyya and His Times\|last\=Saleh\|first\=Walid\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2010\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-547834\-1 \|chapter\=Ibn Tayimiyah and the Rise of Radical Hermeneutics: An Analysis of "An Introduction to the Foundation of Quranic Exegesis}} However, almost every modern Muslim nation\-state has come to adopt Ibn Taymiyya's position on this issue of divorce. At the time he issued the fatwa, Ibn Taymiyya revived an edict by the sultan not to issue fatwas on this issue but he continued to do so, saying, "I cannot conceal my knowledge".{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} As in previous instances, he stated that his fatwa was based on the Qur'an and hadith. His view on the issue was at odds with the Hanbali position.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} This proved controversial among the people in Damascus as well as the Islamic scholars who opposed him on the issue.{{cite book\|title\=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society\|url\=https://archive.org/details/mamluksegyptians00wint\_184\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Winter\|first\=Michael\|publisher\=BRILL\|year\=2004\|isbn\=978\-9004132863\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/mamluksegyptians00wint\_184/page/n213 191]–220}} According to the scholars of the time, an oath of divorce counted as a full divorce and they were also of the view that three oaths of divorce taken under one occasion counted as three separate divorces. The significance of this was, that a man who divorces the same partner three times is no longer allowed to remarry that person until and if that person marries and divorces another person. Only then could the man, who took the oath, remarry his previous wife. Ibn Taymiyya accepted this but rejected the validity of three oaths taken under one sitting to count as three separate divorces as long as the intention was not to divorce. Moreover, Ibn Taymiyya was of the view that a single oath of divorce uttered but not intended, also does not count as an actual divorce.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} He stated that since this is an oath much like an oath taken in the name of God, a person must expiate for an unintentional oath in a similar manner. Due to his views and also by not abiding to the sultan's letter two years before forbidding him from issuing a fatwa on the issue, three council hearings were held, in as many years (1318, 1319 and 1320\), to deal with this matter.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The hearing were overseen by the Viceroy of Syria, Tankiz.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} This resulted in Ibn Taymiyya being imprisoned on August 26, 1320, in the [Citadel of Damascus](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus "Citadel of Damascus").{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} He was released about five months and 18 days later,{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} on February 9, 1321, by order of the Sultan Al\-Nasir.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya was reinstated as teacher of Hanbali law and he resumed teaching.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} #### His risāla on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment In 1310, Ibn Taymiyya had written a *[risāla](/wiki/Risalah_%28fiqh%29 "Risalah (fiqh)")* (treatise) called *Ziyārat al\-Qubūr*{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} or according to another source, *Shadd al\-rihal*.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} It dealt with the validity and permissibility of making a journey to visit the tombs of prophets and [saints](/wiki/Wali "Wali").{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} It is reported that in the book "he condemned the cult of saints"{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} and declared that traveling with the sole purpose of visiting [Muhammad's grave](/wiki/Muhammad%27s_Tomb "Muhammad's Tomb") was a blameworthy religious innovation.{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/cp/CP2\.pdf\|title\=From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction: The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis\|last1\=Beranek\|first1\=Ondrej\|last2\=Tupek\|first2\=Pavel\|date\=July 2009\|publisher\=Brandeis University. Crown Center for Middle East Studies.\|editor\-last\=Sohrabi\|editor\-first\=Naghmeh\|series\=Crown Paper (Crown Center for Middle East Studies/Brandeis University)\|page\=11\|access\-date\=2018\-08\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810233401/https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/cp/CP2\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2018\-08\-10\|url\-status\=live}} For this, Ibn Taymiyya, was imprisoned in the Citadel of Damascus sixteen years later on July 18, 1326, aged 63, along with his student Ibn Qayyim.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} The sultan also prohibited him from issuing any further fatwas.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=12}} Hanbali scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al\-Maqdisi accused Ibn Taymiyya of apostasy over the treatise.{{cite book\|last1\=Zargar\|first1\=Cameron\|title\=The Hanbali and Wahhabi Schools of Thought As Observed Through the Case of Ziyārah\|date\=2014\|publisher\=Ohio State University\|pages\=33–34\|url\=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send\_file?accession\=osu1398829915\&disposition\=inline\|access\-date\=May 19, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519204346/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send\_file?accession\=osu1398829915\&disposition\=inline\|archive\-date\=May 19, 2018\|url\-status\=live}} #### His life in prison [300px\|thumb\|right\|The [Citadel of Damascus](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus "Citadel of Damascus"), the prison which Ibn Taymiyya died in](/wiki/File:Damaskus4.jpg "Damaskus4.jpg") Ibn Taymiyya referred to his imprisonment as "a divine blessing". During his incarceration, he wrote that, "when a scholar forsakes what he knows of the Book of God and of the *sunnah* of His messenger and follows the ruling of a ruler which contravenes a ruling of God and his messenger, he is a renegade, an unbeliever who deserves to be punished in this world and in the hereafter." During his imprisonment, he encountered opposition from the Maliki and Shafi'i Chief Justices of Damascus, Taḳī al\-Dīn al\-Ikhnāʾī.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} He remained in prison for over two years and ignored the sultan's prohibition, by continuing to deliver fatwas.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} During his incarceration Ibn Taymiyya wrote three works which are extant; *Kitāb Maʿārif al\-wuṣūl, Rafʿ al\-malām*, and *Kitāb al\-Radd ʿala 'l\-Ikhnāʾī* (The response to al\-Ikhnāʾī).{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} The last book was an attack on Taḳī al\-Dīn al\-Ikhnāʾī and explained his views on saints (wali).{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} When the Mongols invaded Syria in 1300, he was among those who called for a Jihad against them and he ruled that even though they had recently converted to Islam, they should be considered unbelievers. He went to Egypt in order to acquire support for his cause and while he was there, he got embroiled in religious\-political disputes. Ibn Taymiyya's enemies accused him of advocating [anthropomorphism](/wiki/Anthropomorphism "Anthropomorphism"), a view that was objectionable to the teachings of the [Ash'ari](/wiki/Ash%27ari "Ash'ari") school of Islamic theology, and in 1306, he was imprisoned for more than a year. Upon his release, he condemned popular Sufi practices and he also condemned the influence of [Ibn Arabi](/wiki/Ibn_Arabi "Ibn Arabi") (d. 1240\), causing him to earn the enmity of leading Sufi shaykhs in Egypt and causing him to serve another prison sentence. In 1310, he was released by the Egyptian Sultan. In 1313, the Sultan allowed Ibn Taymiyya to return to Damascus, where he worked as a teacher and a jurist. He had supporters among the powerful, but his outspokenness and his nonconformity to traditional Sunni doctrines and his denunciation of Sufi ideals and practices continued to draw the wrath of the religious and political authorities in Syria and Egypt. He was arrested and released several more times, but while he was in prison, he was allowed to write Fatwas (advisory opinions on matters of law) in defense of his beliefs. Despite the controversy that surrounded him, Ibn Taymiyya's influence grew and it spread from Hanbali circles to members of other Sunni legal schools and Sufi groups. Among his foremost students were Ibn Kathir (d. 1373\), a leading medieval historian and a Quran commentator, and Ibn Qayyim al\-Jawziya (d. 1350\), a prominent Hanbali jurist and a theologian who helped spread his teacher's influence after his teacher's death in 1328\. Ibn Taymiyya died while he was a prisoner in the citadel of Damascus and he was buried in the city's Sufi cemetery.{{Cite book\|last\=Campo\|first\=Juan Eduardo\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OZbyz\_Hr\-eIC\&q\=When\+the\+Mongols\+invaded\+syria\+in\+1300%2C\+he\+\+was\+among\+those\+calling\+for\+Jihad\+against\+them\+\+and\+ruled\+that\+even\+though\+they\+had\+recently\+\+converted\+to\+Islam%2C\+they\+should\+be\+considered\+\+unbelievers.\+He\+went\+to\+egypt\+to\+win\+support\+\+to\+this\+cause\+and\+became\+embroiled\+in\+religio\-\+political\+disputes\+there.\+Ibn\+Taymiyya%E2%80%99s\+enemies\+\+accused\+him\+of\+anthropomorphism%2C\+a\+view\|title\=Encyclopedia of Islam\|date\=2009\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-4381\-2696\-8\|page\=340}} ### Death He fell ill in early September 1328 and died at the age of 65, on September 26 of that year, whilst in prison at the Citadel of Damascus.{{sfn\|Laoust\|2012}} Once this news reached the public, there was a strong show of support for him from the people.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=14}} After the authorities had given permission, it is reported that thousands of people came to show their respects.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=14}} They gathered in the Citadel and lined the streets up to the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque "Umayyad Mosque").{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=14}} The [funeral prayer](/wiki/Janaza "Janaza") was held in the citadel by scholar Muhammad Tammam, and a second was held in the mosque.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=14}} A third and final funeral prayer was held by Ibn Taymiyya's brother, Zain al\-Din.{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=14}} He was buried in Damascus, in *Maqbara Sufiyya* ("the cemetery of the Sufis"). His brother Sharafuddin had been buried in that cemetery before him.George Makdisi, *A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order*, p. 123\.Juan Eduardo Campo, *Encyclopedia of Islam*, p 340\. {{ISBN\|1\-4381\-2696\-4}}{{sfn\|Haque\|1982\|p\=15}} Oliver Leaman says that being deprived of the means of writing led to Ibn Taymiyya's death. It is reported that two hundred thousand men and fifteen to sixteen thousand women attended his funeral prayer.{{cite book\|title\=Majallat al\-Majma' al\-'Ilmi al\-'Arabi bi\-Dimashq\|last\=\`Anhuri\|first\=Salim \|pages\=11, 193\|volume\=27}} Ibn Kathir says that in the history of Islam, only the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal received a larger attendance. This is also mentioned by Ibn \`Abd al\-Hadi. Caterina Bori says that, "In the Islamic tradition, wider popular attendance at funerals was a mark of public reverence, a demonstration of the deceased's rectitude, and a sign of divine approbation." Ibn Taymiyya is said to have "spent a lifetime objecting to tomb veneration, only to cast a more powerful posthumous spell than any of his Sufi contemporaries." On his death, his personal effects were in such demand "that bidders for his lice\-killing camphor necklace pushed its price up to 150 dirhams, and his skullcap fetched a full 500\." A few mourners sought and succeeded in "drinking the water used for bathing his corpse."Laoust, Henri, *Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki\-d\-Din Ahmad b Timiya*, Cairo, 1939, pp.149–50 His tomb received "pilgrims and sightseers" for 600 years.{{cite book\|last1\=Kadri\|first1\=Sadakat\|title\=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia …\|date\=2012\|publisher\=macmillan\|isbn\=978\-0\-09\-952327\-7\|page\=135\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\&q\=Heaven\+on\+Earth:\+A\+Journey\+Through\+Shari%27a\+Law\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701104304/https://books.google.com/books?id\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\&printsec\=frontcover\&dq\=Heaven\+on\+Earth%3A\+A\+Journey\+Through\+Shari%27a\+Law\|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-01\|url\-status\=live}} His resting place is now "in the parking lot of a maternity ward", though as of 2009 its headstone was broken, according to author [Sadakat Kadri](/wiki/Sadakat_Kadri "Sadakat Kadri").{{cite book\|last1\=Kadri\|first1\=Sadakat\|title\=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ...\|date\=2012\|publisher\=macmillan\|isbn\=978\-0\-09\-952327\-7\|pages\=177–8\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\&q\=Heaven\+on\+Earth:\+A\+Journey\+Through\+Shari%27a\+Law\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701104304/https://books.google.com/books?id\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\&printsec\=frontcover\&dq\=Heaven\+on\+Earth%3A\+A\+Journey\+Through\+Shari%27a\+Law\|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-01\|url\-status\=live}}Yahya Michot, *\[www.saphirnews.com/Pour\-une\-tombe\-a\-Damas\_a4483\.html Pour une tombe a Damas]*\|Rédigé par Yahya Michot \| Jeudi 21 Septembre 2006
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early years", "#### Family", "Ibn Taymiyya was born on 10 Rabi' al\\-Awwal 661 AH in [Harran](/wiki/Harran \"Harran\"), Mamluk Sultanate to a family of traditional Hanbali scholars. He had Arab and Kurdish lineages by way of his Arab father and Kurdish mother.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=Lessons From Islamic History: Ibn Taymiyya and the Synthesis of Takfir \\|url\\=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ibn\\-taymiyyah\\-and\\-the\\-syn\\_b\\_10096820 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-03 \\|website\\=HuffPost \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Rowe\\|first1\\=Paul\\|title\\=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-138\\-64904\\-0 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=157}} His father, [Shihab al\\-Din Abd al\\-Halim ibn Taymiyya](/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Abd_al-Halim_ibn_Taymiyya \"Shihab al-Din Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyya\"), held the Hanbali chair in Harran and later at the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque \"Umayyad Mosque\"). At the time, Harran was a part of the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate \"Mamluk Sultanate\"), near what is today the border of Syria and Turkey, currently in the [Şanlıurfa Province](/wiki/%C5%9Eanl%C4%B1urfa_Province \"Şanlıurfa Province\"). At the beginning of the Islamic period, Harran was located in [Diyar Mudar](/wiki/Diyar_Mudar \"Diyar Mudar\"), the land of the [Mudar](/wiki/Mudar \"Mudar\") tribe.{{EI2\\|volume\\=2\\|last1\\=Canard\\|first1\\=Marius\\|author1\\-link\\=Marius Canard\\|last2\\=Cahen\\|first2\\=Claude\\|author2\\-link\\=Claude Cahen\\|title\\=Diyār Mudar\\|pages\\=347–348\\|url\\=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\\-of\\-islam\\-2/diyar\\-mudar\\-COM\\_0174}} Before its [destruction by the Mongols](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Anatolia \"Mongol invasions of Anatolia\"), Harran was also well\\-known since the early days of Islam for its tradition of adhering to the Hanbali school,{{cite book\\|title\\=Tadhkirat al\\-huffaz\\|last\\=Al\\-Dhahabi\\|first\\=Muhammad ibn Ahmad \\|location\\=Haidarabad\\|page\\=48}} to which Ibn Taymiyya's family belonged.{{cite book\\|title\\=Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics\\|last\\=Hastings\\|first\\=James\\|publisher\\=Morrison and Gibb Limited\\|year\\=1908 \\|page\\=72\\|volume\\=7}} His grandfather, [Majd al\\-Din ibn Taymiyya](/wiki/Majd_ad-Din_ibn_Taymiyya \"Majd ad-Din ibn Taymiyya\"), and his uncle, Fakhr al\\-Din, were both reputable scholars of the Hanbali school, and their scholarly achievements well\\-known.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}", "#### Education", "In 1269, Ibn Taymiyya, aged seven, left Harran together with his father and three brothers; however, the city was completely destroyed by the ensuing Mongol invasion.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}}{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya's family moved and settled in [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\"), Syria, which was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate at the time.", "In Damascus, his father served as the director of the Sukkariyya Madrasa, a place where Ibn Taymiyya also received his early education.{{cite book\\|title\\=Studia missionalia\\|last\\=Michel\\|first\\=Thomas\\|publisher\\=Pontificia Università Gregorian\\|year\\=1985 \\|location\\=Rome, Italy \\|volume\\=34\\|chapter\\=Ibn Taymiyya: Islamic Reformer}} He acquainted himself with the [religious and secular sciences](/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam \"Science in medieval Islam\") of his time. His religious studies began in his early teens when he [committed the entire Quran to memory](/wiki/Hafiz_%28Quran%29 \"Hafiz (Quran)\"), and later came to learn the [disciplines of the Quran](/wiki/Tajwid \"Tajwid\").{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}} From his father, he learnt the religious science of [jurisprudence](/wiki/Fiqh \"Fiqh\") and [its principles](/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh \"Usul al-Fiqh\").{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}} Ibn Taymiyya studied the works of [Ahmad ibn Hanbal](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal \"Ahmad ibn Hanbal\"), [Abu Bakr al\\-Khallal](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Khallal \"Abu Bakr al-Khallal\"), and [Ibn Qudama](/wiki/Ibn_Qudama \"Ibn Qudama\"), as well as the works of his own grandfather, Majd al\\-Din.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} His study of jurisprudence was not limited to the Hanbali tradition, as he also studied the other schools of jurisprudence.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}", "The number of scholars under which he studied [hadith](/wiki/Hadith \"Hadith\") is said to number more than two\\-hundred,{{cite web \\|last\\=Al\\-Matroudi \\|first\\=Abdul Hakim Ibrahim \\|date\\=February 14, 2015 \\|title\\=Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\\-Dīn \\|url\\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0145 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018135558/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0145 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2015 \\|website\\=Oxford Islamic Studies Online \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Al\\-'Uqud ad\\-Dariat\\|last\\=Al\\-Dimashqi al\\-Hanbali \\|first \\=Ibn \\`Abdul\\-Hadi \\|page\\=3}} four of whom were women.{{cite book\\|title\\=Shadharat al\\-Dhahab\\|last\\=Al\\-Hanbali\\|first\\=Ibn al\\-\\`Imad \\|year\\=1932 \\|location\\=Cairo\\|pages\\=385, 383, 404}} Those who are known by name amount to forty hadith teachers, as recorded by Ibn Taymiyya in his work titled *Arba'un Haditha*.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|pp\\=38–44}} Serajul Haque says, based on this, Ibn Taymiyya started to hear hadith from the age of five.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|pp\\=38–44}} One of Ibn Taymiyya's teachers was the first Hanbali Chief Justice of Syria, Shams al\\-Din al\\-Maqdisi, who held the newly created position instituted by [Baibars](/wiki/Baibars \"Baibars\") as part of a reform of the judiciary.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Al\\-Maqdisi later came to give Ibn Taymiyya permission to issue legal verdicts, making him a [judge](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\") at the age of seventeen.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought\\|last\\=Michot\\|first\\=Yahya\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-13484\\-0 \\|pages\\=238–241}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Sharh Al\\-Aqeedat\\-il\\-Wasitiyah\\|last\\=Ibn Taimiya\\|first\\=Taqi ad\\-Din\\|publisher\\=Dar\\-us\\-Salam\\|year\\=1996 \\|page\\=9}}", "Ibn Taymiyya's secular studies led him to devote attention to the Arabic language and literature by studying Arabic grammar and lexicography under Ali ibn Abd al\\-Qawi al\\-Tufi.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}}{{cite book\\|title\\=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia\\|last\\=Leaman\\|first\\=Oliver\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-32639\\-1\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/n311 280]–282\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse\\|url\\-access\\=limited}} He went on to master the famous book of Arabic grammar *al\\-Kitab*, written by the grammarian [Sibawayhi](/wiki/Sibawayhi \"Sibawayhi\").{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=6}} He also studied mathematics, algebra, calligraphy, speculative theology, philosophy, history, and heresiography.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}see aqidatul\\-waasitiyyah daarussalaam publications With the knowledge he gained from history and philosophy, he set to refute the prevalent philosophical discourses of his time, one of which was [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism \"Aristotelianism\"). Ibn Taymiyya also learnt about [Sufism](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\") and stated he had reflected on the works of [Sahl al\\-Tustari](/wiki/Sahl_al-Tustari \"Sahl al-Tustari\"), [al\\-Junayd al\\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Junayd_of_Baghdad \"Junayd of Baghdad\"), [Abu Talib al\\-Makki](/wiki/Abu_Talib_al-Makki \"Abu Talib al-Makki\"), [Abd al\\-Qadir al\\-Jilani](/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jilani \"Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani\"), [Shihab al\\-Din Umar al\\-Suhrawardi](/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_%27Umar_al-Suhrawardi \"Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi\"), and [Ibn Arabi](/wiki/Ibn_Arabi \"Ibn Arabi\").{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} In 1282, Ibn Taymiyya completed his education at the age of 20\\.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=8}}", "### Life as a scholar", "[300px\\|thumb\\|right\\|The [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque \"Umayyad Mosque\") pictured in 1895, where Ibn Taymiyya used to give lessons.](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_%E2%80%A6trialsanderrors_-_Minaret_of_the_Bride%2C_Damascus%2C_Holy_Land%2C_ca._1895.jpg \"Flickr - …trialsanderrors - Minaret of the Bride, Damascus, Holy Land, ca. 1895.jpg\")\nAfter his father died in 1284, he took up the then vacant post as the head of the Sukkariyya madrasa and began giving lessons on Hadith.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0217\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925201127/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t342/e0217\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|title\\=\"Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\\-Dīn Aḥmad.\" The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics\\|date\\=February 14, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2015\\|website\\=Oxford Islamic Studies Online\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|last1\\=Nettler\\|first1\\=Ronald L.\\|last2\\=Kéchichian\\|first2\\=Joseph A.}} A year later he started giving lessons, as chair of the Hanbali [Zawiya](/wiki/Zawiya_%28institution%29 \"Zawiya (institution)\") on Fridays at the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque \"Umayyad Mosque\"), on the subject of [tafsir](/wiki/Tafsir \"Tafsir\") (exegesis of Qur'an). In November 1292, Ibn Taymiyya performed the [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\") and after returning 4 months later, he wrote his first book aged twenty nine called *Manasik al\\-Hajj* (Rites of the Pilgrimage), in which he criticized and condemned the [religious innovations](/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah \"Bidʻah\") he saw take place there.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya represented the Hanbali school of thought during this time. The Hanbali school was seen as the most traditional school out of the four legal systems ([Hanafi](/wiki/Hanafi \"Hanafi\"), [Maliki](/wiki/Maliki \"Maliki\") and [Shafi'i](/wiki/Shafi%27i \"Shafi'i\")) because it was \"suspicious of the [Hellenist](/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy \"Hellenistic philosophy\") disciplines of philosophy and [speculative theology](/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam \"Ilm al-Kalam\").\" He remained faithful throughout his life to this school, whose doctrines he had mastered, but he nevertheless called for *[ijtihad](/wiki/Ijtihad \"Ijtihad\")* (independent reasoning by one who is qualified) and discouraged *[taqlid](/wiki/Taqlid \"Taqlid\")*.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=8}}", "Ibn Taymiyya had a simple life, most of which he dedicated to learning, writing, and teaching. He never married nor did he have a female companion throughout his years.{{cite book \\|last\\=Esposito \\|first\\=John L. \\|title\\=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-516886\\-0 \\|page\\=45}} Professor Al\\-Matroudi stated that this may be why he was able to engage fully with the political affairs of his time without holding any official position such as that of a *[qadi](/wiki/Qadi \"Qadi\")*. An offer of an official position was made to him but he never accepted.", "#### Possible influences", "Ibn Taymiyya was taught by scholars who were renowned in their time;{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=7}} however, there is no evidence any of them had a significant influence on him.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=7}}", "A strong influence on Ibn Taymiyya was the founder of the Hanbali school itself, Ahmad ibn Hanbal.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=7}} Ibn Taymiyya was trained in his school by studying [Ahmad's *Musnad*](/wiki/Musnad_Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal \"Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal\") in great detail, having studied it multiple times.{{cite book \\|last\\=Al\\-Kutubi \\|first\\=Shakir \\|author\\-link\\=Ibn Shākir al\\-Kutubī \\|title\\=Fawat al\\-Wafayat \\|year\\=1881 \\|page\\=35}} Though he spent much of his life following this school, he renounced [blind\\-following](/wiki/Taqlid \"Taqlid\") near the end of his life.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=8}}", "His work was most influenced by the sayings and actions of the [first three generations of Muslims](/wiki/Salaf \"Salaf\") (*salaf*), which is displayed in his works where he would give preference to their opinions over those of his contemporaries.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=7}} The modern [Salafi movement](/wiki/Salafi_movement \"Salafi movement\") derives its name from these generations.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=7}}", "#### Relationship with the authorities", "Ibn Taymiyya's own relationship, as a religious scholar, with the ruling apparatus was not always amicable. It ranged from silence to open rebellion. On occasions when he shared the same views and aims as the ruling authorities his contributions were welcomed, but when Ibn Taymiyya went against the status quo, he was seen as \"uncooperative\", and on occasions spent much time in prison. Ibn Taymiyya's attitude towards his own rulers was based on the actions of [Muhammad's companions](/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet \"Companions of the Prophet\") when they made an oath of allegiance to him as follows; \"to obey within obedience to God, even if the one giving the order is unjust; to abstain from disputing the authority of those who exert it; and to speak out the truth, or take up its cause without fear in respect of God, of blame from anyone.\"", "Ibn Taymiyya was a [religious scholar](/wiki/Ulema \"Ulema\") as well as an Islamic political activist. In his efforts he was persecuted and imprisoned on six occasions{{cite book \\|last\\=An\\-Na\\`im \\|first\\=Abdullahi Ahmed \\|title\\=Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Futnture of Shari'a \\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press \\|year\\=2010 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-03456\\-3 \\|page\\=76}} with the total time spent inside prison coming to over six years. Other sources say that he spent over twelve years in prison.{{cite web \\|last\\=Al\\-Matroudi \\|first\\=Abdul\\-Hakim \\|date\\=February 14, 2015 \\|title\\=Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al\\-Dīn Aḥmad \\|url\\=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0108 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813212504/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0108 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2015 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press}} His detentions were due to the pushback from the clerical establishment of the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate \"Mamluk Sultanate\"), who opposed certain elements of his creed and his views on some jurisprudential issues. However, according to [Yahya Michot](/wiki/Yahya_Michot \"Yahya Michot\"), \"the real reasons were more trivial\". Michot stated five reasons as to why Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned by the Mamluk government, they being: not complying with the \"doctrines and practices prevalent among powerful religious and Sufi establishments, an overly outspoken personality, the jealousy of his peers, the risk to public order due to this popular appeal and political intrigues.\" Baber Johansen stated that the reasons for Ibn Taymiyya's incarcerations were, \"as a result of his conflicts with Muslim mystics, jurists, and theologians, who were able to persuade the political authorities of the necessity to limit Ibn Taymiyya's range of action through political censorship and incarceration.\"", "Ibn Taymiyya's emergence in the public and political spheres began in 1293 when he was 30 years old, when the authorities asked him to issue a [fatwa](/wiki/Fatwa \"Fatwa\") (legal verdict) on Assaf al\\-Nasrani, a Christian cleric who was accused of insulting Muhammad.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives\\|last\\=Hillenbrand\\|first\\=Carole\\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7486\\-0630\\-6 \\|page\\=242}}{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{cite book\\|title\\=slam and Inter\\-Faith Relations: The Gerald Weisfeld Lectures 2006\\|last\\=Schmidt\\-Leukel\\|first\\=Perry\\|publisher\\=SCM Press\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-334\\-04132\\-0 \\|page\\=125}} He accepted the invitation and delivered his fatwa, calling for the man to receive the death penalty. Despite the fact that public opinion was very much on Ibn Taymiyya's side, the Governor of Syria attempted to resolve the situation by asking Assaf to accept Islam in return for his life, to which he agreed. This resolution was not acceptable to Ibn Taymiyya who then, together with his followers, protested against it outside the governor's palace, demanding that Assaf be put to death, on the grounds that any person—Muslim or non\\-Muslim—who insults Muhammad must be killed. His unwillingness to compromise, coupled with his attempt to protest against the governor's actions, resulted in him being punished with a prison sentence, the first of many such imprisonments which were to come.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} The French orientalist [Henri Laoust](/wiki/Henri_Laoust \"Henri Laoust\") says that during his incarceration, Ibn Taymiyya \"wrote his first great work, *al\\-Ṣārim al\\-maslūl ʿalā shātim al\\-Rasūl (The Drawn Sword against those who insult the Messenger).*\"{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya, together with the help of his disciples, continued with his efforts against what, \"he perceived to be un\\-Islamic practices\" and to implement what he saw as his religious duty of commanding good and forbidding wrong.{{harvnb\\|Rapoport\\|Ahmed\\|2010\\|p\\=4}} Yahya Michot says that some of these incidences included: \"shaving children's heads\", leading \"an anti\\-debauchery campaign in brothels and taverns\", hitting an atheist before his public execution, destroying what was thought to be a sacred rock in a mosque, attacking astrologers and obliging \"deviant Sufi Shaykhs to make public acts of contrition and adhere to the Sunnah.\" Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples used to condemn wine sellers and they would attack wine shops in Damascus by breaking wine bottles and pouring them onto the floor.{{cite book\\|title\\=Ibn Taymiyya and His Times\\|last\\=Bori\\|first\\=Caterina\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2010\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-547834\\-1 \\|chapter\\=Ibn Taymiyya wa\\-Jama\\`atuhu: Authority, Conflict and Consensus in Ibn Taymiyya's Circle}}", "A few years later in 1296, he took over the position of one of his teachers (Zayn al\\-Din Ibn al\\-Munadjdjaal), taking the post of professor of Hanbali jurisprudence at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, the oldest such institution of this tradition in Damascus.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{cite book\\|title\\=State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory\\|last\\=K. S. Lambton\\|first\\=Ann\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-713600\\-3 \\|page\\=143\\|chapter\\=The extinction of the caliphate: Ibn Jama'a and Ibn Taymiyya}} This is seen by some to be the peak of his scholarly career. The year when he began his post at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, was a time of political turmoil. The Mamluk sultan [Al\\-Adil Kitbugha](/wiki/Al-Adil_Kitbugha \"Al-Adil Kitbugha\") was deposed by his vice\\-sultan [Al\\-Malik al\\-Mansur Lajin](/wiki/Lajin \"Lajin\") who then ruled from 1297 to 1299\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro\\-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250\\-1340 C.E.\\|last\\=Williams Clifford\\|first\\=Winslow\\|publisher\\=V\\&r Unipress\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8471\\-0091\\-1\\|page\\=163}} Lajin desired to commission an expedition against the Christians of the [Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia \"Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia\") who formed an alliance with the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\") and participated in the military campaign which lead to the destruction of Baghdad, the capital of the [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\"), and the destruction of Harran, the birthplace of Ibn Taymiyya, for that purpose, he urged Ibn Taymiyya to call the Muslims to Jihad.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}", "In 1298, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his explanation for the ayat al\\-mutashabihat (the unclear verses of the Qur'an) titled Al\\-\\`Aqidat al\\-Hamawiyat al\\-Kubra (The creed of the great people of Hama).{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=9}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Islamic Philosophy and Theology\\|last\\=Watt\\|first\\=William Montgomery\\|publisher\\=Transaction Publishers\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-202\\-36272\\-4 \\|page\\=160}} The book is about divine attributes and it served as an answer to a question from the city of [Hama](/wiki/Hama \"Hama\"), Syria.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=9}} At that particular time [Ash'arites](/wiki/Ash%27ari \"Ash'ari\") held prominent positions within the Islamic scholarly community in both Syria and Egypt, and they held a certain position on the divine attributes of God.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=9}} Ibn Taymiyya in his book strongly disagreed with their views and this heavy opposition to the common Ash'ari position, caused considerable controversy.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=9}}", "Once more, Ibn Taymiyya collaborated with the Mamluks in 1300, when he joined the [punitive expedition](/wiki/Keserwan_campaigns_%281292%E2%80%931305%29 \"Keserwan campaigns (1292–1305)\") against the [Alawites](/wiki/Alawites \"Alawites\") and [Shiites](/wiki/Shiites \"Shiites\"), in the Kasrawan region of the [Lebanese mountains](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon \"Mount Lebanon\").{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya believed that the Alawites were \"more heretical than Jews and Christians\",{{cite book\\|title\\=Everyday Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam Among Palestinians in Lebanon\\|last\\=Rougier\\|first\\=Bernard\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-03066\\-4 \\|page\\=162}}[Ibn Taymiyya Majmoo\\` al\\-Fatawa 35/145](http://library.islamweb.net/newlibrary/display_book.php?flag=1&bk_no=22&ID=6111) and according to Carole Hillenbrand, the confrontation with the Alawites occurred because they \"were accused of collaborating with Christians and Mongols.\" Ibn Taymiyya had further active involvements in campaigns against the Mongols and their alleged Alawite allies.", "In 1305, Ibn Taymiyya took part in a second military offensive against the Alawites and the [Isma\\`ilis](/wiki/Isma%27ilism \"Isma'ilism\"){{Cite book\\|title\\=Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History\\|last\\=Lapidus\\|first\\=Ira M.\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-73298\\-7 \\|page\\=295}} in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains where they were defeated.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=10}} The majority of the Alawis and Ismailis eventually converted to Twelver Shiism and settled in south Lebanon and the Bekaa valley, with a few Shia pockets that survived in the Lebanese mountains.{{cite book\\|title\\=Lebanon Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments \\|publisher\\=Int'l Business Publications\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7397\\-3913\\-6 \\|page\\=44}}{{cite book\\|title\\=The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=2010\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-5217\\-6584\\-8 \\|page\\=205}}", "### Involvement in the Mongol invasions", "{{Further\\|Mongol invasions of the Levant\\|Ilkhanate\\|label2\\=Ilkhanate empire}}", "#### First invasion", "{{See also\\|Mongol raids into Palestine\\#Mongol campaigns of 1299–1300\\|Battle of Wadi al\\-Khaznadar\\|\\|label 1\\=Mongol campaign of 1299\\-1300\\|label 3\\=}}", "The first invasion took place between December 1299 and April 1300 due to the military campaign by the Mamluks against the [Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia \"Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia\") who were allied with the Mongols.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sites.google.com/site/jhoover363/taymiyyan\\-studies/jihad\\-against\\-the\\-mongols\\|title\\=Taymiyyan Studies\\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2015\\|last\\=Hoover\\|first\\=Jon\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215000623/https://sites.google.com/site/jhoover363/taymiyyan\\-studies/jihad\\-against\\-the\\-mongols\\|archive\\-date\\=February 15, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Due to the Mongol legal system that neglected *[sharia](/wiki/Sharia \"Sharia\")* and implemented [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa \"Yassa\"); Ibn Taymiyya had declared *[Takfir](/wiki/Takfir \"Takfir\")* upon the Ilkhanid regime and its armies for ruling by [man\\-made laws](/wiki/Man-made_law \"Man-made law\"), despite these laws being rarely enforced in Muslim majority regions in an extensive manner.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|page\\=7 \\|chapter\\=1: Introduction \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Aigle \\|first\\=Denise \\|title\\=The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-27749\\-6 \\|location\\=Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands \\|pages\\=283–305 \\|chapter\\=7: Mongol Law versus Islamic Law\\- Myth and Reality \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/9789004280649\\_015}} Openly rejecting [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan_Khan \"Ghazan Khan\")'s claim to \"*pādishāh al\\-islām*\" (King of Islam), a title which Ghazan took to legitimise his military campaigns, Ibn Taymiyya denounced him as an \"infidel king\" and issued numerous *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa \"Fatwa\")* condemning the political order of the Tatars.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Aigle \\|first\\=Denise \\|title\\=The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-27749\\-6 \\|location\\=Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands \\|pages\\=135–136, 256–257, 296–298 \\|chapter\\= \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/9789004280649\\_015}} The Ilkhanate army managed to defeat the [Mamluk Sultanate](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate \"Mamluk Sultanate\") in [The Third Battle of Homs](/wiki/Battle_of_Wadi_al-Khaznadar \"Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar\") and reach [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\") by the end of December 1299\\. Fearful of Mongol atrocities, many scholars, intellectuals and officers began to flee Damascus in panic. Ibn Taymiyya was one of those clerics who stood firm alongside the vulnerable Damascus citizens and called for an uncompromising and heroic resistance to the [Tatar](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\") invaders. Ibn Taymiyya drew parallels of their crisis with the [Riddah wars](/wiki/Ridda_Wars \"Ridda Wars\") (Apostate wars) fought by the first [Muslim Caliph](/wiki/Rashidun \"Rashidun\"), [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr \"Abu Bakr\"), against the renegade [Arabian tribes](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia \"Tribes of Arabia\") that abandoned *sharia*. Ibn Taymiyya severely rebuked those Muslims escaping in the face of Mongol onslaught and compared their state to the withdrawal of Muslims in the [Battle of Uhud](/wiki/Battle_of_Uhud \"Battle of Uhud\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=15–16, 24 \\|chapter\\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }} In a passionate letter to the commander of the [Damascene Citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus \"Citadel of Damascus\"), Ibn Taymiyya appealed: \n> \"Until there stands even a single rock, do everything in your power to not surrender the castle. There is great benefit for the [people of Syria](/wiki/Syrians \"Syrians\"). [Allah](/wiki/Allah \"Allah\") declared it a sanctuary for the people of [Shām](/wiki/Sh%C4%81m \"Shām\")—where it will remain a land of [faith](/wiki/Iman_%28Islam%29 \"Iman (Islam)\") and *[sunna](/wiki/Sunnah \"Sunnah\")* until the descent of the [Prophet Jesus](/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam \"Jesus in Islam\").\"{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=15–16 \\|chapter\\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }}", "Despite political pressure, Ibn Taymiyya's directives were heeded by the Mamluk officer and Mongol negotiations to surrender the Citadel stalled. Shortly after, Ibn Taymiyya and a number of his acolytes and pupils took part in a [counter\\-offensive](/wiki/Counter-offensive \"Counter-offensive\") targeting various [Shia](/wiki/Shia_Islam \"Shia Islam\") tribes allied to the Mongols in the peripheral regions of the city; thereby repelling the Mongol attack. Ibn Taymiyya went with a delegation of [Islamic scholars](/wiki/Ulama \"Ulama\") to talk to [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan \"Ghazan\"), who was the [Khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 \"Khan (title)\") of the Mongol [Ilkhanate](/wiki/Ilkhanate \"Ilkhanate\") of Iran, to plead clemency.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=15 \\|chapter\\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }} By early January 1300, the Mongol allies, the Armenians and Georgians, had caused widespread damage to Damascus and they had taken Syrian prisoners. The Mongols effectively occupied Damascus for the first four months of 1303\\. Most of the military had fled the city, including most of the civilians. Ibn Taymiyya however, stayed and was one of the leaders of the resistance inside Damascus and he went to speak directly to the Ilkhan, [Mahmud Ghazan](/wiki/Ghazan \"Ghazan\"), and his vizier [Rashid al\\-Din Tabib](/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani \"Rashid-al-Din Hamadani\"). He sought the release of Muslim and [dhimmi](/wiki/Dhimmi \"Dhimmi\") prisoners which the Mongols had taken in Syria, and after negotiation, secured their release.[thumb\\|300px\\|An artist illustrated of [Ghazan Khan](/wiki/Ghazan_Khan \"Ghazan Khan\"), a historical figure harshly rebuked by Ibn Taymiyya, mainly due to his constant state of hostility towards the [Mamluks](/wiki/Mamluk \"Mamluk\") of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\").](/wiki/File:Ghazan%27s_feast.jpg \"Ghazan's feast.jpg\")", "#### Second invasion", "The second invasion lasted between October 1300 and January 1301\\. Ibn Taymiyya at this time began giving sermons on jihad at the Umayyad mosque. As the civilians began to flee in panic; Ibn Taymiyya pronounced *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa \"Fatwa\")* declaring the [religious duty](/wiki/Fard \"Fard\") upon Muslims to fight the Mongol armies to death, inflict a massive defeat and expel them from Syria in its entirety.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=16 \\|chapter\\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }} Ibn Taymiyya also spoke to and encouraged the Governor of Damascus, al\\-Afram, to achieve victory over the Mongols. He became involved with al\\-Afram once more, when he was sent to get reinforcements from Cairo. Narrating Ibn Taymiyya's fierce stance on fighting the Mongols, Ibn Kathir reports:", "{{Blockquote\\|text\\=even if you see me on their side with a Qurʾan on my side, kill them immediately!\\|author\\= \\[\\[Ibn Kathir\\|Ismail Ibn Kathir]]\\|title\\=''al\\-Bidāya wa\\-l\\-Nihāya'', vol. 14, 7–8\\|source\\={{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|chapter\\= 2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance\\| doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035 \\|s2cid\\=249087588 }}\\|character\\=Ibn Taymiyya}}", "#### Third invasion and *Takfir* of Ilkhanate Allies", "{{See also\\|Takfir\\|Takfiri\\|label 1\\=Excommunication in Islam\\|label 2\\=Takfirism\\|Battle of Marj al\\-Saffar (1303\\)\\|label 3\\=}}", "The year 1303 saw the third [Mongol invasion](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant \"Mongol invasions of the Levant\") of Syria by Ghazan Khan.{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MamlukStudiesReview\\_XI\\-2\\_2007\\.pdf\\|title\\=The Mongol Invasions of Bilād al\\-Shām by Ghāzān Khān and Ibn Taymīyah's Three \"Anti\\-Mongol\" Fatwas\\|last\\=Aigle\\|first\\=Denise\\|date\\=2007\\|journal\\=Mamluk Studies Review\\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2015\\|publisher\\=The University of Chicago\\|page\\=105\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035256/http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MamlukStudiesReview\\_XI\\-2\\_2007\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders\\|last\\=Hawting\\|first\\=Gerald\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7007\\-1393\\-6\\|page\\=116}} What has been called Ibn Taymiyya's \"most famous\" *[fatwā](/wiki/Fatw%C4%81 \"Fatwā\")*Janin, Hunt. *Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present* by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007 p.79 was his third *fatwa* issued against the Mongols in the [Mamluk's war](/wiki/Mamluk%23Mamluks_and_the_Mongols \"Mamluk#Mamluks and the Mongols\"). Ibn Taymiyya declared that jihad against the Mongol attack on the Malmuk sultanate was not only permissible, but [obligatory](/wiki/Fard \"Fard\"). The reason being that the Mongols could not, in his opinion, be true Muslims despite the fact that they had converted to Sunni Islam because they ruled using what he considered 'man\\-made laws' (their traditional [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa \"Yassa\") code) rather than Islamic law or *Sharia*, whilst believing that the Yassa code was better than the Sharia law. Because of this, he reasoned they were living in a state of [jahiliyyah](/wiki/Jahiliyyah \"Jahiliyyah\"), or [pre\\-Islamic](/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia \"Pre-Islamic Arabia\") [pagan ignorance](/wiki/Arabian_mythology \"Arabian mythology\").Kepel, Gilles, *The Prophet and the Pharaoh*, (2003\\), p.194 Not only were [Ilkhanate](/wiki/Ilkhanate \"Ilkhanate\") political elites and its military disbelievers in the eyes of Ibn Taymiyya; but anybody who joined their ranks were as guilty of *[riddah](/wiki/Riddah \"Riddah\")* (apostasy) as them:", "{{Blockquote\\|text\\=\"Whoever joins them—meaning the \\[\\[Tatars]]—among commanders of the military and non\\-commanders, their ruling is the same as theirs, and they have apostatized from the laws \\[''\\[\\[Sharia\\|sharāʾiʿ]]'']. If the righteous forbears \\[''\\[\\[salaf]]''] have called the withholders from charity apostates despite their fasting, praying, and not fighting the Muslims, how about those who became murderers of the \\[\\[Muslims]] with the enemies of Allah and His Messenger?\"\\|title\\=''Majmu’ al\\-fatawa, vol. 28, 530''\\|source\\={{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|chapter\\= 2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance\\| doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|page\\=27\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }}\\|character\\=Ibn Taymiyya}}", "The *fatwa* broke new Islamic legal ground because \"no jurist had ever before issued a general authorization for the use of lethal force against Muslims in battle\", and would later influence modern\\-day [Jihadists](/wiki/Jihadism \"Jihadism\") in their use of violence against other Muslims whom they deemed as apostates. In his legal verdicts issued to inform the populace, Ibn Taymiyya classified the Tatars and their advocates into four types:", "* *Kaafir Asli* (i.e, those original non\\-Muslims fighting in Tatar armies and who never embraced Islam)\n* Muslims of other ethnicities who became apostates due to their alliance with Mongols\n* Irreligious Muslims aligned with Ilkhanids whom Ibn Taymiyya analogized with renegade Arabian tribes of the [Riddah wars](/wiki/Ridda_Wars \"Ridda Wars\")\n* Personally pious Muslims affiliated with the Mongol armies. Ibn Taymiyya harshly rebuked these people as the \"most evil\" faction; and argued that their piety was useless because of their decision to ally with non\\-Muslims who ruled by [man\\-made laws](/wiki/Man-made_law \"Man-made law\"). This rationale was also expanded to [excommunicate](/wiki/Takfir \"Takfir\") those \"court scholars\" who vindicated the Tatar authorities{{Cite book \\|last1\\=S. Islam \\|first1\\=Jaan \\|first2\\=Adem \\|last2\\=Eryiğit \\|title\\=Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya: Translation and Analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-032\\-13183\\-2 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=24 \\|chapter\\=2: The Works: Their Author, and Significance \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781003228035\\|s2cid\\=249087588 }}", "Ibn Taymiyya called on the Muslims to jihad once again and personally participated in the [Battle of Marj al\\-Saffar](/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_al-Saffar_%281303%29 \"Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)\") against the Ilkhanid army; leading his disciples in the field with a sword. The battle began on April 20 of that year. On the same day, Ibn Taymiyya declared a *fatwa* which exempted Mamluk soldiers from fasting during [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan \"Ramadan\") so that they could preserve their strength.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Within two days the Mongols were severely crushed and the battle was won; thus ending Mongol control of Syria. These incidents greatly increased the scholarly prestige and social stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst the masses, despite opposition from the establishment clergy. He would soon be appointed as the chief professor of the elite scholarly institute \"*Kāmiliyya Dār al\\-Haḍīth*.\"", "#### Contemporary Impact", "Ibn Taymiyya's three unprecedented *[fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa \"Fatwa\")* (legal verdicts) that [excommunicated](/wiki/Takfir \"Takfir\") the [Ilkhanid](/wiki/Ilkhanate \"Ilkhanate\") authorities and their supporters as [apostates](/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam \"Apostasy in Islam\") over their neglect to govern by *Sharia* (Islamic law) and preference of the traditional [Mongol imperial](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\") code of [Yassa](/wiki/Yassa \"Yassa\"); would form the theological basis of 20th century [Islamist](/wiki/Islamism \"Islamism\") and [Jihadist](/wiki/Jihadism \"Jihadism\") scholars and ideologues. Reviving Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas during the late 20th\\-century, Jihadist ideologues like [Sayyid Qutb](/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb \"Sayyid Qutb\"), [Abd al\\-Salam al\\-Faraj](/wiki/Muhammad_abd-al-Salam_Faraj \"Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj\"), [Abdullah Azzam](/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam \"Abdullah Yusuf Azzam\"), [Usama bin Laden](/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden \"Osama bin Laden\"), [Ayman al\\-Zawahiri](/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri \"Ayman al-Zawahiri\"), etc. made public *Takfir* (excommunication) of contemporary governments of the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world \"Muslim world\") and called for their revolutionary overthrowal through armed [Jihad](/wiki/Jihad \"Jihad\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Haynes \\|first1\\=Jeffrey \\|title\\=The Routledge handbook of Religion, Politics and Ideology \\|last2\\=S. Sheikh \\|first2\\=Naveed \\|publisher\\=Routledge: Taylor \\& Francis Group \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-367\\-41782\\-6 \\|location\\=New York, USA \\|pages\\=180, 184, 189 \\|chapter\\=Making Sense of Salafism: Theological foundations, ideological iterations and political manifestations}}", "### Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism", "Ibn Taymiyya was a fervent polemicist who zealously launched theological refutations against various religious sects such as the [Sufis](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\"), [Jahmites](/wiki/Jahmi \"Jahmi\"), [Ash'arites](/wiki/Ash%27ari \"Ash'ari\"), [Shias](/wiki/Shias \"Shias\"), *[Falsafa](/wiki/Falsafa \"Falsafa\")*, etc., labelling them as heretics responsible for the crisis of [Mongol invasions](/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests \"Mongol invasions and conquests\") across the [Islamic World](/wiki/Muslim_world \"Muslim world\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=G. Rabil \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism \\|publisher\\=Georgetown University Press \\|year\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-62616\\-116\\-0 \\|location\\=Washington, DC, USA \\|pages\\=26 \\|chapter\\=1: The Creed, Ideology, and Manhaj (Methodology) of Salafism: A Historical and Contemporaneous Framework}} He was imprisoned several times for conflicting with the prevailing opinions of the jurists and theologians of his day. A judge from the city of [Wasit](/wiki/Wasit%2C_Iraq \"Wasit, Iraq\"), Iraq, requested that Ibn Taymiyya write a book on creed. His subsequent creedal work, *[Al\\-Aqidah Al\\-Waasitiyyah](/wiki/Al-Aqidah_Al-Waasitiyyah \"Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah\")*, caused him trouble with the authorities. Ibn Taymiyya adopted the view that God should be described as he was literally described in the Qur'an and in the hadith, and that all Muslims were required to believe this because according to him it was the view held by the early Muslim community (*salaf*).{{cite book\\|title\\=The Law Applied: Contextualizing the Islamic Shari'a\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lawappliedcontex00bear\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Bearman\\|first\\=Peri\\|publisher\\=I.B.Tauris\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84511\\-736\\-8 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/lawappliedcontex00bear/page/n274 263]–264}} Within the space of two years (1305–1306\\) four separate religious council hearings were held to assess the correctness of his creed.", "The first hearing was held with [Ash'ari](/wiki/Ash%27ari \"Ash'ari\") scholars who accused Ibn Taymiyya of [anthropomorphism](/wiki/Tashbih \"Tashbih\"). At the time Ibn Taymiyya was 42 years old. He was protected by the then Governor of Damascus, [Aqqush al\\-Afram](/wiki/Aqqush_al-Afram \"Aqqush al-Afram\"), during the proceedings. The scholars suggested that he accept that his creed was simply that of the Hanbalites and offered this as a way out of the charge. However, if Ibn Taymiyya ascribed his creed to the Hanbali school of law then it would be just one view out of the four schools which one could follow rather than a creed everybody must adhere to. Uncompromising, Ibn Taymiyya maintained that it was obligatory for all scholars to adhere to his creed.", "Two separate councils were held a year later on January 22 and 28, 1306\\.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} The first council was in the house of the Governor of Damascus Aqqush al\\-Afram, who had protected him the year before when facing the Shafii scholars.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} A second hearing was held six days later where the Indian scholar [Safi al\\-Din al\\-Hindi](/wiki/Safi_al-Din_al-Hindi \"Safi al-Din al-Hindi\") found him innocent of all charges and accepted that his creed was in line with the \"Qur'an and the Sunnah\".{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Regardless, in April 1306 the chief Islamic judges of the Mamluk state declared Ibn Taymiyya guilty and he was incarcerated. He was released four months later in September.", "After his release in Damascus, the doubts regarding his creed seemed to have resolved but this was not the case.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} A Shafii scholar, Ibn al\\-Sarsari, was insistent on starting another hearing against Ibn Taymiyya which was held once again at the house of the Governor of Damascus, Al\\-Afram.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} His book *Al\\-Aqidah Al\\-Waasitiyyah* was still not found at fault.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} At the conclusion of this hearing, Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al\\-Sarsari were sent to Cairo to settle the problem.", "### Life in Egypt", "#### His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment", "On the arrival of Ibn Taymiyya and the Shafi'ite scholar in Cairo in 1306, an open meeting was held.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=10}} The Mamluk sultan at the time was [Al\\-Nasir Muhammad](/wiki/Al-Nasir_Muhammad \"Al-Nasir Muhammad\") and his deputy attended the open meeting.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=10}} Ibn Taymiyya was found innocent.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=10}} Despite the open meeting, objections regarding his creed continued and he was summoned to the Citadel in Cairo for a *munazara* (legal debate), which took place on April 8, 1306\\. During the *munazara*, his views on divine attributes, specifically whether a direction could be attributed to God, were debated by the Indian scholar Safi al\\-Din al\\-Hindi, in the presence of Islamic judges.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=11}}{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya failed to convince the judges of his position and so was incarcerated for the charge of anthropomorphism on the recommendation of al\\-Hindi.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=11}}{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Thereafter, he together with his two brothers were imprisoned in the Citadel of the Mountain (*Qal'at al\\-Jabal*), in Cairo until September 25, 1307\\.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=VII}}{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=11}} He was freed due to the help he received from two *amirs*; [Salar](/wiki/Sayf_al-Din_Salar \"Sayf al-Din Salar\") and [Muhanna ibn Isa](/wiki/Muhanna_ibn_Isa \"Muhanna ibn Isa\"), but he was not allowed to go back to Syria.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} He was then again summoned for a legal debate, but this time he convinced the judges that his views were correct and he was allowed to go free.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=11}}", "#### His trial for intercession and his imprisonment", "[300px\\|thumb\\|[Citadel of Cairo](/wiki/Citadel_of_Cairo \"Citadel of Cairo\"), the place where Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned for 18 months](/wiki/File:Porte_de_la_citadelle_et_mosquee_Mouhammed_Aly.jpg \"Porte de la citadelle et mosquee Mouhammed Aly.jpg\")\nIbn Taymiyya continued to face troubles for his views which were found to be at odds with those of his contemporaries. His strong opposition to what he believed to be religious innovations, caused upset among the prominent Sufis of Egypt including [Ibn Ata Allah](/wiki/Ibn_Ata_Allah \"Ibn Ata Allah\") and Karim al\\-Din al\\-Amuli, and the locals who started to protest against him.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Their main contention was Ibn Taymiyya's stance on [tawassul (intercession)](/wiki/Tawassul \"Tawassul\").{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} In his view, a person could not ask anyone other than God for help except on the [Day of Judgement](/wiki/Day_of_Judgement \"Day of Judgement\") when intercession in his view would be possible. At the time, the people did not restrict intercession to just the Day of Judgement but rather they said it was allowed in other cases. Due to this, Ibn Taymiyya, now aged 45, was ordered to appear before the Shafi'i judge Badr al\\-Din in March 1308 and was questioned on his stance regarding intercession.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Thereafter, he was incarcerated in the prison of the judges in Cairo for some months.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} After his release, he was allowed to return to Syria, should he so wish.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya however stayed in Egypt for a further five years.", "#### House arrest in Alexandria", "1309, the year after his release, saw a new Mamluk sultan accede to the throne, [Baibars al\\-Jashnakir](/wiki/Baibars_II \"Baibars II\"). His reign, marked by economical and political unrest, only lasted a year.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} In August 1309, Ibn Taymiyya was taken into custody and placed under house arrest for seven months in the new sultan's palace in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\").{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} He was freed when al\\-Nasir Muhammad retook the position of sultan on March 4, 1310\\.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Having returned to Cairo a week later, he was received by al\\-Nasir.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} The sultan would sometimes consult Ibn Taymiyya on religious affairs and policies during the rest of his three\\-year stay in Cairo.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} During this time he continued to teach and wrote his famous book Al\\-*Kitab al\\-Siyasa al\\-shar'iyya* *(Treatise on the Government of the Religious Law)*, a book noted for its account of the role of religion in politics.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Fifty Key Figures in Islam\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/fiftykeyfiguresi00jack\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Jackson\\|first\\=Roy\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-35468\\-4 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/fiftykeyfiguresi00jack/page/n146 130]}}{{cite book\\|title\\=New Political Religions, Or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/newpoliticalreli00coop\\_700\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Cooper\\|first\\=Barry\\|publisher\\=University of Missouri Press\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8262\\-1621\\-2 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/newpoliticalreli00coop\\_700/page/n109 96]–97}}", "### Return to Damascus and later years", "He spent his last fifteen years in Damascus. Aged 50, Ibn Taymiyya returned to Damascus via Jerusalem on February 28, 1313\\.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Damascus was now under the governorship of [Tankiz](/wiki/Tankiz \"Tankiz\"). There, Ibn Taymiyya continued his teaching role as professor of Hanbali fiqh. This is when he taught his most famous student, [Ibn Qayyim Al\\-Jawziyya](/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_Al-Jawziyya \"Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya\"), who went on to become a noted scholar in Islamic history.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Qayyim was to share in Ibn Taymiyya's renewed persecution.", "Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyya became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} An agreement had been made in 1316 between the *amir* of [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") and the Ilkhanid ruler [Öljaitü](/wiki/%C3%96ljait%C3%BC \"Öljaitü\"), brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in the city.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Around the same time the Shia theologian [Al\\-Hilli](/wiki/Allamah_Al-Hilli \"Allamah Al-Hilli\"), who had played a crucial role in the Mongol ruler's decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia,{{cite book\\|title\\=Islam: The Key Concepts \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/islamkeyconcepts00alik \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|last\\=Ali \\|first\\=Kecia \\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-39639\\-4 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/islamkeyconcepts00alik/page/n141 125]}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Rationalism in the School of Bahrain: A Historical Perspective, in Shīʻite Heritage: Essays on Classical and Modern Traditions \\|last\\=Clarke\\|first\\=Lynda\\|publisher\\=Global Academic Publishing\\|year\\=2001 \\|page\\=336}} wrote the book [*Minhaj al\\-Karamah*](/wiki/Minhaj_al-karamah \"Minhaj al-karamah\") *(*The Way of Charisma'), which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the [Imamate](/wiki/Imamate_%28Twelver_doctrine%29 \"Imamate (Twelver doctrine)\") and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the [caliphate](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\").{{cite book\\|title\\=The Formation of the Classical Tafsīr Tradition\\|last\\=A. Saleh \\|first\\=Walid\\|publisher\\=Brill Academic Pub\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=978\\-9004127777 \\|page\\=220}} In response, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his famous book, *[Minhaj as\\-Sunnah an\\-Nabawiyyah](/wiki/Minhaj_as-Sunnah_an-Nabawiyyah \"Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah\")*, as a refutation of Al\\-Hilli's work.{{cite book\\|title\\=Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion\\|last\\=N. Keaney\\|first\\=Heather\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-82852\\-9 \\|page\\=108}}", "#### His fatwa on divorce and imprisonment", "In 1318, Ibn Taymiyya wrote a treatise that would curtail the ease with which a Muslim man could [divorce](/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam \"Divorce in Islam\") his wife. Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on divorce was not accepted by the majority of scholars of the time and this continued into the [Ottoman era](/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate \"Ottoman Caliphate\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Ibn Taymiyya and His Times\\|last\\=Saleh\\|first\\=Walid\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2010\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-547834\\-1 \\|chapter\\=Ibn Tayimiyah and the Rise of Radical Hermeneutics: An Analysis of \"An Introduction to the Foundation of Quranic Exegesis}} However, almost every modern Muslim nation\\-state has come to adopt Ibn Taymiyya's position on this issue of divorce. At the time he issued the fatwa, Ibn Taymiyya revived an edict by the sultan not to issue fatwas on this issue but he continued to do so, saying, \"I cannot conceal my knowledge\".{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} As in previous instances, he stated that his fatwa was based on the Qur'an and hadith. His view on the issue was at odds with the Hanbali position.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} This proved controversial among the people in Damascus as well as the Islamic scholars who opposed him on the issue.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/mamluksegyptians00wint\\_184\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Winter\\|first\\=Michael\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=978\\-9004132863\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/mamluksegyptians00wint\\_184/page/n213 191]–220}}", "According to the scholars of the time, an oath of divorce counted as a full divorce and they were also of the view that three oaths of divorce taken under one occasion counted as three separate divorces. The significance of this was, that a man who divorces the same partner three times is no longer allowed to remarry that person until and if that person marries and divorces another person. Only then could the man, who took the oath, remarry his previous wife. Ibn Taymiyya accepted this but rejected the validity of three oaths taken under one sitting to count as three separate divorces as long as the intention was not to divorce. Moreover, Ibn Taymiyya was of the view that a single oath of divorce uttered but not intended, also does not count as an actual divorce.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} He stated that since this is an oath much like an oath taken in the name of God, a person must expiate for an unintentional oath in a similar manner.", "Due to his views and also by not abiding to the sultan's letter two years before forbidding him from issuing a fatwa on the issue, three council hearings were held, in as many years (1318, 1319 and 1320\\), to deal with this matter.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} The hearing were overseen by the Viceroy of Syria, Tankiz.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} This resulted in Ibn Taymiyya being imprisoned on August 26, 1320, in the [Citadel of Damascus](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus \"Citadel of Damascus\").{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} He was released about five months and 18 days later,{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} on February 9, 1321, by order of the Sultan Al\\-Nasir.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Ibn Taymiyya was reinstated as teacher of Hanbali law and he resumed teaching.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}}", "#### His risāla on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment", "In 1310, Ibn Taymiyya had written a *[risāla](/wiki/Risalah_%28fiqh%29 \"Risalah (fiqh)\")* (treatise) called *Ziyārat al\\-Qubūr*{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} or according to another source, *Shadd al\\-rihal*.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} It dealt with the validity and permissibility of making a journey to visit the tombs of prophets and [saints](/wiki/Wali \"Wali\").{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} It is reported that in the book \"he condemned the cult of saints\"{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} and declared that traveling with the sole purpose of visiting [Muhammad's grave](/wiki/Muhammad%27s_Tomb \"Muhammad's Tomb\") was a blameworthy religious innovation.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/cp/CP2\\.pdf\\|title\\=From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction: The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis\\|last1\\=Beranek\\|first1\\=Ondrej\\|last2\\=Tupek\\|first2\\=Pavel\\|date\\=July 2009\\|publisher\\=Brandeis University. Crown Center for Middle East Studies.\\|editor\\-last\\=Sohrabi\\|editor\\-first\\=Naghmeh\\|series\\=Crown Paper (Crown Center for Middle East Studies/Brandeis University)\\|page\\=11\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810233401/https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/cp/CP2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-10\\|url\\-status\\=live}} For this, Ibn Taymiyya, was imprisoned in the Citadel of Damascus sixteen years later on July 18, 1326, aged 63, along with his student Ibn Qayyim.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} The sultan also prohibited him from issuing any further fatwas.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=12}} Hanbali scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al\\-Maqdisi accused Ibn Taymiyya of apostasy over the treatise.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Zargar\\|first1\\=Cameron\\|title\\=The Hanbali and Wahhabi Schools of Thought As Observed Through the Case of Ziyārah\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=Ohio State University\\|pages\\=33–34\\|url\\=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send\\_file?accession\\=osu1398829915\\&disposition\\=inline\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519204346/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send\\_file?accession\\=osu1398829915\\&disposition\\=inline\\|archive\\-date\\=May 19, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "#### His life in prison", "[300px\\|thumb\\|right\\|The [Citadel of Damascus](/wiki/Citadel_of_Damascus \"Citadel of Damascus\"), the prison which Ibn Taymiyya died in](/wiki/File:Damaskus4.jpg \"Damaskus4.jpg\")\nIbn Taymiyya referred to his imprisonment as \"a divine blessing\". During his incarceration, he wrote that, \"when a scholar forsakes what he knows of the Book of God and of the *sunnah* of His messenger and follows the ruling of a ruler which contravenes a ruling of God and his messenger, he is a renegade, an unbeliever who deserves to be punished in this world and in the hereafter.\"", "During his imprisonment, he encountered opposition from the Maliki and Shafi'i Chief Justices of Damascus, Taḳī al\\-Dīn al\\-Ikhnāʾī.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} He remained in prison for over two years and ignored the sultan's prohibition, by continuing to deliver fatwas.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} During his incarceration Ibn Taymiyya wrote three works which are extant; *Kitāb Maʿārif al\\-wuṣūl, Rafʿ al\\-malām*, and *Kitāb al\\-Radd ʿala 'l\\-Ikhnāʾī* (The response to al\\-Ikhnāʾī).{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} The last book was an attack on Taḳī al\\-Dīn al\\-Ikhnāʾī and explained his views on saints (wali).{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}}", "When the Mongols invaded Syria in 1300, he was among those who called for a Jihad against them and he ruled that even though they had recently converted to Islam, they should be considered unbelievers. He went to Egypt in order to acquire support for his cause and while he was there, he got embroiled in religious\\-political disputes. Ibn Taymiyya's enemies accused him of advocating [anthropomorphism](/wiki/Anthropomorphism \"Anthropomorphism\"), a view that was objectionable to the teachings of the [Ash'ari](/wiki/Ash%27ari \"Ash'ari\") school of Islamic theology, and in 1306, he was imprisoned for more than a year. Upon his release, he condemned popular Sufi practices and he also condemned the influence of [Ibn Arabi](/wiki/Ibn_Arabi \"Ibn Arabi\") (d. 1240\\), causing him to earn the enmity of leading Sufi shaykhs in Egypt and causing him to serve another prison sentence. In 1310, he was released by the Egyptian Sultan.", "In 1313, the Sultan allowed Ibn Taymiyya to return to Damascus, where he worked as a teacher and a jurist. He had supporters among the powerful, but his outspokenness and his nonconformity to traditional Sunni doctrines and his denunciation of Sufi ideals and practices continued to draw the wrath of the religious and political authorities in Syria and Egypt. He was arrested and released several more times, but while he was in prison, he was allowed to write Fatwas (advisory opinions on matters of law) in defense of his beliefs. Despite the controversy that surrounded him, Ibn Taymiyya's influence grew and it spread from Hanbali circles to members of other Sunni legal schools and Sufi groups. Among his foremost students were Ibn Kathir (d. 1373\\), a leading medieval historian and a Quran commentator, and Ibn Qayyim al\\-Jawziya (d. 1350\\), a prominent Hanbali jurist and a theologian who helped spread his teacher's influence after his teacher's death in 1328\\. Ibn Taymiyya died while he was a prisoner in the citadel of Damascus and he was buried in the city's Sufi cemetery.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Campo\\|first\\=Juan Eduardo\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OZbyz\\_Hr\\-eIC\\&q\\=When\\+the\\+Mongols\\+invaded\\+syria\\+in\\+1300%2C\\+he\\+\\+was\\+among\\+those\\+calling\\+for\\+Jihad\\+against\\+them\\+\\+and\\+ruled\\+that\\+even\\+though\\+they\\+had\\+recently\\+\\+converted\\+to\\+Islam%2C\\+they\\+should\\+be\\+considered\\+\\+unbelievers.\\+He\\+went\\+to\\+egypt\\+to\\+win\\+support\\+\\+to\\+this\\+cause\\+and\\+became\\+embroiled\\+in\\+religio\\-\\+political\\+disputes\\+there.\\+Ibn\\+Taymiyya%E2%80%99s\\+enemies\\+\\+accused\\+him\\+of\\+anthropomorphism%2C\\+a\\+view\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Islam\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4381\\-2696\\-8\\|page\\=340}}", "### Death", "He fell ill in early September 1328 and died at the age of 65, on September 26 of that year, whilst in prison at the Citadel of Damascus.{{sfn\\|Laoust\\|2012}} Once this news reached the public, there was a strong show of support for him from the people.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} After the authorities had given permission, it is reported that thousands of people came to show their respects.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} They gathered in the Citadel and lined the streets up to the [Umayyad Mosque](/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque \"Umayyad Mosque\").{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} The [funeral prayer](/wiki/Janaza \"Janaza\") was held in the citadel by scholar Muhammad Tammam, and a second was held in the mosque.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} A third and final funeral prayer was held by Ibn Taymiyya's brother, Zain al\\-Din.{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} He was buried in Damascus, in *Maqbara Sufiyya* (\"the cemetery of the Sufis\"). His brother Sharafuddin had been buried in that cemetery before him.George Makdisi, *A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order*, p. 123\\.Juan Eduardo Campo, *Encyclopedia of Islam*, p 340\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-4381\\-2696\\-4}}{{sfn\\|Haque\\|1982\\|p\\=15}}", "Oliver Leaman says that being deprived of the means of writing led to Ibn Taymiyya's death. It is reported that two hundred thousand men and fifteen to sixteen thousand women attended his funeral prayer.{{cite book\\|title\\=Majallat al\\-Majma' al\\-'Ilmi al\\-'Arabi bi\\-Dimashq\\|last\\=\\`Anhuri\\|first\\=Salim \\|pages\\=11, 193\\|volume\\=27}} Ibn Kathir says that in the history of Islam, only the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal received a larger attendance. This is also mentioned by Ibn \\`Abd al\\-Hadi. Caterina Bori says that, \"In the Islamic tradition, wider popular attendance at funerals was a mark of public reverence, a demonstration of the deceased's rectitude, and a sign of divine approbation.\"", "Ibn Taymiyya is said to have \"spent a lifetime objecting to tomb veneration, only to cast a more powerful posthumous spell than any of his Sufi contemporaries.\" On his death, his personal effects were in such demand \"that bidders for his lice\\-killing camphor necklace pushed its price up to 150 dirhams, and his skullcap fetched a full 500\\.\" A few mourners sought and succeeded in \"drinking the water used for bathing his corpse.\"Laoust, Henri, *Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki\\-d\\-Din Ahmad b Timiya*, Cairo, 1939, pp.149–50 His tomb received \"pilgrims and sightseers\" for 600 years.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Kadri\\|first1\\=Sadakat\\|title\\=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia …\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=macmillan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-09\\-952327\\-7\\|page\\=135\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\\&q\\=Heaven\\+on\\+Earth:\\+A\\+Journey\\+Through\\+Shari%27a\\+Law\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701104304/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\\&printsec\\=frontcover\\&dq\\=Heaven\\+on\\+Earth%3A\\+A\\+Journey\\+Through\\+Shari%27a\\+Law\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=live}} His resting place is now \"in the parking lot of a maternity ward\", though as of 2009 its headstone was broken, according to author [Sadakat Kadri](/wiki/Sadakat_Kadri \"Sadakat Kadri\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Kadri\\|first1\\=Sadakat\\|title\\=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ...\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=macmillan\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-09\\-952327\\-7\\|pages\\=177–8\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\\&q\\=Heaven\\+on\\+Earth:\\+A\\+Journey\\+Through\\+Shari%27a\\+Law\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701104304/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ztCRZOhJ10wC\\&printsec\\=frontcover\\&dq\\=Heaven\\+on\\+Earth%3A\\+A\\+Journey\\+Through\\+Shari%27a\\+Law\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=live}}Yahya Michot, *\\[www.saphirnews.com/Pour\\-une\\-tombe\\-a\\-Damas\\_a4483\\.html Pour une tombe a Damas]*\\|Rédigé par Yahya Michot \\| Jeudi 21 Septembre 2006", "" ]
Plot ---- The sketch begins with a preamble by [Eric Idle](/wiki/Eric_Idle "Eric Idle") (impersonating the British film critic [Philip Jenkinson](/wiki/Philip_Jenkinson "Philip Jenkinson")), who praises American film director [Sam Peckinpah's](/wiki/Sam_Peckinpah "Sam Peckinpah") predilection for the "utterly truthful and very [sexually arousing](/wiki/Sexual_arousal "Sexual arousal") portrayal of violence *\[sniff]* in its starkest form" in *[Major Dundee](/wiki/Major_Dundee "Major Dundee")* (1965\), *[The Wild Bunch](/wiki/The_Wild_Bunch "The Wild Bunch")* (1969\) and *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 "Straw Dogs (1971 film)")* (1971\). Throughout this speech, he constantly sniffs, despite onscreen captions telling him to stop. He then segues to a clip from Peckinpah's latest project, which is an adaptation of the musical *[Salad Days](/wiki/Salad_Days_%28musical%29 "Salad Days (musical)")*. Well\-dressed, well\-spoken, [upper\-class](/wiki/Upper-class "Upper-class") youngsters frolic in an idyllic garden around an [upright piano](/wiki/Upright_piano "Upright piano"), responding enthusiastically to [Michael Palin](/wiki/Michael_Palin "Michael Palin")'s suggestion of a game of [tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis"). Things go awry when Palin is struck in the face by the [ball](/wiki/Tennis_ball "Tennis ball"), causing blood to seep through his fingers. He reflexively flings his [racquet](/wiki/Racket_%28sports_equipment%29 "Racket (sports equipment)") out of shot; we then see that it has become embedded in the stomach of a pretty girl (Nicki Howorth), who faints, tearing off Idle's arm in the process. Idle staggers across to the piano and slams down the lid, severing both hands of the pianist ([John Cleese](/wiki/John_Cleese "John Cleese")). The piano then collapses in slow motion, intercut with shots of screaming women, who are crushed to death. Somehow, [Graham Chapman](/wiki/Graham_Chapman "Graham Chapman") gets impaled by the piano keyboard, which slices off a woman's head when he turns around. The sketch then cuts back to the studio, prompting Idle to smugly remark "Pretty strong meat there from *\[sniff]* Sam Peckinpah!" before he is gunned down in [slow motion](/wiki/Slow_motion "Slow motion"), with [much spurting blood](/wiki/Blood_squirt "Blood squirt") (and the caption "Tee Hee"). The end credits roll over his dying agonies, before a serious\-sounding Cleese reads an apology to everyone in the entire world (which states that "they didn't mean it"), and that while they all came from [broken homes](/wiki/Single_parent "Single parent") and have very unhappy personal lives (especially Eric), they are actually nice, warm people underneath and urging the viewers not to write or phone complaints about the sketch since the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") is going through an unhappy phase due to its father dying ([Lord Reith](/wiki/John_Reith%2C_1st_Baron_Reith "John Reith, 1st Baron Reith") had indeed died the previous year) "and [BBC 2](/wiki/BBC_2 "BBC 2") going out with men". A second voiceover by Idle disputes the first voiceover and mentions that the BBC is "very happy at home" and that the "BBC 2 is bound to go through this phase". This is followed by [Richard Baker](/wiki/Richard_Baker_%28broadcaster%29 "Richard Baker (broadcaster)") in a news desk reporting the news (which is filled with [running jokes](/wiki/Running_gag "Running gag") from the preceding sketches, such as the phrase *Lemon Curry*), then by a deliberately tranquil final scene of waves crashing against a shore. Cleese briefly walks into shot in a [Conquistador](/wiki/Conquistador "Conquistador") costume, explaining that the beach scene was added to fill in time and apologising for the lack of any more jokes.
[ "Plot\n----", "The sketch begins with a preamble by [Eric Idle](/wiki/Eric_Idle \"Eric Idle\") (impersonating the British film critic [Philip Jenkinson](/wiki/Philip_Jenkinson \"Philip Jenkinson\")), who praises American film director [Sam Peckinpah's](/wiki/Sam_Peckinpah \"Sam Peckinpah\") predilection for the \"utterly truthful and very [sexually arousing](/wiki/Sexual_arousal \"Sexual arousal\") portrayal of violence *\\[sniff]* in its starkest form\" in *[Major Dundee](/wiki/Major_Dundee \"Major Dundee\")* (1965\\), *[The Wild Bunch](/wiki/The_Wild_Bunch \"The Wild Bunch\")* (1969\\) and *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 \"Straw Dogs (1971 film)\")* (1971\\). Throughout this speech, he constantly sniffs, despite onscreen captions telling him to stop. He then segues to a clip from Peckinpah's latest project, which is an adaptation of the musical *[Salad Days](/wiki/Salad_Days_%28musical%29 \"Salad Days (musical)\")*.", "Well\\-dressed, well\\-spoken, [upper\\-class](/wiki/Upper-class \"Upper-class\") youngsters frolic in an idyllic garden around an [upright piano](/wiki/Upright_piano \"Upright piano\"), responding enthusiastically to [Michael Palin](/wiki/Michael_Palin \"Michael Palin\")'s suggestion of a game of [tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\"). Things go awry when Palin is struck in the face by the [ball](/wiki/Tennis_ball \"Tennis ball\"), causing blood to seep through his fingers. He reflexively flings his [racquet](/wiki/Racket_%28sports_equipment%29 \"Racket (sports equipment)\") out of shot; we then see that it has become embedded in the stomach of a pretty girl (Nicki Howorth), who faints, tearing off Idle's arm in the process. Idle staggers across to the piano and slams down the lid, severing both hands of the pianist ([John Cleese](/wiki/John_Cleese \"John Cleese\")). The piano then collapses in slow motion, intercut with shots of screaming women, who are crushed to death. Somehow, [Graham Chapman](/wiki/Graham_Chapman \"Graham Chapman\") gets impaled by the piano keyboard, which slices off a woman's head when he turns around.", "The sketch then cuts back to the studio, prompting Idle to smugly remark \"Pretty strong meat there from *\\[sniff]* Sam Peckinpah!\" before he is gunned down in [slow motion](/wiki/Slow_motion \"Slow motion\"), with [much spurting blood](/wiki/Blood_squirt \"Blood squirt\") (and the caption \"Tee Hee\").", "The end credits roll over his dying agonies, before a serious\\-sounding Cleese reads an apology to everyone in the entire world (which states that \"they didn't mean it\"), and that while they all came from [broken homes](/wiki/Single_parent \"Single parent\") and have very unhappy personal lives (especially Eric), they are actually nice, warm people underneath and urging the viewers not to write or phone complaints about the sketch since the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") is going through an unhappy phase due to its father dying ([Lord Reith](/wiki/John_Reith%2C_1st_Baron_Reith \"John Reith, 1st Baron Reith\") had indeed died the previous year) \"and [BBC 2](/wiki/BBC_2 \"BBC 2\") going out with men\". A second voiceover by Idle disputes the first voiceover and mentions that the BBC is \"very happy at home\" and that the \"BBC 2 is bound to go through this phase\".", "This is followed by [Richard Baker](/wiki/Richard_Baker_%28broadcaster%29 \"Richard Baker (broadcaster)\") in a news desk reporting the news (which is filled with [running jokes](/wiki/Running_gag \"Running gag\") from the preceding sketches, such as the phrase *Lemon Curry*), then by a deliberately tranquil final scene of waves crashing against a shore. Cleese briefly walks into shot in a [Conquistador](/wiki/Conquistador \"Conquistador\") costume, explaining that the beach scene was added to fill in time and apologising for the lack of any more jokes.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- ### "Ranetki Girls" (2005–2008\) In 2005–2008 she was the vocalist and drummer of the band "Ranetki", and also starred in the television series of the same name produced by the [STS](/wiki/STS_%28TV_channel%29 "STS (TV channel)") channel. The band participated in the tv\-shows "Make kids" on [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV") and "5 stars" on [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia "Channel One Russia"). In 2006, the group recorded the first album "Ranetki" ("Ранетки") (Label "Megaliner Records"). In the same year she took part in the recording of the album "Lords of the Universe" ("Властелины Вселенной") of the Moscow punk rock band "[Tarakany!](/wiki/Tarakany%21 "Tarakany!")" ("Тараканы!").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.ranetkimusic.ru/ \|title\=RanetkiMusic.ru \|access\-date\=3 November 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908032727/http://www.ranetkimusic.ru/ \|archive\-date\=8 September 2009 \|url\-status\=dead }} In 2008 participated in the recording of singles for the second album "Our Time Has Come" ("Пришло наше время"). According to the results of 2008, she received the People's Prize of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") in the nomination "Discovery of the Year".{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.telezvezda.org/telezvezdu \|title\=Победители Народной Премии «Телезвезда». Сезон 2008\. \|access\-date\=2 July 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608012743/http://www.telezvezda.org/telezvezdu \|archive\-date\=8 June 2009 \|url\-status\=dead }} 1 November 2008 Lera gave the last concert as part of the band "Ranetki", which is in the [Luzhniki Palace of Sports](/wiki/Luzhniki_Palace_of_Sports "Luzhniki Palace of Sports"). 2 November 2008 it was revealed that Lera had left "Ranetki", under pressure of former boyfriend, producer [Sergey Milnichenko](/wiki/Sergey_Milnichenko "Sergey Milnichenko"). ### Solo career: "LeRa", "LERALERA" (2009–2011\) In 2009, she began a solo career under the pseudonym "LeRa" ("ЛеРа"). Gela Romanovsky became her producer. The first LeRa recital took place on 20 February 2009 in [Samara](/wiki/Samara "Samara") (Russia). In the fall, the premiere of the debut album was expected which has been given the tentative title "My Summer Rain" ("Мой Летний Дождь"), but the release never took place. At the end of 2009, she took up the solo project "LERALERA" under the production of Yuri Bardash (label "KRUZHEVA Music"). In the same year, Lera starred in the video of the band [Quest Pistols](/wiki/Quest_Pistols_Show "Quest Pistols Show") for the song "He Is Near" ("Он Рядом"). In 2010, clips were released for the songs "She\-Wolf" ("Волчица"), "Unpleasant" ("Неприятно"), "Safe Sex" ("Безопасный Секс"). In June 2010, a new debut album entitled "Give Me A Sign" ("Дай Мне Знак") was released. The album was released on 7 July 2010 in Ukraine. The album was released in Russia in December 2010\. In the same year, the release of the game "LERALERA. Beginner's Star School" ("LERALERA. Школа начинающей звезды"). In 2010, after season 5, Lera left the series "Ranetki". In July 2011, together with the bands "Nerves" and "Khaki" ("Хаки") went on a joint tour "Summer, swim trunks, rock 'n' roll!" ("Лето, плавки, рок\-н\-ролл!"). In 2011, at the "OOPS" magazine party, Lera announced the closure of the "LERALERA" project and her departure from the scene. ### "5sta Family" (2015–2017\) On 23 May 2015, members of the band "5sta Family" reported that Lera became the new vocalist instead of [Yulianna Karaulova](/wiki/Yulianna_Karaulova "Yulianna Karaulova"). On 8 July, the single "Aptly" ("Метко") was released, which became a presentation for Lera in the band. 21 January 2016 released the second single "Erasing the Borders" ("Стирая границы"). On 6 May 2016, the single "5sta Family" "T\-shirt" ("Футболка") was released, and on 24 May a clip. On 24 January 2017, the single "5sta Family" "Vesuvius" ("Везувий") was released. On 30 April, the single and clip "5sta Family" "High\-Rises" ("Многоэтажки") was released. On 5 November, on her [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram"), Valeria announced that on 2 December in [Nizhny Novgorod](/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod "Nizhny Novgorod"), the last concert with her participation as part of the band "5sta Family" will be held. ### "KURAGA" (2017–2019\) In May 2017, former members of the band "Ranetki" created the YouTube channel *KURAGA*, dedicated to their life after the end of the group. In parallel with this, the girls began work on the reunion of the band (consisting of Kozlova, [Tretyakova](/wiki/Lena_Tretyakova "Lena Tretyakova"), Ogurtsova, Baydavletova, Rudneva). Later, the latter refused to participate in the reunion. The project also began to have problems due to threats from the former producer of the band "Ranetki" [Sergey Milnichenko](/wiki/Sergey_Milnichenko "Sergey Milnichenko"). On 29 June 2019, Lera performed at the festival "Generation NEXT" as part of the ex\-"Ranetki". ### "NYUTA\&LERA" (2019–2020\) On 8 November 2019, Lera announced the creation of a musical duet called "NYUTA\&LERA" together with Anna "Nyuta" Baydavletova under the label "[Warner Music Russia](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group "Warner Music Group")". On 14 February 2020, the first song "My Boy" was premiered. In the summer of 2020, Baidavletova announced on her Instagram page the closure of the project on her own initiative.
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "### \"Ranetki Girls\" (2005–2008\\)", "In 2005–2008 she was the vocalist and drummer of the band \"Ranetki\", and also starred in the television series of the same name produced by the [STS](/wiki/STS_%28TV_channel%29 \"STS (TV channel)\") channel. The band participated in the tv\\-shows \"Make kids\" on [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\") and \"5 stars\" on [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia \"Channel One Russia\").", "In 2006, the group recorded the first album \"Ranetki\" (\"Ранетки\") (Label \"Megaliner Records\"). In the same year she took part in the recording of the album \"Lords of the Universe\" (\"Властелины Вселенной\") of the Moscow punk rock band \"[Tarakany!](/wiki/Tarakany%21 \"Tarakany!\")\" (\"Тараканы!\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ranetkimusic.ru/ \\|title\\=RanetkiMusic.ru \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908032727/http://www.ranetkimusic.ru/ \\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In 2008 participated in the recording of singles for the second album \"Our Time Has Come\" (\"Пришло наше время\").", "According to the results of 2008, she received the People's Prize of [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") in the nomination \"Discovery of the Year\".{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.telezvezda.org/telezvezdu \\|title\\=Победители Народной Премии «Телезвезда». Сезон 2008\\. \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608012743/http://www.telezvezda.org/telezvezdu \\|archive\\-date\\=8 June 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "1 November 2008 Lera gave the last concert as part of the band \"Ranetki\", which is in the [Luzhniki Palace of Sports](/wiki/Luzhniki_Palace_of_Sports \"Luzhniki Palace of Sports\"). 2 November 2008 it was revealed that Lera had left \"Ranetki\", under pressure of former boyfriend, producer [Sergey Milnichenko](/wiki/Sergey_Milnichenko \"Sergey Milnichenko\").", "### Solo career: \"LeRa\", \"LERALERA\" (2009–2011\\)", "In 2009, she began a solo career under the pseudonym \"LeRa\" (\"ЛеРа\"). Gela Romanovsky became her producer. The first LeRa recital took place on 20 February 2009 in [Samara](/wiki/Samara \"Samara\") (Russia). In the fall, the premiere of the debut album was expected which has been given the tentative title \"My Summer Rain\" (\"Мой Летний Дождь\"), but the release never took place.", "At the end of 2009, she took up the solo project \"LERALERA\" under the production of Yuri Bardash (label \"KRUZHEVA Music\"). In the same year, Lera starred in the video of the band [Quest Pistols](/wiki/Quest_Pistols_Show \"Quest Pistols Show\") for the song \"He Is Near\" (\"Он Рядом\"). In 2010, clips were released for the songs \"She\\-Wolf\" (\"Волчица\"), \"Unpleasant\" (\"Неприятно\"), \"Safe Sex\" (\"Безопасный Секс\").", "In June 2010, a new debut album entitled \"Give Me A Sign\" (\"Дай Мне Знак\") was released. The album was released on 7 July 2010 in Ukraine. The album was released in Russia in December 2010\\. In the same year, the release of the game \"LERALERA. Beginner's Star School\" (\"LERALERA. Школа начинающей звезды\").", "In 2010, after season 5, Lera left the series \"Ranetki\". In July 2011, together with the bands \"Nerves\" and \"Khaki\" (\"Хаки\") went on a joint tour \"Summer, swim trunks, rock 'n' roll!\" (\"Лето, плавки, рок\\-н\\-ролл!\").", "In 2011, at the \"OOPS\" magazine party, Lera announced the closure of the \"LERALERA\" project and her departure from the scene.", "### \"5sta Family\" (2015–2017\\)", "On 23 May 2015, members of the band \"5sta Family\" reported that Lera became the new vocalist instead of [Yulianna Karaulova](/wiki/Yulianna_Karaulova \"Yulianna Karaulova\"). On 8 July, the single \"Aptly\" (\"Метко\") was released, which became a presentation for Lera in the band.", "21 January 2016 released the second single \"Erasing the Borders\" (\"Стирая границы\").", "On 6 May 2016, the single \"5sta Family\" \"T\\-shirt\" (\"Футболка\") was released, and on 24 May a clip.", "On 24 January 2017, the single \"5sta Family\" \"Vesuvius\" (\"Везувий\") was released.", "On 30 April, the single and clip \"5sta Family\" \"High\\-Rises\" (\"Многоэтажки\") was released.", "On 5 November, on her [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\"), Valeria announced that on 2 December in [Nizhny Novgorod](/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod \"Nizhny Novgorod\"), the last concert with her participation as part of the band \"5sta Family\" will be held.", "### \"KURAGA\" (2017–2019\\)", "In May 2017, former members of the band \"Ranetki\" created the YouTube channel *KURAGA*, dedicated to their life after the end of the group. In parallel with this, the girls began work on the reunion of the band (consisting of Kozlova, [Tretyakova](/wiki/Lena_Tretyakova \"Lena Tretyakova\"), Ogurtsova, Baydavletova, Rudneva). Later, the latter refused to participate in the reunion. The project also began to have problems due to threats from the former producer of the band \"Ranetki\" [Sergey Milnichenko](/wiki/Sergey_Milnichenko \"Sergey Milnichenko\").", "On 29 June 2019, Lera performed at the festival \"Generation NEXT\" as part of the ex\\-\"Ranetki\".", "### \"NYUTA\\&LERA\" (2019–2020\\)", "On 8 November 2019, Lera announced the creation of a musical duet called \"NYUTA\\&LERA\" together with Anna \"Nyuta\" Baydavletova under the label \"[Warner Music Russia](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group \"Warner Music Group\")\". On 14 February 2020, the first song \"My Boy\" was premiered. In the summer of 2020, Baidavletova announced on her Instagram page the closure of the project on her own initiative.", "" ]
### Solo career: "LeRa", "LERALERA" (2009–2011\) In 2009, she began a solo career under the pseudonym "LeRa" ("ЛеРа"). Gela Romanovsky became her producer. The first LeRa recital took place on 20 February 2009 in [Samara](/wiki/Samara "Samara") (Russia). In the fall, the premiere of the debut album was expected which has been given the tentative title "My Summer Rain" ("Мой Летний Дождь"), but the release never took place. At the end of 2009, she took up the solo project "LERALERA" under the production of Yuri Bardash (label "KRUZHEVA Music"). In the same year, Lera starred in the video of the band [Quest Pistols](/wiki/Quest_Pistols_Show "Quest Pistols Show") for the song "He Is Near" ("Он Рядом"). In 2010, clips were released for the songs "She\-Wolf" ("Волчица"), "Unpleasant" ("Неприятно"), "Safe Sex" ("Безопасный Секс"). In June 2010, a new debut album entitled "Give Me A Sign" ("Дай Мне Знак") was released. The album was released on 7 July 2010 in Ukraine. The album was released in Russia in December 2010\. In the same year, the release of the game "LERALERA. Beginner's Star School" ("LERALERA. Школа начинающей звезды"). In 2010, after season 5, Lera left the series "Ranetki". In July 2011, together with the bands "Nerves" and "Khaki" ("Хаки") went on a joint tour "Summer, swim trunks, rock 'n' roll!" ("Лето, плавки, рок\-н\-ролл!"). In 2011, at the "OOPS" magazine party, Lera announced the closure of the "LERALERA" project and her departure from the scene.
[ "### Solo career: \"LeRa\", \"LERALERA\" (2009–2011\\)", "In 2009, she began a solo career under the pseudonym \"LeRa\" (\"ЛеРа\"). Gela Romanovsky became her producer. The first LeRa recital took place on 20 February 2009 in [Samara](/wiki/Samara \"Samara\") (Russia). In the fall, the premiere of the debut album was expected which has been given the tentative title \"My Summer Rain\" (\"Мой Летний Дождь\"), but the release never took place.", "At the end of 2009, she took up the solo project \"LERALERA\" under the production of Yuri Bardash (label \"KRUZHEVA Music\"). In the same year, Lera starred in the video of the band [Quest Pistols](/wiki/Quest_Pistols_Show \"Quest Pistols Show\") for the song \"He Is Near\" (\"Он Рядом\"). In 2010, clips were released for the songs \"She\\-Wolf\" (\"Волчица\"), \"Unpleasant\" (\"Неприятно\"), \"Safe Sex\" (\"Безопасный Секс\").", "In June 2010, a new debut album entitled \"Give Me A Sign\" (\"Дай Мне Знак\") was released. The album was released on 7 July 2010 in Ukraine. The album was released in Russia in December 2010\\. In the same year, the release of the game \"LERALERA. Beginner's Star School\" (\"LERALERA. Школа начинающей звезды\").", "In 2010, after season 5, Lera left the series \"Ranetki\". In July 2011, together with the bands \"Nerves\" and \"Khaki\" (\"Хаки\") went on a joint tour \"Summer, swim trunks, rock 'n' roll!\" (\"Лето, плавки, рок\\-н\\-ролл!\").", "In 2011, at the \"OOPS\" magazine party, Lera announced the closure of the \"LERALERA\" project and her departure from the scene.", "" ]
History ------- ### During the Second Republic Originally, the Moderate Republicans was a group of politicians, writers and journalists close to the newspaper *[Le National](/wiki/Le_National_%28Paris%29 "Le National (Paris)")*. After the [February Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848 "French Revolution of 1848") of 1848, they became the official majority group in the [Provisional Government](/wiki/French_Provisional_Government_of_1848 "French Provisional Government of 1848"){{cite book\|author\=Philippe Vigier\|title\=La Seconde République\|page\=127\|publisher\=PUF, coll. « « Que sais\-je ? » »\|date\=1967}} led by [Louis\-Eugène Cavaignac](/wiki/Louis-Eug%C3%A8ne_Cavaignac "Louis-Eugène Cavaignac"), [François Arago](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago "François Arago") and [Dupont de l'Eure](/wiki/Jacques-Charles_Dupont_de_l%27Eure "Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure") that became the official head of the government. Reputed to be the winners of the [1848 Constituent Assembly election](/wiki/1848_French_Constituent_Assembly_election "1848 French Constituent Assembly election"), the Moderate Republicans were strategically allied to [The Mountain](/wiki/The_Mountain_%281849%29 "The Mountain (1849)"), the [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") group, against the [monarchists](/wiki/Monarchism_in_France "Monarchism in France").{{cite book\|author\=Maurice Agulhon \|authorlink\=Maurice Agulhon \|title\=1848 ou l'apprentissage de la République\|page\=249\|publisher\=Éditions du Seuil\|date\=1973}} During this time, the Moderate Republicans were also divided in two groups, namely the Sleeping Republicans (active until the February Revolution) and the Morning\-after Republicans that opportunistically endorsed the new regime. The latter were the [Legitimists](/wiki/Legitimists "Legitimists") who hated the [Orléanist](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist "Orléanist") [July Monarchy](/wiki/July_Monarchy "July Monarchy") and the [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics "Catholics") who suffered until the [Louis Philippe I](/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I "Louis Philippe I")'s restrictions. After the 1848 election, the Moderate Republicans became the majority in the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28France%29 "National Assembly (France)"), but this group was composed mainly of Morning\-after Republicans with a temporary union.{{cite book\|author\=Quentin Deluermoz\|title\=Le crépuscule des révolutions\|page\=409\|publisher\=Éditions du Seuil\|date\=2012}} The formation of the [Executive Commission](/wiki/French_Executive_Commission_%281848%29 "French Executive Commission (1848)") was *de facto* dominated by the Moderate Republicans, with few concessions to the [socialists](/wiki/Socialism "Socialism"). However, after the [June Days uprising](/wiki/June_Days_uprising "June Days uprising") the opportunist group led by [Adolphe Thiers](/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers "Adolphe Thiers") started a hard politics against the socialists. The problems convinced the General [Louis\-Eugène Cavaignac](/wiki/Louis-Eug%C3%A8ne_Cavaignac "Louis-Eugène Cavaignac"), strong republican, to take over the Moderate Republicans, who was also the favourite candidate for the [incumbent presidential election](/wiki/1848_French_presidential_election "1848 French presidential election"). The internal conflict in the Moderate Republicans caused a division regarding the official candidate between Cavaignac and [Louis\-Napoléon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_III "Napoleon III"), but at the end chose to support Cavaignac. Bonaparte's victory in the presidential election of 1848 signalled the end of the Moderate Republicans government.{{cite book\|author\=Francis Démier\|title\=La France du XIXe siècle\|page\=602\|publisher\=Éditions du Seuil\|date\=2000}} The [legislative elections of 1849](/wiki/1849_French_legislative_election "1849 French legislative election") brought the Moderate Republicans' isolation as they obtained only 75 seats, down from 600 the previous year, losing to the conservative [Party of Order](/wiki/Party_of_Order "Party of Order"). The disown was massive. ### Under the Second Empire After 1849, the main opponents of the now commonly named Republicans were the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), for its [counter\-revolutionary](/wiki/Counter-revolutionary "Counter-revolutionary") and [reactionary](/wiki/Reactionary "Reactionary") ideas. However, Louis\-Napoléon Bonaparte was a strong supporter of [clericalism](/wiki/Clericalism "Clericalism") and the [Concordat of 1801](/wiki/Concordat_of_1801 "Concordat of 1801"). In this time, the Republicans and the [Bonapartists](/wiki/Bonapartists "Bonapartists") started a bitter rivalry. After the [coup d'état of 1851](/wiki/French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1851 "French coup d'état of 1851") and the proclamation of the [Second French Empire](/wiki/Second_French_Empire "Second French Empire"), Napoleon III (the official title of Louis\-Napoléon Bonaparte) repressed the Republicans, with 239 being imprisoned to [Cayenne](/wiki/Cayenne "Cayenne") and 6,000 of 10,000 people interned in military camps in [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") while some were guillotined or sentenced to house arrest in France. At the end, around 1,500 Republicans like [Victor Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo") were exiled from France. Despite the amnesty of 15 August 1859, some exiled Republicans never returned to France (like Hugo, former Montagnard [Ledru\-Rollin](/wiki/Alexandre_Auguste_Ledru-Rollin "Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin"), [Louis Blanc](/wiki/Louis_Blanc "Louis Blanc") and [Armand Barbès](/wiki/Armand_Barb%C3%A8s "Armand Barbès")). Hugo coined the expression "When [liberty](/wiki/Liberty "Liberty") returns, I will return". With the weakening of the French Empire, the Republicans returned to the political scene and took advantage of the [liberal](/wiki/Liberalism "Liberalism") laws of 1868 and some diplomatic difficulties. They became the official opposition group with the [Léon Gambetta](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta "Léon Gambetta")'s Belleville Agenda of 1869 based on [radical](/wiki/Radicalism_%28historical%29 "Radicalism (historical)"), [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism "Progressivism"), [laicist](/wiki/Laicist "Laicist") and [reformist](/wiki/Reformist "Reformist") goals. In the final years of the French Empire, the Republicans were divided in three factions: * The Moderates like [Émile Ollivier](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Ollivier "Émile Ollivier") that accepted Napoleon III's rule and the French Empire's ideas. * The Pragmatics, *de jure* aligned with the Empire, but *de facto* its enemies. * The Close Left, whom refused to vow loyalty to the French Empire and checked out of the political scene. The Republicans officially ended with the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune "Paris Commune") of 1871 and the consolidation of the [French Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic "French Third Republic") when its leaders started two different groups, namely the [Opportunist Republicans](/wiki/Opportunist_Republicans "Opportunist Republicans") (also called the Moderates) and the [Republican Union](/wiki/Republican_Union_%28France%29 "Republican Union (France)").
[ "History\n-------", "### During the Second Republic", "Originally, the Moderate Republicans was a group of politicians, writers and journalists close to the newspaper *[Le National](/wiki/Le_National_%28Paris%29 \"Le National (Paris)\")*. After the [February Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848 \"French Revolution of 1848\") of 1848, they became the official majority group in the [Provisional Government](/wiki/French_Provisional_Government_of_1848 \"French Provisional Government of 1848\"){{cite book\\|author\\=Philippe Vigier\\|title\\=La Seconde République\\|page\\=127\\|publisher\\=PUF, coll. « « Que sais\\-je ? » »\\|date\\=1967}} led by [Louis\\-Eugène Cavaignac](/wiki/Louis-Eug%C3%A8ne_Cavaignac \"Louis-Eugène Cavaignac\"), [François Arago](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago \"François Arago\") and [Dupont de l'Eure](/wiki/Jacques-Charles_Dupont_de_l%27Eure \"Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure\") that became the official head of the government. Reputed to be the winners of the [1848 Constituent Assembly election](/wiki/1848_French_Constituent_Assembly_election \"1848 French Constituent Assembly election\"), the Moderate Republicans were strategically allied to [The Mountain](/wiki/The_Mountain_%281849%29 \"The Mountain (1849)\"), the [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") group, against the [monarchists](/wiki/Monarchism_in_France \"Monarchism in France\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Maurice Agulhon \\|authorlink\\=Maurice Agulhon \\|title\\=1848 ou l'apprentissage de la République\\|page\\=249\\|publisher\\=Éditions du Seuil\\|date\\=1973}}", "During this time, the Moderate Republicans were also divided in two groups, namely the Sleeping Republicans (active until the February Revolution) and the Morning\\-after Republicans that opportunistically endorsed the new regime. The latter were the [Legitimists](/wiki/Legitimists \"Legitimists\") who hated the [Orléanist](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist \"Orléanist\") [July Monarchy](/wiki/July_Monarchy \"July Monarchy\") and the [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics \"Catholics\") who suffered until the [Louis Philippe I](/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I \"Louis Philippe I\")'s restrictions. After the 1848 election, the Moderate Republicans became the majority in the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28France%29 \"National Assembly (France)\"), but this group was composed mainly of Morning\\-after Republicans with a temporary union.{{cite book\\|author\\=Quentin Deluermoz\\|title\\=Le crépuscule des révolutions\\|page\\=409\\|publisher\\=Éditions du Seuil\\|date\\=2012}}", "The formation of the [Executive Commission](/wiki/French_Executive_Commission_%281848%29 \"French Executive Commission (1848)\") was *de facto* dominated by the Moderate Republicans, with few concessions to the [socialists](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\"). However, after the [June Days uprising](/wiki/June_Days_uprising \"June Days uprising\") the opportunist group led by [Adolphe Thiers](/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers \"Adolphe Thiers\") started a hard politics against the socialists. The problems convinced the General [Louis\\-Eugène Cavaignac](/wiki/Louis-Eug%C3%A8ne_Cavaignac \"Louis-Eugène Cavaignac\"), strong republican, to take over the Moderate Republicans, who was also the favourite candidate for the [incumbent presidential election](/wiki/1848_French_presidential_election \"1848 French presidential election\").", "The internal conflict in the Moderate Republicans caused a division regarding the official candidate between Cavaignac and [Louis\\-Napoléon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_III \"Napoleon III\"), but at the end chose to support Cavaignac. Bonaparte's victory in the presidential election of 1848 signalled the end of the Moderate Republicans government.{{cite book\\|author\\=Francis Démier\\|title\\=La France du XIXe siècle\\|page\\=602\\|publisher\\=Éditions du Seuil\\|date\\=2000}} The [legislative elections of 1849](/wiki/1849_French_legislative_election \"1849 French legislative election\") brought the Moderate Republicans' isolation as they obtained only 75 seats, down from 600 the previous year, losing to the conservative [Party of Order](/wiki/Party_of_Order \"Party of Order\"). The disown was massive.", "### Under the Second Empire", "After 1849, the main opponents of the now commonly named Republicans were the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), for its [counter\\-revolutionary](/wiki/Counter-revolutionary \"Counter-revolutionary\") and [reactionary](/wiki/Reactionary \"Reactionary\") ideas. However, Louis\\-Napoléon Bonaparte was a strong supporter of [clericalism](/wiki/Clericalism \"Clericalism\") and the [Concordat of 1801](/wiki/Concordat_of_1801 \"Concordat of 1801\"). In this time, the Republicans and the [Bonapartists](/wiki/Bonapartists \"Bonapartists\") started a bitter rivalry. After the [coup d'état of 1851](/wiki/French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1851 \"French coup d'état of 1851\") and the proclamation of the [Second French Empire](/wiki/Second_French_Empire \"Second French Empire\"), Napoleon III (the official title of Louis\\-Napoléon Bonaparte) repressed the Republicans, with 239 being imprisoned to [Cayenne](/wiki/Cayenne \"Cayenne\") and 6,000 of 10,000 people interned in military camps in [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\") while some were guillotined or sentenced to house arrest in France. At the end, around 1,500 Republicans like [Victor Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo \"Victor Hugo\") were exiled from France. Despite the amnesty of 15 August 1859, some exiled Republicans never returned to France (like Hugo, former Montagnard [Ledru\\-Rollin](/wiki/Alexandre_Auguste_Ledru-Rollin \"Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin\"), [Louis Blanc](/wiki/Louis_Blanc \"Louis Blanc\") and [Armand Barbès](/wiki/Armand_Barb%C3%A8s \"Armand Barbès\")). Hugo coined the expression \"When [liberty](/wiki/Liberty \"Liberty\") returns, I will return\".", "With the weakening of the French Empire, the Republicans returned to the political scene and took advantage of the [liberal](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\") laws of 1868 and some diplomatic difficulties. They became the official opposition group with the [Léon Gambetta](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta \"Léon Gambetta\")'s Belleville Agenda of 1869 based on [radical](/wiki/Radicalism_%28historical%29 \"Radicalism (historical)\"), [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism \"Progressivism\"), [laicist](/wiki/Laicist \"Laicist\") and [reformist](/wiki/Reformist \"Reformist\") goals. In the final years of the French Empire, the Republicans were divided in three factions:\n* The Moderates like [Émile Ollivier](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Ollivier \"Émile Ollivier\") that accepted Napoleon III's rule and the French Empire's ideas.\n* The Pragmatics, *de jure* aligned with the Empire, but *de facto* its enemies.\n* The Close Left, whom refused to vow loyalty to the French Empire and checked out of the political scene.", "The Republicans officially ended with the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune \"Paris Commune\") of 1871 and the consolidation of the [French Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic \"French Third Republic\") when its leaders started two different groups, namely the [Opportunist Republicans](/wiki/Opportunist_Republicans \"Opportunist Republicans\") (also called the Moderates) and the [Republican Union](/wiki/Republican_Union_%28France%29 \"Republican Union (France)\").", "" ]
Life ---- Although some sources ascribe precise dates and places of birth to ibn Faris, including 329 AH/941 CE in Kursuf, in the district of al\-Zahrāʾ, modern scholars conclude that this cannot be known. His father was Fāris ibn Zakariyyāʾ, who was perhaps a *faqīh* and who certainly gave ibn Fāris some of his education, passing on to him [ibn al\-Sikkīt](/wiki/Yaqub_Ibn_as-Sikkit "Yaqub Ibn as-Sikkit")'s *Kitāb* *al\-Manṭiq*. Ibn Fāris studied in [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin "Qazvin"), where his teachers included ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm al\-Qaṭṭān (d. 345/956\). He also studied in [Zanjān](/wiki/Zanjan%2C_Iran "Zanjan, Iran") (making the acquaintance of Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn al\-Khaṭīb), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), and, while undertaking [hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj"), in [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca"). Little is known about his family's origins or social status. According to his own account, his father was an educated man.Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, p. 194; Fleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (eds)\<[http://dx.doi.org/10\.1163/1573\-3912\_islam\_SIM\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\> [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\-of\-islam\-2/ibn\-faris\-SIM\_3162?lang\=en](https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-faris-SIM_3162?lang=en); Scholars have pointed to inconsistencies in Faris’ account, as written in one of his poems (*Yâkūt, Mu'cemü'l\-Üdebâ*, IV, 93\), on the basis that if the family lived in a tiny village, they would have been peasants, but elsewhere Faris’ claims that his father was an educated man (his *Muḳaddima* , i, 5\). He was probably raised in [Hamadan](/wiki/Hamadan "Hamadan").Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, p. 194 where he achieved great fame as a scholar and writer. In Hamadan, he took on many students, one of whom was [Al\-Hamadhani](/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani "Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani"), who became the celebrated poet and originator of the *[Maqamat](/wiki/Maqamat_Badi%27_az-Zaman_al-Hamadhani "Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani")*.Meisami,J.S. and Starkey, P. (eds), Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 1, Taylor \& Francis, 1998 , p, 123: Hämeen\-Anttila, J., *Maqama: A History of a Genre*, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002, p. 21 He was educated at Qazvin, Hamadan and BaghdadFleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (eds). *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed., First published online: 2012 \<[http://dx.doi.org/10\.1163/1573\-3912\_islam\_SIM\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\> Based in [Hamadan](/wiki/Hamadan "Hamadan") and attached to [ibn al\-ʿAmīd](/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-Amid "Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-Amid"), ibn Fāris became well known for his scholarship, teaching [al\-Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād](/wiki/Al-%E1%B9%A2%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ib_ibn_%CA%BFAbb%C4%81d "Al-Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād") (to whom he gave the *Kitāb al\-Ḥajar*) and [Badīʿ al\-Zamān al\-Hamadhānī](/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani "Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani"), though he came to have a bad relationship with each. Nevertheless, he was chosen to be to be tutor to [Majd al\-Dawla](/wiki/Majd_al-Dawla "Majd al-Dawla"), son of [Fakhr al\-Dawla](/wiki/Fakhr_al-Dawla "Fakhr al-Dawla") in Ray, and dedicated to his employer his book *al\-Ṣāḥibī*. He relocated to [Rayy](/wiki/Ray%2C_Iran "Ray, Iran") (now part of [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran "Tehran")), possibly to take up a position as a tutor to, Majd al\-Dawla, the son of the Buyid, [Fakhr al\-Dawla](/wiki/Fakhr_al-Dawla "Fakhr al-Dawla").Haywood, J.A., *Arabic Lexicography: Its History, and its Place in the General History of Lexicography*, Brill, 1965, p. 99; Meisami,J.S. and Starkey, P. (eds), Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 1, Taylor \& Francis, 1998 , p, 123; Fleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (eds)\<[http://dx.doi.org/10\.1163/1573\-3912\_islam\_SIM\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\> [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\-of\-islam\-2/ibn\-faris\-SIM\_3162?lang\=enl](https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-faris-SIM_3162?lang=enl)\> At that time, Rayy was a centre of literature, enabling ibn Faris to mix with scholars and men of letters. There ibn Faris, gained favour of the Vizier, [Ibn al\-Amid](/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-%27Amid "Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid"), who was a patron of the learning and learned men.Hämeen\-Anttila, J., *Maqama: A History of a Genre*, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002, pp 20\-21; Kraemer. J.L., *Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age*, Brill, 1992, p. 261 Said to have been kind and humble and an emotive poet, Ibn Fāris is generally accepted to have died in 395/1004, in Ray. Ibn Fāris specialised in lexicography, but also studied poetry, grammar, Koranic exegesis (*[tafsīr](/wiki/Tafsir "Tafsir")*) and jurisprudence (*[fiḳh](/wiki/Fiqh "Fiqh")*). In the assessment of H. Fleisch, 'Ibn Fāris had an unbiased mind. It is remarkable that in the 4th/10th century, an age dominated grammatically by Sībawayhi and the Baṣrans, he should have returned to the freedom of thought of the Kūfans and should once again have introduced grammatical discussion in his *K\[itāb] Kifāyat al\-mutaʿallimīn fi’k̲h̲tilāf al\-naḥwiyyīn*'. Ibn Fāris died in Rayy in 395/1004 (the generally accepted date).According to Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, 389n; scholars quote various dates of death; 360,369,390 and 395, however his signature appears on a document dated 391 which suggests a later date. Most scholars indicate his date of death falling between 391/1000 and 395/1004\.
[ "Life\n----", "Although some sources ascribe precise dates and places of birth to ibn Faris, including 329 AH/941 CE in Kursuf, in the district of al\\-Zahrāʾ, modern scholars conclude that this cannot be known. His father was Fāris ibn Zakariyyāʾ, who was perhaps a *faqīh* and who certainly gave ibn Fāris some of his education, passing on to him [ibn al\\-Sikkīt](/wiki/Yaqub_Ibn_as-Sikkit \"Yaqub Ibn as-Sikkit\")'s *Kitāb* *al\\-Manṭiq*.", "Ibn Fāris studied in [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin \"Qazvin\"), where his teachers included ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm al\\-Qaṭṭān (d. 345/956\\). He also studied in [Zanjān](/wiki/Zanjan%2C_Iran \"Zanjan, Iran\") (making the acquaintance of Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn al\\-Khaṭīb), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), and, while undertaking [hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\"), in [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\").", "Little is known about his family's origins or social status. According to his own account, his father was an educated man.Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, p. 194; Fleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (eds)\\<[http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1163/1573\\-3912\\_islam\\_SIM\\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\\> [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\\-of\\-islam\\-2/ibn\\-faris\\-SIM\\_3162?lang\\=en](https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-faris-SIM_3162?lang=en); Scholars have pointed to inconsistencies in Faris’ account, as written in one of his poems (*Yâkūt, Mu'cemü'l\\-Üdebâ*, IV, 93\\), on the basis that if the family lived in a tiny village, they would have been peasants, but elsewhere Faris’ claims that his father was an educated man (his *Muḳaddima* , i, 5\\).", "He was probably raised in [Hamadan](/wiki/Hamadan \"Hamadan\").Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, p. 194 where he achieved great fame as a scholar and writer. In Hamadan, he took on many students, one of whom was [Al\\-Hamadhani](/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani \"Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani\"), who became the celebrated poet and originator of the *[Maqamat](/wiki/Maqamat_Badi%27_az-Zaman_al-Hamadhani \"Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani\")*.Meisami,J.S. and Starkey, P. (eds), Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 1, Taylor \\& Francis, 1998 , p, 123: Hämeen\\-Anttila, J., *Maqama: A History of a Genre*, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002, p. 21 He was educated at Qazvin, Hamadan and BaghdadFleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (eds). *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed., First published online: 2012 \\<[http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1163/1573\\-3912\\_islam\\_SIM\\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\\>", "", "Based in [Hamadan](/wiki/Hamadan \"Hamadan\") and attached to [ibn al\\-ʿAmīd](/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-Amid \"Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-Amid\"), ibn Fāris became well known for his scholarship, teaching [al\\-Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād](/wiki/Al-%E1%B9%A2%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ib_ibn_%CA%BFAbb%C4%81d \"Al-Ṣāḥib ibn ʿAbbād\") (to whom he gave the *Kitāb al\\-Ḥajar*) and [Badīʿ al\\-Zamān al\\-Hamadhānī](/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani \"Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani\"), though he came to have a bad relationship with each. Nevertheless, he was chosen to be to be tutor to [Majd al\\-Dawla](/wiki/Majd_al-Dawla \"Majd al-Dawla\"), son of [Fakhr al\\-Dawla](/wiki/Fakhr_al-Dawla \"Fakhr al-Dawla\") in Ray, and dedicated to his employer his book *al\\-Ṣāḥibī*.", "He relocated to [Rayy](/wiki/Ray%2C_Iran \"Ray, Iran\") (now part of [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran \"Tehran\")), possibly to take up a position as a tutor to, Majd al\\-Dawla, the son of the Buyid, [Fakhr al\\-Dawla](/wiki/Fakhr_al-Dawla \"Fakhr al-Dawla\").Haywood, J.A., *Arabic Lexicography: Its History, and its Place in the General History of Lexicography*, Brill, 1965, p. 99; Meisami,J.S. and Starkey, P. (eds), Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 1, Taylor \\& Francis, 1998 , p, 123; Fleisch, H., “Ibn Fāris”, in: *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 2nd ed, P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (eds)\\<[http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1163/1573\\-3912\\_islam\\_SIM\\_3162](http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3162)\\> [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\\-of\\-islam\\-2/ibn\\-faris\\-SIM\\_3162?lang\\=enl](https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-faris-SIM_3162?lang=enl)\\> At that time, Rayy was a centre of literature, enabling ibn Faris to mix with scholars and men of letters. There ibn Faris, gained favour of the Vizier, [Ibn al\\-Amid](/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-%27Amid \"Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid\"), who was a patron of the learning and learned men.Hämeen\\-Anttila, J., *Maqama: A History of a Genre*, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002, pp 20\\-21; Kraemer. J.L., *Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age*, Brill, 1992, p. 261", "Said to have been kind and humble and an emotive poet, Ibn Fāris is generally accepted to have died in 395/1004, in Ray.", "Ibn Fāris specialised in lexicography, but also studied poetry, grammar, Koranic exegesis (*[tafsīr](/wiki/Tafsir \"Tafsir\")*) and jurisprudence (*[fiḳh](/wiki/Fiqh \"Fiqh\")*). In the assessment of H. Fleisch, 'Ibn Fāris had an unbiased mind. It is remarkable that in the 4th/10th century, an age dominated grammatically by Sībawayhi and the Baṣrans, he should have returned to the freedom of thought of the Kūfans and should once again have introduced grammatical discussion in his *K\\[itāb] Kifāyat al\\-mutaʿallimīn fi’k̲h̲tilāf al\\-naḥwiyyīn*'.", "Ibn Fāris died in Rayy in 395/1004 (the generally accepted date).According to Brockelmann, C., *History of the Arabic Written Tradition Supplement*, Volume 1, Brill, 2017, 389n; scholars quote various dates of death; 360,369,390 and 395, however his signature appears on a document dated 391 which suggests a later date. Most scholars indicate his date of death falling between 391/1000 and 395/1004\\.", "" ]
Air Assault School ------------------ The best\-known course offered at TSAAS is Air Assault School, which qualifies soldiers to conduct airmobile and [air assault](/wiki/Air_assault "Air assault") helicopter operations, including aircraft orientation; [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter") insertion; [pathfinder](/wiki/Pathfinder_%28military%29 "Pathfinder (military)") operations; [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 "Cargo hook (helicopter)") operations; [rappelling](/wiki/Abseiling "Abseiling") from buildings, cliffs and helicopters; and [fast\-rope](/wiki/Fast-roping "Fast-roping") techniques. The Air Assault School course is offered several times per year, taught by instructors referred to as Air Assault Sergeants. Open to men and women, the rigorous, fast\-paced training is known as the 10 (or 11{{Cite web \|title\=Hit the right marks in Air Assault School \|url\=https://www.army.mil/article/51585/hit\_the\_right\_marks\_in\_air\_assault\_school \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-05 \|publisher\=United States Army \|language\=en}}) toughest days{{Cite web \|title\=CNN.com – Transcripts \|url\=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/20/se.42\.html \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-05 \|website\=transcripts.cnn.com}} in the Army. About 15 percent of the class does not make it through the first day, dubbed Zero day, which includes a demanding obstacle course.{{cite web \|title\=Air Assault School \|url\=http://www.rotc.armstrong.edu/TrainingAAS.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011207221030/http://www.rotc.armstrong.edu/TrainingAAS.htm \|archive\-date\=7 December 2001}} More fail to make it past [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 "Cargo hook (helicopter)") testing in phase two. Ultimately, only about 45 percent pass. On the morning of graduation, students must complete a 19\.3 km (12\-mile) march with rucksack in under three hours before receiving their wings. Completion qualifies soldiers to wear the [Air Assault Badge](/wiki/Air_Assault_Badge "Air Assault Badge"). {{cite web \|title\=SAAS course descriptions \|url\=http://www.campbell.army.mil/aas/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231013927/http://www.campbell.army.mil/aas/ \|archive\-date\=31 December 2007 \|access\-date\=2008\-02\-01}} ### Training {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename\= USA Fort Hood Air Assault School.ogv \| title \= Overview: Air Assault School at Ft Hood \| pos \= right }} Each day begins with rigorous physical training that includes unit runs from 3\.2 to 8 km (2 to 5 miles). #### Day Zero Soldiers are not considered "Air Assault Students" until they complete Day Zero, the first day of the course, which includes an obstacle course, two\-mile (3\.2 km) run, and extensive physical training. #### Inspection A meticulous inspection of each soldier's 16 kg (35\-pound) ruck sack is conducted after the 9\.7 km (6 mile) foot\-march on Day One. Soldiers must have all items on the packing list each student is given, with each item clean and serviceable (in usable condition). A soldier who loses any item can be immediately dropped from the course. The inspection has a very specific lay\-out that the soldier must adhere to. Every item must be placed exactly how the Air Assault instructors have displayed the items, and all items must be laid out "as worn."{{citation needed\|date\=January 2015}} #### Two\-mile run and obstacle course [right\|thumb\|250px\|Student traverses obstacle course during Day Zero of Air Assault School](/wiki/File:Air_assault_school_reflects_on_past%2C_future_traditions_DVIDS883908.jpg "Air assault school reflects on past, future traditions DVIDS883908.jpg") Students must complete a two\-mile (3\.2 km) run in under 18 minutes to receive a "GO" — i.e., satisfactory completion of the event. The uniform for the run is [Army Combat Uniform](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform "Army Combat Uniform") (minus the ACU Top depending on the season in which the training cycle begins) with running shoes. Next is an obstacle course designed to assess a student's upper body strength, agility, endurance, confidence, and ability to perform at heights without displaying fear or distress. There are nine obstacles: two mandatory obstacles (failing either will result in being dropped from the course) and seven minor obstacles (a soldier may fail one and still continue). Instructors use the obstacle test to determine whether a student will be able to complete Air Assault School without endangering themselves, instructors, or other students during the demanding course. #### Phase One (Combat Assault) [right\|thumb\|250px\|Students rehearse ground maneuvers during Combat Assault Phase](/wiki/File:US_Army_51400_Fort_Riley_hosts_Air_Assault_training.jpg "US Army 51400 Fort Riley hosts Air Assault training.jpg") During the 3\-day Phase One (Combat Assault), soldiers receive instruction in: * Aircraft Safety * Aircraft Orientation: characteristics and capabilities of Army aircraft * Aero Medical Evacuation: the capabilities of and request procedures for MEDEVAC aircraft * Pathfinder Operations: landing\-zone selection, marking and operation for day and night missions involving multiple aircraft, including sling loads * Hand\-and\-arm signals: 17 hand\-and\-arm signals used during sling load operations * Close Combat Attacks: use of attack for [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support "Close air support") * Combat Assault Operations: includes various factors encompassed in an air assault operation such as: components of an air assault mission, the reverse planning sequence, duties and responsibilities of platoon\-level personnel during an air assault, static load training, and a simulated combat assault on [UH\-60](/wiki/UH-60 "UH-60") aircraft Soldiers are given two tests: a written test of 50 multiple\-choice questions and a test of 10 of 16 hand\-and\-arm signals. Students must get at least 70% of the questions and seven of the signals right to pass and advance to the Sling Load Phase. They are allowed one retest per exam. #### Phase Two (Slingload Operations) [right\|thumb\|275px\|Students brace against the rotor\-wash of a [UH\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk "Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk") as they prepare to attach a sling load during one of the practical exercises.](/wiki/File:Air_assault_slingload_test.jpg "Air assault slingload test.jpg") {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename \= US Army Air Assault School\-Sling Load Training.ogv \| title \= Air Assault School—slingload \| description\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct slingload training as part of phase 2 of Air Assault School at \[\[Camp Buehring]] \| pos \= right }} The three days of Phase Two (Slingload Operations) includes training on: * Planning and preparation for [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 "Cargo hook (helicopter)") operations * Capabilities, characteristics, and use of sling load equipment * Duties and responsibilities of sling load personnel * Familiarization with sling load theory and rigging of non\-standard loads Students receive hands\-on training on preparation, rigging, and inspection of several certified or suitable external loads. These may include the following loads: * M1097 HMMWV * M1097 HMMWV, shotgun/side\-by\-side configuration * M1151 HMMWV * [M119](/wiki/M119 "M119") 105mm Howitzer * M149A2 Water Trailer * A\-22 Cargo Bag * Fuel Blivets (one, two, three, or four blivit configuration) * 2,250 kg (5000 lbs) or 4,500 kg (10,000 lbs) Cargo Net The soldiers will also conduct an actual hook\-up of a load underneath a [CH\-47](/wiki/CH-47 "CH-47") or UH\-60 aircraft. Soldiers must pass two tests to move on to the next phase: * Written: Soldiers must correctly answer 70 percent of 50 multiple\-choice questions to receive a "GO". * Hands\-on: Students are tested on four of the six loads taught. Students must identify three out of four preparation and/or rigging deficiencies within two minutes per load to receive a "GO". Soldiers are allowed one retest per exam. #### Phase Three – Rappelling Phase {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename \= US Army Air Assault School\-Rappelling.ogv \| title \= Air Assault School—Rappelling \| description\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct rappelling training as part of phase 3 of Air Assault School at Camp Buehring \| pos \= right }} [right\|thumb\|250px\|Students practice rappelling from a UH\-60 Black Hawk during Air Assault School](/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Assault_School_students_reppel_from_an_UH-60.jpg "US Army Air Assault School students reppel from an UH-60.jpg") The 3\-day Phase Three (Rappelling Phase) includes instruction on basic ground and aircraft rappelling procedures: * Tying of the hip\-rappel seat (Swiss seat) * Hook\-up techniques * Lock\-in procedures * Rappel with and without combat equipment * Belay procedures * Fast rope familiarization Soldiers conduct two rappels on the wall side of the school's {{convert\|34\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower, 9 to 12 rappels from the open side, and two rappels from a UH\-60 Blackhawk helicopter hovering at 21–27 m (70–90 ft). All rappels are conducted with and without combat equipment. During fast rope familiarization, students conduct a controlled descent and a static hold for five seconds. Students that successfully conduct both descents from a {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} platform then descend from the {{convert\|34\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower using the stack\-out/rapid exit technique. Fast rope descents are conducted without combat equipment. Soldiers are tested on: * Tie the Hip rappel (Swiss) seat (the 90\-second time limit has been reinstated) * Hook\-up to a rappel rope without deficiency (the 15\-second time limit has been reinstated) * Conduct three rappels: lock\-in rappel, rappel without combat equipment (also known as a "Hollywood" rappel) with three controlled brakes, and combat equipment rappel with three controlled brakes Soldiers must pass all tests to move on to the next phase; they are allowed one retest per exam. The standards of this course are so strict because failure to master the skills increases the chances of an accident. The margin for error in this type of training is small. #### 12\-mile ruck march The final event is the {{convert\|12\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} ruck march, which soldiers must complete with the prescribed uniform and equipment in three hours or less or fail to graduate. Upon completion of the ruck march, soldiers lay out all items in the packing list. A lack of any item prevents the soldier from graduating. ### Graduation * Graduates are awarded the [Air Assault Badge](/wiki/Air_Assault_Badge "Air Assault Badge") and the 2B ASI (Additional Skill Identifier) unless they did not come out of the helicopter qualified to inspect rigged sling loads. * Graduates in the rank of Corporal (E\-4\) and above are qualified to perform as rappel lane NCOs for ground rappel training and are eligible to attend the Rappel Master Course. * Graduates in the rank of Sergeant First Class (E\-7\) or above are qualified to serve as a rappel site Safety Officer for ground and aircraft rappelling. ### History The original Air Assault School is located at Fort Campbell, home of the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division "101st Airborne Division"). There are also or have been schools at: * [Fort Novosel](/wiki/Fort_Novosel "Fort Novosel"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama") * [Schofield Barracks, Hawaii](/wiki/Schofield_Barracks%2C_Hawaii "Schofield Barracks, Hawaii") * [Fort Cavazos, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Cavazos%2C_Texas "Fort Cavazos, Texas") * [Fort Bliss, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Bliss%2C_Texas "Fort Bliss, Texas") * [Camp Blanding, Florida](/wiki/Camp_Blanding%2C_Florida "Camp Blanding, Florida") * [Fort Moore](/wiki/Fort_Moore "Fort Moore"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") * [Fort Drum, New York](/wiki/Fort_Drum%2C_New_York "Fort Drum, New York") * [Fort Johnson, Louisiana](/wiki/Fort_Johnson%2C_Louisiana "Fort Johnson, Louisiana") * [Fort Ord, California](/wiki/Fort_Ord%2C_California "Fort Ord, California") * [Fort Riley, Kansas](/wiki/Fort_Riley%2C_Kansas "Fort Riley, Kansas") * [Fort Richardson](/wiki/Fort_Richardson_%28Alaska%29 "Fort Richardson (Alaska)"), [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska") * [Fort Wainwright](/wiki/Fort_Wainwright "Fort Wainwright"), [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska") * [Fort Belvoir](/wiki/Fort_Belvoir "Fort Belvoir"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") * [Fort Liberty, North Carolina](/wiki/Fort_Liberty%2C_North_Carolina "Fort Liberty, North Carolina") * [Camp Gruber, Oklahoma](/wiki/Camp_Gruber%2C_Oklahoma "Camp Gruber, Oklahoma") * [West Point, New York](/wiki/West_Point%2C_New_York "West Point, New York") * Fulda Army Airfield, [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") Graduation from the Air Assault School is not required to be a soldier in the 101st, but it is looked upon as an achievement of excellence by the chain of command. In 1998, Fort Campbell built a {{convert\|34\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower for use in Phase Three. On 17 December 1999, the new Sabalauski Air Assault School facility was dedicated and for the first time in several years all phases of instruction were conducted at one facility.
[ "Air Assault School\n------------------", "The best\\-known course offered at TSAAS is Air Assault School, which qualifies soldiers to conduct airmobile and [air assault](/wiki/Air_assault \"Air assault\") helicopter operations, including aircraft orientation; [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\") insertion; [pathfinder](/wiki/Pathfinder_%28military%29 \"Pathfinder (military)\") operations; [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 \"Cargo hook (helicopter)\") operations; [rappelling](/wiki/Abseiling \"Abseiling\") from buildings, cliffs and helicopters; and [fast\\-rope](/wiki/Fast-roping \"Fast-roping\") techniques.", "The Air Assault School course is offered several times per year, taught by instructors referred to as Air Assault Sergeants. Open to men and women, the rigorous, fast\\-paced training is known as the 10 (or 11{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hit the right marks in Air Assault School \\|url\\=https://www.army.mil/article/51585/hit\\_the\\_right\\_marks\\_in\\_air\\_assault\\_school \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-05 \\|publisher\\=United States Army \\|language\\=en}}) toughest days{{Cite web \\|title\\=CNN.com – Transcripts \\|url\\=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/20/se.42\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-05 \\|website\\=transcripts.cnn.com}} in the Army. About 15 percent of the class does not make it through the first day, dubbed Zero day, which includes a demanding obstacle course.{{cite web \\|title\\=Air Assault School \\|url\\=http://www.rotc.armstrong.edu/TrainingAAS.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011207221030/http://www.rotc.armstrong.edu/TrainingAAS.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=7 December 2001}} More fail to make it past [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 \"Cargo hook (helicopter)\") testing in phase two. Ultimately, only about 45 percent pass.", "On the morning of graduation, students must complete a 19\\.3 km (12\\-mile) march with rucksack in under three hours before receiving their wings. Completion qualifies soldiers to wear the [Air Assault Badge](/wiki/Air_Assault_Badge \"Air Assault Badge\").\n{{cite web \\|title\\=SAAS course descriptions \\|url\\=http://www.campbell.army.mil/aas/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231013927/http://www.campbell.army.mil/aas/ \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-01}}", "### Training", "{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename\\= USA Fort Hood Air Assault School.ogv\n\\| title \\= Overview: Air Assault School at Ft Hood\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nEach day begins with rigorous physical training that includes unit runs from 3\\.2 to 8 km (2 to 5 miles).", "#### Day Zero", "Soldiers are not considered \"Air Assault Students\" until they complete Day Zero, the first day of the course, which includes an obstacle course, two\\-mile (3\\.2 km) run, and extensive physical training.", "#### Inspection", "A meticulous inspection of each soldier's 16 kg (35\\-pound) ruck sack is conducted after the 9\\.7 km (6 mile) foot\\-march on Day One. Soldiers must have all items on the packing list each student is given, with each item clean and serviceable (in usable condition). A soldier who loses any item can be immediately dropped from the course. The inspection has a very specific lay\\-out that the soldier must adhere to. Every item must be placed exactly how the Air Assault instructors have displayed the items, and all items must be laid out \"as worn.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2015}}", "#### Two\\-mile run and obstacle course", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Student traverses obstacle course during Day Zero of Air Assault School](/wiki/File:Air_assault_school_reflects_on_past%2C_future_traditions_DVIDS883908.jpg \"Air assault school reflects on past, future traditions DVIDS883908.jpg\")\nStudents must complete a two\\-mile (3\\.2 km) run in under 18 minutes to receive a \"GO\" — i.e., satisfactory completion of the event. The uniform for the run is [Army Combat Uniform](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform \"Army Combat Uniform\") (minus the ACU Top depending on the season in which the training cycle begins) with running shoes.", "Next is an obstacle course designed to assess a student's upper body strength, agility, endurance, confidence, and ability to perform at heights without displaying fear or distress. There are nine obstacles: two mandatory obstacles (failing either will result in being dropped from the course) and seven minor obstacles (a soldier may fail one and still continue).", "Instructors use the obstacle test to determine whether a student will be able to complete Air Assault School without endangering themselves, instructors, or other students during the demanding course.", "#### Phase One (Combat Assault)", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Students rehearse ground maneuvers during Combat Assault Phase](/wiki/File:US_Army_51400_Fort_Riley_hosts_Air_Assault_training.jpg \"US Army 51400 Fort Riley hosts Air Assault training.jpg\")\nDuring the 3\\-day Phase One (Combat Assault), soldiers receive instruction in:\n* Aircraft Safety\n* Aircraft Orientation: characteristics and capabilities of Army aircraft\n* Aero Medical Evacuation: the capabilities of and request procedures for MEDEVAC aircraft\n* Pathfinder Operations: landing\\-zone selection, marking and operation for day and night missions involving multiple aircraft, including sling loads\n* Hand\\-and\\-arm signals: 17 hand\\-and\\-arm signals used during sling load operations\n* Close Combat Attacks: use of attack for [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support \"Close air support\")\n* Combat Assault Operations: includes various factors encompassed in an air assault operation such as: components of an air assault mission, the reverse planning sequence, duties and responsibilities of platoon\\-level personnel during an air assault, static load training, and a simulated combat assault on [UH\\-60](/wiki/UH-60 \"UH-60\") aircraft\nSoldiers are given two tests: a written test of 50 multiple\\-choice questions and a test of 10 of 16 hand\\-and\\-arm signals. Students must get at least 70% of the questions and seven of the signals right to pass and advance to the Sling Load Phase. They are allowed one retest per exam. \n#### Phase Two (Slingload Operations)", "[right\\|thumb\\|275px\\|Students brace against the rotor\\-wash of a [UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk \"Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk\") as they prepare to attach a sling load during one of the practical exercises.](/wiki/File:Air_assault_slingload_test.jpg \"Air assault slingload test.jpg\")\n{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename \\= US Army Air Assault School\\-Sling Load Training.ogv\n\\| title \\= Air Assault School—slingload\n\\| description\\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct slingload training as part of phase 2 of Air Assault School at \\[\\[Camp Buehring]]\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nThe three days of Phase Two (Slingload Operations) includes training on:\n* Planning and preparation for [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 \"Cargo hook (helicopter)\") operations\n* Capabilities, characteristics, and use of sling load equipment\n* Duties and responsibilities of sling load personnel\n* Familiarization with sling load theory and rigging of non\\-standard loads\nStudents receive hands\\-on training on preparation, rigging, and inspection of several certified or suitable external loads. These may include the following loads:\n* M1097 HMMWV\n* M1097 HMMWV, shotgun/side\\-by\\-side configuration\n* M1151 HMMWV\n* [M119](/wiki/M119 \"M119\") 105mm Howitzer\n* M149A2 Water Trailer\n* A\\-22 Cargo Bag\n* Fuel Blivets (one, two, three, or four blivit configuration)\n* 2,250 kg (5000 lbs) or 4,500 kg (10,000 lbs) Cargo Net \nThe soldiers will also conduct an actual hook\\-up of a load underneath a [CH\\-47](/wiki/CH-47 \"CH-47\") or UH\\-60 aircraft.", "Soldiers must pass two tests to move on to the next phase: \n* Written: Soldiers must correctly answer 70 percent of 50 multiple\\-choice questions to receive a \"GO\".\n* Hands\\-on: Students are tested on four of the six loads taught. Students must identify three out of four preparation and/or rigging deficiencies within two minutes per load to receive a \"GO\". \nSoldiers are allowed one retest per exam.", "#### Phase Three – Rappelling Phase", "{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename \\= US Army Air Assault School\\-Rappelling.ogv\n\\| title \\= Air Assault School—Rappelling\n\\| description\\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct rappelling training as part of phase 3 of Air Assault School at Camp Buehring\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Students practice rappelling from a UH\\-60 Black Hawk during Air Assault School](/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Assault_School_students_reppel_from_an_UH-60.jpg \"US Army Air Assault School students reppel from an UH-60.jpg\")\nThe 3\\-day Phase Three (Rappelling Phase) includes instruction on basic ground and aircraft rappelling procedures: \n* Tying of the hip\\-rappel seat (Swiss seat)\n* Hook\\-up techniques\n* Lock\\-in procedures\n* Rappel with and without combat equipment\n* Belay procedures\n* Fast rope familiarization\nSoldiers conduct two rappels on the wall side of the school's {{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower, 9 to 12 rappels from the open side, and two rappels from a UH\\-60 Blackhawk helicopter hovering at 21–27 m (70–90 ft). All rappels are conducted with and without combat equipment. During fast rope familiarization, students conduct a controlled descent and a static hold for five seconds. Students that successfully conduct both descents from a {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} platform then descend from the {{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower using the stack\\-out/rapid exit technique. Fast rope descents are conducted without combat equipment.\nSoldiers are tested on:\n* Tie the Hip rappel (Swiss) seat (the 90\\-second time limit has been reinstated)\n* Hook\\-up to a rappel rope without deficiency (the 15\\-second time limit has been reinstated)\n* Conduct three rappels: lock\\-in rappel, rappel without combat equipment (also known as a \"Hollywood\" rappel) with three controlled brakes, and combat equipment rappel with three controlled brakes", "Soldiers must pass all tests to move on to the next phase; they are allowed one retest per exam. The standards of this course are so strict because failure to master the skills increases the chances of an accident. The margin for error in this type of training is small.", "#### 12\\-mile ruck march", "The final event is the {{convert\\|12\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} ruck march, which soldiers must complete with the prescribed uniform and equipment in three hours or less or fail to graduate. Upon completion of the ruck march, soldiers lay out all items in the packing list. A lack of any item prevents the soldier from graduating.", "### Graduation", "* Graduates are awarded the [Air Assault Badge](/wiki/Air_Assault_Badge \"Air Assault Badge\") and the 2B ASI (Additional Skill Identifier) unless they did not come out of the helicopter qualified to inspect rigged sling loads.\n* Graduates in the rank of Corporal (E\\-4\\) and above are qualified to perform as rappel lane NCOs for ground rappel training and are eligible to attend the Rappel Master Course.\n* Graduates in the rank of Sergeant First Class (E\\-7\\) or above are qualified to serve as a rappel site Safety Officer for ground and aircraft rappelling.", "### History", "The original Air Assault School is located at Fort Campbell, home of the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division \"101st Airborne Division\"). There are also or have been schools at:\n* [Fort Novosel](/wiki/Fort_Novosel \"Fort Novosel\"), [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\")\n* [Schofield Barracks, Hawaii](/wiki/Schofield_Barracks%2C_Hawaii \"Schofield Barracks, Hawaii\")\n* [Fort Cavazos, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Cavazos%2C_Texas \"Fort Cavazos, Texas\")\n* [Fort Bliss, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Bliss%2C_Texas \"Fort Bliss, Texas\")\n* [Camp Blanding, Florida](/wiki/Camp_Blanding%2C_Florida \"Camp Blanding, Florida\")\n* [Fort Moore](/wiki/Fort_Moore \"Fort Moore\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\")\n* [Fort Drum, New York](/wiki/Fort_Drum%2C_New_York \"Fort Drum, New York\")\n* [Fort Johnson, Louisiana](/wiki/Fort_Johnson%2C_Louisiana \"Fort Johnson, Louisiana\")\n* [Fort Ord, California](/wiki/Fort_Ord%2C_California \"Fort Ord, California\")\n* [Fort Riley, Kansas](/wiki/Fort_Riley%2C_Kansas \"Fort Riley, Kansas\")\n* [Fort Richardson](/wiki/Fort_Richardson_%28Alaska%29 \"Fort Richardson (Alaska)\"), [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\")\n* [Fort Wainwright](/wiki/Fort_Wainwright \"Fort Wainwright\"), [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\")\n* [Fort Belvoir](/wiki/Fort_Belvoir \"Fort Belvoir\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\")\n* [Fort Liberty, North Carolina](/wiki/Fort_Liberty%2C_North_Carolina \"Fort Liberty, North Carolina\")\n* [Camp Gruber, Oklahoma](/wiki/Camp_Gruber%2C_Oklahoma \"Camp Gruber, Oklahoma\")\n* [West Point, New York](/wiki/West_Point%2C_New_York \"West Point, New York\")\n* Fulda Army Airfield, [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\")\nGraduation from the Air Assault School is not required to be a soldier in the 101st, but it is looked upon as an achievement of excellence by the chain of command.", "In 1998, Fort Campbell built a {{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower for use in Phase Three.", "On 17 December 1999, the new Sabalauski Air Assault School facility was dedicated and for the first time in several years all phases of instruction were conducted at one facility.", "" ]
### Training {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename\= USA Fort Hood Air Assault School.ogv \| title \= Overview: Air Assault School at Ft Hood \| pos \= right }} Each day begins with rigorous physical training that includes unit runs from 3\.2 to 8 km (2 to 5 miles). #### Day Zero Soldiers are not considered "Air Assault Students" until they complete Day Zero, the first day of the course, which includes an obstacle course, two\-mile (3\.2 km) run, and extensive physical training. #### Inspection A meticulous inspection of each soldier's 16 kg (35\-pound) ruck sack is conducted after the 9\.7 km (6 mile) foot\-march on Day One. Soldiers must have all items on the packing list each student is given, with each item clean and serviceable (in usable condition). A soldier who loses any item can be immediately dropped from the course. The inspection has a very specific lay\-out that the soldier must adhere to. Every item must be placed exactly how the Air Assault instructors have displayed the items, and all items must be laid out "as worn."{{citation needed\|date\=January 2015}} #### Two\-mile run and obstacle course [right\|thumb\|250px\|Student traverses obstacle course during Day Zero of Air Assault School](/wiki/File:Air_assault_school_reflects_on_past%2C_future_traditions_DVIDS883908.jpg "Air assault school reflects on past, future traditions DVIDS883908.jpg") Students must complete a two\-mile (3\.2 km) run in under 18 minutes to receive a "GO" — i.e., satisfactory completion of the event. The uniform for the run is [Army Combat Uniform](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform "Army Combat Uniform") (minus the ACU Top depending on the season in which the training cycle begins) with running shoes. Next is an obstacle course designed to assess a student's upper body strength, agility, endurance, confidence, and ability to perform at heights without displaying fear or distress. There are nine obstacles: two mandatory obstacles (failing either will result in being dropped from the course) and seven minor obstacles (a soldier may fail one and still continue). Instructors use the obstacle test to determine whether a student will be able to complete Air Assault School without endangering themselves, instructors, or other students during the demanding course. #### Phase One (Combat Assault) [right\|thumb\|250px\|Students rehearse ground maneuvers during Combat Assault Phase](/wiki/File:US_Army_51400_Fort_Riley_hosts_Air_Assault_training.jpg "US Army 51400 Fort Riley hosts Air Assault training.jpg") During the 3\-day Phase One (Combat Assault), soldiers receive instruction in: * Aircraft Safety * Aircraft Orientation: characteristics and capabilities of Army aircraft * Aero Medical Evacuation: the capabilities of and request procedures for MEDEVAC aircraft * Pathfinder Operations: landing\-zone selection, marking and operation for day and night missions involving multiple aircraft, including sling loads * Hand\-and\-arm signals: 17 hand\-and\-arm signals used during sling load operations * Close Combat Attacks: use of attack for [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support "Close air support") * Combat Assault Operations: includes various factors encompassed in an air assault operation such as: components of an air assault mission, the reverse planning sequence, duties and responsibilities of platoon\-level personnel during an air assault, static load training, and a simulated combat assault on [UH\-60](/wiki/UH-60 "UH-60") aircraft Soldiers are given two tests: a written test of 50 multiple\-choice questions and a test of 10 of 16 hand\-and\-arm signals. Students must get at least 70% of the questions and seven of the signals right to pass and advance to the Sling Load Phase. They are allowed one retest per exam. #### Phase Two (Slingload Operations) [right\|thumb\|275px\|Students brace against the rotor\-wash of a [UH\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk "Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk") as they prepare to attach a sling load during one of the practical exercises.](/wiki/File:Air_assault_slingload_test.jpg "Air assault slingload test.jpg") {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename \= US Army Air Assault School\-Sling Load Training.ogv \| title \= Air Assault School—slingload \| description\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct slingload training as part of phase 2 of Air Assault School at \[\[Camp Buehring]] \| pos \= right }} The three days of Phase Two (Slingload Operations) includes training on: * Planning and preparation for [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 "Cargo hook (helicopter)") operations * Capabilities, characteristics, and use of sling load equipment * Duties and responsibilities of sling load personnel * Familiarization with sling load theory and rigging of non\-standard loads Students receive hands\-on training on preparation, rigging, and inspection of several certified or suitable external loads. These may include the following loads: * M1097 HMMWV * M1097 HMMWV, shotgun/side\-by\-side configuration * M1151 HMMWV * [M119](/wiki/M119 "M119") 105mm Howitzer * M149A2 Water Trailer * A\-22 Cargo Bag * Fuel Blivets (one, two, three, or four blivit configuration) * 2,250 kg (5000 lbs) or 4,500 kg (10,000 lbs) Cargo Net The soldiers will also conduct an actual hook\-up of a load underneath a [CH\-47](/wiki/CH-47 "CH-47") or UH\-60 aircraft. Soldiers must pass two tests to move on to the next phase: * Written: Soldiers must correctly answer 70 percent of 50 multiple\-choice questions to receive a "GO". * Hands\-on: Students are tested on four of the six loads taught. Students must identify three out of four preparation and/or rigging deficiencies within two minutes per load to receive a "GO". Soldiers are allowed one retest per exam. #### Phase Three – Rappelling Phase {{Listen \| image \= \[\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\|50px]] \| help \= no \| filename \= US Army Air Assault School\-Rappelling.ogv \| title \= Air Assault School—Rappelling \| description\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct rappelling training as part of phase 3 of Air Assault School at Camp Buehring \| pos \= right }} [right\|thumb\|250px\|Students practice rappelling from a UH\-60 Black Hawk during Air Assault School](/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Assault_School_students_reppel_from_an_UH-60.jpg "US Army Air Assault School students reppel from an UH-60.jpg") The 3\-day Phase Three (Rappelling Phase) includes instruction on basic ground and aircraft rappelling procedures: * Tying of the hip\-rappel seat (Swiss seat) * Hook\-up techniques * Lock\-in procedures * Rappel with and without combat equipment * Belay procedures * Fast rope familiarization Soldiers conduct two rappels on the wall side of the school's {{convert\|34\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower, 9 to 12 rappels from the open side, and two rappels from a UH\-60 Blackhawk helicopter hovering at 21–27 m (70–90 ft). All rappels are conducted with and without combat equipment. During fast rope familiarization, students conduct a controlled descent and a static hold for five seconds. Students that successfully conduct both descents from a {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} platform then descend from the {{convert\|34\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower using the stack\-out/rapid exit technique. Fast rope descents are conducted without combat equipment. Soldiers are tested on: * Tie the Hip rappel (Swiss) seat (the 90\-second time limit has been reinstated) * Hook\-up to a rappel rope without deficiency (the 15\-second time limit has been reinstated) * Conduct three rappels: lock\-in rappel, rappel without combat equipment (also known as a "Hollywood" rappel) with three controlled brakes, and combat equipment rappel with three controlled brakes Soldiers must pass all tests to move on to the next phase; they are allowed one retest per exam. The standards of this course are so strict because failure to master the skills increases the chances of an accident. The margin for error in this type of training is small. #### 12\-mile ruck march The final event is the {{convert\|12\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} ruck march, which soldiers must complete with the prescribed uniform and equipment in three hours or less or fail to graduate. Upon completion of the ruck march, soldiers lay out all items in the packing list. A lack of any item prevents the soldier from graduating.
[ "### Training", "{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename\\= USA Fort Hood Air Assault School.ogv\n\\| title \\= Overview: Air Assault School at Ft Hood\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nEach day begins with rigorous physical training that includes unit runs from 3\\.2 to 8 km (2 to 5 miles).", "#### Day Zero", "Soldiers are not considered \"Air Assault Students\" until they complete Day Zero, the first day of the course, which includes an obstacle course, two\\-mile (3\\.2 km) run, and extensive physical training.", "#### Inspection", "A meticulous inspection of each soldier's 16 kg (35\\-pound) ruck sack is conducted after the 9\\.7 km (6 mile) foot\\-march on Day One. Soldiers must have all items on the packing list each student is given, with each item clean and serviceable (in usable condition). A soldier who loses any item can be immediately dropped from the course. The inspection has a very specific lay\\-out that the soldier must adhere to. Every item must be placed exactly how the Air Assault instructors have displayed the items, and all items must be laid out \"as worn.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2015}}", "#### Two\\-mile run and obstacle course", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Student traverses obstacle course during Day Zero of Air Assault School](/wiki/File:Air_assault_school_reflects_on_past%2C_future_traditions_DVIDS883908.jpg \"Air assault school reflects on past, future traditions DVIDS883908.jpg\")\nStudents must complete a two\\-mile (3\\.2 km) run in under 18 minutes to receive a \"GO\" — i.e., satisfactory completion of the event. The uniform for the run is [Army Combat Uniform](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform \"Army Combat Uniform\") (minus the ACU Top depending on the season in which the training cycle begins) with running shoes.", "Next is an obstacle course designed to assess a student's upper body strength, agility, endurance, confidence, and ability to perform at heights without displaying fear or distress. There are nine obstacles: two mandatory obstacles (failing either will result in being dropped from the course) and seven minor obstacles (a soldier may fail one and still continue).", "Instructors use the obstacle test to determine whether a student will be able to complete Air Assault School without endangering themselves, instructors, or other students during the demanding course.", "#### Phase One (Combat Assault)", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Students rehearse ground maneuvers during Combat Assault Phase](/wiki/File:US_Army_51400_Fort_Riley_hosts_Air_Assault_training.jpg \"US Army 51400 Fort Riley hosts Air Assault training.jpg\")\nDuring the 3\\-day Phase One (Combat Assault), soldiers receive instruction in:\n* Aircraft Safety\n* Aircraft Orientation: characteristics and capabilities of Army aircraft\n* Aero Medical Evacuation: the capabilities of and request procedures for MEDEVAC aircraft\n* Pathfinder Operations: landing\\-zone selection, marking and operation for day and night missions involving multiple aircraft, including sling loads\n* Hand\\-and\\-arm signals: 17 hand\\-and\\-arm signals used during sling load operations\n* Close Combat Attacks: use of attack for [close air support](/wiki/Close_air_support \"Close air support\")\n* Combat Assault Operations: includes various factors encompassed in an air assault operation such as: components of an air assault mission, the reverse planning sequence, duties and responsibilities of platoon\\-level personnel during an air assault, static load training, and a simulated combat assault on [UH\\-60](/wiki/UH-60 \"UH-60\") aircraft\nSoldiers are given two tests: a written test of 50 multiple\\-choice questions and a test of 10 of 16 hand\\-and\\-arm signals. Students must get at least 70% of the questions and seven of the signals right to pass and advance to the Sling Load Phase. They are allowed one retest per exam. \n#### Phase Two (Slingload Operations)", "[right\\|thumb\\|275px\\|Students brace against the rotor\\-wash of a [UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk \"Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk\") as they prepare to attach a sling load during one of the practical exercises.](/wiki/File:Air_assault_slingload_test.jpg \"Air assault slingload test.jpg\")\n{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename \\= US Army Air Assault School\\-Sling Load Training.ogv\n\\| title \\= Air Assault School—slingload\n\\| description\\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct slingload training as part of phase 2 of Air Assault School at \\[\\[Camp Buehring]]\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\nThe three days of Phase Two (Slingload Operations) includes training on:\n* Planning and preparation for [sling load](/wiki/Cargo_hook_%28helicopter%29 \"Cargo hook (helicopter)\") operations\n* Capabilities, characteristics, and use of sling load equipment\n* Duties and responsibilities of sling load personnel\n* Familiarization with sling load theory and rigging of non\\-standard loads\nStudents receive hands\\-on training on preparation, rigging, and inspection of several certified or suitable external loads. These may include the following loads:\n* M1097 HMMWV\n* M1097 HMMWV, shotgun/side\\-by\\-side configuration\n* M1151 HMMWV\n* [M119](/wiki/M119 \"M119\") 105mm Howitzer\n* M149A2 Water Trailer\n* A\\-22 Cargo Bag\n* Fuel Blivets (one, two, three, or four blivit configuration)\n* 2,250 kg (5000 lbs) or 4,500 kg (10,000 lbs) Cargo Net \nThe soldiers will also conduct an actual hook\\-up of a load underneath a [CH\\-47](/wiki/CH-47 \"CH-47\") or UH\\-60 aircraft.", "Soldiers must pass two tests to move on to the next phase: \n* Written: Soldiers must correctly answer 70 percent of 50 multiple\\-choice questions to receive a \"GO\".\n* Hands\\-on: Students are tested on four of the six loads taught. Students must identify three out of four preparation and/or rigging deficiencies within two minutes per load to receive a \"GO\". \nSoldiers are allowed one retest per exam.", "#### Phase Three – Rappelling Phase", "{{Listen\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:Crystal Project video camera.png\\|50px]]\n\\| help \\= no\n\\| filename \\= US Army Air Assault School\\-Rappelling.ogv\n\\| title \\= Air Assault School—Rappelling\n\\| description\\= Soldiers from the Army National Guard Warrior Training Center conduct rappelling training as part of phase 3 of Air Assault School at Camp Buehring\n\\| pos \\= right\n}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Students practice rappelling from a UH\\-60 Black Hawk during Air Assault School](/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Assault_School_students_reppel_from_an_UH-60.jpg \"US Army Air Assault School students reppel from an UH-60.jpg\")\nThe 3\\-day Phase Three (Rappelling Phase) includes instruction on basic ground and aircraft rappelling procedures: \n* Tying of the hip\\-rappel seat (Swiss seat)\n* Hook\\-up techniques\n* Lock\\-in procedures\n* Rappel with and without combat equipment\n* Belay procedures\n* Fast rope familiarization\nSoldiers conduct two rappels on the wall side of the school's {{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower, 9 to 12 rappels from the open side, and two rappels from a UH\\-60 Blackhawk helicopter hovering at 21–27 m (70–90 ft). All rappels are conducted with and without combat equipment. During fast rope familiarization, students conduct a controlled descent and a static hold for five seconds. Students that successfully conduct both descents from a {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} platform then descend from the {{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower using the stack\\-out/rapid exit technique. Fast rope descents are conducted without combat equipment.\nSoldiers are tested on:\n* Tie the Hip rappel (Swiss) seat (the 90\\-second time limit has been reinstated)\n* Hook\\-up to a rappel rope without deficiency (the 15\\-second time limit has been reinstated)\n* Conduct three rappels: lock\\-in rappel, rappel without combat equipment (also known as a \"Hollywood\" rappel) with three controlled brakes, and combat equipment rappel with three controlled brakes", "Soldiers must pass all tests to move on to the next phase; they are allowed one retest per exam. The standards of this course are so strict because failure to master the skills increases the chances of an accident. The margin for error in this type of training is small.", "#### 12\\-mile ruck march", "The final event is the {{convert\\|12\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} ruck march, which soldiers must complete with the prescribed uniform and equipment in three hours or less or fail to graduate. Upon completion of the ruck march, soldiers lay out all items in the packing list. A lack of any item prevents the soldier from graduating.", "" ]
Infrastructure -------------- ### Main building A palatial quadrangular structure built in stone attracts everyone. It contains an open\-air theatre with a large open space. Building comprises Basement – There are 4 medium\-sized rooms (one room is used as a control room for University Exams.) and a storeroom. Ground floor – It houses Principal and Vice\-Principal's offices, Administrative Office, Geography Department, Staff Common Room, Ladies Common Room, Library, Departments of Botany, Mathematics, N.C.C. Office with a separate entrance, 3 big classrooms, 1 small classroom and a Strong\-room for University's Central Assessment Programme. Also, an open\-air theatre is located on this floor, where the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony takes place. First floor – There are 7 big\-sized rooms and my medium\-sized room. Department of History, Statistics, Hindi, English, Marathi, Economics, Physics and Zoology are located on this floor. Terrace – There is a tower on the frontal side of the main building, on which the National Flag is hoisted on 15 August, 26 January and 1 May every year. Zoology store room, Animal House is lodged on the north\-west side terrace. There are 24 classrooms in total. ### Auditorium and departments Applied Sciences Building (presently housing Microbiology, Biotechnology, Computer Science and BCS Departments) Velankar Auditorium * [Science Departments](/wiki/Science_Departments "Science Departments") Department of Microbiology Department of Biotecnology Department of Mathematics Department of Physics Department of Chemistry Department of Statistics Department of Zoology Department of Botany Department of Electronics * [Arts Departments](/wiki/Arts_Departments "Arts Departments") Department of English Department of Marathi Department of Hindi Department of History Department of Economics Department of Sanskrit Gymkhana and a Pavilion Building Chemistry Laboratory No.1, Chemistry Laboratory No.2, Chemistry Laboratory No.3 Other Buildings N.C.C. Armoury Bungalow No.1 (Principal's Residence), Bungalow No.2 (Life\-member Teacher) Bungalow No.3 (Life\-member Teacher), Bungalow No.4 (Life\-member Teacher) Bungalow No.5 (Life\-member Teacher), Bungalow No.6 (Life\-member Teacher) Bungalow No.7 (Life\-member Teacher), U.G.C. Teachers' Hostel (4 flats) Ladies Hostel Boys Hostel (Shahu Block), Boys Hostel (Square Block) Boys Hostel (Chavan Block), Boys Hostel (Kabbur Block) Cycle stand, Hobby Workshop, Non\-residential students centre
[ "Infrastructure\n--------------", "### Main building", "A palatial quadrangular structure built in stone attracts everyone. It contains an open\\-air theatre with a large open space.", "Building comprises", "Basement – There are 4 medium\\-sized rooms (one room is used as a control room for University Exams.) and a storeroom.", "Ground floor – It houses Principal and Vice\\-Principal's offices, Administrative Office, Geography Department, Staff Common Room, Ladies Common Room, Library, Departments of Botany, Mathematics, N.C.C. Office with a separate entrance, 3 big classrooms, 1 small classroom and a Strong\\-room for University's Central Assessment Programme. Also, an open\\-air theatre is located on this floor, where the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony takes place.", "First floor – There are 7 big\\-sized rooms and my medium\\-sized room. Department of History, Statistics, Hindi, English, Marathi, Economics, Physics and Zoology are located on this floor.", "Terrace – There is a tower on the frontal side of the main building, on which the National Flag is hoisted on 15 August, 26 January and 1 May every year. Zoology store room, Animal House is lodged on the north\\-west side terrace.", "There are 24 classrooms in total.", "### Auditorium and departments", "Applied Sciences Building (presently housing Microbiology, Biotechnology, Computer Science and BCS Departments)", "Velankar Auditorium", "* [Science Departments](/wiki/Science_Departments \"Science Departments\")", "Department of Microbiology", "Department of Biotecnology", "Department of Mathematics", "Department of Physics", "Department of Chemistry", "Department of Statistics", "Department of Zoology", "Department of Botany", "Department of Electronics", "* [Arts Departments](/wiki/Arts_Departments \"Arts Departments\")", "Department of English", "Department of Marathi", "Department of Hindi", "Department of History", "Department of Economics", "Department of Sanskrit", "Gymkhana and a Pavilion Building", "Chemistry Laboratory No.1, Chemistry Laboratory No.2, Chemistry Laboratory No.3", "Other Buildings", "N.C.C. Armoury", "Bungalow No.1 (Principal's Residence), Bungalow No.2 (Life\\-member Teacher)", "Bungalow No.3 (Life\\-member Teacher), Bungalow No.4 (Life\\-member Teacher)", "Bungalow No.5 (Life\\-member Teacher), Bungalow No.6 (Life\\-member Teacher)", "Bungalow No.7 (Life\\-member Teacher), U.G.C. Teachers' Hostel (4 flats)", "Ladies Hostel", "Boys Hostel (Shahu Block), Boys Hostel (Square Block)", "Boys Hostel (Chavan Block), Boys Hostel (Kabbur Block)", "Cycle stand, Hobby Workshop, Non\\-residential students centre", "" ]
### Main building A palatial quadrangular structure built in stone attracts everyone. It contains an open\-air theatre with a large open space. Building comprises Basement – There are 4 medium\-sized rooms (one room is used as a control room for University Exams.) and a storeroom. Ground floor – It houses Principal and Vice\-Principal's offices, Administrative Office, Geography Department, Staff Common Room, Ladies Common Room, Library, Departments of Botany, Mathematics, N.C.C. Office with a separate entrance, 3 big classrooms, 1 small classroom and a Strong\-room for University's Central Assessment Programme. Also, an open\-air theatre is located on this floor, where the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony takes place. First floor – There are 7 big\-sized rooms and my medium\-sized room. Department of History, Statistics, Hindi, English, Marathi, Economics, Physics and Zoology are located on this floor. Terrace – There is a tower on the frontal side of the main building, on which the National Flag is hoisted on 15 August, 26 January and 1 May every year. Zoology store room, Animal House is lodged on the north\-west side terrace. There are 24 classrooms in total.
[ "### Main building", "A palatial quadrangular structure built in stone attracts everyone. It contains an open\\-air theatre with a large open space.", "Building comprises", "Basement – There are 4 medium\\-sized rooms (one room is used as a control room for University Exams.) and a storeroom.", "Ground floor – It houses Principal and Vice\\-Principal's offices, Administrative Office, Geography Department, Staff Common Room, Ladies Common Room, Library, Departments of Botany, Mathematics, N.C.C. Office with a separate entrance, 3 big classrooms, 1 small classroom and a Strong\\-room for University's Central Assessment Programme. Also, an open\\-air theatre is located on this floor, where the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony takes place.", "First floor – There are 7 big\\-sized rooms and my medium\\-sized room. Department of History, Statistics, Hindi, English, Marathi, Economics, Physics and Zoology are located on this floor.", "Terrace – There is a tower on the frontal side of the main building, on which the National Flag is hoisted on 15 August, 26 January and 1 May every year. Zoology store room, Animal House is lodged on the north\\-west side terrace.", "There are 24 classrooms in total.", "" ]
During and after the Gold Rush ------------------------------ The discovery of gold at [Sutter's Mill](/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill "Sutter's Mill") in 1848, brought the [Forty\-Niners](/wiki/California_Gold_Rush%23Forty-niners "California Gold Rush#Forty-niners") to California in search of riches during the [California Gold Rush](/wiki/California_Gold_Rush "California Gold Rush"). For the next ten years, these prospectors spread from the original [Gold Country](/wiki/Gold_Country "Gold Country") region of the [Sierra Nevada](/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28U.S.%29 "Sierra Nevada (U.S.)") throughout the state. Discovery of gold near [Yreka, California](/wiki/Yreka%2C_California "Yreka, California") in 1851 greatly increased the traffic between California's [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 "Central Valley (California)") and Yreka, and north into [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). Packers with mule trains joined the prospectors heading north, following existing [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") foot trails through rugged mountains, including the Sacramento River canyon. A rustic wayside hostel for these travelers was the first permanent habitation on the site, established in the early 1850s. During this same time, a band of Wintu, fleeing the predation of the Forty\-Niners on the [Trinity River](/wiki/Trinity_River_%28California%29 "Trinity River (California)"), crossed the mountains, and settled near the springs. In about 1855, a toll bridge crossing the Sacramento River was built on the site by pioneers [Ross McCloud](/wiki/Ross_McCloud "Ross McCloud") and Mary Campbell McCloud. During the next 30 years, the first stagecoach road between the Central Valley and Oregon passed through the site and a more substantial inn was developed, with a covered "springhouse" to allow the public to enjoy the "soda water" from the mineral springs (on the far right in the image above.) Notably, the name "[Dolly Varden trout](/wiki/Dolly_Varden_trout "Dolly Varden trout")" was first given to a colorful local fish species by Elda McCloud, the daughter of Ross and Mary McCloud. The arrival of the [Central Pacific railroad](/wiki/Central_Pacific_Railroad "Central Pacific Railroad") in 1886 heralded still further expansion of the inn. Now known as the Upper Soda Springs Resort, it was a destination for well\-to\-do [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_Era "Victorian Era") travelers who would come to "take the waters" at the mineral springs. With the increasing usage of the automobile in the 20th century, vacation tastes changed, and the Resort closed by 1920\. The property was subdivided, and became private residences and businesses.
[ "During and after the Gold Rush\n------------------------------", "The discovery of gold at [Sutter's Mill](/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill \"Sutter's Mill\") in 1848, brought the [Forty\\-Niners](/wiki/California_Gold_Rush%23Forty-niners \"California Gold Rush#Forty-niners\") to California in search of riches during the [California Gold Rush](/wiki/California_Gold_Rush \"California Gold Rush\"). For the next ten years, these prospectors spread from the original [Gold Country](/wiki/Gold_Country \"Gold Country\") region of the [Sierra Nevada](/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28U.S.%29 \"Sierra Nevada (U.S.)\") throughout the state. Discovery of gold near [Yreka, California](/wiki/Yreka%2C_California \"Yreka, California\") in 1851 greatly increased the traffic between California's [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 \"Central Valley (California)\") and Yreka, and north into [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\").", "Packers with mule trains joined the prospectors heading north, following existing [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") foot trails through rugged mountains, including the Sacramento River canyon. A rustic wayside hostel for these travelers was the first permanent habitation on the site, established in the early 1850s. During this same time, a band of Wintu, fleeing the predation of the Forty\\-Niners on the [Trinity River](/wiki/Trinity_River_%28California%29 \"Trinity River (California)\"), crossed the mountains, and settled near the springs.", "In about 1855, a toll bridge crossing the Sacramento River was built on the site by pioneers [Ross McCloud](/wiki/Ross_McCloud \"Ross McCloud\") and Mary Campbell McCloud. During the next 30 years, the first stagecoach road between the Central Valley and Oregon passed through the site and a more substantial inn was developed, with a covered \"springhouse\" to allow the public to enjoy the \"soda water\" from the mineral springs (on the far right in the image above.) Notably, the name \"[Dolly Varden trout](/wiki/Dolly_Varden_trout \"Dolly Varden trout\")\" was first given to a colorful local fish species by Elda McCloud, the daughter of Ross and Mary McCloud.", "The arrival of the [Central Pacific railroad](/wiki/Central_Pacific_Railroad \"Central Pacific Railroad\") in 1886 heralded still further expansion of the inn. Now known as the Upper Soda Springs Resort, it was a destination for well\\-to\\-do [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_Era \"Victorian Era\") travelers who would come to \"take the waters\" at the mineral springs.", "With the increasing usage of the automobile in the 20th century, vacation tastes changed, and the Resort closed by 1920\\. The property was subdivided, and became private residences and businesses.", "" ]
Career ------ Making his debut in 2002 after being drafted by the Hawks at pick 43 in the [2000 AFL Draft](/wiki/2000_AFL_Draft "2000 AFL Draft"), Williams was originally a small forward, but coach [Alastair Clarkson](/wiki/Alastair_Clarkson "Alastair Clarkson") found that he was more useful as a full forward during the [2005 season](/wiki/2005_AFL_season "2005 AFL season"), where he kicked 63 goals, making him the leading goal kicker of the club.{{cite book\|title\=Mighty Fighting Hawks\|last1\=Blake\|first1\=Martin\|publisher\=Penguin Books\|isbn\=978\-0143797234\|year\=2016\|page\=47}} Known for his flamboyance, pace and use of the "shotgun", a trademark celebration he used to use after kicking a goal, Williams was one of a number of young players at Hawthorn. Williams finished 2006 with a total of 60 goals, again becoming was the leading goalkicker at the Hawks. A knee injury cut short his 2007 season after only four games leaving him stranded on 13 goals. Williams attracted controversy in 2008 when he made a choking gesture targeted at then\-[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club "Port Adelaide Football Club") coach, [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 "Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)"). This was in reference to the then\-Port Adelaide coach's famous choking gesture when the Power won the [2004 Premiership](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final "2004 AFL Grand Final"). Williams was warned that he would be "shown the door" if he performed such an action again. In the [2008 Grand Final](/wiki/2008_AFL_Grand_Final "2008 AFL Grand Final"), Williams and [Stuart Dew](/wiki/Stuart_Dew "Stuart Dew") kicked four goals in three minutes to put Hawthorn in a winning position late in the third quarter. Williams' three goals was the most by any player during the Grand Final. In 2009, Williams injured his knee and missed almost half of that season's games. The 2009 post\-season trade week saw Williams traded to Essendon in a complex trade involving four clubs. He had a disappointing debut game for Essendon, when the Bombers were beaten by [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") at the [MCG](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"). It was not a great night for Williams as he gathered just eight disposals and was kept scoreless in the match. In the twilight of his career, Williams was unable to gain senior selection and played with Essendon's [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League") affiliate the [Bendigo Bombers](/wiki/Bendigo_Bombers "Bendigo Bombers"), until his retirement which was announced on 25 July 2011\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/afl/afl\-news/mark\-williams\-forced\-into\-afl\-retirement\-20110725\-1hwcj.html\|title \= Mark Williams forced into AFL retirement\|date \= 25 July 2011}} Williams agreed to play with Ballan in the [Central Highlands Football League](/wiki/Central_Highlands_Football_League "Central Highlands Football League") for 2012 and 2013\.O'Neill, David (4 April 2012 [Williams signs with Ballan](http://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au/article/2012/04/04/464561_country-footy.html) Williams became the inaugural coach of [Western Region Football League](/wiki/Western_Region_Football_League "Western Region Football League") club Newport Power at the end of 2015\. In his first season in charge, he steered the club to premiership success.{{cite web \|title\=08: Where are they now? \|url\=http://www.hawthornfc.com.au/sites/Hawthorn/news/2018\-06\-06/08\-where\-are\-they\-now \|publisher\=Hawthorn Football Club \|access\-date\=27 July 2018}}
[ "Career\n------", "Making his debut in 2002 after being drafted by the Hawks at pick 43 in the [2000 AFL Draft](/wiki/2000_AFL_Draft \"2000 AFL Draft\"), Williams was originally a small forward, but coach [Alastair Clarkson](/wiki/Alastair_Clarkson \"Alastair Clarkson\") found that he was more useful as a full forward during the [2005 season](/wiki/2005_AFL_season \"2005 AFL season\"), where he kicked 63 goals, making him the leading goal kicker of the club.{{cite book\\|title\\=Mighty Fighting Hawks\\|last1\\=Blake\\|first1\\=Martin\\|publisher\\=Penguin Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0143797234\\|year\\=2016\\|page\\=47}} Known for his flamboyance, pace and use of the \"shotgun\", a trademark celebration he used to use after kicking a goal, Williams was one of a number of young players at Hawthorn.", "Williams finished 2006 with a total of 60 goals, again becoming was the leading goalkicker at the Hawks. A knee injury cut short his 2007 season after only four games leaving him stranded on 13 goals.", "Williams attracted controversy in 2008 when he made a choking gesture targeted at then\\-[Port Adelaide](/wiki/Port_Adelaide_Football_Club \"Port Adelaide Football Club\") coach, [Mark Williams](/wiki/Mark_Williams_%28Australian_footballer_born_1958%29 \"Mark Williams (Australian footballer born 1958)\"). This was in reference to the then\\-Port Adelaide coach's famous choking gesture when the Power won the [2004 Premiership](/wiki/2004_AFL_Grand_Final \"2004 AFL Grand Final\"). Williams was warned that he would be \"shown the door\" if he performed such an action again.", "In the [2008 Grand Final](/wiki/2008_AFL_Grand_Final \"2008 AFL Grand Final\"), Williams and [Stuart Dew](/wiki/Stuart_Dew \"Stuart Dew\") kicked four goals in three minutes to put Hawthorn in a winning position late in the third quarter. Williams' three goals was the most by any player during the Grand Final.", "In 2009, Williams injured his knee and missed almost half of that season's games.", "The 2009 post\\-season trade week saw Williams traded to Essendon in a complex trade involving four clubs. He had a disappointing debut game for Essendon, when the Bombers were beaten by [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") at the [MCG](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"). It was not a great night for Williams as he gathered just eight disposals and was kept scoreless in the match.", "In the twilight of his career, Williams was unable to gain senior selection and played with Essendon's [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\") affiliate the [Bendigo Bombers](/wiki/Bendigo_Bombers \"Bendigo Bombers\"), until his retirement which was announced on 25 July 2011\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/afl/afl\\-news/mark\\-williams\\-forced\\-into\\-afl\\-retirement\\-20110725\\-1hwcj.html\\|title \\= Mark Williams forced into AFL retirement\\|date \\= 25 July 2011}}", "Williams agreed to play with Ballan in the [Central Highlands Football League](/wiki/Central_Highlands_Football_League \"Central Highlands Football League\") for 2012 and 2013\\.O'Neill, David (4 April 2012 [Williams signs with Ballan](http://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au/article/2012/04/04/464561_country-footy.html)", "Williams became the inaugural coach of [Western Region Football League](/wiki/Western_Region_Football_League \"Western Region Football League\") club Newport Power at the end of 2015\\. In his first season in charge, he steered the club to premiership success.{{cite web \\|title\\=08: Where are they now? \\|url\\=http://www.hawthornfc.com.au/sites/Hawthorn/news/2018\\-06\\-06/08\\-where\\-are\\-they\\-now \\|publisher\\=Hawthorn Football Club \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2018}}", "" ]
Criticism --------- The *deus ex machina* device is often criticized as inartistic, too convenient, and overly simplistic. However, champions of the device say that it opens up ideological and artistic possibilities.{{Cite journal \|last\=Vaatmann \|first\=Veiko \|date\=2022\-07\-01 \|title\=In defence of deus ex machina \|url\=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/intellect/josc/2022/00000013/00000002/art00002;jsessionid\=4piirddiqfbob.x\-ic\-live\-02 \|journal\=Journal of Screenwriting \|volume\=13 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=155–167 \|doi\=10\.1386/josc\_00091\_1\|s2cid\=252424778 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Breton \|first1\=Rob \|title\=Ghosts in the Machina: Plotting in Chartist and Working\-Class Fiction \|journal\=Victorian Studies \|date\=Summer 2005 \|volume\=47 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=557–575 \|doi\=10\.1353/vic.2006\.0003}} ### Ancient criticism [Antiphanes](/wiki/Antiphanes_%28comic_poet%29 "Antiphanes (comic poet)") was one of the device's earliest critics. He believed that the use of the *deus ex machina* was a sign that the playwright was unable to properly manage the complications of his plot.{{cite journal \|last1\=Handley \|first1\=Miriam \|title\=Shaw's response to the deus ex machina: From the Quintessence of Ibsenism to ''Heartbreak House'' \|journal\=Theatre: Ancient \& Modern, January 1999 Conference \| date\=January 1999 \|isbn\=9780749285777 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rfUCAgAACAAJ}} {{blockquote\|when they don't know what to say and have completely given up on the play just like a finger they lift the machine and the spectators are satisfied. \| Antiphanes}} Another critical reference to the device can be found in [Plato](/wiki/Plato "Plato")'s dialogue *[Cratylus](/wiki/Cratylus_%28dialogue%29 "Cratylus (dialogue)")*, 425d, though it is made in the context of an argument unrelated to drama. [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle") criticized the device in his *[Poetics](/wiki/Poetics_%28Aristotle%29 "Poetics (Aristotle)")*, where he argued that the resolution of a plot must arise internally, following from previous action of the play:Janko (1987, 20\) {{blockquote\|In the characters, too, exactly as in the structure of the incidents, \[the poet] ought always to seek what is either necessary or probable, so that it is either necessary or probable that a person of such\-and\-such a sort say or do things of the same sort, and it is either necessary or probable that this \[incident] happen after that one. It is obvious that the solutions of plots, too, should come about as a result of the plot itself, and not from a contrivance, as in the ''Medea'' and in the passage about sailing home in the ''\[\[Iliad]]''. A contrivance must be used for matters outside the drama — either previous events, which are beyond human knowledge, or later ones that need to be foretold or announced. For we grant that the gods can see everything. There should be nothing improbable in the incidents; otherwise, it should be outside the tragedy, e.g., that in \[\[Sophocles]]' ''\[\[Oedipus Rex\|Oedipus]]''. \|''\[\[Poetics (Aristotle)\|Poetics]]'' \|(1454a33–1454b9\) }} Aristotle praised Euripides, however, for generally ending his plays with bad fortune, which he viewed as correct in tragedy, and somewhat excused the intervention of a deity by suggesting that "astonishment" should be sought in tragic drama:*Poetics* 11\.5, Penguin (1996, 45\). {{blockquote\|Irrationalities should be referred to what people say: That is one solution, and also sometimes that it is not irrational, since it is probable that improbable things will happen.}} Such a device was referred to by [Horace](/wiki/Horace "Horace") in his *[Ars Poetica](/wiki/Ars_Poetica_%28Horace%29 "Ars Poetica (Horace)")* (lines 191–2\), where he instructs poets that they should never resort to a "god from the machine" to resolve their plots "unless a difficulty worthy of a god's unraveling should happen" \[*nec deus intersit, nisi dignus uindice nodus inciderit; nec quarta loqui persona laboret*].{{cite web \|url\=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/essay/237830?page\=3 \|title\=Ars Poetica by Horace \|date\=21 September 2017 \|website\=Poetry Foundation}} ### Modern criticism Following Aristotle, Renaissance critics continued to view the *deus ex machina* as an inept plot device, although it continued to be employed by Renaissance dramatists. Toward the end of the 19th century, [Friedrich Nietzsche](/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche") criticized Euripides for making tragedy an optimistic [genre](/wiki/Genre "Genre") by use of the device, and was highly skeptical of the "Greek cheerfulness", prompting what he viewed as the plays' "blissful delight in life".Nietzsche (2003, 85\). The *deus ex machina* as Nietzsche saw it was symptomatic of [Socratic](/wiki/Socrates "Socrates") culture, which valued knowledge over [Dionysiac](/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian "Apollonian and Dionysian") music and ultimately caused the death of tragedy:Nietzsche (2003, 84–86\). {{blockquote\| But the new non\-Dionysiac spirit is most clearly apparent in the ''endings'' of the new dramas. At the end of the old tragedies there was a sense of metaphysical conciliation without which it is impossible to imagine our taking delight in tragedy; perhaps the conciliatory tones from another world echo most purely in ''\[\[Oedipus at Colonus]]''. Now, once tragedy had lost the genius of music, tragedy in the strictest sense was dead: for where was that metaphysical consolation now to be found? Hence an earthly resolution for tragic dissonance was sought; the hero, having been adequately tormented by fate, won his well\-earned reward in a stately marriage and tokens of divine honour. The hero had become a gladiator, granted freedom once he had been satisfactorily flayed and scarred. Metaphysical consolation had been ousted by the ''deus ex machina''.\|Friedrich Nietzsche}} Nietzsche argued that the *deus ex machina* creates a false sense of consolation that ought not to be sought in phenomena.Nietzsche (2003, 80\). His denigration of the plot device has prevailed in critical opinion. In *Euripides the Rationalist* (1895\), [Arthur Woollgar Verrall](/wiki/Arthur_Woollgar_Verrall "Arthur Woollgar Verrall") surveyed and recorded other late 19th\-century responses to the device. He recorded that some of the critical responses to the term referred to it as 'burlesque', 'coup de théâtre', and 'catastrophe'. Verrall notes that critics have a dismissive response to authors who deploy the device in their writings. He comes to the conclusion that critics feel that the *deus ex machina* is evidence of the author's attempt to ruin the whole of his work and to prevent anyone from putting any importance on his work. However, other scholars have looked at Euripides' use of *deus ex machina* and described its use as an integral part of the plot, designed for a specific purpose. Often, Euripides' plays would begin with gods, so it is argued that it would be natural for the gods to finish the action. The conflict throughout Euripides' plays would be caused by the meddling of the gods, so it would make sense both to the playwright and to the audience of the time that the gods would resolve all conflict that they began.{{cite journal \|last1\=Abel \|first1\=D. Herbert \|title\=Euripides' Deus ex Machina: Fault or Excellence \|journal\=The Classical Journal \|date\=December 1954 \|volume\=50 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=127–130 }} Half of Euripides' eighteen extant plays end with the use of *deus ex machina*, therefore it was not simply a device to relieve the playwright of the embarrassment of a confusing plot\-ending. This device enabled him to bring about a natural and more dignified dramatic and tragic ending.{{cite book \|last1\= Flickinger \|first1\=Roy Caston \|title\=The Greek Theatre and its Drama \|date\=1926 \|publisher\=The University of Chicago Press \|location\=Chicago, Illinois}} Other champions of the device believe that it can be a spectacular agent of subversion. It can be used to undercut generic conventions and challenge cultural assumptions and the privileged role of tragedy as a literary/theatrical model. Some 20th\-century revisionist criticism suggests that *deus ex machina* cannot be viewed in these simplified terms, and contends that the device allows mortals to "probe" their relationship with the divine.Rehm (1992, 71\). [Rush Rehm](/wiki/Rush_Rehm "Rush Rehm") in particular cites examples of Greek tragedy in which the *deus ex machina* complicates the lives and attitudes of characters confronted by the deity, while simultaneously bringing the drama home to its audience. Sometimes, the unlikeliness of the *deus ex machina* plot device is employed deliberately. Note for example the comic effect generated in a scene in *[Monty Python's Life of Brian](/wiki/Monty_Python%27s_Life_of_Brian "Monty Python's Life of Brian")* when Brian, who lives in [Judea](/wiki/Judea "Judea") at the time of [Christ](/wiki/Christ_%28title%29 "Christ (title)"), is saved from a high fall by a passing [alien space\-ship](/wiki/Ancient_astronauts "Ancient astronauts").James Berardinelli, James. ["Review: Life of Brian"](http://preview.reelviews.net/movies/l/life_brian.html). Reelviews Movie Reviews. 2003
[ "Criticism\n---------", "The *deus ex machina* device is often criticized as inartistic, too convenient, and overly simplistic. However, champions of the device say that it opens up ideological and artistic possibilities.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Vaatmann \\|first\\=Veiko \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-01 \\|title\\=In defence of deus ex machina \\|url\\=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/intellect/josc/2022/00000013/00000002/art00002;jsessionid\\=4piirddiqfbob.x\\-ic\\-live\\-02 \\|journal\\=Journal of Screenwriting \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=155–167 \\|doi\\=10\\.1386/josc\\_00091\\_1\\|s2cid\\=252424778 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Breton \\|first1\\=Rob \\|title\\=Ghosts in the Machina: Plotting in Chartist and Working\\-Class Fiction \\|journal\\=Victorian Studies \\|date\\=Summer 2005 \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=557–575 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/vic.2006\\.0003}}", "### Ancient criticism", "[Antiphanes](/wiki/Antiphanes_%28comic_poet%29 \"Antiphanes (comic poet)\") was one of the device's earliest critics. He believed that the use of the *deus ex machina* was a sign that the playwright was unable to properly manage the complications of his plot.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Handley \\|first1\\=Miriam \\|title\\=Shaw's response to the deus ex machina: From the Quintessence of Ibsenism to ''Heartbreak House'' \\|journal\\=Theatre: Ancient \\& Modern, January 1999 Conference \\| date\\=January 1999 \\|isbn\\=9780749285777 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rfUCAgAACAAJ}}\n{{blockquote\\|when they don't know what to say", "and have completely given up on the play", "just like a finger they lift the machine", "and the spectators are satisfied. \\| Antiphanes}}", "Another critical reference to the device can be found in [Plato](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\")'s dialogue *[Cratylus](/wiki/Cratylus_%28dialogue%29 \"Cratylus (dialogue)\")*, 425d, though it is made in the context of an argument unrelated to drama.", "[Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") criticized the device in his *[Poetics](/wiki/Poetics_%28Aristotle%29 \"Poetics (Aristotle)\")*, where he argued that the resolution of a plot must arise internally, following from previous action of the play:Janko (1987, 20\\)\n{{blockquote\\|In the characters, too, exactly as in the structure of the incidents, \\[the poet] ought always to seek what is either necessary or probable, so that it is either necessary or probable that a person of such\\-and\\-such a sort say or do things of the same sort, and it is either necessary or probable that this \\[incident] happen after that one. It is obvious that the solutions of plots, too, should come about as a result of the plot itself, and not from a contrivance, as in the ''Medea'' and in the passage about sailing home in the ''\\[\\[Iliad]]''. A contrivance must be used for matters outside the drama — either previous events, which are beyond human knowledge, or later ones that need to be foretold or announced. For we grant that the gods can see everything. There should be nothing improbable in the incidents; otherwise, it should be outside the tragedy, e.g., that in \\[\\[Sophocles]]' ''\\[\\[Oedipus Rex\\|Oedipus]]''. \\|''\\[\\[Poetics (Aristotle)\\|Poetics]]'' \\|(1454a33–1454b9\\) }}", "Aristotle praised Euripides, however, for generally ending his plays with bad fortune, which he viewed as correct in tragedy, and somewhat excused the intervention of a deity by suggesting that \"astonishment\" should be sought in tragic drama:*Poetics* 11\\.5, Penguin (1996, 45\\).\n{{blockquote\\|Irrationalities should be referred to what people say: That is one solution, and also sometimes that it is not irrational, since it is probable that improbable things will happen.}}", "Such a device was referred to by [Horace](/wiki/Horace \"Horace\") in his *[Ars Poetica](/wiki/Ars_Poetica_%28Horace%29 \"Ars Poetica (Horace)\")* (lines 191–2\\), where he instructs poets that they should never resort to a \"god from the machine\" to resolve their plots \"unless a difficulty worthy of a god's unraveling should happen\" \\[*nec deus intersit, nisi dignus uindice nodus inciderit; nec quarta loqui persona laboret*].{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/essay/237830?page\\=3 \\|title\\=Ars Poetica by Horace \\|date\\=21 September 2017 \\|website\\=Poetry Foundation}}", "### Modern criticism", "Following Aristotle, Renaissance critics continued to view the *deus ex machina* as an inept plot device, although it continued to be employed by Renaissance dramatists.", "Toward the end of the 19th century, [Friedrich Nietzsche](/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche \"Friedrich Nietzsche\") criticized Euripides for making tragedy an optimistic [genre](/wiki/Genre \"Genre\") by use of the device, and was highly skeptical of the \"Greek cheerfulness\", prompting what he viewed as the plays' \"blissful delight in life\".Nietzsche (2003, 85\\). The *deus ex machina* as Nietzsche saw it was symptomatic of [Socratic](/wiki/Socrates \"Socrates\") culture, which valued knowledge over [Dionysiac](/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian \"Apollonian and Dionysian\") music and ultimately caused the death of tragedy:Nietzsche (2003, 84–86\\).\n{{blockquote\\| But the new non\\-Dionysiac spirit is most clearly apparent in the ''endings'' of the new dramas. At the end of the old tragedies there was a sense of metaphysical conciliation without which it is impossible to imagine our taking delight in tragedy; perhaps the conciliatory tones from another world echo most purely in ''\\[\\[Oedipus at Colonus]]''. Now, once tragedy had lost the genius of music, tragedy in the strictest sense was dead: for where was that metaphysical consolation now to be found? Hence an earthly resolution for tragic dissonance was sought; the hero, having been adequately tormented by fate, won his well\\-earned reward in a stately marriage and tokens of divine honour. The hero had become a gladiator, granted freedom once he had been satisfactorily flayed and scarred. Metaphysical consolation had been ousted by the ''deus ex machina''.\\|Friedrich Nietzsche}}\nNietzsche argued that the *deus ex machina* creates a false sense of consolation that ought not to be sought in phenomena.Nietzsche (2003, 80\\). His denigration of the plot device has prevailed in critical opinion.", "In *Euripides the Rationalist* (1895\\), [Arthur Woollgar Verrall](/wiki/Arthur_Woollgar_Verrall \"Arthur Woollgar Verrall\") surveyed and recorded other late 19th\\-century responses to the device. He recorded that some of the critical responses to the term referred to it as 'burlesque', 'coup de théâtre', and 'catastrophe'. Verrall notes that critics have a dismissive response to authors who deploy the device in their writings. He comes to the conclusion that critics feel that the *deus ex machina* is evidence of the author's attempt to ruin the whole of his work and to prevent anyone from putting any importance on his work.", "However, other scholars have looked at Euripides' use of *deus ex machina* and described its use as an integral part of the plot, designed for a specific purpose. Often, Euripides' plays would begin with gods, so it is argued that it would be natural for the gods to finish the action. The conflict throughout Euripides' plays would be caused by the meddling of the gods, so it would make sense both to the playwright and to the audience of the time that the gods would resolve all conflict that they began.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Abel \\|first1\\=D. Herbert \\|title\\=Euripides' Deus ex Machina: Fault or Excellence \\|journal\\=The Classical Journal \\|date\\=December 1954 \\|volume\\=50 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=127–130 }} Half of Euripides' eighteen extant plays end with the use of *deus ex machina*, therefore it was not simply a device to relieve the playwright of the embarrassment of a confusing plot\\-ending. This device enabled him to bring about a natural and more dignified dramatic and tragic ending.{{cite book \\|last1\\= Flickinger \\|first1\\=Roy Caston \\|title\\=The Greek Theatre and its Drama \\|date\\=1926 \\|publisher\\=The University of Chicago Press \\|location\\=Chicago, Illinois}}", "Other champions of the device believe that it can be a spectacular agent of subversion. It can be used to undercut generic conventions and challenge cultural assumptions and the privileged role of tragedy as a literary/theatrical model.", "Some 20th\\-century revisionist criticism suggests that *deus ex machina* cannot be viewed in these simplified terms, and contends that the device allows mortals to \"probe\" their relationship with the divine.Rehm (1992, 71\\). [Rush Rehm](/wiki/Rush_Rehm \"Rush Rehm\") in particular cites examples of Greek tragedy in which the *deus ex machina* complicates the lives and attitudes of characters confronted by the deity, while simultaneously bringing the drama home to its audience. Sometimes, the unlikeliness of the *deus ex machina* plot device is employed deliberately. Note for example the comic effect generated in a scene in *[Monty Python's Life of Brian](/wiki/Monty_Python%27s_Life_of_Brian \"Monty Python's Life of Brian\")* when Brian, who lives in [Judea](/wiki/Judea \"Judea\") at the time of [Christ](/wiki/Christ_%28title%29 \"Christ (title)\"), is saved from a high fall by a passing [alien space\\-ship](/wiki/Ancient_astronauts \"Ancient astronauts\").James Berardinelli, James. [\"Review: Life of Brian\"](http://preview.reelviews.net/movies/l/life_brian.html). Reelviews Movie Reviews. 2003", "", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1860\= 158 \|1870\= 602 \|1880\= 715 \|1890\= 769 \|1900\= 889 \|1910\= 915 \|1920\= 976 \|1930\= 1115 \|1940\= 1297 \|1950\= 1214 \|1960\= 1183 \|1970\= 1236 \|1980\= 2175 \|1990\= 2386 \|2000\= 4834 \|2010\= 9128 \|2020\= 13725 \|estyear\= \|estimate\= \|estref\= \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 4,834 people, 1,304 households, and 1,155 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 1,848\.8 people per square mile (715\.1/km2). There were 1,364 housing units at an average density of 521\.7 per square mile (201\.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91\.54% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.17% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.62% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 6\.08% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.37% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 8\.56% of the population. There were 1,304 households, out of which 61\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 77\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 11\.4% were non\-families. 9\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3\.71 and the average family size was 3\.97\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 42\.3% under the age of 18, 11\.3% from 18 to 24, 29\.1% from 25 to 44, 12\.4% from 45 to 64, and 4\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99\.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $44,531, and the median income for a family was $45,323\. Males had a median income of $35,076 versus $20,581 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $13,725\. About 1\.9% of families and 2\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 1\.6% of those under age 18 and 6\.1% of those age 65 or over. Main Street has a few stores and restaurants but no [big\-box stores](/wiki/Big-box_store "Big-box store").
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 158\n\\|1870\\= 602\n\\|1880\\= 715\n\\|1890\\= 769\n\\|1900\\= 889\n\\|1910\\= 915\n\\|1920\\= 976\n\\|1930\\= 1115\n\\|1940\\= 1297\n\\|1950\\= 1214\n\\|1960\\= 1183\n\\|1970\\= 1236\n\\|1980\\= 2175\n\\|1990\\= 2386\n\\|2000\\= 4834\n\\|2010\\= 9128\n\\|2020\\= 13725\n\\|estyear\\=\n\\|estimate\\=\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 4,834 people, 1,304 households, and 1,155 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 1,848\\.8 people per square mile (715\\.1/km2). There were 1,364 housing units at an average density of 521\\.7 per square mile (201\\.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91\\.54% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.62% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 6\\.08% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.37% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 8\\.56% of the population.", "There were 1,304 households, out of which 61\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 77\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 11\\.4% were non\\-families. 9\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3\\.71 and the average family size was 3\\.97\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 42\\.3% under the age of 18, 11\\.3% from 18 to 24, 29\\.1% from 25 to 44, 12\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 4\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99\\.6 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $44,531, and the median income for a family was $45,323\\. Males had a median income of $35,076 versus $20,581 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $13,725\\. About 1\\.9% of families and 2\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 1\\.6% of those under age 18 and 6\\.1% of those age 65 or over.", "Main Street has a few stores and restaurants but no [big\\-box stores](/wiki/Big-box_store \"Big-box store\").", "" ]
History ------- The father of the brothers, Hasse von Hertzen, played guitar in an early sixties band called The Savages and later in [The Roosters](/wiki/The_Roosters "The Roosters"). Their uncle Lasse von Hertzen was a member of a well\-known 1970s folk band in Scandinavia, [Cumulus](/wiki/Cumulus_%28yhtye%29 "Cumulus (yhtye)"). Von Hertzen Brothers released their first full\-length album [Experience](/wiki/Experience_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothersin_albumi%29 "Experience (Von Hertzen Brothersin albumi)") in 2001 on which most of the instruments were played by the brothers themselves. Mikko played the drum parts as well as most of the main vocals. The album was released by an indie label, Zen Garden. In the spring of 2006 the band released their second album titled [Approach](/wiki/Approach "Approach") with [Sami Kuoppamäki](/wiki/Sami_Kuoppam%C3%A4ki "Sami Kuoppamäki") on the drums. The album achieved gold sales in Finland and won the "Emma" award for "Best Rock Album of the Year" in [Emma\-gaala](/wiki/Emma-gaala "Emma-gaala"),[\[fi]](/wiki/Emma-gaala "Emma-gaala") the primary recording industry awards event in Finland. The album's singles "Let Thy Will Be Done", "Kiss a Wish", and "Disciple of the Sun" gained notable airplay on Finnish radio and became the band's first hits. On 14 May 2008 the band released their third album, [Love Remains The Same](/wiki/Love_Remains_the_Same "Love Remains the Same") which opened at No 1 on the [Finnish national sales chart](/wiki/Suomen_virallinen_lista "Suomen virallinen lista"). The album remained No 1 for three continuous weeks and reached [gold sales](/wiki/Kultalevy "Kultalevy") in two months. The band recorded the sessions at Dynasty Studios in Helsinki and a video studio diary is available of the recordings on YouTube. The release followed a full\-length tour in Finland and shows in Italy, Denmark, Japan and The Netherlands. In 2011 the band's own label, Doing Being Music, signed a licensing deal with Universal Music and after a three\-year break the band released its fourth full\-length studio album [Stars Aligned](/wiki/Stars_Aligned "Stars Aligned"). It was produced together with James Spectrum, known from his project [Pepe Deluxé](/wiki/Pepe_Delux%C3%A9 "Pepe Deluxé"). The album opened at No 1 on the national album sales chart and later reached gold status. Due to the contract with Universal, the album was the first VHB album to be internationally published and distributed. Consequently, the band started touring abroad to eastern Europe and Scandinavia in support of bands like [Pain Of Salvation](/wiki/Pain_of_Salvation "Pain of Salvation") and [Opeth](/wiki/Opeth "Opeth"). Stars Aligned was especially well received in the UK and the band has played there frequently since. Some of their notable support performances include [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters "Foo Fighters"), 30 Seconds to Mars, [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young "Neil Young") and [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top"). In September 2011 the band and [Rubik](/wiki/Rubik_%28band%29 "Rubik (band)") performed a unique sold\-out show "A Night At The Huvila" based on the music of [Queen](/wiki/Queen_%28band%29 "Queen (band)"). In March 2013 the brothers released their fifth album, titled "[Nine Lives](/wiki/Nine_Lives_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 "Nine Lives (Von Hertzen Brothers album)")". As the first band in Finland, the release performance of the album was streamed worldwide in real time through YouTube. The album opened at No 2 on the national sales chart and at No 31 on the UK Rock Album Chart. The album was nominated in the "Best Rock Album Of The Year" category in Classic Rock magazine. The first single of the album "Flowers and Rust" won the anthem of the year prize at the "Progressive Rock Awards" in London in September 2013\. The other two singles of the album, "Insomniac" and "Coming home" gained notable airplay in Rock\-oriented radio stations in the UK and Finland. The album artwork, a painting of nine tiger heads by [Samuli Heimonen](/wiki/Samuli_Heimonen "Samuli Heimonen"), gave the brothers "godfather" status in ALTA (Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance) for being involved with protecting and preserving the living conditions of the Amur Tiger. After touring in Finland and in the UK for the whole of 2013 and the first part of 2014, the brothers started writing new material. By May 2014 it was decided that the sixth studio album was to be recorded with GGGarth ([Garth Richardson](/wiki/Garth_Richardson "Garth Richardson")) in Vancouver, Canada. GGGarth, who was to produce and oversee the recordings of the album, flew over to Helsinki in August for Pre\-production. The recordings started on 1 September at the Farm Studios (formally known as Little Mountain Studios) in Vancouver. The album was named *[New Day Rising](/wiki/New_Day_Rising_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 "New Day Rising (Von Hertzen Brothers album)")* after the opening track. It was mastered by [Ted Jensen](/wiki/Ted_Jensen "Ted Jensen") at [Sterling Sound](/wiki/Sterling_Sound "Sterling Sound"), NYC and released worldwide by [Spinefarm](/wiki/Spinefarm "Spinefarm") Records in March 2015\. The album cover was again a painting by [Samuli Heimonen](/wiki/Samuli_Heimonen "Samuli Heimonen"). In 2016, when the New Day Rising tour was over, the band announced that the would be taking an indefinite hiatus. The break did not last long as in October 2017 von Hertzen Brothers came out with their seventh album *[War Is Over](/wiki/War_Is_Over_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 "War Is Over (Von Hertzen Brothers album)")*, which was released by [Mascot Label Group](/wiki/Mascot_Label_Group "Mascot Label Group"). Also new collaborations with [ITB (International Talent Booking)](/wiki/ITB_%28International_Talent_Booking%29 "ITB (International Talent Booking)") and [7pm management](/wiki/7pm_management "7pm management") were established. The album release was accompanied by a headlining tour in the UK which continues in Finland through the end of 2017\. In the autumn of 2020 the brothers announced they have been writing music for the eight studio album and on 13 December they announced that the album titled *[Red Alert in the Blue Forest](/wiki/Red_Alert_in_the_Blue_Forest_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 "Red Alert in the Blue Forest (Von Hertzen Brothers album)")* will be released on March 18, 2022\.
[ "History\n-------", "The father of the brothers, Hasse von Hertzen, played guitar in an early sixties band called The Savages and later in [The Roosters](/wiki/The_Roosters \"The Roosters\"). Their uncle Lasse von Hertzen was a member of a well\\-known 1970s folk band in Scandinavia, [Cumulus](/wiki/Cumulus_%28yhtye%29 \"Cumulus (yhtye)\").", "Von Hertzen Brothers released their first full\\-length album [Experience](/wiki/Experience_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothersin_albumi%29 \"Experience (Von Hertzen Brothersin albumi)\") in 2001 on which most of the instruments were played by the brothers themselves. Mikko played the drum parts as well as most of the main vocals. The album was released by an indie label, Zen Garden.", "In the spring of 2006 the band released their second album titled [Approach](/wiki/Approach \"Approach\") with [Sami Kuoppamäki](/wiki/Sami_Kuoppam%C3%A4ki \"Sami Kuoppamäki\") on the drums. The album achieved gold sales in Finland and won the \"Emma\" award for \"Best Rock Album of the Year\" in [Emma\\-gaala](/wiki/Emma-gaala \"Emma-gaala\"),[\\[fi]](/wiki/Emma-gaala \"Emma-gaala\") the primary recording industry awards event in Finland. The album's singles \"Let Thy Will Be Done\", \"Kiss a Wish\", and \"Disciple of the Sun\" gained notable airplay on Finnish radio and became the band's first hits.", "On 14 May 2008 the band released their third album, [Love Remains The Same](/wiki/Love_Remains_the_Same \"Love Remains the Same\") which opened at No 1 on the [Finnish national sales chart](/wiki/Suomen_virallinen_lista \"Suomen virallinen lista\"). The album remained No 1 for three continuous weeks and reached [gold sales](/wiki/Kultalevy \"Kultalevy\") in two months. The band recorded the sessions at Dynasty Studios in Helsinki and a video studio diary is available of the recordings on YouTube. The release followed a full\\-length tour in Finland and shows in Italy, Denmark, Japan and The Netherlands.", "In 2011 the band's own label, Doing Being Music, signed a licensing deal with Universal Music and after a three\\-year break the band released its fourth full\\-length studio album [Stars Aligned](/wiki/Stars_Aligned \"Stars Aligned\"). It was produced together with James Spectrum, known from his project [Pepe Deluxé](/wiki/Pepe_Delux%C3%A9 \"Pepe Deluxé\"). The album opened at No 1 on the national album sales chart and later reached gold status. Due to the contract with Universal, the album was the first VHB album to be internationally published and distributed. Consequently, the band started touring abroad to eastern Europe and Scandinavia in support of bands like [Pain Of Salvation](/wiki/Pain_of_Salvation \"Pain of Salvation\") and [Opeth](/wiki/Opeth \"Opeth\"). Stars Aligned was especially well received in the UK and the band has played there frequently since. Some of their notable support performances include [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters \"Foo Fighters\"), 30 Seconds to Mars, [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young \"Neil Young\") and [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\"). In September 2011 the band and [Rubik](/wiki/Rubik_%28band%29 \"Rubik (band)\") performed a unique sold\\-out show \"A Night At The Huvila\" based on the music of [Queen](/wiki/Queen_%28band%29 \"Queen (band)\").", "In March 2013 the brothers released their fifth album, titled \"[Nine Lives](/wiki/Nine_Lives_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 \"Nine Lives (Von Hertzen Brothers album)\")\". As the first band in Finland, the release performance of the album was streamed worldwide in real time through YouTube. The album opened at No 2 on the national sales chart and at No 31 on the UK Rock Album Chart. The album was nominated in the \"Best Rock Album Of The Year\" category in Classic Rock magazine. The first single of the album \"Flowers and Rust\" won the anthem of the year prize at the \"Progressive Rock Awards\" in London in September 2013\\. The other two singles of the album, \"Insomniac\" and \"Coming home\" gained notable airplay in Rock\\-oriented radio stations in the UK and Finland. The album artwork, a painting of nine tiger heads by [Samuli Heimonen](/wiki/Samuli_Heimonen \"Samuli Heimonen\"), gave the brothers \"godfather\" status in ALTA (Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance) for being involved with protecting and preserving the living conditions of the Amur Tiger.", "After touring in Finland and in the UK for the whole of 2013 and the first part of 2014, the brothers started writing new material. By May 2014 it was decided that the sixth studio album was to be recorded with GGGarth ([Garth Richardson](/wiki/Garth_Richardson \"Garth Richardson\")) in Vancouver, Canada. GGGarth, who was to produce and oversee the recordings of the album, flew over to Helsinki in August for Pre\\-production. The recordings started on 1 September at the Farm Studios (formally known as Little Mountain Studios) in Vancouver. The album was named *[New Day Rising](/wiki/New_Day_Rising_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 \"New Day Rising (Von Hertzen Brothers album)\")* after the opening track. It was mastered by [Ted Jensen](/wiki/Ted_Jensen \"Ted Jensen\") at [Sterling Sound](/wiki/Sterling_Sound \"Sterling Sound\"), NYC and released worldwide by [Spinefarm](/wiki/Spinefarm \"Spinefarm\") Records in March 2015\\. The album cover was again a painting by [Samuli Heimonen](/wiki/Samuli_Heimonen \"Samuli Heimonen\").", "In 2016, when the New Day Rising tour was over, the band announced that the would be taking an indefinite hiatus. The break did not last long as in October 2017 von Hertzen Brothers came out with their seventh album *[War Is Over](/wiki/War_Is_Over_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 \"War Is Over (Von Hertzen Brothers album)\")*, which was released by [Mascot Label Group](/wiki/Mascot_Label_Group \"Mascot Label Group\"). Also new collaborations with [ITB (International Talent Booking)](/wiki/ITB_%28International_Talent_Booking%29 \"ITB (International Talent Booking)\") and [7pm management](/wiki/7pm_management \"7pm management\") were established. The album release was accompanied by a headlining tour in the UK which continues in Finland through the end of 2017\\.", "In the autumn of 2020 the brothers announced they have been writing music for the eight studio album and on 13 December they announced that the album titled *[Red Alert in the Blue Forest](/wiki/Red_Alert_in_the_Blue_Forest_%28Von_Hertzen_Brothers_album%29 \"Red Alert in the Blue Forest (Von Hertzen Brothers album)\")* will be released on March 18, 2022\\.", "" ]
As a Prussian Union place of worship (1830–1941\) ------------------------------------------------- [thumb\|View in 1850 from the [Collegiengebäude (Brandenburg Consistory and Kammergericht joint office building)](/wiki/Kammergericht "Kammergericht") northeastwards through Lindenstraße towards the tower stump of Jerusalem Church before its refurbish in 1878\.](/wiki/File:Berlin_Lindenstrasse_Kammergericht.jpg "Berlin Lindenstrasse Kammergericht.jpg") In 1830 the congregations merged and adopted the new denomination of the [Prussian Union](/wiki/Prussian_Union_%28Evangelical_Christian_Church%29 "Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)"). The parish federation with the congregations of the New Church ended then. In 1838 – maybe as reward for adopting the Union – [Karl Friedrich Schinkel](/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Schinkel "Karl Friedrich Schinkel") rebuilt the church on state expenses and added a new tower top, reaching the height of 72 m. In 1878/1879 Edmund Knoblauch completely restructured Jerusalem Church, only keeping its curtain walls, which were covered with a new layer of yellow bricks and decorated with terracotta forms. Inside the prayer hall were 1,400 seats, illuminated by stained glass windows and covered by a structured wooden ceiling. In the following years the congregation lost many of its parishioners because its parish became commercialised and huge edifices of publishing houses and insurances gradually superseded the prior residential buildings. The number of parishioners shrunk to 10,000 (1933\), then considered a small number for an urban congregation. Thus in July 1933 the congregation reunited with that of the New Church, reducing the number of pastors at Jerusalem Church from two to one.Hans\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., [Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (Memorial to the German Resistance)](/wiki/Memorial_to_the_German_Resistance "Memorial to the German Resistance") (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\), p. 203\. ISSN 0175\-3592\. ### During the Struggle of the Churches During the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich "Third Reich") the congregation and the umbrella, to which it belonged, fell into deep disunity (For the general outline see [Evangelical Church of the old\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union%23Under_Nazi_Reign "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union#Under Nazi Reign") and [Struggle of the Churches](/wiki/Kirchenkampf "Kirchenkampf")). The polarisation within the old\-Prussian Church started already before the Nazi takeover in 1933\. In the orderly election of the [presbyters](/wiki/Presbyter "Presbyter") and synodals on 13 November 1932 the Nazi [Faith Movement of German Christians](/wiki/Faith_Movement_of_German_Christians "Faith Movement of German Christians") ran for the first time for seats in the presbyteries of the congregations and [synods](/wiki/Synod "Synod") of the old\-Prussian [church body](/wiki/Landeskirche "Landeskirche"). The *Positive Union*, a conservative *Kirchenpartei*A Kirchenpartei (church party) in German Protestantism is a group nominating candidates in a list for church elections and compares roughly to [nominating groups](/wiki/Nominating_group "Nominating group") in the Church of Sweden. with traditions back in the 19th century, had no candidates running for presbytership in the congregation of Jerusalem Church, thus many nationalist parishioners rather voted for the *German Christians*.Peter Noss, "Schlussbetrachtung", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\), pp. 574–591, here footnote 8 on p. 590\. {{ISBN\|3\-923095\-61\-9}}. Among the congregations in the inner city of Berlin that of Jerusalem Church was one of the four, where the German Christians gained already at this time a, narrow though, majority of the seats in the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbytery_%28church_polity%29 "Presbytery (church polity)") ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Gemeindekirchenrat}}).By that election the *German Christians* gained majorities in the presbyteries of four out of 79 congregations in the inner city. The average was 28,6%, in eight the *German Christians* won about 40%, in 18 congregations less than 20% of the seats in the presbyteries. Cf. Peter Noss, "Schlussbetrachtung", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\), pp. 574–591, here p. 575\. {{ISBN\|3\-923095\-61\-9}}. [thumb\|right\|300px\|Map of the parish of Jerusalem Church and neighbouring congregations, 1925](/wiki/File:BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png "BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png") Jerusalem Church then belonged to the deanery ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Kirchenkreis}}) *Friedrichswerder I*, whose [superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28ecclesiastical%29 "Superintendent (ecclesiastical)") (cleric in chief in a deanery) Friedrich Geest (1868–1940\), pastor of confidence of [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg "Paul von Hindenburg"), held an ambiguous position as to the Nazi opposing [Confessing Church](/wiki/Confessing_Church "Confessing Church"). The liberal D. Alfred Fischer (1874–1940\), since 1901 pastor at Jerusalem Church and opposing the *German Christians*, and his younger colleague Dr. Rudolf Köhler (until May 1933\) had hard times with them dominating the presbytery since 1932\.In 1921 Alfred Fischer advanced as a member of the consistory of the ecclesiastical province of Brandenburg, bearing the title (supreme) consistorial councillor ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Konsistorialrat}}, then *Oberkonsistorialrat* as of 1930\) within the old\-Prussian Church. Cf. Debora Paffen and [Hans\-Jürgen Mende](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_Mende "Hans-Jürgen Mende"), *Die Friedhöfe vor dem Halleschen Tor. Ein Friedhofsführer*: 2 parts, Hans\-Jürgen Mende (ed.), Berlin: Edition Luisenstadt, 2003, part 2: 'Jerusalems\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof I / Jerusalems\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof II', p. 15\. {{ISBN\|3\-89542\-132\-4}}/2Hans\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\), pp. 193 and 203\. {{ISSN\|0175\-3592}}. At the unconstitutional premature re\-election of the presbyters and synodals, discretionarily decreed by [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler "Hitler") for 23 July 1933 the *German Christians* could increase their share of the seats in the presbytery to 65%. Their presbyterial speaker Walter Hartig, president (Obermeister) of Berlin's professional association of the men's tailors (Herrenschneiderinnung), tried to establish the [Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip "Führerprinzip") within the congregation.Hans\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\), p. 203\. ISSN 0175\-3592\. Fischer, being by his office as senior pastor chief executive of the presbytery, was supported in his fight by the other opposing presbyters JustizratLiterally: Justice Councillor, an honorary title granted to prominent lawyers in the period prior 1918\. Eschenbach, Köhler, Otto Nagler, the director Seibt, and the merchant Zaepke, but Fischer, being already an old man, did not stand the permanent quarrels. Following the merger with the congregation of the New Church one of its pastors, Dr. Curt Horn, started to also serve at Jerusalem Church and Horn joined in May 1934 the *German Christians*. Thus in 1934 Eschenbach, a longtime presbyter, resigned from the presbytery. Fischer retired from ministry in 1936\. Soon the *German Christians* in the presbytery fell out with each other, some siding with Hartig (now representing the radical Thuringian branch of the *German Christians*), others with Horn, blaming each other to use psychological terror and authoritarianism against each other. Horn, preserving some dignity as a pastor, requested the presbytery to reaccept Martha Fränkel (then living in Kochstraße 62\), a parishioner of Jewish descent. Geest sided with the somewhat more moderate Horn, but in 1940 the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Lutheranism%29 "Consistory (Lutheranism)") of the *March of Brandenburg* ecclesiastical province within the old\-Prussian Church decided to completely dissolve the presbytery of the united congregation of Jerusalem Church and New Church, for it had turned – with all its quarrels – incapacitated to function. After 1936 Fischer still held contact with some parishioners. Christiane Ilisch (daughter of the Protestant literary historian Dr. Heinrich Spiero, classified a Jew, meaning within the Nazi ideology a member of a genetic group not a religion, which one could choose or secede from) and her husband asked Fischer to baptise their children. The German Christian\-dominated presbytery denied it to them, regarding Christianity a religion reserved for persons of so\-called [Aryan](/wiki/Aryan "Aryan") blood and therefore to be denied to persons fully or partially of Jewish descent. Fischer thus baptised the children in a ceremony held in the Ilischs' private apartment. In 1941 Jerusalem Church, whose services after all the quarrels hardly attracted any congregants any more, was closed as a place of worship.
[ "As a Prussian Union place of worship (1830–1941\\)\n-------------------------------------------------", "[thumb\\|View in 1850 from the [Collegiengebäude (Brandenburg Consistory and Kammergericht joint office building)](/wiki/Kammergericht \"Kammergericht\") northeastwards through Lindenstraße towards the tower stump of Jerusalem Church before its refurbish in 1878\\.](/wiki/File:Berlin_Lindenstrasse_Kammergericht.jpg \"Berlin Lindenstrasse Kammergericht.jpg\") In 1830 the congregations merged and adopted the new denomination of the [Prussian Union](/wiki/Prussian_Union_%28Evangelical_Christian_Church%29 \"Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)\"). The parish federation with the congregations of the New Church ended then. In 1838 – maybe as reward for adopting the Union – [Karl Friedrich Schinkel](/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Schinkel \"Karl Friedrich Schinkel\") rebuilt the church on state expenses and added a new tower top, reaching the height of 72 m.", "In 1878/1879 Edmund Knoblauch completely restructured Jerusalem Church, only keeping its curtain walls, which were covered with a new layer of yellow bricks and decorated with terracotta forms. Inside the prayer hall were 1,400 seats, illuminated by stained glass windows and covered by a structured wooden ceiling. In the following years the congregation lost many of its parishioners because its parish became commercialised and huge edifices of publishing houses and insurances gradually superseded the prior residential buildings. The number of parishioners shrunk to 10,000 (1933\\), then considered a small number for an urban congregation. Thus in July 1933 the congregation reunited with that of the New Church, reducing the number of pastors at Jerusalem Church from two to one.Hans\\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., [Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (Memorial to the German Resistance)](/wiki/Memorial_to_the_German_Resistance \"Memorial to the German Resistance\") (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\\), p. 203\\. ISSN 0175\\-3592\\.", "### During the Struggle of the Churches", "During the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\") the congregation and the umbrella, to which it belonged, fell into deep disunity (For the general outline see [Evangelical Church of the old\\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union%23Under_Nazi_Reign \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union#Under Nazi Reign\") and [Struggle of the Churches](/wiki/Kirchenkampf \"Kirchenkampf\")). The polarisation within the old\\-Prussian Church started already before the Nazi takeover in 1933\\. In the orderly election of the [presbyters](/wiki/Presbyter \"Presbyter\") and synodals on 13 November 1932 the Nazi [Faith Movement of German Christians](/wiki/Faith_Movement_of_German_Christians \"Faith Movement of German Christians\") ran for the first time for seats in the presbyteries of the congregations and [synods](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") of the old\\-Prussian [church body](/wiki/Landeskirche \"Landeskirche\"). The *Positive Union*, a conservative *Kirchenpartei*A Kirchenpartei (church party) in German Protestantism is a group nominating candidates in a list for church elections and compares roughly to [nominating groups](/wiki/Nominating_group \"Nominating group\") in the Church of Sweden. with traditions back in the 19th century, had no candidates running for presbytership in the congregation of Jerusalem Church, thus many nationalist parishioners rather voted for the *German Christians*.Peter Noss, \"Schlussbetrachtung\", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\\), pp. 574–591, here footnote 8 on p. 590\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-923095\\-61\\-9}}. Among the congregations in the inner city of Berlin that of Jerusalem Church was one of the four, where the German Christians gained already at this time a, narrow though, majority of the seats in the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbytery_%28church_polity%29 \"Presbytery (church polity)\") ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Gemeindekirchenrat}}).By that election the *German Christians* gained majorities in the presbyteries of four out of 79 congregations in the inner city. The average was 28,6%, in eight the *German Christians* won about 40%, in 18 congregations less than 20% of the seats in the presbyteries. Cf. Peter Noss, \"Schlussbetrachtung\", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\\), pp. 574–591, here p. 575\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-923095\\-61\\-9}}.", "[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Map of the parish of Jerusalem Church and neighbouring congregations, 1925](/wiki/File:BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png \"BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png\") Jerusalem Church then belonged to the deanery ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Kirchenkreis}}) *Friedrichswerder I*, whose [superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28ecclesiastical%29 \"Superintendent (ecclesiastical)\") (cleric in chief in a deanery) Friedrich Geest (1868–1940\\), pastor of confidence of [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg \"Paul von Hindenburg\"), held an ambiguous position as to the Nazi opposing [Confessing Church](/wiki/Confessing_Church \"Confessing Church\"). The liberal D. Alfred Fischer (1874–1940\\), since 1901 pastor at Jerusalem Church and opposing the *German Christians*, and his younger colleague Dr. Rudolf Köhler (until May 1933\\) had hard times with them dominating the presbytery since 1932\\.In 1921 Alfred Fischer advanced as a member of the consistory of the ecclesiastical province of Brandenburg, bearing the title (supreme) consistorial councillor ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Konsistorialrat}}, then *Oberkonsistorialrat* as of 1930\\) within the old\\-Prussian Church. Cf. Debora Paffen and [Hans\\-Jürgen Mende](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_Mende \"Hans-Jürgen Mende\"), *Die Friedhöfe vor dem Halleschen Tor. Ein Friedhofsführer*: 2 parts, Hans\\-Jürgen Mende (ed.), Berlin: Edition Luisenstadt, 2003, part 2: 'Jerusalems\\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof I / Jerusalems\\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof II', p. 15\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-89542\\-132\\-4}}/2Hans\\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\\), pp. 193 and 203\\. {{ISSN\\|0175\\-3592}}.", "At the unconstitutional premature re\\-election of the presbyters and synodals, discretionarily decreed by [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler \"Hitler\") for 23 July 1933 the *German Christians* could increase their share of the seats in the presbytery to 65%. Their presbyterial speaker Walter Hartig, president (Obermeister) of Berlin's professional association of the men's tailors (Herrenschneiderinnung), tried to establish the [Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip \"Führerprinzip\") within the congregation.Hans\\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\\), p. 203\\. ISSN 0175\\-3592\\. Fischer, being by his office as senior pastor chief executive of the presbytery, was supported in his fight by the other opposing presbyters JustizratLiterally: Justice Councillor, an honorary title granted to prominent lawyers in the period prior 1918\\. Eschenbach, Köhler, Otto Nagler, the director Seibt, and the merchant Zaepke, but Fischer, being already an old man, did not stand the permanent quarrels.", "Following the merger with the congregation of the New Church one of its pastors, Dr. Curt Horn, started to also serve at Jerusalem Church and Horn joined in May 1934 the *German Christians*. Thus in 1934 Eschenbach, a longtime presbyter, resigned from the presbytery. Fischer retired from ministry in 1936\\.", "Soon the *German Christians* in the presbytery fell out with each other, some siding with Hartig (now representing the radical Thuringian branch of the *German Christians*), others with Horn, blaming each other to use psychological terror and authoritarianism against each other. Horn, preserving some dignity as a pastor, requested the presbytery to reaccept Martha Fränkel (then living in Kochstraße 62\\), a parishioner of Jewish descent. Geest sided with the somewhat more moderate Horn, but in 1940 the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Lutheranism%29 \"Consistory (Lutheranism)\") of the *March of Brandenburg* ecclesiastical province within the old\\-Prussian Church decided to completely dissolve the presbytery of the united congregation of Jerusalem Church and New Church, for it had turned – with all its quarrels – incapacitated to function.", "After 1936 Fischer still held contact with some parishioners. Christiane Ilisch (daughter of the Protestant literary historian Dr. Heinrich Spiero, classified a Jew, meaning within the Nazi ideology a member of a genetic group not a religion, which one could choose or secede from) and her husband asked Fischer to baptise their children. The German Christian\\-dominated presbytery denied it to them, regarding Christianity a religion reserved for persons of so\\-called [Aryan](/wiki/Aryan \"Aryan\") blood and therefore to be denied to persons fully or partially of Jewish descent. Fischer thus baptised the children in a ceremony held in the Ilischs' private apartment. In 1941 Jerusalem Church, whose services after all the quarrels hardly attracted any congregants any more, was closed as a place of worship.", "" ]
### During the Struggle of the Churches During the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich "Third Reich") the congregation and the umbrella, to which it belonged, fell into deep disunity (For the general outline see [Evangelical Church of the old\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union%23Under_Nazi_Reign "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union#Under Nazi Reign") and [Struggle of the Churches](/wiki/Kirchenkampf "Kirchenkampf")). The polarisation within the old\-Prussian Church started already before the Nazi takeover in 1933\. In the orderly election of the [presbyters](/wiki/Presbyter "Presbyter") and synodals on 13 November 1932 the Nazi [Faith Movement of German Christians](/wiki/Faith_Movement_of_German_Christians "Faith Movement of German Christians") ran for the first time for seats in the presbyteries of the congregations and [synods](/wiki/Synod "Synod") of the old\-Prussian [church body](/wiki/Landeskirche "Landeskirche"). The *Positive Union*, a conservative *Kirchenpartei*A Kirchenpartei (church party) in German Protestantism is a group nominating candidates in a list for church elections and compares roughly to [nominating groups](/wiki/Nominating_group "Nominating group") in the Church of Sweden. with traditions back in the 19th century, had no candidates running for presbytership in the congregation of Jerusalem Church, thus many nationalist parishioners rather voted for the *German Christians*.Peter Noss, "Schlussbetrachtung", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\), pp. 574–591, here footnote 8 on p. 590\. {{ISBN\|3\-923095\-61\-9}}. Among the congregations in the inner city of Berlin that of Jerusalem Church was one of the four, where the German Christians gained already at this time a, narrow though, majority of the seats in the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbytery_%28church_polity%29 "Presbytery (church polity)") ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Gemeindekirchenrat}}).By that election the *German Christians* gained majorities in the presbyteries of four out of 79 congregations in the inner city. The average was 28,6%, in eight the *German Christians* won about 40%, in 18 congregations less than 20% of the seats in the presbyteries. Cf. Peter Noss, "Schlussbetrachtung", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\), pp. 574–591, here p. 575\. {{ISBN\|3\-923095\-61\-9}}. [thumb\|right\|300px\|Map of the parish of Jerusalem Church and neighbouring congregations, 1925](/wiki/File:BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png "BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png") Jerusalem Church then belonged to the deanery ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Kirchenkreis}}) *Friedrichswerder I*, whose [superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28ecclesiastical%29 "Superintendent (ecclesiastical)") (cleric in chief in a deanery) Friedrich Geest (1868–1940\), pastor of confidence of [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg "Paul von Hindenburg"), held an ambiguous position as to the Nazi opposing [Confessing Church](/wiki/Confessing_Church "Confessing Church"). The liberal D. Alfred Fischer (1874–1940\), since 1901 pastor at Jerusalem Church and opposing the *German Christians*, and his younger colleague Dr. Rudolf Köhler (until May 1933\) had hard times with them dominating the presbytery since 1932\.In 1921 Alfred Fischer advanced as a member of the consistory of the ecclesiastical province of Brandenburg, bearing the title (supreme) consistorial councillor ({{lang\-de\|link\=no\|Konsistorialrat}}, then *Oberkonsistorialrat* as of 1930\) within the old\-Prussian Church. Cf. Debora Paffen and [Hans\-Jürgen Mende](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_Mende "Hans-Jürgen Mende"), *Die Friedhöfe vor dem Halleschen Tor. Ein Friedhofsführer*: 2 parts, Hans\-Jürgen Mende (ed.), Berlin: Edition Luisenstadt, 2003, part 2: 'Jerusalems\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof I / Jerusalems\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof II', p. 15\. {{ISBN\|3\-89542\-132\-4}}/2Hans\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\), pp. 193 and 203\. {{ISSN\|0175\-3592}}. At the unconstitutional premature re\-election of the presbyters and synodals, discretionarily decreed by [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler "Hitler") for 23 July 1933 the *German Christians* could increase their share of the seats in the presbytery to 65%. Their presbyterial speaker Walter Hartig, president (Obermeister) of Berlin's professional association of the men's tailors (Herrenschneiderinnung), tried to establish the [Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip "Führerprinzip") within the congregation.Hans\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\), p. 203\. ISSN 0175\-3592\. Fischer, being by his office as senior pastor chief executive of the presbytery, was supported in his fight by the other opposing presbyters JustizratLiterally: Justice Councillor, an honorary title granted to prominent lawyers in the period prior 1918\. Eschenbach, Köhler, Otto Nagler, the director Seibt, and the merchant Zaepke, but Fischer, being already an old man, did not stand the permanent quarrels. Following the merger with the congregation of the New Church one of its pastors, Dr. Curt Horn, started to also serve at Jerusalem Church and Horn joined in May 1934 the *German Christians*. Thus in 1934 Eschenbach, a longtime presbyter, resigned from the presbytery. Fischer retired from ministry in 1936\. Soon the *German Christians* in the presbytery fell out with each other, some siding with Hartig (now representing the radical Thuringian branch of the *German Christians*), others with Horn, blaming each other to use psychological terror and authoritarianism against each other. Horn, preserving some dignity as a pastor, requested the presbytery to reaccept Martha Fränkel (then living in Kochstraße 62\), a parishioner of Jewish descent. Geest sided with the somewhat more moderate Horn, but in 1940 the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Lutheranism%29 "Consistory (Lutheranism)") of the *March of Brandenburg* ecclesiastical province within the old\-Prussian Church decided to completely dissolve the presbytery of the united congregation of Jerusalem Church and New Church, for it had turned – with all its quarrels – incapacitated to function. After 1936 Fischer still held contact with some parishioners. Christiane Ilisch (daughter of the Protestant literary historian Dr. Heinrich Spiero, classified a Jew, meaning within the Nazi ideology a member of a genetic group not a religion, which one could choose or secede from) and her husband asked Fischer to baptise their children. The German Christian\-dominated presbytery denied it to them, regarding Christianity a religion reserved for persons of so\-called [Aryan](/wiki/Aryan "Aryan") blood and therefore to be denied to persons fully or partially of Jewish descent. Fischer thus baptised the children in a ceremony held in the Ilischs' private apartment. In 1941 Jerusalem Church, whose services after all the quarrels hardly attracted any congregants any more, was closed as a place of worship.
[ "### During the Struggle of the Churches", "During the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\") the congregation and the umbrella, to which it belonged, fell into deep disunity (For the general outline see [Evangelical Church of the old\\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union%23Under_Nazi_Reign \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union#Under Nazi Reign\") and [Struggle of the Churches](/wiki/Kirchenkampf \"Kirchenkampf\")). The polarisation within the old\\-Prussian Church started already before the Nazi takeover in 1933\\. In the orderly election of the [presbyters](/wiki/Presbyter \"Presbyter\") and synodals on 13 November 1932 the Nazi [Faith Movement of German Christians](/wiki/Faith_Movement_of_German_Christians \"Faith Movement of German Christians\") ran for the first time for seats in the presbyteries of the congregations and [synods](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") of the old\\-Prussian [church body](/wiki/Landeskirche \"Landeskirche\"). The *Positive Union*, a conservative *Kirchenpartei*A Kirchenpartei (church party) in German Protestantism is a group nominating candidates in a list for church elections and compares roughly to [nominating groups](/wiki/Nominating_group \"Nominating group\") in the Church of Sweden. with traditions back in the 19th century, had no candidates running for presbytership in the congregation of Jerusalem Church, thus many nationalist parishioners rather voted for the *German Christians*.Peter Noss, \"Schlussbetrachtung\", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\\), pp. 574–591, here footnote 8 on p. 590\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-923095\\-61\\-9}}. Among the congregations in the inner city of Berlin that of Jerusalem Church was one of the four, where the German Christians gained already at this time a, narrow though, majority of the seats in the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbytery_%28church_polity%29 \"Presbytery (church polity)\") ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Gemeindekirchenrat}}).By that election the *German Christians* gained majorities in the presbyteries of four out of 79 congregations in the inner city. The average was 28,6%, in eight the *German Christians* won about 40%, in 18 congregations less than 20% of the seats in the presbyteries. Cf. Peter Noss, \"Schlussbetrachtung\", in: *Kirchenkampf in Berlin 1932–1945: 42 Stadtgeschichten*, Olaf Kühl\\-Freudenstein, Peter Noss, and Claus Wagener (eds.), Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1999, (Studien zu Kirche und Judentum; vol. 18\\), pp. 574–591, here p. 575\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-923095\\-61\\-9}}.", "[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Map of the parish of Jerusalem Church and neighbouring congregations, 1925](/wiki/File:BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png \"BerlinAskanischesGymnasium.png\") Jerusalem Church then belonged to the deanery ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Kirchenkreis}}) *Friedrichswerder I*, whose [superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28ecclesiastical%29 \"Superintendent (ecclesiastical)\") (cleric in chief in a deanery) Friedrich Geest (1868–1940\\), pastor of confidence of [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg \"Paul von Hindenburg\"), held an ambiguous position as to the Nazi opposing [Confessing Church](/wiki/Confessing_Church \"Confessing Church\"). The liberal D. Alfred Fischer (1874–1940\\), since 1901 pastor at Jerusalem Church and opposing the *German Christians*, and his younger colleague Dr. Rudolf Köhler (until May 1933\\) had hard times with them dominating the presbytery since 1932\\.In 1921 Alfred Fischer advanced as a member of the consistory of the ecclesiastical province of Brandenburg, bearing the title (supreme) consistorial councillor ({{lang\\-de\\|link\\=no\\|Konsistorialrat}}, then *Oberkonsistorialrat* as of 1930\\) within the old\\-Prussian Church. Cf. Debora Paffen and [Hans\\-Jürgen Mende](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_Mende \"Hans-Jürgen Mende\"), *Die Friedhöfe vor dem Halleschen Tor. Ein Friedhofsführer*: 2 parts, Hans\\-Jürgen Mende (ed.), Berlin: Edition Luisenstadt, 2003, part 2: 'Jerusalems\\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof I / Jerusalems\\- und Neue Kirche, Friedhof II', p. 15\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-89542\\-132\\-4}}/2Hans\\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\\), pp. 193 and 203\\. {{ISSN\\|0175\\-3592}}.", "At the unconstitutional premature re\\-election of the presbyters and synodals, discretionarily decreed by [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler \"Hitler\") for 23 July 1933 the *German Christians* could increase their share of the seats in the presbytery to 65%. Their presbyterial speaker Walter Hartig, president (Obermeister) of Berlin's professional association of the men's tailors (Herrenschneiderinnung), tried to establish the [Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip \"Führerprinzip\") within the congregation.Hans\\-Rainer Sandvoß, *Widerstand in Kreuzberg*, altered and ext. ed., Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 21997, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 10\\), p. 203\\. ISSN 0175\\-3592\\. Fischer, being by his office as senior pastor chief executive of the presbytery, was supported in his fight by the other opposing presbyters JustizratLiterally: Justice Councillor, an honorary title granted to prominent lawyers in the period prior 1918\\. Eschenbach, Köhler, Otto Nagler, the director Seibt, and the merchant Zaepke, but Fischer, being already an old man, did not stand the permanent quarrels.", "Following the merger with the congregation of the New Church one of its pastors, Dr. Curt Horn, started to also serve at Jerusalem Church and Horn joined in May 1934 the *German Christians*. Thus in 1934 Eschenbach, a longtime presbyter, resigned from the presbytery. Fischer retired from ministry in 1936\\.", "Soon the *German Christians* in the presbytery fell out with each other, some siding with Hartig (now representing the radical Thuringian branch of the *German Christians*), others with Horn, blaming each other to use psychological terror and authoritarianism against each other. Horn, preserving some dignity as a pastor, requested the presbytery to reaccept Martha Fränkel (then living in Kochstraße 62\\), a parishioner of Jewish descent. Geest sided with the somewhat more moderate Horn, but in 1940 the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Lutheranism%29 \"Consistory (Lutheranism)\") of the *March of Brandenburg* ecclesiastical province within the old\\-Prussian Church decided to completely dissolve the presbytery of the united congregation of Jerusalem Church and New Church, for it had turned – with all its quarrels – incapacitated to function.", "After 1936 Fischer still held contact with some parishioners. Christiane Ilisch (daughter of the Protestant literary historian Dr. Heinrich Spiero, classified a Jew, meaning within the Nazi ideology a member of a genetic group not a religion, which one could choose or secede from) and her husband asked Fischer to baptise their children. The German Christian\\-dominated presbytery denied it to them, regarding Christianity a religion reserved for persons of so\\-called [Aryan](/wiki/Aryan \"Aryan\") blood and therefore to be denied to persons fully or partially of Jewish descent. Fischer thus baptised the children in a ceremony held in the Ilischs' private apartment. In 1941 Jerusalem Church, whose services after all the quarrels hardly attracted any congregants any more, was closed as a place of worship.", "" ]
Participation in revolts ------------------------ [thumb\|[Recife](/wiki/Recife "Recife") being captured by Pernambucan rebels\|250x250px](/wiki/File:Campo_das_Princezas%2C_%28Largo_do_Palacio%29.jpg "Campo das Princezas, (Largo do Palacio).jpg") ### Movement in Pernambuco and prison in Bahia Caneca's first foray into political life was during the Pernambuco Revolt when [Pernambuco](/wiki/Pernambuco "Pernambuco") and other nearby provinces rebelled against the Portuguese royal court, which had [relocated to Brazil](/wiki/Transfer_of_the_Portuguese_Court_to_Brazil "Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil") during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War"). They felt that the government was ignoring the sugar\-producing north in favor of the coffee\-producing south, which was closer to the capital [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/revolucao\-pernambucana.htm\|title\=Revolução Pernambucana de 1817 \- Brasil Escola\|publisher\=\|accessdate\=25 December 2016}} The revolt proclaimed a Republic and organized the first independent government in the region. No reference to his participation survived: "In the opening events of sedition on March 6, as the formation of the provisional government. Thus it is that the list of voters who chose him, not in his name. His presence only detects the last weeks of existence of the regime, to monitor the republican army, which marched to the south of the province, in order to face the troops of the [Count of Arcos](/wiki/Marcos_de_Noronha_e_Brito%2C_8th_Count_of_Arcos "Marcos de Noronha e Brito, 8th Count of Arcos"), at which, according to the indictment, would have exercised captain of guerrillas." He was the adviser to Republican South Army, which was commanded by colonel Suassuna. After the rebellion was put down, he was imprisoned in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador_%28Bahia%29 "Salvador (Bahia)") for four years. During that time, he dedicated himself to the drafting of the Portuguese Grammar. ### Return to Pernambuco PardonedNossa História. Year 3 issue 35\. São Paulo: Vera Cruz, 2006, p.44 in 1821, in the context of the [constitutionalist movement](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820 "Liberal Revolution of 1820") in Portugal, Frei Caneca returned to Pernambuco and resumed political activities. During his trip, he came to be held in a [gaol](/wiki/Prison "Prison") of [Campina Grande](/wiki/Campina_Grande "Campina Grande"). In 1821 he was involved in the so\-called movement of Goiana, a second emancipationist movement that proclaimed adherence to the [Lisbon Cortes](/wiki/Constituent_Cortes_of_1820 "Constituent Cortes of 1820") with the support of the main owners of the north woods and cotton provincial support. An army of rural militias and frontline troops marched against Recife, without occupying the city. The goianistas failed to find substantial support in the southern forest. The "Beberibe Convention" consecrated in September the *status quo*, predicting that Recife and Goiana would continue to operate in the areas under their control, pending the decision of the Courts. These determined the election of a provisional board that became the first self\-government of the province in October 1821\. [thumb\|'Study of Frei Caneca' by [Museu Antônio Parreiras](/wiki/Museu_Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras "Museu Antônio Parreiras")](/wiki/File:Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras_-_Estudo_para_Frei_Caneca.jpg "Antônio Parreiras - Estudo para Frei Caneca.jpg") ### The governing board of Gervásio Pires Frei Caneca supported the formation of the first Board of Governors of Pernambuco, chaired by a trader, [Gervásio Pires](/wiki/Gerv%C3%A1sio_Pires "Gervásio Pires"), who appointed him to the public chair of geometry in Recife. It was a very Recifean board, where the power came from the clergy, the urban strata, trade, the armed forces and the liberal professions – the defeated forces in 1817\. Gervásio was the dominant figure of a government that wanted consensus. He was the leader of a Portuguese trade sector that was already nationalized by residence, by birth, and by family ties to the land. In 1822 Frei Caneca, who enthusiastically supported the Board, wrote the "Dissertation on what is meant by country citizen and duties to this with the same country". He wanted to give theoretical formulation to one of the main objectives of Gervásio, which was to reconcile the Portuguese trade in the province with the new order. His main thesis was that the Portuguese domiciled in the ground and connected to it by family ties and interests should be considered as Pernambuco's main interest. Evaldo Cabral de Mello stated, "The Cortes of Lisbon, on one hand, and the regency of [Dom Pedro](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil "Pedro I of Brazil"), on the other, embodied in terms of 1817 aspirations, equally legitimate options, although incomplete and contradictory. On one hand, the Sovereign Congress offered a liberal regime, under a constitutional monarchy, though, from February 1822, was clear in Brazil that they would charge the price of not pure and simple restoration of the commercial monopoly, it was impossible to resurrect but a preferential system for trade and Portuguese navigation. In turn, the regency of Rio promised freedom of trade and independence but with the expected bill of building an authoritarian regime based in south\-central (region of Brazil)." The government of Gervásio tried to gain time, waiting for a situation that would protect both options without entirely ruling out the separation from both Lisbon and Rio. The Board will be anathematized [Varnhagen](/wiki/Varnhagen "Varnhagen") Jose Honorio Rodrigues, accused of lack of national feeling, their defense was made by [Barbosa Lima Sobrinho](/wiki/Barbosa_Lima_Sobrinho "Barbosa Lima Sobrinho")). Under the pressure of a military riot, the joint Gervásio Pires was coerced to join the cause of Rio de Janeiro and ended up deposed by a military uprising, forming a so\-called "Yokels Government" in October 1822\. ### The Board of Yokels On September 23, 1822, the so\-called "Board of Yokels" was elected, which replaced the Gervasiana Board. This government lasted until December 1823\. It was dominated by representatives of large landed property. elected members of the Board were President Afonso de Albuquerque Maranhao, Secretary Jose Mariano de Albuquerque and members Francisco Pais Barreto, squire Cape; Francisco de Paula Gomes dos Santos, Manuel Inacio Bezerra de Melo, Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque and João Nepomuceno Carneiro da Cunha. This led Frei Caneca to join the fray. His polemic with José Fernandes Gama and his nephew, Judge Bernardo José da Gama, conspiracy leaders criticized Gervásio, writing "Pythia Letters to Daman". 'Pedrosada' was a failed attempt to overthrow the Board of Yokels. Afterwards, the Gamas tried to recover in court and denounced what they called the Republican faction of the province, drawing up a list of suspects that included Frei Caneca. {{quote\|Brother Mug sided with the opposition without fighting it, but he preferred to engage against the group in \[\[Rio de Janeiro]], which intended to dictate the fate of the province. Frei Caneca even pronounced a gratitude prayer on the occasion of the thanksgiving ceremony in the Church of the Holy Body, by \[\[Pedro I of Brazil\|Pedro I]] acclamation as emperor. Only from the constitution of \[\[Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade]] government that seven months after the inauguration proclaim the Confederation of Ecuador, there were signs of close collaboration of Frei Caneca with power, but also in the form of journalistic activity and, sporadically, giving his opinion on some of the big decisions that the government should take.{{cn\|date\=February 2023}}}} The first of his letters went out March 17, 1823, shortly after the 'Pedrosada'. It was published in the *Mail of Rio de Janeiro*, a periodical property of João Soares Lisboa, who participated in the Confederation of the Equator, and died on September 30, 1824, wounded in combat during his escape through the interior of Pernambuco next to Brother Mug and other companions. Pedro da Silva Pedroso, or Pedrosa, was the governor of arms of the province that retraced the Pais Barreto alliance that toppled Gervásio, without which could depose him, for his support of Gama, in court. Frei Caneca never fought the Board of Yokels. He preferred to focus on the Pernambuco faction of the Court, endorsing the personnel policy of the emperor, be it under [Jose Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada "José Bonifácio de Andrada"), or under his successors. As for the Pedrosada, the established wanton that pronounced Pedrosa and Paula Gomes and José Fernandes Gama members of the government, and due to the imperial protection none of them were to be punished. Divided and demoralized, the Board of Yokels dragged a sad resistance until December 1823 when he resigned. Faced by the opposition of the old gervasistas around the mayor of Manuel de Carvalho Andrade, Navy Parent, and [Cipriano Barata](/wiki/Cipriano_Barata "Cipriano Barata"), who had returned from Lisbon Cortes; and the pressures of Rio de Janeiro, which required Pernambuco monthly amounts of the king's time and further two million, equivalent to shipments to Portugal after the departure of the king. ### The Confederation of the Equator He and others soon grew frustrated with the constitution of the newly formed [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil "Empire of Brazil"),Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 5: Camarão, Rep. Unida do – Contravenção. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987, p.464Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002, p.161 which limited autonomy in the provinces, and returned to secessionist politics, this time becoming a leader in the [Confederation of the Equator](/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Equator "Confederation of the Equator") by providing much of its intellectual support.Dohlnikoff, Miriam. Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX. São Paulo: Globo, 2005, p.56 In addition, he published *[Typhis Pernambucano](/wiki/Typhis_Pernambucano "Typhis Pernambucano")*, a pro\-Confederation newspaper critical of [Pedro I](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil "Pedro I of Brazil") and the imperial government from 1823 to 1824\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.historytoday.com/gabriel\-paquette/empire\-exceptions\-making\-modern\-brazil\|title\=Empire of Exceptions: The Making of Modern Brazil \|work\=History Today\|publisher\=\|accessdate\=25 December 2016}} It is essential to know the political and provincial context of Brother Mug political works, the situation in which they lived Pernambuco and the other provinces to understand the movement that represented the Confederation of Ecuador \- muffled under "the weight of [Saquarema](/wiki/Saquarema "Saquarema")'s tradition in Brazilian historiography Independence", that is, which Evaldo Cabral de Mello called "the historiography of Rio de Janeiro state court and its epigones in the Republic" claiming for the three great provinces of the Southeast the role of builders of nationality. The revolutionary Pernambuco cycle cannot, of course, be considered separatists – but the presumption of separatism was the result of the gap occurred between the emancipation process in the Southeast and Northeast. In Rio, says Cabral de Mello, "The Independence began as a dispute between absolutists and liberals around the [United Kingdom of Portugal](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Portugal%2C_Brazil_and_the_Algarves "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves") organization and even then not cogitated separation Portugal, only to preserve the status acquired by Brazil within the Lusitanian empire. The situation was very different in the Northeast, where independence has started with a dispute between colony and metropolis, with the difference that the latter was no longer in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") but in Rio de Janeiro ..." [thumb\|upright\=1\.8\|The bay of Recife, and the reefs that gave the city its name.](/wiki/File:Or1731_f31.jpg "Or1731 f31.jpg") In 1823 during the movement known as 'Pedrosada', Brother Mug I wrote "The Hunter" and "Pythia Letters to Daman". Says Cabral de Mello, page 29 of the cited work: "In the euphoria that followed the liberal revolution of the Kingdom, the expectations of reducing the burden of taxes in trade and agriculture were not lower than the rest of Brazil. They were perhaps larger, since the installation of the court in 1808, Pernambuco was burdened with new taxes for including the public lighting of Rio, promptly revoked by Gervásio's Board. ... The state of bankruptcy that had reduced [Banco do Brasil](/wiki/Banco_do_Brasil "Banco do Brasil") with the return of [King John VI](/wiki/John_VI_of_Portugal "John VI of Portugal") and the establishment of provincial boards had severely limited the action of the Court, which had only the customs resources and province of Rio de Janeiro time the other provinces also denied resources. Thus, the north accession to the emperor was above all a matter of urgent financial, coffee not as profitable at the mid\-30s, so the main line of the tax revenue which had to come from [sugar](/wiki/Sugar "Sugar") and [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton"), products predominantly northerners." He took part with Cipriano Barata, as one of the leaders in the Ecuadorian Confederation, republican and separatist movement. His arguments are not directed against the emperor but against what he considered the authoritarian drift of Jose Bonifacio. After September 7, "the intensification of the fight between Jose Bonifacio and the liberals of the Court had led to censorship of the press, with the closure of newspapers and the attack on the director of the [Malagueta](/wiki/Malagueta "Malagueta"), and the arrest of more than 300 individuals, the same who had beaten for independence since the departure of John VI". There were other dissatisfaction reasons: requirements of Rio de Janeiro state treasury, the draft constitution published by the Correio Brasiliense in September 1822, the creation of the Swiss battalion, the foundation of the Apostolate, the institution of Imperial Cruise Order, seen as "the club of servile aristocrats". Evaldo Cabral de Mello believes it would be more appropriate instead of Pernambuco republicanism, consider itself autonomous."The Revolution project was ancient in Pernambuco" later comment on the judge of Appeals that dismissed the motion. There was "a reinterpretation of provincial history in the light of revolutionary modernity represented by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution". For Brother Mug and the Autonomous Party, punished by Republican failure in 1817, "the provincial autonomy had priority over the form of government". They would be ready to enter into a commitment to the Rio, which in exchange for acceptance of the monarchical regime, would give ample relief to provinces. There would be no reason to reject the monarchy, since authentically constitutional and since preserved the franchises. Reading the newspaper, Cipriano Barata, "The Sentinel of Liberty", denied the charges of republicanism. In 1824 Frei Caneca became one of the advisers of Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade, opining against recognizing Francisco Pais Barreto, the squire of the Cabo, as president of Pernambuco. He opined the Alagoas invasion, in order to eradicate the counter\-revolutionary forces squire of Cabo; and against the oath of the Constitution bestowed by D. Pedro I. Says Evaldo Cabral de Mello that "Brother Mug underestimated the means at the disposal of Rio Court, overestimating the other hand, the local will of resistance to Rio's despotism." D. Pedro I suspended constitutional guarantees in the province, punishing it territorially, amputating the district of San Francisco, on which was the left bank of the river San Francisco, now incorporated into the territory of Bahia. Recife underwent naval blockade, this time by Admiral [Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald "Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald"), who bombarded the city. Pernambuco was invaded from the south by the troops of [Brigadier Lima e Silva](/wiki/Brigadier_Lima_e_Silva "Brigadier Lima e Silva"). Since the sugarcane owners in the south woods remained neutral, his troops easily occupied Recife on September 12, 1824\. Again defeated, he took refuge with a part of his troops in the countryside and fled north towards Ceará. During this flight, he started writing the "Route".
[ "Participation in revolts\n------------------------", "[thumb\\|[Recife](/wiki/Recife \"Recife\") being captured by Pernambucan rebels\\|250x250px](/wiki/File:Campo_das_Princezas%2C_%28Largo_do_Palacio%29.jpg \"Campo das Princezas, (Largo do Palacio).jpg\")", "### Movement in Pernambuco and prison in Bahia", "Caneca's first foray into political life was during the Pernambuco Revolt when [Pernambuco](/wiki/Pernambuco \"Pernambuco\") and other nearby provinces rebelled against the Portuguese royal court, which had [relocated to Brazil](/wiki/Transfer_of_the_Portuguese_Court_to_Brazil \"Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil\") during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\"). They felt that the government was ignoring the sugar\\-producing north in favor of the coffee\\-producing south, which was closer to the capital [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/revolucao\\-pernambucana.htm\\|title\\=Revolução Pernambucana de 1817 \\- Brasil Escola\\|publisher\\=\\|accessdate\\=25 December 2016}}", "The revolt proclaimed a Republic and organized the first independent government in the region. No reference to his participation survived: \"In the opening events of sedition on March 6, as the formation of the provisional government. Thus it is that the list of voters who chose him, not in his name. His presence only detects the last weeks of existence of the regime, to monitor the republican army, which marched to the south of the province, in order to face the troops of the [Count of Arcos](/wiki/Marcos_de_Noronha_e_Brito%2C_8th_Count_of_Arcos \"Marcos de Noronha e Brito, 8th Count of Arcos\"), at which, according to the indictment, would have exercised captain of guerrillas.\" He was the adviser to Republican South Army, which was commanded by colonel Suassuna.", "After the rebellion was put down, he was imprisoned in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador_%28Bahia%29 \"Salvador (Bahia)\") for four years. During that time, he dedicated himself to the drafting of the Portuguese Grammar.", "### Return to Pernambuco", "PardonedNossa História. Year 3 issue 35\\. São Paulo: Vera Cruz, 2006, p.44 in 1821, in the context of the [constitutionalist movement](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820 \"Liberal Revolution of 1820\") in Portugal, Frei Caneca returned to Pernambuco and resumed political activities. During his trip, he came to be held in a [gaol](/wiki/Prison \"Prison\") of [Campina Grande](/wiki/Campina_Grande \"Campina Grande\"). In 1821 he was involved in the so\\-called movement of Goiana, a second emancipationist movement that proclaimed adherence to the [Lisbon Cortes](/wiki/Constituent_Cortes_of_1820 \"Constituent Cortes of 1820\") with the support of the main owners of the north woods and cotton provincial support. An army of rural militias and frontline troops marched against Recife, without occupying the city. The goianistas failed to find substantial support in the southern forest. The \"Beberibe Convention\" consecrated in September the *status quo*, predicting that Recife and Goiana would continue to operate in the areas under their control, pending the decision of the Courts. These determined the election of a provisional board that became the first self\\-government of the province in October 1821\\.", "[thumb\\|'Study of Frei Caneca' by [Museu Antônio Parreiras](/wiki/Museu_Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras \"Museu Antônio Parreiras\")](/wiki/File:Ant%C3%B4nio_Parreiras_-_Estudo_para_Frei_Caneca.jpg \"Antônio Parreiras - Estudo para Frei Caneca.jpg\")", "### The governing board of Gervásio Pires", "Frei Caneca supported the formation of the first Board of Governors of Pernambuco, chaired by a trader, [Gervásio Pires](/wiki/Gerv%C3%A1sio_Pires \"Gervásio Pires\"), who appointed him to the public chair of geometry in Recife. It was a very Recifean board, where the power came from the clergy, the urban strata, trade, the armed forces and the liberal professions – the defeated forces in 1817\\. Gervásio was the dominant figure of a government that wanted consensus. He was the leader of a Portuguese trade sector that was already nationalized by residence, by birth, and by family ties to the land.", "In 1822 Frei Caneca, who enthusiastically supported the Board, wrote the \"Dissertation on what is meant by country citizen and duties to this with the same country\". He wanted to give theoretical formulation to one of the main objectives of Gervásio, which was to reconcile the Portuguese trade in the province with the new order. His main thesis was that the Portuguese domiciled in the ground and connected to it by family ties and interests should be considered as Pernambuco's main interest.", "Evaldo Cabral de Mello stated, \"The Cortes of Lisbon, on one hand, and the regency of [Dom Pedro](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil \"Pedro I of Brazil\"), on the other, embodied in terms of 1817 aspirations, equally legitimate options, although incomplete and contradictory. On one hand, the Sovereign Congress offered a liberal regime, under a constitutional monarchy, though, from February 1822, was clear in Brazil that they would charge the price of not pure and simple restoration of the commercial monopoly, it was impossible to resurrect but a preferential system for trade and Portuguese navigation. In turn, the regency of Rio promised freedom of trade and independence but with the expected bill of building an authoritarian regime based in south\\-central (region of Brazil).\"", "The government of Gervásio tried to gain time, waiting for a situation that would protect both options without entirely ruling out the separation from both Lisbon and Rio. The Board will be anathematized [Varnhagen](/wiki/Varnhagen \"Varnhagen\") Jose Honorio Rodrigues, accused of lack of national feeling, their defense was made by [Barbosa Lima Sobrinho](/wiki/Barbosa_Lima_Sobrinho \"Barbosa Lima Sobrinho\")).", "Under the pressure of a military riot, the joint Gervásio Pires was coerced to join the cause of Rio de Janeiro and ended up deposed by a military uprising, forming a so\\-called \"Yokels Government\" in October 1822\\.", "### The Board of Yokels", "On September 23, 1822, the so\\-called \"Board of Yokels\" was elected, which replaced the Gervasiana Board. This government lasted until December 1823\\. It was dominated by representatives of large landed property. elected members of the Board were President Afonso de Albuquerque Maranhao, Secretary Jose Mariano de Albuquerque and members Francisco Pais Barreto, squire Cape; Francisco de Paula Gomes dos Santos, Manuel Inacio Bezerra de Melo, Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque and João Nepomuceno Carneiro da Cunha.", "This led Frei Caneca to join the fray. His polemic with José Fernandes Gama and his nephew, Judge Bernardo José da Gama, conspiracy leaders criticized Gervásio, writing \"Pythia Letters to Daman\". 'Pedrosada' was a failed attempt to overthrow the Board of Yokels. Afterwards, the Gamas tried to recover in court and denounced what they called the Republican faction of the province, drawing up a list of suspects that included Frei Caneca.", "{{quote\\|Brother Mug sided with the opposition without fighting it, but he preferred to engage against the group in \\[\\[Rio de Janeiro]], which intended to dictate the fate of the province. Frei Caneca even pronounced a gratitude prayer on the occasion of the thanksgiving ceremony in the Church of the Holy Body, by \\[\\[Pedro I of Brazil\\|Pedro I]] acclamation as emperor. Only from the constitution of \\[\\[Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade]] government that seven months after the inauguration proclaim the Confederation of Ecuador, there were signs of close collaboration of Frei Caneca with power, but also in the form of journalistic activity and, sporadically, giving his opinion on some of the big decisions that the government should take.{{cn\\|date\\=February 2023}}}}", "The first of his letters went out March 17, 1823, shortly after the 'Pedrosada'. It was published in the *Mail of Rio de Janeiro*, a periodical property of João Soares Lisboa, who participated in the Confederation of the Equator, and died on September 30, 1824, wounded in combat during his escape through the interior of Pernambuco next to Brother Mug and other companions. Pedro da Silva Pedroso, or Pedrosa, was the governor of arms of the province that retraced the Pais Barreto alliance that toppled Gervásio, without which could depose him, for his support of Gama, in court.", "Frei Caneca never fought the Board of Yokels. He preferred to focus on the Pernambuco faction of the Court, endorsing the personnel policy of the emperor, be it under [Jose Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada \"José Bonifácio de Andrada\"), or under his successors.", "As for the Pedrosada, the established wanton that pronounced Pedrosa and Paula Gomes and José Fernandes Gama members of the government, and due to the imperial protection none of them were to be punished. Divided and demoralized, the Board of Yokels dragged a sad resistance until December 1823 when he resigned. Faced by the opposition of the old gervasistas around the mayor of Manuel de Carvalho Andrade, Navy Parent, and [Cipriano Barata](/wiki/Cipriano_Barata \"Cipriano Barata\"), who had returned from Lisbon Cortes; and the pressures of Rio de Janeiro, which required Pernambuco monthly amounts of the king's time and further two million, equivalent to shipments to Portugal after the departure of the king.", "### The Confederation of the Equator", "He and others soon grew frustrated with the constitution of the newly formed [Empire of Brazil](/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil \"Empire of Brazil\"),Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 5: Camarão, Rep. Unida do – Contravenção. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987, p.464Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002, p.161 which limited autonomy in the provinces, and returned to secessionist politics, this time becoming a leader in the [Confederation of the Equator](/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Equator \"Confederation of the Equator\") by providing much of its intellectual support.Dohlnikoff, Miriam. Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX. São Paulo: Globo, 2005, p.56 In addition, he published *[Typhis Pernambucano](/wiki/Typhis_Pernambucano \"Typhis Pernambucano\")*, a pro\\-Confederation newspaper critical of [Pedro I](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil \"Pedro I of Brazil\") and the imperial government from 1823 to 1824\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historytoday.com/gabriel\\-paquette/empire\\-exceptions\\-making\\-modern\\-brazil\\|title\\=Empire of Exceptions: The Making of Modern Brazil \\|work\\=History Today\\|publisher\\=\\|accessdate\\=25 December 2016}}", "It is essential to know the political and provincial context of Brother Mug political works, the situation in which they lived Pernambuco and the other provinces to understand the movement that represented the Confederation of Ecuador \\- muffled under \"the weight of [Saquarema](/wiki/Saquarema \"Saquarema\")'s tradition in Brazilian historiography Independence\", that is, which Evaldo Cabral de Mello called \"the historiography of Rio de Janeiro state court and its epigones in the Republic\" claiming for the three great provinces of the Southeast the role of builders of nationality. The revolutionary Pernambuco cycle cannot, of course, be considered separatists – but the presumption of separatism was the result of the gap occurred between the emancipation process in the Southeast and Northeast. In Rio, says Cabral de Mello, \"The Independence began as a dispute between absolutists and liberals around the [United Kingdom of Portugal](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Portugal%2C_Brazil_and_the_Algarves \"United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves\") organization and even then not cogitated separation Portugal, only to preserve the status acquired by Brazil within the Lusitanian empire. The situation was very different in the Northeast, where independence has started with a dispute between colony and metropolis, with the difference that the latter was no longer in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") but in Rio de Janeiro ...\"", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.8\\|The bay of Recife, and the reefs that gave the city its name.](/wiki/File:Or1731_f31.jpg \"Or1731 f31.jpg\")\nIn 1823 during the movement known as 'Pedrosada', Brother Mug I wrote \"The Hunter\" and \"Pythia Letters to Daman\". Says Cabral de Mello, page 29 of the cited work: \"In the euphoria that followed the liberal revolution of the Kingdom, the expectations of reducing the burden of taxes in trade and agriculture were not lower than the rest of Brazil. They were perhaps larger, since the installation of the court in 1808, Pernambuco was burdened with new taxes for including the public lighting of Rio, promptly revoked by Gervásio's Board. ... The state of bankruptcy that had reduced [Banco do Brasil](/wiki/Banco_do_Brasil \"Banco do Brasil\") with the return of [King John VI](/wiki/John_VI_of_Portugal \"John VI of Portugal\") and the establishment of provincial boards had severely limited the action of the Court, which had only the customs resources and province of Rio de Janeiro time the other provinces also denied resources. Thus, the north accession to the emperor was above all a matter of urgent financial, coffee not as profitable at the mid\\-30s, so the main line of the tax revenue which had to come from [sugar](/wiki/Sugar \"Sugar\") and [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\"), products predominantly northerners.\"", "He took part with Cipriano Barata, as one of the leaders in the Ecuadorian Confederation, republican and separatist movement. His arguments are not directed against the emperor but against what he considered the authoritarian drift of Jose Bonifacio. After September 7, \"the intensification of the fight between Jose Bonifacio and the liberals of the Court had led to censorship of the press, with the closure of newspapers and the attack on the director of the [Malagueta](/wiki/Malagueta \"Malagueta\"), and the arrest of more than 300 individuals, the same who had beaten for independence since the departure of John VI\". There were other dissatisfaction reasons: requirements of Rio de Janeiro state treasury, the draft constitution published by the Correio Brasiliense in September 1822, the creation of the Swiss battalion, the foundation of the Apostolate, the institution of Imperial Cruise Order, seen as \"the club of servile aristocrats\".", "Evaldo Cabral de Mello believes it would be more appropriate instead of Pernambuco republicanism, consider itself autonomous.\"The Revolution project was ancient in Pernambuco\" later comment on the judge of Appeals that dismissed the motion. There was \"a reinterpretation of provincial history in the light of revolutionary modernity represented by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution\". For Brother Mug and the Autonomous Party, punished by Republican failure in 1817, \"the provincial autonomy had priority over the form of government\". They would be ready to enter into a commitment to the Rio, which in exchange for acceptance of the monarchical regime, would give ample relief to provinces. There would be no reason to reject the monarchy, since authentically constitutional and since preserved the franchises. Reading the newspaper, Cipriano Barata, \"The Sentinel of Liberty\", denied the charges of republicanism.", "In 1824 Frei Caneca became one of the advisers of Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade, opining against recognizing Francisco Pais Barreto, the squire of the Cabo, as president of Pernambuco. He opined the Alagoas invasion, in order to eradicate the counter\\-revolutionary forces squire of Cabo; and against the oath of the Constitution bestowed by D. Pedro I. Says Evaldo Cabral de Mello that \"Brother Mug underestimated the means at the disposal of Rio Court, overestimating the other hand, the local will of resistance to Rio's despotism.\"", "D. Pedro I suspended constitutional guarantees in the province, punishing it territorially, amputating the district of San Francisco, on which was the left bank of the river San Francisco, now incorporated into the territory of Bahia. Recife underwent naval blockade, this time by Admiral [Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald \"Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald\"), who bombarded the city. Pernambuco was invaded from the south by the troops of [Brigadier Lima e Silva](/wiki/Brigadier_Lima_e_Silva \"Brigadier Lima e Silva\"). Since the sugarcane owners in the south woods remained neutral, his troops easily occupied Recife on September 12, 1824\\.", "Again defeated, he took refuge with a part of his troops in the countryside and fled north towards Ceará. During this flight, he started writing the \"Route\".", "" ]
### The Board of Yokels On September 23, 1822, the so\-called "Board of Yokels" was elected, which replaced the Gervasiana Board. This government lasted until December 1823\. It was dominated by representatives of large landed property. elected members of the Board were President Afonso de Albuquerque Maranhao, Secretary Jose Mariano de Albuquerque and members Francisco Pais Barreto, squire Cape; Francisco de Paula Gomes dos Santos, Manuel Inacio Bezerra de Melo, Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque and João Nepomuceno Carneiro da Cunha. This led Frei Caneca to join the fray. His polemic with José Fernandes Gama and his nephew, Judge Bernardo José da Gama, conspiracy leaders criticized Gervásio, writing "Pythia Letters to Daman". 'Pedrosada' was a failed attempt to overthrow the Board of Yokels. Afterwards, the Gamas tried to recover in court and denounced what they called the Republican faction of the province, drawing up a list of suspects that included Frei Caneca. {{quote\|Brother Mug sided with the opposition without fighting it, but he preferred to engage against the group in \[\[Rio de Janeiro]], which intended to dictate the fate of the province. Frei Caneca even pronounced a gratitude prayer on the occasion of the thanksgiving ceremony in the Church of the Holy Body, by \[\[Pedro I of Brazil\|Pedro I]] acclamation as emperor. Only from the constitution of \[\[Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade]] government that seven months after the inauguration proclaim the Confederation of Ecuador, there were signs of close collaboration of Frei Caneca with power, but also in the form of journalistic activity and, sporadically, giving his opinion on some of the big decisions that the government should take.{{cn\|date\=February 2023}}}} The first of his letters went out March 17, 1823, shortly after the 'Pedrosada'. It was published in the *Mail of Rio de Janeiro*, a periodical property of João Soares Lisboa, who participated in the Confederation of the Equator, and died on September 30, 1824, wounded in combat during his escape through the interior of Pernambuco next to Brother Mug and other companions. Pedro da Silva Pedroso, or Pedrosa, was the governor of arms of the province that retraced the Pais Barreto alliance that toppled Gervásio, without which could depose him, for his support of Gama, in court. Frei Caneca never fought the Board of Yokels. He preferred to focus on the Pernambuco faction of the Court, endorsing the personnel policy of the emperor, be it under [Jose Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada "José Bonifácio de Andrada"), or under his successors. As for the Pedrosada, the established wanton that pronounced Pedrosa and Paula Gomes and José Fernandes Gama members of the government, and due to the imperial protection none of them were to be punished. Divided and demoralized, the Board of Yokels dragged a sad resistance until December 1823 when he resigned. Faced by the opposition of the old gervasistas around the mayor of Manuel de Carvalho Andrade, Navy Parent, and [Cipriano Barata](/wiki/Cipriano_Barata "Cipriano Barata"), who had returned from Lisbon Cortes; and the pressures of Rio de Janeiro, which required Pernambuco monthly amounts of the king's time and further two million, equivalent to shipments to Portugal after the departure of the king.
[ "### The Board of Yokels", "On September 23, 1822, the so\\-called \"Board of Yokels\" was elected, which replaced the Gervasiana Board. This government lasted until December 1823\\. It was dominated by representatives of large landed property. elected members of the Board were President Afonso de Albuquerque Maranhao, Secretary Jose Mariano de Albuquerque and members Francisco Pais Barreto, squire Cape; Francisco de Paula Gomes dos Santos, Manuel Inacio Bezerra de Melo, Francisco de Paula Cavalcanti de Albuquerque and João Nepomuceno Carneiro da Cunha.", "This led Frei Caneca to join the fray. His polemic with José Fernandes Gama and his nephew, Judge Bernardo José da Gama, conspiracy leaders criticized Gervásio, writing \"Pythia Letters to Daman\". 'Pedrosada' was a failed attempt to overthrow the Board of Yokels. Afterwards, the Gamas tried to recover in court and denounced what they called the Republican faction of the province, drawing up a list of suspects that included Frei Caneca.", "{{quote\\|Brother Mug sided with the opposition without fighting it, but he preferred to engage against the group in \\[\\[Rio de Janeiro]], which intended to dictate the fate of the province. Frei Caneca even pronounced a gratitude prayer on the occasion of the thanksgiving ceremony in the Church of the Holy Body, by \\[\\[Pedro I of Brazil\\|Pedro I]] acclamation as emperor. Only from the constitution of \\[\\[Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade]] government that seven months after the inauguration proclaim the Confederation of Ecuador, there were signs of close collaboration of Frei Caneca with power, but also in the form of journalistic activity and, sporadically, giving his opinion on some of the big decisions that the government should take.{{cn\\|date\\=February 2023}}}}", "The first of his letters went out March 17, 1823, shortly after the 'Pedrosada'. It was published in the *Mail of Rio de Janeiro*, a periodical property of João Soares Lisboa, who participated in the Confederation of the Equator, and died on September 30, 1824, wounded in combat during his escape through the interior of Pernambuco next to Brother Mug and other companions. Pedro da Silva Pedroso, or Pedrosa, was the governor of arms of the province that retraced the Pais Barreto alliance that toppled Gervásio, without which could depose him, for his support of Gama, in court.", "Frei Caneca never fought the Board of Yokels. He preferred to focus on the Pernambuco faction of the Court, endorsing the personnel policy of the emperor, be it under [Jose Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada \"José Bonifácio de Andrada\"), or under his successors.", "As for the Pedrosada, the established wanton that pronounced Pedrosa and Paula Gomes and José Fernandes Gama members of the government, and due to the imperial protection none of them were to be punished. Divided and demoralized, the Board of Yokels dragged a sad resistance until December 1823 when he resigned. Faced by the opposition of the old gervasistas around the mayor of Manuel de Carvalho Andrade, Navy Parent, and [Cipriano Barata](/wiki/Cipriano_Barata \"Cipriano Barata\"), who had returned from Lisbon Cortes; and the pressures of Rio de Janeiro, which required Pernambuco monthly amounts of the king's time and further two million, equivalent to shipments to Portugal after the departure of the king.", "" ]
Plot ---- ### Mexico story line In [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), police officers Javier Rodriguez and Manolo Sanchez stop a drug transport. General Salazar, a high\-ranking Mexican official, interrupts their arrest to offer Javier a special assignment: apprehending Francisco Flores, a hitman for the [Tijuana Cartel](/wiki/Tijuana_Cartel "Tijuana Cartel"), headed by the Obregón brothers. In Tijuana, under torture, Flores gives Salazar the names of Obregón cartel members, who are arrested. Javier and Salazar's efforts cripple the Obregóns' cocaine outfit, but Javier discovers that Salazar is a pawn of the rival [Juárez Cartel](/wiki/Ju%C3%A1rez_Cartel "Juárez Cartel"); Salazar's anti\-drug campaign is a charade to wipe out the Juárez Cartel's competitors. Sanchez attempts to sell information about Salazar's true affiliation to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration "Drug Enforcement Administration"), but Salazar has him murdered in the desert with Javier forced to watch. Javier arranges a deal with the DEA to testify against Salazar in exchange for electricity in his neighborhood to keep local children from being tempted by street gangs and crime. Salazar's secrets are revealed, and he is arrested. Javier makes a statement to the media about the widespread corruption in the police force and army. Later, Javier watches as children play baseball at night in their new stadium. ### Wakefield story line Robert Wakefield, a conservative [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") judge, is appointed to head the [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States")'s [Office of National Drug Control Policy](/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy "Office of National Drug Control Policy") as [drug czar](/wiki/Drug_czar "Drug czar"), though he is warned that the [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs "War on Drugs") is unwinnable. Meanwhile, Robert's teenage daughter Caroline has been using [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine"), [methamphetamine](/wiki/Methamphetamine "Methamphetamine"), and [heroin](/wiki/Heroin "Heroin"), developing a drug addiction after her boyfriend Seth introduces her to [freebasing](/wiki/Freebasing "Freebasing"). Caroline, Seth, and their friend Vanessa are arrested when they try to dump an overdosing fellow student at a hospital. Robert and his wife Barbara struggle to deal with Caroline's addiction, which Barbara has secretly known about for months. Robert finds himself caught between his demanding new position and difficult family life. Visiting Mexico, he is encouraged by Salazar's successful efforts in hurting the Obregón brothers. Returning to Ohio, Robert learns that Caroline has run away to [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati") after stealing money from her parents to pay for drugs. Dragging Seth along, Robert searches Cincinnati for his daughter. After a drug dealer who is prostituting Caroline refuses to reveal her whereabouts, Robert breaks into a seedy hotel room and finds a semi\-conscious Caroline in the company of an older man. In Washington, D.C. to present a "10\-point plan" to win the War on Drugs, Robert falters halfway through the speech, and tells the press that the War on Drugs implies a war on one's own family, which he cannot endorse. Later, Robert and Barbara attend a [Narcotics Anonymous](/wiki/Narcotics_Anonymous "Narcotics Anonymous") meeting with Caroline, telling the other attendees that they are "here to listen". ### Ayala/DEA story line In [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), an undercover DEA investigation led by Montel Gordon and Ray Castro leads to the arrest of Eduardo Ruiz, a dealer posing as a fisherman. Ruiz gives up his boss, [drug lord](/wiki/Drug_lord "Drug lord") Carl Ayala, the Obregóns' biggest distributor in the United States. Ayala is indicted by a tough prosecutor, hand\-selected by Robert Wakefield to send a message to the cartels. As Ayala's trial begins, his pregnant wife Helena learns of her husband's true profession from his associate, Arnie Metzger. Facing the prospect of life imprisonment for her husband and death threats against her child, Helena hires Flores to assassinate Ruiz and end the trial *[nolle prosequi](/wiki/Nolle_prosequi "Nolle prosequi")*. Flores plants a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb"), but is killed by a sniper in retaliation for his cooperation with General Salazar, and the bomb meant to kill Ruiz instead kills Agent Castro. Knowing Ruiz will soon testify, Helena makes a deal with Juan Obregón, who forgives the Ayala family's debt and has Ruiz poisoned. Ayala is released, and he deduces that Metzger accepted $3 million to inform on Ruiz to the FBI and facilitate Ayala's downfall; Metzger is later visited by armed men. Soon after Ayala's release, Gordon bursts into his homecoming celebration and is forced out. Having planted a [listening device](/wiki/Covert_listening_device "Covert listening device") under Ayala's desk, Gordon smiles as he walks away.
[ "Plot\n----", "### Mexico story line", "In [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), police officers Javier Rodriguez and Manolo Sanchez stop a drug transport. General Salazar, a high\\-ranking Mexican official, interrupts their arrest to offer Javier a special assignment: apprehending Francisco Flores, a hitman for the [Tijuana Cartel](/wiki/Tijuana_Cartel \"Tijuana Cartel\"), headed by the Obregón brothers.", "In Tijuana, under torture, Flores gives Salazar the names of Obregón cartel members, who are arrested. Javier and Salazar's efforts cripple the Obregóns' cocaine outfit, but Javier discovers that Salazar is a pawn of the rival [Juárez Cartel](/wiki/Ju%C3%A1rez_Cartel \"Juárez Cartel\"); Salazar's anti\\-drug campaign is a charade to wipe out the Juárez Cartel's competitors.", "Sanchez attempts to sell information about Salazar's true affiliation to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration \"Drug Enforcement Administration\"), but Salazar has him murdered in the desert with Javier forced to watch. Javier arranges a deal with the DEA to testify against Salazar in exchange for electricity in his neighborhood to keep local children from being tempted by street gangs and crime. Salazar's secrets are revealed, and he is arrested.", "Javier makes a statement to the media about the widespread corruption in the police force and army. Later, Javier watches as children play baseball at night in their new stadium.", "### Wakefield story line", "Robert Wakefield, a conservative [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") judge, is appointed to head the [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\")'s [Office of National Drug Control Policy](/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy \"Office of National Drug Control Policy\") as [drug czar](/wiki/Drug_czar \"Drug czar\"), though he is warned that the [War on Drugs](/wiki/War_on_Drugs \"War on Drugs\") is unwinnable. Meanwhile, Robert's teenage daughter Caroline has been using [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\"), [methamphetamine](/wiki/Methamphetamine \"Methamphetamine\"), and [heroin](/wiki/Heroin \"Heroin\"), developing a drug addiction after her boyfriend Seth introduces her to [freebasing](/wiki/Freebasing \"Freebasing\"). Caroline, Seth, and their friend Vanessa are arrested when they try to dump an overdosing fellow student at a hospital. Robert and his wife Barbara struggle to deal with Caroline's addiction, which Barbara has secretly known about for months.", "Robert finds himself caught between his demanding new position and difficult family life. Visiting Mexico, he is encouraged by Salazar's successful efforts in hurting the Obregón brothers. Returning to Ohio, Robert learns that Caroline has run away to [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\") after stealing money from her parents to pay for drugs.", "Dragging Seth along, Robert searches Cincinnati for his daughter. After a drug dealer who is prostituting Caroline refuses to reveal her whereabouts, Robert breaks into a seedy hotel room and finds a semi\\-conscious Caroline in the company of an older man. In Washington, D.C. to present a \"10\\-point plan\" to win the War on Drugs, Robert falters halfway through the speech, and tells the press that the War on Drugs implies a war on one's own family, which he cannot endorse. Later, Robert and Barbara attend a [Narcotics Anonymous](/wiki/Narcotics_Anonymous \"Narcotics Anonymous\") meeting with Caroline, telling the other attendees that they are \"here to listen\".", "### Ayala/DEA story line", "In [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), an undercover DEA investigation led by Montel Gordon and Ray Castro leads to the arrest of Eduardo Ruiz, a dealer posing as a fisherman. Ruiz gives up his boss, [drug lord](/wiki/Drug_lord \"Drug lord\") Carl Ayala, the Obregóns' biggest distributor in the United States. Ayala is indicted by a tough prosecutor, hand\\-selected by Robert Wakefield to send a message to the cartels.", "As Ayala's trial begins, his pregnant wife Helena learns of her husband's true profession from his associate, Arnie Metzger. Facing the prospect of life imprisonment for her husband and death threats against her child, Helena hires Flores to assassinate Ruiz and end the trial *[nolle prosequi](/wiki/Nolle_prosequi \"Nolle prosequi\")*. Flores plants a [car bomb](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\"), but is killed by a sniper in retaliation for his cooperation with General Salazar, and the bomb meant to kill Ruiz instead kills Agent Castro.", "Knowing Ruiz will soon testify, Helena makes a deal with Juan Obregón, who forgives the Ayala family's debt and has Ruiz poisoned. Ayala is released, and he deduces that Metzger accepted $3 million to inform on Ruiz to the FBI and facilitate Ayala's downfall; Metzger is later visited by armed men. Soon after Ayala's release, Gordon bursts into his homecoming celebration and is forced out. Having planted a [listening device](/wiki/Covert_listening_device \"Covert listening device\") under Ayala's desk, Gordon smiles as he walks away.", "" ]
Production ---------- ### Development [Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh "Steven Soderbergh") had been interested in making a film about the drug wars for some time but did not want to make one about addicts.{{cite news\|title\=The 'Traffic' Report with Steven Soderbergh \|first\=Darrell \|last\=Hope \|url\=http://www.dga.org/news/v25\_5/feat\_soderbergh.php3 \|work\=DGA Magazine \|date\=January 2001 \|access\-date\=2011\-08\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316021948/http://www.dga.org/news/v25\_5/feat\_soderbergh.php3 \|archive\-date\=March 16, 2010 }} Producer Laura Bickford obtained the rights to the British television miniseries *[Traffik](/wiki/Traffik "Traffik")* (1989\) and liked its structure. Soderbergh, who had seen the miniseries in 1990,{{cite news \|title\=Steven Soderbergh \|first\=Stephen \|last\=Lemons \|url\=http://archive.salon.com/people/conv/2000/12/20/soderbergh \|work\=\[\[Salon.com]] \|date\=2000\-12\-20 \|access\-date\=2008\-05\-25 \|archive\-date\=2008\-06\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622144348/http://archive.salon.com/people/conv/2000/12/20/soderbergh/ \|url\-status\=live }} started looking for a screenwriter to adapt it into a film. They read a script by [Stephen Gaghan](/wiki/Stephen_Gaghan "Stephen Gaghan") called *[Havoc](/wiki/Havoc_%282005_film%29 "Havoc (2005 film)")*, about upper\-class white kids in [Palisades High School](/wiki/Palisades_Charter_High_School "Palisades Charter High School") doing drugs and getting involved with gangs.{{cite news \|title\=Pushing Words \|first\=Christian \|last\=Divine \|work\=Creative Screenwriting \|pages\=57–58 \|date\=2001\-01\-02}} Soderbergh approached Gaghan to work on his film but found he was already developing a film about drugs for producer/director [Edward Zwick](/wiki/Edward_Zwick "Edward Zwick"). Bickford and Soderbergh approached Zwick, who agreed to merge the two projects and come aboard as a producer. *Traffic* was originally going to be distributed by [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Studios "20th Century Studios"), but it was put into [turnaround](/wiki/Turnaround_%28filmmaking%29 "Turnaround (filmmaking)") unless actor [Harrison Ford](/wiki/Harrison_Ford "Harrison Ford") agreed to star. Soderbergh began shopping the film to other studios, but when Ford suddenly showed interest in *Traffic*, Fox's interest in the film was renewed; the studio took it out of turnaround.{{cite magazine \|title\=Red Light, Green Light \|first\=Rebecca \|last\=Ascher\-Walsh \|url\=http://www.ew.com/article/2000/02/15/harrison\-ford\-may\-star\-steven\-soderberghs\-next\-flick \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|date\=2000\-02\-15 \|access\-date\=2008\-05\-25}} Fox CEO [Bill Mechanic](/wiki/Bill_Mechanic "Bill Mechanic") championed the film, but he departed from the studio by the time the first draft was finished. It went back into turnaround.{{cite news \|title\=Interview: Man of the Year, Steven Soderbergh 'Traffic'{{'}}s in Success \|first\=Anthony \|last\=Kaufman \|url\=https://www.indiewire.com/people/int\_Soderbergh\_Stev\_010103\.html \|work\=\[\[indieWIRE]] \|date\=2001\-01\-03 \|access\-date\=2010\-04\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060412080246/http://www.indiewire.com/people/int\_Soderbergh\_Stev\_010103\.html \|archive\-date\=2006\-04\-12}} Mechanic had also wanted to make some changes to the script, but Soderbergh disagreed{{cite news \|title\=Go! Go! Go! \|first\=Manohla \|last\=Dargis \|url\=http://www.laweekly.com/2000\-12\-28/news/go\-go\-go \|work\=\[\[L.A. Weekly]] \|date\=2000\-12\-26 \|access\-date\=2010\-04\-14 \|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104193957/http://www.laweekly.com/2000\-12\-28/news/go\-go\-go/ \|url\-status\=live }} and decided to shop the film to other major studios. They all turned him down because they were not confident in the prospects of a three\-hour film about drugs, according to Gaghan. [USA Films](/wiki/Focus_Features "Focus Features"), however, had wanted to take on the movie from the first time Soderbergh approached them. They provided the filmmakers with a $46 million budget, a considerable increase from the $25 million which Fox offered. ### Screenplay Soderbergh had "conceptual discussions" with Gaghan while he was shooting *[The Limey](/wiki/The_Limey "The Limey")* in October 1998; they finished the outline before he went off to shoot *[Erin Brockovich](/wiki/Erin_Brockovich_%28film%29 "Erin Brockovich (film)")*. After Soderbergh was finished with that film, Gaghan had written a first draft in six weeks that was 165 pages long. After the film was approved for production, Soderbergh and Gaghan met two separate times for three days to reformat the script. The draft they shot had 163 pages with 135 speaking parts and featured seven cities. The film shortens the story line of the original miniseries; a significant character arc of a farmer is taken out, and the [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") plotline is replaced with one set in Mexico. ### Casting Harrison Ford was initially considered for the role of Robert Wakefield in January 2000 but would have had to take a significant cut in his usual $20 million salary. Ford met with Soderbergh to flesh out the character. Gaghan agreed to rework the role, adding several scenes to the screenplay. On February 20, Ford turned down the role, and the filmmakers brought it back to [Michael Douglas](/wiki/Michael_Douglas "Michael Douglas"), who had turned down an earlier draft. He liked the changes and agreed to star, which helped greenlight the project. Gaghan believes Ford turned down the role because he wanted to "reconnect with his action fans". The filmmakers sent out letters to many politicians, both [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") and [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"), asking them to make cameo appearances in the film. Several of the scenes had already been shot using actors in these roles, but the filmmakers went back and reshot those scenes when real politicians agreed to be in the film.Conversations with Ross: ["Featuring Sam Jaeger"](http://www.rosscarey.com/2011/02/09/episode-24-featuring-sam-jaeger) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424061938/http://www.rosscarey.com/2011/02/09/episode\-24\-featuring\-sam\-jaeger \|date\=2011\-04\-24 }}. *RossCarey.com*. Retrieved 2012\-03\-03\. Those who agreed, including U.S. Senators [Harry Reid](/wiki/Harry_Reid "Harry Reid"), [Barbara Boxer](/wiki/Barbara_Boxer "Barbara Boxer"), [Orrin Hatch](/wiki/Orrin_Hatch "Orrin Hatch"), [Charles Grassley](/wiki/Charles_Grassley "Charles Grassley"), and [Don Nickles](/wiki/Don_Nickles "Don Nickles"), and [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") governor [Bill Weld](/wiki/Bill_Weld "Bill Weld"), were filmed in a scene that was entirely improvised. ### Pre\-production The project was obtained from Fox by Initial Entertainment Group and was sold to USA Films by IEG for North American rights only. Steven Soderbergh never approached USA Films, and Initial Entertainment Group fully funded the film. After Fox dropped the film in early 2000 and before USA Films expressed interest, Soderbergh paid for [pre\-production](/wiki/Pre-production "Pre-production") with his own money. USA Films agreed to give him the final cut on *Traffic* and also agreed to his term that all the Mexican characters would speak [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language") while talking to each other.{{cite magazine \|title\=Dope \& Glory \|first\=Steve \|last\=Daly \|url\=http://www.ew.com/article/2001/03/02/dope\-and\-glory\-soderbergh\-talks\-about\-directing\-traffic \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|date\=2001\-03\-02 \|access\-date\=2008\-05\-25 \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723201207/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,280028,00\.html \|url\-status\=live }} This meant that almost all of Benicio del Toro's dialogue would be subtitled. Once the studio realized this, they suggested that his scenes be shot in English and Spanish, but Soderbergh and del Toro rejected the suggestion. Del Toro, a native of [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico"),{{cite book \| last1\=Méndez\-Méndez \| first1\=S. \| last2\=Mendez \| first2\=S.M. \| last3\=Cueto \| first3\=G. \| last4\=Deynes \| first4\=N.R. \| last5\=Rodríguez\-Deynes \| first5\=N. \| title\=Notable Caribbeans and Caribbean Americans: A Biographical Dictionary \| publisher\=Greenwood Press \| year\=2003 \| isbn\=978\-0\-313\-31443\-8 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NLPrMMKmynwC\&pg\=PA139 \| access\-date\=August 10, 2019 \| page\=139}} was worried that another actor would be brought in and re\-record his dialogue in English after he had worked hard to master Mexican inflections and improve his Spanish vocabulary. Del Toro remembers, "Can you imagine? You do the whole movie, bust your butt to get it as realistic as possible, and someone dubs your voice? I said, 'No way. Over my dead body.' Steven was like, 'Don't worry. It's not gonna happen.'" The director fought for subtitles for the Mexico scenes, arguing that if the characters did not speak Spanish, the film would have no integrity and would not convincingly portray what he described as the "impenetrability of another culture". The filmmakers went to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration "Drug Enforcement Administration") (DEA) and [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service "United States Customs Service") early on with the script; they told them that they were trying to present as detailed and accurate a picture of the current drug war as possible. The DEA and Customs pointed out inaccuracies in the script. In addition, they gave the production team access to the border checkpoint to Mexico, as shown in the film during the scene in which Wakefield and his people talk with border officials. Despite the assistance, the DEA did not try to influence the script's content. Soderbergh said *Traffic* had influences from the films of [Richard Lester](/wiki/Richard_Lester "Richard Lester") and [Jean\-Luc Godard](/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard "Jean-Luc Godard"). He also spent time analyzing *[The Battle of Algiers](/wiki/The_Battle_of_Algiers_%28film%29 "The Battle of Algiers (film)")* and *[Z](/wiki/Z_%281969_film%29 "Z (1969 film)")*, which, according to the director, had the feeling that the footage was "caught" and not staged. Another inspiration was [Alan J. Pakula](/wiki/Alan_J._Pakula "Alan J. Pakula")'s film *[All the President's Men](/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_%28film%29 "All the President's Men (film)")* because of its ability to tackle serious issues while being entertaining.{{cite news \|title\=Follow the Muse: Inspiration to Balance Lofty and Light \|first\=Rick \|last\=Lyman \|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9E02E3D91530F935A25751C0A9679C8B63\&scp\=1\&sq\=%22Follow\+the\+Muse%22\&st\=nyt \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=2001\-02\-16 \|access\-date\=2008\-05\-26}} In the opening credits of his film, Soderbergh tried to replicate the typeface from *All the President's Men* and the placement on\-screen at the bottom left\-hand corner. Analyzing this film helped the director deal with the large cast and working in many different locations for *Traffic*. ### Principal photography Half of the first day's footage came out overexposed and unusable. Before the financiers or studio bosses knew about the problem, Soderbergh was already doing reshoots. The insurers made him agree that any further mishaps resulting in additional filming would come from the director's pocket. Soderbergh shot in various cities in California, Ohio, and Texas, on a 54\-day schedule and came in $2 million under budget. The director acted as his cinematographer under the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym "Pseudonym") Peter Andrews and operated the camera himself to "get as close to the movie as I can" and to eliminate the distance between the actors and himself.{{cite web\|last1\=French\|first1\=Phillip\|title\=Traffic\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/News\_Story/Critic\_Review/Observer\_review/0,,430492,00\.html\|website\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|access\-date\=March 29, 2018\|date\=January 28, 2001\|archive\-date\=April 18, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418174448/http://www.theguardian.com/film/News\_Story/Critic\_Review/Observer\_review/0,,430492,00\.html\|url\-status\=live}} Soderbergh drew inspiration from the cinema verite style of [Ken Loach](/wiki/Ken_Loach "Ken Loach")'s films, studying the framing of scenes, the distance of the camera to the actors, lens length, and the tightness of eyelines depending on the position of a character. Soderbergh remembers, "I noticed that there's a space that's inviolate, that if you get within something, you cross the edge into a more theatrical aesthetic as opposed to a documentary aesthetic". Most of the day was spent shooting because a lot of the film was shot with available light. For the hand\-held camera footage, Soderbergh used [Panavision Millennium XLs](/wiki/Panavision_cameras "Panavision cameras") that were smaller and lighter than previous cameras and allowed him to move freely. He adopted a distinctive look for each to tell the three stories apart. For Robert Wakefield's story, Soderbergh used tungsten film with no filter for a cold, monochrome blue feel. For Helena Ayala's story, Soderbergh used diffusion filters, flashing the film and overexposing it for a warmer feel. For Javier Rodriguez's story, the director used [tobacco filters](/wiki/Mexican_filter "Mexican filter") and a 45\-degree shutter angle whenever possible to produce a strobe\-like sharp feeling. Then, he took the entire film through an [Ektachrome](/wiki/Ektachrome "Ektachrome") step, which increased the contrast and grain significantly. He wanted different looks for each story because the audience had to keep track of many characters and absorb a lot of information, and he did not want them to have to figure out which story they were watching. Benicio del Toro had significant input into certain parts of the film; for example, he suggested a more straightforward, concise way of depicting his character kidnapping Francisco Flores that Soderbergh ended up using. The director cut a scene from the screenplay in which Robert Wakefield smokes crack after finding it in his daughter's bedroom. After rehearsing this scene with the actors, he felt that the character would not do it; after consulting with Gaghan, the screenwriter agreed, and the filmmakers cut the scene shortly before it was scheduled to be shot. [Balboa Park](/wiki/Balboa_Park_%28San_Diego%29 "Balboa Park (San Diego)"), [downtown San Diego](/wiki/Downtown_San_Diego "Downtown San Diego") and [La Jolla](/wiki/La_Jolla "La Jolla") were utilized as the environment for the film.{{Cite web \|last\=Benninger \|first\=Michael \|date\=2016\-03\-01 \|title\=Hot Shots \|url\=https://www.pacificsandiego.com/things\-to\-do/pac\-hot\-shots\-story.html \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-10 \|website\=Pacific San Diego \|language\=en\-US}} ### Post\-production The first cut of *Traffic* ran three hours and ten minutes. Soderbergh cut it to two hours and twenty minutes. Early on, there were concerns that the film might get an [NC\-17](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America_film_rating_system%23X_is_replaced_by_NC-17 "Motion Picture Association of America film rating system#X is replaced by NC-17") rating, and he was prepared to release it with that rating, but the [MPAA](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America "Motion Picture Association of America") gave it an R.
[ "Production\n----------", "### Development", "[Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh \"Steven Soderbergh\") had been interested in making a film about the drug wars for some time but did not want to make one about addicts.{{cite news\\|title\\=The 'Traffic' Report with Steven Soderbergh \\|first\\=Darrell \\|last\\=Hope \\|url\\=http://www.dga.org/news/v25\\_5/feat\\_soderbergh.php3 \\|work\\=DGA Magazine \\|date\\=January 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316021948/http://www.dga.org/news/v25\\_5/feat\\_soderbergh.php3 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 16, 2010 }} Producer Laura Bickford obtained the rights to the British television miniseries *[Traffik](/wiki/Traffik \"Traffik\")* (1989\\) and liked its structure. Soderbergh, who had seen the miniseries in 1990,{{cite news \\|title\\=Steven Soderbergh \\|first\\=Stephen \\|last\\=Lemons \\|url\\=http://archive.salon.com/people/conv/2000/12/20/soderbergh \\|work\\=\\[\\[Salon.com]] \\|date\\=2000\\-12\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-06\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622144348/http://archive.salon.com/people/conv/2000/12/20/soderbergh/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} started looking for a screenwriter to adapt it into a film. They read a script by [Stephen Gaghan](/wiki/Stephen_Gaghan \"Stephen Gaghan\") called *[Havoc](/wiki/Havoc_%282005_film%29 \"Havoc (2005 film)\")*, about upper\\-class white kids in [Palisades High School](/wiki/Palisades_Charter_High_School \"Palisades Charter High School\") doing drugs and getting involved with gangs.{{cite news \\|title\\=Pushing Words \\|first\\=Christian \\|last\\=Divine \\|work\\=Creative Screenwriting \\|pages\\=57–58 \\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-02}} Soderbergh approached Gaghan to work on his film but found he was already developing a film about drugs for producer/director [Edward Zwick](/wiki/Edward_Zwick \"Edward Zwick\"). Bickford and Soderbergh approached Zwick, who agreed to merge the two projects and come aboard as a producer.", "*Traffic* was originally going to be distributed by [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Studios \"20th Century Studios\"), but it was put into [turnaround](/wiki/Turnaround_%28filmmaking%29 \"Turnaround (filmmaking)\") unless actor [Harrison Ford](/wiki/Harrison_Ford \"Harrison Ford\") agreed to star. Soderbergh began shopping the film to other studios, but when Ford suddenly showed interest in *Traffic*, Fox's interest in the film was renewed; the studio took it out of turnaround.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Red Light, Green Light \\|first\\=Rebecca \\|last\\=Ascher\\-Walsh \\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/article/2000/02/15/harrison\\-ford\\-may\\-star\\-steven\\-soderberghs\\-next\\-flick \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|date\\=2000\\-02\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-25}} Fox CEO [Bill Mechanic](/wiki/Bill_Mechanic \"Bill Mechanic\") championed the film, but he departed from the studio by the time the first draft was finished. It went back into turnaround.{{cite news \\|title\\=Interview: Man of the Year, Steven Soderbergh 'Traffic'{{'}}s in Success \\|first\\=Anthony \\|last\\=Kaufman \\|url\\=https://www.indiewire.com/people/int\\_Soderbergh\\_Stev\\_010103\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[indieWIRE]] \\|date\\=2001\\-01\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-04\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060412080246/http://www.indiewire.com/people/int\\_Soderbergh\\_Stev\\_010103\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-04\\-12}} Mechanic had also wanted to make some changes to the script, but Soderbergh disagreed{{cite news \\|title\\=Go! Go! Go! \\|first\\=Manohla \\|last\\=Dargis \\|url\\=http://www.laweekly.com/2000\\-12\\-28/news/go\\-go\\-go \\|work\\=\\[\\[L.A. Weekly]] \\|date\\=2000\\-12\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-04\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104193957/http://www.laweekly.com/2000\\-12\\-28/news/go\\-go\\-go/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and decided to shop the film to other major studios. They all turned him down because they were not confident in the prospects of a three\\-hour film about drugs, according to Gaghan. [USA Films](/wiki/Focus_Features \"Focus Features\"), however, had wanted to take on the movie from the first time Soderbergh approached them. They provided the filmmakers with a $46 million budget, a considerable increase from the $25 million which Fox offered.", "### Screenplay", "Soderbergh had \"conceptual discussions\" with Gaghan while he was shooting *[The Limey](/wiki/The_Limey \"The Limey\")* in October 1998; they finished the outline before he went off to shoot *[Erin Brockovich](/wiki/Erin_Brockovich_%28film%29 \"Erin Brockovich (film)\")*. After Soderbergh was finished with that film, Gaghan had written a first draft in six weeks that was 165 pages long. After the film was approved for production, Soderbergh and Gaghan met two separate times for three days to reformat the script. The draft they shot had 163 pages with 135 speaking parts and featured seven cities. The film shortens the story line of the original miniseries; a significant character arc of a farmer is taken out, and the [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") plotline is replaced with one set in Mexico.", "### Casting", "Harrison Ford was initially considered for the role of Robert Wakefield in January 2000 but would have had to take a significant cut in his usual $20 million salary. Ford met with Soderbergh to flesh out the character. Gaghan agreed to rework the role, adding several scenes to the screenplay. On February 20, Ford turned down the role, and the filmmakers brought it back to [Michael Douglas](/wiki/Michael_Douglas \"Michael Douglas\"), who had turned down an earlier draft. He liked the changes and agreed to star, which helped greenlight the project. Gaghan believes Ford turned down the role because he wanted to \"reconnect with his action fans\".", "The filmmakers sent out letters to many politicians, both [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") and [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"), asking them to make cameo appearances in the film. Several of the scenes had already been shot using actors in these roles, but the filmmakers went back and reshot those scenes when real politicians agreed to be in the film.Conversations with Ross: [\"Featuring Sam Jaeger\"](http://www.rosscarey.com/2011/02/09/episode-24-featuring-sam-jaeger) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424061938/http://www.rosscarey.com/2011/02/09/episode\\-24\\-featuring\\-sam\\-jaeger \\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-24 }}. *RossCarey.com*. Retrieved 2012\\-03\\-03\\. Those who agreed, including U.S. Senators [Harry Reid](/wiki/Harry_Reid \"Harry Reid\"), [Barbara Boxer](/wiki/Barbara_Boxer \"Barbara Boxer\"), [Orrin Hatch](/wiki/Orrin_Hatch \"Orrin Hatch\"), [Charles Grassley](/wiki/Charles_Grassley \"Charles Grassley\"), and [Don Nickles](/wiki/Don_Nickles \"Don Nickles\"), and [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") governor [Bill Weld](/wiki/Bill_Weld \"Bill Weld\"), were filmed in a scene that was entirely improvised.", "### Pre\\-production", "The project was obtained from Fox by Initial Entertainment Group and was sold to USA Films by IEG for North American rights only. Steven Soderbergh never approached USA Films, and Initial Entertainment Group fully funded the film.", "After Fox dropped the film in early 2000 and before USA Films expressed interest, Soderbergh paid for [pre\\-production](/wiki/Pre-production \"Pre-production\") with his own money. USA Films agreed to give him the final cut on *Traffic* and also agreed to his term that all the Mexican characters would speak [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\") while talking to each other.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Dope \\& Glory \\|first\\=Steve \\|last\\=Daly \\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/article/2001/03/02/dope\\-and\\-glory\\-soderbergh\\-talks\\-about\\-directing\\-traffic \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|date\\=2001\\-03\\-02 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723201207/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,280028,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This meant that almost all of Benicio del Toro's dialogue would be subtitled. Once the studio realized this, they suggested that his scenes be shot in English and Spanish, but Soderbergh and del Toro rejected the suggestion. Del Toro, a native of [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\"),{{cite book \\| last1\\=Méndez\\-Méndez \\| first1\\=S. \\| last2\\=Mendez \\| first2\\=S.M. \\| last3\\=Cueto \\| first3\\=G. \\| last4\\=Deynes \\| first4\\=N.R. \\| last5\\=Rodríguez\\-Deynes \\| first5\\=N. \\| title\\=Notable Caribbeans and Caribbean Americans: A Biographical Dictionary \\| publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\| year\\=2003 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-31443\\-8 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NLPrMMKmynwC\\&pg\\=PA139 \\| access\\-date\\=August 10, 2019 \\| page\\=139}} was worried that another actor would be brought in and re\\-record his dialogue in English after he had worked hard to master Mexican inflections and improve his Spanish vocabulary. Del Toro remembers, \"Can you imagine? You do the whole movie, bust your butt to get it as realistic as possible, and someone dubs your voice? I said, 'No way. Over my dead body.' Steven was like, 'Don't worry. It's not gonna happen.'\" The director fought for subtitles for the Mexico scenes, arguing that if the characters did not speak Spanish, the film would have no integrity and would not convincingly portray what he described as the \"impenetrability of another culture\".", "The filmmakers went to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration \"Drug Enforcement Administration\") (DEA) and [U.S. Customs](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service \"United States Customs Service\") early on with the script; they told them that they were trying to present as detailed and accurate a picture of the current drug war as possible. The DEA and Customs pointed out inaccuracies in the script. In addition, they gave the production team access to the border checkpoint to Mexico, as shown in the film during the scene in which Wakefield and his people talk with border officials. Despite the assistance, the DEA did not try to influence the script's content. Soderbergh said *Traffic* had influences from the films of [Richard Lester](/wiki/Richard_Lester \"Richard Lester\") and [Jean\\-Luc Godard](/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard \"Jean-Luc Godard\"). He also spent time analyzing *[The Battle of Algiers](/wiki/The_Battle_of_Algiers_%28film%29 \"The Battle of Algiers (film)\")* and *[Z](/wiki/Z_%281969_film%29 \"Z (1969 film)\")*, which, according to the director, had the feeling that the footage was \"caught\" and not staged. Another inspiration was [Alan J. Pakula](/wiki/Alan_J._Pakula \"Alan J. Pakula\")'s film *[All the President's Men](/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_%28film%29 \"All the President's Men (film)\")* because of its ability to tackle serious issues while being entertaining.{{cite news \\|title\\=Follow the Muse: Inspiration to Balance Lofty and Light \\|first\\=Rick \\|last\\=Lyman \\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9E02E3D91530F935A25751C0A9679C8B63\\&scp\\=1\\&sq\\=%22Follow\\+the\\+Muse%22\\&st\\=nyt \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=2001\\-02\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-26}} In the opening credits of his film, Soderbergh tried to replicate the typeface from *All the President's Men* and the placement on\\-screen at the bottom left\\-hand corner. Analyzing this film helped the director deal with the large cast and working in many different locations for *Traffic*.", "### Principal photography", "Half of the first day's footage came out overexposed and unusable. Before the financiers or studio bosses knew about the problem, Soderbergh was already doing reshoots. The insurers made him agree that any further mishaps resulting in additional filming would come from the director's pocket. Soderbergh shot in various cities in California, Ohio, and Texas, on a 54\\-day schedule and came in $2 million under budget. The director acted as his cinematographer under the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym \"Pseudonym\") Peter Andrews and operated the camera himself to \"get as close to the movie as I can\" and to eliminate the distance between the actors and himself.{{cite web\\|last1\\=French\\|first1\\=Phillip\\|title\\=Traffic\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/News\\_Story/Critic\\_Review/Observer\\_review/0,,430492,00\\.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2018\\|date\\=January 28, 2001\\|archive\\-date\\=April 18, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418174448/http://www.theguardian.com/film/News\\_Story/Critic\\_Review/Observer\\_review/0,,430492,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Soderbergh drew inspiration from the cinema verite style of [Ken Loach](/wiki/Ken_Loach \"Ken Loach\")'s films, studying the framing of scenes, the distance of the camera to the actors, lens length, and the tightness of eyelines depending on the position of a character. Soderbergh remembers, \"I noticed that there's a space that's inviolate, that if you get within something, you cross the edge into a more theatrical aesthetic as opposed to a documentary aesthetic\". Most of the day was spent shooting because a lot of the film was shot with available light.", "For the hand\\-held camera footage, Soderbergh used [Panavision Millennium XLs](/wiki/Panavision_cameras \"Panavision cameras\") that were smaller and lighter than previous cameras and allowed him to move freely. He adopted a distinctive look for each to tell the three stories apart. For Robert Wakefield's story, Soderbergh used tungsten film with no filter for a cold, monochrome blue feel. For Helena Ayala's story, Soderbergh used diffusion filters, flashing the film and overexposing it for a warmer feel. For Javier Rodriguez's story, the director used [tobacco filters](/wiki/Mexican_filter \"Mexican filter\") and a 45\\-degree shutter angle whenever possible to produce a strobe\\-like sharp feeling. Then, he took the entire film through an [Ektachrome](/wiki/Ektachrome \"Ektachrome\") step, which increased the contrast and grain significantly. He wanted different looks for each story because the audience had to keep track of many characters and absorb a lot of information, and he did not want them to have to figure out which story they were watching.", "Benicio del Toro had significant input into certain parts of the film; for example, he suggested a more straightforward, concise way of depicting his character kidnapping Francisco Flores that Soderbergh ended up using. The director cut a scene from the screenplay in which Robert Wakefield smokes crack after finding it in his daughter's bedroom. After rehearsing this scene with the actors, he felt that the character would not do it; after consulting with Gaghan, the screenwriter agreed, and the filmmakers cut the scene shortly before it was scheduled to be shot.", "[Balboa Park](/wiki/Balboa_Park_%28San_Diego%29 \"Balboa Park (San Diego)\"), [downtown San Diego](/wiki/Downtown_San_Diego \"Downtown San Diego\") and [La Jolla](/wiki/La_Jolla \"La Jolla\") were utilized as the environment for the film.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Benninger \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-01 \\|title\\=Hot Shots \\|url\\=https://www.pacificsandiego.com/things\\-to\\-do/pac\\-hot\\-shots\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-10 \\|website\\=Pacific San Diego \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Post\\-production", "The first cut of *Traffic* ran three hours and ten minutes. Soderbergh cut it to two hours and twenty minutes. Early on, there were concerns that the film might get an [NC\\-17](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America_film_rating_system%23X_is_replaced_by_NC-17 \"Motion Picture Association of America film rating system#X is replaced by NC-17\") rating, and he was prepared to release it with that rating, but the [MPAA](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America \"Motion Picture Association of America\") gave it an R.", "" ]
Career ------ While in college Mitchell served as a White House intern under the [Clinton Administration](/wiki/Clinton_Administration "Clinton Administration"), and as a law clerk for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund and later with the Maryland Public Defender's Office and the [Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee](/wiki/Democratic_Senatorial_Campaign_Committee "Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee"). In 1995, Mitchell returned to Boys' Latin School, to teach United States, African\-American, and Maryland history. Additionally, he was also the junior varsity basketball head coach. That same year, he was elected to the Baltimore City Council, serving as Chairman of the Education and Human Resources Committee and vice\-chairman of the Judiciary Committee. Mitchell served as a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention "2000 Democratic National Convention") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") and was appointed Chairman of Baltimore's Human Services Commission. Two years later, he was re\-elected to the City Council, named to the Democratic State Central Committee and appointed 2nd vice\-chair of the Maryland Democratic Party. In 2002 Mitchell left Boys' Latin to further his own education with brokerage firm [A. G. Edwards](/wiki/A._G._Edwards "A. G. Edwards") and later the Harbor Bank of Maryland. Re\-elected in 2004 to his third and current city council term, Mitchell serves as a member of the Judiciary and Legislative Committee and the Education, Housing, Health and Human Services Committee. In 1999 and in 2005, he was voted Baltimore's "Best Politician" by *[Baltimore City Paper](/wiki/Baltimore_City_Paper "Baltimore City Paper")*. Among his community activities are membership on the Echo Hill Outdoor School Board, the Family Tree Board, the Habitat for Humanity Board, and the Board of Trustees of the Boys' Latin School. A lifelong parishioner at Sharp Street United Methodist Church, he lives in Baltimore's historic Bolton Hill, where he serves on the board of his neighborhood association.
[ "Career\n------", "While in college Mitchell served as a White House intern under the [Clinton Administration](/wiki/Clinton_Administration \"Clinton Administration\"), and as a law clerk for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund and later with the Maryland Public Defender's Office and the [Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee](/wiki/Democratic_Senatorial_Campaign_Committee \"Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee\"). In 1995, Mitchell returned to Boys' Latin School, to teach United States, African\\-American, and Maryland history. Additionally, he was also the junior varsity basketball head coach. That same year, he was elected to the Baltimore City Council, serving as Chairman of the Education and Human Resources Committee and vice\\-chairman of the Judiciary Committee.", "Mitchell served as a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention \"2000 Democratic National Convention\") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") and was appointed Chairman of Baltimore's Human Services Commission. Two years later, he was re\\-elected to the City Council, named to the Democratic State Central Committee and appointed 2nd vice\\-chair of the Maryland Democratic Party.", "In 2002 Mitchell left Boys' Latin to further his own education with brokerage firm [A. G. Edwards](/wiki/A._G._Edwards \"A. G. Edwards\") and later the Harbor Bank of Maryland.", "Re\\-elected in 2004 to his third and current city council term, Mitchell serves as a member of the Judiciary and Legislative Committee and the Education, Housing, Health and Human Services Committee. In 1999 and in 2005, he was voted Baltimore's \"Best Politician\" by *[Baltimore City Paper](/wiki/Baltimore_City_Paper \"Baltimore City Paper\")*.", "Among his community activities are membership on the Echo Hill Outdoor School Board, the Family Tree Board, the Habitat for Humanity Board, and the Board of Trustees of the Boys' Latin School. A lifelong parishioner at Sharp Street United Methodist Church, he lives in Baltimore's historic Bolton Hill, where he serves on the board of his neighborhood association.", "" ]
Plot ---- ### First episode In a small 19th century mountain village in Tuscany, the caravan of the famous puppeteer [Mangiafuoco](/wiki/Mangiafuoco "Mangiafuoco") arrives for its spring tour in the region; his two musicians, [the Fox and the Cat](/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Cat "The Fox and the Cat"), are tasked with heralding his arrival. A promotional poster inspires the widowed and financially struggling carpenter [Geppetto](/wiki/Geppetto "Geppetto") to create a puppet for himself and make his own living as a traveling puppeteer. His more well\-off neighbor Mastro Ciliegia encounters a log that speaks and complains, and rids himself of it when Geppetto requests a log to make his puppet. During the transaction, the log causes discord between the two by striking Geppetto and setting Ciliegia up to be blamed. Geppetto spends the evening carving his puppet, which he names [Pinocchio](/wiki/Pinocchio "Pinocchio") in honor of a friend. When Geppetto notices the log's sentience, he blames it on hunger and continues working, believing he can imagine himself interacting with the puppet, even talking to the painting of his late wife. During the night the spirit of the woman appears, reincarnated as a [turquoise\-haired Fairy](/wiki/The_Fairy_with_Turquoise_Hair "The Fairy with Turquoise Hair"). As Geppetto sleeps, the Fairy offers Pinocchio a precise pact: that of making him a temporary child if he behaves correctly, otherwise he would become wooden again, until he has demonstrated his goodness in order to be a child forever. The next morning Geppetto is shocking to find his puppet a real boy, but then Pinocchio runs off with Geppetto in pursuit. He steals food from a fisherman but two Carabinieri catch him. Geppetto's attempt to explain the situation leads the policemen to consider him insane and unfit to raise a child. They arrest Geppetto and entrust Pinocchio to a washerwoman, but Pinocchio leaves for home during a rainfall. Finding no food at home, Pinocchio begs to his neighbors, but one of them believes the act to be a prank and dumps water on him. ### Second episode Pinocchio goes home and finds the [Talking Cricket](/wiki/Talking_Cricket "Talking Cricket"), who tells him to be good. But Pinocchio just throws a hammer at him, smashing a picture of Geppetto's wife. Pinocchio puts his feet in the fire and turns back into a puppet. Geppetto is released from prison and returns to see Pinocchio has burned off his feet, but Pinocchio weeps so much that the Fairy turns him back into a real boy. Pinocchio now decides to try being good and go to school but he will need a school book, Geppetto decides to sell his coat to buy Pinocchio a primer. On his way to the schoolhouse, Pinocchio is distracted by the music from Mangiafuoco's caravan and decides to see the show, selling his primer for a ticket. He is brought on stage by the [marionettes](/wiki/Marionettes "Marionettes") of the company and turns back into a wooden puppet, but Mangiafuoco takes Pinocchio. Geppetto and Mastro Ciliegia go to the schoolhouse to greet Pinocchio, but find he is not there. While Ciliegia consoles Geppetto, he notices that a child has Pinocchio's primer and discovers that it was bought by the child's father from Pinocchio to watch the show. Mangiafuoco's company has now traveled out of the village and has spotted for the night. Mangiafuoco's mutton is cold so he tells the Fox \& Cat to go grab Pinocchio. But the Fairy turns Pinocchio back into a boy. Mangiafuoco thinking the Fox and Cat have robbed him chases them away. Pinocchio admits to Mangiafuoco that he was the puppet who disrupted the last spectacle and tells his story. But Mangiafuoco's mutton is still cold and wants to burn his Marionette [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin "Harlequin"), but Pinocchio says that if anyone should be burned it should be he. The Master is so heartfelt he sneezes (which happens every time he gets emotional) and decides to eat his mutton raw. ### Third episode Mangiafuoco decides to give Pinocchio six gold coins to help Geppetto out. The next morning, Pinocchio sets out and runs into two the Fox and Cat, now pretending to be Lame and Blind. Pinocchio revealed to the two his gold, but a [Hen](/wiki/Chicken "Chicken") warns Pinocchio not to trust strangers, but the Cat jumps upon it and twists its neck. The farmer seeing this chases after them and the Fox \& Cat then loses Pinocchio. The three later meet up at the Gambero Rosso tavern and have a feast with Pinocchio using one of Pinocchio's coins. Pinocchio falls asleep at the table and when he walks up finds that the Fox \& Cat have left. Pinocchios heads out into the woods but is attacked by the Fox and Cat dressed as [robbers](/wiki/Robbers "Robbers"), who chases Pinocchio until dawn. Pinocchio then finds a house floating on a lake and runs to it, the house belongs to the Fairy, she tells Pinocchio she is dead and then robbers catch Pinocchio and hang him by his neck from a tree. To save him the Fairy changes Pinocchio into a wooden puppet and when the noose breaks Pinocchio runs into the Fairy's House. The Fairy summons two doctors to see if Pinocchio should stay a Puppet or turn back into a boy, the Doctors have conflicting options. The Fairy then asks about Pinocchio's coins, Pinocchio lies to the Fairy and his nose begins to grow. The Fairy's maid [Snail](/wiki/Snail "Snail") then rushes in to mock Pinocchio, he then cries and apologizes to his Fairy and is turned back into a boy. Pinocchio then tells the truth about his coins,(that he had hidden them in a well when he was chased by the Robbers) and sets out to get them. But he runs into the Fox \& Cat once more, who tell Pinocchio about a magical field where if Pinocchio buries his coins, a wonderful tree full of coins will grow. Pinocchio believes this lie and buries his coins, but when Pinocchio heads out to get water, the Fox and Cat steal the money and run off. ### Fourth episode When Pinocchio finds out he was robbed he rushes to a local [judge](/wiki/Judge "Judge") but is put in prison for stupidity. When Pinocchio is let out he rushes back to the Fairy's house only to find a grave, he asks a passing man to read what the grave says and finds out it belongs to his dear Fairy. Pinocchio cries at the grave until he becomes hungry. He goes to a nearby farmer and reaches for some grapes but gets his foot stuck in a [Foothold trap](/wiki/Foothold_trap "Foothold trap"). The Farmer makes Pinocchio work as his Guard dog, as his last dog (Melampo) had died. Pinocchio is later set free when he catches the thieves who have been stealing the Farmer's chickens, the Farmer also tells Pinocchio that Geppetto has set out for sea. Geppetto has indeed set out for sea to go to the [Americas](/wiki/Americas "Americas") in search of his son. Pinocchio follows the river down to the docks, where he sees his father out at sea, Geppetto'a boat flips over and Pinocchio dives in to save him. Pinocchio wakes up on a beach, Pinocchio cries thinking his father is gone for good. Under a wrecked rowboat, Pinocchio finds Lucignolo, a lazy good for nothing kid. Pinocchio learns Lucignolo is a runaway from home and together the two of them get into some trouble. ### Fifth episode The next morning, Lucignolo abandons Pinocchio. Pinocchio now hungry searches a nearby town for food, and everyone in the town offers work in exchange for food, Pinocchio being the lazy child he is refuses. But then Pinocchio finds a [Breadline](/wiki/Soup_kitchen "Soup kitchen") and the one serving food is Pinocchio's good Fairy. The Fairy makes Pinocchio slave for her before she takes him home and finally then recognizes him as her dear little puppet. The Fairy gives Pinocchio a deal, he goes to school and stays good and she'll find Geppetto for him. Pinocchio starts school and soon becomes the top [student](/wiki/Student "Student") in the class. Pinocchio becomes so good that the Fairy is going to throw a big party for Pinocchio. But that day at school Lucignolo is reintroduced into the class, but causes a distraction and gets kicked out, Pinocchio soon also causes a distraction to follow his friend. The two escape the school ground and Pinocchio asks where Lucignolo is going in such a hurry, he says he is going to [The Land of Toys](/wiki/The_Land_of_Toys "The Land of Toys"), a place that has no schools and no teachers, and all they do is play all day. Lucignolo invites Pinocchio but he declines, Pinocchio rushes back to the Fairy's house but it's now dark. Pinocchio knocks at the door but only the Snail is awake and very slowly comes down to open the door. When Pinocchio goes to eat his dinner he finds out it's all [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain "Porcelain"), Pinocchio is so angry that he runs off to join Lucignolo. He reaches the coach and joins Lucignolo upon the [donkeys](/wiki/Donkeys "Donkeys") pulling the coach. Once the two and the other kids reach the Land of Toys they all enjoy themselves. ### Sixth episode Lucignolo and Pinocchio wake up with donkey ears, the two try to escape but are turned into donkeys with the rest of the kids. Pinocchio is sold to a [Circus](/wiki/Circus "Circus") and during one of his performances he sees his Fairy in a box seat, he rushes up to her and when pulled by the [Ringmaster](/wiki/Ringmaster_%28circus%29 "Ringmaster (circus)") he falls down and twists his leg. The Ringmaster sells Pinocchio to a Drum Manufacturer who brings the donkey down to the seashore ties a rock to his leg and kicks the rock in, dragging the donkey down to drown. But when the Drum Manufacturer pulls the rope he finds Pinocchio in his puppet form instead of a donkey. And in a range of anger, the Drum Manufacturer throws Pinocchio back into the sea. Pinocchio swims away and out of the waves comes a giant [whale](/wiki/Whale "Whale"). The whale seeing the puppet swallows Pinocchio up. In the throat of the whale, Pinocchio meets a [tuna](/wiki/Tuna "Tuna") fish who tells Pinocchio to quit screaming and let himself be digested, Pinocchio is washed forward by a wave into the belly and finds Geppetto. Pinocchio learns that Geppetto had been swallowed up by the whale when he flipped over in his raft, a ship was also swallowed and the ship was full of boxes of supplies that Geppetto has been living off happily. That night Geppetto goes to wake up Pinocchio in his puppet form, but then he sees the puppet form before his feet of Pinocchio as a boy. The two rejoice in the belly and Pinocchio asks when they will be leaving, Geppettos wants to stay because he thinks they are living in comfort. That night Geppetto follows Pinocchio to the mouth of the whale, and Pinocchio tells Geppetto that the tuna fish has escaped. The two decide to escape by riding on the back of the tuna. By morning they reach shore and the series ends as the two run off to a distant house to ask for food and shelter.
[ "Plot\n----", "### First episode", "In a small 19th century mountain village in Tuscany, the caravan of the famous puppeteer [Mangiafuoco](/wiki/Mangiafuoco \"Mangiafuoco\") arrives for its spring tour in the region; his two musicians, [the Fox and the Cat](/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Cat \"The Fox and the Cat\"), are tasked with heralding his arrival. A promotional poster inspires the widowed and financially struggling carpenter [Geppetto](/wiki/Geppetto \"Geppetto\") to create a puppet for himself and make his own living as a traveling puppeteer. His more well\\-off neighbor Mastro Ciliegia encounters a log that speaks and complains, and rids himself of it when Geppetto requests a log to make his puppet. During the transaction, the log causes discord between the two by striking Geppetto and setting Ciliegia up to be blamed.", "Geppetto spends the evening carving his puppet, which he names [Pinocchio](/wiki/Pinocchio \"Pinocchio\") in honor of a friend. When Geppetto notices the log's sentience, he blames it on hunger and continues working, believing he can imagine himself interacting with the puppet, even talking to the painting of his late wife. During the night the spirit of the woman appears, reincarnated as a [turquoise\\-haired Fairy](/wiki/The_Fairy_with_Turquoise_Hair \"The Fairy with Turquoise Hair\"). As Geppetto sleeps, the Fairy offers Pinocchio a precise pact: that of making him a temporary child if he behaves correctly, otherwise he would become wooden again, until he has demonstrated his goodness in order to be a child forever.", "The next morning Geppetto is shocking to find his puppet a real boy, but then Pinocchio runs off with Geppetto in pursuit. He steals food from a fisherman but two Carabinieri catch him. Geppetto's attempt to explain the situation leads the policemen to consider him insane and unfit to raise a child. They arrest Geppetto and entrust Pinocchio to a washerwoman, but Pinocchio leaves for home during a rainfall. Finding no food at home, Pinocchio begs to his neighbors, but one of them believes the act to be a prank and dumps water on him.", "### Second episode", "Pinocchio goes home and finds the [Talking Cricket](/wiki/Talking_Cricket \"Talking Cricket\"), who tells him to be good. But Pinocchio just throws a hammer at him, smashing a picture of Geppetto's wife. Pinocchio puts his feet in the fire and turns back into a puppet.", "Geppetto is released from prison and returns to see Pinocchio has burned off his feet, but Pinocchio weeps so much that the Fairy turns him back into a real boy. Pinocchio now decides to try being good and go to school but he will need a school book, Geppetto decides to sell his coat to buy Pinocchio a primer. On his way to the schoolhouse, Pinocchio is distracted by the music from Mangiafuoco's caravan and decides to see the show, selling his primer for a ticket. He is brought on stage by the [marionettes](/wiki/Marionettes \"Marionettes\") of the company and turns back into a wooden puppet, but Mangiafuoco takes Pinocchio.", "Geppetto and Mastro Ciliegia go to the schoolhouse to greet Pinocchio, but find he is not there. While Ciliegia consoles Geppetto, he notices that a child has Pinocchio's primer and discovers that it was bought by the child's father from Pinocchio to watch the show. Mangiafuoco's company has now traveled out of the village and has spotted for the night. Mangiafuoco's mutton is cold so he tells the Fox \\& Cat to go grab Pinocchio. But the Fairy turns Pinocchio back into a boy. Mangiafuoco thinking the Fox and Cat have robbed him chases them away.", "Pinocchio admits to Mangiafuoco that he was the puppet who disrupted the last spectacle and tells his story. But Mangiafuoco's mutton is still cold and wants to burn his Marionette [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin \"Harlequin\"), but Pinocchio says that if anyone should be burned it should be he. The Master is so heartfelt he sneezes (which happens every time he gets emotional) and decides to eat his mutton raw.", "### Third episode", "Mangiafuoco decides to give Pinocchio six gold coins to help Geppetto out. The next morning, Pinocchio sets out and runs into two the Fox and Cat, now pretending to be Lame and Blind. Pinocchio revealed to the two his gold, but a [Hen](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\") warns Pinocchio not to trust strangers, but the Cat jumps upon it and twists its neck. The farmer seeing this chases after them and the Fox \\& Cat then loses Pinocchio. The three later meet up at the Gambero Rosso tavern and have a feast with Pinocchio using one of Pinocchio's coins.", "Pinocchio falls asleep at the table and when he walks up finds that the Fox \\& Cat have left. Pinocchios heads out into the woods but is attacked by the Fox and Cat dressed as [robbers](/wiki/Robbers \"Robbers\"), who chases Pinocchio until dawn. Pinocchio then finds a house floating on a lake and runs to it, the house belongs to the Fairy, she tells Pinocchio she is dead and then robbers catch Pinocchio and hang him by his neck from a tree. To save him the Fairy changes Pinocchio into a wooden puppet and when the noose breaks Pinocchio runs into the Fairy's House.", "The Fairy summons two doctors to see if Pinocchio should stay a Puppet or turn back into a boy, the Doctors have conflicting options. The Fairy then asks about Pinocchio's coins, Pinocchio lies to the Fairy and his nose begins to grow. The Fairy's maid [Snail](/wiki/Snail \"Snail\") then rushes in to mock Pinocchio, he then cries and apologizes to his Fairy and is turned back into a boy. Pinocchio then tells the truth about his coins,(that he had hidden them in a well when he was chased by the Robbers) and sets out to get them. But he runs into the Fox \\& Cat once more, who tell Pinocchio about a magical field where if Pinocchio buries his coins, a wonderful tree full of coins will grow. Pinocchio believes this lie and buries his coins, but when Pinocchio heads out to get water, the Fox and Cat steal the money and run off.", "### Fourth episode", "When Pinocchio finds out he was robbed he rushes to a local [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") but is put in prison for stupidity. When Pinocchio is let out he rushes back to the Fairy's house only to find a grave, he asks a passing man to read what the grave says and finds out it belongs to his dear Fairy. Pinocchio cries at the grave until he becomes hungry. He goes to a nearby farmer and reaches for some grapes but gets his foot stuck in a [Foothold trap](/wiki/Foothold_trap \"Foothold trap\"). The Farmer makes Pinocchio work as his Guard dog, as his last dog (Melampo) had died. Pinocchio is later set free when he catches the thieves who have been stealing the Farmer's chickens, the Farmer also tells Pinocchio that Geppetto has set out for sea. Geppetto has indeed set out for sea to go to the [Americas](/wiki/Americas \"Americas\") in search of his son. Pinocchio follows the river down to the docks, where he sees his father out at sea, Geppetto'a boat flips over and Pinocchio dives in to save him.", "Pinocchio wakes up on a beach, Pinocchio cries thinking his father is gone for good. Under a wrecked rowboat, Pinocchio finds Lucignolo, a lazy good for nothing kid. Pinocchio learns Lucignolo is a runaway from home and together the two of them get into some trouble.", "### Fifth episode", "The next morning, Lucignolo abandons Pinocchio. Pinocchio now hungry searches a nearby town for food, and everyone in the town offers work in exchange for food, Pinocchio being the lazy child he is refuses. But then Pinocchio finds a [Breadline](/wiki/Soup_kitchen \"Soup kitchen\") and the one serving food is Pinocchio's good Fairy. The Fairy makes Pinocchio slave for her before she takes him home and finally then recognizes him as her dear little puppet. The Fairy gives Pinocchio a deal, he goes to school and stays good and she'll find Geppetto for him.", "Pinocchio starts school and soon becomes the top [student](/wiki/Student \"Student\") in the class. Pinocchio becomes so good that the Fairy is going to throw a big party for Pinocchio. But that day at school Lucignolo is reintroduced into the class, but causes a distraction and gets kicked out, Pinocchio soon also causes a distraction to follow his friend. The two escape the school ground and Pinocchio asks where Lucignolo is going in such a hurry, he says he is going to [The Land of Toys](/wiki/The_Land_of_Toys \"The Land of Toys\"), a place that has no schools and no teachers, and all they do is play all day. Lucignolo invites Pinocchio but he declines, Pinocchio rushes back to the Fairy's house but it's now dark. Pinocchio knocks at the door but only the Snail is awake and very slowly comes down to open the door. When Pinocchio goes to eat his dinner he finds out it's all [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain \"Porcelain\"), Pinocchio is so angry that he runs off to join Lucignolo. He reaches the coach and joins Lucignolo upon the [donkeys](/wiki/Donkeys \"Donkeys\") pulling the coach. Once the two and the other kids reach the Land of Toys they all enjoy themselves.", "### Sixth episode", "Lucignolo and Pinocchio wake up with donkey ears, the two try to escape but are turned into donkeys with the rest of the kids. Pinocchio is sold to a [Circus](/wiki/Circus \"Circus\") and during one of his performances he sees his Fairy in a box seat, he rushes up to her and when pulled by the [Ringmaster](/wiki/Ringmaster_%28circus%29 \"Ringmaster (circus)\") he falls down and twists his leg. The Ringmaster sells Pinocchio to a Drum Manufacturer who brings the donkey down to the seashore ties a rock to his leg and kicks the rock in, dragging the donkey down to drown. But when the Drum Manufacturer pulls the rope he finds Pinocchio in his puppet form instead of a donkey. And in a range of anger, the Drum Manufacturer throws Pinocchio back into the sea.", "Pinocchio swims away and out of the waves comes a giant [whale](/wiki/Whale \"Whale\"). The whale seeing the puppet swallows Pinocchio up. In the throat of the whale, Pinocchio meets a [tuna](/wiki/Tuna \"Tuna\") fish who tells Pinocchio to quit screaming and let himself be digested, Pinocchio is washed forward by a wave into the belly and finds Geppetto. Pinocchio learns that Geppetto had been swallowed up by the whale when he flipped over in his raft, a ship was also swallowed and the ship was full of boxes of supplies that Geppetto has been living off happily. That night Geppetto goes to wake up Pinocchio in his puppet form, but then he sees the puppet form before his feet of Pinocchio as a boy. The two rejoice in the belly and Pinocchio asks when they will be leaving, Geppettos wants to stay because he thinks they are living in comfort.", "That night Geppetto follows Pinocchio to the mouth of the whale, and Pinocchio tells Geppetto that the tuna fish has escaped. The two decide to escape by riding on the back of the tuna. By morning they reach shore and the series ends as the two run off to a distant house to ask for food and shelter.", "" ]
History and rationale --------------------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=November 2020}} This system dates back to the Middle Ages when the study of the liberal arts typically took seven years. At that time, students often entered university at a much younger age than is common today, sometimes as young as 14 or 15\. The basic university education comprised the [Trivium](/wiki/Trivium_%28education%29 "Trivium (education)") (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the [Quadrivium](/wiki/Quadrivium "Quadrivium") (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music), which together took about seven years of full\-time study. During this period, a student would first earn a baccalaureate, or [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts"), after completing part of their studies. The division between the trivium and quadrivium did not always correspond to the division between the BA and MA degrees, though it was adopted at Cambridge during the Tudor period and remained in place long after other European universities had moved away from it. At the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris "University of Paris"), the baccalaureate was awarded soon after [responsions](/wiki/Responsions "Responsions") (the matriculation exam), while at Oxford and Cambridge the BA was granted much later and became more significant over time. {{anchor\|Convocation}}Upon being admitted to the degree of Master of Arts, a student would become a full member of the university and gain the right to vote in the Convocation. The new MA could then teach at the university for a set number of years, during which time they were referred to as a 'regent' or 'regent master.' Upon completing this period of teaching, they would become a 'non\-regent master' and either leave the university or remain to pursue further studies in one of the higher faculties—Divinity, Canon or Civil Law, or Medicine. Over time, it became possible to study in these higher faculties as a BA, although a graduate could not be promoted to a higher degree until they had the seniority required to become an MA. As the requirements for the BA increased, the requirements for the MA gradually diminished. By the 18th century, the practice had largely become a formality, and students could meet residency requirements (once fulfilled by attending lectures) simply by keeping their names on the college books. In 1800, Oxford introduced modern\-style examinations for the BA and MA degrees, but the MA examination was abolished in 1807\. [thumb\|Costume of a non\-[regent](/wiki/Regent_master "Regent master") MA in Cambridge, 1815\.](/wiki/File:Agar_Cambridge_non-regent_MA_1815.jpg "Agar Cambridge non-regent MA 1815.jpg") From at least the 16th century, noblemen formed the most select group of undergraduates, paying four times the normal fees and sometimes receiving an MA degree after just two years of residence, without completing the BA degree. However, many did not stay long enough to graduate. Noblemen were distinguished by gold tassels on their [mortarboard](/wiki/Mortarboard "Mortarboard") caps, compared to the black ones worn by students of lower social ranks.{{Cite web \|title\=World Wide Words: Tufthunter \|url\=http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww\-tuf2\.htm \|website\=World Wide Words}} Students of the next rank—[fellow\-commoners](/wiki/Fellow-commoner "Fellow-commoner") at Cambridge and Dublin or [gentlemen commoners](/wiki/Gentleman_commoner "Gentleman commoner") at Oxford—paid twice the standard fees, dined with the fellows, and were exempt from attending lectures and performing exercises required for the BA. They could graduate a year earlier than students in lower ranks. However, at Cambridge, both higher categories were still required to take the Senate House Examination to receive an honours degree.Peter Searby, *A History of the University of Cambridge*, vol. III, 1750–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 68–69 Below these were commoners at Oxford or pensioners at Cambridge and Dublin, who paid the standard fees and were more likely to remain and graduate. At the bottom were [servitors](/wiki/Servitor "Servitor") at Oxford and [sizars](/wiki/Sizar "Sizar") at Cambridge and Dublin, who had their fees subsidized by the college in exchange for menial duties. [Oliver Goldsmith](/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith "Oliver Goldsmith") was a sizar; [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton "Isaac Newton") was a subsizar. These distinctions were gradually phased out during the 19th century. Reforms in the late 16th century allowed some ordinary undergraduates to bypass the BA stage altogether. Previously, it was necessary to wait three years after earning a BA to become a bachelor of laws or medicine, but after paying a fine, students could leave college after three years of residence to study at the Inns of Court or a teaching hospital, and return for a professional bachelor's degree, as was the case with [William Blackstone](/wiki/William_Blackstone "William Blackstone"). Until 1865, all students at [King's College, Cambridge](/wiki/King%27s_College%2C_Cambridge "King's College, Cambridge") were from [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College "Eton College") and could graduate BA and later MA without taking university exams. Similarly, students at [New College, Oxford](/wiki/New_College%2C_Oxford "New College, Oxford"), who all came from [Winchester College](/wiki/Winchester_College "Winchester College"), had the same exemptions until 1834\. Although the length of undergraduate degree programs has been reduced to three or four years in all subjects, the MA degree at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin is still awarded roughly seven years after matriculation. This reflects the fact that much of the liberal arts education has been transferred to [grammar schools](/wiki/Grammar_school "Grammar school"), with students now entering university at an older age, typically between 17 and 19\. (In France, the school\-leaving certificate is still called the [Baccalauréat](/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at "Baccalauréat").) [Durham University](/wiki/Durham_University "Durham University") (which awarded its first MA in 1838\) and the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London") (first MA awarded in 1840\) broke away from the ancient English model by treating the MA as a distinct higher degree, awarded after further examination.{{cite news \|author\=C. E. Whiting \|date\=29 June 1937 \|title\=Durham University Centenary \|url\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008 \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=12 December 2015 \|work\=\[\[Yorkshire Post]] \|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]] \|quote\=The M.A. degree at Oxford and Cambridge had degenerated, and was granted to Bachelors of three years' standing on the payment of certain fees. At Durham, the B.A. had to keep residence for three extra terms and pass what seems to have been an honours examination to proceed to the Master's degree, and for a number of years classes were awarded in the M.A. examination.}}{{cite book \|title\=Regulations of the University of London on the Subject of Degrees in Arts \|date\=1839 \|pages\=21–23 \|chapter\=Examination for the degree of Master of Arts \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AYNCAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PR1}}{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ \|title\=The Durham University Calendar \|date\=1842 \|pages\=xxv–xxvi \|chapter\=Regulations}} However, by instituting further study beyond the initial baccalaureate, these universities can be seen to have reverted to the ancient model. Most modern universities followed their lead, with the Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin system becoming the exception. Some universities adopted the ancient model temporarily, allowing progression within the same faculty, such as from BSc to MSc, but later switched to the newer system. Among the "[steamboat ladies](/wiki/Steamboat_ladies "Steamboat ladies")" (female students at Oxford and Cambridge who were awarded *ad eundem* degrees by the University of Dublin between 1904 and 1907, at a time when their own universities refused to confer degrees upon women), some, like [Julia Bell](/wiki/Julia_Bell "Julia Bell"), earned MAs.{{cite ODNB\|id\=38514\|title\=Bell, Julia (1879–1979\)\|first\=Greta\|last\=Jones\|date\=17 September 2015}}; {{cite ODNB\|id\=61643\|title\=Steamboat ladies (''act.'' 1904–1907\)\|last1\=Parkes\|first1\=Susan M.}} ### Historical examples at other universities While today only Cambridge, Oxford, and Trinity College, Dublin promote students to the degree of Master of Arts three years after graduation, this was a practice at other colleges before the 20th century. In the United States, [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") engaged in this practice from the mid\-1600s until 1872\.{{Cite web \|title\=Morning Exercises \|url\=https://commencement.harvard.edu/morning\-exercises \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-01 \|website\=commencement.harvard.edu \|language\=en}} At Yale University, an MA without examination was award from its foundation until 1871\.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-09\-25 \|title\=Miscellaneous Regulations \|url\=https://www.yale.edu/board\-trustees/governance\-historic\-documents/miscellaneous\-regulations \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-08 \|website\=Yale University \|language\=en}} Likewise, [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University") awarded the Master of Arts in this manner from its origins as King's College, during which, in 1761, three of the five members of the original graduating class of 1758 were promoted to Master of Arts.{{Cite book \|last\=Columbia College (New York \|first\=N. Y. ) \|url\=http://archive.org/details/62640310R.nlm.nih.gov \|title\=Catalogue of Columbia College in the City of New\-York : embracing the names of its trustees, officers, and graduates, together with a list of all academical honours conferred by the institution from A.D. 1758 to A.D. 1826, inclusive \|date\=1826 \|publisher\=New York : Printed by T. and J. Swords \|others\=U.S. National Library of Medicine}} The practice was abolished by the Board of Trustees in June 1880, when a formal exam for the Master of Arts was introduced.{{Cite book \|last\=Columbia university. \[from old catalog] \|url\=http://archive.org/details/statutesofcolumb00colu \|title\=Statutes of Columbia college and its associated schools \|date\=1878 \|publisher\=New York, Printed for the College \|others\=The Library of Congress}} Other American colleges in the mid to late 1800s, awarded a Master of Arts "in course" to graduates of three years standing, including at [Amherst College](/wiki/Amherst_College "Amherst College") and [Union College](/wiki/Union_College "Union College").{{Cite news \|date\=1874\-07\-10 \|title\=Julius Abbott Morrill and Thing about Amherst college, part 1\. \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-springfield\-daily\-republican\-julius/150224628/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07 \|work\=The Springfield Daily Republican \|pages\=8}}{{Cite news \|title\=TimesMachine: Wednesday July 30, 1862 \- NYTimes.com \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1862/07/30/78694445\.html?pageNumber\=6 \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07 \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
[ "History and rationale\n---------------------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "This system dates back to the Middle Ages when the study of the liberal arts typically took seven years. At that time, students often entered university at a much younger age than is common today, sometimes as young as 14 or 15\\. The basic university education comprised the [Trivium](/wiki/Trivium_%28education%29 \"Trivium (education)\") (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the [Quadrivium](/wiki/Quadrivium \"Quadrivium\") (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music), which together took about seven years of full\\-time study.", "During this period, a student would first earn a baccalaureate, or [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\"), after completing part of their studies. The division between the trivium and quadrivium did not always correspond to the division between the BA and MA degrees, though it was adopted at Cambridge during the Tudor period and remained in place long after other European universities had moved away from it. At the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris \"University of Paris\"), the baccalaureate was awarded soon after [responsions](/wiki/Responsions \"Responsions\") (the matriculation exam), while at Oxford and Cambridge the BA was granted much later and became more significant over time.", "{{anchor\\|Convocation}}Upon being admitted to the degree of Master of Arts, a student would become a full member of the university and gain the right to vote in the Convocation. The new MA could then teach at the university for a set number of years, during which time they were referred to as a 'regent' or 'regent master.' Upon completing this period of teaching, they would become a 'non\\-regent master' and either leave the university or remain to pursue further studies in one of the higher faculties—Divinity, Canon or Civil Law, or Medicine.", "Over time, it became possible to study in these higher faculties as a BA, although a graduate could not be promoted to a higher degree until they had the seniority required to become an MA. As the requirements for the BA increased, the requirements for the MA gradually diminished. By the 18th century, the practice had largely become a formality, and students could meet residency requirements (once fulfilled by attending lectures) simply by keeping their names on the college books. In 1800, Oxford introduced modern\\-style examinations for the BA and MA degrees, but the MA examination was abolished in 1807\\. \n[thumb\\|Costume of a non\\-[regent](/wiki/Regent_master \"Regent master\") MA in Cambridge, 1815\\.](/wiki/File:Agar_Cambridge_non-regent_MA_1815.jpg \"Agar Cambridge non-regent MA 1815.jpg\")\nFrom at least the 16th century, noblemen formed the most select group of undergraduates, paying four times the normal fees and sometimes receiving an MA degree after just two years of residence, without completing the BA degree. However, many did not stay long enough to graduate. Noblemen were distinguished by gold tassels on their [mortarboard](/wiki/Mortarboard \"Mortarboard\") caps, compared to the black ones worn by students of lower social ranks.{{Cite web \\|title\\=World Wide Words: Tufthunter \\|url\\=http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww\\-tuf2\\.htm \\|website\\=World Wide Words}} Students of the next rank—[fellow\\-commoners](/wiki/Fellow-commoner \"Fellow-commoner\") at Cambridge and Dublin or [gentlemen commoners](/wiki/Gentleman_commoner \"Gentleman commoner\") at Oxford—paid twice the standard fees, dined with the fellows, and were exempt from attending lectures and performing exercises required for the BA. They could graduate a year earlier than students in lower ranks. However, at Cambridge, both higher categories were still required to take the Senate House Examination to receive an honours degree.Peter Searby, *A History of the University of Cambridge*, vol. III, 1750–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 68–69 Below these were commoners at Oxford or pensioners at Cambridge and Dublin, who paid the standard fees and were more likely to remain and graduate. At the bottom were [servitors](/wiki/Servitor \"Servitor\") at Oxford and [sizars](/wiki/Sizar \"Sizar\") at Cambridge and Dublin, who had their fees subsidized by the college in exchange for menial duties. [Oliver Goldsmith](/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith \"Oliver Goldsmith\") was a sizar; [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") was a subsizar. These distinctions were gradually phased out during the 19th century.", "Reforms in the late 16th century allowed some ordinary undergraduates to bypass the BA stage altogether. Previously, it was necessary to wait three years after earning a BA to become a bachelor of laws or medicine, but after paying a fine, students could leave college after three years of residence to study at the Inns of Court or a teaching hospital, and return for a professional bachelor's degree, as was the case with [William Blackstone](/wiki/William_Blackstone \"William Blackstone\").", "Until 1865, all students at [King's College, Cambridge](/wiki/King%27s_College%2C_Cambridge \"King's College, Cambridge\") were from [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College \"Eton College\") and could graduate BA and later MA without taking university exams. Similarly, students at [New College, Oxford](/wiki/New_College%2C_Oxford \"New College, Oxford\"), who all came from [Winchester College](/wiki/Winchester_College \"Winchester College\"), had the same exemptions until 1834\\.", "Although the length of undergraduate degree programs has been reduced to three or four years in all subjects, the MA degree at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin is still awarded roughly seven years after matriculation. This reflects the fact that much of the liberal arts education has been transferred to [grammar schools](/wiki/Grammar_school \"Grammar school\"), with students now entering university at an older age, typically between 17 and 19\\. (In France, the school\\-leaving certificate is still called the [Baccalauréat](/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at \"Baccalauréat\").)", "[Durham University](/wiki/Durham_University \"Durham University\") (which awarded its first MA in 1838\\) and the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\") (first MA awarded in 1840\\) broke away from the ancient English model by treating the MA as a distinct higher degree, awarded after further examination.{{cite news \\|author\\=C. E. Whiting \\|date\\=29 June 1937 \\|title\\=Durham University Centenary \\|url\\=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2015 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Yorkshire Post]] \\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]] \\|quote\\=The M.A. degree at Oxford and Cambridge had degenerated, and was granted to Bachelors of three years' standing on the payment of certain fees. At Durham, the B.A. had to keep residence for three extra terms and pass what seems to have been an honours examination to proceed to the Master's degree, and for a number of years classes were awarded in the M.A. examination.}}{{cite book \\|title\\=Regulations of the University of London on the Subject of Degrees in Arts \\|date\\=1839 \\|pages\\=21–23 \\|chapter\\=Examination for the degree of Master of Arts \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AYNCAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PR1}}{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fd8NAAAAQAAJ \\|title\\=The Durham University Calendar \\|date\\=1842 \\|pages\\=xxv–xxvi \\|chapter\\=Regulations}} However, by instituting further study beyond the initial baccalaureate, these universities can be seen to have reverted to the ancient model. Most modern universities followed their lead, with the Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin system becoming the exception. Some universities adopted the ancient model temporarily, allowing progression within the same faculty, such as from BSc to MSc, but later switched to the newer system.", "Among the \"[steamboat ladies](/wiki/Steamboat_ladies \"Steamboat ladies\")\" (female students at Oxford and Cambridge who were awarded *ad eundem* degrees by the University of Dublin between 1904 and 1907, at a time when their own universities refused to confer degrees upon women), some, like [Julia Bell](/wiki/Julia_Bell \"Julia Bell\"), earned MAs.{{cite ODNB\\|id\\=38514\\|title\\=Bell, Julia (1879–1979\\)\\|first\\=Greta\\|last\\=Jones\\|date\\=17 September 2015}}; {{cite ODNB\\|id\\=61643\\|title\\=Steamboat ladies (''act.'' 1904–1907\\)\\|last1\\=Parkes\\|first1\\=Susan M.}}", "### Historical examples at other universities", "While today only Cambridge, Oxford, and Trinity College, Dublin promote students to the degree of Master of Arts three years after graduation, this was a practice at other colleges before the 20th century.", "In the United States, [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") engaged in this practice from the mid\\-1600s until 1872\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Morning Exercises \\|url\\=https://commencement.harvard.edu/morning\\-exercises \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-01 \\|website\\=commencement.harvard.edu \\|language\\=en}} At Yale University, an MA without examination was award from its foundation until 1871\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-25 \\|title\\=Miscellaneous Regulations \\|url\\=https://www.yale.edu/board\\-trustees/governance\\-historic\\-documents/miscellaneous\\-regulations \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=Yale University \\|language\\=en}} Likewise, [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\") awarded the Master of Arts in this manner from its origins as King's College, during which, in 1761, three of the five members of the original graduating class of 1758 were promoted to Master of Arts.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Columbia College (New York \\|first\\=N. Y. ) \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/62640310R.nlm.nih.gov \\|title\\=Catalogue of Columbia College in the City of New\\-York : embracing the names of its trustees, officers, and graduates, together with a list of all academical honours conferred by the institution from A.D. 1758 to A.D. 1826, inclusive \\|date\\=1826 \\|publisher\\=New York : Printed by T. and J. Swords \\|others\\=U.S. National Library of Medicine}} The practice was abolished by the Board of Trustees in June 1880, when a formal exam for the Master of Arts was introduced.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Columbia university. \\[from old catalog] \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/statutesofcolumb00colu \\|title\\=Statutes of Columbia college and its associated schools \\|date\\=1878 \\|publisher\\=New York, Printed for the College \\|others\\=The Library of Congress}}", "Other American colleges in the mid to late 1800s, awarded a Master of Arts \"in course\" to graduates of three years standing, including at [Amherst College](/wiki/Amherst_College \"Amherst College\") and [Union College](/wiki/Union_College \"Union College\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=1874\\-07\\-10 \\|title\\=Julius Abbott Morrill and Thing about Amherst college, part 1\\. \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-springfield\\-daily\\-republican\\-julius/150224628/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07 \\|work\\=The Springfield Daily Republican \\|pages\\=8}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=TimesMachine: Wednesday July 30, 1862 \\- NYTimes.com \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1862/07/30/78694445\\.html?pageNumber\\=6 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}", "" ]
Career ------ John Byng entered the Royal Navy in March 1718, aged 13, when his father was a well\-established admiral at the peak of a uniformly successful career. Early in his career, Byng was assigned to a series of [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea") postings. In 1723, aged 19, he was promoted lieutenant and, at 23, rose to become [captain](/wiki/Sea_captain "Sea captain") of {{HMS\|Gibraltar}}. His Mediterranean service continued until 1739 without much action.{{cite DCB\|last\=Godfrey\|first\=Michael\|url\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/byng\_john\_3E.html\|title\=Byng, John\|volume\=3\|access\-date\=4 March 2008}} In 1742 he was appointed Commodore\-Governor of the [British colony](/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas "British colonization of the Americas") of [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_Colony "Newfoundland Colony"). He was promoted to [rear\-admiral](/wiki/Rear-admiral "Rear-admiral") in 1745 and appointed [Commander\-in\-Chief, Leith](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief%2C_Leith "Commander-in-Chief, Leith"), a post he held until 1746\. Byng, stationed off Scotland, thwarted the resupply of [Bonnie Prince Charlie](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart "Charles Edward Stuart")'s forces during the [1745 Jacobite Rebellion](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 "Jacobite rising of 1745"). The admiral also assisted the [Duke of Cumberland](/wiki/Prince_William%2C_Duke_of_Cumberland "Prince William, Duke of Cumberland") in Britain's crackdown after the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden"). He was promoted to [vice\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral "Vice-admiral") in 1747 and appointed Commander\-in\-Chief of the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet "Mediterranean Fleet"). He served as a Member of Parliament for [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Rochester (UK Parliament constituency)") from 1751 until his death.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1715\-1754/member/byng\-hon\-john\-1704\-57\|title\=Byng, Hon. John (c. 1704–57\), of Wrotham Park, Mdx.\|work\=History of Parliament Online\|access\-date\=18 April 2017}} ### Wrotham Park [thumb\|1820 view of [Wrotham Park](/wiki/Wrotham_Park "Wrotham Park") in Hertfordshire, the house built by John Byng](/wiki/File:Brayley%281820%29_p5.105_-_Wrotham_Park%2C_Middlesex.jpg "Brayley(1820) p5.105 - Wrotham Park, Middlesex.jpg") Having purchased a large estate in [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire "Hertfordshire"), in 1754 Byng commissioned the building within it of [Wrotham Park](/wiki/Wrotham_Park "Wrotham Park"), a Palladian mansion (sited within the present\-day bounds of [Potters Bar](/wiki/Potters_Bar "Potters Bar")). It is doubtful that he ever lived there. Byng never married and the house was left to a brother's eldest son, a descendant of whom still owns it.[Wrotham Park History](http://www.wrothampark.com/history.php), accessed 8 January 2019\.Poole, David,["Wrotham Park"](https://houseandheritage.org/2018/01/21/wrotham-park/), *House and Heritage*, 21 January 2018\. ### Battle of Minorca [thumb\|{{center\|''We have lately been told Of two admirals bold, Who engag'd in a terrible Fight: They met after Noon, Which I think was too soon, As they both ran away before Night.''}}](/wiki/File:Admiral_bold.jpg "Admiral bold.jpg") {{Wikisource\|Admiral John Byng's account of the Battle of Minorca}} The island of [Minorca](/wiki/Minorca "Minorca") had been a British possession since 1708, when it was captured during the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession "War of the Spanish Succession"). On the approach of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War"), numerous British diplomats based in the Mediterranean raised the alarm that Minorca was threatened by a [French](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon") naval attack from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon "Toulon").John Barrow, *The Naval History of Great Britain; with the lives of the most Illustrious Admirals and Commanders from the Reign of Queen Elizabeth*, volume 4 (London: James Rivington and James Fletcher, 1758\), 322\. Since 1748, British downsizing of the Royal Navy meant that only three [ships\-of\-the\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line "Ship of the line") were assigned to protect trading interests in the Mediterranean by 1755\.Chris Ware, *Admiral Byng: His Rise and Execution* (Pen \& Sword, 2009\), 39\. The *London Evening Post* had reported as far back as April 1755 that Toulon was outfitting twelve brand new "men of war".*London Evening Post*, 19 April 1755 Lord [George Anson](/wiki/George_Anson%2C_1st_Baron_Anson "George Anson, 1st Baron Anson"), head of the Admiralty, chose to focus instead on preventing a French invasion, keeping warships close to Britain.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\), 202 Byng was given orders to raise a fleet on 11 March 1756, with only six of ten assigned ships present in Portsmouth, and all of them severely undermanned.Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 11 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\. Byng's orders were multiplex, his first target being the alleged new French fleet at Toulon, while the British garrison of [Fort St Philip](/wiki/St._Philip%27s_Castle "St. Philip's Castle") at [Port Mahon](/wiki/Port_Mahon "Port Mahon") was a secondary concern.John Campbell, *Lives of the British Admirals: Containing also a New and Accurate Naval History from the Earliest Periods*, volume 6 (London: C. J. Barrington, 1814\), 306–307\. Despite his protests, he was not given enough money or time to prepare the expedition properly. His fleet was delayed in Portsmouth for over a month and Byng was ordered by the Admiralty Office to outfit other channel ships ahead of his own fleet.Pope, Dudley, (1962\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, Additionally, half of his assigned ships were in disrepair or missing. When the {{HMS\|Defiance\|1744\|2}} pulled into Portsmouth, for example, the warship was missing its fore and main topmast.Admiralty Papers, Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 14 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\. By 6 April, still short of over 800 men, Byng set sail from Portsmouth using Colonel [Robert Bertie](/wiki/Lord_Robert_Bertie "Lord Robert Bertie")'s [fusiliers](/wiki/Fusilier "Fusilier") in place of sailors. While he was en route, the French Toulon fleet, on 17 April 1756, escorted over 1,000 [tartanes](/wiki/Tartane "Tartane") and transport ships landing 15,000 troops under the command of [General Richelieu](/wiki/Armand_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis "Armand de Vignerot du Plessis") at [Ciutadella](/wiki/Ciutadella_de_Menorca "Ciutadella de Menorca"), on the far west end of Minorca.Pope, Dudley (1962\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, 95\. Byng arrived at Gibraltar and was told of the French landing. Remarkably, General [Thomas Fowke](/wiki/Thomas_Fowke "Thomas Fowke"), then in command at Gibraltar, held a [war council](/wiki/Council_of_war "Council of war") and refused to supply Byng with a regiment of [marines](/wiki/Marines "Marines"), as ordered by the War Office.Richard Glover, Memoirs of a Celebrated Literary and Political Character, from the Resignation of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742, to the Establishment of Lord Chatam's Second Administration in 1757; containing Stricture on some of the most Distinguished Men of that Time, New Edition (London: 1814\), 79\. Further, naval facilities at Gibraltar were dilapidated.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\), 158\. Byng wrote a letter to the Admiralty Office explaining the situation as dire. Many military historians have interpreted that dispatch as Byng preparing for failure and that Byng did not believe that the garrison could hold out against the French force. Without marines to land, and with only fusiliers to lend to the garrison (which would render his fleet – once again – severely undermanned), Byng nonetheless steered his fleet toward Minorca to assess the situation for himself.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} Byng sailed on 8 May 1756\. On 19 May, Byng's fleet appeared off of Port Mahon and he endeavoured to open communications with the fort. The French squadron appeared before he could open up a line of communication with any fort officer, however.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} The [Battle of Minorca](/wiki/Battle_of_Minorca_%281756%29 "Battle of Minorca (1756)") was fought on the following day. Byng had gained the [weather gage](/wiki/Weather_gage "Weather gage"), which both forces had attempted to gain. However, the two fleets were not parallel with one another. Byng called for a lasking manoeuvre, meaning that all his ships would turn in unison and, with the wind behind them, sail straight toward the enemy bow first. But Captain Thomas Andrews of the *Defiance*, the lead ship due to the angled approach, did not steer directly for the first French ship in the enemy's line but, instead, steered a parallel course. The {{HMS\|Portland\|1744\|2}}, {{HMS\|Buckingham\|1751\|2}}, {{HMS\|Lancaster\|1694\|2}} and {{HMS\|Captain\|1743\|2}} followed the example set by the *Defiance*. It took two cannon shots from Byng's flagship, the *[Ramillies](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Katherine_%281664%29 "HMS Royal Katherine (1664)")*, and some ten to fifteen minutes for the Admiral to redirect the lasking. But by this time, the French Admiral had ordered his ships to pull more sail and lead away from Byng's attempted lasking. This delay cost Byng the element of surprise, and it also allowed the French to make the rest of the battle a "running fight", as Captain [Augustus Hervey](/wiki/Augustus_Hervey%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bristol "Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol") later called it.*Augustus Hervey's Journal: The Adventures Afloat and Ashore of a Naval Casanova*, David Erskine, ed., paperback (Rochester, UK: Chatham, 2002\), 202–205\. Because of the angle, the leading van took the brunt of the damage. The last ship in that squadron, the {{HMS\|Intrepid\|1747\|2}}, was heavily damaged, losing three of its masts including the main. The next three ships, the *[Revenge](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281673%29 "HMS Swiftsure (1673)")*, {{HMS\|Princess Louisa\|1744\|2}} and *Trident*, did not pass the now listing *Intrepid* to keep the sanctity of the battle line. Instead, those ships nearly collided with one another, with Captain Frederick Cornwall of the *Revenge* eventually navigating his ship between the *Intrepid* and the enemy.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} Byng's battle line was broken. It cost Byng twenty to thirty minutes to reform the line and once the line was reformed, the French pulled full sail and expediently pulled away. Byng was told by Captain Arthur Gardiner, his [flag captain](/wiki/Captain_of_the_Fleet "Captain of the Fleet"), that he could set full sail for the enemy, thus providing an example to the three bottled\-up ships on what to do. Byng declined, recalling that Admiral [Thomas Mathews](/wiki/Thomas_Mathews "Thomas Mathews") had been dismissed for doing so at the [Battle of Toulon](/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_%281744%29 "Battle of Toulon (1744)") in 1744\. After four to four and a half hours, neither side had lost a ship in the engagement, and casualties were roughly even, with 43 British sailors killed and 168 wounded, against French losses of 38 killed and 175 wounded.Robson 2016, p. 34 Byng remained near Minorca for four days without establishing communication with the fort or sighting the French. On 24 May, he called a war council of his own where, by unanimous voting, Byng's fleet would return to Gibraltar for repairs, succour, sailors and more marines for the garrison.Robson 2016, p. 36 The fleet arrived at Gibraltar on 19 June, where they were reinforced with four more ships of the line and a 50\-gun frigate. Repairs were effected to the damaged vessels and additional water and provisions were loaded aboard. But, before his fleet could return to sea, another ship arrived from England with further instructions, relieving Byng, Fowke and several others of their command and ordering a return to home.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} On arrival in England, Byng was placed in custody. The garrison resisted the [Siege of Fort St Philip](/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_%281756%29 "Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)") until 29 June, when it was forced to capitulate.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} ### Fallout after Minorca News of the Battle of Minorca's outcome was wanting. The [Newcastle ministry](/wiki/First_Newcastle_ministry "First Newcastle ministry") had suffered military setbacks elsewhere in the British Empire; [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington")'s defeat at [Fort Necessity](/wiki/Fort_Necessity "Fort Necessity"), [Edward Braddock](/wiki/Edward_Braddock "Edward Braddock")'s army's losses in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), the siege of [Fort Oswego](/wiki/Fort_Oswego "Fort Oswego"), and the renewal of the [Carnatic Wars](/wiki/Carnatic_Wars "Carnatic Wars") in [India](/wiki/India "India") with the fall of [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta "Calcutta"). Domestically, conditions were also horrid: food riots had broken out, beginning in the Midlands, spreading to [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales") to the south and as far north as [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow").Andrew Charlesworth, "The Spatial Diffusion of Riots: Popular Disturbances in England and Wales, 1750–1850", *Rural History*, volume 5, no. 1 (1994\), 1–22\. Another failure would challenge [Newcastle](/wiki/Thomas_Pelham-Holles%2C_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle "Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle")'s hold on power. Indeed, in the wake of publication of the battle, [George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain "George II of Great Britain") was flooded with petitions and addresses to investigate the government's poor handling of a whole host of issues.Wilson, Kathleen, *The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715–1785*, (Cambridge University Press, 1995\), 183\. When news of the Battle of Minorca did arrive, it was via a Spanish diplomat, who carried a dispatch from the French admiral, Byng's counterpart, [Roland\-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière](/wiki/Roland-Michel_Barrin_de_La_Galissoni%C3%A8re "Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière"). Without any word from Byng, or any other naval or army officer attached to his fleet, ministers chose to recall several officers, Byng included. It would be another 20 days before Byng's version of the battle arrived in London. By then, however, ministers had chosen a course of action detrimental to Byng. {{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} On 26 June 1756, the government newspaper, *[The London Gazette](/wiki/The_London_Gazette "The London Gazette")*, printed an edited version of Byng's report removing passages and rewording others to make the admiral appear a coward. Protest against Byng began with effigy burnings mostly in port cities throughout England and one as far away as Boston, Massachusetts. Newcastle also received his share of odium. In a letter to [Robert Craggs\-Nugent](/wiki/Robert_Nugent%2C_1st_Earl_Nugent "Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent"), the First Minister wrote, > I have touched upon a Ticklish Point... I thought it not fair, to lay the Loss expressly upon Byng, Tho' there it will, \& must be laid, \& there only.Newcastle to Nugent, 31 July 1756, British Library, ADD MS 32866, f. 324\. Even prior to the battle, [George Bubb Dodington](/wiki/George_Dodington%2C_1st_Baron_Melcombe "George Dodington, 1st Baron Melcombe") informed [Henry Fox](/wiki/Henry_Fox%2C_1st_Baron_Holland "Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland") that ministers had already chosen a scapegoat in case events in the Mediterranean went astray.*The Diary of the Late George ‘Bubb’ Dodington, Baron of Melcombe Regis*, ed. Henry Penruddocke Wyndham (London:1823\), 341\. Clearly the government had chosen Byng to take the fall for their neglect of the Mediterranean theatre.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}}
[ "Career\n------", "John Byng entered the Royal Navy in March 1718, aged 13, when his father was a well\\-established admiral at the peak of a uniformly successful career. Early in his career, Byng was assigned to a series of [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\") postings. In 1723, aged 19, he was promoted lieutenant and, at 23, rose to become [captain](/wiki/Sea_captain \"Sea captain\") of {{HMS\\|Gibraltar}}. His Mediterranean service continued until 1739 without much action.{{cite DCB\\|last\\=Godfrey\\|first\\=Michael\\|url\\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/byng\\_john\\_3E.html\\|title\\=Byng, John\\|volume\\=3\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2008}}", "In 1742 he was appointed Commodore\\-Governor of the [British colony](/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas \"British colonization of the Americas\") of [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_Colony \"Newfoundland Colony\"). He was promoted to [rear\\-admiral](/wiki/Rear-admiral \"Rear-admiral\") in 1745 and appointed [Commander\\-in\\-Chief, Leith](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief%2C_Leith \"Commander-in-Chief, Leith\"), a post he held until 1746\\. Byng, stationed off Scotland, thwarted the resupply of [Bonnie Prince Charlie](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart \"Charles Edward Stuart\")'s forces during the [1745 Jacobite Rebellion](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 \"Jacobite rising of 1745\"). The admiral also assisted the [Duke of Cumberland](/wiki/Prince_William%2C_Duke_of_Cumberland \"Prince William, Duke of Cumberland\") in Britain's crackdown after the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\"). He was promoted to [vice\\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral \"Vice-admiral\") in 1747 and appointed Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet \"Mediterranean Fleet\"). He served as a Member of Parliament for [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Rochester (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1751 until his death.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1715\\-1754/member/byng\\-hon\\-john\\-1704\\-57\\|title\\=Byng, Hon. John (c. 1704–57\\), of Wrotham Park, Mdx.\\|work\\=History of Parliament Online\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2017}}", "### Wrotham Park", "[thumb\\|1820 view of [Wrotham Park](/wiki/Wrotham_Park \"Wrotham Park\") in Hertfordshire, the house built by John Byng](/wiki/File:Brayley%281820%29_p5.105_-_Wrotham_Park%2C_Middlesex.jpg \"Brayley(1820) p5.105 - Wrotham Park, Middlesex.jpg\")\nHaving purchased a large estate in [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire \"Hertfordshire\"), in 1754 Byng commissioned the building within it of [Wrotham Park](/wiki/Wrotham_Park \"Wrotham Park\"), a Palladian mansion (sited within the present\\-day bounds of [Potters Bar](/wiki/Potters_Bar \"Potters Bar\")). It is doubtful that he ever lived there. Byng never married and the house was left to a brother's eldest son, a descendant of whom still owns it.[Wrotham Park History](http://www.wrothampark.com/history.php), accessed 8 January 2019\\.Poole, David,[\"Wrotham Park\"](https://houseandheritage.org/2018/01/21/wrotham-park/), *House and Heritage*, 21 January 2018\\.", "### Battle of Minorca", "[thumb\\|{{center\\|''We have lately been told \nOf two admirals bold, \nWho engag'd in a terrible Fight: \nThey met after Noon, \nWhich I think was too soon, \nAs they both ran away before Night.''}}](/wiki/File:Admiral_bold.jpg \"Admiral bold.jpg\")\n{{Wikisource\\|Admiral John Byng's account of the Battle of Minorca}}", "The island of [Minorca](/wiki/Minorca \"Minorca\") had been a British possession since 1708, when it was captured during the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession \"War of the Spanish Succession\"). On the approach of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\"), numerous British diplomats based in the Mediterranean raised the alarm that Minorca was threatened by a [French](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\") naval attack from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon \"Toulon\").John Barrow, *The Naval History of Great Britain; with the lives of the most Illustrious Admirals and Commanders from the Reign of Queen Elizabeth*, volume 4 (London: James Rivington and James Fletcher, 1758\\), 322\\. Since 1748, British downsizing of the Royal Navy meant that only three [ships\\-of\\-the\\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line \"Ship of the line\") were assigned to protect trading interests in the Mediterranean by 1755\\.Chris Ware, *Admiral Byng: His Rise and Execution* (Pen \\& Sword, 2009\\), 39\\. The *London Evening Post* had reported as far back as April 1755 that Toulon was outfitting twelve brand new \"men of war\".*London Evening Post*, 19 April 1755 Lord [George Anson](/wiki/George_Anson%2C_1st_Baron_Anson \"George Anson, 1st Baron Anson\"), head of the Admiralty, chose to focus instead on preventing a French invasion, keeping warships close to Britain.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\\), 202", "Byng was given orders to raise a fleet on 11 March 1756, with only six of ten assigned ships present in Portsmouth, and all of them severely undermanned.Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 11 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\\. Byng's orders were multiplex, his first target being the alleged new French fleet at Toulon, while the British garrison of [Fort St Philip](/wiki/St._Philip%27s_Castle \"St. Philip's Castle\") at [Port Mahon](/wiki/Port_Mahon \"Port Mahon\") was a secondary concern.John Campbell, *Lives of the British Admirals: Containing also a New and Accurate Naval History from the Earliest Periods*, volume 6 (London: C. J. Barrington, 1814\\), 306–307\\.", "Despite his protests, he was not given enough money or time to prepare the expedition properly. His fleet was delayed in Portsmouth for over a month and Byng was ordered by the Admiralty Office to outfit other channel ships ahead of his own fleet.Pope, Dudley, (1962\\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, Additionally, half of his assigned ships were in disrepair or missing. When the {{HMS\\|Defiance\\|1744\\|2}} pulled into Portsmouth, for example, the warship was missing its fore and main topmast.Admiralty Papers, Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 14 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\\.", "By 6 April, still short of over 800 men, Byng set sail from Portsmouth using Colonel [Robert Bertie](/wiki/Lord_Robert_Bertie \"Lord Robert Bertie\")'s [fusiliers](/wiki/Fusilier \"Fusilier\") in place of sailors. While he was en route, the French Toulon fleet, on 17 April 1756, escorted over 1,000 [tartanes](/wiki/Tartane \"Tartane\") and transport ships landing 15,000 troops under the command of [General Richelieu](/wiki/Armand_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis \"Armand de Vignerot du Plessis\") at [Ciutadella](/wiki/Ciutadella_de_Menorca \"Ciutadella de Menorca\"), on the far west end of Minorca.Pope, Dudley (1962\\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, 95\\.", "Byng arrived at Gibraltar and was told of the French landing. Remarkably, General [Thomas Fowke](/wiki/Thomas_Fowke \"Thomas Fowke\"), then in command at Gibraltar, held a [war council](/wiki/Council_of_war \"Council of war\") and refused to supply Byng with a regiment of [marines](/wiki/Marines \"Marines\"), as ordered by the War Office.Richard Glover, Memoirs of a Celebrated Literary and Political Character, from the Resignation of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742, to the Establishment of Lord Chatam's Second Administration in 1757; containing Stricture on some of the most Distinguished Men of that Time, New Edition (London: 1814\\), 79\\. Further, naval facilities at Gibraltar were dilapidated.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\\), 158\\.", "Byng wrote a letter to the Admiralty Office explaining the situation as dire. Many military historians have interpreted that dispatch as Byng preparing for failure and that Byng did not believe that the garrison could hold out against the French force. Without marines to land, and with only fusiliers to lend to the garrison (which would render his fleet – once again – severely undermanned), Byng nonetheless steered his fleet toward Minorca to assess the situation for himself.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "Byng sailed on 8 May 1756\\. On 19 May, Byng's fleet appeared off of Port Mahon and he endeavoured to open communications with the fort. The French squadron appeared before he could open up a line of communication with any fort officer, however.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "The [Battle of Minorca](/wiki/Battle_of_Minorca_%281756%29 \"Battle of Minorca (1756)\") was fought on the following day. Byng had gained the [weather gage](/wiki/Weather_gage \"Weather gage\"), which both forces had attempted to gain. However, the two fleets were not parallel with one another. Byng called for a lasking manoeuvre, meaning that all his ships would turn in unison and, with the wind behind them, sail straight toward the enemy bow first. But Captain Thomas Andrews of the *Defiance*, the lead ship due to the angled approach, did not steer directly for the first French ship in the enemy's line but, instead, steered a parallel course. The {{HMS\\|Portland\\|1744\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Buckingham\\|1751\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Lancaster\\|1694\\|2}} and {{HMS\\|Captain\\|1743\\|2}} followed the example set by the *Defiance*. It took two cannon shots from Byng's flagship, the *[Ramillies](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Katherine_%281664%29 \"HMS Royal Katherine (1664)\")*, and some ten to fifteen minutes for the Admiral to redirect the lasking. But by this time, the French Admiral had ordered his ships to pull more sail and lead away from Byng's attempted lasking. This delay cost Byng the element of surprise, and it also allowed the French to make the rest of the battle a \"running fight\", as Captain [Augustus Hervey](/wiki/Augustus_Hervey%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bristol \"Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol\") later called it.*Augustus Hervey's Journal: The Adventures Afloat and Ashore of a Naval Casanova*, David Erskine, ed., paperback (Rochester, UK: Chatham, 2002\\), 202–205\\.", "Because of the angle, the leading van took the brunt of the damage. The last ship in that squadron, the {{HMS\\|Intrepid\\|1747\\|2}}, was heavily damaged, losing three of its masts including the main. The next three ships, the *[Revenge](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281673%29 \"HMS Swiftsure (1673)\")*, {{HMS\\|Princess Louisa\\|1744\\|2}} and *Trident*, did not pass the now listing *Intrepid* to keep the sanctity of the battle line. Instead, those ships nearly collided with one another, with Captain Frederick Cornwall of the *Revenge* eventually navigating his ship between the *Intrepid* and the enemy.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "Byng's battle line was broken. It cost Byng twenty to thirty minutes to reform the line and once the line was reformed, the French pulled full sail and expediently pulled away. Byng was told by Captain Arthur Gardiner, his [flag captain](/wiki/Captain_of_the_Fleet \"Captain of the Fleet\"), that he could set full sail for the enemy, thus providing an example to the three bottled\\-up ships on what to do. Byng declined, recalling that Admiral [Thomas Mathews](/wiki/Thomas_Mathews \"Thomas Mathews\") had been dismissed for doing so at the [Battle of Toulon](/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_%281744%29 \"Battle of Toulon (1744)\") in 1744\\. After four to four and a half hours, neither side had lost a ship in the engagement, and casualties were roughly even, with 43 British sailors killed and 168 wounded, against French losses of 38 killed and 175 wounded.Robson 2016, p. 34", "Byng remained near Minorca for four days without establishing communication with the fort or sighting the French. On 24 May, he called a war council of his own where, by unanimous voting, Byng's fleet would return to Gibraltar for repairs, succour, sailors and more marines for the garrison.Robson 2016, p. 36 The fleet arrived at Gibraltar on 19 June, where they were reinforced with four more ships of the line and a 50\\-gun frigate. Repairs were effected to the damaged vessels and additional water and provisions were loaded aboard. But, before his fleet could return to sea, another ship arrived from England with further instructions, relieving Byng, Fowke and several others of their command and ordering a return to home.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "On arrival in England, Byng was placed in custody. The garrison resisted the [Siege of Fort St Philip](/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_%281756%29 \"Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)\") until 29 June, when it was forced to capitulate.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "### Fallout after Minorca", "News of the Battle of Minorca's outcome was wanting. The [Newcastle ministry](/wiki/First_Newcastle_ministry \"First Newcastle ministry\") had suffered military setbacks elsewhere in the British Empire; [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\")'s defeat at [Fort Necessity](/wiki/Fort_Necessity \"Fort Necessity\"), [Edward Braddock](/wiki/Edward_Braddock \"Edward Braddock\")'s army's losses in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), the siege of [Fort Oswego](/wiki/Fort_Oswego \"Fort Oswego\"), and the renewal of the [Carnatic Wars](/wiki/Carnatic_Wars \"Carnatic Wars\") in [India](/wiki/India \"India\") with the fall of [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta \"Calcutta\"). Domestically, conditions were also horrid: food riots had broken out, beginning in the Midlands, spreading to [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") to the south and as far north as [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\").Andrew Charlesworth, \"The Spatial Diffusion of Riots: Popular Disturbances in England and Wales, 1750–1850\", *Rural History*, volume 5, no. 1 (1994\\), 1–22\\. Another failure would challenge [Newcastle](/wiki/Thomas_Pelham-Holles%2C_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle \"Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle\")'s hold on power. Indeed, in the wake of publication of the battle, [George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain \"George II of Great Britain\") was flooded with petitions and addresses to investigate the government's poor handling of a whole host of issues.Wilson, Kathleen, *The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715–1785*, (Cambridge University Press, 1995\\), 183\\.", "When news of the Battle of Minorca did arrive, it was via a Spanish diplomat, who carried a dispatch from the French admiral, Byng's counterpart, [Roland\\-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière](/wiki/Roland-Michel_Barrin_de_La_Galissoni%C3%A8re \"Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière\"). Without any word from Byng, or any other naval or army officer attached to his fleet, ministers chose to recall several officers, Byng included. It would be another 20 days before Byng's version of the battle arrived in London. By then, however, ministers had chosen a course of action detrimental to Byng. {{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "On 26 June 1756, the government newspaper, *[The London Gazette](/wiki/The_London_Gazette \"The London Gazette\")*, printed an edited version of Byng's report removing passages and rewording others to make the admiral appear a coward. Protest against Byng began with effigy burnings mostly in port cities throughout England and one as far away as Boston, Massachusetts.", "Newcastle also received his share of odium. In a letter to [Robert Craggs\\-Nugent](/wiki/Robert_Nugent%2C_1st_Earl_Nugent \"Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent\"), the First Minister wrote,", "> I have touched upon a Ticklish Point... I thought it not fair, to lay the Loss expressly upon Byng, Tho' there it will, \\& must be laid, \\& there only.Newcastle to Nugent, 31 July 1756, British Library, ADD MS 32866, f. 324\\.", "", "Even prior to the battle, [George Bubb Dodington](/wiki/George_Dodington%2C_1st_Baron_Melcombe \"George Dodington, 1st Baron Melcombe\") informed [Henry Fox](/wiki/Henry_Fox%2C_1st_Baron_Holland \"Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland\") that ministers had already chosen a scapegoat in case events in the Mediterranean went astray.*The Diary of the Late George ‘Bubb’ Dodington, Baron of Melcombe Regis*, ed. Henry Penruddocke Wyndham (London:1823\\), 341\\. Clearly the government had chosen Byng to take the fall for their neglect of the Mediterranean theatre.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "" ]
### Battle of Minorca [thumb\|{{center\|''We have lately been told Of two admirals bold, Who engag'd in a terrible Fight: They met after Noon, Which I think was too soon, As they both ran away before Night.''}}](/wiki/File:Admiral_bold.jpg "Admiral bold.jpg") {{Wikisource\|Admiral John Byng's account of the Battle of Minorca}} The island of [Minorca](/wiki/Minorca "Minorca") had been a British possession since 1708, when it was captured during the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession "War of the Spanish Succession"). On the approach of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War"), numerous British diplomats based in the Mediterranean raised the alarm that Minorca was threatened by a [French](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon") naval attack from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon "Toulon").John Barrow, *The Naval History of Great Britain; with the lives of the most Illustrious Admirals and Commanders from the Reign of Queen Elizabeth*, volume 4 (London: James Rivington and James Fletcher, 1758\), 322\. Since 1748, British downsizing of the Royal Navy meant that only three [ships\-of\-the\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line "Ship of the line") were assigned to protect trading interests in the Mediterranean by 1755\.Chris Ware, *Admiral Byng: His Rise and Execution* (Pen \& Sword, 2009\), 39\. The *London Evening Post* had reported as far back as April 1755 that Toulon was outfitting twelve brand new "men of war".*London Evening Post*, 19 April 1755 Lord [George Anson](/wiki/George_Anson%2C_1st_Baron_Anson "George Anson, 1st Baron Anson"), head of the Admiralty, chose to focus instead on preventing a French invasion, keeping warships close to Britain.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\), 202 Byng was given orders to raise a fleet on 11 March 1756, with only six of ten assigned ships present in Portsmouth, and all of them severely undermanned.Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 11 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\. Byng's orders were multiplex, his first target being the alleged new French fleet at Toulon, while the British garrison of [Fort St Philip](/wiki/St._Philip%27s_Castle "St. Philip's Castle") at [Port Mahon](/wiki/Port_Mahon "Port Mahon") was a secondary concern.John Campbell, *Lives of the British Admirals: Containing also a New and Accurate Naval History from the Earliest Periods*, volume 6 (London: C. J. Barrington, 1814\), 306–307\. Despite his protests, he was not given enough money or time to prepare the expedition properly. His fleet was delayed in Portsmouth for over a month and Byng was ordered by the Admiralty Office to outfit other channel ships ahead of his own fleet.Pope, Dudley, (1962\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, Additionally, half of his assigned ships were in disrepair or missing. When the {{HMS\|Defiance\|1744\|2}} pulled into Portsmouth, for example, the warship was missing its fore and main topmast.Admiralty Papers, Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 14 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\. By 6 April, still short of over 800 men, Byng set sail from Portsmouth using Colonel [Robert Bertie](/wiki/Lord_Robert_Bertie "Lord Robert Bertie")'s [fusiliers](/wiki/Fusilier "Fusilier") in place of sailors. While he was en route, the French Toulon fleet, on 17 April 1756, escorted over 1,000 [tartanes](/wiki/Tartane "Tartane") and transport ships landing 15,000 troops under the command of [General Richelieu](/wiki/Armand_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis "Armand de Vignerot du Plessis") at [Ciutadella](/wiki/Ciutadella_de_Menorca "Ciutadella de Menorca"), on the far west end of Minorca.Pope, Dudley (1962\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, 95\. Byng arrived at Gibraltar and was told of the French landing. Remarkably, General [Thomas Fowke](/wiki/Thomas_Fowke "Thomas Fowke"), then in command at Gibraltar, held a [war council](/wiki/Council_of_war "Council of war") and refused to supply Byng with a regiment of [marines](/wiki/Marines "Marines"), as ordered by the War Office.Richard Glover, Memoirs of a Celebrated Literary and Political Character, from the Resignation of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742, to the Establishment of Lord Chatam's Second Administration in 1757; containing Stricture on some of the most Distinguished Men of that Time, New Edition (London: 1814\), 79\. Further, naval facilities at Gibraltar were dilapidated.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\), 158\. Byng wrote a letter to the Admiralty Office explaining the situation as dire. Many military historians have interpreted that dispatch as Byng preparing for failure and that Byng did not believe that the garrison could hold out against the French force. Without marines to land, and with only fusiliers to lend to the garrison (which would render his fleet – once again – severely undermanned), Byng nonetheless steered his fleet toward Minorca to assess the situation for himself.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} Byng sailed on 8 May 1756\. On 19 May, Byng's fleet appeared off of Port Mahon and he endeavoured to open communications with the fort. The French squadron appeared before he could open up a line of communication with any fort officer, however.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} The [Battle of Minorca](/wiki/Battle_of_Minorca_%281756%29 "Battle of Minorca (1756)") was fought on the following day. Byng had gained the [weather gage](/wiki/Weather_gage "Weather gage"), which both forces had attempted to gain. However, the two fleets were not parallel with one another. Byng called for a lasking manoeuvre, meaning that all his ships would turn in unison and, with the wind behind them, sail straight toward the enemy bow first. But Captain Thomas Andrews of the *Defiance*, the lead ship due to the angled approach, did not steer directly for the first French ship in the enemy's line but, instead, steered a parallel course. The {{HMS\|Portland\|1744\|2}}, {{HMS\|Buckingham\|1751\|2}}, {{HMS\|Lancaster\|1694\|2}} and {{HMS\|Captain\|1743\|2}} followed the example set by the *Defiance*. It took two cannon shots from Byng's flagship, the *[Ramillies](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Katherine_%281664%29 "HMS Royal Katherine (1664)")*, and some ten to fifteen minutes for the Admiral to redirect the lasking. But by this time, the French Admiral had ordered his ships to pull more sail and lead away from Byng's attempted lasking. This delay cost Byng the element of surprise, and it also allowed the French to make the rest of the battle a "running fight", as Captain [Augustus Hervey](/wiki/Augustus_Hervey%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bristol "Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol") later called it.*Augustus Hervey's Journal: The Adventures Afloat and Ashore of a Naval Casanova*, David Erskine, ed., paperback (Rochester, UK: Chatham, 2002\), 202–205\. Because of the angle, the leading van took the brunt of the damage. The last ship in that squadron, the {{HMS\|Intrepid\|1747\|2}}, was heavily damaged, losing three of its masts including the main. The next three ships, the *[Revenge](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281673%29 "HMS Swiftsure (1673)")*, {{HMS\|Princess Louisa\|1744\|2}} and *Trident*, did not pass the now listing *Intrepid* to keep the sanctity of the battle line. Instead, those ships nearly collided with one another, with Captain Frederick Cornwall of the *Revenge* eventually navigating his ship between the *Intrepid* and the enemy.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} Byng's battle line was broken. It cost Byng twenty to thirty minutes to reform the line and once the line was reformed, the French pulled full sail and expediently pulled away. Byng was told by Captain Arthur Gardiner, his [flag captain](/wiki/Captain_of_the_Fleet "Captain of the Fleet"), that he could set full sail for the enemy, thus providing an example to the three bottled\-up ships on what to do. Byng declined, recalling that Admiral [Thomas Mathews](/wiki/Thomas_Mathews "Thomas Mathews") had been dismissed for doing so at the [Battle of Toulon](/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_%281744%29 "Battle of Toulon (1744)") in 1744\. After four to four and a half hours, neither side had lost a ship in the engagement, and casualties were roughly even, with 43 British sailors killed and 168 wounded, against French losses of 38 killed and 175 wounded.Robson 2016, p. 34 Byng remained near Minorca for four days without establishing communication with the fort or sighting the French. On 24 May, he called a war council of his own where, by unanimous voting, Byng's fleet would return to Gibraltar for repairs, succour, sailors and more marines for the garrison.Robson 2016, p. 36 The fleet arrived at Gibraltar on 19 June, where they were reinforced with four more ships of the line and a 50\-gun frigate. Repairs were effected to the damaged vessels and additional water and provisions were loaded aboard. But, before his fleet could return to sea, another ship arrived from England with further instructions, relieving Byng, Fowke and several others of their command and ordering a return to home.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}} On arrival in England, Byng was placed in custody. The garrison resisted the [Siege of Fort St Philip](/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_%281756%29 "Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)") until 29 June, when it was forced to capitulate.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2021}}
[ "### Battle of Minorca", "[thumb\\|{{center\\|''We have lately been told \nOf two admirals bold, \nWho engag'd in a terrible Fight: \nThey met after Noon, \nWhich I think was too soon, \nAs they both ran away before Night.''}}](/wiki/File:Admiral_bold.jpg \"Admiral bold.jpg\")\n{{Wikisource\\|Admiral John Byng's account of the Battle of Minorca}}", "The island of [Minorca](/wiki/Minorca \"Minorca\") had been a British possession since 1708, when it was captured during the [War of the Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession \"War of the Spanish Succession\"). On the approach of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\"), numerous British diplomats based in the Mediterranean raised the alarm that Minorca was threatened by a [French](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\") naval attack from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon \"Toulon\").John Barrow, *The Naval History of Great Britain; with the lives of the most Illustrious Admirals and Commanders from the Reign of Queen Elizabeth*, volume 4 (London: James Rivington and James Fletcher, 1758\\), 322\\. Since 1748, British downsizing of the Royal Navy meant that only three [ships\\-of\\-the\\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line \"Ship of the line\") were assigned to protect trading interests in the Mediterranean by 1755\\.Chris Ware, *Admiral Byng: His Rise and Execution* (Pen \\& Sword, 2009\\), 39\\. The *London Evening Post* had reported as far back as April 1755 that Toulon was outfitting twelve brand new \"men of war\".*London Evening Post*, 19 April 1755 Lord [George Anson](/wiki/George_Anson%2C_1st_Baron_Anson \"George Anson, 1st Baron Anson\"), head of the Admiralty, chose to focus instead on preventing a French invasion, keeping warships close to Britain.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\\), 202", "Byng was given orders to raise a fleet on 11 March 1756, with only six of ten assigned ships present in Portsmouth, and all of them severely undermanned.Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 11 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\\. Byng's orders were multiplex, his first target being the alleged new French fleet at Toulon, while the British garrison of [Fort St Philip](/wiki/St._Philip%27s_Castle \"St. Philip's Castle\") at [Port Mahon](/wiki/Port_Mahon \"Port Mahon\") was a secondary concern.John Campbell, *Lives of the British Admirals: Containing also a New and Accurate Naval History from the Earliest Periods*, volume 6 (London: C. J. Barrington, 1814\\), 306–307\\.", "Despite his protests, he was not given enough money or time to prepare the expedition properly. His fleet was delayed in Portsmouth for over a month and Byng was ordered by the Admiralty Office to outfit other channel ships ahead of his own fleet.Pope, Dudley, (1962\\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, Additionally, half of his assigned ships were in disrepair or missing. When the {{HMS\\|Defiance\\|1744\\|2}} pulled into Portsmouth, for example, the warship was missing its fore and main topmast.Admiralty Papers, Admiral Henry Osborn to Admiralty Office, 14 March 1756, The National Archives, ADM 1/921\\.", "By 6 April, still short of over 800 men, Byng set sail from Portsmouth using Colonel [Robert Bertie](/wiki/Lord_Robert_Bertie \"Lord Robert Bertie\")'s [fusiliers](/wiki/Fusilier \"Fusilier\") in place of sailors. While he was en route, the French Toulon fleet, on 17 April 1756, escorted over 1,000 [tartanes](/wiki/Tartane \"Tartane\") and transport ships landing 15,000 troops under the command of [General Richelieu](/wiki/Armand_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis \"Armand de Vignerot du Plessis\") at [Ciutadella](/wiki/Ciutadella_de_Menorca \"Ciutadella de Menorca\"), on the far west end of Minorca.Pope, Dudley (1962\\) *At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot*, 95\\.", "Byng arrived at Gibraltar and was told of the French landing. Remarkably, General [Thomas Fowke](/wiki/Thomas_Fowke \"Thomas Fowke\"), then in command at Gibraltar, held a [war council](/wiki/Council_of_war \"Council of war\") and refused to supply Byng with a regiment of [marines](/wiki/Marines \"Marines\"), as ordered by the War Office.Richard Glover, Memoirs of a Celebrated Literary and Political Character, from the Resignation of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742, to the Establishment of Lord Chatam's Second Administration in 1757; containing Stricture on some of the most Distinguished Men of that Time, New Edition (London: 1814\\), 79\\. Further, naval facilities at Gibraltar were dilapidated.Joseph J. Krulder, *The Execution of Admiral John Byng as a Microhistory of Eighteenth\\-Century Britain* (London: Routledge Publishing, 2021\\), 158\\.", "Byng wrote a letter to the Admiralty Office explaining the situation as dire. Many military historians have interpreted that dispatch as Byng preparing for failure and that Byng did not believe that the garrison could hold out against the French force. Without marines to land, and with only fusiliers to lend to the garrison (which would render his fleet – once again – severely undermanned), Byng nonetheless steered his fleet toward Minorca to assess the situation for himself.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "Byng sailed on 8 May 1756\\. On 19 May, Byng's fleet appeared off of Port Mahon and he endeavoured to open communications with the fort. The French squadron appeared before he could open up a line of communication with any fort officer, however.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "The [Battle of Minorca](/wiki/Battle_of_Minorca_%281756%29 \"Battle of Minorca (1756)\") was fought on the following day. Byng had gained the [weather gage](/wiki/Weather_gage \"Weather gage\"), which both forces had attempted to gain. However, the two fleets were not parallel with one another. Byng called for a lasking manoeuvre, meaning that all his ships would turn in unison and, with the wind behind them, sail straight toward the enemy bow first. But Captain Thomas Andrews of the *Defiance*, the lead ship due to the angled approach, did not steer directly for the first French ship in the enemy's line but, instead, steered a parallel course. The {{HMS\\|Portland\\|1744\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Buckingham\\|1751\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Lancaster\\|1694\\|2}} and {{HMS\\|Captain\\|1743\\|2}} followed the example set by the *Defiance*. It took two cannon shots from Byng's flagship, the *[Ramillies](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Katherine_%281664%29 \"HMS Royal Katherine (1664)\")*, and some ten to fifteen minutes for the Admiral to redirect the lasking. But by this time, the French Admiral had ordered his ships to pull more sail and lead away from Byng's attempted lasking. This delay cost Byng the element of surprise, and it also allowed the French to make the rest of the battle a \"running fight\", as Captain [Augustus Hervey](/wiki/Augustus_Hervey%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Bristol \"Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol\") later called it.*Augustus Hervey's Journal: The Adventures Afloat and Ashore of a Naval Casanova*, David Erskine, ed., paperback (Rochester, UK: Chatham, 2002\\), 202–205\\.", "Because of the angle, the leading van took the brunt of the damage. The last ship in that squadron, the {{HMS\\|Intrepid\\|1747\\|2}}, was heavily damaged, losing three of its masts including the main. The next three ships, the *[Revenge](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281673%29 \"HMS Swiftsure (1673)\")*, {{HMS\\|Princess Louisa\\|1744\\|2}} and *Trident*, did not pass the now listing *Intrepid* to keep the sanctity of the battle line. Instead, those ships nearly collided with one another, with Captain Frederick Cornwall of the *Revenge* eventually navigating his ship between the *Intrepid* and the enemy.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "Byng's battle line was broken. It cost Byng twenty to thirty minutes to reform the line and once the line was reformed, the French pulled full sail and expediently pulled away. Byng was told by Captain Arthur Gardiner, his [flag captain](/wiki/Captain_of_the_Fleet \"Captain of the Fleet\"), that he could set full sail for the enemy, thus providing an example to the three bottled\\-up ships on what to do. Byng declined, recalling that Admiral [Thomas Mathews](/wiki/Thomas_Mathews \"Thomas Mathews\") had been dismissed for doing so at the [Battle of Toulon](/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_%281744%29 \"Battle of Toulon (1744)\") in 1744\\. After four to four and a half hours, neither side had lost a ship in the engagement, and casualties were roughly even, with 43 British sailors killed and 168 wounded, against French losses of 38 killed and 175 wounded.Robson 2016, p. 34", "Byng remained near Minorca for four days without establishing communication with the fort or sighting the French. On 24 May, he called a war council of his own where, by unanimous voting, Byng's fleet would return to Gibraltar for repairs, succour, sailors and more marines for the garrison.Robson 2016, p. 36 The fleet arrived at Gibraltar on 19 June, where they were reinforced with four more ships of the line and a 50\\-gun frigate. Repairs were effected to the damaged vessels and additional water and provisions were loaded aboard. But, before his fleet could return to sea, another ship arrived from England with further instructions, relieving Byng, Fowke and several others of their command and ordering a return to home.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "On arrival in England, Byng was placed in custody. The garrison resisted the [Siege of Fort St Philip](/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_%281756%29 \"Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)\") until 29 June, when it was forced to capitulate.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}", "" ]
Career ------ ### Free State Cheetahs / Cheetahs Nell started playing his rugby for the {{Rut\|Free State Cheetahs}}, making his first class debut for them during the [2002 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2002_Vodacom_Cup "2002 Vodacom Cup") competition. He made his [Currie Cup](/wiki/Currie_Cup "Currie Cup") debut during the [2003 Currie Cup](/wiki/2003_Currie_Cup "2003 Currie Cup") competition, starting their Round 3 match against {{Rut\|Western Province}} in [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein "Bloemfontein") and helping his side to a 36–36 draw.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=9446 \| homeid\=4196 \| awayid\=3476 \| leagueid\=239 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Free State \| homescore\=36 \| awayscore\=36 \| awayteam\=Investec WP \| matchdate\=9 August 2003 \| date\=4 July 2016}} He also scored his first senior try in the same competition in their match against the {{Rut\|Golden Lions}} in a 34–30 victory{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=9482 \| homeid\=3601 \| awayid\=4196 \| leagueid\=239 \| hometeam\=Lions \| homescore\=30 \| awayscore\=34 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Free State \| matchdate\=11 October 2003 \| date\=4 July 2016}} as he played in a total of eleven matches for the men from Bloemfontein. Nell made seven appearances during the [2004 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2004_Vodacom_Cup "2004 Vodacom Cup") competition, but missed the entire [2004 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2004_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division "2004 Currie Cup Premier Division") campaign through injury.{{cite web\|url\=http://152\.111\.1\.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2004/10/04/Z2/06/04\.html \|title\=Rassie kan wedstryd teen Griekwas mis \|publisher\=Beeld \|date\=4 October 2004 \|access\-date\=17 December 2014 \|language\=af \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217143626/http://152\.111\.1\.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2004/10/04/Z2/06/04\.html \|archive\-date\=17 December 2014 \|df\=dmy }} He returned to action during the [2005 Currie Cup qualifying series](/wiki/2005_Currie_Cup%23Qualification_Round "2005 Currie Cup#Qualification Round"), starting their final match of the series and scoring a try in a 43–0 victory over the {{Rut\|Griffons}},{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=11598 \| homeid\=5142 \| awayid\=5134 \| leagueid\=380 \| hometeam\=Griffons \| homescore\=0 \| awayscore\=43 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Cheetahs \| matchdate\=5 August 2005 \| date\=4 July 2016}} before making a further two appearances in the [Premier Division](/wiki/2005_Currie_Cup%23Premier_Division "2005 Currie Cup#Premier Division"), but didn't feature in the play\-off stages of the competition, where the {{Rut\|Free State Cheetahs}} eventually beat the {{Rut\|Blue Bulls}} 29–25 in the final to win the title for only the second time in their history.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=12193 \| homeid\=5512 \| awayid\=5515 \| leagueid\=381 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \| homescore\=25 \| awayscore\=29 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Cheetahs \| matchdate\=22 October 2005 \| date\=4 July 2016}} Nell was a key member of the squad that played in the [2006 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2006_Vodacom_Cup "2006 Vodacom Cup") competition, starting 12 of their 13 matches during the competition and scoring four tries as they finished eighth in the competition. He remained an important player for their [2006 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2006_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division "2006 Currie Cup Premier Division") campaign, where he also started in 12 of their matches during the season. This time around, he featured in the play\-offs, playing in their 30–14 victory over the {{Rut\|Sharks (Currie Cup)}} in the semi\-finals{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=13416 \| homeid\=5913 \| awayid\=5911 \| leagueid\=414 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \| homescore\=30 \| awayscore\=14 \| awayteam\=The Sharks \| matchdate\=7 October 2006 \| date\=4 July 2016}} and also started the final against the {{Rut\|Blue Bulls}} in a repeat of the 2005 final. The season ended in dramatic fashion as the two sides played out a 25–25 draw in the regulation 80 minutes and a 28–28 draw after extra time to share the title.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=13418 \| homeid\=5913 \| awayid\=5914 \| leagueid\=414 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \| homescore\=28 \| awayscore\=28 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \| matchdate\=14 October 2006 \| date\=4 July 2016}} In 2007, Nell was also involved in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby "Super Rugby") for the first time. He made his debut for the {{Rut\|Cheetahs}} during the [2007 Super 14 season](/wiki/2007_Super_14_season "2007 Super 14 season") Round One match against the {{Rut\|Stormers}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=13849 \| homeid\=6051 \| awayid\=6054 \| leagueid\=571 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Cheetahs \| homescore\=27 \| awayscore\=9 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Stormers \| matchdate\=3 February 2007 \| date\=4 July 2016}} and appeared in the first five matches of the competition. He scored his first Super Rugby try in their 49–28 home defeat to the {{Rut\|Crusaders}}, followed by his second try later in the same match to get his first senior brace.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=13869 \| homeid\=6051 \| awayid\=6061 \| leagueid\=571 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Cheetahs \| homescore\=28 \| awayscore\=49 \| awayteam\=Crusaders \| matchdate\=24 February 2007 \| date\=4 July 2016}} He made one appearance in the [2007 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2007_Vodacom_Cup "2007 Vodacom Cup") competition – a 25–18 defeat to {{Rut\|Western Province}} at the [Seisa Ramabodu Stadium](/wiki/Seisa_Ramabodu_Stadium "Seisa Ramabodu Stadium") in Bloemfontein{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=14245 \| homeid\=6251 \| awayid\=6257 \| leagueid\=586 \| hometeam\=Free State \| homescore\=18 \| awayscore\=25 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Western Province \| matchdate\=14 April 2007 \| date\=4 July 2016}} – before once again being an instrumental player in their [2007 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2007_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division "2007 Currie Cup Premier Division") campaign, making 13 appearances. He once again played in the final, with the Cheetahs beating the {{Rut\|Golden Lions}} 20–18 to win the title for the third consecutive season.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=14993 \| homeid\=6294 \| awayid\=6293 \| leagueid\=588 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \| homescore\=20 \| awayscore\=18 \| awayteam\=Golden Lions \| matchdate\=27 October 2007 \| date\=4 July 2016}} Nell featured in a further five matches for the {{Rut\|Cheetahs}} in the [2008 Super 14 season](/wiki/2008_Super_14_season "2008 Super 14 season") and featured in two matches in the [2008 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2008_Vodacom_Cup "2008 Vodacom Cup"). The last one of those – a 35–20 victory over the {{Rut\|Boland Cavaliers}} in Bloemfontein{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=15240 \| homeid\=6603 \| awayid\=6604 \| leagueid\=618 \| hometeam\=Free State \| homescore\=35 \| awayscore\=20 \| awayteam\=Boland Kavaliers \| matchdate\=25 April 2008 \| date\=4 July 2016}} – turned out to be his last appearance for the side. He was an unused replacement for their [2008 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2008_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division "2008 Currie Cup Premier Division") match against the {{Rut\|Blue Bulls}} in July 2008,{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=15714 \| homeid\=6875 \| awayid\=6877 \| leagueid\=631 \| hometeam\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \| homescore\=31 \| awayscore\=23 \| awayteam\=Vodacom FS Cheetahs \| matchdate\=12 July 2008 \| date\=4 July 2016}} but then announced that he was joining French [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 "Top 14") team {{Rut\|Castres}} at the end of July 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://152\.111\.11\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2008/06/23/VB/24/hncheetna.html \|title\=Harde werk lê voor vir Cheetahs se stryd teen die Leeus \|publisher\=Volksblad \|date\=23 June 2008 \|access\-date\=17 December 2014 \|language\=af \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217152537/http://152\.111\.11\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2008/06/23/VB/24/hncheetna.html \|archive\-date\=17 December 2014 \|df\=dmy }} Nell made a total of 66 appearances for the {{Rut\|Free State Cheetahs}} in [Currie Cup](/wiki/Currie_Cup "Currie Cup") and [Vodacom Cup](/wiki/Vodacom_Cup "Vodacom Cup") competitions between 2002 and 2008 and also played on ten occasions for [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby "Super Rugby") side the {{Rut\|Cheetahs}}. ### Castres Nell joined French [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 "Top 14") team {{Rut\|Castres}} in July 2008 and remained there for the [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Top_14_season "2008–09 Top 14 season") and [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Top_14_season "2009–10 Top 14 season") seasons.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\_2891\.html \| title\=Player Profile Darron Nell \| publisher\=It's Rugby \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} He made his Castres debut in August 2008 against {{Rut\|Bayonne}}, where his side suffered a 26–27 defeat.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\-zoom\-2891\-top14\-2008\-game.html \| title\=Player statistics Nell Darron – club stats – Top 14 2008 \| publisher\=It's Rugby \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} He played in a total of 14 matches for the side as they finished 12th in the competition, one place above the relegation zone. He also played three matches for the club in the [2008–09 Heineken Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Heineken_Cup "2008–09 Heineken Cup") competition, but ended on the losing side in all three matches as Castres finished bottom of Pool 2\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\-zoom\-2891\-hcup\-2008\-game.html \| title\=Player statistics Nell Darron – club stats – Top 14 2008 \| publisher\=It's Rugby \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} Nell made nine appearances for Castres in the [2009–10 Top 14 season](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Top_14_season "2009–10 Top 14 season"), a far more successful season for the side as they finished in 5th spot. He also started in five matches of their [2009–10 European Challenge Cup](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_European_Challenge_Cup "2009–10 European Challenge Cup") campaign, scoring his only try in Castres colours in a 47–0 victory over Italian side [Rovigo](/wiki/Rugby_Rovigo "Rugby Rovigo") as Castres finished third in Pool 3, failing to qualify to the knock\-out stages. Nell left Castres at the end of the 2009–2010 season, having scored one try in 31 appearances. ### Eastern Province Kings / Southern Kings During the [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 "Top 14") off\-season in 2009, Nell returned to South Africa to represent the [Southern Kings](/wiki/Southern_Kings "Southern Kings") in their first ever match, a 20–8 defeat to the [British \& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions "British & Irish Lions") during [their 2009 tour to South Africa](/wiki/2009_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa "2009 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=16151 \| homeid\=7030 \| awayid\=7033 \| leagueid\=644 \| hometeam\=Southern Kings \| homescore\=8 \| awayscore\=20 \| awayteam\=British \& Irish Lions \| matchdate\=16 June 2009 \| date\=4 July 2016}} A year later, when his contract at Castres expired, he returned to South Africa to join [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth "Port Elizabeth")\-based side the {{Rut\|Eastern Province Kings}} for the [2010 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2010_Currie_Cup_First_Division "2010 Currie Cup First Division") season.{{cite web\|url\=http://152\.111\.11\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2010/03/17/VB/18/vbkortes17\.html \|title\=VS\-flank glo gou na OP \|publisher\=Volksblad \|date\=17 March 2010 \|access\-date\=17 December 2014 \|language\=af \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217152154/http://152\.111\.11\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2010/03/17/VB/18/vbkortes17\.html \|archive\-date\=17 December 2014 \|df\=dmy }} His Currie Cup debut for the Kings came in their 42–28 opening day victory over the {{Rut\|Border Bulldogs}} in [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape "East London, Eastern Cape").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=18857 \| homeid\=8043 \| awayid\=8045 \| leagueid\=768 \| hometeam\=Border \| homescore\=28 \| awayscore\=42 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=16 July 2010 \| date\=4 July 2016}} He opened his scoring in his third match for the side, scoring two tries in a 33–22 win over the {{Rut\|Boland Cavaliers}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=18862 \| homeid\=8049 \| awayid\=8045 \| leagueid\=768 \| hometeam\=Boland \| homescore\=22 \| awayscore\=33 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=31 July 2010 \| date\=4 July 2016}} and he made a total of seven appearances as the EP Kings made it to the final, where they faced the {{Rut\|SWD Eagles}}. Nell came on as a substitute in the final, helping his side to a 16–12 win to become First Division champions.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=19457 \| homeid\=8047 \| awayid\=8045 \| leagueid\=768 \| hometeam\=SWD \| homescore\=12 \| awayscore\=16 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=15 October 2010 \| date\=4 July 2016}} He also played off the bench in both legs of their [promotion/relegation series](/wiki/2010_Currie_Cup_First_Division%23Promotion/relegation_games "2010 Currie Cup First Division#Promotion/relegation games") against the {{Rut\|Pumas}}, but the Kings failed to win promotion to the [2011 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2011_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division "2011 Currie Cup Premier Division"). Nell scored two tries in four appearances during the [2011 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2011_Vodacom_Cup "2011 Vodacom Cup"), as a points deduction scuppered the Kings' chances of reaching the quarter\-finals.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.sarugby.net/component/supersportcontent/9657?view\=news \| title\=EP penalised after appeal dismissed \| publisher\=South African Rugby Union \| date\=30 March 2011 \| access\-date\=30 March 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924201802/http://www.sarugby.net/component/supersportcontent/9657?view\=news \| archive\-date\=24 September 2015 \| url\-status\=dead }} In June 2011, he was selected in a [Southern Kings](/wiki/Southern_Kings "Southern Kings") side that competed in the [2011 IRB Nations Cup](/wiki/2011_IRB_Nations_Cup "2011 IRB Nations Cup") as the South African Kings. He missed their 31–17 victory over {{nrut\|Georgia}},{{cite web \| url\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12167 \| title\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 2 \| publisher\=World Rugby \| date\=10 June 2011 \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} but appeared as a substitute in their second match against hosts {{nrut\|Romania}} – a 27–23 victory{{cite web \| url\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12170 \| title\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 5 \| publisher\=World Rugby \| date\=15 June 2011 \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} – and started their 39–12 win over {{nrut\|Portugal}}{{cite web \| url\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12172 \| title\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 7 \| publisher\=World Rugby \| date\=19 June 2011 \| access\-date\=17 December 2014}} to help his side win the title. Nell returned to domestic action, where he scored one try in eight appearances in the [2011 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2011_Currie_Cup_First_Division "2011 Currie Cup First Division") season. However, the EP Kings failed to retain their title, losing 43–12 to the {{Rut\|Boland Cavaliers}} in the final.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=102581 \| homeid\=8554 \| awayid\=8549 \| leagueid\=810 \| hometeam\=Regent Boland Cavaliers \| homescore\=43 \| awayscore\=12 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=14 October 2011 \| date\=4 July 2016}} Nell made seven appearances in the [2012 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2012_Vodacom_Cup "2012 Vodacom Cup") to help the Kings reach the quarter\-finals for only the third time in their history, where they lost 30–19 to the {{Rut\|Pumas}}.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=111401 \| homeid\=11371 \| awayid\=11501 \| leagueid\=1211 \| hometeam\=Ford Pumas \| homescore\=30 \| awayscore\=19 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=4 May 2012 \| date\=4 July 2016}} Nell was a vital part of the Kings' [2012 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2012_Currie_Cup_First_Division "2012 Currie Cup First Division") squad; he played in thirteen matches as they reached the final of the competition for the third consecutive season. Nell scored the Kings' first try in the final as they ran out 26–25 winners over the {{Rut\|Pumas}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=105591 \| homeid\=11761 \| awayid\=11741 \| leagueid\=1241 \| hometeam\=Eastern Province Kings \| homescore\=26 \| awayscore\=25 \| awayteam\=Ford Pumas \| matchdate\=13 October 2012 \| date\=4 July 2016}} to clinch the title for the second time in three seasons. However, they once again failed to win their [promotion/relegation series](/wiki/2012_Currie_Cup_First_Division%23Promotion/relegation_games "2012 Currie Cup First Division#Promotion/relegation games") against Nell's former side {{Rut\|Free State Cheetahs}} to remain in the First Division for 2013\. However, 2013 saw the {{Rut\|Southern Kings}} participate in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby "Super Rugby") for the first time. Nell was named in their first ever Super Rugby squad{{SA Rugby Squad \| teamid\=15231 \| team\=Southern Kings \| compid\=1491 \| comp\=2013 Vodacom Super Rugby \| accessdate\=3 June 2016}} and he made his Super Rugby debut for the Kings in their second match of the competition against the {{Rut\|Sharks}},{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=113781 \| homeid\=15231 \| awayid\=15221 \| leagueid\=1491 \| hometeam\=Southern Kings \| homescore\=12 \| awayscore\=21 \| awayteam\=Sharks \| matchdate\=9 March 2013 \| date\=4 July 2016}} but then missed the majority of the season through injury. He returned for the last four games of the regular season, starting both matches against the {{Rut\|Stormers}}, as well as the {{Rut\|Bulls}}. He was named captain for both the [2013 Super Rugby promotion/relegation](/wiki/2013_Super_Rugby_season%23Promotion/relegation_play-offs "2013 Super Rugby season#Promotion/relegation play-offs") matches against the {{Rut\|Lions}} with [Luke Watson](/wiki/Luke_Watson "Luke Watson") and [Andries Strauss](/wiki/Andries_Strauss "Andries Strauss") out injured.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.sport24\.co.za/Rugby/Super15/Nell\-to\-captain\-Kings\-20130723 \| title\=Nell to captain Kings v Lions \| publisher\=Sport24 \| work\=Media24 \| date\=23 July 2013 \| access\-date\=9 August 2013}} The Kings lost the series 44–42 on aggregate to lose their Super Rugby berth to the Lions. After the conclusion of the Super Rugby campaign, Nell made five starts in the [2013 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2013_Currie_Cup_First_Division "2013 Currie Cup First Division") and scored one try in their match against the {{Rut\|Border Bulldogs}}.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=106894 \| homeid\=12674 \| awayid\=12684 \| leagueid\=1304 \| hometeam\=Border Bulldogs \| homescore\=20 \| awayscore\=38 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=27 September 2013 \| date\=4 July 2016}} The Kings reached their fourth consecutive final, but lost the match 53–30 to the {{Rut\|Pumas}} in [Nelspruit](/wiki/Nelspruit "Nelspruit").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=106924 \| homeid\=12694 \| awayid\=12684 \| leagueid\=1304 \| hometeam\=Steval Pumas \| homescore\=53 \| awayscore\=30 \| awayteam\=Eastern Province Kings \| matchdate\=11 October 2013 \| date\=4 July 2016}} In June 2014, he was selected in the starting line\-up for the {{Rut\|Eastern Province Kings}} side to face {{nrut\|Wales}} during a tour match during a [2014 incoming tour](/wiki/2014_mid-year_rugby_union_tests "2014 mid-year rugby union tests") and was also named captain of the team. He played the first 74 minutes of the match as the Kings suffered a 12–34 defeat.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=120524 \| homeid\=18334 \| awayid\=16974 \| leagueid\=1674 \| hometeam\=Eastern Province Kings \| homescore\=12 \| awayscore\=34 \| awayteam\=Wales \| matchdate\=10 June 2014 \| date\=4 July 2016}} Following a decision from the [South African Rugby Union](/wiki/South_African_Rugby_Union "South African Rugby Union") to expand the Currie Cup Premier Division from six teams to eight teams,{{cite web \| url\=http://www.sport24\.co.za/Rugby/Currie\-Cup\-format\-expanded\-20140213 \| title\=Currie Cup format expanded \| publisher\=Sport24 \| date\=13 February 2014 \| access\-date\=13 February 2014}} the {{Rut\|Eastern Province Kings}} were promoted to the Premier Division of the Currie Cup. Nell scored one try in his six appearances in the competition; it came in their 28–13 loss to the {{Rut\|Blue Bulls}} in [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth "Port Elizabeth").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=119824 \| homeid\=18114 \| awayid\=18094 \| leagueid\=1784 \| hometeam\=Eastern Province Kings \| homescore\=13 \| awayscore\=28 \| awayteam\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \| matchdate\=12 September 2014 \| date\=4 July 2016}} The Kings struggled to adjust to life in the Premier Division and lost their first nine matches of the season. They did, however, beat fellow promoted side the {{Rut\|Pumas}} 26–25 in the final match of the season, with Nell playing the first 57 minutes of that match.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \| id\=120004 \| homeid\=18114 \| awayid\=18134 \| leagueid\=1784 \| hometeam\=Eastern Province Kings \| homescore\=26 \| awayscore\=25 \| awayteam\=Steval Pumas \| matchdate\=10 October 2014 \| date\=4 July 2016}}
[ "Career\n------", "### Free State Cheetahs / Cheetahs", "Nell started playing his rugby for the {{Rut\\|Free State Cheetahs}}, making his first class debut for them during the [2002 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2002_Vodacom_Cup \"2002 Vodacom Cup\") competition. He made his [Currie Cup](/wiki/Currie_Cup \"Currie Cup\") debut during the [2003 Currie Cup](/wiki/2003_Currie_Cup \"2003 Currie Cup\") competition, starting their Round 3 match against {{Rut\\|Western Province}} in [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein \"Bloemfontein\") and helping his side to a 36–36 draw.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=9446 \\| homeid\\=4196 \\| awayid\\=3476 \\| leagueid\\=239 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Free State \\| homescore\\=36 \\| awayscore\\=36 \\| awayteam\\=Investec WP \\| matchdate\\=9 August 2003 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} He also scored his first senior try in the same competition in their match against the {{Rut\\|Golden Lions}} in a 34–30 victory{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=9482 \\| homeid\\=3601 \\| awayid\\=4196 \\| leagueid\\=239 \\| hometeam\\=Lions \\| homescore\\=30 \\| awayscore\\=34 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Free State \\| matchdate\\=11 October 2003 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} as he played in a total of eleven matches for the men from Bloemfontein.", "Nell made seven appearances during the [2004 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2004_Vodacom_Cup \"2004 Vodacom Cup\") competition, but missed the entire [2004 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2004_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division \"2004 Currie Cup Premier Division\") campaign through injury.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://152\\.111\\.1\\.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2004/10/04/Z2/06/04\\.html \\|title\\=Rassie kan wedstryd teen Griekwas mis \\|publisher\\=Beeld \\|date\\=4 October 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|language\\=af \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217143626/http://152\\.111\\.1\\.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2004/10/04/Z2/06/04\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|df\\=dmy }} He returned to action during the [2005 Currie Cup qualifying series](/wiki/2005_Currie_Cup%23Qualification_Round \"2005 Currie Cup#Qualification Round\"), starting their final match of the series and scoring a try in a 43–0 victory over the {{Rut\\|Griffons}},{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=11598 \\| homeid\\=5142 \\| awayid\\=5134 \\| leagueid\\=380 \\| hometeam\\=Griffons \\| homescore\\=0 \\| awayscore\\=43 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Cheetahs \\| matchdate\\=5 August 2005 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} before making a further two appearances in the [Premier Division](/wiki/2005_Currie_Cup%23Premier_Division \"2005 Currie Cup#Premier Division\"), but didn't feature in the play\\-off stages of the competition, where the {{Rut\\|Free State Cheetahs}} eventually beat the {{Rut\\|Blue Bulls}} 29–25 in the final to win the title for only the second time in their history.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=12193 \\| homeid\\=5512 \\| awayid\\=5515 \\| leagueid\\=381 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \\| homescore\\=25 \\| awayscore\\=29 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Cheetahs \\| matchdate\\=22 October 2005 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "Nell was a key member of the squad that played in the [2006 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2006_Vodacom_Cup \"2006 Vodacom Cup\") competition, starting 12 of their 13 matches during the competition and scoring four tries as they finished eighth in the competition. He remained an important player for their [2006 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2006_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division \"2006 Currie Cup Premier Division\") campaign, where he also started in 12 of their matches during the season. This time around, he featured in the play\\-offs, playing in their 30–14 victory over the {{Rut\\|Sharks (Currie Cup)}} in the semi\\-finals{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=13416 \\| homeid\\=5913 \\| awayid\\=5911 \\| leagueid\\=414 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \\| homescore\\=30 \\| awayscore\\=14 \\| awayteam\\=The Sharks \\| matchdate\\=7 October 2006 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} and also started the final against the {{Rut\\|Blue Bulls}} in a repeat of the 2005 final. The season ended in dramatic fashion as the two sides played out a 25–25 draw in the regulation 80 minutes and a 28–28 draw after extra time to share the title.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=13418 \\| homeid\\=5913 \\| awayid\\=5914 \\| leagueid\\=414 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \\| homescore\\=28 \\| awayscore\\=28 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \\| matchdate\\=14 October 2006 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "In 2007, Nell was also involved in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby \"Super Rugby\") for the first time. He made his debut for the {{Rut\\|Cheetahs}} during the [2007 Super 14 season](/wiki/2007_Super_14_season \"2007 Super 14 season\") Round One match against the {{Rut\\|Stormers}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=13849 \\| homeid\\=6051 \\| awayid\\=6054 \\| leagueid\\=571 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Cheetahs \\| homescore\\=27 \\| awayscore\\=9 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Stormers \\| matchdate\\=3 February 2007 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} and appeared in the first five matches of the competition. He scored his first Super Rugby try in their 49–28 home defeat to the {{Rut\\|Crusaders}}, followed by his second try later in the same match to get his first senior brace.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=13869 \\| homeid\\=6051 \\| awayid\\=6061 \\| leagueid\\=571 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Cheetahs \\| homescore\\=28 \\| awayscore\\=49 \\| awayteam\\=Crusaders \\| matchdate\\=24 February 2007 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} He made one appearance in the [2007 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2007_Vodacom_Cup \"2007 Vodacom Cup\") competition – a 25–18 defeat to {{Rut\\|Western Province}} at the [Seisa Ramabodu Stadium](/wiki/Seisa_Ramabodu_Stadium \"Seisa Ramabodu Stadium\") in Bloemfontein{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=14245 \\| homeid\\=6251 \\| awayid\\=6257 \\| leagueid\\=586 \\| hometeam\\=Free State \\| homescore\\=18 \\| awayscore\\=25 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Western Province \\| matchdate\\=14 April 2007 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} – before once again being an instrumental player in their [2007 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2007_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division \"2007 Currie Cup Premier Division\") campaign, making 13 appearances. He once again played in the final, with the Cheetahs beating the {{Rut\\|Golden Lions}} 20–18 to win the title for the third consecutive season.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=14993 \\| homeid\\=6294 \\| awayid\\=6293 \\| leagueid\\=588 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Free State Cheetahs \\| homescore\\=20 \\| awayscore\\=18 \\| awayteam\\=Golden Lions \\| matchdate\\=27 October 2007 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "Nell featured in a further five matches for the {{Rut\\|Cheetahs}} in the [2008 Super 14 season](/wiki/2008_Super_14_season \"2008 Super 14 season\") and featured in two matches in the [2008 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2008_Vodacom_Cup \"2008 Vodacom Cup\"). The last one of those – a 35–20 victory over the {{Rut\\|Boland Cavaliers}} in Bloemfontein{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=15240 \\| homeid\\=6603 \\| awayid\\=6604 \\| leagueid\\=618 \\| hometeam\\=Free State \\| homescore\\=35 \\| awayscore\\=20 \\| awayteam\\=Boland Kavaliers \\| matchdate\\=25 April 2008 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} – turned out to be his last appearance for the side. He was an unused replacement for their [2008 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2008_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division \"2008 Currie Cup Premier Division\") match against the {{Rut\\|Blue Bulls}} in July 2008,{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=15714 \\| homeid\\=6875 \\| awayid\\=6877 \\| leagueid\\=631 \\| hometeam\\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \\| homescore\\=31 \\| awayscore\\=23 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom FS Cheetahs \\| matchdate\\=12 July 2008 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} but then announced that he was joining French [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 \"Top 14\") team {{Rut\\|Castres}} at the end of July 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://152\\.111\\.11\\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2008/06/23/VB/24/hncheetna.html \\|title\\=Harde werk lê voor vir Cheetahs se stryd teen die Leeus \\|publisher\\=Volksblad \\|date\\=23 June 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|language\\=af \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217152537/http://152\\.111\\.11\\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2008/06/23/VB/24/hncheetna.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|df\\=dmy }}", "Nell made a total of 66 appearances for the {{Rut\\|Free State Cheetahs}} in [Currie Cup](/wiki/Currie_Cup \"Currie Cup\") and [Vodacom Cup](/wiki/Vodacom_Cup \"Vodacom Cup\") competitions between 2002 and 2008 and also played on ten occasions for [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby \"Super Rugby\") side the {{Rut\\|Cheetahs}}.", "### Castres", "Nell joined French [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 \"Top 14\") team {{Rut\\|Castres}} in July 2008 and remained there for the [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Top_14_season \"2008–09 Top 14 season\") and [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Top_14_season \"2009–10 Top 14 season\") seasons.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\\_2891\\.html \\| title\\=Player Profile Darron Nell \\| publisher\\=It's Rugby \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}} He made his Castres debut in August 2008 against {{Rut\\|Bayonne}}, where his side suffered a 26–27 defeat.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\\-zoom\\-2891\\-top14\\-2008\\-game.html \\| title\\=Player statistics Nell Darron – club stats – Top 14 2008 \\| publisher\\=It's Rugby \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}} He played in a total of 14 matches for the side as they finished 12th in the competition, one place above the relegation zone. He also played three matches for the club in the [2008–09 Heineken Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Heineken_Cup \"2008–09 Heineken Cup\") competition, but ended on the losing side in all three matches as Castres finished bottom of Pool 2\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.itsrugby.co.uk/player\\-zoom\\-2891\\-hcup\\-2008\\-game.html \\| title\\=Player statistics Nell Darron – club stats – Top 14 2008 \\| publisher\\=It's Rugby \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}}", "Nell made nine appearances for Castres in the [2009–10 Top 14 season](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Top_14_season \"2009–10 Top 14 season\"), a far more successful season for the side as they finished in 5th spot. He also started in five matches of their [2009–10 European Challenge Cup](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_European_Challenge_Cup \"2009–10 European Challenge Cup\") campaign, scoring his only try in Castres colours in a 47–0 victory over Italian side [Rovigo](/wiki/Rugby_Rovigo \"Rugby Rovigo\") as Castres finished third in Pool 3, failing to qualify to the knock\\-out stages.", "Nell left Castres at the end of the 2009–2010 season, having scored one try in 31 appearances.", "### Eastern Province Kings / Southern Kings", "During the [Top 14](/wiki/Top_14 \"Top 14\") off\\-season in 2009, Nell returned to South Africa to represent the [Southern Kings](/wiki/Southern_Kings \"Southern Kings\") in their first ever match, a 20–8 defeat to the [British \\& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions \"British & Irish Lions\") during [their 2009 tour to South Africa](/wiki/2009_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa \"2009 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa\").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=16151 \\| homeid\\=7030 \\| awayid\\=7033 \\| leagueid\\=644 \\| hometeam\\=Southern Kings \\| homescore\\=8 \\| awayscore\\=20 \\| awayteam\\=British \\& Irish Lions \\| matchdate\\=16 June 2009 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "A year later, when his contract at Castres expired, he returned to South Africa to join [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth \"Port Elizabeth\")\\-based side the {{Rut\\|Eastern Province Kings}} for the [2010 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2010_Currie_Cup_First_Division \"2010 Currie Cup First Division\") season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://152\\.111\\.11\\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2010/03/17/VB/18/vbkortes17\\.html \\|title\\=VS\\-flank glo gou na OP \\|publisher\\=Volksblad \\|date\\=17 March 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|language\\=af \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217152154/http://152\\.111\\.11\\.6/argief/berigte/volksblad/2010/03/17/VB/18/vbkortes17\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2014 \\|df\\=dmy }} His Currie Cup debut for the Kings came in their 42–28 opening day victory over the {{Rut\\|Border Bulldogs}} in [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape \"East London, Eastern Cape\").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=18857 \\| homeid\\=8043 \\| awayid\\=8045 \\| leagueid\\=768 \\| hometeam\\=Border \\| homescore\\=28 \\| awayscore\\=42 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=16 July 2010 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} He opened his scoring in his third match for the side, scoring two tries in a 33–22 win over the {{Rut\\|Boland Cavaliers}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=18862 \\| homeid\\=8049 \\| awayid\\=8045 \\| leagueid\\=768 \\| hometeam\\=Boland \\| homescore\\=22 \\| awayscore\\=33 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=31 July 2010 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} and he made a total of seven appearances as the EP Kings made it to the final, where they faced the {{Rut\\|SWD Eagles}}. Nell came on as a substitute in the final, helping his side to a 16–12 win to become First Division champions.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=19457 \\| homeid\\=8047 \\| awayid\\=8045 \\| leagueid\\=768 \\| hometeam\\=SWD \\| homescore\\=12 \\| awayscore\\=16 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=15 October 2010 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} He also played off the bench in both legs of their [promotion/relegation series](/wiki/2010_Currie_Cup_First_Division%23Promotion/relegation_games \"2010 Currie Cup First Division#Promotion/relegation games\") against the {{Rut\\|Pumas}}, but the Kings failed to win promotion to the [2011 Currie Cup Premier Division](/wiki/2011_Currie_Cup_Premier_Division \"2011 Currie Cup Premier Division\").", "Nell scored two tries in four appearances during the [2011 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2011_Vodacom_Cup \"2011 Vodacom Cup\"), as a points deduction scuppered the Kings' chances of reaching the quarter\\-finals.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.sarugby.net/component/supersportcontent/9657?view\\=news \\| title\\=EP penalised after appeal dismissed \\| publisher\\=South African Rugby Union \\| date\\=30 March 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=30 March 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924201802/http://www.sarugby.net/component/supersportcontent/9657?view\\=news \\| archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} In June 2011, he was selected in a [Southern Kings](/wiki/Southern_Kings \"Southern Kings\") side that competed in the [2011 IRB Nations Cup](/wiki/2011_IRB_Nations_Cup \"2011 IRB Nations Cup\") as the South African Kings. He missed their 31–17 victory over {{nrut\\|Georgia}},{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12167 \\| title\\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 2 \\| publisher\\=World Rugby \\| date\\=10 June 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}} but appeared as a substitute in their second match against hosts {{nrut\\|Romania}} – a 27–23 victory{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12170 \\| title\\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 5 \\| publisher\\=World Rugby \\| date\\=15 June 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}} – and started their 39–12 win over {{nrut\\|Portugal}}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.worldrugby.org/match/12172 \\| title\\=IRB Nations Cup 2011, Match 7 \\| publisher\\=World Rugby \\| date\\=19 June 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=17 December 2014}} to help his side win the title.", "Nell returned to domestic action, where he scored one try in eight appearances in the [2011 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2011_Currie_Cup_First_Division \"2011 Currie Cup First Division\") season. However, the EP Kings failed to retain their title, losing 43–12 to the {{Rut\\|Boland Cavaliers}} in the final.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=102581 \\| homeid\\=8554 \\| awayid\\=8549 \\| leagueid\\=810 \\| hometeam\\=Regent Boland Cavaliers \\| homescore\\=43 \\| awayscore\\=12 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=14 October 2011 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "Nell made seven appearances in the [2012 Vodacom Cup](/wiki/2012_Vodacom_Cup \"2012 Vodacom Cup\") to help the Kings reach the quarter\\-finals for only the third time in their history, where they lost 30–19 to the {{Rut\\|Pumas}}.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=111401 \\| homeid\\=11371 \\| awayid\\=11501 \\| leagueid\\=1211 \\| hometeam\\=Ford Pumas \\| homescore\\=30 \\| awayscore\\=19 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=4 May 2012 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} Nell was a vital part of the Kings' [2012 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2012_Currie_Cup_First_Division \"2012 Currie Cup First Division\") squad; he played in thirteen matches as they reached the final of the competition for the third consecutive season. Nell scored the Kings' first try in the final as they ran out 26–25 winners over the {{Rut\\|Pumas}}{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=105591 \\| homeid\\=11761 \\| awayid\\=11741 \\| leagueid\\=1241 \\| hometeam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| homescore\\=26 \\| awayscore\\=25 \\| awayteam\\=Ford Pumas \\| matchdate\\=13 October 2012 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} to clinch the title for the second time in three seasons. However, they once again failed to win their [promotion/relegation series](/wiki/2012_Currie_Cup_First_Division%23Promotion/relegation_games \"2012 Currie Cup First Division#Promotion/relegation games\") against Nell's former side {{Rut\\|Free State Cheetahs}} to remain in the First Division for 2013\\.", "However, 2013 saw the {{Rut\\|Southern Kings}} participate in [Super Rugby](/wiki/Super_Rugby \"Super Rugby\") for the first time. Nell was named in their first ever Super Rugby squad{{SA Rugby Squad \\| teamid\\=15231 \\| team\\=Southern Kings \\| compid\\=1491 \\| comp\\=2013 Vodacom Super Rugby \\| accessdate\\=3 June 2016}} and he made his Super Rugby debut for the Kings in their second match of the competition against the {{Rut\\|Sharks}},{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=113781 \\| homeid\\=15231 \\| awayid\\=15221 \\| leagueid\\=1491 \\| hometeam\\=Southern Kings \\| homescore\\=12 \\| awayscore\\=21 \\| awayteam\\=Sharks \\| matchdate\\=9 March 2013 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} but then missed the majority of the season through injury. He returned for the last four games of the regular season, starting both matches against the {{Rut\\|Stormers}}, as well as the {{Rut\\|Bulls}}. He was named captain for both the [2013 Super Rugby promotion/relegation](/wiki/2013_Super_Rugby_season%23Promotion/relegation_play-offs \"2013 Super Rugby season#Promotion/relegation play-offs\") matches against the {{Rut\\|Lions}} with [Luke Watson](/wiki/Luke_Watson \"Luke Watson\") and [Andries Strauss](/wiki/Andries_Strauss \"Andries Strauss\") out injured.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.sport24\\.co.za/Rugby/Super15/Nell\\-to\\-captain\\-Kings\\-20130723 \\| title\\=Nell to captain Kings v Lions \\| publisher\\=Sport24 \\| work\\=Media24 \\| date\\=23 July 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=9 August 2013}} The Kings lost the series 44–42 on aggregate to lose their Super Rugby berth to the Lions. After the conclusion of the Super Rugby campaign, Nell made five starts in the [2013 Currie Cup First Division](/wiki/2013_Currie_Cup_First_Division \"2013 Currie Cup First Division\") and scored one try in their match against the {{Rut\\|Border Bulldogs}}.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=106894 \\| homeid\\=12674 \\| awayid\\=12684 \\| leagueid\\=1304 \\| hometeam\\=Border Bulldogs \\| homescore\\=20 \\| awayscore\\=38 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=27 September 2013 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} The Kings reached their fourth consecutive final, but lost the match 53–30 to the {{Rut\\|Pumas}} in [Nelspruit](/wiki/Nelspruit \"Nelspruit\").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=106924 \\| homeid\\=12694 \\| awayid\\=12684 \\| leagueid\\=1304 \\| hometeam\\=Steval Pumas \\| homescore\\=53 \\| awayscore\\=30 \\| awayteam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| matchdate\\=11 October 2013 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "In June 2014, he was selected in the starting line\\-up for the {{Rut\\|Eastern Province Kings}} side to face {{nrut\\|Wales}} during a tour match during a [2014 incoming tour](/wiki/2014_mid-year_rugby_union_tests \"2014 mid-year rugby union tests\") and was also named captain of the team. He played the first 74 minutes of the match as the Kings suffered a 12–34 defeat.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=120524 \\| homeid\\=18334 \\| awayid\\=16974 \\| leagueid\\=1674 \\| hometeam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| homescore\\=12 \\| awayscore\\=34 \\| awayteam\\=Wales \\| matchdate\\=10 June 2014 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} Following a decision from the [South African Rugby Union](/wiki/South_African_Rugby_Union \"South African Rugby Union\") to expand the Currie Cup Premier Division from six teams to eight teams,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.sport24\\.co.za/Rugby/Currie\\-Cup\\-format\\-expanded\\-20140213 \\| title\\=Currie Cup format expanded \\| publisher\\=Sport24 \\| date\\=13 February 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=13 February 2014}} the {{Rut\\|Eastern Province Kings}} were promoted to the Premier Division of the Currie Cup. Nell scored one try in his six appearances in the competition; it came in their 28–13 loss to the {{Rut\\|Blue Bulls}} in [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth \"Port Elizabeth\").{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=119824 \\| homeid\\=18114 \\| awayid\\=18094 \\| leagueid\\=1784 \\| hometeam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| homescore\\=13 \\| awayscore\\=28 \\| awayteam\\=Vodacom Blue Bulls \\| matchdate\\=12 September 2014 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}} The Kings struggled to adjust to life in the Premier Division and lost their first nine matches of the season. They did, however, beat fellow promoted side the {{Rut\\|Pumas}} 26–25 in the final match of the season, with Nell playing the first 57 minutes of that match.{{SA Rugby Match Centre \\| id\\=120004 \\| homeid\\=18114 \\| awayid\\=18134 \\| leagueid\\=1784 \\| hometeam\\=Eastern Province Kings \\| homescore\\=26 \\| awayscore\\=25 \\| awayteam\\=Steval Pumas \\| matchdate\\=10 October 2014 \\| date\\=4 July 2016}}", "" ]
History ------- The 125 was designed in 1969 by Simon Greig as a class that would sit between [Jack Holt](/wiki/Jack_Holt_%28dinghy_designer%29 "Jack Holt (dinghy designer)")'s {{convert\|3\.3\|m\|ftin\|abbr\=on}} [Mirror](/wiki/Mirror_%28dinghy%29 "Mirror (dinghy)") and the larger [Mirror 16](/wiki/Mirror_16 "Mirror 16") at {{convert\|4\.9\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web \| title \= The History of the 125 \| work \= National 125 Sailing Association \| url \= http://www.125assoc.com/history.asp \| access\-date \= 10 March 2010 }} As with the Mirrors, the 125 can be assembled from [plywood](/wiki/Plywood "Plywood") using the "[stitch and glue](/wiki/Stitch_and_glue "Stitch and glue")" method, and, as far as possible, the 125 uses Mirror parts in its design.{{cite web\|title\=Building a 125 \|work\=National 125 Sailing Association \|url\=http://www.125assoc.com/Building.asp \|access\-date\=10 March 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201025114/http://www.125assoc.com/Building.asp \|archive\-date\=1 February 2010 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy }} The parallels between the boats go as far as the design of the sail insignia – the 125 employs a design based on the Mirror's symbol lying on its side. Nevertheless, initial sales were not good, and with the arrival of the [Mirror 14](/wiki/Mirror_%28dinghy%29 "Mirror (dinghy)") Greig had decided not to continue production. However, John Coomer had built one of the few kits that had been sold, and encouraged Greig to continue producing kits if buyers were available. A new sail plan was developed based on the [Flying Junior](/wiki/Flying_Junior "Flying Junior"), and Coomer developed class rules and a constitution for the 125\. Yet while his 125, *Beauty Bottla*, was successful in racing, there was no real demand for the class. Things changed in 1972 when Greig handed over the copyright for the design to Coomer to be used by any association that might be formed.{{cite web \| title \= 125 \| work \= YACHTe.com.au \| url \= http://www.yachte.com.au/classes/125\.asp \| access\-date \= 10 March 2010 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110303143629/http://www.yachte.com.au/classes/125\.asp \| archive\-date \= 3 March 2011 \| url\-status\=dead}} Subsequently, the new association was developed, the boat was marketed by the association, and as a result sail numbers increased from 6 in 1970 (with Coomer's boat) to 21 in late 1972\. By 1977 over 950 sets of plans had been sold, and the first national championships were held that year. In 1979, the 125 was also developed into the stretched [145 class](/wiki/145_%28dinghy%29 "145 (dinghy)") and initially saw fast growth with an association and branches in all states and New Zealand.{{cite web \| title \= 145 Association \| url\=http://users.netconnect.com.au/\~mashley/145Assoc/ \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020720062205/http://users.netconnect.com.au/\~mashley/145Assoc/ \| archive\-date \= 20 July 2002 \| url\-status\=dead}} Ultimately the class proved less popular than its smaller cousin with 145 Associations disbanding in the early to mid 2000s. The class continued to develop under a strict set of rules, with various modifications being made to the specification over the years – including, in 1990, a provision for [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass") hulls.
[ "History\n-------", "The 125 was designed in 1969 by Simon Greig as a class that would sit between [Jack Holt](/wiki/Jack_Holt_%28dinghy_designer%29 \"Jack Holt (dinghy designer)\")'s {{convert\\|3\\.3\\|m\\|ftin\\|abbr\\=on}} [Mirror](/wiki/Mirror_%28dinghy%29 \"Mirror (dinghy)\") and the larger [Mirror 16](/wiki/Mirror_16 \"Mirror 16\") at {{convert\\|4\\.9\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web \\| title \\= The History of the 125 \\| work \\= National 125 Sailing Association \\| url \\= http://www.125assoc.com/history.asp \\| access\\-date \\= 10 March 2010 }} As with the Mirrors, the 125 can be assembled from [plywood](/wiki/Plywood \"Plywood\") using the \"[stitch and glue](/wiki/Stitch_and_glue \"Stitch and glue\")\" method, and, as far as possible, the 125 uses Mirror parts in its design.{{cite web\\|title\\=Building a 125 \\|work\\=National 125 Sailing Association \\|url\\=http://www.125assoc.com/Building.asp \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201025114/http://www.125assoc.com/Building.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=1 February 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy }} The parallels between the boats go as far as the design of the sail insignia – the 125 employs a design based on the Mirror's symbol lying on its side.", "Nevertheless, initial sales were not good, and with the arrival of the [Mirror 14](/wiki/Mirror_%28dinghy%29 \"Mirror (dinghy)\") Greig had decided not to continue production. However, John Coomer had built one of the few kits that had been sold, and encouraged Greig to continue producing kits if buyers were available. A new sail plan was developed based on the [Flying Junior](/wiki/Flying_Junior \"Flying Junior\"), and Coomer developed class rules and a constitution for the 125\\. Yet while his 125, *Beauty Bottla*, was successful in racing, there was no real demand for the class.", "Things changed in 1972 when Greig handed over the copyright for the design to Coomer to be used by any association that might be formed.{{cite web \\| title \\= 125 \\| work \\= YACHTe.com.au \\| url \\= http://www.yachte.com.au/classes/125\\.asp \\| access\\-date \\= 10 March 2010 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110303143629/http://www.yachte.com.au/classes/125\\.asp \\| archive\\-date \\= 3 March 2011 \\| url\\-status\\=dead}} Subsequently, the new association was developed, the boat was marketed by the association, and as a result sail numbers increased from 6 in 1970 (with Coomer's boat) to 21 in late 1972\\. By 1977 over 950 sets of plans had been sold, and the first national championships were held that year.", "In 1979, the 125 was also developed into the stretched [145 class](/wiki/145_%28dinghy%29 \"145 (dinghy)\") and initially saw fast growth with an association and branches in all states and New Zealand.{{cite web \\| title \\= 145 Association \\| url\\=http://users.netconnect.com.au/\\~mashley/145Assoc/ \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020720062205/http://users.netconnect.com.au/\\~mashley/145Assoc/ \\| archive\\-date \\= 20 July 2002 \\| url\\-status\\=dead}} Ultimately the class proved less popular than its smaller cousin with 145 Associations disbanding in the early to mid 2000s.", "The class continued to develop under a strict set of rules, with various modifications being made to the specification over the years – including, in 1990, a provision for [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\") hulls.", "" ]
Brief biography --------------- ### 1820s–1840s Ballou was born in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") in 1820, to parents [Hosea Ballou](/wiki/Hosea_Ballou "Hosea Ballou") and Ruth Washburn. He attended [The English High School](/wiki/The_English_High_School "The English High School"), and although he passed the entrance exam for [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), he did not attend. He married Mary Anne Roberts on September 15, 1839; children included [Murray Roberts Ballou](/wiki/Murray_R._Ballou "Murray R. Ballou") (b. 1840\). Starting around 1838, Ballou wrote for the *Olive Branch*, a weekly paper published in Boston. In addition to writing, he worked various jobs for the Boston Post Office, 1839 and the [Boston Custom House](/wiki/Boston_Custom_House "Boston Custom House"), ca.1845\.*Marquis Who Was Who in America 1607–1984*.Houghton Mifflin Company. [A catalogue of authors whose works are published by Houghton, Mifflin and Company](https://archive.org/details/acatalogueautho00compgoog). Riverside Press, 1899\. From 1842 through 1844, Ballou and Isaac H. Wright published the weekly newspaper *Bay State Democrat.* Writing under the pseudonym **Lieutenant Murray**, Ballou authored popular novels which were published by [Frederick Gleason](/wiki/Frederick_Gleason "Frederick Gleason") starting around 1845, such as *The Gipsey, or, the Robbers of Naples: a Story of Love and Pride.* He also wrote stories for *[The Flag of Our Union](/wiki/The_Flag_of_Our_Union "The Flag of Our Union")*. ### 1850s [thumb\|right\|Ballou's Pictorial, January 12, 1856](/wiki/Image:Ballous_12jan1856_cover.JPG "Ballous 12jan1856 cover.JPG") In 1851, Ballou and Frederick Gleason established the weekly paper *[Gleason's Pictorial Drawing\-Room Companion](/wiki/Gleason%27s_Pictorial_Drawing-Room_Companion "Gleason's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion").*{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911}} It was inspired by *[The Illustrated London News](/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News "The Illustrated London News")*.Frank Luther Mott. *A History of American Magazines*, Volume II, 1850\-1865\. Harvard University Press, 1938; p.411 The first issue appeared on May 3, 1851, and declared: "The object of this paper is to present, in the most elegant and available form, a weekly literary melange of notable events of the day. Its columns are devoted to original tales, sketches, and poems, by the best American authors, and the cream of the domestic and foreign news; the whole well spiced with wit and humor."Gleason's pictorial. v.1, no.1, May 3, 1851\. In November 1854, Ballou bought out Gleason and changed the paper's name to *[Ballou's Pictorial Drawing\-Room Companion](/wiki/Ballou%27s_Pictorial_Drawing-Room_Companion "Ballou's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion").* Around 1857 Ballou's publishing enterprise in Boston operated from 22 [Winter Street](/wiki/Winter_Street_%28Boston%29 "Winter Street (Boston)"), in a building constructed in 1856\. > ...The building housed on its first two main floors the editorial and business offices of the publisher Maturin Murray Ballou. The basement held the 12 steam\-powered presses that each week brought forth, among other publications, more than 100,000 copies of a 16\-page, profusely illustrated journal, *Ballou's Pictorial Drawing\-Room Companion.* Engravers occupied the 3rd floor, working at desks by the windows. Atop the building's 4 storeys rose an attic crowned with a large light\-admitting lantern. This lantern illuminated the room that Ballou had provided for the graphic artists who contributed to his *Companion.*David Tatham. Winslow Homer and the pictorial press. Syracuse University Press, 2003; p.11 Illustrators who worked for Ballou included John Andrew, Charles A. Barry, W.L. Champney, John Chapin, [William Croome](/wiki/William_Croome "William Croome"), Charles Damoreau, [George Devereux](/wiki/George_Devereux "George Devereux"), [Winslow Homer](/wiki/Winslow_Homer "Winslow Homer"), [Frank Leslie](/wiki/Frank_Leslie "Frank Leslie"), John Manning, Emile Masson, Samuel Worcester Rowse, William Wade, Alfred Waud, William Waud. By 1859, M.M. Ballou published several additional periodicals: * *[The Flag of Our Union](/wiki/The_Flag_of_Our_Union "The Flag of Our Union").* * *The Weekly Novelette.* Some were written by Ballou, under his "Lieutenant Murray" pseudonym: Novelette no. 90 – *The scarlet flag; or, The Caribbean rover: a story of the early Buccaneers*; Novelette no. 137 – *The pirate smugglers; or, The last cruise of the Viper*. * *Ballou's Dollar Monthly* ("the cheapest magazine in the world"), which continued until June 1893, under varying titles: *Dollar Monthly* (1863–1865\) and *Ballou's Monthly Magazine* (1866–1893\).{{citation \|title\=Ballou's Monthly Magazine \|pages\=55 v \|url\=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006062144 }} ### 1860s–1890s In 1867, Ballou built the St. James Hotel, on [Franklin Square](/wiki/Franklin_and_Blackstone_Squares "Franklin and Blackstone Squares") in Boston. The hotel had 400 rooms, and was "the largest family hotel in the city, and one of the most expensively furnished."King's handbook of Boston. 1881; p.56\. He served as the first editor of the *[Boston Daily Globe](/wiki/Boston_Daily_Globe "Boston Daily Globe")*, from 1872 to 1873\.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911}}{{cite book\|last\=Lyons\|first\=Lewis Martin\|title\=Newspaper Story: One Hundred Years of the Boston Globe\|publisher\=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press\|year\=1971\|location\=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}{{rp\|447}} Contemporary reviews were positive: > Boston has another daily newspaper, to add to the 8 or 10 already published here. *The Boston Daily Globe* comes into being full\-armed, like Minerva from the head of Jove; a large 8\-page paper, having more of the cast of countenance belonging to the *Times* or the *Tribune* than any of its Boston relatives. It claims to be neutral in politics. ... This is a new departure in journalism.The Ladies' Repository. A. Tompkins, v. 47, 1872; p.318\. In the 1880s and 1890s he authored several travel books, covering Alaska, Russia, Cuba, India, South America, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Samoa, and elsewhere. In 1882 he "circumnavigated the globe."Dictionary of American Biography. In 1885–1886, he was a proprietor of the [Boston Athenaeum](/wiki/Boston_Athenaeum "Boston Athenaeum").Register of the proprietors of the Boston Athenaeum from its foundation to December 31, 1897 according to the certificate book. The Boston Athenaeum, 1898\. Ballou died on March 27, 1895, in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"), [Egypt](/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt "Khedivate of Egypt"), where he had been with his wife since January 1895\.Wrote books of travels; Death of Maturin M. Ballou in Cairo, Egypt. Was a Born Writer and His Pen Made for Him a Mark in Literature. One of the Original Founders and Once Editor of The Daily Globe. Boston Daily Globe, Mar 29, 1895\. p.3\. He is buried in Boston.
[ "Brief biography\n---------------", "### 1820s–1840s", "Ballou was born in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") in 1820, to parents [Hosea Ballou](/wiki/Hosea_Ballou \"Hosea Ballou\") and Ruth Washburn. He attended [The English High School](/wiki/The_English_High_School \"The English High School\"), and although he passed the entrance exam for [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), he did not attend. He married Mary Anne Roberts on September 15, 1839; children included [Murray Roberts Ballou](/wiki/Murray_R._Ballou \"Murray R. Ballou\") (b. 1840\\).", "Starting around 1838, Ballou wrote for the *Olive Branch*, a weekly paper published in Boston. In addition to writing, he worked various jobs for the Boston Post Office, 1839 and the [Boston Custom House](/wiki/Boston_Custom_House \"Boston Custom House\"), ca.1845\\.*Marquis Who Was Who in America 1607–1984*.Houghton Mifflin Company. [A catalogue of authors whose works are published by Houghton, Mifflin and Company](https://archive.org/details/acatalogueautho00compgoog). Riverside Press, 1899\\. From 1842 through 1844, Ballou and Isaac H. Wright published the weekly newspaper *Bay State Democrat.* Writing under the pseudonym **Lieutenant Murray**, Ballou authored popular novels which were published by [Frederick Gleason](/wiki/Frederick_Gleason \"Frederick Gleason\") starting around 1845, such as *The Gipsey, or, the Robbers of Naples: a Story of Love and Pride.* He also wrote stories for *[The Flag of Our Union](/wiki/The_Flag_of_Our_Union \"The Flag of Our Union\")*.", "### 1850s", "[thumb\\|right\\|Ballou's Pictorial, January 12, 1856](/wiki/Image:Ballous_12jan1856_cover.JPG \"Ballous 12jan1856 cover.JPG\")\nIn 1851, Ballou and Frederick Gleason established the weekly paper *[Gleason's Pictorial Drawing\\-Room Companion](/wiki/Gleason%27s_Pictorial_Drawing-Room_Companion \"Gleason's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion\").*{{sfn\\|Chisholm\\|1911}} It was inspired by *[The Illustrated London News](/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News \"The Illustrated London News\")*.Frank Luther Mott. *A History of American Magazines*, Volume II, 1850\\-1865\\. Harvard University Press, 1938; p.411 The first issue appeared on May 3, 1851, and declared: \"The object of this paper is to present, in the most elegant and available form, a weekly literary melange of notable events of the day. Its columns are devoted to original tales, sketches, and poems, by the best American authors, and the cream of the domestic and foreign news; the whole well spiced with wit and humor.\"Gleason's pictorial. v.1, no.1, May 3, 1851\\. In November 1854, Ballou bought out Gleason and changed the paper's name to *[Ballou's Pictorial Drawing\\-Room Companion](/wiki/Ballou%27s_Pictorial_Drawing-Room_Companion \"Ballou's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion\").*", "Around 1857 Ballou's publishing enterprise in Boston operated from 22 [Winter Street](/wiki/Winter_Street_%28Boston%29 \"Winter Street (Boston)\"), in a building constructed in 1856\\.", "", "> ...The building housed on its first two main floors the editorial and business offices of the publisher Maturin Murray Ballou. The basement held the 12 steam\\-powered presses that each week brought forth, among other publications, more than 100,000 copies of a 16\\-page, profusely illustrated journal, *Ballou's Pictorial Drawing\\-Room Companion.* Engravers occupied the 3rd floor, working at desks by the windows. Atop the building's 4 storeys rose an attic crowned with a large light\\-admitting lantern. This lantern illuminated the room that Ballou had provided for the graphic artists who contributed to his *Companion.*David Tatham. Winslow Homer and the pictorial press. Syracuse University Press, 2003; p.11", "Illustrators who worked for Ballou included John Andrew, Charles A. Barry, W.L. Champney, John Chapin, [William Croome](/wiki/William_Croome \"William Croome\"), Charles Damoreau, [George Devereux](/wiki/George_Devereux \"George Devereux\"), [Winslow Homer](/wiki/Winslow_Homer \"Winslow Homer\"), [Frank Leslie](/wiki/Frank_Leslie \"Frank Leslie\"), John Manning, Emile Masson, Samuel Worcester Rowse, William Wade, Alfred Waud, William Waud.", "By 1859, M.M. Ballou published several additional periodicals:\n* *[The Flag of Our Union](/wiki/The_Flag_of_Our_Union \"The Flag of Our Union\").*\n* *The Weekly Novelette.* Some were written by Ballou, under his \"Lieutenant Murray\" pseudonym: Novelette no. 90 – *The scarlet flag; or, The Caribbean rover: a story of the early Buccaneers*; Novelette no. 137 – *The pirate smugglers; or, The last cruise of the Viper*.\n* *Ballou's Dollar Monthly* (\"the cheapest magazine in the world\"), which continued until June 1893, under varying titles: *Dollar Monthly* (1863–1865\\) and *Ballou's Monthly Magazine* (1866–1893\\).{{citation \\|title\\=Ballou's Monthly Magazine \\|pages\\=55 v \\|url\\=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006062144 }}", "### 1860s–1890s", "In 1867, Ballou built the St. James Hotel, on [Franklin Square](/wiki/Franklin_and_Blackstone_Squares \"Franklin and Blackstone Squares\") in Boston. The hotel had 400 rooms, and was \"the largest family hotel in the city, and one of the most expensively furnished.\"King's handbook of Boston. 1881; p.56\\.", "He served as the first editor of the *[Boston Daily Globe](/wiki/Boston_Daily_Globe \"Boston Daily Globe\")*, from 1872 to 1873\\.{{sfn\\|Chisholm\\|1911}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Lyons\\|first\\=Lewis Martin\\|title\\=Newspaper Story: One Hundred Years of the Boston Globe\\|publisher\\=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press\\|year\\=1971\\|location\\=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}{{rp\\|447}} Contemporary reviews were positive:", "", "> Boston has another daily newspaper, to add to the 8 or 10 already published here. *The Boston Daily Globe* comes into being full\\-armed, like Minerva from the head of Jove; a large 8\\-page paper, having more of the cast of countenance belonging to the *Times* or the *Tribune* than any of its Boston relatives. It claims to be neutral in politics. ... This is a new departure in journalism.The Ladies' Repository. A. Tompkins, v. 47, 1872; p.318\\.", "In the 1880s and 1890s he authored several travel books, covering Alaska, Russia, Cuba, India, South America, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Samoa, and elsewhere. In 1882 he \"circumnavigated the globe.\"Dictionary of American Biography.", "In 1885–1886, he was a proprietor of the [Boston Athenaeum](/wiki/Boston_Athenaeum \"Boston Athenaeum\").Register of the proprietors of the Boston Athenaeum from its foundation to December 31, 1897 according to the certificate book. The Boston Athenaeum, 1898\\.", "Ballou died on March 27, 1895, in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt \"Khedivate of Egypt\"), where he had been with his wife since January 1895\\.Wrote books of travels; Death of Maturin M. Ballou in Cairo, Egypt. Was a Born Writer and His Pen Made for Him a Mark in Literature. One of the Original Founders and Once Editor of The Daily Globe. Boston Daily Globe, Mar 29, 1895\\. p.3\\. He is buried in Boston.", "" ]
New 93rd Brigade ---------------- [thumb\|right\|The first pattern of formation sign worn by 31st Division until 1917\.Elderton \& Gibbs, pp. 34, 47\.](/wiki/File:31st_Division_sign_%281%29_WW1.svg "31st Division sign (1) WW1.svg") Meanwhile, the K5 units had been forming since late 1914\. These were largely raised by local initiative rather than at regimental depots, and were known as '[Pals battalions](/wiki/Pals_battalions "Pals battalions")'. The first six K5 divisions (37–42\) and their constituent brigades were given the numbers of the disbanded K4 formations on 27 April 1915\. Thus 114th Brigade of 38th Division became the new 93rd Brigade in [31st Division](/wiki/31st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "31st Division (United Kingdom)"):Becke, Pt 3b, Appendix 2\.Becke, Pt 3b, pp. 11–9\.[31st Division at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/order-of-battle-of-divisions/31st-division/)James, p. 58\.James, p. 101\.[West Yorkshire Regiment at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/regiments-and-corps/the-british-infantry-regiments-of-1914-1918/the-prince-of-waless-own-west-yorkshire-regiment/)[Durham Light Infantry at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/regiments-and-corps/the-british-infantry-regiments-of-1914-1918/durham-light-infantry/)War Office Instruction No 56 of September 1915, Appendix IX. * [15th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Leeds)](/wiki/15th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%281st_Leeds%29 "15th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Leeds)") – raised by the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Leeds "List of mayors of Leeds") and [City of Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds") 8 September 1914 * [16th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Bradford)](/wiki/16th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%281st_Bradford%29 "16th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Bradford)") – raised by the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Bradford "List of mayors of Bradford") and [City of Bradford](/wiki/Bradford "Bradford") 13 September 1914 * [18th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (2nd Bradford)](/wiki/18th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%282nd_Bradford%29 "18th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (2nd Bradford)") – raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Bradford 22 January 1915 * [18th (Service) Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1st County)](/wiki/18th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_Durham_Light_Infantry_%281st_County%29 "18th (Service) Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1st County)") – raised at [Durham](/wiki/Durham%2C_England "Durham, England") by [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Colonel (United Kingdom)") [Rowland Burdon](/wiki/Rowland_Burdon_%28Sedgefield_MP%29 "Rowland Burdon (Sedgefield MP)"), 10 September 1914 At first the men lived at home and training was carried out at their home towns, hampered by an almost total lack of instructors and equipment. The 'Durham Pals' (18th DLI) were unusual in that the [Earl of Durham](/wiki/John_Lambton%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Durham "John Lambton, 3rd Earl of Durham") placed Cockpen Hall at the battalion's disposal for training. On 16 November this battalion was ordered to send two companies to [Hartlepool](/wiki/Hartlepool "Hartlepool") to assist in coast defence. They were manning trenches a month later when German warships carried out a [Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby](/wiki/Raid_on_Scarborough%2C_Hartlepool_and_Whitby "Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby"), and suffered casualties of 6 killed and 10 wounded – the first Kitchener battalion to come under enemy fire. The division concentrated at South Camp, [Ripon](/wiki/Ripon "Ripon"), in May 1915, soon after it was renumbered. In September it moved to [Fovant](/wiki/Fovant "Fovant") where it carried out final intensive battle training on [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain "Salisbury Plain"). On 29 November 1915 the division received warning orders to join the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_I%29 "British Expeditionary Force (World War I)") in France, and advance parties set out for the embarkation ports of [Folkestone](/wiki/Folkestone "Folkestone") and [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"). At the last minute, the destination was changed to [Egypt](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt "Sultanate of Egypt"), the advance parties were recalled, and on 7 December the troops embarked at [Devonport](/wiki/HMNB_Devonport "HMNB Devonport"). The division reached [Port Said](/wiki/Port_Said "Port Said") between 24 December and 23 January 1916 and went into the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") defences at [Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt "El Qantara, Egypt"). On 26 February orders arrived to reverse the process and on 1 March the division began re\-embarking at Port Said. It unloaded at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille") between 6 and 16 March and then concentrated in the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_river "Somme river") area as part of the BEF. It remained on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") for the rest of the war. Soon after its arrival in France 93rd Brigade was joined by its support troops: * 93rd Trench Mortar Battery (TMB) – formed as 93/1 and 93/2 TMBs on 12 April, and combined into a single battery by 12 June * 93rd Brigade Machine Gun (MG) Company – formed at [Grantham](/wiki/Grantham "Grantham"), disembarked at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre") on 17 May and joined on 20 May ### First day of the Somme 31st Division was part of the concentration of troops in the Somme sector for that summer's 'Big Push' the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme"). Despite all the preparation and high hopes, the [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme "First day on the Somme") (1 July) was a disaster for 31st Division. Its task was to take the village of [Serre](/wiki/Serre-l%C3%A8s-Puisieux "Serre-lès-Puisieux") and form a defensive flank for the rest of [Fourth Army](/wiki/Fourth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Fourth Army (United Kingdom)"). 93rd Brigade was to attack up a re\-entrant with 15th West Yorks leading, while 16th West Yorks and D Company of 18th DLI attacked Pendant Copse on the right. The troops left their trenches at 07\.20 when the nearby [Hawthorn Ridge mine](/wiki/Hawthorn_Ridge_Redoubt "Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt") was exploded, 10 minutes before Zero. Thus alerted, the enemy put down a heavy artillery [barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29 "Barrage (artillery)") on the British line and their machine gun. teams came out of their dugouts. When the leading waves set off at 07\.30, they were almost annihilated by German fire: 15th West Yorks lost nearly all their officers. The survivors of 15th West Yorks were pinned down in [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land "No man's land"), while 16th West Yorks suffered heavily as they advanced from the support line, even before they crossed the front line. Nevertheless, some of the DLI got into Pendant Copse. 18th West Yorks in support was unable to make any headway across the fire\-swept No man's land, and the rest of 18th DLI in reserve was kept back. About 09\.00 the enemy opposite 93rd Bde appeared to be concentrating for a counter\-attack on the chaotic British jumping\-off trenches, and disregarding divisional orders Brig\-Gen Ingles brought back the artillery barrage to disperse them. Most of the divisional pioneer battalion, the 12th [King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry](/wiki/King%27s_Own_Yorkshire_Light_Infantry "King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry") (Leeds Miners), was brought up to support 93rd Bde. By noon the sector was quiet apart from occasional shelling and sniping at the men pinned down in No man's land; those Germans in front of 93rd Bde came out to clear the 15th West Yorks from their [barbed wire](/wiki/Wire_obstacle "Wire obstacle"). Although a fresh attack was ordered for the afternoon, the divisional commander and commanders of 93rd and [94th Bdes](/wiki/94th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "94th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") concluded that neither brigade was fit for any further offensive operation. 93rd Brigades's losses had been 598 killed, 1197 wounded and 28 missing, the 15th West Yorks alone losing 528\. The men in No man's land slipped back after dark. Next day, as stretcher\-bearers worked to remove casualties from No man's land, 18th DLI held the front line. The shattered division was then pulled out and sent north to a quiet sector for rest and refit.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 441–4, 448–51, Sketch 23\.Bilton, pp. 133–6\.Horsfall \& Cave, pp. 53–68, 74\.Middlebrook, pp. 113, 122–31, 137–8, 150–1, 161–2, 195–7, 216–20, 236–41, Appendix 5\. ### Ancre The Somme Offensive was still going on at the end of October when 31st Division returned to the sector for the [Battle of the Ancre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ancre "Battle of the Ancre"), which was to be the last big operation of the year. The division made another attempt to capture Serre on 13 November, but 93rd Bde was still not fit for active operations. Apart from its MG company, which supported the attack, its role was restricted to standing by to release a smokescreen, but in the event the wind was unfavourable for this.Horsfall \& Cave, p. 77\.Miles, *1916*, Vol II, p. 500\. In late February 1917 the Germans began a withdrawal to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line "Hindenburg Line") ([Operation Alberich](/wiki/Operation_Alberich "Operation Alberich")). They disappeared from the Ancre Front on 24 February and 31st Division was ordered to send out strong patrols next day to regain touch with them. On 26 February the division made the biggest advance in the sector, but next day 93rd Bde was checked at [Rossignol Wood](/wiki/Rossignol_Wood "Rossignol Wood"). When 16th West Yorks attacked the wood it was held up, those troops who reached the wood being shot down by [enfilade](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade "Enfilade and defilade") machine gun fire. However, a two\-man patrol from 18th DLI passed through Gommecourt Park (scene of bitter fighting on 1 July 1916\) and found [Gommecourt village](/wiki/Gommecourt%2C_Pas-de-Calais "Gommecourt, Pas-de-Calais") entirely unoccupied; 93rd Bde handed this over to the neighbouring division. The division completed the capture of Rossignol Wood on 3–4 March.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 96, 100–2, 104\. [thumb\|*Oppy Wood, 1917\. Evening* by [John Nash](/wiki/John_Nash_%28artist%29 "John Nash (artist)")](/wiki/File:Nash-Oppy_Wood.jpg "Nash-Oppy Wood.jpg") ### Oppy Wood [250px\|thumb\|left\|Oppy Wood from the air](/wiki/File:Photography_Q28787.jpg "Photography Q28787.jpg") On 8 April 1917, the division left the Ancre and moved to the [Arras](/wiki/Arras "Arras") sector for the [Arras Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)"). After a period of training and trench\-holding, it moved into assembly trenches opposite [Oppy](/wiki/Oppy%2C_Pas-de-Calais "Oppy, Pas-de-Calais") during the night of 2/3 May, under shellfire. The British [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29 "Barrage (artillery)") started at 03\.45 and the 92nd and 93rd Brigades set off, in the dark and mist, into severe machine gun fire from Oppy Wood. 15th, 18th and 16th West Yorks (right to left) made good progress at first, some companies reaching their final objective. However, 92nd Bde on their left met with disaster and strong counter\-attacks from this flank drove the three battalions back. The enemy even captured [Gavrelle](/wiki/Gavrelle "Gavrelle") Windmill within the British lines, but were driven out by a skilful counter\-attack by a company of 18th DLI. The Arras offensive petered out during May, but 18th DLI made a night attack from Gavrelle on 17/18 May. Advancing up the Douai road, the battalion failed to capture the enemy's frontline trench. (The [Capture of Oppy Wood](/wiki/Capture_of_Oppy_Wood "Capture of Oppy Wood") was not completed until 28 June, when 94th Bde took part in the operation.)Bilton, pp. 178–91\.Edmonds, *1917*, Vol II, pp. 113–4\.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 446–7, 522\. [250px\|thumb\|right\|Oppy under shellfire, May 1917\.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-051-22%2C_Frankreich%2C_Oppy%2C_Zerst%C3%B6rungen.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1974-051-22, Frankreich, Oppy, Zerstörungen.jpg") 31st Division was not committed to the Third Ypres Offensive, which culminated in the dreadful [Battle of Passchendaele](/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele "Battle of Passchendaele"), possibly because it was not considered to have recovered from its ordeal on the Somme a year before.John Lee, 'The British Divisions at Third Ypres', p. 226, in Liddle, *Passchendaele in Perspective*. ### Reorganisation By the end of 1917 the BEF was suffering a severe manpower crisis. On 7 December the 1st Leeds Pals amalgamated with the 17th West Yorkshires (2nd Leeds) (a former '[Bantam battalion](/wiki/Bantam_battalion "Bantam battalion")') from [35th Division](/wiki/35th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "35th Division (United Kingdom)"). Then in February 1918 all brigades were reorganised on a three\-battalion basis, with the surplus men being drafted to bring other units up to strength. 31st Division underwent a major reorganisation, which resulted in the two Bradford Pals battalions being disbanded. 15th/17th West Yorks received a draft of 3 officers and 132 other ranks from the 16th Bn, the remainder going to No 3 Entrenching Bn, while 18th Bn was split among nine West York battalions and No 3 Entrenching Bn. They were replaced in 93rd Bde by the 1st Barnsley Pals from the disbanded 94th Bde (including a draft of 15 officers and 300 other ranks from the disbanded [Sheffield City Battalion](/wiki/Sheffield_City_Battalion "Sheffield City Battalion")). The brigade MG companies were also concentrated into a divisional MG battalion. 93rd Brigade had the following organisation for the remainder of the war:Cooksey, p. 266\. * 15th/17th West Yorkshires (Leeds) * [13th York \& Lancaster Regiment (1st Barnsley)](/wiki/13th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_York_and_Lancaster_Regiment_%281st_Barnsley%29 "13th (Service) Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment (1st Barnsley)") * 18th Durham Light Infantry (1st County) * 93rd TMB ### Spring offensive When the [German spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive "German spring offensive") opened on 21 March 1918, 31st Division was in [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "First Army (United Kingdom)") Reserve and was immediately sent to [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Third Army (United Kingdom)"). On the night of 22/23 March it reinforced [VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "VI Corps (United Kingdom)") and 93rd Bde went up to [Boiry\-Saint\-Martin](/wiki/Boiry-Saint-Martin "Boiry-Saint-Martin"), south of Arras, where it carried out a partial relief of [34th Division](/wiki/34th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "34th Division (United Kingdom)"). 34th Division had been forced back to the rear of its Battle Zone, but there was little activity on 23 March. Only two minor attacks were made on the extreme left in the morning and afternoon, and both were repulsed by 13th York \& Lancasters (Y\&L). Heavier fighting had been going on further south round [Mory](/wiki/Mory%2C_Pas-de-Calais "Mory, Pas-de-Calais"), and during the night of 23/24 March 93rd Bde sideslipped about {{convert\|1000\|yd\|m}} in that direction, taking up position in a 'switch' line north of the [River Sensée](/wiki/Sens%C3%A9e "Sensée"). Here it was strongly attacked from about 07\.00 to 12\.00, though the Germans were enfiladed by the [Guards Division](/wiki/Guards_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Guards Division (United Kingdom)") to the north and were unable to make any progress. Another fierce attack came in. at 15\.00, but this also broke down, although the rest of 31st Division further south was broken up into groups trying to form a defensive flank. Pressure continued in the south during 25 March, but an attack on 93rd Bde about 13\.00 was broken up by artillery and no Germans got near the line. However, the German breakthrough to the south forced VI Corps to wheel 31st Division back to a new switch line that night. At daybreak on 26 March it was discovered that a {{convert\|1500\|yd\|m}} gap had opened up between 31st and Guards Divisions: 13th Y\&L and 18th DLI of 93rd Bde, which should have occupied the space, had been ordered to fall back by a staff officer disorientated by the effects of a near\-miss by a shell. The two missing battalions had gone back a further {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}} to the Purple Line, and [Moyenneville](/wiki/Moyenneville%2C_Pas-de-Calais "Moyenneville, Pas-de-Calais") was left undefended. The Guards extended its right to cover part of the gap, and 15th/17th West Yorkshires held the left of 31st Division while the two battalions were recalled. Preceded by a reconnaissance party the two battalions tried to advance into the gap in daylight. However, the Germans had pushed into Moyenneville and occupied the ridge behind, their machine guns enfilading the 15th/17th West Yorks and forcing the 13th Y\&L and 18th DLI to halt and dig in {{convert\|1000\|yd\|m}} short of the village. Instead of withdrawing, Lt\-Col S.C. Taylor of 15th/17th West Yorks organised a counter\-attack with his reserve, part moving north of Moyenneville and part against the ridge. The attack was entirely successful: the Germans were forced off the ridge and out of the village, and while retiring they were taken in flank by the party that had worked round to the north; numerous prisoners were captured. Sergeant [Albert Mountain](/wiki/Albert_Mountain "Albert Mountain") of 15th/17th West Yorks was awarded the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross") for his services on this occasion. However, the Germans attacked the village again at 12\.30 in greater strength and with artillery support. 15th/17th West Yorks fell back to the village edge. The battalion together with 13th Y\&L was ordered to launch a counter\-attack at 20\.30, but Taylor requested a delay so that the exhausted West Yorks could rest. Fresh orders were given for 13th Y\&L and 18th DLI to advance under cover of darkness and dig in as close to the village as possible. These orders arrived so late that dawn was breaking as the two battalions approached the village, and they fell back to their position of the previous morning. Meanwhile 15th/17th West Yorks reinforced by a company of 2nd [Irish Guards](/wiki/Irish_Guards "Irish Guards") clung on round the west of Moyenneville. From 11\.00 on 27 March the Germans 'dribbled' infantry forward to maintain a continuous attack against 31st Division. Fighting with grenade and bayonet went on for over 5 hours until 92nd Bde withdrew in the evening mist. 93rd Brigade conformed, and though both were under fire for the first {{convert\|500\|yd\|m}}the retirement was made in good order through [4th Guards Bde](/wiki/4th_%28Guards%29_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "4th (Guards) Brigade (United Kingdom)"). The 15th/17th West Yorks came out of action with a strength of just 4 officers and 40 men; the other two battalions went into the line alongside 4th Gds Bde, which was now well\-entrenched. Three final attacks by the Germans next day (28 March) were repelled from these trenches with heavy casualties. Although fighting continued, the main weight of the German offensive had switched to the Arras sector, and 31st Division could be relieved during the nights of 30/31 March and 31 March/1 April. Brigadier\-Gen Ingles had been evacuated sick on 27 March, and after a few days Lt\-Col Taylor of 15th/17th West Yorks was promoted to succeed him in command of 93rd Bde.Cooksey, pp. 267–8\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 253, 312, 315, 319, 324, 389, 443–5, 487–92, 528–9, Sketches 15–19\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=30733\|supp\=y\|page\=6776\|date\=4 June 1918 }}Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 37–8, 59–60, 97\. [thumb\|right\|Lewis Gun team of 31st Division near Merris, 12 April 1918\.](/wiki/File:The_German_Spring_Offensive%2C_March-july_1918_Q8689.jpg "The German Spring Offensive, March-july 1918 Q8689.jpg") 31st Division was then sent north to the quiet sector behind First Army where it went into reserve. It received large numbers of reinforcements, but these were mainly CategoryA4: under the age of 19 who would not previously have been eligible for active service. However, the rest was brief: the second phase of the he German offensive (the [Battles of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)")) was about to open against First Army. The bombardment opened on 7 April, and on 11 April the division was called forward in ex\-London buses to form a defensive line near [Estaires](/wiki/Estaires "Estaires") through which retreating British and [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_Expeditionary_Corps "Portuguese Expeditionary Corps") troops could withdraw. 93rd Brigade was ordered forward from its position at Outtersteene to support [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "40th Division (United Kingdom)"), but patrols brought back word that the enemy had penetrated 40th Division's thin line and were at La Becque. 93rd Brigade's orders were cancelled, and it was instead ordered to counter\-attack La Becque. Although the brigade was supported by one and a half companies of 31st MG Bn there was virtually no artillery available, so it was decided to dispense with any artillery preparation and deliver a surprise attack. Delivered at dusk (19\.00\) this was entirely successful, not only recapturing La Becque but regaining 40th Division's line and re\-establishing touch with the remainder of 40th Division on one flank and [74th Bde](/wiki/74th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "74th Brigade (United Kingdom)") on the other. 92nd Brigade, which had been forming a defensive flank, then swung back and relieved the remnant of 40th Division. 93rd Brigade then completed the line at 01\.30 next morning by bringing up its reserve (15th/17th West Yorks) to cover the junction with 74th Bde. Next day the adjacent formations were able to pivot back on the two firmly established brigades of 31st Division, while the Germans threw in all their reserves to try to take [Hazebrouck](/wiki/Hazebrouck "Hazebrouck"). However, between 07\.00 and 08\.00, the Germans penetrated between 92nd and 93rd Bdes and inflicted heavy casualties with enfilade fire. About 12\.00, after suffering considerable casualties, the brigades began a slow withdrawal from one hedge to the next. As they fell back towards [Merris](/wiki/Merris "Merris") a {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} gap opened up on their left flank. Luckily, [33rd Division](/wiki/33rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "33rd Division (United Kingdom)") was able to fill the gap, mainly with machine gunners, pioneers, engineers and cyclists. Next day (13 April) a mixed force covered Hazebrouck, with 93rd Bde in reserve at [Méteren](/wiki/M%C3%A9teren "Méteren"), apart from a composite battalion of 'details' (support troops such as transport) reinforcing 92nd Bde. Although weak, these troops covered the detrainment at Hazebrouck of [1st Australian Division](/wiki/1st_Australian_Division "1st Australian Division"), who took over the line and drove back the enemy attacks on 14 April.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 146, 196, 227–35, 267–8, 270–2, 287–91, 307, Sketches 19–21\. By now 31st was one of the weakest divisions in the BEF. On 16 April 92nd and 93rd Bdes were temporarily amalgamated as '92nd Composite Bde' under the command of Brig\-Gen O. de L. Williams of 92nd Bde:Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, p. 327\. * 92nd Composite Bn: [10th](/wiki/Hull_Pals "Hull Pals") and [11th East Yorkshire Regiment](/wiki/Hull_Pals "Hull Pals") * 93rd Composite Bn: 15th/17th West Yorks and 18th DLI * 94th Composite Bn: [11th East Lancashire Regiment](/wiki/Accrington_Pals "Accrington Pals") and 13th Y\&L However, the brigades and battalions resumed their separate identities on 18 April, before going back into the line alongside the Australians. 31st Division was scheduled to be reduced to a [cadre](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 "Cadre (military)") and its units broken up to provide reinforcements to others, but in the end this was not done and it remained in reserve. Over the following weeks it received reinforcements (though many were under 19\), and it began to take its turn holding the line, in front of the Forêt de Nieppe, facing La Becque farm.Bilton, pp. 235–40\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, p. 364\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 5, 25\. ### La Becque In May and June the brigades took turns out of the line training for offensive operations. 31st and [5th Divisions](/wiki/5th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Division (United Kingdom)") took part in Operation Borderland, a limited attack on La Becque and other fortified farms in front of the Forest of Nieppe on 28 June, in what was described as 'a model operation' for artillery cooperation. The forest screened the assembly of troops and material, and the artillery fired practice barrages each morning to mislead the enemy. 13th York \& Lancasters used the cover of the forest to seize Ankle Farm on the night of 26/27 June. Then on 28 June they and 18th DLI held the line while 15th/17th attacked on a frontage of one company. There was no preliminary bombardment, and the creeping barrage started at the same time as the infantry at 06\.00, then moved forward at a rate of {{convert\|100\|yd\|m}} every four minutes while the Australians fired a smoke barrage and raided the enemy. The creeping barrage was so good and the infantry followed it so closely that they were among the Germans before they could open fire. The German positions were taken with only light casualties and quickly consolidated, and there were no organised counter\-attacks.Bilton, pp. 240–44\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 195–7, Sketch 8\.Farndale, pp. 283–4\. Individual units continued to make small advances through aggressive patrolling and seizing strongpoints (so\-called 'peaceful penetration') and this accelerated when the Allies launched a coordinated offensive on 8 August. The division captured [Vieux\-Berquin](/wiki/Vieux-Berquin "Vieux-Berquin") on 13 August 1918 and pushed forward until running into serious opposition south of [Ploegsteert](/wiki/Ploegsteert "Ploegsteert") on 21 August, where fighting continued into September.Bilton, pp. 245–56\. ### Hundred Days Offensive Second Army carried out a formal attack on the morning of 28 September (the [Fifth Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Fifth_Battle_of_Ypres "Fifth Battle of Ypres")) and 31st Division was ordered to watch for opportunities and take advantage of enemy weakening. At 11\.00 92nd Bde with 18th DLI from 93rd Bde were ordered to make an attack at 15\.00\. Although there was no surprise and considerable enemy shelling of the back areas, the operation went well. The rest of 93rd Bde was then ordered to cross the Douve stream accompanied by artillery and engineers. With the onset of darkness and the congestion. of the roads, the advanced guard only reached the starting point at 21\.00, and the main body at 10\.30\. As it came over Hill63 the brigade came under heavy and accurate shellfire and had to open out. After a halt of about an hour, it resumed its advance and met no opposition for {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}}. It then met Germans rearguards at Ash Crater and its advance was slowed by machine gun fire, but after a little resistance in some [pillboxes](/wiki/Pillbox_%28military%29 "Pillbox (military)") the enemy withdrew methodically. In the darkness the leading battalion found itself advancing with German units about {{convert\|500\|yd\|m}} away on both flanks, marching in the same direction. The brigade was halted on the [Warneton](/wiki/Warneton%2C_Belgium "Warneton, Belgium")–[Comines](/wiki/Comines-Warneton "Comines-Warneton") road at about 05\.00 on 29 September. Its other battalion with 92nd Bde pushed on through [Ploegsteert Wood](/wiki/Ploegsteert_Wood "Ploegsteert Wood"). In the afternoon 31st Division was ordered to move up to the line of the [River Lys](/wiki/River_Lys "River Lys"), but 93rd Bde was judged to be too tired after its night march and the advance was carried out next day, almost unopposed. By the end of 2 October the division was along the Lys and preparing to bridge the river.Bilton, pp. 257–61\.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, pp. 59–60, 71–2, 82–3, 85, 89\. Patrols from 92nd Bde slipped across the Lys on a raft during the night of 14/15 October and established posts on the far bank. The division crossed behind them and continued the advance from 16 October, facing no opposition until the morning of 19 October, when 92nd and 93rd Bdes met slight resistance at [Toufflers](/wiki/Toufflers "Toufflers"). By the end of the day 93rd Bde was on the [Tournai](/wiki/Tournai "Tournai")–[Mouscron](/wiki/Mouscron "Mouscron") railway, with scouts well out in front, and in touch with [Fifth Army](/wiki/Fifth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Fifth Army (United Kingdom)") to the south. After some confusion, 93rd Bde set up a combined post with [176th Bde](/wiki/176th_%282/1st_Staffordshire%29_Brigade "176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade") of Fifth Army at Pecq on 21 October, then on 22 October the brigade advanced towards the [River Schelde](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt") while the rest of 31st Division was squeezed out between the two converging armies.Bilton, pp. 261–4\.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, pp. 278, 284, 288–90, 420, 427, Sketches 24, 32\. The division was back in the advance from 27 October, with 92nd and then 94th (Yeomanry) Bdes leading. It made an attack at [Tieghem](/wiki/Tiegem "Tiegem") on 31 October 1918 in which 94th (Y) Bde was so successful that the other brigades in reserve were not required. By now the enemy were back behind the Shelde and 31st Division was withdrawn into reserve.Bilton, p. 266\.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, pp. 444, 448–50, Sketch 33\. The division returned to the line on the night of 6/7 November. On 8 November Second Army issued orders for forcing a passage of the Schelde on 11 November. However, the Germans began to pull out on 8 November and by dawn British patrols had established posts across the river. Once the engineers had bridged the river, the pursuit began, with 92nd Bde leading for 31st Division. When the [Armistice with Germany](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany "Armistice with Germany") came into force on 11 November, scouts reported that there were no enemy in front.Bilton, pp. 267–72\.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, pp. 547–50\.
[ "New 93rd Brigade\n----------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|The first pattern of formation sign worn by 31st Division until 1917\\.Elderton \\& Gibbs, pp. 34, 47\\.](/wiki/File:31st_Division_sign_%281%29_WW1.svg \"31st Division sign (1) WW1.svg\")\nMeanwhile, the K5 units had been forming since late 1914\\. These were largely raised by local initiative rather than at regimental depots, and were known as '[Pals battalions](/wiki/Pals_battalions \"Pals battalions\")'. The first six K5 divisions (37–42\\) and their constituent brigades were given the numbers of the disbanded K4 formations on 27 April 1915\\. Thus 114th Brigade of 38th Division became the new 93rd Brigade in [31st Division](/wiki/31st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"31st Division (United Kingdom)\"):Becke, Pt 3b, Appendix 2\\.Becke, Pt 3b, pp. 11–9\\.[31st Division at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/order-of-battle-of-divisions/31st-division/)James, p. 58\\.James, p. 101\\.[West Yorkshire Regiment at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/regiments-and-corps/the-british-infantry-regiments-of-1914-1918/the-prince-of-waless-own-west-yorkshire-regiment/)[Durham Light Infantry at Long, Long Trail.](http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/army/regiments-and-corps/the-british-infantry-regiments-of-1914-1918/durham-light-infantry/)War Office Instruction No 56 of September 1915, Appendix IX.\n* [15th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Leeds)](/wiki/15th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%281st_Leeds%29 \"15th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Leeds)\") – raised by the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Leeds \"List of mayors of Leeds\") and [City of Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") 8 September 1914\n* [16th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Bradford)](/wiki/16th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%281st_Bradford%29 \"16th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (1st Bradford)\") – raised by the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Bradford \"List of mayors of Bradford\") and [City of Bradford](/wiki/Bradford \"Bradford\") 13 September 1914\n* [18th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (2nd Bradford)](/wiki/18th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_West_Yorkshire_Regiment_%282nd_Bradford%29 \"18th (Service) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (2nd Bradford)\") – raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Bradford 22 January 1915\n* [18th (Service) Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1st County)](/wiki/18th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_Durham_Light_Infantry_%281st_County%29 \"18th (Service) Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1st County)\") – raised at [Durham](/wiki/Durham%2C_England \"Durham, England\") by [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Colonel (United Kingdom)\") [Rowland Burdon](/wiki/Rowland_Burdon_%28Sedgefield_MP%29 \"Rowland Burdon (Sedgefield MP)\"), 10 September 1914", "At first the men lived at home and training was carried out at their home towns, hampered by an almost total lack of instructors and equipment. The 'Durham Pals' (18th DLI) were unusual in that the [Earl of Durham](/wiki/John_Lambton%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Durham \"John Lambton, 3rd Earl of Durham\") placed Cockpen Hall at the battalion's disposal for training. On 16 November this battalion was ordered to send two companies to [Hartlepool](/wiki/Hartlepool \"Hartlepool\") to assist in coast defence. They were manning trenches a month later when German warships carried out a [Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby](/wiki/Raid_on_Scarborough%2C_Hartlepool_and_Whitby \"Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby\"), and suffered casualties of 6 killed and 10 wounded – the first Kitchener battalion to come under enemy fire.", "The division concentrated at South Camp, [Ripon](/wiki/Ripon \"Ripon\"), in May 1915, soon after it was renumbered. In September it moved to [Fovant](/wiki/Fovant \"Fovant\") where it carried out final intensive battle training on [Salisbury Plain](/wiki/Salisbury_Plain \"Salisbury Plain\"). On 29 November 1915 the division received warning orders to join the [British Expeditionary Force](/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_%28World_War_I%29 \"British Expeditionary Force (World War I)\") in France, and advance parties set out for the embarkation ports of [Folkestone](/wiki/Folkestone \"Folkestone\") and [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"). At the last minute, the destination was changed to [Egypt](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt \"Sultanate of Egypt\"), the advance parties were recalled, and on 7 December the troops embarked at [Devonport](/wiki/HMNB_Devonport \"HMNB Devonport\").", "The division reached [Port Said](/wiki/Port_Said \"Port Said\") between 24 December and 23 January 1916 and went into the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") defences at [Qantara](/wiki/El_Qantara%2C_Egypt \"El Qantara, Egypt\"). On 26 February orders arrived to reverse the process and on 1 March the division began re\\-embarking at Port Said. It unloaded at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\") between 6 and 16 March and then concentrated in the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_river \"Somme river\") area as part of the BEF. It remained on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") for the rest of the war.", "Soon after its arrival in France 93rd Brigade was joined by its support troops:\n* 93rd Trench Mortar Battery (TMB) – formed as 93/1 and 93/2 TMBs on 12 April, and combined into a single battery by 12 June\n* 93rd Brigade Machine Gun (MG) Company – formed at [Grantham](/wiki/Grantham \"Grantham\"), disembarked at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\") on 17 May and joined on 20 May", "### First day of the Somme", "31st Division was part of the concentration of troops in the Somme sector for that summer's 'Big Push' the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\"). Despite all the preparation and high hopes, the [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme \"First day on the Somme\") (1 July) was a disaster for 31st Division. Its task was to take the village of [Serre](/wiki/Serre-l%C3%A8s-Puisieux \"Serre-lès-Puisieux\") and form a defensive flank for the rest of [Fourth Army](/wiki/Fourth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Fourth Army (United Kingdom)\"). 93rd Brigade was to attack up a re\\-entrant with 15th West Yorks leading, while 16th West Yorks and D Company of 18th DLI attacked Pendant Copse on the right. The troops left their trenches at 07\\.20 when the nearby [Hawthorn Ridge mine](/wiki/Hawthorn_Ridge_Redoubt \"Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt\") was exploded, 10 minutes before Zero. Thus alerted, the enemy put down a heavy artillery [barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29 \"Barrage (artillery)\") on the British line and their machine gun. teams came out of their dugouts. When the leading waves set off at 07\\.30, they were almost annihilated by German fire: 15th West Yorks lost nearly all their officers. The survivors of 15th West Yorks were pinned down in [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land \"No man's land\"), while 16th West Yorks suffered heavily as they advanced from the support line, even before they crossed the front line. Nevertheless, some of the DLI got into Pendant Copse. 18th West Yorks in support was unable to make any headway across the fire\\-swept No man's land, and the rest of 18th DLI in reserve was kept back. About 09\\.00 the enemy opposite 93rd Bde appeared to be concentrating for a counter\\-attack on the chaotic British jumping\\-off trenches, and disregarding divisional orders Brig\\-Gen Ingles brought back the artillery barrage to disperse them. Most of the divisional pioneer battalion, the 12th [King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry](/wiki/King%27s_Own_Yorkshire_Light_Infantry \"King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry\") (Leeds Miners), was brought up to support 93rd Bde. By noon the sector was quiet apart from occasional shelling and sniping at the men pinned down in No man's land; those Germans in front of 93rd Bde came out to clear the 15th West Yorks from their [barbed wire](/wiki/Wire_obstacle \"Wire obstacle\"). Although a fresh attack was ordered for the afternoon, the divisional commander and commanders of 93rd and [94th Bdes](/wiki/94th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"94th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") concluded that neither brigade was fit for any further offensive operation. 93rd Brigades's losses had been 598 killed, 1197 wounded and 28 missing, the 15th West Yorks alone losing 528\\. The men in No man's land slipped back after dark. Next day, as stretcher\\-bearers worked to remove casualties from No man's land, 18th DLI held the front line. The shattered division was then pulled out and sent north to a quiet sector for rest and refit.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 441–4, 448–51, Sketch 23\\.Bilton, pp. 133–6\\.Horsfall \\& Cave, pp. 53–68, 74\\.Middlebrook, pp. 113, 122–31, 137–8, 150–1, 161–2, 195–7, 216–20, 236–41, Appendix 5\\.", "### Ancre", "The Somme Offensive was still going on at the end of October when 31st Division returned to the sector for the [Battle of the Ancre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ancre \"Battle of the Ancre\"), which was to be the last big operation of the year. The division made another attempt to capture Serre on 13 November, but 93rd Bde was still not fit for active operations. Apart from its MG company, which supported the attack, its role was restricted to standing by to release a smokescreen, but in the event the wind was unfavourable for this.Horsfall \\& Cave, p. 77\\.Miles, *1916*, Vol II, p. 500\\.", "In late February 1917 the Germans began a withdrawal to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line \"Hindenburg Line\") ([Operation Alberich](/wiki/Operation_Alberich \"Operation Alberich\")). They disappeared from the Ancre Front on 24 February and 31st Division was ordered to send out strong patrols next day to regain touch with them. On 26 February the division made the biggest advance in the sector, but next day 93rd Bde was checked at [Rossignol Wood](/wiki/Rossignol_Wood \"Rossignol Wood\"). When 16th West Yorks attacked the wood it was held up, those troops who reached the wood being shot down by [enfilade](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade \"Enfilade and defilade\") machine gun fire. However, a two\\-man patrol from 18th DLI passed through Gommecourt Park (scene of bitter fighting on 1 July 1916\\) and found [Gommecourt village](/wiki/Gommecourt%2C_Pas-de-Calais \"Gommecourt, Pas-de-Calais\") entirely unoccupied; 93rd Bde handed this over to the neighbouring division. The division completed the capture of Rossignol Wood on 3–4 March.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 96, 100–2, 104\\.", "[thumb\\|*Oppy Wood, 1917\\. Evening* by [John Nash](/wiki/John_Nash_%28artist%29 \"John Nash (artist)\")](/wiki/File:Nash-Oppy_Wood.jpg \"Nash-Oppy Wood.jpg\")\n### Oppy Wood", "[250px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Oppy Wood from the air](/wiki/File:Photography_Q28787.jpg \"Photography Q28787.jpg\")\nOn 8 April 1917, the division left the Ancre and moved to the [Arras](/wiki/Arras \"Arras\") sector for the [Arras Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\"). After a period of training and trench\\-holding, it moved into assembly trenches opposite [Oppy](/wiki/Oppy%2C_Pas-de-Calais \"Oppy, Pas-de-Calais\") during the night of 2/3 May, under shellfire. The British [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29 \"Barrage (artillery)\") started at 03\\.45 and the 92nd and 93rd Brigades set off, in the dark and mist, into severe machine gun fire from Oppy Wood. 15th, 18th and 16th West Yorks (right to left) made good progress at first, some companies reaching their final objective. However, 92nd Bde on their left met with disaster and strong counter\\-attacks from this flank drove the three battalions back. The enemy even captured [Gavrelle](/wiki/Gavrelle \"Gavrelle\") Windmill within the British lines, but were driven out by a skilful counter\\-attack by a company of 18th DLI. The Arras offensive petered out during May, but 18th DLI made a night attack from Gavrelle on 17/18 May. Advancing up the Douai road, the battalion failed to capture the enemy's frontline trench. (The [Capture of Oppy Wood](/wiki/Capture_of_Oppy_Wood \"Capture of Oppy Wood\") was not completed until 28 June, when 94th Bde took part in the operation.)Bilton, pp. 178–91\\.Edmonds, *1917*, Vol II, pp. 113–4\\.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 446–7, 522\\.\n[250px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Oppy under shellfire, May 1917\\.](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-051-22%2C_Frankreich%2C_Oppy%2C_Zerst%C3%B6rungen.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1974-051-22, Frankreich, Oppy, Zerstörungen.jpg\")\n31st Division was not committed to the Third Ypres Offensive, which culminated in the dreadful [Battle of Passchendaele](/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele \"Battle of Passchendaele\"), possibly because it was not considered to have recovered from its ordeal on the Somme a year before.John Lee, 'The British Divisions at Third Ypres', p. 226, in Liddle, *Passchendaele in Perspective*.", "### Reorganisation", "By the end of 1917 the BEF was suffering a severe manpower crisis. On 7 December the 1st Leeds Pals amalgamated with the 17th West Yorkshires (2nd Leeds) (a former '[Bantam battalion](/wiki/Bantam_battalion \"Bantam battalion\")') from [35th Division](/wiki/35th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"35th Division (United Kingdom)\"). Then in February 1918 all brigades were reorganised on a three\\-battalion basis, with the surplus men being drafted to bring other units up to strength. 31st Division underwent a major reorganisation, which resulted in the two Bradford Pals battalions being disbanded. 15th/17th West Yorks received a draft of 3 officers and 132 other ranks from the 16th Bn, the remainder going to No 3 Entrenching Bn, while 18th Bn was split among nine West York battalions and No 3 Entrenching Bn. They were replaced in 93rd Bde by the 1st Barnsley Pals from the disbanded 94th Bde (including a draft of 15 officers and 300 other ranks from the disbanded [Sheffield City Battalion](/wiki/Sheffield_City_Battalion \"Sheffield City Battalion\")). The brigade MG companies were also concentrated into a divisional MG battalion. 93rd Brigade had the following organisation for the remainder of the war:Cooksey, p. 266\\.\n* 15th/17th West Yorkshires (Leeds)\n* [13th York \\& Lancaster Regiment (1st Barnsley)](/wiki/13th_%28Service%29_Battalion%2C_York_and_Lancaster_Regiment_%281st_Barnsley%29 \"13th (Service) Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment (1st Barnsley)\")\n* 18th Durham Light Infantry (1st County)\n* 93rd TMB", "### Spring offensive", "When the [German spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive \"German spring offensive\") opened on 21 March 1918, 31st Division was in [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"First Army (United Kingdom)\") Reserve and was immediately sent to [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Third Army (United Kingdom)\"). On the night of 22/23 March it reinforced [VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"VI Corps (United Kingdom)\") and 93rd Bde went up to [Boiry\\-Saint\\-Martin](/wiki/Boiry-Saint-Martin \"Boiry-Saint-Martin\"), south of Arras, where it carried out a partial relief of [34th Division](/wiki/34th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"34th Division (United Kingdom)\"). 34th Division had been forced back to the rear of its Battle Zone, but there was little activity on 23 March. Only two minor attacks were made on the extreme left in the morning and afternoon, and both were repulsed by 13th York \\& Lancasters (Y\\&L). Heavier fighting had been going on further south round [Mory](/wiki/Mory%2C_Pas-de-Calais \"Mory, Pas-de-Calais\"), and during the night of 23/24 March 93rd Bde sideslipped about {{convert\\|1000\\|yd\\|m}} in that direction, taking up position in a 'switch' line north of the [River Sensée](/wiki/Sens%C3%A9e \"Sensée\"). Here it was strongly attacked from about 07\\.00 to 12\\.00, though the Germans were enfiladed by the [Guards Division](/wiki/Guards_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Guards Division (United Kingdom)\") to the north and were unable to make any progress. Another fierce attack came in. at 15\\.00, but this also broke down, although the rest of 31st Division further south was broken up into groups trying to form a defensive flank. Pressure continued in the south during 25 March, but an attack on 93rd Bde about 13\\.00 was broken up by artillery and no Germans got near the line. However, the German breakthrough to the south forced VI Corps to wheel 31st Division back to a new switch line that night. At daybreak on 26 March it was discovered that a {{convert\\|1500\\|yd\\|m}} gap had opened up between 31st and Guards Divisions: 13th Y\\&L and 18th DLI of 93rd Bde, which should have occupied the space, had been ordered to fall back by a staff officer disorientated by the effects of a near\\-miss by a shell. The two missing battalions had gone back a further {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}} to the Purple Line, and [Moyenneville](/wiki/Moyenneville%2C_Pas-de-Calais \"Moyenneville, Pas-de-Calais\") was left undefended. The Guards extended its right to cover part of the gap, and 15th/17th West Yorkshires held the left of 31st Division while the two battalions were recalled. Preceded by a reconnaissance party the two battalions tried to advance into the gap in daylight. However, the Germans had pushed into Moyenneville and occupied the ridge behind, their machine guns enfilading the 15th/17th West Yorks and forcing the 13th Y\\&L and 18th DLI to halt and dig in {{convert\\|1000\\|yd\\|m}} short of the village. Instead of withdrawing, Lt\\-Col S.C. Taylor of 15th/17th West Yorks organised a counter\\-attack with his reserve, part moving north of Moyenneville and part against the ridge. The attack was entirely successful: the Germans were forced off the ridge and out of the village, and while retiring they were taken in flank by the party that had worked round to the north; numerous prisoners were captured. Sergeant [Albert Mountain](/wiki/Albert_Mountain \"Albert Mountain\") of 15th/17th West Yorks was awarded the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") for his services on this occasion. However, the Germans attacked the village again at 12\\.30 in greater strength and with artillery support. 15th/17th West Yorks fell back to the village edge. The battalion together with 13th Y\\&L was ordered to launch a counter\\-attack at 20\\.30, but Taylor requested a delay so that the exhausted West Yorks could rest. Fresh orders were given for 13th Y\\&L and 18th DLI to advance under cover of darkness and dig in as close to the village as possible. These orders arrived so late that dawn was breaking as the two battalions approached the village, and they fell back to their position of the previous morning. Meanwhile 15th/17th West Yorks reinforced by a company of 2nd [Irish Guards](/wiki/Irish_Guards \"Irish Guards\") clung on round the west of Moyenneville. From 11\\.00 on 27 March the Germans 'dribbled' infantry forward to maintain a continuous attack against 31st Division. Fighting with grenade and bayonet went on for over 5 hours until 92nd Bde withdrew in the evening mist. 93rd Brigade conformed, and though both were under fire for the first {{convert\\|500\\|yd\\|m}}the retirement was made in good order through [4th Guards Bde](/wiki/4th_%28Guards%29_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"4th (Guards) Brigade (United Kingdom)\"). The 15th/17th West Yorks came out of action with a strength of just 4 officers and 40 men; the other two battalions went into the line alongside 4th Gds Bde, which was now well\\-entrenched. Three final attacks by the Germans next day (28 March) were repelled from these trenches with heavy casualties. Although fighting continued, the main weight of the German offensive had switched to the Arras sector, and 31st Division could be relieved during the nights of 30/31 March and 31 March/1 April. Brigadier\\-Gen Ingles had been evacuated sick on 27 March, and after a few days Lt\\-Col Taylor of 15th/17th West Yorks was promoted to succeed him in command of 93rd Bde.Cooksey, pp. 267–8\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 253, 312, 315, 319, 324, 389, 443–5, 487–92, 528–9, Sketches 15–19\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=30733\\|supp\\=y\\|page\\=6776\\|date\\=4 June 1918 }}Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 37–8, 59–60, 97\\.\n[thumb\\|right\\|Lewis Gun team of 31st Division near Merris, 12 April 1918\\.](/wiki/File:The_German_Spring_Offensive%2C_March-july_1918_Q8689.jpg \"The German Spring Offensive, March-july 1918 Q8689.jpg\")\n31st Division was then sent north to the quiet sector behind First Army where it went into reserve. It received large numbers of reinforcements, but these were mainly CategoryA4: under the age of 19 who would not previously have been eligible for active service. However, the rest was brief: the second phase of the he German offensive (the [Battles of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)\")) was about to open against First Army. The bombardment opened on 7 April, and on 11 April the division was called forward in ex\\-London buses to form a defensive line near [Estaires](/wiki/Estaires \"Estaires\") through which retreating British and [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_Expeditionary_Corps \"Portuguese Expeditionary Corps\") troops could withdraw. 93rd Brigade was ordered forward from its position at Outtersteene to support [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"40th Division (United Kingdom)\"), but patrols brought back word that the enemy had penetrated 40th Division's thin line and were at La Becque. 93rd Brigade's orders were cancelled, and it was instead ordered to counter\\-attack La Becque. Although the brigade was supported by one and a half companies of 31st MG Bn there was virtually no artillery available, so it was decided to dispense with any artillery preparation and deliver a surprise attack. Delivered at dusk (19\\.00\\) this was entirely successful, not only recapturing La Becque but regaining 40th Division's line and re\\-establishing touch with the remainder of 40th Division on one flank and [74th Bde](/wiki/74th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"74th Brigade (United Kingdom)\") on the other. 92nd Brigade, which had been forming a defensive flank, then swung back and relieved the remnant of 40th Division. 93rd Brigade then completed the line at 01\\.30 next morning by bringing up its reserve (15th/17th West Yorks) to cover the junction with 74th Bde. Next day the adjacent formations were able to pivot back on the two firmly established brigades of 31st Division, while the Germans threw in all their reserves to try to take [Hazebrouck](/wiki/Hazebrouck \"Hazebrouck\"). However, between 07\\.00 and 08\\.00, the Germans penetrated between 92nd and 93rd Bdes and inflicted heavy casualties with enfilade fire. About 12\\.00, after suffering considerable casualties, the brigades began a slow withdrawal from one hedge to the next. As they fell back towards [Merris](/wiki/Merris \"Merris\") a {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} gap opened up on their left flank. Luckily, [33rd Division](/wiki/33rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"33rd Division (United Kingdom)\") was able to fill the gap, mainly with machine gunners, pioneers, engineers and cyclists. Next day (13 April) a mixed force covered Hazebrouck, with 93rd Bde in reserve at [Méteren](/wiki/M%C3%A9teren \"Méteren\"), apart from a composite battalion of 'details' (support troops such as transport) reinforcing 92nd Bde. Although weak, these troops covered the detrainment at Hazebrouck of [1st Australian Division](/wiki/1st_Australian_Division \"1st Australian Division\"), who took over the line and drove back the enemy attacks on 14 April.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 146, 196, 227–35, 267–8, 270–2, 287–91, 307, Sketches 19–21\\.", "By now 31st was one of the weakest divisions in the BEF. On 16 April 92nd and 93rd Bdes were temporarily amalgamated as '92nd Composite Bde' under the command of Brig\\-Gen O. de L. Williams of 92nd Bde:Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, p. 327\\.\n* 92nd Composite Bn: [10th](/wiki/Hull_Pals \"Hull Pals\") and [11th East Yorkshire Regiment](/wiki/Hull_Pals \"Hull Pals\")\n* 93rd Composite Bn: 15th/17th West Yorks and 18th DLI\n* 94th Composite Bn: [11th East Lancashire Regiment](/wiki/Accrington_Pals \"Accrington Pals\") and 13th Y\\&L", "However, the brigades and battalions resumed their separate identities on 18 April, before going back into the line alongside the Australians. 31st Division was scheduled to be reduced to a [cadre](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 \"Cadre (military)\") and its units broken up to provide reinforcements to others, but in the end this was not done and it remained in reserve. Over the following weeks it received reinforcements (though many were under 19\\), and it began to take its turn holding the line, in front of the Forêt de Nieppe, facing La Becque farm.Bilton, pp. 235–40\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, p. 364\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 5, 25\\.", "### La Becque", "In May and June the brigades took turns out of the line training for offensive operations. 31st and [5th Divisions](/wiki/5th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Division (United Kingdom)\") took part in Operation Borderland, a limited attack on La Becque and other fortified farms in front of the Forest of Nieppe on 28 June, in what was described as 'a model operation' for artillery cooperation. The forest screened the assembly of troops and material, and the artillery fired practice barrages each morning to mislead the enemy. 13th York \\& Lancasters used the cover of the forest to seize Ankle Farm on the night of 26/27 June. Then on 28 June they and 18th DLI held the line while 15th/17th attacked on a frontage of one company. There was no preliminary bombardment, and the creeping barrage started at the same time as the infantry at 06\\.00, then moved forward at a rate of {{convert\\|100\\|yd\\|m}} every four minutes while the Australians fired a smoke barrage and raided the enemy. The creeping barrage was so good and the infantry followed it so closely that they were among the Germans before they could open fire. The German positions were taken with only light casualties and quickly consolidated, and there were no organised counter\\-attacks.Bilton, pp. 240–44\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 195–7, Sketch 8\\.Farndale, pp. 283–4\\.", "Individual units continued to make small advances through aggressive patrolling and seizing strongpoints (so\\-called 'peaceful penetration') and this accelerated when the Allies launched a coordinated offensive on 8 August. The division captured [Vieux\\-Berquin](/wiki/Vieux-Berquin \"Vieux-Berquin\") on 13 August 1918 and pushed forward until running into serious opposition south of [Ploegsteert](/wiki/Ploegsteert \"Ploegsteert\") on 21 August, where fighting continued into September.Bilton, pp. 245–56\\.", "### Hundred Days Offensive", "Second Army carried out a formal attack on the morning of 28 September (the [Fifth Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Fifth_Battle_of_Ypres \"Fifth Battle of Ypres\")) and 31st Division was ordered to watch for opportunities and take advantage of enemy weakening. At 11\\.00 92nd Bde with 18th DLI from 93rd Bde were ordered to make an attack at 15\\.00\\. Although there was no surprise and considerable enemy shelling of the back areas, the operation went well. The rest of 93rd Bde was then ordered to cross the Douve stream accompanied by artillery and engineers. With the onset of darkness and the congestion. of the roads, the advanced guard only reached the starting point at 21\\.00, and the main body at 10\\.30\\. As it came over Hill63 the brigade came under heavy and accurate shellfire and had to open out. After a halt of about an hour, it resumed its advance and met no opposition for {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}}. It then met Germans rearguards at Ash Crater and its advance was slowed by machine gun fire, but after a little resistance in some [pillboxes](/wiki/Pillbox_%28military%29 \"Pillbox (military)\") the enemy withdrew methodically. In the darkness the leading battalion found itself advancing with German units about {{convert\\|500\\|yd\\|m}} away on both flanks, marching in the same direction. The brigade was halted on the [Warneton](/wiki/Warneton%2C_Belgium \"Warneton, Belgium\")–[Comines](/wiki/Comines-Warneton \"Comines-Warneton\") road at about 05\\.00 on 29 September. Its other battalion with 92nd Bde pushed on through [Ploegsteert Wood](/wiki/Ploegsteert_Wood \"Ploegsteert Wood\"). In the afternoon 31st Division was ordered to move up to the line of the [River Lys](/wiki/River_Lys \"River Lys\"), but 93rd Bde was judged to be too tired after its night march and the advance was carried out next day, almost unopposed. By the end of 2 October the division was along the Lys and preparing to bridge the river.Bilton, pp. 257–61\\.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, pp. 59–60, 71–2, 82–3, 85, 89\\.", "Patrols from 92nd Bde slipped across the Lys on a raft during the night of 14/15 October and established posts on the far bank. The division crossed behind them and continued the advance from 16 October, facing no opposition until the morning of 19 October, when 92nd and 93rd Bdes met slight resistance at [Toufflers](/wiki/Toufflers \"Toufflers\"). By the end of the day 93rd Bde was on the [Tournai](/wiki/Tournai \"Tournai\")–[Mouscron](/wiki/Mouscron \"Mouscron\") railway, with scouts well out in front, and in touch with [Fifth Army](/wiki/Fifth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Fifth Army (United Kingdom)\") to the south. After some confusion, 93rd Bde set up a combined post with [176th Bde](/wiki/176th_%282/1st_Staffordshire%29_Brigade \"176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade\") of Fifth Army at Pecq on 21 October, then on 22 October the brigade advanced towards the [River Schelde](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\") while the rest of 31st Division was squeezed out between the two converging armies.Bilton, pp. 261–4\\.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, pp. 278, 284, 288–90, 420, 427, Sketches 24, 32\\.", "The division was back in the advance from 27 October, with 92nd and then 94th (Yeomanry) Bdes leading. It made an attack at [Tieghem](/wiki/Tiegem \"Tiegem\") on 31 October 1918 in which 94th (Y) Bde was so successful that the other brigades in reserve were not required. By now the enemy were back behind the Shelde and 31st Division was withdrawn into reserve.Bilton, p. 266\\.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, pp. 444, 448–50, Sketch 33\\.", "The division returned to the line on the night of 6/7 November. On 8 November Second Army issued orders for forcing a passage of the Schelde on 11 November. However, the Germans began to pull out on 8 November and by dawn British patrols had established posts across the river. Once the engineers had bridged the river, the pursuit began, with 92nd Bde leading for 31st Division. When the [Armistice with Germany](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany \"Armistice with Germany\") came into force on 11 November, scouts reported that there were no enemy in front.Bilton, pp. 267–72\\.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, pp. 547–50\\.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- Lacey has been a member of Dublin City Council since 1993 \- first representing the South East Inner City area and, since the [1999 local elections](/wiki/1999_Irish_local_elections "1999 Irish local elections"), the Pembroke area and the Rathmines Pembroke area. In 2014 he was elected for the Pembroke South Dock area. He has thus represented at one stage or another the entire Dublin South East Constituency and most of Dublin Bay South. He topped the poll in the [2004 local elections](/wiki/2004_Irish_local_elections "2004 Irish local elections"). He first joined the Labour Party in 1977 and has served as a Branch Officer and Constituency Officer for much of that time. He was a member of the National Youth Committee of [Labour Youth](/wiki/Labour_Youth "Labour Youth") and employed as the National Youth Development Officer for a period of ten years. He was [Dublin South\-East](/wiki/Dublin_South-East_%28D%C3%A1il_constituency%29 "Dublin South-East (Dáil constituency)") Director of Elections for various referendums and for [Ruairi Quinn](/wiki/Ruairi_Quinn "Ruairi Quinn")'s [Dáil](/wiki/D%C3%A1il "Dáil") campaign in the [2002 general election](/wiki/2002_Irish_general_election "2002 Irish general election"). On the City Council, Lacey has been: Chairperson of the South East Area Committee, the Enterprise and Employment Committee and the Strategic Policy Committees on Arts, Culture Leisure and Youth, the Finance Committee, the Housing Committee and is presently Chairperson of the Protocol Committee. He also served as [Cathaoirleach](/wiki/Cathaoirleach "Cathaoirleach") of the [Dublin Regional Authority](/wiki/Dublin_Regional_Authority "Dublin Regional Authority"), the Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly and the new Eastern and Midlands Regional Assembly. He is the only person to have held all three Regional posts. From July 2002 to July 2003, he served as [Lord Mayor of Dublin](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Dublin "Lord Mayor of Dublin").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dublincity.ie/sites/default/files/2020\-09/lord\-mayors\-of\-dublin\-1665\-2021\.pdf\|title\=Lord Mayors of Dublin 1665–2020 \|work\=Dublin City Council\|date\=June 2020\|access\-date\=18 November 2023}} In the most controversial period of his officeholding, he cast the deciding vote at City Council to pass the 2003 budget, which included increases to domestic waste charges. This came after several meetings had failed to pass any budget, and the Minister for the Environment \& Local Government had threatened to disband the City Council. After the vote, Lacey was expelled from the Labour Party Group on Dublin City Council, and spent the remainder of his term until the 2004 Local Elections as an Independent Councillor. However, he remained a member of the Labour Party, and, when his term as Lord Mayor expired, returned to his previous job as a member of Labour Party staff. He contested the 2004 Local Elections as a Labour Party candidate in the Pembroke area, topping the poll on the first count, and rejoined the Labour Party Group on the City Council at its first meeting following that election. He was re\-elected along with two other Labour Councillors for the Pembroke Rathmines area in 2009\. He was re\-elected for the Pembroke South Dock area in 2014 and for the Pembroke area in 2019\. At the [2024 local elections](/wiki/2024_Irish_local_elections "2024 Irish local elections") he was again elected to represent the Pembroke area. In 2011 he published "A Fair City \- One Dublin Many Dubliners" which outlined a governance model for Dublin. In April 2012 he was elected Leader of the Labour Group on Dublin City Council and in September he was elected Cathaoirleach of the Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly. He was one of Dublin's highest paid public representatives in 2012/2013\.{{cite web \|last1\=Byrne \|first1\=Luke \|title\=Ten councillors share in €1m payment pot over two years \|url\=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/herald/news/ten\-councillors\-share\-in\-1m\-payment\-pot\-over\-two\-years\-30248546\.html \|website\=Independent.ie \|access\-date\=12 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812231945/https://www.independent.ie/regionals/herald/news/ten\-councillors\-share\-in\-1m\-payment\-pot\-over\-two\-years\-30248546\.html \|archive\-date\=12 August 2021 \|date\=6 May 2014 \|url\-status\=live}} In 2014 he went on the record to criticise pay rises for certain rural councillors, saying urban councillors like him deserved expense increases also.{{cite web \|last1\=Fitzgerald \|first1\=Cormac \|title\=Councillors across the country are getting a pay rise (except for ones in Dublin, Cork and Galway) \|url\=https://www.thejournal.ie/councillors\-pay\-rise\-2\-3201945\-Jan2017/ \|website\=TheJournal.ie \|access\-date\=12 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424023850/https://www.thejournal.ie/councillors\-pay\-rise\-2\-3201945\-Jan2017/ \|archive\-date\=24 April 2021 \|date\=24 January 2017 \|url\-status\=live}} In December 2015, following an RTÉ Primetime Investigates programme, he said that many of the expense forms which councillors must complete are too complicated and should be simplified and streamlined.{{cite web \|title\=RTE Investigations \- Standards in Public Office \- Monday 7th Dec 2015 \|url\=https://www.politics.ie/threads/rte\-investigations\-standards\-in\-public\-office\-monday\-7th\-dec\-2015\.243628/page\-29 \|website\=Politics.ie \|date\=3 December 2015 \|access\-date\=12 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812232822/https://politics.ie/threads/rte\-investigations\-standards\-in\-public\-office\-monday\-7th\-dec\-2015\.243628/page\-29 \|archive\-date\=12 August 2021 \|url\-status\=live}}{{Unreliable source?\|date\=August 2021}}
[ "Political career\n----------------", "Lacey has been a member of Dublin City Council since 1993 \\- first representing the South East Inner City area and, since the [1999 local elections](/wiki/1999_Irish_local_elections \"1999 Irish local elections\"), the Pembroke area and the Rathmines Pembroke area. In 2014 he was elected for the Pembroke South Dock area. He has thus represented at one stage or another the entire Dublin South East Constituency and most of Dublin Bay South. He topped the poll in the [2004 local elections](/wiki/2004_Irish_local_elections \"2004 Irish local elections\"). He first joined the Labour Party in 1977 and has served as a Branch Officer and Constituency Officer for much of that time.", "He was a member of the National Youth Committee of [Labour Youth](/wiki/Labour_Youth \"Labour Youth\") and employed as the National Youth Development Officer for a period of ten years. He was [Dublin South\\-East](/wiki/Dublin_South-East_%28D%C3%A1il_constituency%29 \"Dublin South-East (Dáil constituency)\") Director of Elections for various referendums and for [Ruairi Quinn](/wiki/Ruairi_Quinn \"Ruairi Quinn\")'s [Dáil](/wiki/D%C3%A1il \"Dáil\") campaign in the [2002 general election](/wiki/2002_Irish_general_election \"2002 Irish general election\").", "On the City Council, Lacey has been: Chairperson of the South East Area Committee, the Enterprise and Employment Committee and the Strategic Policy Committees on Arts, Culture Leisure and Youth, the Finance Committee, the Housing Committee and is presently Chairperson of the Protocol Committee. He also served as [Cathaoirleach](/wiki/Cathaoirleach \"Cathaoirleach\") of the [Dublin Regional Authority](/wiki/Dublin_Regional_Authority \"Dublin Regional Authority\"), the Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly and the new Eastern and Midlands Regional Assembly. He is the only person to have held all three Regional posts.", "From July 2002 to July 2003, he served as [Lord Mayor of Dublin](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Dublin \"Lord Mayor of Dublin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dublincity.ie/sites/default/files/2020\\-09/lord\\-mayors\\-of\\-dublin\\-1665\\-2021\\.pdf\\|title\\=Lord Mayors of Dublin 1665–2020 \\|work\\=Dublin City Council\\|date\\=June 2020\\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2023}} In the most controversial period of his officeholding, he cast the deciding vote at City Council to pass the 2003 budget, which included increases to domestic waste charges. This came after several meetings had failed to pass any budget, and the Minister for the Environment \\& Local Government had threatened to disband the City Council. After the vote, Lacey was expelled from the Labour Party Group on Dublin City Council, and spent the remainder of his term until the 2004 Local Elections as an Independent Councillor. However, he remained a member of the Labour Party, and, when his term as Lord Mayor expired, returned to his previous job as a member of Labour Party staff.", "He contested the 2004 Local Elections as a Labour Party candidate in the Pembroke area, topping the poll on the first count, and rejoined the Labour Party Group on the City Council at its first meeting following that election. He was re\\-elected along with two other Labour Councillors for the Pembroke Rathmines area in 2009\\. He was re\\-elected for the Pembroke South Dock area in 2014 and for the Pembroke area in 2019\\. At the [2024 local elections](/wiki/2024_Irish_local_elections \"2024 Irish local elections\") he was again elected to represent the Pembroke area.", "In 2011 he published \"A Fair City \\- One Dublin Many Dubliners\" which outlined a governance model for Dublin.", "In April 2012 he was elected Leader of the Labour Group on Dublin City Council and in September he was elected Cathaoirleach of the Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly. He was one of Dublin's highest paid public representatives in 2012/2013\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Byrne \\|first1\\=Luke \\|title\\=Ten councillors share in €1m payment pot over two years \\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/herald/news/ten\\-councillors\\-share\\-in\\-1m\\-payment\\-pot\\-over\\-two\\-years\\-30248546\\.html \\|website\\=Independent.ie \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812231945/https://www.independent.ie/regionals/herald/news/ten\\-councillors\\-share\\-in\\-1m\\-payment\\-pot\\-over\\-two\\-years\\-30248546\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2021 \\|date\\=6 May 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2014 he went on the record to criticise pay rises for certain rural councillors, saying urban councillors like him deserved expense increases also.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fitzgerald \\|first1\\=Cormac \\|title\\=Councillors across the country are getting a pay rise (except for ones in Dublin, Cork and Galway) \\|url\\=https://www.thejournal.ie/councillors\\-pay\\-rise\\-2\\-3201945\\-Jan2017/ \\|website\\=TheJournal.ie \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424023850/https://www.thejournal.ie/councillors\\-pay\\-rise\\-2\\-3201945\\-Jan2017/ \\|archive\\-date\\=24 April 2021 \\|date\\=24 January 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In December 2015, following an RTÉ Primetime Investigates programme, he said that many of the expense forms which councillors must complete are too complicated and should be simplified and streamlined.{{cite web \\|title\\=RTE Investigations \\- Standards in Public Office \\- Monday 7th Dec 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.politics.ie/threads/rte\\-investigations\\-standards\\-in\\-public\\-office\\-monday\\-7th\\-dec\\-2015\\.243628/page\\-29 \\|website\\=Politics.ie \\|date\\=3 December 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812232822/https://politics.ie/threads/rte\\-investigations\\-standards\\-in\\-public\\-office\\-monday\\-7th\\-dec\\-2015\\.243628/page\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Unreliable source?\\|date\\=August 2021}}", "" ]
Concepts -------- ### Circulation [alt\=Wikipedia's globe logo with a red banner across the bottom that says, "6,000,000 articles", and below that Wikipedia's motto, "The free encyclopedia".\|thumb\|As an example of circulation, Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that relies on collaborative rhetorical contribution.](/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en_6m_articles_270_white.png "Wikipedia-logo-v2-en 6m articles 270 white.png") [Circulation](/wiki/Rhetorical_circulation "Rhetorical circulation") theorizes the ways that text and discourse moves through time and space, and any kind of media can be circulated. A new form of communication is composed, created, and distributed through digital technologies. Media scholar [Henry Jenkins](/wiki/Henry_Jenkins "Henry Jenkins") explains there is a shift from distribution to circulation, which signals a move toward an increasingly participatory model of culture in which people shape, share, re\-frame, and remix media content in ways not previously possible within the traditional rhetorical formats like print. {{Cite journal \|last1\=Jenkins \|first1\=Henry \|last2\=Lashley \|first2\=Mark C. \|last3\=Creech \|first3\=Brian \|title\=Voices for a New Vernacular: A Forum on Digital Storytelling Interview with Henry Jenkins \|url\=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct\=true\&db\=ufh\&AN\=126812920\&site\=ehost\-live\&scope\=site \|journal\=International Journal of Communication \|volume\=11 \|pages\=1061–1068 \|via\=EBSCOhost}} The various concepts of circulation include: * *Collaboration* – Digital rhetoric has taken on a very collaborative nature through the use of digital platforms. Sites such as YouTube and Wikipedia involve opportunity for "new forms of collaborative production".{{cite book\|editor\-last\=Wittke\|editor\-first\=Volker\|editor\-first2\= Heidemarie\|editor\-last2\=Hanekop\|title\=New Forms of Collaborative Innovation and Production on the Internet: An Interdisciplinary Perspective\|publisher\=Universitätsverlag Göttingen\|year\=2011\|url\=https://univerlag.uni\-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn\-978\-3\-86395\-020\-0/wittke\_hanekop.pdf\|isbn\=978\-3\-86395\-020\-0}} Digital platforms have created opportunities for more people to enact and create, as digital platforms open doors for collaborative communication that can occur synchronously, asynchronously, over far distances, and across multiple disciplines and professions.{{cite book\|last1\=Olson\|first1\=Judith S.\|first2\=Gary M.\|last2\= Olson\|title\=Working Together Apart: Collaboration Over the Internet\|publisher\=Morgan \& Claypool\|series\= Synthesis Lectures on Human\-Centered Informatics (SLHCI)\|year\=2014\|isbn\=9781608450510}} {{page needed\|date\=May 2021}} * *Crowdsourcing* – Daren Brabham describes the concept of crowdsourcing as the use of modern technology to collaborate, create, and solve problems collectively.{{cite book \|last\=Brabham \|first\=Daren C. \|url\=https://wtf.tw/ref/brabham.pdf \|title\=Crowdsourcing \|publisher\=MIT Press \|year\=2013 \|isbn\=9780262518475 \|series\=Essential Knowledge}} [Ethical](/wiki/Ethics "Ethics") concerns have been raised while engaging in crowdsourcing, specifically in situations that lack a clear set of compensation practices or protections in place to secure information. * *Delivery* – Digital technologies allow rhetoric to be delivered in new "electronic forms of discourse".{{Cite book\|last1\=Welch\|first1\=Kathleen E.\|title\=Electric Rhetoric: Classical Rhetoric, Oralism, and a New Literacy\|last2\=Barrett\|first2\=Edward\|date\=1999\|publisher\=MIT Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-23202\-9}}{{page needed\|date\=May 2021}} Acts and modes of communication can be represented digitally by combining multiple different forms of media into a composite helping to create an easy user experience.{{cite book\|last1\=Chapman\|first1\=Nigel\|first2\=Jenny\|last2\=Chapman\|title\=Digital Multimedia\|edition\=1st\|location\=New York, NY\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons, LTD.\|year\=2000\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-98386\-6}}{{page needed\|date\=May 2021}} The growing popularity of the [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme "Internet meme") is an example of combining, circulating, and delivering media in a collaborative effort through file sharing. Although memes are sent through microtransactions they often have a macro\-level, large\-scale impact.{{Cite book\|last\=Shifman\|first\=Limor\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cZI9AQAAQBAJ\&q\=rhetoric\+memes\&pg\=PP8\|title\=Memes in Digital Culture\|date\=2014\|publisher\=MIT Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-52543\-5\|language\=en}} Another form of rhetorical delivery are encyclopedias, which traditionally were printed and based primarily on text and images. However, modern technological developments now enable online encyclopedias to integrate sound, animation, video, algorithmic search functions, and high\-level productions into a cohesive multimedia experience as part of their new forms of digital rhetoric. ### Critical literacy [Critical literacy](/wiki/Critical_literacy "Critical literacy") is the ability to identify [bias](/wiki/Bias "Bias") in media, under the assumption that all media is biased.{{Cite journal\|last\=Giselsson\|first\=Kristi\|date\=May 31, 2020\|title\=Critical Thinking and Critical Literacy: Mutually Exclusive?\|journal\=International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning\|volume\=14\|issue\=1\|doi\=10\.20429/ijsotl.2020\.140105\|doi\-access\=free}} It can also be defined as a communicative tool to lead to social change and promote social action by using a critical lens when approaching social\-political topics.{{Cite journal \|first1\=Katherine\|last1\=Norris \|first2\=Lisa\|last2\= Lucas \|first3\=Catherine\|last3\=Prudhoe \|date\=2012\|title\=Preparing Preservice Teachers to Use Critical Literacy in the Early Childhood Classroom\|url\=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1001528\.pdf\|journal\=Multicultural Education\|volume\=19\|issue\=2\|series\=Promising Practices\|pages\=52–62; 62\|via\=Google Scholar\|s2cid\=26401103}} In order to identify bias amid the immense volume of information imposed on digital audiences, individuals need to develop the ability to process and critically examine content—on both familiar and unfamiliar topics.{{Cite web\|title\=Critical Literacy in A Digital Era: Technology, Rhetoric, and the Public interest\|url\=https://www.routledge.com/Critical\-Literacy\-in\-A\-Digital\-Era\-Technology\-Rhetoric\-and\-the\-Public/Warnick/p/book/9780805841169\|access\-date\=February 21, 2022\|website\=Routledge \& CRC Press\|language\=en}} In an essay on critical literacy in writing, the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne "University of Melbourne") stated the importance of developing these skills through reading and questioning what texts are trying to accomplish. Ultimately, this allows an idea's interpretation to come from the reader, not the writer.{{Cite journal \|date\=2018 \|title\=Critical Literacy – Developing your critical literacy skills \|url\=https://services.unimelb.edu.au/\_\_data/assets/pdf\_file/0011/2824076/Critical\-literacy.pdf \|journal\=The University of Melbourne}} For example, a study conducted at the [Indiana University in Bloomington](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington "Indiana University Bloomington") used algorithms to assess 14 million Twitter messages containing statements about the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign and election. They found that from May 2016 to March 2017, [social bots](/wiki/Social_bot "Social bot") were responsible for causing approximately 389,000 unsupported political claims to go viral.{{cite arXiv\|last\=Shao\|first\=Chencheng\|display\-authors\=etal\|title\=The Spread of Fake News by Social Bots\|year\=2017\|class\=cs.SI \|eprint\=1707\.07592v1}} Andy Black Associates. ### Interactivity [Interactivity](/wiki/Interactivity "Interactivity") in digital rhetoric can be defined as the ways in which readers connect to and communicate with digital texts.{{Cite journal \|last\=Zappen \|first\=James P. \|date\=2005 \|title\=Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory \|url\=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\_10 \|journal\=Technical Communication Quarterly \|language\=en \|volume\=14 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=319–325 \|doi\=10\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\_10 \|s2cid\=54783060 \|issn\=1057\-2252 \|via\=EBSCO}} For example, readers have the ability to like, share, repost, comment on, and remix online content. These simple interactions allow writers, scholars, and content creators to get a better idea of how their work is affecting their audience.{{Cite book\|last\=Morey\|first\=Sean\|title\=The Digital Writer\|publisher\=Fountainhead Press\|year\=2017\|isbn\=978\-1\-68036\-354\-8\|location\=Southlake, Texas\|pages\=37–70}} Some ways communicators promote interactivity include the following: * *[Mind sharing](/wiki/Mind_share "Mind share")* is a way to get collective intelligence—crowd wisdom that is comparable to expert wisdom. The methodology consists of taking a consensus from the crowd—the answer that most minds are suggesting is the best answer. If the question is numeric (like guessing the weight of an ox), this method gives a calculated average or median. If the question is open\-ended (like "what car should I buy?"), it gives the most common answer. * *[Multimodality](/wiki/Multimodality "Multimodality")* is a form of communication that uses multiple methods (or modes) to inform audiences of an idea. It can involve a mix of written text, pictures, audio, or videos. Online journals often embrace multimodality in their issues and articles by publishing works that use more than just written text to communicate the message. While the digital turn in rhetoric and composition has encouraged more discussion, theorization, and [pedagogical](/wiki/Pedagogy "Pedagogy") application of multimodality and multimodal texts, the history of the field demonstrates a continuous concern with multimodal communication beginning with classical rhetoric's concern with delivery, gesture, and memory. All writing and all communication is, theoretically, multimodal. * *[Remix](/wiki/Remix_culture "Remix culture")* is a method of digital rhetoric that manipulates and transforms an original work to convey a new message. The use of remix can help the creator make an argument by connecting seemingly unrelated ideas into a convincing whole. Self\-publication sites such as [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube"), [SoundCloud](/wiki/SoundCloud "SoundCloud"), and [WordPress](/wiki/WordPress "WordPress") have stimulated remix culture, allowing for easier creation and dissemination of reworked content. Unlike appropriation, which is the use and potential recontextualization of existing material without significant modification, 'remix' is defined by Ridolfo and Devoss as "the process of taking old pieces of text, images, sounds, and video and stitching them together to form a new product".{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ridolfo \|first1\=Jim \|last2\=Devoss \|first2\=Dànielle Nicole \|year\=2009 \|title\=Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery \|url\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/13\.2/topoi/ridolfo\_devoss/intro.html \|journal\=Kairos \|volume\=13 \|issue\=2}} A popular example of remixing is the creation and sharing of [memes](/wiki/Meme "Meme"). ### Procedural rhetoric [Procedural rhetoric](/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric "Procedural rhetoric") is rhetoric formed through processes or practices.{{Cite book \|last\=Bogost \|first\=Ian \|title\=The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning \|publisher\=The MIT Press \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-69364\-6 \|location\=Cambridge, MA \|chapter\=The Rhetoric of Video Games}} Some scholars view [video games](/wiki/Video_game "Video game") as one of these processes through which rhetoric can be formed.{{Cite book \|last\=Gonzalo \|first\=Frasca \|title\=The Video Game Theory Reader \|year\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-96579\-8 \|editor\-last\=Wolf \|editor\-first\=Mark J.P. \|publisher\=Routledge\|location \=New York \|chapter\=Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology \|editor2\-last\=Perron \|editor2\-first\=Bernard}} For example, [ludology](/wiki/Ludology "Ludology") scholar and game designer [Gonzalo Frasca](/wiki/Gonzalo_Frasca "Gonzalo Frasca") poses that the simulation\-nature of computers and video games offers a "natural medium for modeling reality and fiction". Therefore, according to Frasca, video games can take on a new form of digital rhetoric in which reality is mimicked but also created for the future. Similarly, scholar Ian Bogost argues that video games can serve as models for how 'real\-world' cultural and social systems operate. They also argue for the necessity of literacy in playing video games as this allows players to challenge (and ultimately accept or reject) the rhetorical standpoints of these games. ### Rhetorical velocity [Rhetorical velocity](/wiki/Rhetorical_velocity "Rhetorical velocity") is the concept of authors writing in a way in which they are able to predict how their work might be recomposed. Jim Ridolfo and Danielle DeVoss first coined this idea in 2009 when they described rhetorical velocity as "a conscious rhetorical concern for distance, travel, speed, and time, pertaining specifically to theorizing instances of strategic [appropriation](/wiki/Appropriation_of_knowledge "Appropriation of knowledge") by a third party".{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ridolfo, J.\|last2\=Devoss, D.\|name\-list\-style\=amp\|year\=2009\|title\=Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery\|url\=http://kairos.technorhetoric.net/13\.2/topoi/ridolfo\_devoss/intro.html\|journal\=Kairos\|volume\=13\|issue\=2}} Author Sean Morey agrees with this definition of rhetorical velocity and describes it as a creator anticipating the response their work with generate.{{Cite book \|last\=Morey \|first\=Sean \|title\=The digital writer \|date\=2017 \|isbn\=978\-1\-68036\-354\-8 \|location\=Southlake, TX \|publisher\=Fountainhead Press\|oclc\=1018379426}} For example, digital rhetoric is often labelled using [tags](/wiki/Tag_%28metadata%29 "Tag (metadata)"), which are keywords used to help readers find, view, and share relevant texts and information. These tags can be found on [blog](/wiki/Blog "Blog") posts, news articles, [scholarly journals](/wiki/Academic_journal "Academic journal"), and more. Tagging allows writers, scholars, and content creators to organize their work and make it more accessible and understandable to readers. Appropriation carries both positive and negative [connotations](/wiki/Connotation "Connotation") for rhetorical velocity. In some ways, appropriation is a tool that can be used for the reapplication of outdated ideas to make them better. In other ways, appropriation is seen as a threat to creative and cultural identities. [Social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media") receives the bulk of this scrutiny due to the lack of education of its users. Most "contributors are often unaware of what they are contributing",{{Cite journal\|last\=Reyman, J.\|year\=2013\|title\=User Data on the Social Web: Authorship, Agency, and Appropriation\|url\=http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/Journals/CE/0755\-may2013/CE0755User.pdf\|journal\=College English\|volume\=75\|issue\=5\|pages\=513–532\|doi\=10\.58680/ce201323565 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2014\|via\=ncte.org}} which perpetuates the negative connotation. Scholars in digital rhetoric—such as Jessica Reyman, Amy Hea, and Johndan Johnson\-Eilola—explore this topic and its effects on society. Scholars have also connected the role of rhetorical velocity to visual rhetoric through a study of environmental image circulation, demonstrating that "while environmental image circulation is often viewed as an ambivalent, or even performative, practice for environmental citizenship, it is also an important space for cultivating participatory culture online."{{Cite journal \|last1\=Jones \|first1\=Madison \|last2\=Beveridge \|first2\=Aaron \|last3\=Garrison \|first3\=Julian R. \|last4\=Greene \|first4\=Abbey \|last5\=MacDonald \|first5\=Hannah \|date\=2022 \|title\=Tracking Memes in the Wild: Visual Rhetoric and Image Circulation in Environmental Communication \|journal\=Frontiers in Communication \|volume\=7 \|doi\=10\.3389/fcomm.2022\.883278 \|issn\=2297\-900X \|doi\-access\=free }} ### Visual rhetoric [left\|thumb\|214x214px\|First, an "initial" meme is created to illustrate some joke or idea.](/wiki/File:Example_of_modern_internet_meme.jpg "Example of modern internet meme.jpg") [thumb\|156x156px\|The "default" skin tone for emojis is yellow.](/wiki/File:Emoji_u270a.svg "Emoji u270a.svg") Digital rhetoric often invokes [visual rhetoric](/wiki/Visual_rhetoric "Visual rhetoric") due to digital rhetoric's reliance on visuals. Charles Hill states that images "do not necessarily have to portray an object, or even a class of objects, that exists or ever did exist" to remain impactful.{{Cite book\|last\=Handa, C.\|title\=Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook\|publisher\=Bedford/St. Martins\|year\=2004\|location\=Boston\|chapter\=Reading the Visual in College Writing Classes By Charles Hill}}{{page needed\|date\=May 2021}} However, the use of imagery for rhetorical purposes in digital spaces cannot always be easily differentiated from "traditional" physical visual mediums. As such, approaching this concept requires a careful analysis of the viewer, situational, and visual contexts involved.{{Cite journal\|last\=Hocks\|first\=Mary E.\|date\=2003\|title\=Understanding Visual Rhetoric in Digital Writing Environments\|journal\=College Composition and Communication\|volume\=54\|issue\=4\|pages\=629–656\|doi\=10\.2307/3594188\|jstor\=3594188\|s2cid\=142341944}} A prominent part of this concept is its intersection of perspective with technology, as computers allow users to create a curated view for online space. Examples of the Internet relying and reshaping visual rhetoric include [Social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media") platforms like [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram"),{{Cite book \|title\=Female Agency and Documentary Strategies: Subjectivities, Identity and Activism \|publisher\=Edinburgh University Press \|year\=2018 \|isbn\=9781474444699 \|editor\-last\=Ulfsdotter \|editor\-first\=Boel \|location\=Edinburgh \|editor2\-last\=Rogers \|editor2\-first\=Anna B.}} and incredibly realistic [deepfakes](/wiki/Deepfake "Deepfake").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Citron \|first1\=Danielle \|last2\=Chesney \|first2\=Robert \|date\=January 1, 2019 \|title\=Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War \|url\=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/shorter\_works/76 \|journal\=Foreign Affairs}}[left\|thumb\|214x214px\|Then, another user modifies the original to illustrate their own idea; in this image, a "deep fried" effect is added to distort the image.](/wiki/File:Deepfryed_internet_meme.png "Deepfryed internet meme.png") Digitally\-produced art is a significant way users express themselves on technological platforms; the unique intersection of text and image has given rise to new rhetorical language through the modification of slang and in\-group language.{{Citation\|last\=Szablewicz\|first\=Marcella\|title\="Losers" "Acting Gay": Internet Slang, Memes, and Affective Intensities\|date\=2020\|work\=Mapping Digital Game Culture in China: From Internet Addicts to Esports Athletes\|pages\=135–165\|editor\-last\=Szablewicz\|editor\-first\=Marcella\|series\=East Asian Popular Culture\|place\=Cham\|publisher\=Springer International Publishing\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-36111\-2\_6\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-36111\-2\|s2cid\=213137393}} In particular, the culturally\-specific and nuanced use of pop culture references through [Internet memes](/wiki/Internet_meme "Internet meme") have gradually built upon themselves to create complex, highly flexible, and Internet\-specific (or even platform\-specific) dialects of speech.{{Cite web\|date\=June 30, 2018\|title\=The Language of Memes: A Brief Explanation\|url\=https://whatever.scalzi.com/2018/06/30/the\-language\-of\-memes\-a\-brief\-explanation/\|access\-date\=February 17, 2022\|website\=Whatever\|language\=en\-US}} Through popularity\-based [natural selection](/wiki/Natural_selection "Natural selection"), edits of commonly accepted meme templates fuel the cycle of rhetorical creation. Other forms of digital\-visual rhetoric include [remixing](/wiki/Remix "Remix") and [parodying](/wiki/Parody "Parody"). In the chapter "Digital Rhetoric Practice" in *Digital Rhetoric Theory, Method, Practice*, Douglas Eyman speaks about the growth of digital rhetoric in a digital world. Digital rhetoric has become distinguished from its other rhetoric counterparts, as it is an easily accessible path for people to spread their messages through the reuse of already existing content and putting their own twist on it. This is widespread because of meme cultures and online video platforms.{{Cite journal \|last\=Marwick \|first\=Alice \|date\=November 2013 \|title\=Memes \|url\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10\.1177/1536504213511210 \|journal\=Contexts \|language\=en \|volume\=12 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=12–13 \|doi\=10\.1177/1536504213511210 \|issn\=1536\-5042}} Digital\-visual rhetoric does not only rely on intentional manipulation. Sometimes, meanings can arise from unexpected places and otherwise\-overlooked features. For example, [emojis](/wiki/Emoji "Emoji") can carry heavy consequences by permeating daily communication. Varying skin tones provided (or excluded) by developers for emojis may perpetuate preexisting racial biases of [colorism](/wiki/Colorism "Colorism").{{Cite journal\|last\=Matamoros Fernandez\|first\=Ariadna\|date\=2018\|title\=Inciting anger through Facebook reactions in Belgium: The use of emoji and related vernacular expressions in racist discourse\|url\=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/122413/\|journal\=First Monday\|language\=en\|volume\=23\|issue\=9\|pages\=Article number: 94051–20\|issn\=1396\-0466}} Even otherwise\-innocuous images of peaches and eggplants are regular stand\-ins for genital regions; they can be both harmless modes of flirtation and tools for [sexually harassing](/wiki/Sexual_harassment "Sexual harassment") women online when sent en masse. The concept of the [avatar](/wiki/Avatar_%28computing%29 "Avatar (computing)") also illustrates visual rhetoric's deeply personal impact, particularly when using James E. Porter's definition of the avatar as an extended "virtual body".{{Cite journal\|last\=Porter\|first\=James E.\|date\=December 2009\|title\=Recovering Delivery for Digital Rhetoric\|journal\=Computers and Composition\|volume\=26\|issue\=4\|pages\=207–224\|doi\=10\.1016/j.compcom.2009\.09\.004}} While scholars such as [Beth Kolko](/wiki/Beth_Kolko "Beth Kolko") hoped for an equitable online world free of physical barriers, [social issues](/wiki/Social_issue "Social issue") still persist in digital realms, such as [gender discrimination](/wiki/Gender_discrimination "Gender discrimination") and [racism](/wiki/Racism "Racism").{{Cite journal\|last\=Kolko\|first\=Beth E.\|date\=August 1999\|title\=Representing Bodies in Virtual Space: The Rhetoric of Avatar Design\|journal\=The Information Society\|volume\=15\|issue\=3\|pages\=177–186\|doi\=10\.1080/019722499128484}} For example, Victoria Woolums found that, in the video game [World of Warcraft](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft "World of Warcraft"), an avatar's gender identity instigated bias from other characters even though an avatar's [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") may not be physically accurate to its user.{{Cite journal\|last\=Woolums\|first\=Viola\|date\=Fall 2011\|title\=Gendered Avatar Identity\|url\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/16\.1/topoi/woolums/\|journal\=Kairos\|volume\=16\|issue\=1}} These relationships are further complicated by the varying degrees of anonymity characterizing inter\-user communications in online spaces. While the possibility of true privacy can be facilitated by impersonal avatars, they are still personal manifestations of a user's self in the context of digital spaces.{{Cite web \|last\=Cross \|first\=Katherine \|title\=The Queer Avatar of Failure {{!}} By: Katherine Cross {{!}} Making \& Breaking \|url\=https://makingandbreaking.org/article/the\-queer\-avatar\-of\-failure/ \|access\-date\=March 2, 2022 \|website\=Making and Breaking \|language\=en\-US}} Furthermore, the tools available to curate and express these are platform\-dependent and ripe for both liberation and exploitation. Be it [Gamergate](/wiki/Gamergate_%28harassment_campaign%29 "Gamergate (harassment campaign)") or debates regarding social media [influencer](/wiki/Internet_celebrity "Internet celebrity") culture and their portrayals of impossible and computer\-edited [body image](/wiki/Body_image "Body image"), self\-presentation is heavily mediated by accessibility to and mastery of online avatars.
[ "Concepts\n--------", "### Circulation", "[alt\\=Wikipedia's globe logo with a red banner across the bottom that says, \"6,000,000 articles\", and below that Wikipedia's motto, \"The free encyclopedia\".\\|thumb\\|As an example of circulation, Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that relies on collaborative rhetorical contribution.](/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en_6m_articles_270_white.png \"Wikipedia-logo-v2-en 6m articles 270 white.png\")\n[Circulation](/wiki/Rhetorical_circulation \"Rhetorical circulation\") theorizes the ways that text and discourse moves through time and space, and any kind of media can be circulated. A new form of communication is composed, created, and distributed through digital technologies. Media scholar [Henry Jenkins](/wiki/Henry_Jenkins \"Henry Jenkins\") explains there is a shift from distribution to circulation, which signals a move toward an increasingly participatory model of culture in which people shape, share, re\\-frame, and remix media content in ways not previously possible within the traditional rhetorical formats like print. {{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Jenkins \\|first1\\=Henry \\|last2\\=Lashley \\|first2\\=Mark C. \\|last3\\=Creech \\|first3\\=Brian \\|title\\=Voices for a New Vernacular: A Forum on Digital Storytelling Interview with Henry Jenkins \\|url\\=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct\\=true\\&db\\=ufh\\&AN\\=126812920\\&site\\=ehost\\-live\\&scope\\=site \\|journal\\=International Journal of Communication \\|volume\\=11 \\|pages\\=1061–1068 \\|via\\=EBSCOhost}} The various concepts of circulation include:", "* *Collaboration* – Digital rhetoric has taken on a very collaborative nature through the use of digital platforms. Sites such as YouTube and Wikipedia involve opportunity for \"new forms of collaborative production\".{{cite book\\|editor\\-last\\=Wittke\\|editor\\-first\\=Volker\\|editor\\-first2\\= Heidemarie\\|editor\\-last2\\=Hanekop\\|title\\=New Forms of Collaborative Innovation and Production on the Internet: An Interdisciplinary Perspective\\|publisher\\=Universitätsverlag Göttingen\\|year\\=2011\\|url\\=https://univerlag.uni\\-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn\\-978\\-3\\-86395\\-020\\-0/wittke\\_hanekop.pdf\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-86395\\-020\\-0}} Digital platforms have created opportunities for more people to enact and create, as digital platforms open doors for collaborative communication that can occur synchronously, asynchronously, over far distances, and across multiple disciplines and professions.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Olson\\|first1\\=Judith S.\\|first2\\=Gary M.\\|last2\\= Olson\\|title\\=Working Together Apart: Collaboration Over the Internet\\|publisher\\=Morgan \\& Claypool\\|series\\= Synthesis Lectures on Human\\-Centered Informatics (SLHCI)\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=9781608450510}} {{page needed\\|date\\=May 2021}}\n* *Crowdsourcing* – Daren Brabham describes the concept of crowdsourcing as the use of modern technology to collaborate, create, and solve problems collectively.{{cite book \\|last\\=Brabham \\|first\\=Daren C. \\|url\\=https://wtf.tw/ref/brabham.pdf \\|title\\=Crowdsourcing \\|publisher\\=MIT Press \\|year\\=2013 \\|isbn\\=9780262518475 \\|series\\=Essential Knowledge}} [Ethical](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") concerns have been raised while engaging in crowdsourcing, specifically in situations that lack a clear set of compensation practices or protections in place to secure information.\n* *Delivery* – Digital technologies allow rhetoric to be delivered in new \"electronic forms of discourse\".{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Welch\\|first1\\=Kathleen E.\\|title\\=Electric Rhetoric: Classical Rhetoric, Oralism, and a New Literacy\\|last2\\=Barrett\\|first2\\=Edward\\|date\\=1999\\|publisher\\=MIT Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-23202\\-9}}{{page needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} Acts and modes of communication can be represented digitally by combining multiple different forms of media into a composite helping to create an easy user experience.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Chapman\\|first1\\=Nigel\\|first2\\=Jenny\\|last2\\=Chapman\\|title\\=Digital Multimedia\\|edition\\=1st\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons, LTD.\\|year\\=2000\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-98386\\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} The growing popularity of the [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme \"Internet meme\") is an example of combining, circulating, and delivering media in a collaborative effort through file sharing. Although memes are sent through microtransactions they often have a macro\\-level, large\\-scale impact.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Shifman\\|first\\=Limor\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cZI9AQAAQBAJ\\&q\\=rhetoric\\+memes\\&pg\\=PP8\\|title\\=Memes in Digital Culture\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=MIT Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-52543\\-5\\|language\\=en}} Another form of rhetorical delivery are encyclopedias, which traditionally were printed and based primarily on text and images. However, modern technological developments now enable online encyclopedias to integrate sound, animation, video, algorithmic search functions, and high\\-level productions into a cohesive multimedia experience as part of their new forms of digital rhetoric.", "### Critical literacy", "[Critical literacy](/wiki/Critical_literacy \"Critical literacy\") is the ability to identify [bias](/wiki/Bias \"Bias\") in media, under the assumption that all media is biased.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Giselsson\\|first\\=Kristi\\|date\\=May 31, 2020\\|title\\=Critical Thinking and Critical Literacy: Mutually Exclusive?\\|journal\\=International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning\\|volume\\=14\\|issue\\=1\\|doi\\=10\\.20429/ijsotl.2020\\.140105\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} It can also be defined as a communicative tool to lead to social change and promote social action by using a critical lens when approaching social\\-political topics.{{Cite journal \\|first1\\=Katherine\\|last1\\=Norris \\|first2\\=Lisa\\|last2\\= Lucas \\|first3\\=Catherine\\|last3\\=Prudhoe \\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=Preparing Preservice Teachers to Use Critical Literacy in the Early Childhood Classroom\\|url\\=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1001528\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Multicultural Education\\|volume\\=19\\|issue\\=2\\|series\\=Promising Practices\\|pages\\=52–62; 62\\|via\\=Google Scholar\\|s2cid\\=26401103}} In order to identify bias amid the immense volume of information imposed on digital audiences, individuals need to develop the ability to process and critically examine content—on both familiar and unfamiliar topics.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Critical Literacy in A Digital Era: Technology, Rhetoric, and the Public interest\\|url\\=https://www.routledge.com/Critical\\-Literacy\\-in\\-A\\-Digital\\-Era\\-Technology\\-Rhetoric\\-and\\-the\\-Public/Warnick/p/book/9780805841169\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2022\\|website\\=Routledge \\& CRC Press\\|language\\=en}}", "In an essay on critical literacy in writing, the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne \"University of Melbourne\") stated the importance of developing these skills through reading and questioning what texts are trying to accomplish. Ultimately, this allows an idea's interpretation to come from the reader, not the writer.{{Cite journal \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Critical Literacy – Developing your critical literacy skills \\|url\\=https://services.unimelb.edu.au/\\_\\_data/assets/pdf\\_file/0011/2824076/Critical\\-literacy.pdf \\|journal\\=The University of Melbourne}}", "For example, a study conducted at the [Indiana University in Bloomington](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington \"Indiana University Bloomington\") used algorithms to assess 14 million Twitter messages containing statements about the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign and election. They found that from May 2016 to March 2017, [social bots](/wiki/Social_bot \"Social bot\") were responsible for causing approximately 389,000 unsupported political claims to go viral.{{cite arXiv\\|last\\=Shao\\|first\\=Chencheng\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|title\\=The Spread of Fake News by Social Bots\\|year\\=2017\\|class\\=cs.SI \\|eprint\\=1707\\.07592v1}} Andy Black Associates.", "### Interactivity", "[Interactivity](/wiki/Interactivity \"Interactivity\") in digital rhetoric can be defined as the ways in which readers connect to and communicate with digital texts.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Zappen \\|first\\=James P. \\|date\\=2005 \\|title\\=Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory \\|url\\=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10\\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\\_10 \\|journal\\=Technical Communication Quarterly \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=319–325 \\|doi\\=10\\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\\_10 \\|s2cid\\=54783060 \\|issn\\=1057\\-2252 \\|via\\=EBSCO}} For example, readers have the ability to like, share, repost, comment on, and remix online content. These simple interactions allow writers, scholars, and content creators to get a better idea of how their work is affecting their audience.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Morey\\|first\\=Sean\\|title\\=The Digital Writer\\|publisher\\=Fountainhead Press\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-68036\\-354\\-8\\|location\\=Southlake, Texas\\|pages\\=37–70}}", "Some ways communicators promote interactivity include the following:\n* *[Mind sharing](/wiki/Mind_share \"Mind share\")* is a way to get collective intelligence—crowd wisdom that is comparable to expert wisdom. The methodology consists of taking a consensus from the crowd—the answer that most minds are suggesting is the best answer. If the question is numeric (like guessing the weight of an ox), this method gives a calculated average or median. If the question is open\\-ended (like \"what car should I buy?\"), it gives the most common answer.\n* *[Multimodality](/wiki/Multimodality \"Multimodality\")* is a form of communication that uses multiple methods (or modes) to inform audiences of an idea. It can involve a mix of written text, pictures, audio, or videos. Online journals often embrace multimodality in their issues and articles by publishing works that use more than just written text to communicate the message. While the digital turn in rhetoric and composition has encouraged more discussion, theorization, and [pedagogical](/wiki/Pedagogy \"Pedagogy\") application of multimodality and multimodal texts, the history of the field demonstrates a continuous concern with multimodal communication beginning with classical rhetoric's concern with delivery, gesture, and memory. All writing and all communication is, theoretically, multimodal.\n* *[Remix](/wiki/Remix_culture \"Remix culture\")* is a method of digital rhetoric that manipulates and transforms an original work to convey a new message. The use of remix can help the creator make an argument by connecting seemingly unrelated ideas into a convincing whole. Self\\-publication sites such as [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\"), [SoundCloud](/wiki/SoundCloud \"SoundCloud\"), and [WordPress](/wiki/WordPress \"WordPress\") have stimulated remix culture, allowing for easier creation and dissemination of reworked content. Unlike appropriation, which is the use and potential recontextualization of existing material without significant modification, 'remix' is defined by Ridolfo and Devoss as \"the process of taking old pieces of text, images, sounds, and video and stitching them together to form a new product\".{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ridolfo \\|first1\\=Jim \\|last2\\=Devoss \\|first2\\=Dànielle Nicole \\|year\\=2009 \\|title\\=Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery \\|url\\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/13\\.2/topoi/ridolfo\\_devoss/intro.html \\|journal\\=Kairos \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=2}} A popular example of remixing is the creation and sharing of [memes](/wiki/Meme \"Meme\").", "### Procedural rhetoric", "[Procedural rhetoric](/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric \"Procedural rhetoric\") is rhetoric formed through processes or practices.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Bogost \\|first\\=Ian \\|title\\=The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning \\|publisher\\=The MIT Press \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-69364\\-6 \\|location\\=Cambridge, MA \\|chapter\\=The Rhetoric of Video Games}} Some scholars view [video games](/wiki/Video_game \"Video game\") as one of these processes through which rhetoric can be formed.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Gonzalo \\|first\\=Frasca \\|title\\=The Video Game Theory Reader \\|year\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-96579\\-8 \\|editor\\-last\\=Wolf \\|editor\\-first\\=Mark J.P. \\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|location \\=New York \\|chapter\\=Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology \\|editor2\\-last\\=Perron \\|editor2\\-first\\=Bernard}} For example, [ludology](/wiki/Ludology \"Ludology\") scholar and game designer [Gonzalo Frasca](/wiki/Gonzalo_Frasca \"Gonzalo Frasca\") poses that the simulation\\-nature of computers and video games offers a \"natural medium for modeling reality and fiction\". Therefore, according to Frasca, video games can take on a new form of digital rhetoric in which reality is mimicked but also created for the future. Similarly, scholar Ian Bogost argues that video games can serve as models for how 'real\\-world' cultural and social systems operate. They also argue for the necessity of literacy in playing video games as this allows players to challenge (and ultimately accept or reject) the rhetorical standpoints of these games.", "### Rhetorical velocity", "[Rhetorical velocity](/wiki/Rhetorical_velocity \"Rhetorical velocity\") is the concept of authors writing in a way in which they are able to predict how their work might be recomposed. Jim Ridolfo and Danielle DeVoss first coined this idea in 2009 when they described rhetorical velocity as \"a conscious rhetorical concern for distance, travel, speed, and time, pertaining specifically to theorizing instances of strategic [appropriation](/wiki/Appropriation_of_knowledge \"Appropriation of knowledge\") by a third party\".{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ridolfo, J.\\|last2\\=Devoss, D.\\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp\\|year\\=2009\\|title\\=Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery\\|url\\=http://kairos.technorhetoric.net/13\\.2/topoi/ridolfo\\_devoss/intro.html\\|journal\\=Kairos\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=2}} Author Sean Morey agrees with this definition of rhetorical velocity and describes it as a creator anticipating the response their work with generate.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Morey \\|first\\=Sean \\|title\\=The digital writer \\|date\\=2017 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-68036\\-354\\-8 \\|location\\=Southlake, TX \\|publisher\\=Fountainhead Press\\|oclc\\=1018379426}}", "For example, digital rhetoric is often labelled using [tags](/wiki/Tag_%28metadata%29 \"Tag (metadata)\"), which are keywords used to help readers find, view, and share relevant texts and information. These tags can be found on [blog](/wiki/Blog \"Blog\") posts, news articles, [scholarly journals](/wiki/Academic_journal \"Academic journal\"), and more. Tagging allows writers, scholars, and content creators to organize their work and make it more accessible and understandable to readers.", "Appropriation carries both positive and negative [connotations](/wiki/Connotation \"Connotation\") for rhetorical velocity. In some ways, appropriation is a tool that can be used for the reapplication of outdated ideas to make them better. In other ways, appropriation is seen as a threat to creative and cultural identities. [Social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\") receives the bulk of this scrutiny due to the lack of education of its users. Most \"contributors are often unaware of what they are contributing\",{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Reyman, J.\\|year\\=2013\\|title\\=User Data on the Social Web: Authorship, Agency, and Appropriation\\|url\\=http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/Journals/CE/0755\\-may2013/CE0755User.pdf\\|journal\\=College English\\|volume\\=75\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=513–532\\|doi\\=10\\.58680/ce201323565 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2014\\|via\\=ncte.org}} which perpetuates the negative connotation. Scholars in digital rhetoric—such as Jessica Reyman, Amy Hea, and Johndan Johnson\\-Eilola—explore this topic and its effects on society. Scholars have also connected the role of rhetorical velocity to visual rhetoric through a study of environmental image circulation, demonstrating that \"while environmental image circulation is often viewed as an ambivalent, or even performative, practice for environmental citizenship, it is also an important space for cultivating participatory culture online.\"{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Jones \\|first1\\=Madison \\|last2\\=Beveridge \\|first2\\=Aaron \\|last3\\=Garrison \\|first3\\=Julian R. \\|last4\\=Greene \\|first4\\=Abbey \\|last5\\=MacDonald \\|first5\\=Hannah \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=Tracking Memes in the Wild: Visual Rhetoric and Image Circulation in Environmental Communication \\|journal\\=Frontiers in Communication \\|volume\\=7 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fcomm.2022\\.883278 \\|issn\\=2297\\-900X \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "### Visual rhetoric", "[left\\|thumb\\|214x214px\\|First, an \"initial\" meme is created to illustrate some joke or idea.](/wiki/File:Example_of_modern_internet_meme.jpg \"Example of modern internet meme.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|156x156px\\|The \"default\" skin tone for emojis is yellow.](/wiki/File:Emoji_u270a.svg \"Emoji u270a.svg\")\nDigital rhetoric often invokes [visual rhetoric](/wiki/Visual_rhetoric \"Visual rhetoric\") due to digital rhetoric's reliance on visuals. Charles Hill states that images \"do not necessarily have to portray an object, or even a class of objects, that exists or ever did exist\" to remain impactful.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Handa, C.\\|title\\=Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook\\|publisher\\=Bedford/St. Martins\\|year\\=2004\\|location\\=Boston\\|chapter\\=Reading the Visual in College Writing Classes By Charles Hill}}{{page needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} However, the use of imagery for rhetorical purposes in digital spaces cannot always be easily differentiated from \"traditional\" physical visual mediums. As such, approaching this concept requires a careful analysis of the viewer, situational, and visual contexts involved.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hocks\\|first\\=Mary E.\\|date\\=2003\\|title\\=Understanding Visual Rhetoric in Digital Writing Environments\\|journal\\=College Composition and Communication\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=629–656\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3594188\\|jstor\\=3594188\\|s2cid\\=142341944}} A prominent part of this concept is its intersection of perspective with technology, as computers allow users to create a curated view for online space. Examples of the Internet relying and reshaping visual rhetoric include [Social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\") platforms like [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\"),{{Cite book \\|title\\=Female Agency and Documentary Strategies: Subjectivities, Identity and Activism \\|publisher\\=Edinburgh University Press \\|year\\=2018 \\|isbn\\=9781474444699 \\|editor\\-last\\=Ulfsdotter \\|editor\\-first\\=Boel \\|location\\=Edinburgh \\|editor2\\-last\\=Rogers \\|editor2\\-first\\=Anna B.}} and incredibly realistic [deepfakes](/wiki/Deepfake \"Deepfake\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Citron \\|first1\\=Danielle \\|last2\\=Chesney \\|first2\\=Robert \\|date\\=January 1, 2019 \\|title\\=Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War \\|url\\=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/shorter\\_works/76 \\|journal\\=Foreign Affairs}}[left\\|thumb\\|214x214px\\|Then, another user modifies the original to illustrate their own idea; in this image, a \"deep fried\" effect is added to distort the image.](/wiki/File:Deepfryed_internet_meme.png \"Deepfryed internet meme.png\")", "Digitally\\-produced art is a significant way users express themselves on technological platforms; the unique intersection of text and image has given rise to new rhetorical language through the modification of slang and in\\-group language.{{Citation\\|last\\=Szablewicz\\|first\\=Marcella\\|title\\=\"Losers\" \"Acting Gay\": Internet Slang, Memes, and Affective Intensities\\|date\\=2020\\|work\\=Mapping Digital Game Culture in China: From Internet Addicts to Esports Athletes\\|pages\\=135–165\\|editor\\-last\\=Szablewicz\\|editor\\-first\\=Marcella\\|series\\=East Asian Popular Culture\\|place\\=Cham\\|publisher\\=Springer International Publishing\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-36111\\-2\\_6\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-36111\\-2\\|s2cid\\=213137393}} In particular, the culturally\\-specific and nuanced use of pop culture references through [Internet memes](/wiki/Internet_meme \"Internet meme\") have gradually built upon themselves to create complex, highly flexible, and Internet\\-specific (or even platform\\-specific) dialects of speech.{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 30, 2018\\|title\\=The Language of Memes: A Brief Explanation\\|url\\=https://whatever.scalzi.com/2018/06/30/the\\-language\\-of\\-memes\\-a\\-brief\\-explanation/\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2022\\|website\\=Whatever\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Through popularity\\-based [natural selection](/wiki/Natural_selection \"Natural selection\"), edits of commonly accepted meme templates fuel the cycle of rhetorical creation.", "Other forms of digital\\-visual rhetoric include [remixing](/wiki/Remix \"Remix\") and [parodying](/wiki/Parody \"Parody\"). In the chapter \"Digital Rhetoric Practice\" in *Digital Rhetoric Theory, Method, Practice*, Douglas Eyman speaks about the growth of digital rhetoric in a digital world. Digital rhetoric has become distinguished from its other rhetoric counterparts, as it is an easily accessible path for people to spread their messages through the reuse of already existing content and putting their own twist on it. This is widespread because of meme cultures and online video platforms.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Marwick \\|first\\=Alice \\|date\\=November 2013 \\|title\\=Memes \\|url\\=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10\\.1177/1536504213511210 \\|journal\\=Contexts \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=12–13 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1536504213511210 \\|issn\\=1536\\-5042}}", "Digital\\-visual rhetoric does not only rely on intentional manipulation. Sometimes, meanings can arise from unexpected places and otherwise\\-overlooked features. For example, [emojis](/wiki/Emoji \"Emoji\") can carry heavy consequences by permeating daily communication. Varying skin tones provided (or excluded) by developers for emojis may perpetuate preexisting racial biases of [colorism](/wiki/Colorism \"Colorism\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Matamoros Fernandez\\|first\\=Ariadna\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Inciting anger through Facebook reactions in Belgium: The use of emoji and related vernacular expressions in racist discourse\\|url\\=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/122413/\\|journal\\=First Monday\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=23\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=Article number: 94051–20\\|issn\\=1396\\-0466}} Even otherwise\\-innocuous images of peaches and eggplants are regular stand\\-ins for genital regions; they can be both harmless modes of flirtation and tools for [sexually harassing](/wiki/Sexual_harassment \"Sexual harassment\") women online when sent en masse.", "The concept of the [avatar](/wiki/Avatar_%28computing%29 \"Avatar (computing)\") also illustrates visual rhetoric's deeply personal impact, particularly when using James E. Porter's definition of the avatar as an extended \"virtual body\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Porter\\|first\\=James E.\\|date\\=December 2009\\|title\\=Recovering Delivery for Digital Rhetoric\\|journal\\=Computers and Composition\\|volume\\=26\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=207–224\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.compcom.2009\\.09\\.004}} While scholars such as [Beth Kolko](/wiki/Beth_Kolko \"Beth Kolko\") hoped for an equitable online world free of physical barriers, [social issues](/wiki/Social_issue \"Social issue\") still persist in digital realms, such as [gender discrimination](/wiki/Gender_discrimination \"Gender discrimination\") and [racism](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kolko\\|first\\=Beth E.\\|date\\=August 1999\\|title\\=Representing Bodies in Virtual Space: The Rhetoric of Avatar Design\\|journal\\=The Information Society\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=177–186\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/019722499128484}} For example, Victoria Woolums found that, in the video game [World of Warcraft](/wiki/World_of_Warcraft \"World of Warcraft\"), an avatar's gender identity instigated bias from other characters even though an avatar's [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") may not be physically accurate to its user.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Woolums\\|first\\=Viola\\|date\\=Fall 2011\\|title\\=Gendered Avatar Identity\\|url\\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/16\\.1/topoi/woolums/\\|journal\\=Kairos\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=1}} These relationships are further complicated by the varying degrees of anonymity characterizing inter\\-user communications in online spaces. While the possibility of true privacy can be facilitated by impersonal avatars, they are still personal manifestations of a user's self in the context of digital spaces.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cross \\|first\\=Katherine \\|title\\=The Queer Avatar of Failure {{!}} By: Katherine Cross {{!}} Making \\& Breaking \\|url\\=https://makingandbreaking.org/article/the\\-queer\\-avatar\\-of\\-failure/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2022 \\|website\\=Making and Breaking \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Furthermore, the tools available to curate and express these are platform\\-dependent and ripe for both liberation and exploitation. Be it [Gamergate](/wiki/Gamergate_%28harassment_campaign%29 \"Gamergate (harassment campaign)\") or debates regarding social media [influencer](/wiki/Internet_celebrity \"Internet celebrity\") culture and their portrayals of impossible and computer\\-edited [body image](/wiki/Body_image \"Body image\"), self\\-presentation is heavily mediated by accessibility to and mastery of online avatars.", "" ]
Critical approaches ------------------- ### Technofeminism {{Main\|Technofeminism}} Digital rhetoric gives a platform to technofeminism, a concept that brings together the intersections of [gender](/wiki/Gender "Gender"), [capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism"), and [technology](/wiki/Technology "Technology").{{Cite journal \|last\=De Hertogh \|first\=Lori Beth \|date\=March 2019 \|title\='Feminist Leaning:' Tracing Technofeminist and Intersectional Practices and Values in Three Decades of Computers and Composition \|journal\=Computers and Composition \|volume\=51 \|pages\=4–13 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.compcom.2018\.11\.004 \|doi\-access\=free}} Technofeminism advocates for equality for women in technology\-heavy fields and researches the relationship between women and their devices. [Intersectionality](/wiki/Intersectionality "Intersectionality") is a term coined by [Kimberlé Crenshaw](/wiki/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw "Kimberlé Crenshaw") that recognizes the societal [injustices](/wiki/Injustice "Injustice") based on our identities. It is often challenging for women to navigate finding and interacting in digital spaces without [harassment](/wiki/Harassment "Harassment") or gender biases.{{Cite journal \|last\=Haas \|first\=Angela \|date\=March 2019 \|title\=Introduction by the Guest Editors \|journal\=Computers and Composition \|volume\=51 \|pages\=1–3 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.compcom.2018\.11\.007 \|doi\-access\=free}} There is an importance of [digital activism](/wiki/Internet_activism "Internet activism") for unrepresented communities, such as [gender non\-conforming](/wiki/Gender_variance "Gender variance") and [transgender](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender") people of all races, [disabled](/wiki/Disability "Disability") people, and [people of color](/wiki/Person_of_color "Person of color"). Technofeminism and intersectionality are still not very prevalent when developing new technologies and research. In the journal *Computers and Composition*, only five articles explicitly use the term intersectionality or technofeminism. ### Rhetorical feminism Cheryl Glenn, in her article "The Language of Rhetorical Feminism, Anchored in Hope", explores the study of rhetoric, feminism, and hope, introducing a theoretical framework she calls "rhetorical feminism". This framework began as a platform for recognizing and valuing the traditionally overlooked rhetorical practices and powers of marginalized groups called "Others". Glenn's narrative extends an invitation to challenge biased attitudes and actions, promoting a more inclusive and tolerant societal discourse.{{cite journal \|last\=Glenn \|first\=Cheryl \|year\=2020 \|title\=The Language of Rhetorical Feminism, Anchored in Hope \|journal\=Open Linguistics \|volume\=6 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=334–343 \|doi\=10\.1515/opli\-2020\-0023\|s2cid\=221158415 \|doi\-access\=free }} In connection to digital rhetoric, the article subtly underscores the power of digital platforms in their ability to either facilitate or obstruct democratic dialogues. Glenn acknowledges the influence of rhetoric across traditional and digital domains to challenge unjust systems and engage individuals in democratic practices. Glenn's stance within the article aligns with the broader narrative of digital rhetoric, which often explores the dynamics of power, representation, and access to digital platforms in molding public discourse. As digital rhetoric is described as an extension of human communication within a digital sphere, encompassing various forms like text, images, videos, and software, Glenn's articulation of rhetorical feminism resonates with the philosophy of digital rhetoric. It calls for a more inclusive digital rhetorical practice that appreciates diverse voices and ideals, thereby contributing to a more democratic and tolerant digital discourse. The article further contributes to the field of digital rhetoric by enhancing the understanding of rhetorical practices in digital spaces through a feminist lens, advocating for a more inclusive and empathetic digital discourse capable of challenging prevailing prejudices and fostering democratic engagements. ### Digital cultural rhetoric As the Internet has expanded, digital media or rhetoric has come to be used to represent or identify a culture. Scholars have studied how digital rhetoric is affected by one's personal factors, such as [race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States "Race and ethnicity in the United States"), [religion](/wiki/Religion "Religion"), and sexuality. Due to these factors, people utilize different tools and absorb information differently. Digital culture has created the need for specialized communities on the web. Computer\-mediated communities such as [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit "Reddit") can give a voice to these specialized communities. One can experience and converse with other like\-minded people on the web via comment sections and shared online migration.Blanchard, Anita. "Blogs as Virtual Communities: Identifying a Sense of Community in the Julie/Julia Project." Into the Blogosphere: Rhetoric, Community, and Culture of Weblogs. Ed. Laura Gurak, Smiljana Antonijevic, Laurie Johnson, Clancy Ratliff, and Jessica Reyman. University of Minnesota. December 14, 2004\. The creation of digital cultural rhetoric has allowed for the use of online [slang](/wiki/Slang "Slang") that other communities may not be aware of. Online communities that explore digital cultural rhetoric allow users to discover their social identity and confront stereotypes that they face (or faced).{{Cite journal \|last\=Duthely \|first\=Regina \|date\=April 3, 2017 \|title\=Black Feminist Hip\-Hop Rhetorics and the Digital Public Sphere \|journal\=Changing English \|volume\=24 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=202–212 \|doi\=10\.1080/1358684X.2017\.1310458 \|s2cid\=148707986}} ### Embodiment One subset of digital cultural rhetoric is embodiment—the idea that every person has a unique relationship with technology based on their unique set of identities. Studying the relationship between bodies and technology is one way that digital rhetoricians are able to promote equal access and opportunity within the digital sphere. Since technology is considered to be an extension of the real world, users are also shaped by the experiences they have in digital spaces. The artificial interactions that occur in online environments allow users to exist in a way that is additive to their human experience.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lindemann \|first1\=Gesa \|last2\=Schünemann \|first2\=David \|date\=December 1, 2020 \|title\=Presence in Digital Spaces: A Phenomenological Concept of Presence in Mediatized Communication \|journal\=Human Studies \|language\=en \|volume\=43 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=627–651 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10746\-020\-09567\-y \|s2cid\=234389563 \|issn\=1572\-851X\|doi\-access\=free }} ### Pedagogy With digital rhetoric becoming increasingly present, [pedagogical](/wiki/Pedagogy "Pedagogy") approaches have been proposed by scholars to teach digital rhetoric in the classroom. Courses in digital rhetoric study the [intersectionality](/wiki/Intersectionality "Intersectionality") between users and digital material, as well as how different [backgrounds](/wiki/Demography "Demography") such as age, ethnicity, and gender can affect these interactions.{{Cite journal\|date\=April 1, 2006\|title\=Teaching Digital Rhetoric: Community, Critical Engagement, and Application\|journal\=Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture\|volume\=6\|issue\=2\|pages\=231–259\|doi\=10\.1215/15314200\-2005\-003\|id\={{Project MUSE\|197069}}\|s2cid\=201766824}} #### Higher education Several scholars teach digital rhetoric courses at universities in the US, although their approaches vary considerably. Jeff Grabill,{{Cite web\|title\=Jeff Grabill {{!}} Office of the Provost {{!}} Michigan State University\|url\=https://provost.msu.edu/provosts/teachlearntech.html\|access\-date\=February 13, 2020\|website\=provost.msu.edu}} a scholar with a background in English, education, and technology, encourages his contemporaries to find a bridge between the scholarly field of digital rhetoric and its implementation. Cheryl Ball{{Cite web\|title\=Dr. Cheryl E. Ball\|url\=http://ceball.com/}} specializes in areas that consist of [multimodal](/wiki/Multimodality "Multimodality") [composition](/wiki/Composition_studies "Composition studies") and [editing](/wiki/Editing "Editing") practices, digital media scholarship, [digital publishing](/wiki/Electronic_publishing "Electronic publishing"), and university writing pedagogy. Ball teaches students to write and compose multimodal texts by analyzing rhetorical options and choosing the most appropriate genres, technologies, media, and modes for a particular situation. Multimodality also influenced *Understanding Rhetoric: A Graphic Guide to Writing* by Elizabeth Losh (et al.), which emphasizes engaging the [comic](/wiki/Comics "Comics") form of literacy.{{Cite journal\|last\=Albrecht\-Crane\|first\=Christa\|date\=2015\|title\=Understanding Rhetoric: A Graphic Guide to Writing by Elizabeth Losh et al. (review)\|journal\=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature\|volume\=69\|issue\=1\|pages\=104–107\|id\={{Project MUSE\|580813}}}} A similar approach also inspired Melanie Gagich to alter the curriculum of her first\-year English course completely, aiming to redefine digital projects as rigorous academic assignments and teach her students necessary audience analysis skills.{{Cite web\|last\=Gagich\|first\=Melanie\|date\=June 7, 2018\|title\=Using Digital Rhetoric in a Multimodal Assignment to Disrupt Traditional Academic Writing: Conventions in a First\-Year Writing Classroom\|url\=https://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/?p\|access\-date\=February 17, 2022\|website\=The Journal of Interactive Technology and Pedagogy, Issue 13\|language\=en}} Such a design ultimately allowed students in Gagich's classroom to develop their creativity and confidence as writers. In another approach, Douglas Eyman recommends a course in web authoring and [design](/wiki/Web_design "Web design") that provides undergraduates more practical instruction in the production and rhetorical understanding of digital texts; specifically, it provides opportunities for students to learn fundamentals of web writing and design conventions, rules, and procedures.{{Rp\|171}} Similarly, Collin Bjork argues that "integrating digital rhetoric with [usability testing](/wiki/Usability_testing "Usability testing") can help researchers cultivate a more complex understanding of how students, instructors, and interfaces interact in OWI \[online writing instruction]".{{Cite journal\|last\=Bjork\|first\=Collin\|date\=September 1, 2018\|title\=Integrating Usability Testing with Digital Rhetoric in OWI\|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S8755461518300240\|journal\=Computers and Composition\|language\=en\|volume\=49\|pages\=12\|doi\=10\.1016/j.compcom.2018\.05\.009\|issn\=8755\-4615\|s2cid\=196160668}} Other scholars focus more on the relationship between digital rhetoric and social impact. Scholars Lori Beth De Hertogh (et al.) and Angela Haas have published materials discussing intersectionality and digital rhetoric, arguing that the two are inseparable and classes covering digital rhetoric must also explore intersectionality. Lauren Malone has also analyzed the relationship between identity and teaching digital rhetoric through research on online engagement of queer and transgender people of color.{{Cite thesis\|title\=Intersectional digital rhetoric pedagogy: Queer \& trans people of color and digital platform engagement\|publisher\=Iowa State University\|first\=Lauren Ashley\|last\=Malone\|year\=2020 \|doi\=10\.31274/etd\-20200624\-193\|doi\-access\=free}} From this research, Malone created a series of steps for digital rhetoric instructors to take in order to foster inclusivity within their classrooms. Finally, scholar Melanie Kill actively introduces digital rhetoric to college\-aged students, arguing for the importance of editing [Wikipedia](/wiki/Wikipedia "Wikipedia") and capitalizing on their privilege of education and access to materials.{{Citation\|last\=Kill\|first\=Melanie\|title\=16\. Teaching Digital Rhetoric: Wikipedia, Collaboration, and the Politics of Free Knowledge\|date\=June 1, 2015\|url\=http://books.openedition.org/obp/1658\|work\=Digital Humanities Pedagogy : Practices, Principles and Politics\|pages\=389–405\|editor\-last\=Hirsch\|editor\-first\=Brett D.\|series\=Digital Humanities Series\|place\=Cambridge\|publisher\=Open Book Publishers\|language\=en\|isbn\=978\-2\-8218\-5403\-1\|access\-date\=February 15, 2022}} Similar to De Hertogh (et al.) and Haas, Kill believes an education in digital rhetoric serves all students, as it facilitates positive social change. #### K–12 Many educational systems are framed so that students actively participate in technological systems as designers of digital rhetoric, not passive users. There are three core goals students have identified for their coursework: building their own digital space, learning all aspects of digital rhetoric (including the theory, technology, and uses), and applying it in their own lives. The ecological system generated by the interactions of students with classmates, digital media, and other individuals is the basis of "interconnected" rhetorical processes and shared digital work.[thumb\|Code for a computer video game \|333x333px](/wiki/File:VideoGame.jpg "VideoGame.jpg") Video games are one avenue through which students learn to design the rhetoric and code underlying their technological systems. Video game use has evolved rapidly since the 1980s, and current video games have been incorporated into education.{{Cite journal\|last\=Maza\|first\=Antonio José Planells de la\|date\=2020\|title\=Los videojuegos como mundos ludoficcionales críticos: el caso de la crisis política española en el ocio digital móvil (2008–2015\)\|url\=http://www.comunicacionysociedad.cucsh.udg.mx/index.php/comsoc/article/view/e7365\|journal\=Comunicación y Sociedad\|language\=es\|pages\=1–16\|doi\=10\.32870/cys.v2020\.7365\|s2cid\=225686398\|issn\=2448\-9042\|doi\-access\=free}} Scholar [Ian Bogost](/wiki/Ian_Bogost "Ian Bogost") suggests that video games can be utilized in a multitude of subjects to serve as models for studying the non\-digital world. Specifically, he notes that video games could be used as an "entry point" into [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science "Computer science") for students who may not have been interested in the field. Games and game technology enhance learning by operating at the "outer and growing edge of a player's competence".{{Cite journal\|last\=Gee\|first\=James Paul\|date\=May 2004\|title\=What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy\|journal\=Education \+ Training\|volume\=46\|issue\=4\|doi\=10\.1108/et.2004\.00446dae.002\|issn\=0040\-0912\|via\=St. Martin's Griffen}} Games challenge students at levels that cause frustration but preserve motivation to solve the challenge at this edge. Bogost also notes that video games can be taught as rhetorical and expressive in nature, allowing children to model their experiences through programming. When dissected, the ethics and rhetoric in video games' computational systems is exposed.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Boyle\|first1\=Casey\|last2\=Brown\|first2\=James J.\|last3\=Ceraso\|first3\=Steph\|date\=May 27, 2018\|title\=The Digital: Rhetoric Behind and Beyond the Screen\|journal\=Rhetoric Society Quarterly\|volume\=48\|issue\=3\|pages\=251–259\|doi\=10\.1080/02773945\.2018\.1454187\|s2cid\=149842629\|issn\=0277\-3945}} Analysis of video games as an interactive medium reveals the underlying rhetoric through the performative activity of the player. Recognition of procedural rhetoric through course studies reflects how these mediums can augment politics, advertisement, and information. To help address the rhetoric in video game code, scholar Collin Bjork makes a series of recommendations for integrating digital rhetoric with [usability testing](/wiki/Usability_testing "Usability testing") in online writing instruction. Some scholars have also identified specific practices for digital rhetoric instruction in pre\-collegiate classrooms. As Douglas Eyman points out, students require agency when learning digital rhetoric, meaning instructors designing lessons must allow students to interact with the technology directly and enact change on the design. This is consistent with discoveries by other professors, who claim one of the primary goals of students in a digital rhetoric classroom is to create space for themselves, connections with peers, and deeply understand its significance. These interpersonal connections reflect a "thick correlation between digitalization and empowering pedagogy".{{Cite journal\|last\=Salmieri\|first\=Luca\|date\=2019\|title\=The Rhetoric of Digitalization in Italian Educational Policies: Situating Reception among Digitally Skilled Teachers\|journal\=Italian Journal of Sociology of Education\|volume\=11\|issue\=2/2019\|pages\=162–183\|doi\=10\.14658/pupj\-ijse\-2019\-1\-8\|issn\=2035\-4983}} #### Pre\-K The United States Government's Office of Educational Technology has emphasized four guiding principles when using technology with early learners:{{Cite web \|title\=Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners \|url\=https://tech.ed.gov/earlylearning/principles/ \|access\-date\=February 28, 2022 \|website\=Office of Educational Technology \|language\=en\-US}} 1. When used appropriately, technology can be a tool for learning. 2. The use of technology should allow for increased access to learning opportunities for all children. 3. Technology can be used to strengthen relationships between children and their families, early educators, and friends. 4. Technology is most effective when early learners are interacting with adults and peers. Adults can also supervise children online for said effectiveness. Despite these four pillars, most studies conclude that learning technology for children under the age of two is not beneficial. At most, technology can be used to promote relationship development for these children; for instance, by using video chat software to connect with loved ones at a distance. ### Digital rhetoric as a field of study In 2009, rhetorician [Elizabeth Losh](/wiki/Elizabeth_Losh "Elizabeth Losh"){{Cite web\|title\=Elizabeth Losh\|url\=http://losh.ucsd.edu/\|website\=losh.ucsd.edu}} offered this four\-part definition of digital rhetoric in her book *Virtualpolitik*:{{Cite book\|last\=Losh, E.\|url\=http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/virtualpolitik\|title\=Virtualpolitik\|publisher\=MIT Press\|year\=2009\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-12304\-4}} 1. The conventions of new digital genres that are used for everyday discourse, as well as for special occasions, in average people's lives. 2. [Public rhetoric](/wiki/Public_rhetoric "Public rhetoric"), often in the form of political messages from government institutions, that is represented or recorded through digital technology and disseminated via electronically distributed networks. 3. The emerging scholarly [discipline](/wiki/Discipline_%28academia%29 "Discipline (academia)") concerned with the rhetorical interpretation of computer\-generated media as objects of study. 4. Mathematical theories of communication from the field of [information science](/wiki/Information_science "Information science"), many of which attempt to quantify the amount of uncertainty in a given linguistic exchange or the likely paths through which messages travel.{{Cite book\|last\=Losh\|first\=Elizabeth\|url\=http://gossettphd.org/library/losh\_hackingaristotle.pdf\|title\=Virtualpolitik: An Electronic History of Government Media\-Making in a Time of War, Scandal, Disaster, Miscommunication, and Mistakes\|date\=2009\|publisher\=MIT\|pages\=47–48\|access\-date\=April 24, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023101108/http://gossettphd.org/library/losh\_hackingaristotle.pdf\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2014}} Losh's definition demonstrates that digital rhetoric is a field that relies on different methods to study various types of information, such as code, text, visuals, videos, and so on. Douglas Eyman suggests that classical theories can be mapped onto digital media but a larger academic focus should be placed on the "extension of rhetorical theory".{{Cite web\|title\=Looking Back and Looking Forward: Digital Rhetoric as Evolving Field {{!}} enculturation\|url\=http://enculturation.net/looking\-back\-and\-looking\-forward\|access\-date\=February 24, 2022\|website\=enculturation.net}} Careers in developing and analyzing the rhetoric in code form a prominent field of study. *Computers and Composition*, a journal established in 1985, focuses on computer communication and has considered the use of "rhetoric as their conceptual framework" and the digital rhetoric in software development. Studies on how digital rhetoric implicates various topics are ongoing and encompass many fields. In his book, *Digital Griots: African American Rhetoric in a Multimedia Age*, [Adam J. Banks](/wiki/Adam_J._Banks "Adam J. Banks") states that modern day storytellers, like stand\-up comics and spoken word poets, give African American rhetoric a flexible approach that is still true to tradition.{{Cite book\|last\=Banks\|first\=Adam J\|title\=Digital griots: African American rhetoric in a multimedia age\|date\=2011\|publisher\=Southern Illinois University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8093\-3020\-1\|oclc\=977841399}}{{page needed\|date\=May 2021}} While digital rhetoric can be used to facilitate traditions, select cultures face several practical application issues. [Radhika Gajjala](/wiki/Radhika_Gajjala "Radhika Gajjala"), professor at [Bowling Green State University](/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University "Bowling Green State University"), writes that South Asian cyber feminists face issues with regard to building their web presence.{{Cite journal\|last\=Gajjala\|first\=Radhika\|date\=March 2003\|title\=South Asian digital diasporas and cyberfeminist webs: negotiating globalization, nation, gender and information technology design\|journal\=Contemporary South Asia\|volume\=12\|issue\=1\|pages\=41–56\|doi\=10\.1080/0958493032000123362\|s2cid\=143325390}} #### Research ethics Writing and rhetoric scholars Heidi McKee and James E. Porter discuss the complicated issue of Internet users posting information publicly on the Internet but expecting the post to be semi\-private. This appears contradictory, but socially the Internet is composed of millions of [social identities](/wiki/Social_identity_theory "Social identity theory"), [social groups](/wiki/Social_group "Social group"), [social norms](/wiki/Social_norm "Social norm"), and [social influence](/wiki/Social_influence "Social influence").{{Cite journal \|last1\=McKee \|first1\=Heidi \|last2\=Porter \|first2\=James E. \|date\=2008 \|title\=The Ethics of Digital Writing Research: A Rhetorical Approach \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20457031 \|journal\=College Composition and Communication \|volume\=59 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=711–749 \|doi\=10\.58680/ccc20086675 \|jstor\=20457031 \|issn\=0010\-096X}} These social aspects of the Internet are important to consider when studying digital topics because the digital and non\-digital are getting harder to distinguish from one another.{{Cite journal \|last\=Goodyear \|first\=Victoria A. \|date\=May 27, 2017 \|title\=Social media, apps and wearable technologies: navigating ethical dilemmas and procedures \|journal\=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health \|volume\=9 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=285–302 \|doi\=10\.1080/2159676X.2017\.1303790 \|s2cid\=151680280 \|issn\=2159\-676X\|url\=https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/social\-media\-apps\-and\-wearable\-technologies(15733535\-fe50\-466b\-9595\-8ab60218726f).html }} A study conducted by Rösner and Krämer in 2016 showed that participants' identities would reflect the norms of these online social groups. Similar to how social groups are seen in an in\-person setting, posts on forums, comment sections, and social media are like having a conversation with friends in a public setting. Typically, researchers would not use a conversation heard in public, but an online conversation is not only available to its social group.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Rösner \|first1\=Leonie \|last2\=Krämer \|first2\=Nicole C. \|date\=July 2016 \|title\=Verbal Venting in the Social Web: Effects of Anonymity and Group Norms on Aggressive Language Use in Online Comments \|journal\=Social Media \+ Society \|language\=en \|volume\=2 \|issue\=3 \|doi\=10\.1177/2056305116664220 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=2056\-3051}} James Zappen, in his article "Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory", adds that many of these groups foster a creative and collaborative nature to share information to the public.{{Cite journal \|last\=Zappen \|first\=James P. \|date\=July 2005 \|title\=Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory \|journal\=Technical Communication Quarterly \|language\=en \|volume\=14 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=319–325 \|doi\=10\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\_10 \|s2cid\=54783060 \|issn\=1057\-2252}} McKee and Porter suggest the use of a [casuistic](/wiki/Casuistry "Casuistry") [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic "Heuristic") approach to doing digital research. This method of study is based on focusing on the moral principle of '[do no harm](/wiki/Harm_principle "Harm principle")' to the audience and generating needed formulas or diagrams to help guide the researcher when gathering data. It is noted that this method does not provide all the answers. Instead, it is a starting point for the scholar to approach the digital world. More scholars have added their own take to an ethical approach for digital data. Many have a case\-based approach with add\-on consent from participants (if possible), anonymity to participants, and consideration of what harm could come to the groups being studied.{{Cite book \|title\=The ethics of online research \|date\=2018 \|editor\=Kandy Woodfield \|isbn\=978\-1\-78714\-485\-9 \|location\=Bingley, UK \|publisher\=Emerald Group Publishing\|oclc\=1020570628}} Eyman gives background information on ancient rhetoric going all the way back to Aristotle. The definition of rhetoric provided by the author is accurate. Eyman included illustrations of both conventional and modern rhetoric. Beginning with ancient Greece and the medieval eras, the shift to more modern methods and instances is made. He explains three expression modes: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos. It is crucial to keep in mind that the term "digital" also refers to the physical production of texts, whether they are produced in print or electronically. In rhetorical studies, text can be seen as the medium for persuasive discourse or arguments; however, this tradition is primarily associated with printed texts. 'Electric rhetoric', 'computational rhetoric', and 'technorhetoric' are only a few of the words that were mentioned.{{Relevance inline\|date\=March 2023}} Douglas Eyman's *Digital Rhetoric: Theory, Method, Practice* features a chapter that analyzes the concept of multimodal composition. He details how society's quickly advancing digital technologies have enabled individuals to communicate in unprecedented ways and to an enhanced extent. Different forms of communication, like images, sound, and video, can be applied in tandem with traditional written text to produce compelling and flexible rhetorical messages.
[ "Critical approaches\n-------------------", "### Technofeminism", "{{Main\\|Technofeminism}}\nDigital rhetoric gives a platform to technofeminism, a concept that brings together the intersections of [gender](/wiki/Gender \"Gender\"), [capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\"), and [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=De Hertogh \\|first\\=Lori Beth \\|date\\=March 2019 \\|title\\='Feminist Leaning:' Tracing Technofeminist and Intersectional Practices and Values in Three Decades of Computers and Composition \\|journal\\=Computers and Composition \\|volume\\=51 \\|pages\\=4–13 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.compcom.2018\\.11\\.004 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Technofeminism advocates for equality for women in technology\\-heavy fields and researches the relationship between women and their devices. [Intersectionality](/wiki/Intersectionality \"Intersectionality\") is a term coined by [Kimberlé Crenshaw](/wiki/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw \"Kimberlé Crenshaw\") that recognizes the societal [injustices](/wiki/Injustice \"Injustice\") based on our identities. It is often challenging for women to navigate finding and interacting in digital spaces without [harassment](/wiki/Harassment \"Harassment\") or gender biases.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Haas \\|first\\=Angela \\|date\\=March 2019 \\|title\\=Introduction by the Guest Editors \\|journal\\=Computers and Composition \\|volume\\=51 \\|pages\\=1–3 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.compcom.2018\\.11\\.007 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} There is an importance of [digital activism](/wiki/Internet_activism \"Internet activism\") for unrepresented communities, such as [gender non\\-conforming](/wiki/Gender_variance \"Gender variance\") and [transgender](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\") people of all races, [disabled](/wiki/Disability \"Disability\") people, and [people of color](/wiki/Person_of_color \"Person of color\").", "Technofeminism and intersectionality are still not very prevalent when developing new technologies and research. In the journal *Computers and Composition*, only five articles explicitly use the term intersectionality or technofeminism.", "### Rhetorical feminism", "Cheryl Glenn, in her article \"The Language of Rhetorical Feminism, Anchored in Hope\", explores the study of rhetoric, feminism, and hope, introducing a theoretical framework she calls \"rhetorical feminism\". This framework began as a platform for recognizing and valuing the traditionally overlooked rhetorical practices and powers of marginalized groups called \"Others\". Glenn's narrative extends an invitation to challenge biased attitudes and actions, promoting a more inclusive and tolerant societal discourse.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Glenn \\|first\\=Cheryl \\|year\\=2020 \\|title\\=The Language of Rhetorical Feminism, Anchored in Hope \\|journal\\=Open Linguistics \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=334–343 \\|doi\\=10\\.1515/opli\\-2020\\-0023\\|s2cid\\=221158415 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "In connection to digital rhetoric, the article subtly underscores the power of digital platforms in their ability to either facilitate or obstruct democratic dialogues. Glenn acknowledges the influence of rhetoric across traditional and digital domains to challenge unjust systems and engage individuals in democratic practices. Glenn's stance within the article aligns with the broader narrative of digital rhetoric, which often explores the dynamics of power, representation, and access to digital platforms in molding public discourse.", "As digital rhetoric is described as an extension of human communication within a digital sphere, encompassing various forms like text, images, videos, and software, Glenn's articulation of rhetorical feminism resonates with the philosophy of digital rhetoric. It calls for a more inclusive digital rhetorical practice that appreciates diverse voices and ideals, thereby contributing to a more democratic and tolerant digital discourse.", "The article further contributes to the field of digital rhetoric by enhancing the understanding of rhetorical practices in digital spaces through a feminist lens, advocating for a more inclusive and empathetic digital discourse capable of challenging prevailing prejudices and fostering democratic engagements.", "### Digital cultural rhetoric", "As the Internet has expanded, digital media or rhetoric has come to be used to represent or identify a culture. Scholars have studied how digital rhetoric is affected by one's personal factors, such as [race](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States \"Race and ethnicity in the United States\"), [religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\"), and sexuality. Due to these factors, people utilize different tools and absorb information differently.", "Digital culture has created the need for specialized communities on the web. Computer\\-mediated communities such as [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit \"Reddit\") can give a voice to these specialized communities. One can experience and converse with other like\\-minded people on the web via comment sections and shared online migration.Blanchard, Anita. \"Blogs as Virtual Communities: Identifying a Sense of Community in the Julie/Julia Project.\" Into the Blogosphere: Rhetoric, Community, and Culture of Weblogs. Ed. Laura Gurak, Smiljana Antonijevic, Laurie Johnson, Clancy Ratliff, and Jessica Reyman. University of Minnesota. December 14, 2004\\. The creation of digital cultural rhetoric has allowed for the use of online [slang](/wiki/Slang \"Slang\") that other communities may not be aware of. Online communities that explore digital cultural rhetoric allow users to discover their social identity and confront stereotypes that they face (or faced).{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Duthely \\|first\\=Regina \\|date\\=April 3, 2017 \\|title\\=Black Feminist Hip\\-Hop Rhetorics and the Digital Public Sphere \\|journal\\=Changing English \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=202–212 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1358684X.2017\\.1310458 \\|s2cid\\=148707986}}", "### Embodiment", "One subset of digital cultural rhetoric is embodiment—the idea that every person has a unique relationship with technology based on their unique set of identities. Studying the relationship between bodies and technology is one way that digital rhetoricians are able to promote equal access and opportunity within the digital sphere. Since technology is considered to be an extension of the real world, users are also shaped by the experiences they have in digital spaces. The artificial interactions that occur in online environments allow users to exist in a way that is additive to their human experience.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lindemann \\|first1\\=Gesa \\|last2\\=Schünemann \\|first2\\=David \\|date\\=December 1, 2020 \\|title\\=Presence in Digital Spaces: A Phenomenological Concept of Presence in Mediatized Communication \\|journal\\=Human Studies \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=43 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=627–651 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10746\\-020\\-09567\\-y \\|s2cid\\=234389563 \\|issn\\=1572\\-851X\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "### Pedagogy", "With digital rhetoric becoming increasingly present, [pedagogical](/wiki/Pedagogy \"Pedagogy\") approaches have been proposed by scholars to teach digital rhetoric in the classroom. Courses in digital rhetoric study the [intersectionality](/wiki/Intersectionality \"Intersectionality\") between users and digital material, as well as how different [backgrounds](/wiki/Demography \"Demography\") such as age, ethnicity, and gender can affect these interactions.{{Cite journal\\|date\\=April 1, 2006\\|title\\=Teaching Digital Rhetoric: Community, Critical Engagement, and Application\\|journal\\=Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=231–259\\|doi\\=10\\.1215/15314200\\-2005\\-003\\|id\\={{Project MUSE\\|197069}}\\|s2cid\\=201766824}}", "#### Higher education", "Several scholars teach digital rhetoric courses at universities in the US, although their approaches vary considerably. Jeff Grabill,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Jeff Grabill {{!}} Office of the Provost {{!}} Michigan State University\\|url\\=https://provost.msu.edu/provosts/teachlearntech.html\\|access\\-date\\=February 13, 2020\\|website\\=provost.msu.edu}} a scholar with a background in English, education, and technology, encourages his contemporaries to find a bridge between the scholarly field of digital rhetoric and its implementation. Cheryl Ball{{Cite web\\|title\\=Dr. Cheryl E. Ball\\|url\\=http://ceball.com/}} specializes in areas that consist of [multimodal](/wiki/Multimodality \"Multimodality\") [composition](/wiki/Composition_studies \"Composition studies\") and [editing](/wiki/Editing \"Editing\") practices, digital media scholarship, [digital publishing](/wiki/Electronic_publishing \"Electronic publishing\"), and university writing pedagogy. Ball teaches students to write and compose multimodal texts by analyzing rhetorical options and choosing the most appropriate genres, technologies, media, and modes for a particular situation. Multimodality also influenced *Understanding Rhetoric: A Graphic Guide to Writing* by Elizabeth Losh (et al.), which emphasizes engaging the [comic](/wiki/Comics \"Comics\") form of literacy.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Albrecht\\-Crane\\|first\\=Christa\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Understanding Rhetoric: A Graphic Guide to Writing by Elizabeth Losh et al. (review)\\|journal\\=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature\\|volume\\=69\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=104–107\\|id\\={{Project MUSE\\|580813}}}} A similar approach also inspired Melanie Gagich to alter the curriculum of her first\\-year English course completely, aiming to redefine digital projects as rigorous academic assignments and teach her students necessary audience analysis skills.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gagich\\|first\\=Melanie\\|date\\=June 7, 2018\\|title\\=Using Digital Rhetoric in a Multimodal Assignment to Disrupt Traditional Academic Writing: Conventions in a First\\-Year Writing Classroom\\|url\\=https://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/?p\\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2022\\|website\\=The Journal of Interactive Technology and Pedagogy, Issue 13\\|language\\=en}} Such a design ultimately allowed students in Gagich's classroom to develop their creativity and confidence as writers.", "In another approach, Douglas Eyman recommends a course in web authoring and [design](/wiki/Web_design \"Web design\") that provides undergraduates more practical instruction in the production and rhetorical understanding of digital texts; specifically, it provides opportunities for students to learn fundamentals of web writing and design conventions, rules, and procedures.{{Rp\\|171}} Similarly, Collin Bjork argues that \"integrating digital rhetoric with [usability testing](/wiki/Usability_testing \"Usability testing\") can help researchers cultivate a more complex understanding of how students, instructors, and interfaces interact in OWI \\[online writing instruction]\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Bjork\\|first\\=Collin\\|date\\=September 1, 2018\\|title\\=Integrating Usability Testing with Digital Rhetoric in OWI\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S8755461518300240\\|journal\\=Computers and Composition\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=49\\|pages\\=12\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.compcom.2018\\.05\\.009\\|issn\\=8755\\-4615\\|s2cid\\=196160668}}", "Other scholars focus more on the relationship between digital rhetoric and social impact. Scholars Lori Beth De Hertogh (et al.) and Angela Haas have published materials discussing intersectionality and digital rhetoric, arguing that the two are inseparable and classes covering digital rhetoric must also explore intersectionality. Lauren Malone has also analyzed the relationship between identity and teaching digital rhetoric through research on online engagement of queer and transgender people of color.{{Cite thesis\\|title\\=Intersectional digital rhetoric pedagogy: Queer \\& trans people of color and digital platform engagement\\|publisher\\=Iowa State University\\|first\\=Lauren Ashley\\|last\\=Malone\\|year\\=2020 \\|doi\\=10\\.31274/etd\\-20200624\\-193\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} From this research, Malone created a series of steps for digital rhetoric instructors to take in order to foster inclusivity within their classrooms. Finally, scholar Melanie Kill actively introduces digital rhetoric to college\\-aged students, arguing for the importance of editing [Wikipedia](/wiki/Wikipedia \"Wikipedia\") and capitalizing on their privilege of education and access to materials.{{Citation\\|last\\=Kill\\|first\\=Melanie\\|title\\=16\\. Teaching Digital Rhetoric: Wikipedia, Collaboration, and the Politics of Free Knowledge\\|date\\=June 1, 2015\\|url\\=http://books.openedition.org/obp/1658\\|work\\=Digital Humanities Pedagogy : Practices, Principles and Politics\\|pages\\=389–405\\|editor\\-last\\=Hirsch\\|editor\\-first\\=Brett D.\\|series\\=Digital Humanities Series\\|place\\=Cambridge\\|publisher\\=Open Book Publishers\\|language\\=en\\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-8218\\-5403\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2022}} Similar to De Hertogh (et al.) and Haas, Kill believes an education in digital rhetoric serves all students, as it facilitates positive social change.", "#### K–12", "Many educational systems are framed so that students actively participate in technological systems as designers of digital rhetoric, not passive users. There are three core goals students have identified for their coursework: building their own digital space, learning all aspects of digital rhetoric (including the theory, technology, and uses), and applying it in their own lives. The ecological system generated by the interactions of students with classmates, digital media, and other individuals is the basis of \"interconnected\" rhetorical processes and shared digital work.[thumb\\|Code for a computer video game \\|333x333px](/wiki/File:VideoGame.jpg \"VideoGame.jpg\")", "Video games are one avenue through which students learn to design the rhetoric and code underlying their technological systems. Video game use has evolved rapidly since the 1980s, and current video games have been incorporated into education.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Maza\\|first\\=Antonio José Planells de la\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Los videojuegos como mundos ludoficcionales críticos: el caso de la crisis política española en el ocio digital móvil (2008–2015\\)\\|url\\=http://www.comunicacionysociedad.cucsh.udg.mx/index.php/comsoc/article/view/e7365\\|journal\\=Comunicación y Sociedad\\|language\\=es\\|pages\\=1–16\\|doi\\=10\\.32870/cys.v2020\\.7365\\|s2cid\\=225686398\\|issn\\=2448\\-9042\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Scholar [Ian Bogost](/wiki/Ian_Bogost \"Ian Bogost\") suggests that video games can be utilized in a multitude of subjects to serve as models for studying the non\\-digital world. Specifically, he notes that video games could be used as an \"entry point\" into [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\") for students who may not have been interested in the field. Games and game technology enhance learning by operating at the \"outer and growing edge of a player's competence\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gee\\|first\\=James Paul\\|date\\=May 2004\\|title\\=What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy\\|journal\\=Education \\+ Training\\|volume\\=46\\|issue\\=4\\|doi\\=10\\.1108/et.2004\\.00446dae.002\\|issn\\=0040\\-0912\\|via\\=St. Martin's Griffen}} Games challenge students at levels that cause frustration but preserve motivation to solve the challenge at this edge.", "Bogost also notes that video games can be taught as rhetorical and expressive in nature, allowing children to model their experiences through programming. When dissected, the ethics and rhetoric in video games' computational systems is exposed.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Boyle\\|first1\\=Casey\\|last2\\=Brown\\|first2\\=James J.\\|last3\\=Ceraso\\|first3\\=Steph\\|date\\=May 27, 2018\\|title\\=The Digital: Rhetoric Behind and Beyond the Screen\\|journal\\=Rhetoric Society Quarterly\\|volume\\=48\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=251–259\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/02773945\\.2018\\.1454187\\|s2cid\\=149842629\\|issn\\=0277\\-3945}} Analysis of video games as an interactive medium reveals the underlying rhetoric through the performative activity of the player. Recognition of procedural rhetoric through course studies reflects how these mediums can augment politics, advertisement, and information. To help address the rhetoric in video game code, scholar Collin Bjork makes a series of recommendations for integrating digital rhetoric with [usability testing](/wiki/Usability_testing \"Usability testing\") in online writing instruction.", "Some scholars have also identified specific practices for digital rhetoric instruction in pre\\-collegiate classrooms. As Douglas Eyman points out, students require agency when learning digital rhetoric, meaning instructors designing lessons must allow students to interact with the technology directly and enact change on the design. This is consistent with discoveries by other professors, who claim one of the primary goals of students in a digital rhetoric classroom is to create space for themselves, connections with peers, and deeply understand its significance. These interpersonal connections reflect a \"thick correlation between digitalization and empowering pedagogy\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Salmieri\\|first\\=Luca\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=The Rhetoric of Digitalization in Italian Educational Policies: Situating Reception among Digitally Skilled Teachers\\|journal\\=Italian Journal of Sociology of Education\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=2/2019\\|pages\\=162–183\\|doi\\=10\\.14658/pupj\\-ijse\\-2019\\-1\\-8\\|issn\\=2035\\-4983}}", "#### Pre\\-K", "The United States Government's Office of Educational Technology has emphasized four guiding principles when using technology with early learners:{{Cite web \\|title\\=Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners \\|url\\=https://tech.ed.gov/earlylearning/principles/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 28, 2022 \\|website\\=Office of Educational Technology \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "1. When used appropriately, technology can be a tool for learning.\n2. The use of technology should allow for increased access to learning opportunities for all children.\n3. Technology can be used to strengthen relationships between children and their families, early educators, and friends.\n4. Technology is most effective when early learners are interacting with adults and peers. Adults can also supervise children online for said effectiveness.\nDespite these four pillars, most studies conclude that learning technology for children under the age of two is not beneficial. At most, technology can be used to promote relationship development for these children; for instance, by using video chat software to connect with loved ones at a distance.", "### Digital rhetoric as a field of study", "In 2009, rhetorician [Elizabeth Losh](/wiki/Elizabeth_Losh \"Elizabeth Losh\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=Elizabeth Losh\\|url\\=http://losh.ucsd.edu/\\|website\\=losh.ucsd.edu}} offered this four\\-part definition of digital rhetoric in her book *Virtualpolitik*:{{Cite book\\|last\\=Losh, E.\\|url\\=http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/virtualpolitik\\|title\\=Virtualpolitik\\|publisher\\=MIT Press\\|year\\=2009\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-12304\\-4}}\n1. The conventions of new digital genres that are used for everyday discourse, as well as for special occasions, in average people's lives.\n2. [Public rhetoric](/wiki/Public_rhetoric \"Public rhetoric\"), often in the form of political messages from government institutions, that is represented or recorded through digital technology and disseminated via electronically distributed networks.\n3. The emerging scholarly [discipline](/wiki/Discipline_%28academia%29 \"Discipline (academia)\") concerned with the rhetorical interpretation of computer\\-generated media as objects of study.\n4. Mathematical theories of communication from the field of [information science](/wiki/Information_science \"Information science\"), many of which attempt to quantify the amount of uncertainty in a given linguistic exchange or the likely paths through which messages travel.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Losh\\|first\\=Elizabeth\\|url\\=http://gossettphd.org/library/losh\\_hackingaristotle.pdf\\|title\\=Virtualpolitik: An Electronic History of Government Media\\-Making in a Time of War, Scandal, Disaster, Miscommunication, and Mistakes\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=MIT\\|pages\\=47–48\\|access\\-date\\=April 24, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023101108/http://gossettphd.org/library/losh\\_hackingaristotle.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2014}}", "Losh's definition demonstrates that digital rhetoric is a field that relies on different methods to study various types of information, such as code, text, visuals, videos, and so on.", "Douglas Eyman suggests that classical theories can be mapped onto digital media but a larger academic focus should be placed on the \"extension of rhetorical theory\".{{Cite web\\|title\\=Looking Back and Looking Forward: Digital Rhetoric as Evolving Field {{!}} enculturation\\|url\\=http://enculturation.net/looking\\-back\\-and\\-looking\\-forward\\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2022\\|website\\=enculturation.net}} Careers in developing and analyzing the rhetoric in code form a prominent field of study. *Computers and Composition*, a journal established in 1985, focuses on computer communication and has considered the use of \"rhetoric as their conceptual framework\" and the digital rhetoric in software development.", "Studies on how digital rhetoric implicates various topics are ongoing and encompass many fields. In his book, *Digital Griots: African American Rhetoric in a Multimedia Age*, [Adam J. Banks](/wiki/Adam_J._Banks \"Adam J. Banks\") states that modern day storytellers, like stand\\-up comics and spoken word poets, give African American rhetoric a flexible approach that is still true to tradition.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Banks\\|first\\=Adam J\\|title\\=Digital griots: African American rhetoric in a multimedia age\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Southern Illinois University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8093\\-3020\\-1\\|oclc\\=977841399}}{{page needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} While digital rhetoric can be used to facilitate traditions, select cultures face several practical application issues. [Radhika Gajjala](/wiki/Radhika_Gajjala \"Radhika Gajjala\"), professor at [Bowling Green State University](/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University \"Bowling Green State University\"), writes that South Asian cyber feminists face issues with regard to building their web presence.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gajjala\\|first\\=Radhika\\|date\\=March 2003\\|title\\=South Asian digital diasporas and cyberfeminist webs: negotiating globalization, nation, gender and information technology design\\|journal\\=Contemporary South Asia\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=41–56\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/0958493032000123362\\|s2cid\\=143325390}}", "#### Research ethics", "Writing and rhetoric scholars Heidi McKee and James E. Porter discuss the complicated issue of Internet users posting information publicly on the Internet but expecting the post to be semi\\-private. This appears contradictory, but socially the Internet is composed of millions of [social identities](/wiki/Social_identity_theory \"Social identity theory\"), [social groups](/wiki/Social_group \"Social group\"), [social norms](/wiki/Social_norm \"Social norm\"), and [social influence](/wiki/Social_influence \"Social influence\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=McKee \\|first1\\=Heidi \\|last2\\=Porter \\|first2\\=James E. \\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=The Ethics of Digital Writing Research: A Rhetorical Approach \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20457031 \\|journal\\=College Composition and Communication \\|volume\\=59 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=711–749 \\|doi\\=10\\.58680/ccc20086675 \\|jstor\\=20457031 \\|issn\\=0010\\-096X}} These social aspects of the Internet are important to consider when studying digital topics because the digital and non\\-digital are getting harder to distinguish from one another.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Goodyear \\|first\\=Victoria A. \\|date\\=May 27, 2017 \\|title\\=Social media, apps and wearable technologies: navigating ethical dilemmas and procedures \\|journal\\=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=285–302 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/2159676X.2017\\.1303790 \\|s2cid\\=151680280 \\|issn\\=2159\\-676X\\|url\\=https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/social\\-media\\-apps\\-and\\-wearable\\-technologies(15733535\\-fe50\\-466b\\-9595\\-8ab60218726f).html }}", "A study conducted by Rösner and Krämer in 2016 showed that participants' identities would reflect the norms of these online social groups. Similar to how social groups are seen in an in\\-person setting, posts on forums, comment sections, and social media are like having a conversation with friends in a public setting. Typically, researchers would not use a conversation heard in public, but an online conversation is not only available to its social group.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Rösner \\|first1\\=Leonie \\|last2\\=Krämer \\|first2\\=Nicole C. \\|date\\=July 2016 \\|title\\=Verbal Venting in the Social Web: Effects of Anonymity and Group Norms on Aggressive Language Use in Online Comments \\|journal\\=Social Media \\+ Society \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=3 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/2056305116664220 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=2056\\-3051}} James Zappen, in his article \"Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory\", adds that many of these groups foster a creative and collaborative nature to share information to the public.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Zappen \\|first\\=James P. \\|date\\=July 2005 \\|title\\=Digital Rhetoric: Toward an Integrated Theory \\|journal\\=Technical Communication Quarterly \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=319–325 \\|doi\\=10\\.1207/s15427625tcq1403\\_10 \\|s2cid\\=54783060 \\|issn\\=1057\\-2252}}", "McKee and Porter suggest the use of a [casuistic](/wiki/Casuistry \"Casuistry\") [heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic \"Heuristic\") approach to doing digital research. This method of study is based on focusing on the moral principle of '[do no harm](/wiki/Harm_principle \"Harm principle\")' to the audience and generating needed formulas or diagrams to help guide the researcher when gathering data. It is noted that this method does not provide all the answers. Instead, it is a starting point for the scholar to approach the digital world. More scholars have added their own take to an ethical approach for digital data. Many have a case\\-based approach with add\\-on consent from participants (if possible), anonymity to participants, and consideration of what harm could come to the groups being studied.{{Cite book \\|title\\=The ethics of online research \\|date\\=2018 \\|editor\\=Kandy Woodfield \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78714\\-485\\-9 \\|location\\=Bingley, UK \\|publisher\\=Emerald Group Publishing\\|oclc\\=1020570628}}", "Eyman gives background information on ancient rhetoric going all the way back to Aristotle. The definition of rhetoric provided by the author is accurate. Eyman included illustrations of both conventional and modern rhetoric. Beginning with ancient Greece and the medieval eras, the shift to more modern methods and instances is made. He explains three expression modes: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos. It is crucial to keep in mind that the term \"digital\" also refers to the physical production of texts, whether they are produced in print or electronically. In rhetorical studies, text can be seen as the medium for persuasive discourse or arguments; however, this tradition is primarily associated with printed texts. 'Electric rhetoric', 'computational rhetoric', and 'technorhetoric' are only a few of the words that were mentioned.{{Relevance inline\\|date\\=March 2023}}", "Douglas Eyman's *Digital Rhetoric: Theory, Method, Practice* features a chapter that analyzes the concept of multimodal composition. He details how society's quickly advancing digital technologies have enabled individuals to communicate in unprecedented ways and to an enhanced extent. Different forms of communication, like images, sound, and video, can be applied in tandem with traditional written text to produce compelling and flexible rhetorical messages.", "" ]
History ------- In 1976, Leif Tullberg and nine independent haulers established DSV, an initialism for "De Sammensluttede Vognmænd af 13\-7 1976 A/S" (The Joint Hauliers of 13\-7 1976\).{{Cite web \|title\=Annual Report 2009 \|url\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\-R3OLQ/2375492434x0x536004/E56090DB\-D936\-4290\-B8B2\-310C41E3B3F8/UK\-Annual\_Report\_2009\.pdf \|access\-date\=31 March 2010 \|publisher\=DSV \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106011652/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\-R3OLQ/2375492434x0x536004/E56090DB\-D936\-4290\-B8B2\-310C41E3B3F8/UK\-Annual\_Report\_2009\.pdf \|archive\-date\=6 January 2017 \|url\-status\=dead }} Leif Tullberg remained CEO until his retirement in 2005\. He was succeeded by Kurt Larsen who became chairman of the board of directors in 2008 when Jens Bjørn Andersen took over as CEO. During the first decade the company mainly functioned as a cartage department for the owners, handling contract haulage and deliveries. Seeking a foothold on the international market, DSV bought two competing export companies in 1989, Borup Autotransport A/S and Hammerbro A/S\-Bech Trans. The next acquisitions on the road to becoming Pan\-European were Samson Transport Co. A/S in 1997 and Svex Group A/S in 1999\. The purchase of the DFDS Dan Transport Group in 2000 provided DSV with important road transport activities in Scandinavia, the UK, several Mainland European countries and the Baltics plus a global network including a logistics set\-up. The purchase of J.H. Bachmann in 2005 reinforced the company's position within international air and sea transport. The acquisition of the Dutch Frans Maas Group in 2006 placed DSV as a truly Pan\-European road transport and logistics supplier – and one of the three largest in Europe.{{Cite web \|title\=eft \- Supply Chain \& Logistics Business Intelligence \|url\=http://www.eyefortransport.com/ \|website\=eyefortransport.com}} With the acquisition of ABX LOGISTICS in 2008, DSV got a foothold in South America and is now represented on six continents. With the acquisition of UTi Worldwide, Inc. in 2016 and Panalpina Welttransport (Holding) AG in 2019, the company became one of the world's four largest transport and logistics companies. On 1 April 2019, an acquisition agreement with Swiss Panalpina was announced valued at [CHF](/wiki/Swiss_Franc "Swiss Franc") 4\.6 billion ([€](/wiki/Euro "Euro") 4\.1 billion).{{Cite news \|date\=2019\-04\-01 \|title\=Panalpina and DSV agree to join forces \|publisher\=DSV A/S \|url\=http://investor.dsv.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/dsv\-741\-panalpina\-and\-dsv\-agree\-join\-forces \|access\-date\=2019\-04\-03}} On 19 August 2019, DSV announced that the acquisition of Panalpina was completed.{{Cite news \|date\=2019\-08\-19 \|title\=DSV completes acquisition of Panalpina \|publisher\=DSV A/S \|url\=http://investor.dsv.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/dsv\-778\-DSV\-completes\-acquisition\-panalpina \|access\-date\=2019\-08\-19}} In July 2020, DSV announced its plans to invest approx. DKK2bn in a new logistics centre near [Horsens](/wiki/Horsens "Horsens"), Europe's largest with just one leaseholder.{{Cite news \|title\=DSV builds Europe's largest logistics centre \|publisher\=Global Cargo News \|url\=https://www.globalcargonews.com/dsv\-builds\-europes\-largest\-logistics\-centre \|access\-date\=2 July 2020 \|archive\-date\=2 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702093945/https://www.globalcargonews.com/dsv\-builds\-europes\-largest\-logistics\-centre \|url\-status\=dead }} In December 2020, DSV announced they would acquire Globeflight Worldwide Express, a South African\-based courier company.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.mynewsdesk.com/dsv\-corporate\-news/pressreleases/dsv\-panalpina\-acquires\-globeflight\-3055928 \| title\=DSV Panalpina acquires Globeflight \| date\=3 December 2020 }} The deal was completed in May 2021\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.dsv.com/en/about\-dsv/press/news/com/2021/05/dsv\-panalpina\-completes\-acquisition\-of\-globeflight\#:\~:text\=DSV%20Panalpina%20completes%20the%20acquisition,initially%20announced%20in%20December%202020 \| title\=DSV Panalpina completes acquisition of Globeflight \| DSV }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.freightnews.co.za/article/dsv\-panalpina\-and\-globeflight\-officially\-tie\-knot \| title\=DSV Panalpina and Globeflight officially tie the knot \| date\=4 May 2021 }} DSV offers a prepaid service in South Africa through their [DSV Direct](https://dsvdirect.co.za/) website, DSV Courier, allowing users to send packages without an account.[https://mybroadband.co.za/news/it\-services/482665\-best\-courier\-services\-in\-south\-africa.html](https://mybroadband.co.za/news/it-services/482665-best-courier-services-in-south-africa.html) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}} On 27 April 2021, DSV agreed terms to acquire [Agility Logistics](/wiki/Agility_Logistics "Agility Logistics").{{Cite web\|title\=DSV Panalpina acquires Agilitys Global Integrated Logistics business\|url\=https://www.dsv.com/en/about\-dsv/press/news/com/2021/04/dsv\-panalpina\-acquires\-agilitys\-global\-integrated\-logistics\-business\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-18\|website\=www.dsv.com\|language\=en}} The acquisition was completed 19 August 2021\. With this acquisition, the company gained a stronger foothold in the Middle East and added additional capacity to all its divisions: Air \& Sea, Road and Solutions. In September 2024, DSV agreed terms to purchased [DB Schenker](/wiki/DB_Schenker "DB Schenker") from [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn "Deutsche Bahn") for €14\.3 billion. On completion of the acquisition, the combined company will become the largest freight\-forwarder in the world.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/freight\-forwarder\-dsv\-buys\-deutsche\-bahns\-schenker\-159\-billion\-2024\-09\-13/ \|title\=DSV to create global logistics giant with $15\.9 bln Schenker takeover \|date\=13 September 2024 \|publisher\=\[\[Reuters]]\|first1\=Stine \|last1\=Jacobsen \|first2\=Jacob \|last2\=Gronholt\-Pedersen \|first3\=Rachel \|last3\=More}}[DSV to acquire DB Schenker](https://www.thedcn.com.au/news-repeat/dsv-to-acquire-db-schenker/) *[Daily Cargo News](/wiki/Daily_Cargo_News "Daily Cargo News")* 16 September 2024
[ "History\n-------", "In 1976, Leif Tullberg and nine independent haulers established DSV, an initialism for \"De Sammensluttede Vognmænd af 13\\-7 1976 A/S\" (The Joint Hauliers of 13\\-7 1976\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Annual Report 2009 \\|url\\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\\-R3OLQ/2375492434x0x536004/E56090DB\\-D936\\-4290\\-B8B2\\-310C41E3B3F8/UK\\-Annual\\_Report\\_2009\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2010 \\|publisher\\=DSV \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106011652/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AMDA\\-R3OLQ/2375492434x0x536004/E56090DB\\-D936\\-4290\\-B8B2\\-310C41E3B3F8/UK\\-Annual\\_Report\\_2009\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=6 January 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Leif Tullberg remained CEO until his retirement in 2005\\.", "He was succeeded by Kurt Larsen who became chairman of the board of directors in 2008 when Jens Bjørn Andersen took over as CEO.", "During the first decade the company mainly functioned as a cartage department for the owners, handling contract haulage and deliveries.", "Seeking a foothold on the international market, DSV bought two competing export companies in 1989, Borup Autotransport A/S and Hammerbro A/S\\-Bech Trans. The next acquisitions on the road to becoming Pan\\-European were Samson Transport Co. A/S in 1997 and Svex Group A/S in 1999\\.", "The purchase of the DFDS Dan Transport Group in 2000 provided DSV with important road transport activities in Scandinavia, the UK, several Mainland European countries and the Baltics plus a global network including a logistics set\\-up. The purchase of J.H. Bachmann in 2005 reinforced the company's position within international air and sea transport.", "The acquisition of the Dutch Frans Maas Group in 2006 placed DSV as a truly Pan\\-European road transport and logistics supplier – and one of the three largest in Europe.{{Cite web \\|title\\=eft \\- Supply Chain \\& Logistics Business Intelligence \\|url\\=http://www.eyefortransport.com/ \\|website\\=eyefortransport.com}} With the acquisition of ABX LOGISTICS in 2008, DSV got a foothold in South America and is now represented on six continents. With the acquisition of UTi Worldwide, Inc. in 2016 and Panalpina Welttransport (Holding) AG in 2019, the company became one of the world's four largest transport and logistics companies.", "On 1 April 2019, an acquisition agreement with Swiss Panalpina was announced valued at [CHF](/wiki/Swiss_Franc \"Swiss Franc\") 4\\.6 billion ([€](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") 4\\.1 billion).{{Cite news \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-01 \\|title\\=Panalpina and DSV agree to join forces \\|publisher\\=DSV A/S \\|url\\=http://investor.dsv.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/dsv\\-741\\-panalpina\\-and\\-dsv\\-agree\\-join\\-forces \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-03}} On 19 August 2019, DSV announced that the acquisition of Panalpina was completed.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2019\\-08\\-19 \\|title\\=DSV completes acquisition of Panalpina \\|publisher\\=DSV A/S \\|url\\=http://investor.dsv.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/dsv\\-778\\-DSV\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-panalpina \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-19}}", "In July 2020, DSV announced its plans to invest approx. DKK2bn in a new logistics centre near [Horsens](/wiki/Horsens \"Horsens\"), Europe's largest with just one leaseholder.{{Cite news \\|title\\=DSV builds Europe's largest logistics centre \\|publisher\\=Global Cargo News \\|url\\=https://www.globalcargonews.com/dsv\\-builds\\-europes\\-largest\\-logistics\\-centre \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702093945/https://www.globalcargonews.com/dsv\\-builds\\-europes\\-largest\\-logistics\\-centre \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "In December 2020, DSV announced they would acquire Globeflight Worldwide Express, a South African\\-based courier company.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.mynewsdesk.com/dsv\\-corporate\\-news/pressreleases/dsv\\-panalpina\\-acquires\\-globeflight\\-3055928 \\| title\\=DSV Panalpina acquires Globeflight \\| date\\=3 December 2020 }} The deal was completed in May 2021\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.dsv.com/en/about\\-dsv/press/news/com/2021/05/dsv\\-panalpina\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-of\\-globeflight\\#:\\~:text\\=DSV%20Panalpina%20completes%20the%20acquisition,initially%20announced%20in%20December%202020 \\| title\\=DSV Panalpina completes acquisition of Globeflight \\| DSV }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.freightnews.co.za/article/dsv\\-panalpina\\-and\\-globeflight\\-officially\\-tie\\-knot \\| title\\=DSV Panalpina and Globeflight officially tie the knot \\| date\\=4 May 2021 }} DSV offers a prepaid service in South Africa through their [DSV Direct](https://dsvdirect.co.za/) website, DSV Courier, allowing users to send packages without an account.[https://mybroadband.co.za/news/it\\-services/482665\\-best\\-courier\\-services\\-in\\-south\\-africa.html](https://mybroadband.co.za/news/it-services/482665-best-courier-services-in-south-africa.html) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}", "On 27 April 2021, DSV agreed terms to acquire [Agility Logistics](/wiki/Agility_Logistics \"Agility Logistics\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=DSV Panalpina acquires Agilitys Global Integrated Logistics business\\|url\\=https://www.dsv.com/en/about\\-dsv/press/news/com/2021/04/dsv\\-panalpina\\-acquires\\-agilitys\\-global\\-integrated\\-logistics\\-business\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-18\\|website\\=www.dsv.com\\|language\\=en}} The acquisition was completed 19 August 2021\\. With this acquisition, the company gained a stronger foothold in the Middle East and added additional capacity to all its divisions: Air \\& Sea, Road and Solutions.", "In September 2024, DSV agreed terms to purchased [DB Schenker](/wiki/DB_Schenker \"DB Schenker\") from [Deutsche Bahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn \"Deutsche Bahn\") for €14\\.3 billion. On completion of the acquisition, the combined company will become the largest freight\\-forwarder in the world.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/freight\\-forwarder\\-dsv\\-buys\\-deutsche\\-bahns\\-schenker\\-159\\-billion\\-2024\\-09\\-13/ \\|title\\=DSV to create global logistics giant with $15\\.9 bln Schenker takeover \\|date\\=13 September 2024 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Reuters]]\\|first1\\=Stine \\|last1\\=Jacobsen \\|first2\\=Jacob \\|last2\\=Gronholt\\-Pedersen \\|first3\\=Rachel \\|last3\\=More}}[DSV to acquire DB Schenker](https://www.thedcn.com.au/news-repeat/dsv-to-acquire-db-schenker/) *[Daily Cargo News](/wiki/Daily_Cargo_News \"Daily Cargo News\")* 16 September 2024", "" ]
Early life and education ------------------------ Mulindwa was born on 26 January 1983 in Nsenya\-Namaliga Village, [Lugazi](/wiki/Lugazi "Lugazi") Municipality, [Buikwe District](/wiki/Buikwe_District "Buikwe District"), in an [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") family of the [Baganda](/wiki/Baganda "Baganda"). He is the third\-born of five children and the son of the late Emmanuel Mulindwa, a former banker and owner of New Kyaggwe Bus Company, and Sarah Namazzi Mulindwa, a caterer. He's the brother to Faridah Namulindwa, Ediriisa Mulindwa, Mariam Namulindwa and Moses mulindwa. He had his primary education at Nkoyoyo Boarding Primary School Matale, where he was a [dormitory prefect](/wiki/Prefect%23Academic "Prefect#Academic"), and Lugazi East Primary School, where he attained his [PLE certification](/wiki/Primary_School_Leaving_Examination "Primary School Leaving Examination") in 1995\. He then attended Lugazi Progressive College School and 3Rs Secondary School Kasokoso for his [O\-Level](/wiki/GCE_Ordinary_Level "GCE Ordinary Level") education and Crane High School, Kampala for his [A\-Level](/wiki/GCE_Advanced_Level "GCE Advanced Level") education, attaining a [UCE certification](/wiki/Uganda_Certificate_of_Education "Uganda Certificate of Education") in 1999 and a [UACE certification](/wiki/Uganda_Advanced_Certificate_of_Education "Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education") in 2001\. He was a [time keeper](/wiki/Time_keeper "Time keeper"), a [class monitor](/wiki/Hall_monitor%23In_other_countries "Hall monitor#In other countries") and a member of the [Scripture Union](/wiki/Scripture_Union "Scripture Union") at Lugazi Progressive College School. Mulindwa further advanced to [Makerere University](/wiki/Makerere_University "Makerere University"), graduating in 2006 with a [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree "Bachelor's degree") in [Social Sciences](/wiki/Social_Sciences "Social Sciences"): majoring in [political science](/wiki/Political_science "Political science"), [social administration](/wiki/Social_administration "Social administration") as well as [gender \& economics](/wiki/Gender_and_development "Gender and development"). He also attended the [Chartered Institute of Procurement \& Supply](/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Procurement_%26_Supply "Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply") (CIPS), attaining full membership and a Certificate in [Procurement and Supply Operations](/wiki/Supply_chain_management "Supply chain management") (MCIPS) in 2009\. Additionally, Mulindwa has a Certificate in Strategic Procurement and [Logistics Management](/wiki/Logistics_Management "Logistics Management") (SPLM), a Certificate in [Computer Applications](/wiki/Computer_Applications "Computer Applications") and a Certificate in Information Technology Essentials I \& II from [Makerere University](/wiki/Makerere_University "Makerere University") as well as a Certificate in Local Government \& [Decentralization](/wiki/Decentralization "Decentralization") from [Uganda Management Institute](/wiki/Uganda_Management_Institute "Uganda Management Institute").
[ "Early life and education\n------------------------", "Mulindwa was born on 26 January 1983 in Nsenya\\-Namaliga Village, [Lugazi](/wiki/Lugazi \"Lugazi\") Municipality, [Buikwe District](/wiki/Buikwe_District \"Buikwe District\"), in an [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") family of the [Baganda](/wiki/Baganda \"Baganda\"). He is the third\\-born of five children and the son of the late Emmanuel Mulindwa, a former banker and owner of New Kyaggwe Bus Company, and Sarah Namazzi Mulindwa, a caterer. He's the brother to Faridah Namulindwa, Ediriisa Mulindwa, Mariam Namulindwa and Moses mulindwa.", "He had his primary education at Nkoyoyo Boarding Primary School Matale, where he was a [dormitory prefect](/wiki/Prefect%23Academic \"Prefect#Academic\"), and Lugazi East Primary School, where he attained his [PLE certification](/wiki/Primary_School_Leaving_Examination \"Primary School Leaving Examination\") in 1995\\.", "He then attended Lugazi Progressive College School and 3Rs Secondary School Kasokoso for his [O\\-Level](/wiki/GCE_Ordinary_Level \"GCE Ordinary Level\") education and Crane High School, Kampala for his [A\\-Level](/wiki/GCE_Advanced_Level \"GCE Advanced Level\") education, attaining a [UCE certification](/wiki/Uganda_Certificate_of_Education \"Uganda Certificate of Education\") in 1999 and a [UACE certification](/wiki/Uganda_Advanced_Certificate_of_Education \"Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education\") in 2001\\. He was a [time keeper](/wiki/Time_keeper \"Time keeper\"), a [class monitor](/wiki/Hall_monitor%23In_other_countries \"Hall monitor#In other countries\") and a member of the [Scripture Union](/wiki/Scripture_Union \"Scripture Union\") at Lugazi Progressive College School.", "Mulindwa further advanced to [Makerere University](/wiki/Makerere_University \"Makerere University\"), graduating in 2006 with a [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree \"Bachelor's degree\") in [Social Sciences](/wiki/Social_Sciences \"Social Sciences\"): majoring in [political science](/wiki/Political_science \"Political science\"), [social administration](/wiki/Social_administration \"Social administration\") as well as [gender \\& economics](/wiki/Gender_and_development \"Gender and development\"). He also attended the [Chartered Institute of Procurement \\& Supply](/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Procurement_%26_Supply \"Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply\") (CIPS), attaining full membership and a Certificate in [Procurement and Supply Operations](/wiki/Supply_chain_management \"Supply chain management\") (MCIPS) in 2009\\.", "Additionally, Mulindwa has a Certificate in Strategic Procurement and [Logistics Management](/wiki/Logistics_Management \"Logistics Management\") (SPLM), a Certificate in [Computer Applications](/wiki/Computer_Applications \"Computer Applications\") and a Certificate in Information Technology Essentials I \\& II from [Makerere University](/wiki/Makerere_University \"Makerere University\") as well as a Certificate in Local Government \\& [Decentralization](/wiki/Decentralization \"Decentralization\") from [Uganda Management Institute](/wiki/Uganda_Management_Institute \"Uganda Management Institute\").", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- As transitional justice director at the U.S.\-based organization [Center for Justice \& Accountability](/wiki/Center_for_Justice_and_Accountability "Center for Justice and Accountability"), Ms. Bernabeu successfully litigated more than a dozen civil cases brought under the Alien Tort Statute and criminal cases in Europe under the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction to assist victims to achieve truth and accountability for international crimes. Bernabeu has worked in [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia") since 2010, when she filed a lawsuit against former paramilitary member Carlos Mario Jiménez alias "Macaco" — extradited to the United States — for the assassination of attorney Alma Rosa Jaramillo and popular leader Eduardo Estrada. Bernabeu was actively involved in the *Justicia y Paz* process and, at present, she is at the centre of the truth and justice efforts designed in the 2016 Peace Accord, providing legal and technical guidance to both transitional institutions as well as afro\-descendant, indigenous and peasant organizations from Colombia's rural areas. As a result of this process, in June 2019, ethnic communities of Buenaventura and Northern Cauca filed four legal reports on crimes against humanity committed in their regions before the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) and the Truth Commission (CEV); a landmark event seeking to guarantee the effective participation of these victims before Colombian transitional mechanisms. Nowadays, Almudena's team is working with victim's organizations of Montes de María and Putumayo to file detailed legal reports on crimes against humanity committed in the regions before the JEP and CEV. Under Bernabeu's leadership, the Guernica Centre has signed memorandums of understanding with the JEP and the CEV and built long\-term alliances with academic institutions, such as the Intercultural Studies Institute of the University Javeriana of Cali, to adopt a multidisciplinary and ethnic approach to her investigations. In [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), Bernabeu investigated and provided essential evidence to secure a civil judgment against Pedro Barrientos Nuñez, a former lieutenant in the Chilean Military responsible for the torture and murder of the popular singer Víctor Jara. Meanwhile, in [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala "Guatemala"), Bernabeu led the investigation and prosecution of the [genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide") committed against the Mayan people. In 2011 this important case was the subject of the documentary film *Granito: How to Nail a Dictator*.{{cite news\|last1\=Rohter\|first1\=Larry\|title\=Old Footage Haunts General and a Director\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/11/movies/pamela\-yatess\-granito\-revisits\-guatemala.html?\_r\=0\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=9 September 2011}} The process before the Spanish National Court provided the victims the opportunity to tell their stories and present their "truth" about one of the darkest chapters in recent Guatemalan history. This investigation was instrumental in the conviction of the former Guatemalan dictator Efraín Rios Montt for genocide.{{cite news\|last1\=Montgomery\|first1\=David\|title\=Hunting Dictators and Helping Prisoners: Human Rights Award Winners Reflect on the Sources of their Passion\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/style\-blog/wp/2015/10/07/hunting\-dictators\-and\-helping\-prisoners\-human\-rights\-award\-winners\-reflect\-on\-the\-sources\-of\-their\-passion/\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|work\=The Washington Post\|date\=7 October 2015}} Since 2003, Bernabeu was also the lead prosecutor in the case against Salvadoran officials for the massacre of Jesuit priests in 1989\. In that incident, armed members of El Salvador's army, following Salvadoran Military High Command orders, burst into the Jesuit residence at the Universidad Centroamericana in San Salvador and executed six Jesuit priests, a housekeeper and her daughter. An attack that marked a turning point in [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador "El Salvador")'s conflict. As a result of these investigations, a U.S. Court approved the extradition of Colonel Inocente Orlando Montano to Spain to face trial before the Spanish National Court, a trial that took place last June and July 2020 and ended with the defendant being sentenced to 133 years in prison for five crimes of terrorist murders. Bernabeu led the private prosecution of this case, while working with Salvadoran civil society to foster and strength with its accountability initiatives in the country. Among these initiatives, Bernabeu is collaborating with a victims' organization to actively support for the Salvadoran State's compliance with the Supreme Court's ruling on the unconstitutionality of the Amnesty Law (2016\). Also, Bernabeu is providing technical assistance for the prosecution of crimes to the Office of the Prosecutor General in El Salvador.{{cite news\|last1\=Burnett\|first1\=Victoria\|title\=Jesuit Killings in El Salvador Could Reach Trial in Spain\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/14/world/americas/14salvador.html\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=13 November 2008}}{{cite news\|last1\=Castillo\|first1\=Juan\|title\=25 Yrs After El Salvador Priest Killings, Groups Press For Justice\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/25\-yrs\-after\-el\-salvador\-priest\-killings\-groups\-press\-justice\-n247276\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|publisher\=NBC News\|date\=13 November 2014}} Bernabeu's work was instrumental in securing the 2015 deportation from [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") to El Salvador of [Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova](/wiki/Carlos_Eugenio_Vides_Casanova "Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova"), a former defense minister implicated in "[extrajudicial killing](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing "Extrajudicial killing") and torture" during the [Salvadoran Civil War](/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War "Salvadoran Civil War") of 1980\-1992, according to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement.{{cite news\|last1\=Gamboa\|first1\=Suzanne\|title\=Deportation Upheld Of Salvadoran Ex\-Official For Torture, Killings\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/former\-el\-salvador\-defense\-ministers\-deportation\-upheld\-n321801\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|publisher\=NBC News\|issue\=11 March 2015}} Another achievement by Almudena Bernabeu was bringing to justice the case of those responsible for the genocide of the [Mayan people](/wiki/Mayan_people "Mayan people") in [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala "Guatemala"). The case was put before the [Spanish National Court](/wiki/Spanish_National_Court "Spanish National Court"). One of the accused was Efraín Rios Montt, former dictator of Guatemala.[Almudena Bernabeu (Co\-Founder)](http://guernica37.org/our_group/almudena-bernabeu/) The team of lawyers working at G37 Despacho Internacional, together with its London partner Guernica37 International Justice Chambers, have investigated international crimes committed in Syria since March 2011, at the behest of victims' families, in order to achieve accountability and promote a processes of transitional justice, after the end of hostilities. On 31 January 2017, and as result of these investigations, G37 Despacho Internacional filed a complaint before the Spanish National Court against members of Syrian security forces and military intelligence on the basis of their alleged responsibility for the commission of a crime of State terrorism.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/world/europe/spain\-syria\-torture\-case.html?\_r\=0\|title\=9 Syrian Officials Are Accused Of Torture in Spanish Court\|date\=2 February 2017\|newspaper\=New York Times}} The complainant \-the sister of a Syrian citizen arbitrarily detained, tortured and executed in a detention centre in Damascus\- is a victim of Spanish nationality.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/from\-a\-trove\-of\-grim\-photos\-a\-case\-against\-assads\-government/2017/02/01/728575d0\-e8d7\-11e6\-bf6f\-301b6b443624\_story.html\|title\=A photo of her brother's corpse popped up on her phone. Now Syrian officials could be put on trial for war crimes\|date\=2 February 2017\|newspaper\=The Washington Post}} Since February 2019, Bernabeu's team has worked alongside Nicaraguan organizations to create and develop an alliance called ‘Coalition for Justice in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua")' (CJN), aimed at starting investigations and accountability processes in order to promote changes and transformations that strengthen the rule of law in the country, especially after the brutal repression of 2018's demonstrations by State security forces. In her acceptance of the 2015 Letelier\-Moffitt Human Rights Award, Bernabeu explained her passion for bringing human rights violators to justice: "I don't want to take care of the poor or those who have been tortured or those who have been abused ... I want this stupid world to stop abusing people ... . I want to help the person whose child was disappeared — of course. But my strongest sense of who I am, if I want to be super\-honest, is, how can I fight and tell the world that this \[expletive] was actually ordering these disappearances and getting rid of these 18\-year\-old students?"
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "As transitional justice director at the U.S.\\-based organization [Center for Justice \\& Accountability](/wiki/Center_for_Justice_and_Accountability \"Center for Justice and Accountability\"), Ms. Bernabeu successfully litigated more than a dozen civil cases brought under the Alien Tort Statute and criminal cases in Europe under the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction to assist victims to achieve truth and accountability for international crimes.", "Bernabeu has worked in [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") since 2010, when she filed a lawsuit against former paramilitary member Carlos Mario Jiménez alias \"Macaco\" — extradited to the United States — for the assassination of attorney Alma Rosa Jaramillo and popular leader Eduardo Estrada. Bernabeu was actively involved in the *Justicia y Paz* process and, at present, she is at the centre of the truth and justice efforts designed in the 2016 Peace Accord, providing legal and technical guidance to both transitional institutions as well as afro\\-descendant, indigenous and peasant organizations from Colombia's rural areas. As a result of this process, in June 2019, ethnic communities of Buenaventura and Northern Cauca filed four legal reports on crimes against humanity committed in their regions before the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) and the Truth Commission (CEV); a landmark event seeking to guarantee the effective participation of these victims before Colombian transitional mechanisms. Nowadays, Almudena's team is working with victim's organizations of Montes de María and Putumayo to file detailed legal reports on crimes against humanity committed in the regions before the JEP and CEV. Under Bernabeu's leadership, the Guernica Centre has signed memorandums of understanding with the JEP and the CEV and built long\\-term alliances with academic institutions, such as the Intercultural Studies Institute of the University Javeriana of Cali, to adopt a multidisciplinary and ethnic approach to her investigations.", "In [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), Bernabeu investigated and provided essential evidence to secure a civil judgment against Pedro Barrientos Nuñez, a former lieutenant in the Chilean Military responsible for the torture and murder of the popular singer Víctor Jara.", "Meanwhile, in [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala \"Guatemala\"), Bernabeu led the investigation and prosecution of the [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\") committed against the Mayan people. In 2011 this important case was the subject of the documentary film *Granito: How to Nail a Dictator*.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Rohter\\|first1\\=Larry\\|title\\=Old Footage Haunts General and a Director\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/11/movies/pamela\\-yatess\\-granito\\-revisits\\-guatemala.html?\\_r\\=0\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=9 September 2011}} The process before the Spanish National Court provided the victims the opportunity to tell their stories and present their \"truth\" about one of the darkest chapters in recent Guatemalan history. This investigation was instrumental in the conviction of the former Guatemalan dictator Efraín Rios Montt for genocide.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Montgomery\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Hunting Dictators and Helping Prisoners: Human Rights Award Winners Reflect on the Sources of their Passion\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/style\\-blog/wp/2015/10/07/hunting\\-dictators\\-and\\-helping\\-prisoners\\-human\\-rights\\-award\\-winners\\-reflect\\-on\\-the\\-sources\\-of\\-their\\-passion/\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|work\\=The Washington Post\\|date\\=7 October 2015}}", "Since 2003, Bernabeu was also the lead prosecutor in the case against Salvadoran officials for the massacre of Jesuit priests in 1989\\. In that incident, armed members of El Salvador's army, following Salvadoran Military High Command orders, burst into the Jesuit residence at the Universidad Centroamericana in San Salvador and executed six Jesuit priests, a housekeeper and her daughter. An attack that marked a turning point in [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador \"El Salvador\")'s conflict. As a result of these investigations, a U.S. Court approved the extradition of Colonel Inocente Orlando Montano to Spain to face trial before the Spanish National Court, a trial that took place last June and July 2020 and ended with the defendant being sentenced to 133 years in prison for five crimes of terrorist murders. Bernabeu led the private prosecution of this case, while working with Salvadoran civil society to foster and strength with its accountability initiatives in the country. Among these initiatives, Bernabeu is collaborating with a victims' organization to actively support for the Salvadoran State's compliance with the Supreme Court's ruling on the unconstitutionality of the Amnesty Law (2016\\). Also, Bernabeu is providing technical assistance for the prosecution of crimes to the Office of the Prosecutor General in El Salvador.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Burnett\\|first1\\=Victoria\\|title\\=Jesuit Killings in El Salvador Could Reach Trial in Spain\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/14/world/americas/14salvador.html\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=13 November 2008}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Castillo\\|first1\\=Juan\\|title\\=25 Yrs After El Salvador Priest Killings, Groups Press For Justice\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/25\\-yrs\\-after\\-el\\-salvador\\-priest\\-killings\\-groups\\-press\\-justice\\-n247276\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|publisher\\=NBC News\\|date\\=13 November 2014}}", "Bernabeu's work was instrumental in securing the 2015 deportation from [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") to El Salvador of [Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova](/wiki/Carlos_Eugenio_Vides_Casanova \"Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova\"), a former defense minister implicated in \"[extrajudicial killing](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing \"Extrajudicial killing\") and torture\" during the [Salvadoran Civil War](/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War \"Salvadoran Civil War\") of 1980\\-1992, according to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Gamboa\\|first1\\=Suzanne\\|title\\=Deportation Upheld Of Salvadoran Ex\\-Official For Torture, Killings\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/former\\-el\\-salvador\\-defense\\-ministers\\-deportation\\-upheld\\-n321801\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|publisher\\=NBC News\\|issue\\=11 March 2015}} \nAnother achievement by Almudena Bernabeu was bringing to justice the case of those responsible for the genocide of the [Mayan people](/wiki/Mayan_people \"Mayan people\") in [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala \"Guatemala\"). The case was put before the [Spanish National Court](/wiki/Spanish_National_Court \"Spanish National Court\"). One of the accused was Efraín Rios Montt, former dictator of Guatemala.[Almudena Bernabeu (Co\\-Founder)](http://guernica37.org/our_group/almudena-bernabeu/)", "The team of lawyers working at G37 Despacho Internacional, together with its London partner Guernica37 International Justice Chambers, have investigated international crimes committed in Syria since March 2011, at the behest of victims' families, in order to achieve accountability and promote a processes of transitional justice, after the end of hostilities.", "On 31 January 2017, and as result of these investigations, G37 Despacho Internacional filed a complaint before the Spanish National Court against members of Syrian security forces and military intelligence on the basis of their alleged responsibility for the commission of a crime of State terrorism.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/world/europe/spain\\-syria\\-torture\\-case.html?\\_r\\=0\\|title\\=9 Syrian Officials Are Accused Of Torture in Spanish Court\\|date\\=2 February 2017\\|newspaper\\=New York Times}} The complainant \\-the sister of a Syrian citizen arbitrarily detained, tortured and executed in a detention centre in Damascus\\- is a victim of Spanish nationality.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/from\\-a\\-trove\\-of\\-grim\\-photos\\-a\\-case\\-against\\-assads\\-government/2017/02/01/728575d0\\-e8d7\\-11e6\\-bf6f\\-301b6b443624\\_story.html\\|title\\=A photo of her brother's corpse popped up on her phone. Now Syrian officials could be put on trial for war crimes\\|date\\=2 February 2017\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post}}", "Since February 2019, Bernabeu's team has worked alongside Nicaraguan organizations to create and develop an alliance called ‘Coalition for Justice in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\")' (CJN), aimed at starting investigations and accountability processes in order to promote changes and transformations that strengthen the rule of law in the country, especially after the brutal repression of 2018's demonstrations by State security forces.", "In her acceptance of the 2015 Letelier\\-Moffitt Human Rights Award, Bernabeu explained her passion for bringing human rights violators to justice:", "\"I don't want to take care of the poor or those who have been tortured or those who have been abused ... I want this stupid world to stop abusing people ... . I want to help the person whose child was disappeared — of course. But my strongest sense of who I am, if I want to be super\\-honest, is, how can I fight and tell the world that this \\[expletive] was actually ordering these disappearances and getting rid of these 18\\-year\\-old students?\"", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|Highcliffe Castle's [formal gardens](/wiki/Formal_garden "Formal garden")](/wiki/Image:Highcliffe_Castle_2.jpg "Highcliffe Castle 2.jpg") The Earl's fourth son, General Sir Charles Stuart sold the estate apart from the nearby smaller [Bure Homage House](/wiki/Bure_Homage_House "Bure Homage House"). All that remains of the original High Cliff are the two entrance lodges, now used as a restaurant, also some of the garden walls and features in the lands. The son of Sir Charles Stuart, also Charles Stuart, decided to buy his grandfather's estate and build a new house there. ### Lord Stuart de Rothesay: 1830–1845 [left\|thumb\|Lord Stuart de Rothesay, 1810](/wiki/Image:Stuart_de_Rothesay_circa_1810.jpg "Stuart de Rothesay circa 1810.jpg") {{main\|Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay}} [Charles Stuart](/wiki/Charles_Stuart%2C_1st_Baron_Stuart_de_Rothesay "Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay") was born in 1779, the eldest son of General Sir Charles Stuart and Anne Louisa who was the daughter of Lord Vere Bertie. Educated at [Eton college](/wiki/Eton_college "Eton college"), in 1801 he entered the diplomatic service, serving in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), [St Petersburg](/wiki/St_Petersburg "St Petersburg"), French\-occupied [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), and in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf3p300592 \|title\=Finding Aid for the Charles Stuart de Rothesay Papers, ca. 1548–1911 (bulk 1768–1846\) \|publisher\=Oac.cdlib.org \|date\=2013\-07\-16 \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-15}} It was as Ambassador in Spain that he became indispensable to the [Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Duke_of_Wellington "Duke of Wellington"), and accompanied him during [Napoleon's Hundred Days](/wiki/Napoleon%27s_Hundred_Days "Napoleon's Hundred Days") through to the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo"). After the defeat of Napoleon, Charles escorted the exiled French [King Louis XVIII](/wiki/King_Louis_XVIII "King Louis XVIII") back to Paris and became British Ambassador there. During his ambassadorship in Paris he married the wealthy Lady Elizabeth Yorke, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Hardwicke. They had two daughters Charlotte (later Lady Canning), and Louisa (later Lady Waterford).{{cite web \|url\=http://highcliffecastle.co.uk/lord\-stuart\-de\-rothesay \|title\=Lord Stuart de Rothesay \|publisher\=Highcliffe Castle \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-15 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116124810/http://highcliffecastle.co.uk/lord\-stuart\-de\-rothesay \|archive\-date\=16 January 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all }} His greatest achievement was the treaty which enabled Brazil to become independent of Portugal in 1825\. In 1828 he was made Baron Stuart de Rothesay, and in the same year was appointed for a second term as ambassador to France. [thumb\|The Grand'Maison at [les Andelys](/wiki/Les_Andelys "Les Andelys"), Normandy, by [John Sell Cotman](/wiki/John_Sell_Cotman "John Sell Cotman")](/wiki/File:Manoir_Radeval_Cotma_CO.jpg "Manoir Radeval Cotma CO.jpg") Early retirement from the diplomatic service meant Lord Stuart could start on the project to build a new family home, and by 1830 he had purchased much of the eastern end of the estate, which previously had been owned by his forebears. This allowed him to start construction of the modern Highcliffe Castle. William Donthorne, a founder member of the Royal Institute of British Architects designed Highcliffe Castle. The castle is built on an L\-shaped plan, oriented on a south\-east axis, so the [oriel window](/wiki/Oriel_window "Oriel window") is central on the south east elevation, providing a vista across the landscaped gardens to a panorama of [The Needles](/wiki/The_Needles "The Needles") and the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight "Isle of Wight"). Used in the building of the house was carved medieval stonework from the Norman [Benedictine Abbey of St Peter at Jumieges](/wiki/Jumi%C3%A8ges_Abbey "Jumièges Abbey") and from the Grand' Maison of Radeval, at [les Andelys](/wiki/Les_Andelys "Les Andelys"). Both of these buildings had fallen into disrepair after the French Revolution. Also included in the castle, were a 16th\-century oriel window and a stained glass window. After the Castle was completed, Charles became Ambassador to Russia in 1841\. However ill\-health caused his return to England and he died at Highcliffe in 1845\. He was buried at St Mark's Church, Highcliffe and his memorial can still be seen there. ### Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford: 1845–1891 [thumb\|[Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford](/wiki/Louisa_Beresford%2C_Marchioness_of_Waterford "Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford"), 1870](/wiki/Image:Louisa_Marchioness_of_Waterford_circa_1870.jpg "Louisa Marchioness of Waterford circa 1870.jpg") After Charles's death, his widow Lady Elizabeth, Stuart de Rothesay inherited the castle. She died in 1867 and left the property to [Louisa](/wiki/Louisa_Beresford%2C_Marchioness_of_Waterford "Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford") her younger daughter as Charlotte, the elder daughter, had predeceased her. Louisa had been born in 1818 in Paris. The family moved into Highcliffe Castle in 1834 and lived there and also in their London residence. Louisa wrote some of her memories of her life at Highcliffe Castle which were recorded in a book by Hare.{{cite book \|author\=Hare, Augustus \|year\=1893 \|title\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \|volume\= 1 \|page\= 177 \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel01hareuoft\#page/180/mode/2up}} In 1842 Louisa married Henry, Marquis of Waterford and became the Marchioness of Waterford. The couple lived at Curraghmore, County Waterford for many years, and during this time Louisa became an accomplished painter whose work is still valued today. Her husband died in 1859 and she moved to the estate left to her in [Ford, Northumberland](/wiki/Ford%2C_Northumberland "Ford, Northumberland").{{cite journal \|author\=Brisby, C. \|title\=Louisa Marchioness of Waterford \|journal\=Woman's Art Journal \|publisher\=Women’s Art Journal \|volume\= 19 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=17–23 \|year\=1998–99 \|jstor\=1358401 \|doi\=10\.2307/1358401 }} It was here that she built a school hall and on the walls painted Biblical scenes. These paintings survive today in what is now called Lady Waterford Hall in Ford.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nnta.org/what\-to\-do/attractions/85\-the\-lady\-waterford\-hall \|title\=Attractions \|publisher\=Nnta.org \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-15}} In 1867 her mother died and she inherited Highcliffe Castle. She spent the summers at Highcliffe and returned to [Ford Castle](/wiki/Ford_Castle "Ford Castle") in the winter. She had many visitors at the castle one of whom was Augustus Hare, a fellow painter. He recounts a typical day at Highcliffe Castle. *“The late breakfast in the pleasant room which looks across the sunlit sea to the Isle of Wight through the leaves of large magnolia trees was always a happy meeting, at which Lady Waterford brimmed over with the anecdotes and reminiscences evoked by her morning letters. Immediately afterwards she would read aloud from the newspapers in the porch\-room, then she went to write in her own room, and her guests dispersed till she summoned them back by playing and singing loudly with wide\-open windows. Then all adjourned to the library, where one of the party read aloud, whilst Lady Waterford painted. After luncheon there was a walk, generally on the sands, often to the Haven House and its wild fir wood."*.{{cite book \|author\=Hare, Augustus \|year\=1893 \|title\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \| volume\= 3 \|page\= 306 \|url\= https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\#page/306/mode/2up}} She entertained the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward and Queen Alexandra) at Highcliffe Castle. In 1880 she recounts one of their visits. *"I have had a great surprise in the unexpected visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales, with their two sons and the three little Princesses, landing on the beach, coming up to tea, and drawing nets on the shore till evening — the young Princes swimming about in flannels, and finally the Prince and two sons swimming away to join the steam\-tug."*{{cite book \|author\=Hare, Augustus \|year\=1893 \|title\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \|volume\= 3 \|page\=402 \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\#page/402/mode/2up}} A picture of the royal family at around the same time as this visit is shown on the left. In 1891 Lady Waterford died and as she had no children she left Highcliffe Castle to a very distant cousin Edward Stuart Wortley.{{cite book \|author\=Hare, Augustus \|year\=1893 \|title\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \|volume\=3 \|page\= 405 \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\#page/464/mode/2up}} ### Edward Stuart Wortley: 1891–1950 [left\|thumb\|[Major General Edward Stuart Wortley](/wiki/Edward_James_Montagu-Stuart-Wortley "Edward James Montagu-Stuart-Wortley")](/wiki/Image:Edward_Stuart_Wortley.jpg "Edward Stuart Wortley.jpg") [Edward James Stuart Wortley](/wiki/Edward_James_Montagu-Stuart-Wortley "Edward James Montagu-Stuart-Wortley") was born in 1857\. He was the second son of the Hon Francis Dudley Montagu Stuart Wortley and Maria Elizabeth Martin. He was educated at Eton in 1886 and afterwards joined the Army. In 1877 he entered the Kings Royal Rifle Corps. He distinguished himself in the First Boer War in the 1880s and in other African Battles until 1900\. In 1901 he became Military Attache in Paris which he held for three years before returning to England. In 1907 [Kaiser Wilhelm II](/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II "Kaiser Wilhelm II") stayed at Highcliffe Castle for three weeks to recover his health. This visit was widely publicised. While he was there, the Kaiser presented two stained glass windows to Stuart Wortley which were inserted in one of the rooms.{{cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=vShKAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=roUMAAAAIBAJ\&dq\=highcliffe%20castle\&pg\=1602%2C3583587 \|title\=American Tenant of Stately Castle of Kings and Queens and Emperors \|newspaper\=Youngstown Vindicator \|location\=Ohio \|date\=14 October 1917 \| page\=2D \|access\-date\=7 August 2014 }} In the following year he was invited to be guest of honour to the German Army manoeuvres held in Alsace. He was promoted to Major General in 1913\. He served in the First World War but his Division did not greatly distinguish itself and he was sent to Ireland to help quell the rebellion there. He retired from the Army in 1919 and died in 1934\. His wife Violet Stuart Wortley (née Guthrie) was the longest resident of Highcliffe Castle. She was born in 1866 and married Edward in 1891, the same year that he inherited the Castle from Lady Waterford. The couple had three children Nicholas, Louisa and Elizabeth. Unfortunately Nicholas died in 1926 at the age of 34\. Violet wrote many books, most notably the history of the Stuart family called “Highcliffe and the Stuarts.{{cite book\|last\=Stuart Wortley \|first\=Violet \|year\=1927 \|title\=Highcliffe and the Stuarts \|publisher\=Murray \|location\=London}} Towards the end of her life she wrote an autobiography called “Life Without Theory” which outlined her early life.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article47743986 \|first\=John \|last\=Kirwan \|author\-link\=John Kirwan (politician) \|title\=A Granddaughter Of Stirling Looks Back \|newspaper\=\[\[The West Australian]] \|location\=Perth \|date\=20 August 1949 \|access\-date\=7 August 2014 \|page\=23 }} She sold Highcliffe Castle in 1949 and died four years later in 1953\. ### Harry Gordon Selfridge: 1916–1922 [thumb\|[Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge "Harry Gordon Selfridge"), circa 1900](/wiki/Image:Harry_Gordon_Selfridge_circa_1910.jpg "Harry Gordon Selfridge circa 1910.jpg") {{main\|Harry Gordon Selfridge}} During the time that the Stuart Wortleys owned the Castle it was rented several times. One of the most notable tenants from 1916 to 1922 was the American\-born retail entrepreneur [Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge "Harry Gordon Selfridge"). He lived there with his wife Rosalie, his mother Lois and son Gordon. At the age of 21, [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin "Wisconsin")\-born Selfridge joined the wholesale retail firm of [Marshall, Field and Co](/wiki/Marshall_Field "Marshall Field") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), where he worked for 25 years.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533543/Harry\-Gordon\-Selfridge \|title\=Harry Gordon Selfridge (British merchant) – Encyclopædia Britannica \|publisher\=Britannica.com \|date\=1947\-05\-08 \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-15}} He rose to become a junior partner, and amassed a considerable fortune. In 1906 he came to London and opened his own store, [Selfridges](/wiki/Selfridges "Selfridges"), in 1909\. It was a huge success as he introduced new American ways of marketing. In 1916 Selfridge leased Highcliffe Castle. Although he was only a tenant he set about fitting modern bathrooms, installing steam central heating and building and equipping a modern kitchen.{{cite book \|author\=Woodhead, Lindy \|year\=2010 \|title\=Shopping Seduction and Mr Selfridge \|page\= 146 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=rE8E5i4DnSQC\&dq\=edward\+stuart\+wortley\&pg\=PA146\|isbn\=9781847650689 }} During the War, Rose joined the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross "Red Cross") and opened a tented retreat called the Mrs Gordon Selfridge Convalescent Camp for American Soldiers in the castle grounds. Unfortunately Rose died in the [Spanish flu pandemic](/wiki/Spanish_flu_pandemic "Spanish flu pandemic") of 1918 and Harry's mother Lois, who lived with them, died in 1924\. Harry did not do well after this and gave up the lease to Highcliffe in 1922 but he is buried in St Marks Churchyard at Highcliffe next to his wife and mother. ### 1950s onwards: decline Early in 1950 local businessman J.H.Leonard Lloyd bought it from the Stuart Wortley family to turn into a large children's convalescent home. Having already founded and run a successful similar home near Lynton in North Devon, he charged four guineas a week. Unfortunately later on unfounded media allegations of the [indecent assault](/wiki/Indecent_assault "Indecent assault") of children led to a subsequent court case, which although dismissed resulted in the home's closure. Put on the market for £45,000, it was bought by a developer, who created Rothesay Drive on the estate lands on which he built new private homes. He then sold on the castle and residual gardens for £14,000 to the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") [Claretian Missionary](/wiki/Claretians "Claretians"), who wanted to develop a training centre for student priests. The chapel was in the great hall, flanked by two staircases. A dormitory was built next to the East Wing which now houses the Castle's tearooms. Latterly used as a [seminary](/wiki/Seminary "Seminary"), with rising maintenance costs the Claretians moved out in 1966\. ### Fires, dereliction Bought for £21,000 in 1967 by three local businessmen, a fire just before this badly damaged the Great Hall, and another fire the following year caused more devastation, the staircase having to be removed. Blocked from any form of development or demolition, resultantly exposed to the weather and vandals, the Castle deteriorated into a ruin. National concern about its fate was voiced by local people, [English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage "English Heritage"), the [Ancient Monuments Society](/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_Society "Ancient Monuments Society"), the [Victorian Society](/wiki/Victorian_Society "Victorian Society"), the Buildings at Risk Trust, SAVE Britain's Heritage, as well as prominent architectural historians. ### Restoration: 1977–1998 After a long series of legal redevelopment disputes with the businessmen, in 1977 [Christchurch Council](/wiki/Christchurch%2C_Dorset%23Government_and_politics "Christchurch, Dorset#Government and politics") compulsorily purchased the Castle for £65,000 – its valuation set by a Land Tribunal undertaken by the Adjudicator to [HM Land Registry](/wiki/HM_Land_Registry "HM Land Registry") – and opened the grounds and beach access to the public to mark the [Queen's Silver Jubilee](/wiki/Silver_Jubilee_of_Elizabeth_II "Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II"). Unable to afford the projected cost of restoration, in 1986 the Council offered the building on a 125\-year lease for it to be restored for residential or hotel use within three acres of land for enabling development, but although several schemes were submitted none materialised. In 1989 the Council and English Heritage jointly commissioned Niall Phillips Architects of [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol") to consider what future the Castle might have. In 1990 a shroud of scaffolding and sheeting was put around it to protect it, and in 1994 a start was made on a phased scheme to repair and conserve the building, funded initially by Christchurch Council and English Heritage. The first phase repaired the Castle's south wing, including the Wintergarden, Drawing Room and Library. On its completion, the [Heritage Lottery Fund](/wiki/Heritage_Lottery_Fund "Heritage Lottery Fund") agreed to fund the council's £2\.6million bid, enabling all major repairs to be completed by 1998, including the rebuilding of the East Tower which had been demolished in 1974 when it became unsafe. Craftsmen and women from [Dorchester](/wiki/Dorchester%2C_Dorset "Dorchester, Dorset")\-based St Blaise Ltd won a prestigious Stone Federation award for their work on the Castle, with the judges describing it as *“a textbook example of great care and skill”*.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|Highcliffe Castle's [formal gardens](/wiki/Formal_garden \"Formal garden\")](/wiki/Image:Highcliffe_Castle_2.jpg \"Highcliffe Castle 2.jpg\")", "The Earl's fourth son, General Sir Charles Stuart sold the estate apart from the nearby smaller [Bure Homage House](/wiki/Bure_Homage_House \"Bure Homage House\"). All that remains of the original High Cliff are the two entrance lodges, now used as a restaurant, also some of the garden walls and features in the lands. The son of Sir Charles Stuart, also Charles Stuart, decided to buy his grandfather's estate and build a new house there.", "### Lord Stuart de Rothesay: 1830–1845", "[left\\|thumb\\|Lord Stuart de Rothesay, 1810](/wiki/Image:Stuart_de_Rothesay_circa_1810.jpg \"Stuart de Rothesay circa 1810.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay}}\n[Charles Stuart](/wiki/Charles_Stuart%2C_1st_Baron_Stuart_de_Rothesay \"Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay\") was born in 1779, the eldest son of General Sir Charles Stuart and Anne Louisa who was the daughter of Lord Vere Bertie.", "Educated at [Eton college](/wiki/Eton_college \"Eton college\"), in 1801 he entered the diplomatic service, serving in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), [St Petersburg](/wiki/St_Petersburg \"St Petersburg\"), French\\-occupied [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), and in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf3p300592 \\|title\\=Finding Aid for the Charles Stuart de Rothesay Papers, ca. 1548–1911 (bulk 1768–1846\\) \\|publisher\\=Oac.cdlib.org \\|date\\=2013\\-07\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-15}} It was as Ambassador in Spain that he became indispensable to the [Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Duke_of_Wellington \"Duke of Wellington\"), and accompanied him during [Napoleon's Hundred Days](/wiki/Napoleon%27s_Hundred_Days \"Napoleon's Hundred Days\") through to the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\"). After the defeat of Napoleon, Charles escorted the exiled French [King Louis XVIII](/wiki/King_Louis_XVIII \"King Louis XVIII\") back to Paris and became British Ambassador there. During his ambassadorship in Paris he married the wealthy Lady Elizabeth Yorke, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Hardwicke. They had two daughters Charlotte (later Lady Canning), and Louisa (later Lady Waterford).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://highcliffecastle.co.uk/lord\\-stuart\\-de\\-rothesay \\|title\\=Lord Stuart de Rothesay \\|publisher\\=Highcliffe Castle \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-15 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116124810/http://highcliffecastle.co.uk/lord\\-stuart\\-de\\-rothesay \\|archive\\-date\\=16 January 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} His greatest achievement was the treaty which enabled Brazil to become independent of Portugal in 1825\\. In 1828 he was made Baron Stuart de Rothesay, and in the same year was appointed for a second term as ambassador to France.", "[thumb\\|The Grand'Maison at [les Andelys](/wiki/Les_Andelys \"Les Andelys\"), Normandy, by [John Sell Cotman](/wiki/John_Sell_Cotman \"John Sell Cotman\")](/wiki/File:Manoir_Radeval_Cotma_CO.jpg \"Manoir Radeval Cotma CO.jpg\")", "Early retirement from the diplomatic service meant Lord Stuart could start on the project to build a new family home, and by 1830 he had purchased much of the eastern end of the estate, which previously had been owned by his forebears. This allowed him to start construction of the modern Highcliffe Castle. William Donthorne, a founder member of the Royal Institute of British Architects designed Highcliffe Castle. The castle is built on an L\\-shaped plan, oriented on a south\\-east axis, so the [oriel window](/wiki/Oriel_window \"Oriel window\") is central on the south east elevation, providing a vista across the landscaped gardens to a panorama of [The Needles](/wiki/The_Needles \"The Needles\") and the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight \"Isle of Wight\"). Used in the building of the house was carved medieval stonework from the Norman [Benedictine Abbey of St Peter at Jumieges](/wiki/Jumi%C3%A8ges_Abbey \"Jumièges Abbey\") and from the Grand' Maison of Radeval, at [les Andelys](/wiki/Les_Andelys \"Les Andelys\"). Both of these buildings had fallen into disrepair after the French Revolution. Also included in the castle, were a 16th\\-century oriel window and a stained glass window.", "After the Castle was completed, Charles became Ambassador to Russia in 1841\\. However ill\\-health caused his return to England and he died at Highcliffe in 1845\\. He was buried at St Mark's Church, Highcliffe and his memorial can still be seen there.", "### Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford: 1845–1891", "[thumb\\|[Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford](/wiki/Louisa_Beresford%2C_Marchioness_of_Waterford \"Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford\"), 1870](/wiki/Image:Louisa_Marchioness_of_Waterford_circa_1870.jpg \"Louisa Marchioness of Waterford circa 1870.jpg\")", "After Charles's death, his widow Lady Elizabeth, Stuart de Rothesay inherited the castle. She died in 1867 and left the property to [Louisa](/wiki/Louisa_Beresford%2C_Marchioness_of_Waterford \"Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford\") her younger daughter as Charlotte, the elder daughter, had predeceased her. Louisa had been born in 1818 in Paris. The family moved into Highcliffe Castle in 1834 and lived there and also in their London residence. Louisa wrote some of her memories of her life at Highcliffe Castle which were recorded in a book by Hare.{{cite book \\|author\\=Hare, Augustus \\|year\\=1893 \\|title\\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \\|volume\\= 1 \\|page\\= 177 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel01hareuoft\\#page/180/mode/2up}}", "In 1842 Louisa married Henry, Marquis of Waterford and became the Marchioness of Waterford. The couple lived at Curraghmore, County Waterford for many years, and during this time Louisa became an accomplished painter whose work is still valued today. Her husband died in 1859 and she moved to the estate left to her in [Ford, Northumberland](/wiki/Ford%2C_Northumberland \"Ford, Northumberland\").{{cite journal \\|author\\=Brisby, C. \\|title\\=Louisa Marchioness of Waterford \\|journal\\=Woman's Art Journal \\|publisher\\=Women’s Art Journal \\|volume\\= 19 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=17–23 \\|year\\=1998–99 \\|jstor\\=1358401 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1358401 }} It was here that she built a school hall and on the walls painted Biblical scenes. These paintings survive today in what is now called Lady Waterford Hall in Ford.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nnta.org/what\\-to\\-do/attractions/85\\-the\\-lady\\-waterford\\-hall \\|title\\=Attractions \\|publisher\\=Nnta.org \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-15}}", "In 1867 her mother died and she inherited Highcliffe Castle. She spent the summers at Highcliffe and returned to [Ford Castle](/wiki/Ford_Castle \"Ford Castle\") in the winter. She had many visitors at the castle one of whom was Augustus Hare, a fellow painter. He recounts a typical day at Highcliffe Castle.", "*“The late breakfast in the pleasant room which looks across the sunlit sea to the Isle of Wight through the leaves of large magnolia trees was always a happy meeting, at which Lady Waterford brimmed over with the anecdotes and reminiscences evoked by her morning letters. Immediately afterwards she would read aloud from the newspapers in the porch\\-room, then she went to write in her own room, and her guests dispersed till she summoned them back by playing and singing loudly with wide\\-open windows. Then all adjourned to the library, where one of the party read aloud, whilst Lady Waterford painted. After luncheon there was a walk, generally on the sands, often to the Haven House and its wild fir wood.\"*.{{cite book \\|author\\=Hare, Augustus \\|year\\=1893 \\|title\\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \\| volume\\= 3 \\|page\\= 306 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\\#page/306/mode/2up}}\nShe entertained the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward and Queen Alexandra) at Highcliffe Castle. In 1880 she recounts one of their visits.", "*\"I have had a great surprise in the unexpected visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales, with their two sons and the three little Princesses, landing on the beach, coming up to tea, and drawing nets on the shore till evening — the young Princes swimming about in flannels, and finally the Prince and two sons swimming away to join the steam\\-tug.\"*{{cite book \\|author\\=Hare, Augustus \\|year\\=1893 \\|title\\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \\|volume\\= 3 \\|page\\=402 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\\#page/402/mode/2up}} A picture of the royal family at around the same time as this visit is shown on the left.\nIn 1891 Lady Waterford died and as she had no children she left Highcliffe Castle to a very distant cousin Edward Stuart Wortley.{{cite book \\|author\\=Hare, Augustus \\|year\\=1893 \\|title\\=The story of two noble lives: being memorials of Charlotte, Countess Canning, and Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford \\|volume\\=3 \\|page\\= 405 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/storyoftwonoblel03hare\\#page/464/mode/2up}}", "### Edward Stuart Wortley: 1891–1950", "[left\\|thumb\\|[Major General Edward Stuart Wortley](/wiki/Edward_James_Montagu-Stuart-Wortley \"Edward James Montagu-Stuart-Wortley\")](/wiki/Image:Edward_Stuart_Wortley.jpg \"Edward Stuart Wortley.jpg\")", "[Edward James Stuart Wortley](/wiki/Edward_James_Montagu-Stuart-Wortley \"Edward James Montagu-Stuart-Wortley\") was born in 1857\\. He was the second son of the Hon Francis Dudley Montagu Stuart Wortley and Maria Elizabeth Martin. He was educated at Eton in 1886 and afterwards joined the Army. In 1877 he entered the Kings Royal Rifle Corps. He distinguished himself in the First Boer War in the 1880s and in other African Battles until 1900\\. In 1901 he became Military Attache in Paris which he held for three years before returning to England.", "In 1907 [Kaiser Wilhelm II](/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II \"Kaiser Wilhelm II\") stayed at Highcliffe Castle for three weeks to recover his health. This visit was widely publicised. While he was there, the Kaiser presented two stained glass windows to Stuart Wortley which were inserted in one of the rooms.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=vShKAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=roUMAAAAIBAJ\\&dq\\=highcliffe%20castle\\&pg\\=1602%2C3583587 \\|title\\=American Tenant of Stately Castle of Kings and Queens and Emperors \\|newspaper\\=Youngstown Vindicator \\|location\\=Ohio \\|date\\=14 October 1917 \\| page\\=2D \\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2014 }} In the following year he was invited to be guest of honour to the German Army manoeuvres held in Alsace. He was promoted to Major General in 1913\\. He served in the First World War but his Division did not greatly distinguish itself and he was sent to Ireland to help quell the rebellion there. He retired from the Army in 1919 and died in 1934\\.", "His wife Violet Stuart Wortley (née Guthrie) was the longest resident of Highcliffe Castle. She was born in 1866 and married Edward in 1891, the same year that he inherited the Castle from Lady Waterford. The couple had three children Nicholas, Louisa and Elizabeth. Unfortunately Nicholas died in 1926 at the age of 34\\. Violet wrote many books, most notably the history of the Stuart family called “Highcliffe and the Stuarts.{{cite book\\|last\\=Stuart Wortley \\|first\\=Violet \\|year\\=1927 \\|title\\=Highcliffe and the Stuarts \\|publisher\\=Murray \\|location\\=London}} Towards the end of her life she wrote an autobiography called “Life Without Theory” which outlined her early life.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article47743986 \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Kirwan \\|author\\-link\\=John Kirwan (politician) \\|title\\=A Granddaughter Of Stirling Looks Back \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The West Australian]] \\|location\\=Perth \\|date\\=20 August 1949 \\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2014 \\|page\\=23 }} She sold Highcliffe Castle in 1949 and died four years later in 1953\\.", "### Harry Gordon Selfridge: 1916–1922", "[thumb\\|[Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge \"Harry Gordon Selfridge\"), circa 1900](/wiki/Image:Harry_Gordon_Selfridge_circa_1910.jpg \"Harry Gordon Selfridge circa 1910.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Harry Gordon Selfridge}}\nDuring the time that the Stuart Wortleys owned the Castle it was rented several times. One of the most notable tenants from 1916 to 1922 was the American\\-born retail entrepreneur [Harry Gordon Selfridge](/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge \"Harry Gordon Selfridge\"). He lived there with his wife Rosalie, his mother Lois and son Gordon.", "At the age of 21, [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\")\\-born Selfridge joined the wholesale retail firm of [Marshall, Field and Co](/wiki/Marshall_Field \"Marshall Field\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), where he worked for 25 years.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/533543/Harry\\-Gordon\\-Selfridge \\|title\\=Harry Gordon Selfridge (British merchant) – Encyclopædia Britannica \\|publisher\\=Britannica.com \\|date\\=1947\\-05\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-15}} He rose to become a junior partner, and amassed a considerable fortune. In 1906 he came to London and opened his own store, [Selfridges](/wiki/Selfridges \"Selfridges\"), in 1909\\. It was a huge success as he introduced new American ways of marketing.", "In 1916 Selfridge leased Highcliffe Castle. Although he was only a tenant he set about fitting modern bathrooms, installing steam central heating and building and equipping a modern kitchen.{{cite book \\|author\\=Woodhead, Lindy \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=Shopping Seduction and Mr Selfridge \\|page\\= 146 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rE8E5i4DnSQC\\&dq\\=edward\\+stuart\\+wortley\\&pg\\=PA146\\|isbn\\=9781847650689 }} During the War, Rose joined the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross \"Red Cross\") and opened a tented retreat called the Mrs Gordon Selfridge Convalescent Camp for American Soldiers in the castle grounds. Unfortunately Rose died in the [Spanish flu pandemic](/wiki/Spanish_flu_pandemic \"Spanish flu pandemic\") of 1918 and Harry's mother Lois, who lived with them, died in 1924\\. Harry did not do well after this and gave up the lease to Highcliffe in 1922 but he is buried in St Marks Churchyard at Highcliffe next to his wife and mother.", "### 1950s onwards: decline", "Early in 1950 local businessman J.H.Leonard Lloyd bought it from the Stuart Wortley family to turn into a large children's convalescent home. Having already founded and run a successful similar home near Lynton in North Devon, he charged four guineas a week. Unfortunately later on unfounded media allegations of the [indecent assault](/wiki/Indecent_assault \"Indecent assault\") of children led to a subsequent court case, which although dismissed resulted in the home's closure.", "Put on the market for £45,000, it was bought by a developer, who created Rothesay Drive on the estate lands on which he built new private homes. He then sold on the castle and residual gardens for £14,000 to the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") [Claretian Missionary](/wiki/Claretians \"Claretians\"), who wanted to develop a training centre for student priests. The chapel was in the great hall, flanked by two staircases. A dormitory was built next to the East Wing which now houses the Castle's tearooms. Latterly used as a [seminary](/wiki/Seminary \"Seminary\"), with rising maintenance costs the Claretians moved out in 1966\\.", "### Fires, dereliction", "Bought for £21,000 in 1967 by three local businessmen, a fire just before this badly damaged the Great Hall, and another fire the following year caused more devastation, the staircase having to be removed. Blocked from any form of development or demolition, resultantly exposed to the weather and vandals, the Castle deteriorated into a ruin. National concern about its fate was voiced by local people, [English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage \"English Heritage\"), the [Ancient Monuments Society](/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_Society \"Ancient Monuments Society\"), the [Victorian Society](/wiki/Victorian_Society \"Victorian Society\"), the Buildings at Risk Trust, SAVE Britain's Heritage, as well as prominent architectural historians.", "### Restoration: 1977–1998", "After a long series of legal redevelopment disputes with the businessmen, in 1977 [Christchurch Council](/wiki/Christchurch%2C_Dorset%23Government_and_politics \"Christchurch, Dorset#Government and politics\") compulsorily purchased the Castle for £65,000 – its valuation set by a Land Tribunal undertaken by the Adjudicator to [HM Land Registry](/wiki/HM_Land_Registry \"HM Land Registry\") – and opened the grounds and beach access to the public to mark the [Queen's Silver Jubilee](/wiki/Silver_Jubilee_of_Elizabeth_II \"Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II\"). Unable to afford the projected cost of restoration, in 1986 the Council offered the building on a 125\\-year lease for it to be restored for residential or hotel use within three acres of land for enabling development, but although several schemes were submitted none materialised.", "In 1989 the Council and English Heritage jointly commissioned Niall Phillips Architects of [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\") to consider what future the Castle might have. In 1990 a shroud of scaffolding and sheeting was put around it to protect it, and in 1994 a start was made on a phased scheme to repair and conserve the building, funded initially by Christchurch Council and English Heritage. The first phase repaired the Castle's south wing, including the Wintergarden, Drawing Room and Library.", "On its completion, the [Heritage Lottery Fund](/wiki/Heritage_Lottery_Fund \"Heritage Lottery Fund\") agreed to fund the council's £2\\.6million bid, enabling all major repairs to be completed by 1998, including the rebuilding of the East Tower which had been demolished in 1974 when it became unsafe. Craftsmen and women from [Dorchester](/wiki/Dorchester%2C_Dorset \"Dorchester, Dorset\")\\-based St Blaise Ltd won a prestigious Stone Federation award for their work on the Castle, with the judges describing it as *“a textbook example of great care and skill”*.", "" ]
History ------- ### 2016 {{Main\|Manbij offensive}} [250px\|left\|thumb\|Fighters of the [Euphrates Liberation Brigade](/wiki/Euphrates_Liberation_Brigade "Euphrates Liberation Brigade"), part of the Manbij Military Council, in Manbij](/wiki/File:Euphrates_Liberation_Brigade_in_Manbij.jpg "Euphrates Liberation Brigade in Manbij.jpg") The Manbij offensive has included the Manbij Military Council, [US special operations forces](/wiki/US_special_operations_forces "US special operations forces"), and minimal [YPG](/wiki/YPG "YPG") and [YPJ](/wiki/YPJ "YPJ") involvement assisted by [US\-led coalition](/wiki/US-led_coalition "US-led coalition") airstrikes. The SDF fighters are mostly [Arabs](/wiki/Arabs "Arabs"). During the offensive, an SDF fighter gave his perspective as "we have Arabs, Kurds, nobody knows how many exactly, we all work under the SDF\-forces".{{cite news\|url\=http://aranews.net/2016/06/sdf\-linked\-manbij\-military\-council\-cuts\-off\-isis\-supply\-route\-raqqa\-manbij/\|title\=SDF\-led Manbij Military Council cuts off ISIS supply route between Raqqa and Manbij\|publisher\=Ara News\|date\=2016\-06\-05\|accessdate\=2016\-06\-05\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606122340/http://aranews.net/2016/06/sdf\-linked\-manbij\-military\-council\-cuts\-off\-isis\-supply\-route\-raqqa\-manbij/\|archivedate\=2016\-06\-06}} On 5 April 2016, a civilian council was formed in the town of [Sarrin](/wiki/Sarrin "Sarrin") by individuals originally from Manbij who had fled when [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant") (ISIL) took over. The council consists of Arabs, [Kurds](/wiki/Syrian_Kurds "Syrian Kurds"), [Turkmen](/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen "Syrian Turkmen"), and [Circassians](/wiki/Circassians_in_Syria "Circassians in Syria"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/566847\-kurds\-rebels\-in\-rat\-race\-to\-seize\-isis\-territory\|title\=Kurds, rebels in rat race to seize ISIS territory\|last\=Wilgenburg\|first\=Wladimir van\|website\=now.mmedia.me\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-30\|archive\-date\=2016\-04\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425174147/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/566847\-kurds\-rebels\-in\-rat\-race\-to\-seize\-isis\-territory\|url\-status\=dead}} and was created to administer Manbij after its capture.{{Cite web\|url\=http://aranews.net/2016/04/kurds\-set\-new\-civilian\-council\-recapturing\-syrias\-manbij\-isis/\|title\=Kurds set up new civilian council for recapturing Syria's Manbij from ISIS\|publisher\=\[\[ARA News]]\|date\=6 April 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407222648/http://aranews.net/2016/04/kurds\-set\-new\-civilian\-council\-recapturing\-syrias\-manbij\-isis/\|archivedate\=7 April 2016}} The commander of the Manbij Military Council, [Abu Layla](/wiki/Abu_Layla "Abu Layla"), died of wounds he suffered from gunshots in the Manbij front against the Islamic State. He was succeeded by Muhammad Mustafa ("Abu Adel"). On 19 August 2016, the Manbij Military Council issued a statement which announced that it was taking over the security of Manbij city center and villages from the YPG and YPJ, though some of their fighters remained to continue to provide training and other support duties.{{Cite web\|url\=http://aranews.net/2016/08/22872/\|title\=SDF withdraws from Manbij after liberation, handing city over to local council\|work\=aranews\|date\=19 April 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821072129/http://aranews.net/2016/08/22872/\|archivedate\=21 August 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://anfenglish.com/kurdistan/manbij\-military\-council\-takes\-over\-the\-security\-of\-manbij\|title\=Manbij Military Council takes over the security of Manbij\|work\=ANF\|date\=19 August 2016}} In early November 2016, a 'battalion' from the [Sham Legion](/wiki/Sham_Legion "Sham Legion") defected and joined the MMC. On 17 November 2016, the rest of the YPG and YPJ fighters left Manbij, leaving the security of the area and training of troops fully to the council.{{cite web\|url\=http://en.hawarnews.com/ypj\-and\-ypg\-withdraw\-from\-manbij/\|title\=YPJ and YPG withdraw from Manbij\|publisher\=\[\[Hawar News Agency]]\|accessdate\=4 December 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122210719/http://en.hawarnews.com/ypj\-and\-ypg\-withdraw\-from\-manbij/\|archivedate\=22 November 2016}} ### 2017 On 2 March 2017, the Manbij Military Council handed over a vast expanse of territory west of Manbij to the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army "Syrian Army") to create a buffer zone between the SDF and Turkish\-backed rebels. They released a statement saying that "Defending the civilians and protecting them from the adverse impact of the war, ensuring the security of Manbij and frustrating the invasion plans of the Turkish army against Syrian soil are the goals we have taken for all the peoples living on the lands of Syria,"{{cite web\|title\=Russian general confirms a Kurdish\-Russian deal against Turkey\|url\=http://aranews.net/2017/03/russian\-general\-confirms\-a\-kurdish\-russian\-deal\-against\-turkey/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305013410/http://aranews.net/2017/03/russian\-general\-confirms\-a\-kurdish\-russian\-deal\-against\-turkey/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=March 5, 2017\|work\=ARA News\|date\=5 March 2017\|access\-date\=5 March 2017}} and that {{quote\|To reach these objectives \[the defense of Manbij] we have transferred, after reaching a new alliance with Russia, the defence of the line to the west of Manbij – where the villages between us and the gang groups \[FSA, Ahrar al\-Sham] affiliated to the Turkish army are – to Syrian state forces."{{cite web\|title\=BREAKING: Kurdish\-led SDF to handover huge section of territory to SAA\|url\=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking\-kurdish\-led\-sdf\-handover\-huge\-section\-territory\-saa/\|work\=Al\-Masdar News\|author\=Andrew Illingworth\|access\-date\=2 March 2017\|date\=2 March 2017}}}} and {{quote\|The SDF ceded this territory west of Manbij because it is clear that there are limits to the extent that the United States will intervene on behalf of the SDF's interests west of the Euphrates.}} On 17 April 2017, it was announced that 200 fighters from the council would participate in the [Battle of Tabqa](/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_%282017%29 "Battle of Tabqa (2017)") to take [al\-Thawra](/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_%282017%29%23Battle_for_Al-Thawrah "Battle of Tabqa (2017)#Battle for Al-Thawrah"), part of the larger [Raqqa campaign](/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_%282016%E2%80%93present%29 "Raqqa campaign (2016–present)"). On 24 May 2017, an additional 2,200 fighters were sent for the [fourth phase](/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_%282016%E2%80%93present%29%23Resumption_of_Phase_Four "Raqqa campaign (2016–present)#Resumption of Phase Four") of the campaign. The Manbij Military Council fought in the [Battle of Raqqa](/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_%282017%29 "Battle of Raqqa (2017)") since 6 June 2017\. On 29 August, Adnan Abu Amjad, general commander of the Manbij Military Council, was [killed in action](/wiki/Killed_in_action "Killed in action") during the battle.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/30082017\|title\=SDF: Manbij commander Adnan killed in Raqqa offensive\|work\=\[\[Rudaw Media Network]]\|date\=30 August 2017}} On 17 September 2017, Muhammad Mustafa Ali, also known by his [nom de guerre](/wiki/Nom_de_guerre "Nom de guerre") "Abu Adel", was appointed the general commander of the Manbij Military Council as the successor of Adnan Abu Amjad.{{cite web\|url\=http://furatfm.com/2017/09/17/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF\-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84\-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF%D8%A7\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85\-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3\-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AC\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9/\|title\=Mohammed Abu Adel as General Commander of the Manbaj Military Council\|work\=Furat FM Radio\|date\=17 September 2017\|access\-date\=22 August 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918154653/http://furatfm.com/2017/09/17/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF\-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84\-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF%D8%A7\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85\-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3\-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AC\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9/\|archive\-date\=18 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} On 5 November 2017, Abu Adel was wounded by an IED of [Harakat al\-Qiyam](/wiki/Harakat_al-Qiyam "Harakat al-Qiyam"), a rebel group in northern Syria. On 27 November 2017, the Martyr Adnan Abu Amjad Regiment, consisting of 250 fighters was established, and joined the MMC. ### 2018 During the [Turkish invasion of Afrin](/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch"), the Manbij Military Council released a condemnation stating, “This aggression that practices ethnic cleansing and mass genocide against our people in Afrin is aimed for producing terrorist groups in areas where there is peace and coexistence.”{{Cite web \|date\=5 December 2018 \|title\=Manbij Military Council vows to resist possible Turkish assault \|url\=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/050220183 \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Rudaw}} The Council prepared to resist a possible Turkish attack on Manbij, with hundreds of additional SDF troops transferred from the [Deir Ezzor frontlines](/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_%282017%E2%80%932019%29 "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)").{{Cite web \|last\=Schmitt, Nordland \|first\=Eric, Rod \|date\=28 February 2018 \|title\=Amid Turkish Assault, Kurdish Forces Are Drawn Away From U.S. Fight With Islamic State \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/28/world/middleeast/syrian\-kurds\-isis\-american\-offensive.html \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=WRAL NEWS}} On 5 June 2018, a day after Turkey and the U.S. agreed to a roadmap for the Manbij region, the YPG announced it would withdraw its remaining forces there, who they stated were serving as tactical advisors to the MMC.{{Cite web \|date\=June 5, 2018 \|title\=YPG confirms withdrawal from Syria's Manbij after Turkey\-US deal \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/6/5/ypg\-confirms\-withdrawal\-from\-syrias\-manbij\-after\-turkey\-us\-deal \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=AlJazeera}} ### 2019 On 11 March 2019, Manbij Military Council Co\-Chair Muhammad Mustafa told [Al\-Monitor](/wiki/Al-Monitor "Al-Monitor") that “Russian commanders told us exactly two days ago that the minute the Americans leave they will deploy their forces along the demarcation line.”{{Cite web \|last\=Zaman \|first\=Amberin \|date\=11 March 2018 \|title\=Russian forces will defend Manbij 'the minute Americans leave' \|url\=https://www.al\-monitor.com/originals/2019/03/russia\-forces\-defend\-manbij\-syria\-mmc\-trump\-withdrawal.html \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Al\-Monitor}} On 19 March, it was reported that the MMC had facilitated the capture of five Islamic State militants believed responsible for a January 2019 suicide bombing which killed four Americans.{{Cite web \|last\=Martinez \|first\=Luis \|date\=19 March 2019 \|title\=5 ISIS fighters captured for alleged role in Syria blast that killed 4 Americans \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/isis\-fighters\-captured\-alleged\-role\-blast\-killed\-americans/story?id\=61780056 \|access\-date\=9 December 2019 \|website\=ABC News}} On 26 March, the Islamic State claimed responsibility for a checkpoint bombing that killed 7 members of the MMC.{{Cite web \|date\=26 March 2019 \|title\=7 US\-backed Kurdish fighters killed in ISIS attack in Manbij \|url\=https://www.militarytimes.com/flashpoints/2019/03/27/7\-us\-backed\-kurdish\-fighters\-killed\-in\-isis\-attack\-in\-manbij/ \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=MilitaryTimes}} During [Operation Peace Spring](/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria"), the Council prepared to defend Manbij from Turkey, until the SDF reached a military agreement with the Syrian Government and Russia to prevent a Turkish operation.{{Cite web \|last\=Najjar \|first\=Farah \|date\=16 October 2019 \|title\=New front in Syria's war: Why Manbij matters \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/16/new\-front\-in\-syrias\-war\-why\-manbij\-matters \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Al Jazeera}} On 15 October, under the terms of the military agreement, Russian and Syrian troops were positioned along SDF’s frontlines with Turkey in Manbij.{{Cite web \|last\=McKernan \|first\=Bethan \|date\=15 October 2019 \|title\=Russian troops patrol between Turkish and Syrian forces on border \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/15/russian\-troops\-patrol\-between\-turkish\-and\-syrian\-forces\-on\-border \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=The Guardian}} While some international media outlets inaccurately reported that Manbij had come under Syrian Government control,{{Cite web \|date\=15 October 2019 \|title\=Russia\-backed Syrian forces enter key city \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/russia\-backed\-syrian\-forces\-enter\-key\-city\-manbij\-in\-northern\-syria/a\-50847542 \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=DW}} the two sides only agreed to station the SAA on the [Autonomous Administration’s](/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") borders with Turkey, and the Government has no institutions in Manbij.{{Cite web \|last\=Hamidi \|first\=Ibrahim \|date\=7 December 2022 \|title\=Mazloum Abdi: US Barred Türkiye from Carrying Out Military Operation in Syria \|url\=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/4029681/mazloum\-abdi\-us\-barred\-t%C3%BCrkiye\-carrying\-out\-military\-operation\-syria%C2%A0 \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Asharq Al\-Awsat}} ### 2020 On 3 February 2019, the Manbij Military Council called on Manbij residents serving in Syrian National Army militias in [Turkish\-occupied zones](/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") to defect and return to the region. {{Cite web \|last\=al\-Ahmde \|first\=Rana \|date\=20 February 2020 \|title\=Will Manbij fighters heed the call to return home? \|url\=https://www.al\-monitor.com/originals/2020/02/syria\-manbij\-military\-council\-call\-fighters\-defect\-turkey.html \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Al\-Monitor}} On 10 June, the Council’s spokesperson, Shervan Derwish, survived an IED assassination attempt.{{Cite web \|last\=Van Wilgenburg \|first\=Wladimir \|date\=10 June 2020 \|title\=Local official survives assassination attempt in Syria's Manbij \|url\=https://www.kurdistan24\.net/en/story/22580\-Local\-official\-survives\-assassination\-attempt\-in\-Syria%E2%80%99s\-Manbij \|access\-date\=9 December 2023 \|website\=Kurdistan24}} ### 2021 On 2 June 2021, the Manbij Military Council announced it would halt regional conscription in the face of popular local protests, as well as some riots. {{Cite web \|last\=van Wilgenburg \|first\=Wladimir \|date\=3 June 2021 \|title\=Military conscription suspended after protests and riots in Syria's Manbij \|url\=https://www.kurdistan24\.net/en/story/24654\-Military\-conscription\-suspended\-after\-protests\-and\-riots\-in\-Syria%E2%80%99s\-Manbij \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=Kurdistan 24}} As with every other year, Turkish forces shelled MMC positions multiple times in 2021\.{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hassan \|first\=Saddam \|date\=8 February 2023 \|title\=Turkey bombarded Manbij Military Council posts northern Syria \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/54222/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hassan \|first\=Saddam \|date\=22 June 2021 \|title\=Turkey intensively shells Syria's Manbij countryside \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/61266/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}} ### 2022 Turkey shelled the Manbij countryside including many villages constantly in 2022, killing and displacing civilians as a result.{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hassan \|first\=Fadi \|date\=8 July 2022 \|title\=Turkish bombardment forces villagers in Syria's Manbij to flee in night \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/80159/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|last\=Haydar \|first\=Ammar \|date\=11 June 2022 \|title\=Turkey shells telecommunications tower in Syria's Manbij \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/78901/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hussein \|first\=Fadi \|date\=23 October 2022 \|title\=Turkish shelling prevents farmers from cultivating lands in Syria's Manbij \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/86098/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hassan \|first\=Saddam \|date\=1 March 2022 \|title\=Villages of Syria's Manbij hit with 25 Turkish shells \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/73584/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hassan \|first\=Saddam \|date\=28 April 2022 \|title\=Syria's Manbij countryside hit with Turkish drones, shells \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/76890/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \|date\=4 December 2022 \|title\=The outcome of the Turkish occupation attacks against NE Syria on December 3, 2022 \|url\=https://sdf\-press.com/en/2022/12/16449/ \|access\-date\=4 December 2022 \|website\=sdf\-press.com}} The MMC and its components including the Kurdish Front, Al\-Bab Military Council and the Army of Revolutionaries vowed again the resist any Turkish operation against Manbij region.{{Cite web \|last\=al\-Hussein \|first\=Saddam \|date\=16 July 2022 \|title\=SDF's military council in Manbij condemns Turkish threats against northern Syria \|url\=https://npasyria.com/en/80466/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2023 \|website\=North Press Agency}}
[ "History\n-------", "### 2016", "{{Main\\|Manbij offensive}}\n[250px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Fighters of the [Euphrates Liberation Brigade](/wiki/Euphrates_Liberation_Brigade \"Euphrates Liberation Brigade\"), part of the Manbij Military Council, in Manbij](/wiki/File:Euphrates_Liberation_Brigade_in_Manbij.jpg \"Euphrates Liberation Brigade in Manbij.jpg\")\nThe Manbij offensive has included the Manbij Military Council, [US special operations forces](/wiki/US_special_operations_forces \"US special operations forces\"), and minimal [YPG](/wiki/YPG \"YPG\") and [YPJ](/wiki/YPJ \"YPJ\") involvement assisted by [US\\-led coalition](/wiki/US-led_coalition \"US-led coalition\") airstrikes. The SDF fighters are mostly [Arabs](/wiki/Arabs \"Arabs\"). During the offensive, an SDF fighter gave his perspective as \"we have Arabs, Kurds, nobody knows how many exactly, we all work under the SDF\\-forces\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://aranews.net/2016/06/sdf\\-linked\\-manbij\\-military\\-council\\-cuts\\-off\\-isis\\-supply\\-route\\-raqqa\\-manbij/\\|title\\=SDF\\-led Manbij Military Council cuts off ISIS supply route between Raqqa and Manbij\\|publisher\\=Ara News\\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-05\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-06\\-05\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606122340/http://aranews.net/2016/06/sdf\\-linked\\-manbij\\-military\\-council\\-cuts\\-off\\-isis\\-supply\\-route\\-raqqa\\-manbij/\\|archivedate\\=2016\\-06\\-06}}", "On 5 April 2016, a civilian council was formed in the town of [Sarrin](/wiki/Sarrin \"Sarrin\") by individuals originally from Manbij who had fled when [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant \"Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant\") (ISIL) took over. The council consists of Arabs, [Kurds](/wiki/Syrian_Kurds \"Syrian Kurds\"), [Turkmen](/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen \"Syrian Turkmen\"), and [Circassians](/wiki/Circassians_in_Syria \"Circassians in Syria\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/566847\\-kurds\\-rebels\\-in\\-rat\\-race\\-to\\-seize\\-isis\\-territory\\|title\\=Kurds, rebels in rat race to seize ISIS territory\\|last\\=Wilgenburg\\|first\\=Wladimir van\\|website\\=now.mmedia.me\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-30\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425174147/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/566847\\-kurds\\-rebels\\-in\\-rat\\-race\\-to\\-seize\\-isis\\-territory\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and was created to administer Manbij after its capture.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://aranews.net/2016/04/kurds\\-set\\-new\\-civilian\\-council\\-recapturing\\-syrias\\-manbij\\-isis/\\|title\\=Kurds set up new civilian council for recapturing Syria's Manbij from ISIS\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ARA News]]\\|date\\=6 April 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407222648/http://aranews.net/2016/04/kurds\\-set\\-new\\-civilian\\-council\\-recapturing\\-syrias\\-manbij\\-isis/\\|archivedate\\=7 April 2016}}", "The commander of the Manbij Military Council, [Abu Layla](/wiki/Abu_Layla \"Abu Layla\"), died of wounds he suffered from gunshots in the Manbij front against the Islamic State. He was succeeded by Muhammad Mustafa (\"Abu Adel\").", "On 19 August 2016, the Manbij Military Council issued a statement which announced that it was taking over the security of Manbij city center and villages from the YPG and YPJ, though some of their fighters remained to continue to provide training and other support duties.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://aranews.net/2016/08/22872/\\|title\\=SDF withdraws from Manbij after liberation, handing city over to local council\\|work\\=aranews\\|date\\=19 April 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821072129/http://aranews.net/2016/08/22872/\\|archivedate\\=21 August 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://anfenglish.com/kurdistan/manbij\\-military\\-council\\-takes\\-over\\-the\\-security\\-of\\-manbij\\|title\\=Manbij Military Council takes over the security of Manbij\\|work\\=ANF\\|date\\=19 August 2016}}", "In early November 2016, a 'battalion' from the [Sham Legion](/wiki/Sham_Legion \"Sham Legion\") defected and joined the MMC.", "On 17 November 2016, the rest of the YPG and YPJ fighters left Manbij, leaving the security of the area and training of troops fully to the council.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://en.hawarnews.com/ypj\\-and\\-ypg\\-withdraw\\-from\\-manbij/\\|title\\=YPJ and YPG withdraw from Manbij\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hawar News Agency]]\\|accessdate\\=4 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122210719/http://en.hawarnews.com/ypj\\-and\\-ypg\\-withdraw\\-from\\-manbij/\\|archivedate\\=22 November 2016}}", "### 2017", "On 2 March 2017, the Manbij Military Council handed over a vast expanse of territory west of Manbij to the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army \"Syrian Army\") to create a buffer zone between the SDF and Turkish\\-backed rebels. They released a statement saying that \"Defending the civilians and protecting them from the adverse impact of the war, ensuring the security of Manbij and frustrating the invasion plans of the Turkish army against Syrian soil are the goals we have taken for all the peoples living on the lands of Syria,\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Russian general confirms a Kurdish\\-Russian deal against Turkey\\|url\\=http://aranews.net/2017/03/russian\\-general\\-confirms\\-a\\-kurdish\\-russian\\-deal\\-against\\-turkey/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305013410/http://aranews.net/2017/03/russian\\-general\\-confirms\\-a\\-kurdish\\-russian\\-deal\\-against\\-turkey/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=March 5, 2017\\|work\\=ARA News\\|date\\=5 March 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2017}} and that", "{{quote\\|To reach these objectives \\[the defense of Manbij] we have transferred, after reaching a new alliance with Russia, the defence of the line to the west of Manbij – where the villages between us and the gang groups \\[FSA, Ahrar al\\-Sham] affiliated to the Turkish army are – to Syrian state forces.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=BREAKING: Kurdish\\-led SDF to handover huge section of territory to SAA\\|url\\=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking\\-kurdish\\-led\\-sdf\\-handover\\-huge\\-section\\-territory\\-saa/\\|work\\=Al\\-Masdar News\\|author\\=Andrew Illingworth\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2017\\|date\\=2 March 2017}}}}", "and", "{{quote\\|The SDF ceded this territory west of Manbij because it is clear that there are limits to the extent that the United States will intervene on behalf of the SDF's interests west of the Euphrates.}}", "On 17 April 2017, it was announced that 200 fighters from the council would participate in the [Battle of Tabqa](/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_%282017%29 \"Battle of Tabqa (2017)\") to take [al\\-Thawra](/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_%282017%29%23Battle_for_Al-Thawrah \"Battle of Tabqa (2017)#Battle for Al-Thawrah\"), part of the larger [Raqqa campaign](/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_%282016%E2%80%93present%29 \"Raqqa campaign (2016–present)\"). On 24 May 2017, an additional 2,200 fighters were sent for the [fourth phase](/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_%282016%E2%80%93present%29%23Resumption_of_Phase_Four \"Raqqa campaign (2016–present)#Resumption of Phase Four\") of the campaign.", "The Manbij Military Council fought in the [Battle of Raqqa](/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_%282017%29 \"Battle of Raqqa (2017)\") since 6 June 2017\\. On 29 August, Adnan Abu Amjad, general commander of the Manbij Military Council, was [killed in action](/wiki/Killed_in_action \"Killed in action\") during the battle.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/30082017\\|title\\=SDF: Manbij commander Adnan killed in Raqqa offensive\\|work\\=\\[\\[Rudaw Media Network]]\\|date\\=30 August 2017}}", "On 17 September 2017, Muhammad Mustafa Ali, also known by his [nom de guerre](/wiki/Nom_de_guerre \"Nom de guerre\") \"Abu Adel\", was appointed the general commander of the Manbij Military Council as the successor of Adnan Abu Amjad.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://furatfm.com/2017/09/17/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88\\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84\\-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF%D8%A7\\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85\\-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3\\-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AC\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9/\\|title\\=Mohammed Abu Adel as General Commander of the Manbaj Military Council\\|work\\=Furat FM Radio\\|date\\=17 September 2017\\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918154653/http://furatfm.com/2017/09/17/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88\\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84\\-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF%D8%A7\\-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85\\-%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3\\-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AC\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On 5 November 2017, Abu Adel was wounded by an IED of [Harakat al\\-Qiyam](/wiki/Harakat_al-Qiyam \"Harakat al-Qiyam\"), a rebel group in northern Syria.", "On 27 November 2017, the Martyr Adnan Abu Amjad Regiment, consisting of 250 fighters was established, and joined the MMC.", "### 2018", "During the [Turkish invasion of Afrin](/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch \"Operation Olive Branch\"), the Manbij Military Council released a condemnation stating, “This aggression that practices ethnic cleansing and mass genocide against our people in Afrin is aimed for producing terrorist groups in areas where there is peace and coexistence.”{{Cite web \\|date\\=5 December 2018 \\|title\\=Manbij Military Council vows to resist possible Turkish assault \\|url\\=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/050220183 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Rudaw}} The Council prepared to resist a possible Turkish attack on Manbij, with hundreds of additional SDF troops transferred from the [Deir Ezzor frontlines](/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_%282017%E2%80%932019%29 \"Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schmitt, Nordland \\|first\\=Eric, Rod \\|date\\=28 February 2018 \\|title\\=Amid Turkish Assault, Kurdish Forces Are Drawn Away From U.S. Fight With Islamic State \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/28/world/middleeast/syrian\\-kurds\\-isis\\-american\\-offensive.html \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=WRAL NEWS}}", "On 5 June 2018, a day after Turkey and the U.S. agreed to a roadmap for the Manbij region, the YPG announced it would withdraw its remaining forces there, who they stated were serving as tactical advisors to the MMC.{{Cite web \\|date\\=June 5, 2018 \\|title\\=YPG confirms withdrawal from Syria's Manbij after Turkey\\-US deal \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/6/5/ypg\\-confirms\\-withdrawal\\-from\\-syrias\\-manbij\\-after\\-turkey\\-us\\-deal \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=AlJazeera}}", "### 2019", "On 11 March 2019, Manbij Military Council Co\\-Chair Muhammad Mustafa told [Al\\-Monitor](/wiki/Al-Monitor \"Al-Monitor\") that “Russian commanders told us exactly two days ago that the minute the Americans leave they will deploy their forces along the demarcation line.”{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zaman \\|first\\=Amberin \\|date\\=11 March 2018 \\|title\\=Russian forces will defend Manbij 'the minute Americans leave' \\|url\\=https://www.al\\-monitor.com/originals/2019/03/russia\\-forces\\-defend\\-manbij\\-syria\\-mmc\\-trump\\-withdrawal.html \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Al\\-Monitor}}", "On 19 March, it was reported that the MMC had facilitated the capture of five Islamic State militants believed responsible for a January 2019 suicide bombing which killed four Americans.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Martinez \\|first\\=Luis \\|date\\=19 March 2019 \\|title\\=5 ISIS fighters captured for alleged role in Syria blast that killed 4 Americans \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/isis\\-fighters\\-captured\\-alleged\\-role\\-blast\\-killed\\-americans/story?id\\=61780056 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2019 \\|website\\=ABC News}}", "On 26 March, the Islamic State claimed responsibility for a checkpoint bombing that killed 7 members of the MMC.{{Cite web \\|date\\=26 March 2019 \\|title\\=7 US\\-backed Kurdish fighters killed in ISIS attack in Manbij \\|url\\=https://www.militarytimes.com/flashpoints/2019/03/27/7\\-us\\-backed\\-kurdish\\-fighters\\-killed\\-in\\-isis\\-attack\\-in\\-manbij/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=MilitaryTimes}}", "During [Operation Peace Spring](/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria \"2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria\"), the Council prepared to defend Manbij from Turkey, until the SDF reached a military agreement with the Syrian Government and Russia to prevent a Turkish operation.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Najjar \\|first\\=Farah \\|date\\=16 October 2019 \\|title\\=New front in Syria's war: Why Manbij matters \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/16/new\\-front\\-in\\-syrias\\-war\\-why\\-manbij\\-matters \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Al Jazeera}}", "On 15 October, under the terms of the military agreement, Russian and Syrian troops were positioned along SDF’s frontlines with Turkey in Manbij.{{Cite web \\|last\\=McKernan \\|first\\=Bethan \\|date\\=15 October 2019 \\|title\\=Russian troops patrol between Turkish and Syrian forces on border \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/15/russian\\-troops\\-patrol\\-between\\-turkish\\-and\\-syrian\\-forces\\-on\\-border \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=The Guardian}} While some international media outlets inaccurately reported that Manbij had come under Syrian Government control,{{Cite web \\|date\\=15 October 2019 \\|title\\=Russia\\-backed Syrian forces enter key city \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/russia\\-backed\\-syrian\\-forces\\-enter\\-key\\-city\\-manbij\\-in\\-northern\\-syria/a\\-50847542 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=DW}} the two sides only agreed to station the SAA on the [Autonomous Administration’s](/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria \"Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria\") borders with Turkey, and the Government has no institutions in Manbij.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hamidi \\|first\\=Ibrahim \\|date\\=7 December 2022 \\|title\\=Mazloum Abdi: US Barred Türkiye from Carrying Out Military Operation in Syria \\|url\\=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/4029681/mazloum\\-abdi\\-us\\-barred\\-t%C3%BCrkiye\\-carrying\\-out\\-military\\-operation\\-syria%C2%A0 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Asharq Al\\-Awsat}}", "### 2020", "On 3 February 2019, the Manbij Military Council called on Manbij residents serving in Syrian National Army militias in [Turkish\\-occupied zones](/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria \"Turkish occupation of northern Syria\") to defect and return to the region. {{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Ahmde \\|first\\=Rana \\|date\\=20 February 2020 \\|title\\=Will Manbij fighters heed the call to return home? \\|url\\=https://www.al\\-monitor.com/originals/2020/02/syria\\-manbij\\-military\\-council\\-call\\-fighters\\-defect\\-turkey.html \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Al\\-Monitor}}", "On 10 June, the Council’s spokesperson, Shervan Derwish, survived an IED assassination attempt.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Van Wilgenburg \\|first\\=Wladimir \\|date\\=10 June 2020 \\|title\\=Local official survives assassination attempt in Syria's Manbij \\|url\\=https://www.kurdistan24\\.net/en/story/22580\\-Local\\-official\\-survives\\-assassination\\-attempt\\-in\\-Syria%E2%80%99s\\-Manbij \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2023 \\|website\\=Kurdistan24}}", "### 2021", "On 2 June 2021, the Manbij Military Council announced it would halt regional conscription in the face of popular local protests, as well as some riots. {{Cite web \\|last\\=van Wilgenburg \\|first\\=Wladimir \\|date\\=3 June 2021 \\|title\\=Military conscription suspended after protests and riots in Syria's Manbij \\|url\\=https://www.kurdistan24\\.net/en/story/24654\\-Military\\-conscription\\-suspended\\-after\\-protests\\-and\\-riots\\-in\\-Syria%E2%80%99s\\-Manbij \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=Kurdistan 24}}", "As with every other year, Turkish forces shelled MMC positions multiple times in 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hassan \\|first\\=Saddam \\|date\\=8 February 2023 \\|title\\=Turkey bombarded Manbij Military Council posts northern Syria \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/54222/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hassan \\|first\\=Saddam \\|date\\=22 June 2021 \\|title\\=Turkey intensively shells Syria's Manbij countryside \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/61266/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}", "### 2022", "Turkey shelled the Manbij countryside including many villages constantly in 2022, killing and displacing civilians as a result.{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hassan \\|first\\=Fadi \\|date\\=8 July 2022 \\|title\\=Turkish bombardment forces villagers in Syria's Manbij to flee in night \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/80159/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Haydar \\|first\\=Ammar \\|date\\=11 June 2022 \\|title\\=Turkey shells telecommunications tower in Syria's Manbij \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/78901/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hussein \\|first\\=Fadi \\|date\\=23 October 2022 \\|title\\=Turkish shelling prevents farmers from cultivating lands in Syria's Manbij \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/86098/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hassan \\|first\\=Saddam \\|date\\=1 March 2022 \\|title\\=Villages of Syria's Manbij hit with 25 Turkish shells \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/73584/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hassan \\|first\\=Saddam \\|date\\=28 April 2022 \\|title\\=Syria's Manbij countryside hit with Turkish drones, shells \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/76890/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=4 December 2022 \\|title\\=The outcome of the Turkish occupation attacks against NE Syria on December 3, 2022 \\|url\\=https://sdf\\-press.com/en/2022/12/16449/ \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2022 \\|website\\=sdf\\-press.com}} The MMC and its components including the Kurdish Front, Al\\-Bab Military Council and the Army of Revolutionaries vowed again the resist any Turkish operation against Manbij region.{{Cite web \\|last\\=al\\-Hussein \\|first\\=Saddam \\|date\\=16 July 2022 \\|title\\=SDF's military council in Manbij condemns Turkish threats against northern Syria \\|url\\=https://npasyria.com/en/80466/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2023 \\|website\\=North Press Agency}}", "" ]
Results summary --------------- [thumb\|Windsurfer [Shahar Tzuberi](/wiki/Shahar_Tzuberi "Shahar Tzuberi") with his bronze medal](/wiki/File:Shahar_z.jpg "Shahar z.jpg") [thumb\|Gymnast [Alex Shatilov](/wiki/Alex_Shatilov "Alex Shatilov")](/wiki/File:Alex_Shtilov.jpg "Alex Shtilov.jpg") [thumb\|Rhythmic gymnast [Irina Risenzon](/wiki/Irina_Risenzon "Irina Risenzon")](/wiki/File:Risenson.jpg "Risenson.jpg") [thumb\|Swimmer [Guy Barne'a](/wiki/Guy_Barne%27a "Guy Barne'a")](/wiki/File:Guy_barnea1.jpg "Guy barnea1.jpg") [thumb\|Rhythmic gymnast [Veronika Vitenberg](/wiki/Veronika_Vitenberg "Veronika Vitenberg")](/wiki/File:Veronika_Vitenberg1_cropped.JPG "Veronika Vitenberg1 cropped.JPG") [thumb\|Judoka [Ariel Ze'evi](/wiki/Ariel_Ze%27evi "Ariel Ze'evi")](/wiki/File:%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%96%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99.jpg "אריק זאבי.jpg") The largest delegation in Israel's Olympic history won just one bronze medal by [Shahar Tzuberi](/wiki/Shahar_Tzuberi "Shahar Tzuberi") in this Olympics, which was below the expectations of the National Olympic committee. However, beside disappointment from failures of medal hopefuls, such as [Arik Ze'evi](/wiki/Arik_Ze%27evi "Arik Ze'evi"), [Udi Gal](/wiki/Udi_Gal "Udi Gal") and [Gideon Kliger](/wiki/Gideon_Kliger "Gideon Kliger"), and [Jonathan Erlich](/wiki/Jonathan_Erlich "Jonathan Erlich") and [Andy Ram](/wiki/Andy_Ram "Andy Ram"), there were some fine performances from other athletes. The sailing team was close to win another medal by [Vered Buskila](/wiki/Vered_Buskila "Vered Buskila") and [Nike Kornecki](/wiki/Nike_Kornecki "Nike Kornecki") in women's 470 class, who finished in fourth place, while [Maayan Davidovich](/wiki/Maayan_Davidovich "Maayan Davidovich") became the first Israeli female windsurfer to place in the top 10\. The Gymnasts excelled and recorded first finals in Israel Olympic history by [Alex Shatilov](/wiki/Alex_Shatilov "Alex Shatilov"), 8th in men's floor (best achievement in artistic gymnastics), the rhythmic team placed sixth on its debut in the team all\-around event, while [Irina Risenzon](/wiki/Irina_Risenzon "Irina Risenzon") placed 9th in the rhythmic individual all\-around event. Also the 14th place of [Neta Rivkin](/wiki/Neta_Rivkin "Neta Rivkin"), the youngest member of the Olympic team, was a good achievement. There were plenty of national records in the swimming pool – 11 in 17 races – and 3 swimmers achieved 4 top\-16 places between them, more than any previous Olympics. [Gal Nevo](/wiki/Gal_Nevo "Gal Nevo") was the best of them, with 11th place in 400 metres individual medley and 13th place in 200 metres individual medley. [Nimrod Shapira Bar\-Or](/wiki/Nimrod_Shapira_Bar-Or "Nimrod Shapira Bar-Or") got 15th place in 200 metres freestyle, and [Guy Barne'a](/wiki/Guy_Barne%27a "Guy Barne'a") 16th in 100 metres backstroke. Among the other sports, there was only one notable achievement, [Gal Yekutiel](/wiki/Gal_Yekutiel "Gal Yekutiel")'s fifth place in judo, which was beyond the expectations from him. In shooting, 4\-times Olympian [Guy Starik](/wiki/Guy_Starik "Guy Starik") came close to the final of the rifle prone event, but a miss on the final shot placed him in 12th place, losing on tie break to the 4 shooters ranked above him. On the down side, all four athletes in track\-and\-field failed to reach their expected results, all three fencers were eliminated in their first bouts, and four tennis players recorded just one win between them (by [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er "Shahar Pe'er")) before being eliminated.
[ "Results summary\n---------------", "[thumb\\|Windsurfer [Shahar Tzuberi](/wiki/Shahar_Tzuberi \"Shahar Tzuberi\") with his bronze medal](/wiki/File:Shahar_z.jpg \"Shahar z.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Gymnast [Alex Shatilov](/wiki/Alex_Shatilov \"Alex Shatilov\")](/wiki/File:Alex_Shtilov.jpg \"Alex Shtilov.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Rhythmic gymnast [Irina Risenzon](/wiki/Irina_Risenzon \"Irina Risenzon\")](/wiki/File:Risenson.jpg \"Risenson.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Swimmer [Guy Barne'a](/wiki/Guy_Barne%27a \"Guy Barne'a\")](/wiki/File:Guy_barnea1.jpg \"Guy barnea1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Rhythmic gymnast [Veronika Vitenberg](/wiki/Veronika_Vitenberg \"Veronika Vitenberg\")](/wiki/File:Veronika_Vitenberg1_cropped.JPG \"Veronika Vitenberg1 cropped.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Judoka [Ariel Ze'evi](/wiki/Ariel_Ze%27evi \"Ariel Ze'evi\")](/wiki/File:%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%96%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99.jpg \"אריק זאבי.jpg\")\nThe largest delegation in Israel's Olympic history won just one bronze medal by [Shahar Tzuberi](/wiki/Shahar_Tzuberi \"Shahar Tzuberi\") in this Olympics, which was below the expectations of the National Olympic committee. However, beside disappointment from failures of medal hopefuls, such as [Arik Ze'evi](/wiki/Arik_Ze%27evi \"Arik Ze'evi\"), [Udi Gal](/wiki/Udi_Gal \"Udi Gal\") and [Gideon Kliger](/wiki/Gideon_Kliger \"Gideon Kliger\"), and [Jonathan Erlich](/wiki/Jonathan_Erlich \"Jonathan Erlich\") and [Andy Ram](/wiki/Andy_Ram \"Andy Ram\"), there were some fine performances from other athletes.", "The sailing team was close to win another medal by [Vered Buskila](/wiki/Vered_Buskila \"Vered Buskila\") and [Nike Kornecki](/wiki/Nike_Kornecki \"Nike Kornecki\") in women's 470 class, who finished in fourth place, while [Maayan Davidovich](/wiki/Maayan_Davidovich \"Maayan Davidovich\") became the first Israeli female windsurfer to place in the top 10\\.", "The Gymnasts excelled and recorded first finals in Israel Olympic history by [Alex Shatilov](/wiki/Alex_Shatilov \"Alex Shatilov\"), 8th in men's floor (best achievement in artistic gymnastics), the rhythmic team placed sixth on its debut in the team all\\-around event, while [Irina Risenzon](/wiki/Irina_Risenzon \"Irina Risenzon\") placed 9th in the rhythmic individual all\\-around event. Also the 14th place of [Neta Rivkin](/wiki/Neta_Rivkin \"Neta Rivkin\"), the youngest member of the Olympic team, was a good achievement.", "There were plenty of national records in the swimming pool – 11 in 17 races – and 3 swimmers achieved 4 top\\-16 places between them, more than any previous Olympics. [Gal Nevo](/wiki/Gal_Nevo \"Gal Nevo\") was the best of them, with 11th place in 400 metres individual medley and 13th place in 200 metres individual medley. [Nimrod Shapira Bar\\-Or](/wiki/Nimrod_Shapira_Bar-Or \"Nimrod Shapira Bar-Or\") got 15th place in 200 metres freestyle, and [Guy Barne'a](/wiki/Guy_Barne%27a \"Guy Barne'a\") 16th in 100 metres backstroke.", "Among the other sports, there was only one notable achievement, [Gal Yekutiel](/wiki/Gal_Yekutiel \"Gal Yekutiel\")'s fifth place in judo, which was beyond the expectations from him.", "In shooting, 4\\-times Olympian [Guy Starik](/wiki/Guy_Starik \"Guy Starik\") came close to the final of the rifle prone event, but a miss on the final shot placed him in 12th place, losing on tie break to the 4 shooters ranked above him.", "On the down side, all four athletes in track\\-and\\-field failed to reach their expected results, all three fencers were eliminated in their first bouts, and four tennis players recorded just one win between them (by [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er \"Shahar Pe'er\")) before being eliminated.", "" ]
Career ------ Early in her career Wilkinson was a public information officer and community relations manager for the Lexington\-Fayette Urban County Government, editing their quarterly environmental newsletter and handling media relations for special projects. She also began volunteering her time to public service in Lexington, most notably the Roots and Heritage Festival,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rootsandheritagefestival.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020928091222/http://www.rootsandheritagefestival.com/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=September 28, 2002 \|title\=rootsandheritagefestival.com \|publisher\=rootsandheritagefestival.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013}} helping with publicity and coordinating the literary readings. During this time, Wilkinson joined other Kentuckian African American writers (including Kelly Norman Ellis,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/kellynormanellis.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008071216/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/kellynormanellis.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=October 8, 2007 \|title\=Kelly Norman Ellis \|publisher\=Affrilachianpoets.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013}} Ricardo Nazario y Colon,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/ricardonazariocolon.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203030228/http://affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/ricardonazariocolon.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=February 3, 2009 \|title\=Ricardo Nazario y Colón \|publisher\=Affrilachianpoets.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013 }} Mitchell L. H. Douglas,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/mitchdouglas.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008070701/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/mitchdouglas.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=October 8, 2007 \|title\=Mitchell L. H. Douglas \|publisher\=Affrilachianpoets.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013}} and Daundra Scisney\-Givens){{cite web \|url\=http://coalblackvoices.com/poets/daundra \|title\=Daundra Scisney\-Givens: Baptisim \|publisher\=Coal Black Voices \|date\= \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013 \|archive\-date\=September 27, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927205417/http://coalblackvoices.com/poets/daundra/ \|url\-status\=dead }} at the Martin Luther King Jr. Cultural Center{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uky.edu/MLKCC \|title\=University of Kentucky \- Martin Luther King Jr. Center \|publisher\=Uky.edu \|date\= \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013 \|archive\-date\=September 23, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923040951/http://www.uky.edu/MLKCC/ \|url\-status\=dead }} at the [University of Kentucky](/wiki/University_of_Kentucky "University of Kentucky") where [Frank X Walker](/wiki/Frank_X_Walker "Frank X Walker") was the assistant director. The group, later called The [Affrilachian](/wiki/Affrilachia "Affrilachia") Poets,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503073858/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=May 3, 2007 \|title\=affrilachianpoets.com \|publisher\=affrilachianpoets.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013 }} was mentored by the poet Nikky Finney{{cite web\|url\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/nikkyfinney.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008070758/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/nikkyfinney.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=October 8, 2007 \|title\=Nikky Finney \|publisher\=Affrilachianpoets.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013}} who was teaching then at the University of Kentucky. In 2000, Wilkinson published her first volume, the short\-story collection *Blackberries, Blackberries* (The Toby Press, 2000\), which would go on to receive the Chaffin Award for Appalachian Literature. In 1997, Wilkinson became the Assistant Director for the Carnegie Center for Literacy and Learning[Carnegie Center](http://www.carnegiecenterlex.org) website. in [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky "Lexington, Kentucky"), where she taught short courses and implemented many different programs and activities for Kentucky's literary arts scene. From 1997 to 2001 and again in 2008, she taught high school juniors and seniors who were juried into the creative writing discipline for the [Governor's School for the Arts](/wiki/Governor%27s_School_for_the_Arts_%28Kentucky%29 "Governor's School for the Arts (Kentucky)"). She also served as chair of the creative writing department from 1997 to 2001\. In the spring of 2004, she served as the Writer\-in\-Residence for the Appalachian College Association, conducting advanced creative writing classes and one\-on\-one instruction for undergraduate writing students at [Cumberland College](/wiki/Cumberland_College_%28Princeton%2C_Kentucky%29 "Cumberland College (Princeton, Kentucky)"), [Lindsey Wilson College](/wiki/Lindsey_Wilson_College "Lindsey Wilson College") and [Berea College](/wiki/Berea_College "Berea College"). She has taught creative writing at [Eastern Kentucky University](/wiki/Eastern_Kentucky_University "Eastern Kentucky University") (2002–2003\), Indiana University Bloomington (2004–2007\), and at [Morehead State University](/wiki/Morehead_State_University "Morehead State University") (2007–2013\). As of 2020, Wilkinson is an associate professor at the [University of Kentucky](/wiki/University_of_Kentucky "University of Kentucky") in the Department of English, the Program in African American and Africana Studies.{{Cite web\|title\=Crystal Wilkinson {{!}} English\|url\=https://english.as.uky.edu/users/cwi335\|access\-date\=November 3, 2020\|website\=english.as.uky.edu\|language\=en}} She also works with the UK Appalachian Center and the Gaines Center for the Humanities at the University of Kentucky.{{Cite news\|date\=June 19, 2020\|title\=UK Gaines Center for the Humanities Videos Explore How Kentucky Creatives are Weathering COVID\-19\|url\=http://uknow.uky.edu/campus\-news/uk\-gaines\-center\-humanities\-videos\-explore\-how\-kentucky\-creatives\-are\-weathering\-covid\|access\-date\=November 3, 2020\|website\=UKNow}} She currently conducts research in "Creative Writing, Fiction, The Short Story Cycle, Black Culture in Appalachia, Mental Illness in Literature, \[and] Women and the Black Rural Landscape". She and her partner, the artist and poet, Ronald Davis (upfromsumdirt), are the founders and editors of the briefly published *Mythium: A Journal of Contemporary Literature*,{{cite web \|url\=http://mythiumlitmag.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212005349/http://mythiumlitmag.com/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=February 12, 2009 \|title\=mythiumlitmag.com \|publisher\=mythiumlitmag.com \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013 }} a journal that celebrated writers of color and other cultural voices. They were also co\-founders and owners of The Wild Fig Books and Coffee in Lexington, Ky from 2011 until 2018\. Wilkinson has presented many workshops and given readings in the U.S., including: * the International Conference on the Short Story in English at the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa "University of Iowa") * the Ocean State Writers Conference * the African American Women Writers Conference at the University of the District of Columbia Wilkinson was appointed [Poet Laureate of Kentucky](/wiki/Poet_Laureate_of_Kentucky "Poet Laureate of Kentucky") in 2021\. She is the first Black woman appointed to that position.{{cite web \|title\=Crystal Wilkinson Kentucky Poet Laureate 2021\-2022 \|url\=http://artscouncil.ky.gov/KAC/Showcasing/Poet.htm \|website\=artscouncil.ky.gov \|publisher\=\[\[Kentucky Arts Council]] \|access\-date\=May 20, 2021\|date\=March 26, 2021}}{{cite web \|last1\=Collins \|first1\=Dan \|title\=Crystal Wilkinson Appointed Kentucky Poet Laureate \|url\=https://www.wuky.org/post/crystal\-wilkinson\-appointed\-kentucky\-poet\-laureate\#stream/0 \|website\=www.wuky.org \|publisher\=WUKY \|access\-date\=May 20, 2021 \|language\=en \|date\=April 15, 2021}} Wilkinson is featured in several television shows: * "Coal Black Voices" (2001\) * "GED Connections," [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television "Kentucky Educational Television") (2001\) * "James Still's Legacy," [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television "Kentucky Educational Television") (2003\) * "Crystal Wilkinson, Poet," Connections with Renee Shaw,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\=CWRS0422 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507171002/http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\=CWRS0422 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=May 7, 2009 \|title\=Connections with Renee Shaw \| Program 422 \|publisher\=KET \|accessdate\=September 21, 2013}} [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television "Kentucky Educational Television") (2009\){{cite web \| url \= http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\=CWRS0422 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20090507171002/http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\=CWRS0422 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-date \= May 7, 2009 \| title \= Crystal Wilkinson, Poet \| accessdate \= March 12, 2011 \| date \= February 6, 2009 \| work \= Connections with Renee Shaw, Program 422 \| publisher \= \[\[Kentucky Educational Television]]}}
[ "Career\n------", "Early in her career Wilkinson was a public information officer and community relations manager for the Lexington\\-Fayette Urban County Government, editing their quarterly environmental newsletter and handling media relations for special projects. She also began volunteering her time to public service in Lexington, most notably the Roots and Heritage Festival,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rootsandheritagefestival.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020928091222/http://www.rootsandheritagefestival.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2002 \\|title\\=rootsandheritagefestival.com \\|publisher\\=rootsandheritagefestival.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013}} helping with publicity and coordinating the literary readings.", "During this time, Wilkinson joined other Kentuckian African American writers (including Kelly Norman Ellis,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/kellynormanellis.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008071216/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/kellynormanellis.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=October 8, 2007 \\|title\\=Kelly Norman Ellis \\|publisher\\=Affrilachianpoets.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013}} Ricardo Nazario y Colon,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/ricardonazariocolon.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203030228/http://affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/ricardonazariocolon.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=February 3, 2009 \\|title\\=Ricardo Nazario y Colón \\|publisher\\=Affrilachianpoets.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013 }} Mitchell L. H. Douglas,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/mitchdouglas.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008070701/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/mitchdouglas.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=October 8, 2007 \\|title\\=Mitchell L. H. Douglas \\|publisher\\=Affrilachianpoets.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013}} and Daundra Scisney\\-Givens){{cite web \\|url\\=http://coalblackvoices.com/poets/daundra \\|title\\=Daundra Scisney\\-Givens: Baptisim \\|publisher\\=Coal Black Voices \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927205417/http://coalblackvoices.com/poets/daundra/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} at the Martin Luther King Jr. Cultural Center{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uky.edu/MLKCC \\|title\\=University of Kentucky \\- Martin Luther King Jr. Center \\|publisher\\=Uky.edu \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923040951/http://www.uky.edu/MLKCC/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} at the [University of Kentucky](/wiki/University_of_Kentucky \"University of Kentucky\") where [Frank X Walker](/wiki/Frank_X_Walker \"Frank X Walker\") was the assistant director. The group, later called The [Affrilachian](/wiki/Affrilachia \"Affrilachia\") Poets,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503073858/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=May 3, 2007 \\|title\\=affrilachianpoets.com \\|publisher\\=affrilachianpoets.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013 }} was mentored by the poet Nikky Finney{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/nikkyfinney.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008070758/http://www.affrilachianpoets.com/appoets/nikkyfinney.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=October 8, 2007 \\|title\\=Nikky Finney \\|publisher\\=Affrilachianpoets.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013}} who was teaching then at the University of Kentucky. In 2000, Wilkinson published her first volume, the short\\-story collection *Blackberries, Blackberries* (The Toby Press, 2000\\), which would go on to receive the Chaffin Award for Appalachian Literature.", "In 1997, Wilkinson became the Assistant Director for the Carnegie Center for Literacy and Learning[Carnegie Center](http://www.carnegiecenterlex.org) website. in [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky \"Lexington, Kentucky\"), where she taught short courses and implemented many different programs and activities for Kentucky's literary arts scene. From 1997 to 2001 and again in 2008, she taught high school juniors and seniors who were juried into the creative writing discipline for the [Governor's School for the Arts](/wiki/Governor%27s_School_for_the_Arts_%28Kentucky%29 \"Governor's School for the Arts (Kentucky)\"). She also served as chair of the creative writing department from 1997 to 2001\\. In the spring of 2004, she served as the Writer\\-in\\-Residence for the Appalachian College Association, conducting advanced creative writing classes and one\\-on\\-one instruction for undergraduate writing students at [Cumberland College](/wiki/Cumberland_College_%28Princeton%2C_Kentucky%29 \"Cumberland College (Princeton, Kentucky)\"), [Lindsey Wilson College](/wiki/Lindsey_Wilson_College \"Lindsey Wilson College\") and [Berea College](/wiki/Berea_College \"Berea College\"). She has taught creative writing at [Eastern Kentucky University](/wiki/Eastern_Kentucky_University \"Eastern Kentucky University\") (2002–2003\\), Indiana University Bloomington (2004–2007\\), and at [Morehead State University](/wiki/Morehead_State_University \"Morehead State University\") (2007–2013\\).", "As of 2020, Wilkinson is an associate professor at the [University of Kentucky](/wiki/University_of_Kentucky \"University of Kentucky\") in the Department of English, the Program in African American and Africana Studies.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Crystal Wilkinson {{!}} English\\|url\\=https://english.as.uky.edu/users/cwi335\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2020\\|website\\=english.as.uky.edu\\|language\\=en}} She also works with the UK Appalachian Center and the Gaines Center for the Humanities at the University of Kentucky.{{Cite news\\|date\\=June 19, 2020\\|title\\=UK Gaines Center for the Humanities Videos Explore How Kentucky Creatives are Weathering COVID\\-19\\|url\\=http://uknow.uky.edu/campus\\-news/uk\\-gaines\\-center\\-humanities\\-videos\\-explore\\-how\\-kentucky\\-creatives\\-are\\-weathering\\-covid\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2020\\|website\\=UKNow}} She currently conducts research in \"Creative Writing, Fiction, The Short Story Cycle, Black Culture in Appalachia, Mental Illness in Literature, \\[and] Women and the Black Rural Landscape\".", "She and her partner, the artist and poet, Ronald Davis (upfromsumdirt), are the founders and editors of the briefly published *Mythium: A Journal of Contemporary Literature*,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mythiumlitmag.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212005349/http://mythiumlitmag.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=February 12, 2009 \\|title\\=mythiumlitmag.com \\|publisher\\=mythiumlitmag.com \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013 }} a journal that celebrated writers of color and other cultural voices. They were also co\\-founders and owners of The Wild Fig Books and Coffee in Lexington, Ky from 2011 until 2018\\.", "Wilkinson has presented many workshops and given readings in the U.S., including:\n* the International Conference on the Short Story in English at the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa \"University of Iowa\")\n* the Ocean State Writers Conference\n* the African American Women Writers Conference at the University of the District of Columbia", "Wilkinson was appointed [Poet Laureate of Kentucky](/wiki/Poet_Laureate_of_Kentucky \"Poet Laureate of Kentucky\") in 2021\\. She is the first Black woman appointed to that position.{{cite web \\|title\\=Crystal Wilkinson Kentucky Poet Laureate 2021\\-2022 \\|url\\=http://artscouncil.ky.gov/KAC/Showcasing/Poet.htm \\|website\\=artscouncil.ky.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Kentucky Arts Council]] \\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2021\\|date\\=March 26, 2021}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Collins \\|first1\\=Dan \\|title\\=Crystal Wilkinson Appointed Kentucky Poet Laureate \\|url\\=https://www.wuky.org/post/crystal\\-wilkinson\\-appointed\\-kentucky\\-poet\\-laureate\\#stream/0 \\|website\\=www.wuky.org \\|publisher\\=WUKY \\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=April 15, 2021}}", "Wilkinson is featured in several television shows:\n* \"Coal Black Voices\" (2001\\)\n* \"GED Connections,\" [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television \"Kentucky Educational Television\") (2001\\)\n* \"James Still's Legacy,\" [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television \"Kentucky Educational Television\") (2003\\)\n* \"Crystal Wilkinson, Poet,\" Connections with Renee Shaw,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\\=CWRS0422 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507171002/http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\\=CWRS0422 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=May 7, 2009 \\|title\\=Connections with Renee Shaw \\| Program 422 \\|publisher\\=KET \\|accessdate\\=September 21, 2013}} [Kentucky Educational Television](/wiki/Kentucky_Educational_Television \"Kentucky Educational Television\") (2009\\){{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\\=CWRS0422 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090507171002/http://www.ket.org/connections/program.fwx?programid\\=CWRS0422 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-date \\= May 7, 2009 \\| title \\= Crystal Wilkinson, Poet \\| accessdate \\= March 12, 2011 \\| date \\= February 6, 2009 \\| work \\= Connections with Renee Shaw, Program 422 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Kentucky Educational Television]]}}", "" ]
Main characters --------------- The following is a list of series regulars who have appeared in one or more of the six seasons of *Vikings* or the three seasons of *Vikings: Valhalla*. The characters are listed in the order they were first credited. ### Cast table {{Color box\|\#bfd\|border\=darkgray}} \= [Main cast](/wiki/Ensemble_cast "Ensemble cast") (credited) {{Color box\|\#ffdddd\|border\=darkgray}} \= [Recurring cast](/wiki/Recurring_character "Recurring character") (3\+) {{Color box\|\#ADD8E6\|border\=darkgray}} \= [Guest cast](/wiki/Guest_appearance "Guest appearance") (1\-2\) | Character | Actor | [*Vikings*](/wiki/Vikings_%282013_TV_series%29 "Vikings (2013 TV series)") | | | | | | | | | [*Valhalla*](/wiki/Vikings:Valhalla "Valhalla") | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [1](/wiki/Vikings_season_1 "Vikings season 1") | [2](/wiki/Vikings_season_2 "Vikings season 2") | [3](/wiki/Vikings_season_3 "Vikings season 3") | [4](/wiki/Vikings_season_4 "Vikings season 4") | | [5](/wiki/Vikings_season_5 "Vikings season 5") | | [6](/wiki/Vikings_season_6 "Vikings season 6") | | 1 | 2 | 3 | | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 1 | Part 2 | | [Ragnar Lothbrok](/wiki/%23Ragnar_Lothbrok "#Ragnar Lothbrok") | [Travis Fimmel](/wiki/Travis_Fimmel "Travis Fimmel") | colspan\="5" {{cMain}} | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | | [Lagertha](/wiki/%23Lagertha "#Lagertha") | [Katheryn Winnick](/wiki/Katheryn_Winnick "Katheryn Winnick"){{efn\|group\=main\|In the first part of season 5, Lagertha is also portrayed by guest child actress Mabel Hurley.}} | colspan\="8" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="4" {{cNone}} | | [Rollo](/wiki/%23Rollo "#Rollo") | [Clive Standen](/wiki/Clive_Standen "Clive Standen") | colspan\="5" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="2" {{cAlso starring\|Special appearances}} | colspan\="5" {{cNone}} | | [Siggy](/wiki/%23Siggy "#Siggy") | [Jessalyn Gilsig](/wiki/Jessalyn_Gilsig "Jessalyn Gilsig") | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | | [Floki](/wiki/%23Floki "#Floki") | [Gustaf Skarsgård](/wiki/Gustaf_Skarsg%C3%A5rd "Gustaf Skarsgård") | colspan\="7" {{cMain\|Main}} | {{cNone}} | {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Earl Haraldson](/wiki/%23Earl_Haraldson "#Earl Haraldson") | [Gabriel Byrne](/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne "Gabriel Byrne") | {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="11" {{cNone}} | | [Athelstan](/wiki/%23Athelstan "#Athelstan") | [George Blagden](/wiki/George_Blagden "George Blagden") | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | {{cRecurring}} | {{cGuest}} | {{cNone\|''\[\[Body double]]''}} | colspan\="6" {{cNone}} | | [King Horik](/wiki/%23King_Horik_of_Denmark "#King Horik of Denmark") | [Donal Logue](/wiki/Donal_Logue "Donal Logue") | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="10" {{cNone}} | | [Aslaug](/wiki/%23Aslaug "#Aslaug") | [Alyssa Sutherland](/wiki/Alyssa_Sutherland "Alyssa Sutherland") | colspan\="5" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|Sutherland only appears in one episode of season 1, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | | [King Ecbert](/wiki/%23King_Ecbert_of_Wessex "#King Ecbert of Wessex") | [Linus Roache](/wiki/Linus_Roache "Linus Roache") | {{cNone}} | colspan\="4" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="2" {{cNone\|''Body double''}} | colspan\="5" {{cNone}} | | [Björn Ironside](/wiki/%23Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside "#Björn Ironside") | [Alexander Ludwig](/wiki/Alexander_Ludwig "Alexander Ludwig") | {{cNone}} | colspan\="8" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|Ludwig only appears in one episode of the second part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Nathan O'Toole](/wiki/Nathan_O%27Toole "Nathan O'Toole") {{small\|(young)}} | {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | {{cGuest\|Guest}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cGuest\|Guest}} | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | | [Kalf](/wiki/%23Kalf "#Kalf") | [Ben Robson](/wiki/Ben_Robson "Ben Robson") | colspan\="2" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="8" {{cNone}} | | [Harbard](/wiki/%23Harbard "#Harbard") | [Kevin Durand](/wiki/Kevin_Durand "Kevin Durand") | colspan\="2" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="8" {{cNone}} | | [Charles](/wiki/%23Emperor_Charles_of_West_Francia "#Emperor Charles of West Francia") | [Lothaire Bluteau](/wiki/Lothaire_Bluteau "Lothaire Bluteau") | colspan\="2" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="8" {{cNone}} | | [The Seer](/wiki/%23The_Seer "#The Seer") | [John Kavanagh](/wiki/John_Kavanagh_%28actor%29 "John Kavanagh (actor)") | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="6" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cGuest\|Guest}} | | [Harald Finehair](/wiki/%23King_Harald_Finehair "#King Harald Finehair") | [Peter Franzén](/wiki/Peter_Franz%C3%A9n "Peter Franzén") | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | colspan\="6" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Halfdan the Black](/wiki/%23Halfdan_the_Black "#Halfdan the Black") | [Jasper Pääkkönen](/wiki/Jasper_P%C3%A4%C3%A4kk%C3%B6nen "Jasper Pääkkönen") | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="2" {{cNone}} | {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|Pääkkönen only appears in one episode of the second part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Ivar the Boneless](/wiki/%23Ivar_the_Boneless "#Ivar the Boneless") | [Alex Høgh Andersen](/wiki/Alex_H%C3%B8gh_Andersen "Alex Høgh Andersen"){{efn\|group\=main\|In seasons 2 and 3, Ivar the Boneless is portrayed by an uncredited infant actor. In the first part of season 4, Ivar the Boneless is portrayed by recurring child actor James Quinn Markey and guest actor \[\[Alex Høgh Andersen]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="5" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Hvitserk](/wiki/%23Hvitserk "#Hvitserk") | [Marco Ilsø](/wiki/Marco_Ils%C3%B8 "Marco Ilsø"){{efn\|group\=main\|In seasons 2 and 3, Hvitserk is portrayed by recurring infant actor Cathal O'Hallin. In the first part of season 4, Hvitserk is portrayed by recurring child actor Stephen Rockett and guest actor \[\[Marco Ilsø]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="5" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Sigurd Snake\-in\-the\-Eye](/wiki/%23Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye "#Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye") | David Lindström{{efn\|group\=main\|In seasons 2 and 3, Sigurd Snake\-in\-the\-Eye is portrayed by an uncredited infant actor. In the first part of season 4, Sigurd Snake\-in\-the\-Eye is portrayed by recurring child actor Elijah O'Sullivan and guest actor David Lindström.}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | {{cMain\|Main}} | {{cNone\|''Body double''}} | colspan\="6" {{cNone}} | | [Ubbe](/wiki/%23Ubbe "#Ubbe") | [Jordan Patrick Smith](/wiki/Jordan_Smith_%28actor%29 "Jordan Smith (actor)"){{efn\|group\=main\|In seasons 2 and 3, Ubbe is portrayed by recurring infant actor Cormac Melia. In the first part of season 4, Ubbe is portrayed by recurring child actor Luke Shanahan and guest actor \[\[Jordan Patrick Smith]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="5" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Aethelwulf](/wiki/%23Aethelwulf "#Aethelwulf") | [Moe Dunford](/wiki/Moe_Dunford "Moe Dunford") | {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="6" {{cNone}} | | [Bishop Heahmund](/wiki/%23Bishop_Heahmund "#Bishop Heahmund") | [Jonathan Rhys Meyers](/wiki/Jonathan_Rhys_Meyers "Jonathan Rhys Meyers") | colspan\="4" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|Meyers only appears in one episode of the second part of season 4, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\="5" {{cNone}} | | [Oleg the Prophet](/wiki/%23Oleg_the_Prophet "#Oleg the Prophet") | [Danila Kozlovsky](/wiki/Danila_Kozlovsky "Danila Kozlovsky") | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Erik](/wiki/%23Erik "#Erik") | [Eric Johnson](/wiki/Eric_Johnson_%28actor%29 "Eric Johnson (actor)") | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Torvi](/wiki/%23Torvi "#Torvi") | [Georgia Hirst](/wiki/Georgia_Hirst "Georgia Hirst") | {{cNone}} | colspan\="6" {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|group\=main\|Georgia Hirst is credited as a series regular from episode 6x09 onwards. From episode 6x01 to 6x08, she is credited as a guest star.}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Gunnhild](/wiki/%23Gunnhild "#Gunnhild") | [Ragga Ragnars](/wiki/Ragnhei%C3%B0ur_Ragnarsd%C3%B3ttir "Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir") | colspan\="6" {{cNone}} | {{cRecurring\|Recurring}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|group\=main\|Ragga Ragnars is credited as a series regular from episode 6x09 onwards. From episode 6x01 to 6x08, she is credited as a guest star.}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Othere](/wiki/%23Othere "#Othere") | [Ray Stevenson](/wiki/Ray_Stevenson "Ray Stevenson") | colspan\="7" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}}{{efn\|Stevenson only appears in one episode of the first part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\="3" {{cNone}} | | [Leif Erikson](/wiki/%23Leif_Erikson "#Leif Erikson") | [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett "Sam Corlett") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | | [Freydís Eiríksdóttir](/wiki/%23Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir "#Freydís Eiríksdóttir") | [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson "Frida Gustavsson") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | | [Harald Sigurdsson](/wiki/%23Harald_Sigurdsson "#Harald Sigurdsson") | [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter "Leo Suter") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | | [King Canute the Great](/wiki/%23King_Canute_the_Great "#King Canute the Great") | [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard "Bradley Freegard") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | | [Jarl Olaf Haraldsson](/wiki/%23Jarl_Olaf_Haraldsson "#Jarl Olaf Haraldsson") | [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson "Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="2" {{cMain\|Main}} | {{cNone}} | | [Jarl Estrid Haakon](/wiki/%23Jarl_Estrid_Haakon "#Jarl Estrid Haakon") | [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 "Caroline Henderson (singer)") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | {{cMain\|Main}} | colspan\="2" {{cNone}} | | [Queen Emma](/wiki/%23Queen_Emma "#Queen Emma") | [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin "Laura Berlin") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | | [Earl Godwin](/wiki/%23Earl_Godwin "#Earl Godwin") | [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes "David Oakes") | colspan\="9" {{cNone}} | colspan\="3" {{cMain\|Main}} | Cast notes {{notelist\|group\=main}} {{multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| header \= \| width \= 105 \| image1 \= Travis Fimmel by Gage Skidmore.jpg \| caption1 \= \[\[Travis Fimmel]] \| image2 \= Katheryn Winnick.jpg \| caption2 \= \[\[Katheryn Winnick]] \| image3 \= Clive Standenby Gage Skidmore.jpg \| caption3 \= \[\[Clive Standen]] \| image4 \= Jessalyn Gilsig 2010\.jpg \| caption4 \= \[\[Jessalyn Gilsig]] \| image5 \= Gustaf Skarsgård 2013 (cropped).jpg \| caption5 \= \[\[Gustaf Skarsgård]] \| image6 \= Gabriel Byrne 2010\.jpg \| caption6 \= \[\[Gabriel Byrne]] \| image7 \= George Blagden 2014\.jpg \| caption7 \= \[\[George Blagden]] \| image8 \= Donal Logue at NY PaleyFest 2014 for Gotham.jpg \| caption8 \= \[\[Donal Logue]] \| image9 \= Alexander Ludwig (Cropped).jpg \| caption9 \= \[\[Alexander Ludwig]] \| image10 \= Kevin Durand by Gage Skidmore.jpg \| caption10 \= \[\[Kevin Durand]] \| image11 \= Lothaire Bluteau head 2\.jpg \| caption11 \= \[\[Lothaire Bluteau]] \| image12 \= Peter Franzén.jpg \| caption12 \= \[\[Peter Franzén]] \| image13 \= Jasper Pääkkönen.jpg \| caption13 \= \[\[Jasper Pääkkönen]] \| image14 \= Jonathan Rhys Meyers 2013\.jpg \| caption14 \= \[\[Jonathan Rhys Meyers]] \| image15 \= Danila Kozlovsky Odessa.jpg \| caption15 \= \[\[Danila Kozlovsky]] \| image16 \= Eric Johnson 2011\.jpg \| caption16 \= \[\[Eric Johnson (actor)\|Eric Johnson]] }} ### *Vikings* #### Ragnar Lothbrok {{main\|Ragnar Lothbrok (Vikings)}} * Played by [Travis Fimmel](/wiki/Travis_Fimmel "Travis Fimmel") (seasons 1–4\) Originally a farmer, Viking Ragnar Lothbrok claims to be descended from the [god](/wiki/%C3%86sir "Æsir") [Odin](/wiki/Odin "Odin"). He becomes Earl of Kattegat after he challenges and kills the ruthless Earl Haraldson. He is also a feared warrior, becomes a raider of undiscovered lands, and, eventually, [King of Denmark](/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Denmark "List of legendary kings of Denmark"). Despite his reputation for ruthlessness and brutality, he is a curious man eager to learn about other cultures. Based on the semi\-legendary [Ragnar Lodbrok](/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok "Ragnar Lodbrok"). #### Lagertha * Played by [Katheryn Winnick](/wiki/Katheryn_Winnick "Katheryn Winnick") (seasons 1–6\) and Mabel Hurley (season 5\) Lagertha is Ragnar's first wife and a [shieldmaiden](/wiki/Shieldmaiden "Shieldmaiden"). Following her separation from Ragnar, Lagertha rises to become Earl of [Hedeby](/wiki/Hedeby "Hedeby") in her own right, going by the name Earl Ingstad. Following the deaths of Ragnar and Aslaug, she becomes Queen of Kattegat. Based on the legendary [Lagertha](/wiki/Lagertha "Lagertha"). #### Rollo * Played by [Clive Standen](/wiki/Clive_Standen "Clive Standen") (seasons 1–5\) Ragnar's brother. A ruthless and skilled warrior, but his life in his brother's shadow makes Rollo's feelings towards Ragnar change from love and admiration to hateful jealousy. Eventually, he defects to the Franks and is made Duke of [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy"). Based on the historical [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo "Rollo"). #### Siggy * Played by [Jessalyn Gilsig](/wiki/Jessalyn_Gilsig "Jessalyn Gilsig") (seasons 1–3\) Earl Haraldson's wife, and later the lover of Rollo. She possesses a strategic mind and an urge to regain her power and influence, but grows to care for Ragnar and his family. She drowns while attempting to save Ragnar's children from a similar fate as her own. #### Floki * Played by [Gustaf Skarsgård](/wiki/Gustaf_Skarsg%C3%A5rd "Gustaf Skarsgård") (seasons 1–6\) A gifted but eccentric shipbuilder and friend of Ragnar. His ships create a revolution in shipwright techniques. He considers himself descended from the [trickster](/wiki/Trickster "Trickster") god [Loki](/wiki/Loki "Loki"). Loosely based on the historical [Hrafna\-Flóki Vilgerðarson](/wiki/Hrafna-Fl%C3%B3ki_Vilger%C3%B0arson "Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson").{{cite web\|access\-date\=3 December 2017\|title\=Iceland to play a big role in fifth season of the History channel TV series Vikings\|url\=http://icelandmag.visir.is/article/iceland\-play\-a\-big\-role\-fifth\-season\-history\-channel\-tv\-series\-vikings\|publisher\=Iceland Magazine\|date\=3 March 2017}} #### Earl Haraldson * Played by [Gabriel Byrne](/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne "Gabriel Byrne") (season 1\) Ragnar's predecessor as Earl of Kattegat and husband of Siggy. He grows to resent Ragnar's ambitions to raid the West, and sees Ragnar's growing popularity as a threat. He is killed by Ragnar during personal combat. #### Athelstan * Played by [George Blagden](/wiki/George_Blagden "George Blagden") (seasons 1–4\) An [Anglo\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon "Anglo-Saxon") monk from the monastery of [Lindisfarne](/wiki/Lindisfarne "Lindisfarne") in [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria "Northumbria"). Captured by Ragnar on his first raid, Athelstan is constantly torn between the customs of [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") England and the [pagan](/wiki/Norse_religion "Norse religion") ways of [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"). Athelstan becomes a confidant of King Ecbert after he is captured by his army. #### King Horik of Denmark * Played by [Donal Logue](/wiki/Donal_Logue "Donal Logue") (seasons 1–2\) A powerful king in Denmark who ends up being overthrown by Ragnar. Based on the historical [Horik I](/wiki/Horik_I "Horik I"). #### Aslaug * Played by [Alyssa Sutherland](/wiki/Alyssa_Sutherland "Alyssa Sutherland") (seasons 1–4\) Ragnar's second wife, claiming to be the daughter of the shieldmaiden and valkyrie [Brynhildr](/wiki/Brynhildr "Brynhildr") and the dragonslayer [Sigurd](/wiki/Sigurd "Sigurd"). When Ragnar becomes King of Kattegat, she becomes its queen. She is killed and usurped by a vengeful Lagertha. Based on the legendary [Aslaug](/wiki/Aslaug "Aslaug"). #### King Ecbert of Wessex * Played by [Linus Roache](/wiki/Linus_Roache "Linus Roache") (seasons 2–4\) Ruler of the most powerful kingdom in England. He dreams of becoming [Bretwalda](/wiki/Bretwalda "Bretwalda") and becomes an unlikely friend of Ragnar. Based on the historical [Egbert of Wessex](/wiki/Egbert_of_Wessex "Egbert of Wessex"). #### Björn Ironside * Played by [Nathan O'Toole](/wiki/Nathan_O%27Toole "Nathan O'Toole") (seasons 1–2, 4\) and [Alexander Ludwig](/wiki/Alexander_Ludwig "Alexander Ludwig") (seasons 2–6\) Ragnar and Lagertha's son, given his epithet by his father after his first battle with the Saxons. Based on the historical [Björn Ironside](/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside "Björn Ironside"). #### Kalf * Played by [Ben Robson](/wiki/Ben_Robson "Ben Robson") (seasons 3–4\) A prominent and ambitious Hedeby villager who later betrays Lagertha and takes her earldom. #### Harbard * Played by [Kevin Durand](/wiki/Kevin_Durand "Kevin Durand") (seasons 3–4\) A charismatic wanderer and storyteller who visits Kattegat. #### Emperor Charles of West Francia * Played by [Lothaire Bluteau](/wiki/Lothaire_Bluteau "Lothaire Bluteau") (seasons 3–4\) Ruler in Paris, he witnesses Ragnar's attack on the city and later employs Rollo as a defender against Viking raids. Charles is a composite character drawing from the historical [Charles the Bald](/wiki/Charles_the_Bald "Charles the Bald") (grandson of Charlemagne who first defended Paris from the Vikings), [Charles the Fat](/wiki/Charles_the_Fat "Charles the Fat") (who commanded [Odo](/wiki/Odo_of_France "Odo of France")) and [Charles the Simple](/wiki/Charles_the_Simple "Charles the Simple") (who encountered Rollo, and may have had a daughter [Gisela](/wiki/Gisela_of_France "Gisela of France")). #### The Seer * Played by [John Kavanagh](/wiki/John_Kavanagh_%28actor%29 "John Kavanagh (actor)") (seasons 1–6; *Valhalla*) [Seiðr](/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r "Seiðr") of Kattegat. A 200\-year\-old blind being who often provides mysterious predictions to the characters. He is murdered by Ivar after refusing to recognise Ivar as a god and predicting Ivar's fall. In *Valhalla*, the Seer returns as a [spirit guide](/wiki/Spirit_guide "Spirit guide"), who appears to [Freydís Eiríksdóttir](/wiki/%23Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir "#Freydís Eiríksdóttir") and Jarl Gorm throughout their lives. #### King Harald Finehair * Played by [Peter Franzén](/wiki/Peter_Franz%C3%A9n "Peter Franzén") (seasons 4–6\) The ambitious king of [Vestfold](/wiki/Vestfold "Vestfold"), who seeks to become king of all Norway and marry Ellisif. He allies with Ragnar during his second raid on Paris. He then conquers his neighbours' lands. He joins the [Great Heathen Army](/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army "Great Heathen Army") and battles Aella and Aethelwulf. He fails to conquer Kattegat. He discovers Ellisif is married, and murders her husband, and then kidnaps and marries Astrid. She is killed in battle and he vows vengeance on Lagertha. He sails with Bjorn to retake Kattegat, but their fleet is damaged by a storm. Harald saves Bjorn's life but takes a serious battle wound. Olaf rescues Harald, but occupies Vestfold. Harald's men beg Bjorn for help, and Bjorn repays his debt. When Olaf tries to have Bjorn elected as over\-king of Norway, Harald defeats Bjorn in the election, but Harald's men fail to kill Bjorn. Olaf refuses to recognise Harald, so Harald has him put away and sends warriors to secure his borders. Based on the historical [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair"). #### Halfdan the Black * Played by [Jasper Pääkkönen](/wiki/Jasper_P%C3%A4%C3%A4kk%C3%B6nen "Jasper Pääkkönen") (seasons 4–6\) Harald's violent younger brother. He hates Christians and tries to kill as many as possible. He grows tired of living in his brother's shadow and of Harald's war with other Norsemen, and joins Bjorn's expedition to the Mediterranean. They form a close friendship which leads Halfdan to join Lagertha's side when Ivar and Harald declare war. Faced by Harald in battle, he is killed. A composite character of the historical [Hastein](/wiki/Hastein "Hastein") and historical [Halfdan the Black](/wiki/Halfdan_the_Black "Halfdan the Black"), the father of Harald Fairhair. #### Ivar the Boneless * Played by an uncredited infant actor (seasons 2–3\), James Quinn Markey (season 4\) and [Alex Høgh Andersen](/wiki/Alex_H%C3%B8gh_Andersen "Alex Høgh Andersen") (seasons 4–6\) Ragnar and Aslaug's fourth and most violent son. A birth defect has rendered his legs useless and left him impotent. Ivar is more unstable than his brothers, sadistic and seemingly narcissistic. While publicly boastful, he is insecure and feels unloved except by his mother Aslaug. When Lagertha kills Aslaug, Ivar vows vengeance and with the help of Harald and Rollo makes himself king of Kattegat. He is married to his former slave Freydis, who manipulates him. Based on the historical [Ivar the Boneless](/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless "Ivar the Boneless"). #### Hvitserk * Played by Cathal O'Hallin (seasons 2–3\), Stephen Rockett (season 4\) and [Marco Ilsø](/wiki/Marco_Ils%C3%B8 "Marco Ilsø") (seasons 4–6\) Ragnar and Aslaug's second son. He enjoys battle and adventure and sides with his younger brother Ivar when Ivar and Ubbe fall out. As Ivar's megalomania increases and Ivar becomes more abusive of him, Hvitserk starts to question his decision. A composite of the semi\-historical or legendary [Hvitserk](/wiki/Hvitserk "Hvitserk"), the historical [Halfdan Ragnarsson](/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson "Halfdan Ragnarsson") and the historical warlord [Guthrum](/wiki/Guthrum "Guthrum"). #### Sigurd Snake\-in\-the\-Eye * Played by an uncredited infant actor (seasons 2–3\), Elijah O'Sullivan (season 4\) and David Lindström (season 4\) Ragnar and Aslaug's third son. Killed by his brother Ivar after years of bullying. Based on the historical [Sigurd Snake\-in\-the\-Eye](/wiki/Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye "Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye"). #### Ubbe * Played by Cormac Melia (seasons 2–3\), Luke Shanahan (season 4\) and [Jordan Patrick Smith](/wiki/Jordan_Patrick_Smith "Jordan Patrick Smith") (seasons 4–6\) Ragnar and Aslaug's first son. He is the most responsible of Aslaug's sons, and does not initially take part in raiding, preferring to stay and protect Kattegat. When his mother is killed, he wants revenge. However, as his previously warm relationship with Ivar turns hostile, he sides with Lagertha. When Lagertha is driven into exile in England, Ubbe becomes Alfred's advisor and converts to Christianity. Based on the historical [Ubba](/wiki/Ubba "Ubba"). #### Aethelwulf * Played by [Moe Dunford](/wiki/Moe_Dunford "Moe Dunford") (seasons 2–5\) Son of King Ecbert. He is married to Princess Judith, with whom he has a son, Prince Aethelred. He dies by asphyxiation after being stung by a bee. Based on the historical [Aethelwulf](/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf_of_Wessex "Æthelwulf of Wessex"). #### Bishop Heahmund * Played by [Jonathan Rhys Meyers](/wiki/Jonathan_Rhys_Meyers "Jonathan Rhys Meyers") (seasons 4–5\) A very religious warrior priest.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.inquisitr.com/3871125/vikings\-season\-5\-jonathan\-rhys\-meyers\-role\-is\-finally\-revealed/\|title\='VIKINGS,' SEASON 5: JONATHAN RHYS MEYERS ROLE IS FINALLY REVEALED\|first\=Rachel\|last\=Tsoumbakos\|work\=Inquisitr.com\|date\=January 10, 2017\|access\-date\=January 12, 2017}} Heahmund leads an army in resistance against the Norse presence in York, becoming a principal ally to Aethelwulf. He is eventually captured by Ivar who admires his skill as a warrior. Heahmund fights for Ivar against Lagertha, but is captured in the initial battle. Having become smitten by Lagertha, he seduces her and switches to her side. On his suggestion, Lagertha and her followers seek refuge in England. Through Heahmund's influence, the Northmen are given sanctuary in return for fighting against other Viking raiders. When Harald Finehair attempts to raid Wessex, Heahmund fights in the frontline. In the battle he is wounded by arrows and killed by Gunnhild. Broadly inspired by the historical [Heahmund](/wiki/Heahmund "Heahmund"). #### Oleg the Prophet * Played by [Danila Kozlovsky](/wiki/Danila_Kozlovsky "Danila Kozlovsky") (season 6\) The Varangian (east European Viking) ruler of [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev "Kiev"), called "*the Prophet*". He is the protector of the heir to the [Rus kingdom](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 "Kievan Rus'"), [Igor](/wiki/Igor_of_Kiev "Igor of Kiev") and brother in law of Igor's father Rurik. Oleg is sadistic and uses his status as Igor's protector as a pretext for consolidating control over the kingdom. He has successfully sacked [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), but is critical of Rurik's eastward expansion. Oleg wants to conquer Scandinavia which he claims is the property of the Rus. Oleg takes in Ivar, thinking him useful for his plan to invade Scandinavia. Oleg forms an uneasy friendship with Ivar after revealing that he murdered his wife after discovering her infidelity. Ivar's similar experience with Freydis brings them closer. The character is based on the semi\-historical [Oleg the Prophet](/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod "Oleg of Novgorod"). #### Erik * Played by [Eric Johnson](/wiki/Eric_Johnson_%28actor%29 "Eric Johnson (actor)") (season 6\) An outlaw who helps Bjorn and later Harald. He later becomes the King of Kattegat in Harald's absence alongside Queen Ingrid but she has him killed. #### Torvi * Played by [Georgia Hirst](/wiki/Georgia_Hirst "Georgia Hirst") (seasons 2–6\) Wife of Jarl Borg, then the wife of Erlendur, later the wife of Bjorn and eventually, the wife of Ubbe. Initially a timid girl, she rises to become a shieldmaiden under Lagertha. #### Gunnhild * Played by [Ragga Ragnars](/wiki/Ragnhei%C3%B0ur_Ragnarsd%C3%B3ttir "Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir") (seasons 5–6\) Jarl Olavsonn's wife. Harald becomes enamored with her, but after Olavsonn's death, she marries Bjorn instead. As his wife, she becomes queen of Kattegat. She is based on the quasi\-historical [Gunnhild](/wiki/Gunnhild%2C_Mother_of_Kings "Gunnhild, Mother of Kings"). #### Othere * Played by [Ray Stevenson](/wiki/Ray_Stevenson "Ray Stevenson") (season 6\) A wanderer living in Iceland. His real name is Athelstan and he was a monk in England. During his travels as a missionary, he took the identity of the dying wanderer Othere and moved to Iceland. He then sailed west and glimpsed the Golden Land. Ubbe asks him to sail again with him to find the new land. ### *Vikings: Valhalla* #### Leif Erikson * Played by [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett "Sam Corlett"){{cite web\| url\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-features/netflix\-vikings\-valhalla\-sam\-corlett\-leif\-eriksson\-1235097470/\|title\= Next Big Thing: 'Vikings: Valhalla' Star Sam Corlett Tapped Family Trauma to Play Leif Eriksson \|publisher\= hollywoodreporter.com \|date\=24 February 2022 }} Originally an explorer from [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland "Greenland"), Leif was the son of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red "Erik the Red"), the founder of the first [Norse settlement in Greenland](/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland "Norse settlements in Greenland"), and Thjodhild of Iceland. Based on the legendary [Leif Erikson](/wiki/Leif_Erikson "Leif Erikson").{{cite web \| url \= http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic\_figures/erikson\_leif.shtml \| title \= Leif Erikson (11th century) \| publisher \= BBC \| access\-date \= 20 November 2011 }} #### Freydís Eiríksdóttir * Played by [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson "Frida Gustavsson"){{Cite web\|url\=https://collider.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-netflix/\|title\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\|website\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]]\|date\=26 January 2021}} Freydís is the daughter of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red "Erik the Red"),{{cite book \|author\=J. Sephton \|title\=Eirik the Red's Saga: A Translation \|publisher\=D. Marples \& Co. \|location\=Liverpool \|year\=1880 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rdS1RFM8iuEC\&pg\=PA23}} and the sister of Leif Erikson. She is portrayed as a masculine, strong\-willed woman who would defy the odds of her society. #### Harald Sigurdsson * Played by [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter "Leo Suter"){{Cite web\|url\=https://collider.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-netflix/\|title\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\|website\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]]\|date\=January 26, 2021}} Great\-grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair"){{Cite book\|last\=Lincoln\|first\=Bruce\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_yuOBAAAQBAJ\|title\=Between History and Myth: Stories of Harald Fairhair and the Founding of the State\|date\=2014\|publisher\=University of Chicago Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-14092\-6\|language\=en}} and the younger brother of [Olaf Haraldson](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway "Olaf II of Norway"), Harald was ambitious and sought to become king of all [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway") someday. He allies with Canute during his raid on [England](/wiki/England "England"). Based on the historical [Harald Hardrada](/wiki/Harald_Hardrada "Harald Hardrada"). #### King Canute the Great * Played by [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard "Bradley Freegard") King Canute is the powerful [King of Denmark](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark "Monarchy of Denmark") and [Norway](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway "Monarchy of Norway"). Based on the historical [Cnut](/wiki/Cnut "Cnut"). #### Jarl Olaf Haraldsson * Played by [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson "Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson"){{Cite web\|first\=Q.V.\|last\=HOUGH\|url\=https://screenrant.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-characters\-guide\-actors/\|title\=Vikings: Valhalla Cast Guide \- Where You Know The Actors From\|work\=Screen Rant\|date\=January 25, 2021\|access\-date\=February 1, 2021\|archive\-date\=November 14, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114233038/https://screenrant.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-characters\-guide\-actors/\|url\-status\=live}} Older brother of Harald, son of [Harald Grenske](/wiki/Harald_Grenske "Harald Grenske") and great grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair"). Olaf dreams of becoming King of Norway, usurping Danish rule, and rooting out paganism. Based on the historical [Olaf II of Norway](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway "Olaf II of Norway"). #### Jarl Estrid Haakon * Played by [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 "Caroline Henderson (singer)") (season 1\) Haakon was the Jarl of Kattegat, as a vassal under [King Canute](/wiki/Cnut "Cnut"). Her husband was killed by Christians. Her grandmother was an African noblewoman Haakon's grandfather had met in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"). She was killed during the attack by Jarl Kåre. Based on the historical [Haakon Ericsson](/wiki/Haakon_Ericsson "Haakon Ericsson"). #### Queen Emma * Played by [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin "Laura Berlin") A descendant of [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo "Rollo"), who became the [English](/wiki/List_of_English_royal_consorts "List of English royal consorts") queen through her marriages to the Anglo\-Saxon king [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready "Æthelred the Unready") and later King Canute. Based on the historical [Emma of Normandy](/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy "Emma of Normandy"). #### Earl Godwin * Played by [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes "David Oakes") Godwin, the son of a disgraced ealdorman, became one of the most trusted advisors of King [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready "Æthelred the Unready") of England by delivering him something none of his peers could: the truth. Following Aethelred's death, he serves as an advisor to young King [Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside "Edmund Ironside") until the Vikings overrun [London](/wiki/London "London") following which he becomes an advisor to King Canute. Based on historical [Godwin, Earl of Wessex](/wiki/Godwin%2C_Earl_of_Wessex "Godwin, Earl of Wessex").
[ "Main characters\n---------------", "The following is a list of series regulars who have appeared in one or more of the six seasons of *Vikings* or the three seasons of *Vikings: Valhalla*. The characters are listed in the order they were first credited.", "### Cast table", "{{Color box\\|\\#bfd\\|border\\=darkgray}} \\= [Main cast](/wiki/Ensemble_cast \"Ensemble cast\") (credited) \n {{Color box\\|\\#ffdddd\\|border\\=darkgray}} \\= [Recurring cast](/wiki/Recurring_character \"Recurring character\") (3\\+)\n {{Color box\\|\\#ADD8E6\\|border\\=darkgray}} \\= [Guest cast](/wiki/Guest_appearance \"Guest appearance\") (1\\-2\\)", "| Character | Actor | [*Vikings*](/wiki/Vikings_%282013_TV_series%29 \"Vikings (2013 TV series)\") | | | | | | | | | [*Valhalla*](/wiki/Vikings:Valhalla \"Valhalla\") | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [1](/wiki/Vikings_season_1 \"Vikings season 1\") | [2](/wiki/Vikings_season_2 \"Vikings season 2\") | [3](/wiki/Vikings_season_3 \"Vikings season 3\") | [4](/wiki/Vikings_season_4 \"Vikings season 4\") | | [5](/wiki/Vikings_season_5 \"Vikings season 5\") | | [6](/wiki/Vikings_season_6 \"Vikings season 6\") | | 1 | 2 | 3 |\n| Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 1 | Part 2 |\n| [Ragnar Lothbrok](/wiki/%23Ragnar_Lothbrok \"#Ragnar Lothbrok\") | [Travis Fimmel](/wiki/Travis_Fimmel \"Travis Fimmel\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain}} | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Lagertha](/wiki/%23Lagertha \"#Lagertha\") | [Katheryn Winnick](/wiki/Katheryn_Winnick \"Katheryn Winnick\"){{efn\\|group\\=main\\|In the first part of season 5, Lagertha is also portrayed by guest child actress Mabel Hurley.}} | colspan\\=\"8\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Rollo](/wiki/%23Rollo \"#Rollo\") | [Clive Standen](/wiki/Clive_Standen \"Clive Standen\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cAlso starring\\|Special appearances}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Siggy](/wiki/%23Siggy \"#Siggy\") | [Jessalyn Gilsig](/wiki/Jessalyn_Gilsig \"Jessalyn Gilsig\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Floki](/wiki/%23Floki \"#Floki\") | [Gustaf Skarsgård](/wiki/Gustaf_Skarsg%C3%A5rd \"Gustaf Skarsgård\") | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | {{cNone}} | {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Earl Haraldson](/wiki/%23Earl_Haraldson \"#Earl Haraldson\") | [Gabriel Byrne](/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne \"Gabriel Byrne\") | {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"11\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Athelstan](/wiki/%23Athelstan \"#Athelstan\") | [George Blagden](/wiki/George_Blagden \"George Blagden\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | {{cRecurring}} | {{cGuest}} | {{cNone\\|''\\[\\[Body double]]''}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cNone}} |\n| [King Horik](/wiki/%23King_Horik_of_Denmark \"#King Horik of Denmark\") | [Donal Logue](/wiki/Donal_Logue \"Donal Logue\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"10\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Aslaug](/wiki/%23Aslaug \"#Aslaug\") | [Alyssa Sutherland](/wiki/Alyssa_Sutherland \"Alyssa Sutherland\") | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|Sutherland only appears in one episode of season 1, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} |\n| [King Ecbert](/wiki/%23King_Ecbert_of_Wessex \"#King Ecbert of Wessex\") | [Linus Roache](/wiki/Linus_Roache \"Linus Roache\") | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"4\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone\\|''Body double''}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Björn Ironside](/wiki/%23Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside \"#Björn Ironside\") | [Alexander Ludwig](/wiki/Alexander_Ludwig \"Alexander Ludwig\") | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"8\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|Ludwig only appears in one episode of the second part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Nathan O'Toole](/wiki/Nathan_O%27Toole \"Nathan O'Toole\") {{small\\|(young)}} | {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | {{cGuest\\|Guest}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cGuest\\|Guest}} | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Kalf](/wiki/%23Kalf \"#Kalf\") | [Ben Robson](/wiki/Ben_Robson \"Ben Robson\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"8\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Harbard](/wiki/%23Harbard \"#Harbard\") | [Kevin Durand](/wiki/Kevin_Durand \"Kevin Durand\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"8\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Charles](/wiki/%23Emperor_Charles_of_West_Francia \"#Emperor Charles of West Francia\") | [Lothaire Bluteau](/wiki/Lothaire_Bluteau \"Lothaire Bluteau\") | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"8\" {{cNone}} |\n| [The Seer](/wiki/%23The_Seer \"#The Seer\") | [John Kavanagh](/wiki/John_Kavanagh_%28actor%29 \"John Kavanagh (actor)\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cGuest\\|Guest}} |\n| [Harald Finehair](/wiki/%23King_Harald_Finehair \"#King Harald Finehair\") | [Peter Franzén](/wiki/Peter_Franz%C3%A9n \"Peter Franzén\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Halfdan the Black](/wiki/%23Halfdan_the_Black \"#Halfdan the Black\") | [Jasper Pääkkönen](/wiki/Jasper_P%C3%A4%C3%A4kk%C3%B6nen \"Jasper Pääkkönen\") | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone}} | {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|Pääkkönen only appears in one episode of the second part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Ivar the Boneless](/wiki/%23Ivar_the_Boneless \"#Ivar the Boneless\") | [Alex Høgh Andersen](/wiki/Alex_H%C3%B8gh_Andersen \"Alex Høgh Andersen\"){{efn\\|group\\=main\\|In seasons 2 and 3, Ivar the Boneless is portrayed by an uncredited infant actor. In the first part of season 4, Ivar the Boneless is portrayed by recurring child actor James Quinn Markey and guest actor \\[\\[Alex Høgh Andersen]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Hvitserk](/wiki/%23Hvitserk \"#Hvitserk\") | [Marco Ilsø](/wiki/Marco_Ils%C3%B8 \"Marco Ilsø\"){{efn\\|group\\=main\\|In seasons 2 and 3, Hvitserk is portrayed by recurring infant actor Cathal O'Hallin. In the first part of season 4, Hvitserk is portrayed by recurring child actor Stephen Rockett and guest actor \\[\\[Marco Ilsø]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Sigurd Snake\\-in\\-the\\-Eye](/wiki/%23Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye \"#Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye\") | David Lindström{{efn\\|group\\=main\\|In seasons 2 and 3, Sigurd Snake\\-in\\-the\\-Eye is portrayed by an uncredited infant actor. In the first part of season 4, Sigurd Snake\\-in\\-the\\-Eye is portrayed by recurring child actor Elijah O'Sullivan and guest actor David Lindström.}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | {{cMain\\|Main}} | {{cNone\\|''Body double''}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Ubbe](/wiki/%23Ubbe \"#Ubbe\") | [Jordan Patrick Smith](/wiki/Jordan_Smith_%28actor%29 \"Jordan Smith (actor)\"){{efn\\|group\\=main\\|In seasons 2 and 3, Ubbe is portrayed by recurring infant actor Cormac Melia. In the first part of season 4, Ubbe is portrayed by recurring child actor Luke Shanahan and guest actor \\[\\[Jordan Patrick Smith]].}} | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Aethelwulf](/wiki/%23Aethelwulf \"#Aethelwulf\") | [Moe Dunford](/wiki/Moe_Dunford \"Moe Dunford\") | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Bishop Heahmund](/wiki/%23Bishop_Heahmund \"#Bishop Heahmund\") | [Jonathan Rhys Meyers](/wiki/Jonathan_Rhys_Meyers \"Jonathan Rhys Meyers\") | colspan\\=\"4\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|Meyers only appears in one episode of the second part of season 4, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\\=\"5\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Oleg the Prophet](/wiki/%23Oleg_the_Prophet \"#Oleg the Prophet\") | [Danila Kozlovsky](/wiki/Danila_Kozlovsky \"Danila Kozlovsky\") | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Erik](/wiki/%23Erik \"#Erik\") | [Eric Johnson](/wiki/Eric_Johnson_%28actor%29 \"Eric Johnson (actor)\") | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Torvi](/wiki/%23Torvi \"#Torvi\") | [Georgia Hirst](/wiki/Georgia_Hirst \"Georgia Hirst\") | {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|group\\=main\\|Georgia Hirst is credited as a series regular from episode 6x09 onwards. From episode 6x01 to 6x08, she is credited as a guest star.}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Gunnhild](/wiki/%23Gunnhild \"#Gunnhild\") | [Ragga Ragnars](/wiki/Ragnhei%C3%B0ur_Ragnarsd%C3%B3ttir \"Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir\") | colspan\\=\"6\" {{cNone}} | {{cRecurring\\|Recurring}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|group\\=main\\|Ragga Ragnars is credited as a series regular from episode 6x09 onwards. From episode 6x01 to 6x08, she is credited as a guest star.}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Othere](/wiki/%23Othere \"#Othere\") | [Ray Stevenson](/wiki/Ray_Stevenson \"Ray Stevenson\") | colspan\\=\"7\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}}{{efn\\|Stevenson only appears in one episode of the first part of season 6, although credited as a main cast member.}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Leif Erikson](/wiki/%23Leif_Erikson \"#Leif Erikson\") | [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett \"Sam Corlett\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |\n| [Freydís Eiríksdóttir](/wiki/%23Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir \"#Freydís Eiríksdóttir\") | [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson \"Frida Gustavsson\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |\n| [Harald Sigurdsson](/wiki/%23Harald_Sigurdsson \"#Harald Sigurdsson\") | [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter \"Leo Suter\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |\n| [King Canute the Great](/wiki/%23King_Canute_the_Great \"#King Canute the Great\") | [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard \"Bradley Freegard\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |\n| [Jarl Olaf Haraldsson](/wiki/%23Jarl_Olaf_Haraldsson \"#Jarl Olaf Haraldsson\") | [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson \"Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cMain\\|Main}} | {{cNone}} |\n| [Jarl Estrid Haakon](/wiki/%23Jarl_Estrid_Haakon \"#Jarl Estrid Haakon\") | [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 \"Caroline Henderson (singer)\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | {{cMain\\|Main}} | colspan\\=\"2\" {{cNone}} |\n| [Queen Emma](/wiki/%23Queen_Emma \"#Queen Emma\") | [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin \"Laura Berlin\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |\n| [Earl Godwin](/wiki/%23Earl_Godwin \"#Earl Godwin\") | [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes \"David Oakes\") | colspan\\=\"9\" {{cNone}} | colspan\\=\"3\" {{cMain\\|Main}} |", "Cast notes\n{{notelist\\|group\\=main}}\n{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| header \\=\n\\| width \\= 105", "\\| image1 \\= Travis Fimmel by Gage Skidmore.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= \\[\\[Travis Fimmel]]", "\\| image2 \\= Katheryn Winnick.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= \\[\\[Katheryn Winnick]]", "\\| image3 \\= Clive Standenby Gage Skidmore.jpg\n\\| caption3 \\= \\[\\[Clive Standen]]", "\\| image4 \\= Jessalyn Gilsig 2010\\.jpg\n\\| caption4 \\= \\[\\[Jessalyn Gilsig]]", "\\| image5 \\= Gustaf Skarsgård 2013 (cropped).jpg\n\\| caption5 \\= \\[\\[Gustaf Skarsgård]]", "\\| image6 \\= Gabriel Byrne 2010\\.jpg\n\\| caption6 \\= \\[\\[Gabriel Byrne]]", "\\| image7 \\= George Blagden 2014\\.jpg\n\\| caption7 \\= \\[\\[George Blagden]]", "\\| image8 \\= Donal Logue at NY PaleyFest 2014 for Gotham.jpg\n\\| caption8 \\= \\[\\[Donal Logue]]", "\\| image9 \\= Alexander Ludwig (Cropped).jpg\n\\| caption9 \\= \\[\\[Alexander Ludwig]]", "\\| image10 \\= Kevin Durand by Gage Skidmore.jpg\n\\| caption10 \\= \\[\\[Kevin Durand]]", "\\| image11 \\= Lothaire Bluteau head 2\\.jpg\n\\| caption11 \\= \\[\\[Lothaire Bluteau]]", "\\| image12 \\= Peter Franzén.jpg\n\\| caption12 \\= \\[\\[Peter Franzén]]", "\\| image13 \\= Jasper Pääkkönen.jpg\n\\| caption13 \\= \\[\\[Jasper Pääkkönen]]", "\\| image14 \\= Jonathan Rhys Meyers 2013\\.jpg\n\\| caption14 \\= \\[\\[Jonathan Rhys Meyers]]", "\\| image15 \\= Danila Kozlovsky Odessa.jpg\n\\| caption15 \\= \\[\\[Danila Kozlovsky]]", "\\| image16 \\= Eric Johnson 2011\\.jpg\n\\| caption16 \\= \\[\\[Eric Johnson (actor)\\|Eric Johnson]]\n}}", "### *Vikings*", "#### Ragnar Lothbrok", "{{main\\|Ragnar Lothbrok (Vikings)}}\n* Played by [Travis Fimmel](/wiki/Travis_Fimmel \"Travis Fimmel\") (seasons 1–4\\)\nOriginally a farmer, Viking Ragnar Lothbrok claims to be descended from the [god](/wiki/%C3%86sir \"Æsir\") [Odin](/wiki/Odin \"Odin\"). He becomes Earl of Kattegat after he challenges and kills the ruthless Earl Haraldson. He is also a feared warrior, becomes a raider of undiscovered lands, and, eventually, [King of Denmark](/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Denmark \"List of legendary kings of Denmark\"). Despite his reputation for ruthlessness and brutality, he is a curious man eager to learn about other cultures. Based on the semi\\-legendary [Ragnar Lodbrok](/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok \"Ragnar Lodbrok\").", "#### Lagertha", "* Played by [Katheryn Winnick](/wiki/Katheryn_Winnick \"Katheryn Winnick\") (seasons 1–6\\) and Mabel Hurley (season 5\\)\nLagertha is Ragnar's first wife and a [shieldmaiden](/wiki/Shieldmaiden \"Shieldmaiden\"). Following her separation from Ragnar, Lagertha rises to become Earl of [Hedeby](/wiki/Hedeby \"Hedeby\") in her own right, going by the name Earl Ingstad. Following the deaths of Ragnar and Aslaug, she becomes Queen of Kattegat. Based on the legendary [Lagertha](/wiki/Lagertha \"Lagertha\").", "#### Rollo", "* Played by [Clive Standen](/wiki/Clive_Standen \"Clive Standen\") (seasons 1–5\\)\nRagnar's brother. A ruthless and skilled warrior, but his life in his brother's shadow makes Rollo's feelings towards Ragnar change from love and admiration to hateful jealousy. Eventually, he defects to the Franks and is made Duke of [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\"). Based on the historical [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo \"Rollo\").", "#### Siggy", "* Played by [Jessalyn Gilsig](/wiki/Jessalyn_Gilsig \"Jessalyn Gilsig\") (seasons 1–3\\)\nEarl Haraldson's wife, and later the lover of Rollo. She possesses a strategic mind and an urge to regain her power and influence, but grows to care for Ragnar and his family. She drowns while attempting to save Ragnar's children from a similar fate as her own.", "#### Floki", "* Played by [Gustaf Skarsgård](/wiki/Gustaf_Skarsg%C3%A5rd \"Gustaf Skarsgård\") (seasons 1–6\\)\nA gifted but eccentric shipbuilder and friend of Ragnar. His ships create a revolution in shipwright techniques. He considers himself descended from the [trickster](/wiki/Trickster \"Trickster\") god [Loki](/wiki/Loki \"Loki\"). Loosely based on the historical [Hrafna\\-Flóki Vilgerðarson](/wiki/Hrafna-Fl%C3%B3ki_Vilger%C3%B0arson \"Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson\").{{cite web\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2017\\|title\\=Iceland to play a big role in fifth season of the History channel TV series Vikings\\|url\\=http://icelandmag.visir.is/article/iceland\\-play\\-a\\-big\\-role\\-fifth\\-season\\-history\\-channel\\-tv\\-series\\-vikings\\|publisher\\=Iceland Magazine\\|date\\=3 March 2017}}", "#### Earl Haraldson", "* Played by [Gabriel Byrne](/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne \"Gabriel Byrne\") (season 1\\)\nRagnar's predecessor as Earl of Kattegat and husband of Siggy. He grows to resent Ragnar's ambitions to raid the West, and sees Ragnar's growing popularity as a threat. He is killed by Ragnar during personal combat.", "#### Athelstan", "* Played by [George Blagden](/wiki/George_Blagden \"George Blagden\") (seasons 1–4\\)\nAn [Anglo\\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon \"Anglo-Saxon\") monk from the monastery of [Lindisfarne](/wiki/Lindisfarne \"Lindisfarne\") in [Northumbria](/wiki/Northumbria \"Northumbria\"). Captured by Ragnar on his first raid, Athelstan is constantly torn between the customs of [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") England and the [pagan](/wiki/Norse_religion \"Norse religion\") ways of [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"). Athelstan becomes a confidant of King Ecbert after he is captured by his army.", "#### King Horik of Denmark", "* Played by [Donal Logue](/wiki/Donal_Logue \"Donal Logue\") (seasons 1–2\\)\nA powerful king in Denmark who ends up being overthrown by Ragnar. Based on the historical [Horik I](/wiki/Horik_I \"Horik I\").", "#### Aslaug", "* Played by [Alyssa Sutherland](/wiki/Alyssa_Sutherland \"Alyssa Sutherland\") (seasons 1–4\\)\nRagnar's second wife, claiming to be the daughter of the shieldmaiden and valkyrie [Brynhildr](/wiki/Brynhildr \"Brynhildr\") and the dragonslayer [Sigurd](/wiki/Sigurd \"Sigurd\"). When Ragnar becomes King of Kattegat, she becomes its queen. She is killed and usurped by a vengeful Lagertha. Based on the legendary [Aslaug](/wiki/Aslaug \"Aslaug\").", "#### King Ecbert of Wessex", "* Played by [Linus Roache](/wiki/Linus_Roache \"Linus Roache\") (seasons 2–4\\)\nRuler of the most powerful kingdom in England. He dreams of becoming [Bretwalda](/wiki/Bretwalda \"Bretwalda\") and becomes an unlikely friend of Ragnar. Based on the historical [Egbert of Wessex](/wiki/Egbert_of_Wessex \"Egbert of Wessex\").", "#### Björn Ironside", "* Played by [Nathan O'Toole](/wiki/Nathan_O%27Toole \"Nathan O'Toole\") (seasons 1–2, 4\\) and [Alexander Ludwig](/wiki/Alexander_Ludwig \"Alexander Ludwig\") (seasons 2–6\\)\nRagnar and Lagertha's son, given his epithet by his father after his first battle with the Saxons. Based on the historical [Björn Ironside](/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside \"Björn Ironside\").", "#### Kalf", "* Played by [Ben Robson](/wiki/Ben_Robson \"Ben Robson\") (seasons 3–4\\)\nA prominent and ambitious Hedeby villager who later betrays Lagertha and takes her earldom.", "#### Harbard", "* Played by [Kevin Durand](/wiki/Kevin_Durand \"Kevin Durand\") (seasons 3–4\\)\nA charismatic wanderer and storyteller who visits Kattegat.", "#### Emperor Charles of West Francia", "* Played by [Lothaire Bluteau](/wiki/Lothaire_Bluteau \"Lothaire Bluteau\") (seasons 3–4\\)\nRuler in Paris, he witnesses Ragnar's attack on the city and later employs Rollo as a defender against Viking raids. Charles is a composite character drawing from the historical [Charles the Bald](/wiki/Charles_the_Bald \"Charles the Bald\") (grandson of Charlemagne who first defended Paris from the Vikings), [Charles the Fat](/wiki/Charles_the_Fat \"Charles the Fat\") (who commanded [Odo](/wiki/Odo_of_France \"Odo of France\")) and [Charles the Simple](/wiki/Charles_the_Simple \"Charles the Simple\") (who encountered Rollo, and may have had a daughter [Gisela](/wiki/Gisela_of_France \"Gisela of France\")).", "#### The Seer", "* Played by [John Kavanagh](/wiki/John_Kavanagh_%28actor%29 \"John Kavanagh (actor)\") (seasons 1–6; *Valhalla*)\n[Seiðr](/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r \"Seiðr\") of Kattegat. A 200\\-year\\-old blind being who often provides mysterious predictions to the characters. He is murdered by Ivar after refusing to recognise Ivar as a god and predicting Ivar's fall. In *Valhalla*, the Seer returns as a [spirit guide](/wiki/Spirit_guide \"Spirit guide\"), who appears to [Freydís Eiríksdóttir](/wiki/%23Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir \"#Freydís Eiríksdóttir\") and Jarl Gorm throughout their lives.", "#### King Harald Finehair", "* Played by [Peter Franzén](/wiki/Peter_Franz%C3%A9n \"Peter Franzén\") (seasons 4–6\\)\nThe ambitious king of [Vestfold](/wiki/Vestfold \"Vestfold\"), who seeks to become king of all Norway and marry Ellisif. He allies with Ragnar during his second raid on Paris. He then conquers his neighbours' lands. He joins the [Great Heathen Army](/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army \"Great Heathen Army\") and battles Aella and Aethelwulf. He fails to conquer Kattegat. He discovers Ellisif is married, and murders her husband, and then kidnaps and marries Astrid. She is killed in battle and he vows vengeance on Lagertha. He sails with Bjorn to retake Kattegat, but their fleet is damaged by a storm. Harald saves Bjorn's life but takes a serious battle wound. Olaf rescues Harald, but occupies Vestfold. Harald's men beg Bjorn for help, and Bjorn repays his debt. When Olaf tries to have Bjorn elected as over\\-king of Norway, Harald defeats Bjorn in the election, but Harald's men fail to kill Bjorn. Olaf refuses to recognise Harald, so Harald has him put away and sends warriors to secure his borders.", "Based on the historical [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\").", "#### Halfdan the Black", "* Played by [Jasper Pääkkönen](/wiki/Jasper_P%C3%A4%C3%A4kk%C3%B6nen \"Jasper Pääkkönen\") (seasons 4–6\\)\nHarald's violent younger brother. He hates Christians and tries to kill as many as possible. He grows tired of living in his brother's shadow and of Harald's war with other Norsemen, and joins Bjorn's expedition to the Mediterranean. They form a close friendship which leads Halfdan to join Lagertha's side when Ivar and Harald declare war. Faced by Harald in battle, he is killed. A composite character of the historical [Hastein](/wiki/Hastein \"Hastein\") and historical [Halfdan the Black](/wiki/Halfdan_the_Black \"Halfdan the Black\"), the father of Harald Fairhair.", "#### Ivar the Boneless", "* Played by an uncredited infant actor (seasons 2–3\\), James Quinn Markey (season 4\\) and [Alex Høgh Andersen](/wiki/Alex_H%C3%B8gh_Andersen \"Alex Høgh Andersen\") (seasons 4–6\\)\nRagnar and Aslaug's fourth and most violent son. A birth defect has rendered his legs useless and left him impotent. Ivar is more unstable than his brothers, sadistic and seemingly narcissistic. While publicly boastful, he is insecure and feels unloved except by his mother Aslaug. When Lagertha kills Aslaug, Ivar vows vengeance and with the help of Harald and Rollo makes himself king of Kattegat. He is married to his former slave Freydis, who manipulates him. Based on the historical [Ivar the Boneless](/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless \"Ivar the Boneless\").", "#### Hvitserk", "* Played by Cathal O'Hallin (seasons 2–3\\), Stephen Rockett (season 4\\) and [Marco Ilsø](/wiki/Marco_Ils%C3%B8 \"Marco Ilsø\") (seasons 4–6\\)\nRagnar and Aslaug's second son. He enjoys battle and adventure and sides with his younger brother Ivar when Ivar and Ubbe fall out. As Ivar's megalomania increases and Ivar becomes more abusive of him, Hvitserk starts to question his decision. A composite of the semi\\-historical or legendary [Hvitserk](/wiki/Hvitserk \"Hvitserk\"), the historical [Halfdan Ragnarsson](/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson \"Halfdan Ragnarsson\") and the historical warlord [Guthrum](/wiki/Guthrum \"Guthrum\").", "#### Sigurd Snake\\-in\\-the\\-Eye", "* Played by an uncredited infant actor (seasons 2–3\\), Elijah O'Sullivan (season 4\\) and David Lindström (season 4\\)\nRagnar and Aslaug's third son. Killed by his brother Ivar after years of bullying. Based on the historical [Sigurd Snake\\-in\\-the\\-Eye](/wiki/Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye \"Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye\").", "#### Ubbe", "* Played by Cormac Melia (seasons 2–3\\), Luke Shanahan (season 4\\) and [Jordan Patrick Smith](/wiki/Jordan_Patrick_Smith \"Jordan Patrick Smith\") (seasons 4–6\\)\nRagnar and Aslaug's first son. He is the most responsible of Aslaug's sons, and does not initially take part in raiding, preferring to stay and protect Kattegat. When his mother is killed, he wants revenge. However, as his previously warm relationship with Ivar turns hostile, he sides with Lagertha. When Lagertha is driven into exile in England, Ubbe becomes Alfred's advisor and converts to Christianity. Based on the historical [Ubba](/wiki/Ubba \"Ubba\").", "#### Aethelwulf", "* Played by [Moe Dunford](/wiki/Moe_Dunford \"Moe Dunford\") (seasons 2–5\\)\nSon of King Ecbert. He is married to Princess Judith, with whom he has a son, Prince Aethelred. He dies by asphyxiation after being stung by a bee. Based on the historical [Aethelwulf](/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf_of_Wessex \"Æthelwulf of Wessex\").", "#### Bishop Heahmund", "* Played by [Jonathan Rhys Meyers](/wiki/Jonathan_Rhys_Meyers \"Jonathan Rhys Meyers\") (seasons 4–5\\)\nA very religious warrior priest.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.inquisitr.com/3871125/vikings\\-season\\-5\\-jonathan\\-rhys\\-meyers\\-role\\-is\\-finally\\-revealed/\\|title\\='VIKINGS,' SEASON 5: JONATHAN RHYS MEYERS ROLE IS FINALLY REVEALED\\|first\\=Rachel\\|last\\=Tsoumbakos\\|work\\=Inquisitr.com\\|date\\=January 10, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=January 12, 2017}} Heahmund leads an army in resistance against the Norse presence in York, becoming a principal ally to Aethelwulf. He is eventually captured by Ivar who admires his skill as a warrior. Heahmund fights for Ivar against Lagertha, but is captured in the initial battle. Having become smitten by Lagertha, he seduces her and switches to her side. On his suggestion, Lagertha and her followers seek refuge in England. Through Heahmund's influence, the Northmen are given sanctuary in return for fighting against other Viking raiders. When Harald Finehair attempts to raid Wessex, Heahmund fights in the frontline. In the battle he is wounded by arrows and killed by Gunnhild. Broadly inspired by the historical [Heahmund](/wiki/Heahmund \"Heahmund\").", "#### Oleg the Prophet", "* Played by [Danila Kozlovsky](/wiki/Danila_Kozlovsky \"Danila Kozlovsky\") (season 6\\)\nThe Varangian (east European Viking) ruler of [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev \"Kiev\"), called \"*the Prophet*\". He is the protector of the heir to the [Rus kingdom](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 \"Kievan Rus'\"), [Igor](/wiki/Igor_of_Kiev \"Igor of Kiev\") and brother in law of Igor's father Rurik. Oleg is sadistic and uses his status as Igor's protector as a pretext for consolidating control over the kingdom. He has successfully sacked [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), but is critical of Rurik's eastward expansion. Oleg wants to conquer Scandinavia which he claims is the property of the Rus. Oleg takes in Ivar, thinking him useful for his plan to invade Scandinavia. Oleg forms an uneasy friendship with Ivar after revealing that he murdered his wife after discovering her infidelity. Ivar's similar experience with Freydis brings them closer. The character is based on the semi\\-historical [Oleg the Prophet](/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod \"Oleg of Novgorod\").", "#### Erik", "* Played by [Eric Johnson](/wiki/Eric_Johnson_%28actor%29 \"Eric Johnson (actor)\") (season 6\\)\nAn outlaw who helps Bjorn and later Harald. He later becomes the King of Kattegat in Harald's absence alongside Queen Ingrid but she has him killed.", "#### Torvi", "* Played by [Georgia Hirst](/wiki/Georgia_Hirst \"Georgia Hirst\") (seasons 2–6\\)\nWife of Jarl Borg, then the wife of Erlendur, later the wife of Bjorn and eventually, the wife of Ubbe. Initially a timid girl, she rises to become a shieldmaiden under Lagertha.", "#### Gunnhild", "* Played by [Ragga Ragnars](/wiki/Ragnhei%C3%B0ur_Ragnarsd%C3%B3ttir \"Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir\") (seasons 5–6\\)\nJarl Olavsonn's wife. Harald becomes enamored with her, but after Olavsonn's death, she marries Bjorn instead. As his wife, she becomes queen of Kattegat. She is based on the quasi\\-historical [Gunnhild](/wiki/Gunnhild%2C_Mother_of_Kings \"Gunnhild, Mother of Kings\").", "#### Othere", "* Played by [Ray Stevenson](/wiki/Ray_Stevenson \"Ray Stevenson\") (season 6\\)\nA wanderer living in Iceland. His real name is Athelstan and he was a monk in England. During his travels as a missionary, he took the identity of the dying wanderer Othere and moved to Iceland. He then sailed west and glimpsed the Golden Land. Ubbe asks him to sail again with him to find the new land.", "### *Vikings: Valhalla*", "#### Leif Erikson", "* Played by [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett \"Sam Corlett\"){{cite web\\| url\\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-features/netflix\\-vikings\\-valhalla\\-sam\\-corlett\\-leif\\-eriksson\\-1235097470/\\|title\\= Next Big Thing: 'Vikings: Valhalla' Star Sam Corlett Tapped Family Trauma to Play Leif Eriksson \\|publisher\\= hollywoodreporter.com \\|date\\=24 February 2022 }}", "Originally an explorer from [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland \"Greenland\"), Leif was the son of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red \"Erik the Red\"), the founder of the first [Norse settlement in Greenland](/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland \"Norse settlements in Greenland\"), and Thjodhild of Iceland. Based on the legendary [Leif Erikson](/wiki/Leif_Erikson \"Leif Erikson\").{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic\\_figures/erikson\\_leif.shtml \\| title \\= Leif Erikson (11th century) \\| publisher \\= BBC \\| access\\-date \\= 20 November 2011 }}", "#### Freydís Eiríksdóttir", "* Played by [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson \"Frida Gustavsson\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://collider.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-netflix/\\|title\\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\\|website\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]]\\|date\\=26 January 2021}}", "Freydís is the daughter of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red \"Erik the Red\"),{{cite book \\|author\\=J. Sephton \\|title\\=Eirik the Red's Saga: A Translation \\|publisher\\=D. Marples \\& Co. \\|location\\=Liverpool \\|year\\=1880 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rdS1RFM8iuEC\\&pg\\=PA23}} and the sister of Leif Erikson. She is portrayed as a masculine, strong\\-willed woman who would defy the odds of her society.", "#### Harald Sigurdsson", "* Played by [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter \"Leo Suter\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://collider.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-netflix/\\|title\\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\\|website\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]]\\|date\\=January 26, 2021}}", "Great\\-grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\"){{Cite book\\|last\\=Lincoln\\|first\\=Bruce\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_yuOBAAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Between History and Myth: Stories of Harald Fairhair and the Founding of the State\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-14092\\-6\\|language\\=en}} and the younger brother of [Olaf Haraldson](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway \"Olaf II of Norway\"), Harald was ambitious and sought to become king of all [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") someday. He allies with Canute during his raid on [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). Based on the historical [Harald Hardrada](/wiki/Harald_Hardrada \"Harald Hardrada\").", "#### King Canute the Great", "* Played by [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard \"Bradley Freegard\")", "King Canute is the powerful [King of Denmark](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark \"Monarchy of Denmark\") and [Norway](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway \"Monarchy of Norway\"). Based on the historical [Cnut](/wiki/Cnut \"Cnut\").", "#### Jarl Olaf Haraldsson", "* Played by [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson \"Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson\"){{Cite web\\|first\\=Q.V.\\|last\\=HOUGH\\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-characters\\-guide\\-actors/\\|title\\=Vikings: Valhalla Cast Guide \\- Where You Know The Actors From\\|work\\=Screen Rant\\|date\\=January 25, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114233038/https://screenrant.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-characters\\-guide\\-actors/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Older brother of Harald, son of [Harald Grenske](/wiki/Harald_Grenske \"Harald Grenske\") and great grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\"). Olaf dreams of becoming King of Norway, usurping Danish rule, and rooting out paganism. Based on the historical [Olaf II of Norway](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway \"Olaf II of Norway\").", "#### Jarl Estrid Haakon", "* Played by [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 \"Caroline Henderson (singer)\") (season 1\\)", "Haakon was the Jarl of Kattegat, as a vassal under [King Canute](/wiki/Cnut \"Cnut\"). Her husband was killed by Christians. Her grandmother was an African noblewoman Haakon's grandfather had met in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"). She was killed during the attack by Jarl Kåre. Based on the historical [Haakon Ericsson](/wiki/Haakon_Ericsson \"Haakon Ericsson\").", "#### Queen Emma", "* Played by [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin \"Laura Berlin\")", "A descendant of [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo \"Rollo\"), who became the [English](/wiki/List_of_English_royal_consorts \"List of English royal consorts\") queen through her marriages to the Anglo\\-Saxon king [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready \"Æthelred the Unready\") and later King Canute. Based on the historical [Emma of Normandy](/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy \"Emma of Normandy\").", "#### Earl Godwin", "* Played by [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes \"David Oakes\")", "Godwin, the son of a disgraced ealdorman, became one of the most trusted advisors of King [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready \"Æthelred the Unready\") of England by delivering him something none of his peers could: the truth. Following Aethelred's death, he serves as an advisor to young King [Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside \"Edmund Ironside\") until the Vikings overrun [London](/wiki/London \"London\") following which he becomes an advisor to King Canute. Based on historical [Godwin, Earl of Wessex](/wiki/Godwin%2C_Earl_of_Wessex \"Godwin, Earl of Wessex\").", "" ]
### *Vikings: Valhalla* #### Leif Erikson * Played by [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett "Sam Corlett"){{cite web\| url\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-features/netflix\-vikings\-valhalla\-sam\-corlett\-leif\-eriksson\-1235097470/\|title\= Next Big Thing: 'Vikings: Valhalla' Star Sam Corlett Tapped Family Trauma to Play Leif Eriksson \|publisher\= hollywoodreporter.com \|date\=24 February 2022 }} Originally an explorer from [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland "Greenland"), Leif was the son of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red "Erik the Red"), the founder of the first [Norse settlement in Greenland](/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland "Norse settlements in Greenland"), and Thjodhild of Iceland. Based on the legendary [Leif Erikson](/wiki/Leif_Erikson "Leif Erikson").{{cite web \| url \= http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic\_figures/erikson\_leif.shtml \| title \= Leif Erikson (11th century) \| publisher \= BBC \| access\-date \= 20 November 2011 }} #### Freydís Eiríksdóttir * Played by [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson "Frida Gustavsson"){{Cite web\|url\=https://collider.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-netflix/\|title\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\|website\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]]\|date\=26 January 2021}} Freydís is the daughter of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red "Erik the Red"),{{cite book \|author\=J. Sephton \|title\=Eirik the Red's Saga: A Translation \|publisher\=D. Marples \& Co. \|location\=Liverpool \|year\=1880 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rdS1RFM8iuEC\&pg\=PA23}} and the sister of Leif Erikson. She is portrayed as a masculine, strong\-willed woman who would defy the odds of her society. #### Harald Sigurdsson * Played by [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter "Leo Suter"){{Cite web\|url\=https://collider.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-netflix/\|title\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\|website\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]]\|date\=January 26, 2021}} Great\-grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair"){{Cite book\|last\=Lincoln\|first\=Bruce\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_yuOBAAAQBAJ\|title\=Between History and Myth: Stories of Harald Fairhair and the Founding of the State\|date\=2014\|publisher\=University of Chicago Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-14092\-6\|language\=en}} and the younger brother of [Olaf Haraldson](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway "Olaf II of Norway"), Harald was ambitious and sought to become king of all [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway") someday. He allies with Canute during his raid on [England](/wiki/England "England"). Based on the historical [Harald Hardrada](/wiki/Harald_Hardrada "Harald Hardrada"). #### King Canute the Great * Played by [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard "Bradley Freegard") King Canute is the powerful [King of Denmark](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark "Monarchy of Denmark") and [Norway](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway "Monarchy of Norway"). Based on the historical [Cnut](/wiki/Cnut "Cnut"). #### Jarl Olaf Haraldsson * Played by [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson "Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson"){{Cite web\|first\=Q.V.\|last\=HOUGH\|url\=https://screenrant.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-characters\-guide\-actors/\|title\=Vikings: Valhalla Cast Guide \- Where You Know The Actors From\|work\=Screen Rant\|date\=January 25, 2021\|access\-date\=February 1, 2021\|archive\-date\=November 14, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114233038/https://screenrant.com/vikings\-valhalla\-cast\-characters\-guide\-actors/\|url\-status\=live}} Older brother of Harald, son of [Harald Grenske](/wiki/Harald_Grenske "Harald Grenske") and great grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair"). Olaf dreams of becoming King of Norway, usurping Danish rule, and rooting out paganism. Based on the historical [Olaf II of Norway](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway "Olaf II of Norway"). #### Jarl Estrid Haakon * Played by [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 "Caroline Henderson (singer)") (season 1\) Haakon was the Jarl of Kattegat, as a vassal under [King Canute](/wiki/Cnut "Cnut"). Her husband was killed by Christians. Her grandmother was an African noblewoman Haakon's grandfather had met in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"). She was killed during the attack by Jarl Kåre. Based on the historical [Haakon Ericsson](/wiki/Haakon_Ericsson "Haakon Ericsson"). #### Queen Emma * Played by [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin "Laura Berlin") A descendant of [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo "Rollo"), who became the [English](/wiki/List_of_English_royal_consorts "List of English royal consorts") queen through her marriages to the Anglo\-Saxon king [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready "Æthelred the Unready") and later King Canute. Based on the historical [Emma of Normandy](/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy "Emma of Normandy"). #### Earl Godwin * Played by [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes "David Oakes") Godwin, the son of a disgraced ealdorman, became one of the most trusted advisors of King [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready "Æthelred the Unready") of England by delivering him something none of his peers could: the truth. Following Aethelred's death, he serves as an advisor to young King [Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside "Edmund Ironside") until the Vikings overrun [London](/wiki/London "London") following which he becomes an advisor to King Canute. Based on historical [Godwin, Earl of Wessex](/wiki/Godwin%2C_Earl_of_Wessex "Godwin, Earl of Wessex").
[ "### *Vikings: Valhalla*", "#### Leif Erikson", "* Played by [Sam Corlett](/wiki/Sam_Corlett \"Sam Corlett\"){{cite web\\| url\\= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-features/netflix\\-vikings\\-valhalla\\-sam\\-corlett\\-leif\\-eriksson\\-1235097470/\\|title\\= Next Big Thing: 'Vikings: Valhalla' Star Sam Corlett Tapped Family Trauma to Play Leif Eriksson \\|publisher\\= hollywoodreporter.com \\|date\\=24 February 2022 }}", "Originally an explorer from [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland \"Greenland\"), Leif was the son of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red \"Erik the Red\"), the founder of the first [Norse settlement in Greenland](/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland \"Norse settlements in Greenland\"), and Thjodhild of Iceland. Based on the legendary [Leif Erikson](/wiki/Leif_Erikson \"Leif Erikson\").{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic\\_figures/erikson\\_leif.shtml \\| title \\= Leif Erikson (11th century) \\| publisher \\= BBC \\| access\\-date \\= 20 November 2011 }}", "#### Freydís Eiríksdóttir", "* Played by [Frida Gustavsson](/wiki/Frida_Gustavsson \"Frida Gustavsson\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://collider.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-netflix/\\|title\\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\\|website\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]]\\|date\\=26 January 2021}}", "Freydís is the daughter of [Erik the Red](/wiki/Erik_the_Red \"Erik the Red\"),{{cite book \\|author\\=J. Sephton \\|title\\=Eirik the Red's Saga: A Translation \\|publisher\\=D. Marples \\& Co. \\|location\\=Liverpool \\|year\\=1880 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rdS1RFM8iuEC\\&pg\\=PA23}} and the sister of Leif Erikson. She is portrayed as a masculine, strong\\-willed woman who would defy the odds of her society.", "#### Harald Sigurdsson", "* Played by [Leo Suter](/wiki/Leo_Suter \"Leo Suter\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://collider.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-netflix/\\|title\\='Vikings: Valhalla' Cast Members Revealed for Netflix Spinoff Full of Familiar Vikings\\|website\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]]\\|date\\=January 26, 2021}}", "Great\\-grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\"){{Cite book\\|last\\=Lincoln\\|first\\=Bruce\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_yuOBAAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Between History and Myth: Stories of Harald Fairhair and the Founding of the State\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-14092\\-6\\|language\\=en}} and the younger brother of [Olaf Haraldson](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway \"Olaf II of Norway\"), Harald was ambitious and sought to become king of all [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") someday. He allies with Canute during his raid on [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). Based on the historical [Harald Hardrada](/wiki/Harald_Hardrada \"Harald Hardrada\").", "#### King Canute the Great", "* Played by [Bradley Freegard](/wiki/Bradley_Freegard \"Bradley Freegard\")", "King Canute is the powerful [King of Denmark](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark \"Monarchy of Denmark\") and [Norway](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway \"Monarchy of Norway\"). Based on the historical [Cnut](/wiki/Cnut \"Cnut\").", "#### Jarl Olaf Haraldsson", "* Played by [Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson](/wiki/J%C3%B3hannes_Haukur_J%C3%B3hannesson \"Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson\"){{Cite web\\|first\\=Q.V.\\|last\\=HOUGH\\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-characters\\-guide\\-actors/\\|title\\=Vikings: Valhalla Cast Guide \\- Where You Know The Actors From\\|work\\=Screen Rant\\|date\\=January 25, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114233038/https://screenrant.com/vikings\\-valhalla\\-cast\\-characters\\-guide\\-actors/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Older brother of Harald, son of [Harald Grenske](/wiki/Harald_Grenske \"Harald Grenske\") and great grandson of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\"). Olaf dreams of becoming King of Norway, usurping Danish rule, and rooting out paganism. Based on the historical [Olaf II of Norway](/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway \"Olaf II of Norway\").", "#### Jarl Estrid Haakon", "* Played by [Caroline Henderson](/wiki/Caroline_Henderson_%28singer%29 \"Caroline Henderson (singer)\") (season 1\\)", "Haakon was the Jarl of Kattegat, as a vassal under [King Canute](/wiki/Cnut \"Cnut\"). Her husband was killed by Christians. Her grandmother was an African noblewoman Haakon's grandfather had met in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"). She was killed during the attack by Jarl Kåre. Based on the historical [Haakon Ericsson](/wiki/Haakon_Ericsson \"Haakon Ericsson\").", "#### Queen Emma", "* Played by [Laura Berlin](/wiki/Laura_Berlin \"Laura Berlin\")", "A descendant of [Rollo](/wiki/Rollo \"Rollo\"), who became the [English](/wiki/List_of_English_royal_consorts \"List of English royal consorts\") queen through her marriages to the Anglo\\-Saxon king [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready \"Æthelred the Unready\") and later King Canute. Based on the historical [Emma of Normandy](/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy \"Emma of Normandy\").", "#### Earl Godwin", "* Played by [David Oakes](/wiki/David_Oakes \"David Oakes\")", "Godwin, the son of a disgraced ealdorman, became one of the most trusted advisors of King [Æthelred the Unready](/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready \"Æthelred the Unready\") of England by delivering him something none of his peers could: the truth. Following Aethelred's death, he serves as an advisor to young King [Edmund](/wiki/Edmund_Ironside \"Edmund Ironside\") until the Vikings overrun [London](/wiki/London \"London\") following which he becomes an advisor to King Canute. Based on historical [Godwin, Earl of Wessex](/wiki/Godwin%2C_Earl_of_Wessex \"Godwin, Earl of Wessex\").", "" ]
History ------- ### Prehistory The island was a common hunting ground for native people from nearby Minnesota and Ontario. A canoe voyage of thirteen miles is necessary to reach the island's west end from the mainland. Large quantities of [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") artifacts found in [indian mounds](/wiki/Indian_mound "Indian mound") and settlements, some dating back to 3000 [B.C.](/wiki/Anno_Domini "Anno Domini"), were most likely [mined](/wiki/Copper_mining_in_Michigan "Copper mining in Michigan") on Isle Royale and the nearby [Keweenaw Peninsula](/wiki/Keweenaw_Peninsula "Keweenaw Peninsula"). The island has hundreds of pits and trenches up to 65 feet (20 m) deep from these [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas"), with most in the McCargoe Cove area. [Carbon\-14](/wiki/Carbon-14 "Carbon-14") testing of wood remains found in sockets of copper artifacts indicates that they are at least 6500 years old.{{cite web \|last1\=Rosen \|first1\=Julia \|date\=24 Dec 2014 \|title\=Miners Left a Pollution Trail in the Great Lakes 6000 Years Ago \|publisher\=EOS \|doi\=10\.1029/2014EO021147 \|doi\-broken\-date\=September 11, 2024 \|url\=https://eos.org/articles/miners\-left\-pollution\-trail\-great\-lakes\-6000\-years\-ago \|access\-date\=25 February 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807173548/https://eos.org/articles/miners\-left\-pollution\-trail\-great\-lakes\-6000\-years\-ago \|archive\-date\=August 7, 2021}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Pompeani \|first1\=David P \|display\-authors\=etal \|date\=February 2015 \|title\=Copper mining on Isle Royale 6500–5400 years ago identified using sediment geochemistry from McCargoe Cove, Lake Superior \|journal\=The Holocene \|bibcode\=2015Holoc..25\..253P \|doi\=10\.1177/0959683614557574 \|s2cid\=14686891 \|volume\=25 \|issue\=2 \|page\=253}}[thumb\|upright\=0\.667\|An abandoned copper mine shaftIn](/wiki/File:MineShaftIR.jpg "MineShaftIR.jpg") *Prehistoric Copper Mining in the Lake Superior Region*, Drier and Du Temple estimated that over 750,000 tons of copper had been mined from the region. However, David Johnson and Susan Martin contend that their estimate was based on exaggerated and inaccurate assumptions.{{cite web \|last\=Johnson \|first\=David \|date\=November 9, 2009 \|title\=North America's First Metal Miners \& Metal Artisans \|work\=The Old Copper Complex \|url\=http://copperculture.homestead.com/ \|access\-date\=November 17, 2009 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419070939/http://copperculture.homestead.com/ \|archive\-date\=April 19, 2001}}{{cite journal \|last\=Martin \|first\=Susan R. \|year\=1995 \|title\=The State of Our Knowledge About Ancient Copper Mining in Michigan \|journal\=The Michigan Archaeologist \|volume\=41 \|issue\=2–3 \|pages\=119–138}} The [Jesuit missionary](/wiki/Jesuit_missionary "Jesuit missionary") Dablon published an account in 1669\-70 of "an island called *Menong*, celebrated for its copper." *Menong*, or *Minong*, was the native term for the island, and is the basis for Minong Ridge. [Prospecting](/wiki/Prospecting "Prospecting") began in earnest when the [Chippewas](/wiki/Chippewas "Chippewas") relinquished their claims to the island in 1843, starting with many of the original native pits. This activity had ended by 1855, when no economic deposits were found. The [Minong Mine](/wiki/Minong_Mine_Historic_District "Minong Mine Historic District") and Island Mine were the result of renewed but short\-lived activity from 1873 to 1881\.{{cite book \|last1\=Huber \|first1\=N. King \|date\=1975 \|title\=The Geologic Story of Isle Royale National Park, USGS Bulletin 1309 \|publisher\=U.S. Government Printing Office \|location\=Washington \|doi\=10\.3133/b1309 \|lccn\=75\-619126 \|pages\=2–3}} Isle Royale was given to the United States by the 1783 [treaty with Great Britain](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 "Treaty of Paris (1783)") (formerly part of the [Indian Reserve](/wiki/Indian_Reserve_%281763%29 "Indian Reserve (1763)") disputed by the United States) but the British remained in control until after the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), and the [Ojibwa](/wiki/Ojibwa "Ojibwa") peoples considered the island to be their territory.  The Ojibwas ceded the island to the U.S. in the 1842 [Treaty of La Pointe](/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe "Treaty of La Pointe"), with the [Grand Portage Band](/wiki/Grand_Portage_Band "Grand Portage Band") unaware that neither they nor Isle Royale were in British territory. With the clarification to the Ojibwas of the 1842 [Webster–Ashburton Treaty](/wiki/Webster%E2%80%93Ashburton_Treaty "Webster–Ashburton Treaty") that was signed before the Treaty of La Pointe, the Ojibwas re\-affirmed the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe in the 1844 [Isle Royale Agreement](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Agreement "Isle Royale Agreement"), with the Grand Portage Band signing the agreement as an addendum to the 1842 treaty. In the mid\-1840s, a report by [Douglass Houghton](/wiki/Douglass_Houghton "Douglass Houghton"), Michigan's first state [geologist](/wiki/Geologist "Geologist"), set off a copper boom in the state, and the first modern copper mines were opened on the island.{{cite book \|last\=Harris \|first\=Ann G. \|year\=2004 \|title\=Geology of National Parks \|edition\=6th \|publisher\=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co \|isbn\=0\-7872\-9970\-7 \|page\=308}} Evidence of the earlier mining efforts was everywhere, in the form of many stone hammers, some copper artifacts, and places where copper had been partially worked out of the rock but left in place. The ancient pits and trenches led to the discovery of many of the copper deposits that were mined in the 19th century. The remoteness of the island, combined with the small veins of copper, caused most of the 19th\-century mines to fail quickly.{{cite web \|last\=Lawrence \|first\=Olivia \|date\=2023\-07\-02 \|title\=Explore Untouched Beauty of Isle Royale National Park \|language\=en\-AU \|website\=www.nationalparkblog.com \|url\=https://www.nationalparkblog.com/isle\-royale\-national\-park \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-01}} Between the miners and commercial loggers, much of the island was [deforested](/wiki/Deforestation "Deforestation") during the late 19th century. Once the island became a national park in 1940, logging and other exploitive activities ended, and the forest began to regenerate. The island was once the site of several [lake trout](/wiki/Lake_trout "Lake trout") and [whitefish](/wiki/Coregonus "Coregonus") fisheries, as well as a few resorts. The fishing industry has declined considerably, but continues at [Edisen Fishery](/wiki/Edisen_Fishery "Edisen Fishery"). Today, it has no permanent inhabitants; the small communities of Scandinavian fishermen were removed by the United States National Park Service after the island became a national park in the 1940s. About 12 families still have lifetime leases for their cabins and claim Isle Royale as their heritage, and several descendant fishermen fish the Isle Royale waters commercially.{{cite web \|last\=Barnum \|first\=David C. \|date\=April 2002 \|title\=About Us \|publisher\=Isle Royale Families and Friends Association \|url\=http://www.isleroyalefamilies.org/aboutus.htm \|access\-date\=December 9, 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111050302/http://www.isleroyalefamilies.org/aboutus.htm \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2008}} Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by [lighthouses](/wiki/Lighthouse "Lighthouse") at [Passage Island](/wiki/Passage_Island_Light "Passage Island Light"), [Rock Harbor](/wiki/Rock_Harbor_Light "Rock Harbor Light"), [Rock of Ages](/wiki/Rock_of_Ages_Light "Rock of Ages Light"), and [Isle Royale Lighthouse](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Light "Isle Royale Light") on Menagerie Island. The western tip of the island is home to several shipwrecks that are very popular with scuba divers, including the [SS *America*](/wiki/SS_America_%281898%29 "SS America (1898)").{{cite web \|last\=Merryman \|first\=Ken \|title\=SS America Shipwreck \|publisher\=Superior Trips \|url\=http://www.superiortrips.com/America\_Shipwreck.htm \|access\-date\=April 4, 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050825205934/http://www.superiortrips.com/America\_Shipwreck.htm \|archive\-date\=August 25, 2005}} The NPS [Submerged Resources Center](/wiki/Submerged_Resources_Center "Submerged Resources Center") mapped the 10 most famous of the [shipwrecks contained within the park](/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_of_Isle_Royale "List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale"), and published *Shipwrecks of Isle Royale National Park; The Archeological Survey*,{{cite book \|last\=Lenihan \|first\=Daniel \|year\=1994 \|title\=Shipwrecks of Isle Royale National Park: The archeological survey \|publisher\=Lake Superior Port Cities, Inc. \|location\=Duluth, MN \|isbn\=0\-942235\-18\-5}} which gives an overview of the maritime history of the area. The area's notoriously harsh weather, dramatic underwater topography, the island's central location on historic shipping routes, and the cold, fresh water have resulted in largely intact, well preserved wrecks throughout the park. In January 2019, the entire island chain was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the federal government. On the Register it is called 'the Minong Traditional Cultural Property.'{{cite web \|last\=Seitz \|first\=Greg \|date\=22 March 2019 \|title\=Prehistoric copper mines and long human history earns Isle Royale national historic designation \|website\=Quetico Superior Wilderness News \|publisher\=Quetico Superior Foundation \|url\=https://queticosuperior.org/blog/prehistoric\-copper\-mines\-and\-long\-human\-history\-earns\-isle\-royale\-national\-historic\-designation/ \|access\-date\=25 February 2021 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309120156/https://queticosuperior.org/blog/prehistoric\-copper\-mines\-and\-long\-human\-history\-earns\-isle\-royale\-national\-historic\-designation \|archive\-date\=March 9, 2021}} ### Angelique Mott In 1845, an [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") woman named Angelique and her [voyageur](/wiki/Voyageurs "Voyageurs") husband Charles Mott were left on Isle Royale, as hires for Cyrus Mendenhall{{cite web \|title\=An interesting pioneer of the copper district \|language\=en\-US \|website\=mininggazette.com \|url\=https://www.mininggazette.com/news/features/2018/04/an\-interesting\-pioneer\-of\-the\-copper\-district/ \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807173549/https://www.mininggazette.com/news/features/2018/04/an\-interesting\-pioneer\-of\-the\-copper\-district/ \|archive\-date\=August 7, 2021}} and the Lake Superior Copper Company. They were hired and carried to Isle Royale by Mendenhall's schooner, the *Algonquin*, first to scout for copper. Angelique found a large mass of copper ore, upon which she and her husband were hired to stay and guard until a barge could come to retrieve it, promised in no more than 3 months' time. They were dropped off in July and were left stranded there until the following spring. They were left with minimal provisions, which consisted of a half\-barrel of flour, six pounds of butter, and some beans. A supply boat was promised to arrive after the first few weeks, but it was never sent out. The full events were chronicled in a footnote as told by Angelique, in the first printing of a book called "The Honorable Peter White" by Ralph D. Williams in 1907; Angelique's story was pulled from the subsequent printing, thus making it the only written record that survives. Humans have not normally settled year\-round on Isle Royale. For about three thousand years, Native Americans used the land for copper and fish. These Native Americans usually limited their visits to the island in the summer. Americans in the nineteenth century did likewise.
[ "History\n-------", "### Prehistory", "The island was a common hunting ground for native people from nearby Minnesota and Ontario. A canoe voyage of thirteen miles is necessary to reach the island's west end from the mainland.", "Large quantities of [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") artifacts found in [indian mounds](/wiki/Indian_mound \"Indian mound\") and settlements, some dating back to 3000 [B.C.](/wiki/Anno_Domini \"Anno Domini\"), were most likely [mined](/wiki/Copper_mining_in_Michigan \"Copper mining in Michigan\") on Isle Royale and the nearby [Keweenaw Peninsula](/wiki/Keweenaw_Peninsula \"Keweenaw Peninsula\"). The island has hundreds of pits and trenches up to 65 feet (20 m) deep from these [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"), with most in the McCargoe Cove area. [Carbon\\-14](/wiki/Carbon-14 \"Carbon-14\") testing of wood remains found in sockets of copper artifacts indicates that they are at least 6500 years old.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Rosen \\|first1\\=Julia \\|date\\=24 Dec 2014 \\|title\\=Miners Left a Pollution Trail in the Great Lakes 6000 Years Ago \\|publisher\\=EOS \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2014EO021147 \\|doi\\-broken\\-date\\=September 11, 2024 \\|url\\=https://eos.org/articles/miners\\-left\\-pollution\\-trail\\-great\\-lakes\\-6000\\-years\\-ago \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807173548/https://eos.org/articles/miners\\-left\\-pollution\\-trail\\-great\\-lakes\\-6000\\-years\\-ago \\|archive\\-date\\=August 7, 2021}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pompeani \\|first1\\=David P \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|date\\=February 2015 \\|title\\=Copper mining on Isle Royale 6500–5400 years ago identified using sediment geochemistry from McCargoe Cove, Lake Superior \\|journal\\=The Holocene \\|bibcode\\=2015Holoc..25\\..253P \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0959683614557574 \\|s2cid\\=14686891 \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=2 \\|page\\=253}}[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.667\\|An abandoned copper mine shaftIn](/wiki/File:MineShaftIR.jpg \"MineShaftIR.jpg\") *Prehistoric Copper Mining in the Lake Superior Region*, Drier and Du Temple estimated that over 750,000 tons of copper had been mined from the region. However, David Johnson and Susan Martin contend that their estimate was based on exaggerated and inaccurate assumptions.{{cite web \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=November 9, 2009 \\|title\\=North America's First Metal Miners \\& Metal Artisans \\|work\\=The Old Copper Complex \\|url\\=http://copperculture.homestead.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419070939/http://copperculture.homestead.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 19, 2001}}{{cite journal \\|last\\=Martin \\|first\\=Susan R. \\|year\\=1995 \\|title\\=The State of Our Knowledge About Ancient Copper Mining in Michigan \\|journal\\=The Michigan Archaeologist \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=2–3 \\|pages\\=119–138}} The [Jesuit missionary](/wiki/Jesuit_missionary \"Jesuit missionary\") Dablon published an account in 1669\\-70 of \"an island called *Menong*, celebrated for its copper.\" *Menong*, or *Minong*, was the native term for the island, and is the basis for Minong Ridge. [Prospecting](/wiki/Prospecting \"Prospecting\") began in earnest when the [Chippewas](/wiki/Chippewas \"Chippewas\") relinquished their claims to the island in 1843, starting with many of the original native pits. This activity had ended by 1855, when no economic deposits were found. The [Minong Mine](/wiki/Minong_Mine_Historic_District \"Minong Mine Historic District\") and Island Mine were the result of renewed but short\\-lived activity from 1873 to 1881\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Huber \\|first1\\=N. King \\|date\\=1975 \\|title\\=The Geologic Story of Isle Royale National Park, USGS Bulletin 1309 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Government Printing Office \\|location\\=Washington \\|doi\\=10\\.3133/b1309 \\|lccn\\=75\\-619126 \\|pages\\=2–3}}", "Isle Royale was given to the United States by the 1783 [treaty with Great Britain](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281783%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1783)\") (formerly part of the [Indian Reserve](/wiki/Indian_Reserve_%281763%29 \"Indian Reserve (1763)\") disputed by the United States) but the British remained in control until after the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), and the [Ojibwa](/wiki/Ojibwa \"Ojibwa\") peoples considered the island to be their territory.  The Ojibwas ceded the island to the U.S. in the 1842 [Treaty of La Pointe](/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe \"Treaty of La Pointe\"), with the [Grand Portage Band](/wiki/Grand_Portage_Band \"Grand Portage Band\") unaware that neither they nor Isle Royale were in British territory. With the clarification to the Ojibwas of the 1842 [Webster–Ashburton Treaty](/wiki/Webster%E2%80%93Ashburton_Treaty \"Webster–Ashburton Treaty\") that was signed before the Treaty of La Pointe, the Ojibwas re\\-affirmed the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe in the 1844 [Isle Royale Agreement](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Agreement \"Isle Royale Agreement\"), with the Grand Portage Band signing the agreement as an addendum to the 1842 treaty.", "In the mid\\-1840s, a report by [Douglass Houghton](/wiki/Douglass_Houghton \"Douglass Houghton\"), Michigan's first state [geologist](/wiki/Geologist \"Geologist\"), set off a copper boom in the state, and the first modern copper mines were opened on the island.{{cite book \\|last\\=Harris \\|first\\=Ann G. \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Geology of National Parks \\|edition\\=6th \\|publisher\\=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co \\|isbn\\=0\\-7872\\-9970\\-7 \\|page\\=308}} Evidence of the earlier mining efforts was everywhere, in the form of many stone hammers, some copper artifacts, and places where copper had been partially worked out of the rock but left in place. The ancient pits and trenches led to the discovery of many of the copper deposits that were mined in the 19th century. The remoteness of the island, combined with the small veins of copper, caused most of the 19th\\-century mines to fail quickly.{{cite web \\|last\\=Lawrence \\|first\\=Olivia \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-02 \\|title\\=Explore Untouched Beauty of Isle Royale National Park \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|website\\=www.nationalparkblog.com \\|url\\=https://www.nationalparkblog.com/isle\\-royale\\-national\\-park \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-01}} Between the miners and commercial loggers, much of the island was [deforested](/wiki/Deforestation \"Deforestation\") during the late 19th century. Once the island became a national park in 1940, logging and other exploitive activities ended, and the forest began to regenerate.", "The island was once the site of several [lake trout](/wiki/Lake_trout \"Lake trout\") and [whitefish](/wiki/Coregonus \"Coregonus\") fisheries, as well as a few resorts. The fishing industry has declined considerably, but continues at [Edisen Fishery](/wiki/Edisen_Fishery \"Edisen Fishery\"). Today, it has no permanent inhabitants; the small communities of Scandinavian fishermen were removed by the United States National Park Service after the island became a national park in the 1940s. About 12 families still have lifetime leases for their cabins and claim Isle Royale as their heritage, and several descendant fishermen fish the Isle Royale waters commercially.{{cite web \\|last\\=Barnum \\|first\\=David C. \\|date\\=April 2002 \\|title\\=About Us \\|publisher\\=Isle Royale Families and Friends Association \\|url\\=http://www.isleroyalefamilies.org/aboutus.htm \\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111050302/http://www.isleroyalefamilies.org/aboutus.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2008}}", "Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by [lighthouses](/wiki/Lighthouse \"Lighthouse\") at [Passage Island](/wiki/Passage_Island_Light \"Passage Island Light\"), [Rock Harbor](/wiki/Rock_Harbor_Light \"Rock Harbor Light\"), [Rock of Ages](/wiki/Rock_of_Ages_Light \"Rock of Ages Light\"), and [Isle Royale Lighthouse](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Light \"Isle Royale Light\") on Menagerie Island. The western tip of the island is home to several shipwrecks that are very popular with scuba divers, including the [SS *America*](/wiki/SS_America_%281898%29 \"SS America (1898)\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Merryman \\|first\\=Ken \\|title\\=SS America Shipwreck \\|publisher\\=Superior Trips \\|url\\=http://www.superiortrips.com/America\\_Shipwreck.htm \\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050825205934/http://www.superiortrips.com/America\\_Shipwreck.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2005}} The NPS [Submerged Resources Center](/wiki/Submerged_Resources_Center \"Submerged Resources Center\") mapped the 10 most famous of the [shipwrecks contained within the park](/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_of_Isle_Royale \"List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale\"), and published *Shipwrecks of Isle Royale National Park; The Archeological Survey*,{{cite book \\|last\\=Lenihan \\|first\\=Daniel \\|year\\=1994 \\|title\\=Shipwrecks of Isle Royale National Park: The archeological survey \\|publisher\\=Lake Superior Port Cities, Inc. \\|location\\=Duluth, MN \\|isbn\\=0\\-942235\\-18\\-5}} which gives an overview of the maritime history of the area. The area's notoriously harsh weather, dramatic underwater topography, the island's central location on historic shipping routes, and the cold, fresh water have resulted in largely intact, well preserved wrecks throughout the park.", "In January 2019, the entire island chain was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the federal government. On the Register it is called 'the Minong Traditional Cultural Property.'{{cite web \\|last\\=Seitz \\|first\\=Greg \\|date\\=22 March 2019 \\|title\\=Prehistoric copper mines and long human history earns Isle Royale national historic designation \\|website\\=Quetico Superior Wilderness News \\|publisher\\=Quetico Superior Foundation \\|url\\=https://queticosuperior.org/blog/prehistoric\\-copper\\-mines\\-and\\-long\\-human\\-history\\-earns\\-isle\\-royale\\-national\\-historic\\-designation/ \\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309120156/https://queticosuperior.org/blog/prehistoric\\-copper\\-mines\\-and\\-long\\-human\\-history\\-earns\\-isle\\-royale\\-national\\-historic\\-designation \\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2021}}", "### Angelique Mott", "In 1845, an [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") woman named Angelique and her [voyageur](/wiki/Voyageurs \"Voyageurs\") husband Charles Mott were left on Isle Royale, as hires for Cyrus Mendenhall{{cite web \\|title\\=An interesting pioneer of the copper district \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|website\\=mininggazette.com \\|url\\=https://www.mininggazette.com/news/features/2018/04/an\\-interesting\\-pioneer\\-of\\-the\\-copper\\-district/ \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807173549/https://www.mininggazette.com/news/features/2018/04/an\\-interesting\\-pioneer\\-of\\-the\\-copper\\-district/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 7, 2021}} and the Lake Superior Copper Company. They were hired and carried to Isle Royale by Mendenhall's schooner, the *Algonquin*, first to scout for copper. Angelique found a large mass of copper ore, upon which she and her husband were hired to stay and guard until a barge could come to retrieve it, promised in no more than 3 months' time. They were dropped off in July and were left stranded there until the following spring. They were left with minimal provisions, which consisted of a half\\-barrel of flour, six pounds of butter, and some beans. A supply boat was promised to arrive after the first few weeks, but it was never sent out.", "The full events were chronicled in a footnote as told by Angelique, in the first printing of a book called \"The Honorable Peter White\" by Ralph D. Williams in 1907; Angelique's story was pulled from the subsequent printing, thus making it the only written record that survives. Humans have not normally settled year\\-round on Isle Royale. For about three thousand years, Native Americans used the land for copper and fish. These Native Americans usually limited their visits to the island in the summer. Americans in the nineteenth century did likewise.", "" ]
Recreation ---------- Recreational activity on Isle Royale includes [hiking](/wiki/Hiking "Hiking"), [backpacking](/wiki/Backpacking_%28travel%29 "Backpacking (travel)"), [fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"), [boating](/wiki/Boating "Boating"), [canoeing](/wiki/Canoeing "Canoeing"), [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking "Kayaking"), and observing nature. Wheeled vehicles are not permitted on Isle Royale; however, wheelchairs are allowed.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nps.gov/isro/faqs.htm \|title\=Frequently Asked Questions \- Isle Royale National Park (U.S. National Park Service) \|access\-date\=August 7, 2021 \|archive\-date\=June 29, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629132109/https://www.nps.gov/isro/faqs.htm \|url\-status\=live }} "Is there off\-road biking on the Isle?" Retrieved May 10, 2014\. ### Hiking The island offers approximately {{cvt\|170\|mi\|km}} of hiking trails for everything from day hikes to a two\-week circumnavigation hike.{{cite magazine \|last\=Rice \|first\=Larry \|date\=September–October 2010 \|title\=Explore the Wild Trails on Isle Royale National Park \|url\=https://scoutingmagazine.org/2010/09/trail\-tips\-walk\-on\-the\-wild\-side/ \|magazine\=Scouting \|publisher\=Boy Scouts of America \|pages\=66–69 \|access\-date\=November 15, 2019 \|archive\-date\=November 16, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116032115/https://scoutingmagazine.org/2010/09/trail\-tips\-walk\-on\-the\-wild\-side/ \|url\-status\=live }} Some of the hiking trails are quite challenging, with steep grades. The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the [Greenstone Ridge Trail](/wiki/Greenstone_Ridge_Trail "Greenstone Ridge Trail"), which runs {{cvt\|40\|mi}} from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting point. The trail leads to the peak of Mount Desor, at {{cvt\|1394\|ft\|m}}, the highest point on the island, and passes through northwoods wilderness, and by inland glacial lakes, swamps, bogs and scenic shorelines. In total there are {{cvt\|165\|mi}} of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes. ### Services The park has two developed areas: Ozaagaateng (formerly Windigo),{{Cite web \|title\=Isle Royale to change Windigo Ranger Station name after receiving request from the Grand Portage Ojibwe this past year {{!}} Boreal Community Media \|url\=http://www.boreal.org/2023/10/10/468642/isle\-royale\-to\-change\-windigo\-ranger\-station\-name\-after\-receiving\-request\-from\-the\-grand\-portage\-ojibwe\-this\-past\-year \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|website\=www.boreal.org \|language\=en}} at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota")), with a campstore, showers, campsites, rustic camper cabins, and a boat dock. [Rock Harbor](/wiki/Rock_Harbor%2C_Michigan "Rock Harbor, Michigan") on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and a boat dock. Non\-camping sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor and the camper cabins at Ozaagaateng. #### Camping [thumb\|A typical three\-sided screened shelter in Isle Royale National Park as seen at the Washington Creek campground.](/wiki/File:Camping_Shelter%2C_Washington_Creek%2C_Isle_Royale_National_Park.jpg "Camping Shelter, Washington Creek, Isle Royale National Park.jpg") The park has 36 designated wilderness campgrounds. Some campgrounds in the interior are accessible only by trail or by [canoe](/wiki/Canoe "Canoe")/[kayak](/wiki/Kayak "Kayak") on the island lakes. Other campgrounds are accessible only by private boat. The campsites vary in capacity but typically include a few three\-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and several individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and are used for overflow if all the individual sites are filled. The only amenities at the campgrounds are [pit toilets](/wiki/Pit_latrine "Pit latrine"), picnic tables, and fire\-rings at specific areas. Campfires are not permitted at most campgrounds; gas or alcohol camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered, treated, or boiled to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries ([blueberries](/wiki/Blueberry "Blueberry"), [thimbleberries](/wiki/Thimbleberry "Thimbleberry")) may be picked from the trail. ### Access {{See also\|Isle Royale Ferry Service}}[thumb\|right\|Floatplane taking off from Ozaagaateng on Washington Harbor—Beaver Island can be seen in the background at rightThe](/wiki/File:IsleRoyalePlane.jpg "IsleRoyalePlane.jpg") park is accessible by ferries, floatplanes, and passenger ships during the summer months—from [Houghton](/wiki/Houghton%2C_Michigan "Houghton, Michigan") and [Copper Harbor](/wiki/Copper_Harbor%2C_Michigan "Copper Harbor, Michigan") in Michigan and [Grand Portage](/wiki/Grand_Portage_%28community%29%2C_Minnesota "Grand Portage (community), Minnesota") in Minnesota. Private boats travel to the island from the coasts of Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Isle Royale is quite popular with [day\-trippers](/wiki/Day-tripper "Day-tripper") in private boats, and day\-trip ferry service is provided from Copper Harbor and Grand Portage to and from the park. Isle Royale is the only American national park to entirely close in the winter months, from November 1 through April 15, due to extreme weather conditions and for the safety and protection of visitors.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \|title\=Operating Hours \& Seasons \|access\-date\=February 10, 2017 \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081822/https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \|url\-status\=live }} Isle Royale is the least\-visited national park in the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States "Contiguous United States"), due to the winter closing and the distance across Lake Superior to reach the park. The average annual visitation was about 19,000 in the period from 2009 to 2018, with 25,798 visiting in 2018\. Only three of the most remote Alaskan national parks{{mdash}}[Lake Clark](/wiki/Lake_Clark_National_Park_and_Preserve "Lake Clark National Park and Preserve"), [Kobuk Valley](/wiki/Kobuk_Valley_National_Park "Kobuk Valley National Park") and [Gates of the Arctic](/wiki/Gates_of_the_Arctic_National_Park_and_Preserve "Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve"){{mdash}}receive fewer visitors. #### Ships [right\|thumb\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG "Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG") Scheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton. The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics. The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV "Isle Royale Queen IV") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor. The *Sea Hunter* operates round\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument "Grand Portage National Monument") or other attractions in the same day. The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III "Ranger III")* is a {{cvt\|165\|ft\|adj\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water. The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.
[ "Recreation\n----------", "Recreational activity on Isle Royale includes [hiking](/wiki/Hiking \"Hiking\"), [backpacking](/wiki/Backpacking_%28travel%29 \"Backpacking (travel)\"), [fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\"), [boating](/wiki/Boating \"Boating\"), [canoeing](/wiki/Canoeing \"Canoeing\"), [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking \"Kayaking\"), and observing nature. Wheeled vehicles are not permitted on Isle Royale; however, wheelchairs are allowed.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nps.gov/isro/faqs.htm \\|title\\=Frequently Asked Questions \\- Isle Royale National Park (U.S. National Park Service) \\|access\\-date\\=August 7, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629132109/https://www.nps.gov/isro/faqs.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} \"Is there off\\-road biking on the Isle?\" Retrieved May 10, 2014\\.", "### Hiking", "The island offers approximately {{cvt\\|170\\|mi\\|km}} of hiking trails for everything from day hikes to a two\\-week circumnavigation hike.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Rice \\|first\\=Larry \\|date\\=September–October 2010 \\|title\\=Explore the Wild Trails on Isle Royale National Park \\|url\\=https://scoutingmagazine.org/2010/09/trail\\-tips\\-walk\\-on\\-the\\-wild\\-side/ \\|magazine\\=Scouting \\|publisher\\=Boy Scouts of America \\|pages\\=66–69 \\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116032115/https://scoutingmagazine.org/2010/09/trail\\-tips\\-walk\\-on\\-the\\-wild\\-side/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Some of the hiking trails are quite challenging, with steep grades. The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the [Greenstone Ridge Trail](/wiki/Greenstone_Ridge_Trail \"Greenstone Ridge Trail\"), which runs {{cvt\\|40\\|mi}} from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting point. The trail leads to the peak of Mount Desor, at {{cvt\\|1394\\|ft\\|m}}, the highest point on the island, and passes through northwoods wilderness, and by inland glacial lakes, swamps, bogs and scenic shorelines.", "In total there are {{cvt\\|165\\|mi}} of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes.", "### Services", "The park has two developed areas:", "Ozaagaateng (formerly Windigo),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Isle Royale to change Windigo Ranger Station name after receiving request from the Grand Portage Ojibwe this past year {{!}} Boreal Community Media \\|url\\=http://www.boreal.org/2023/10/10/468642/isle\\-royale\\-to\\-change\\-windigo\\-ranger\\-station\\-name\\-after\\-receiving\\-request\\-from\\-the\\-grand\\-portage\\-ojibwe\\-this\\-past\\-year \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=www.boreal.org \\|language\\=en}} at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\")), with a campstore, showers, campsites, rustic camper cabins, and a boat dock.", "[Rock Harbor](/wiki/Rock_Harbor%2C_Michigan \"Rock Harbor, Michigan\") on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and a boat dock. Non\\-camping sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor and the camper cabins at Ozaagaateng.", "#### Camping", "[thumb\\|A typical three\\-sided screened shelter in Isle Royale National Park as seen at the Washington Creek campground.](/wiki/File:Camping_Shelter%2C_Washington_Creek%2C_Isle_Royale_National_Park.jpg \"Camping Shelter, Washington Creek, Isle Royale National Park.jpg\")\nThe park has 36 designated wilderness campgrounds. Some campgrounds in the interior are accessible only by trail or by [canoe](/wiki/Canoe \"Canoe\")/[kayak](/wiki/Kayak \"Kayak\") on the island lakes. Other campgrounds are accessible only by private boat. The campsites vary in capacity but typically include a few three\\-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and several individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and are used for overflow if all the individual sites are filled.", "The only amenities at the campgrounds are [pit toilets](/wiki/Pit_latrine \"Pit latrine\"), picnic tables, and fire\\-rings at specific areas. Campfires are not permitted at most campgrounds; gas or alcohol camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered, treated, or boiled to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries ([blueberries](/wiki/Blueberry \"Blueberry\"), [thimbleberries](/wiki/Thimbleberry \"Thimbleberry\")) may be picked from the trail.", "### Access", "{{See also\\|Isle Royale Ferry Service}}[thumb\\|right\\|Floatplane taking off from Ozaagaateng on Washington Harbor—Beaver Island can be seen in the background at rightThe](/wiki/File:IsleRoyalePlane.jpg \"IsleRoyalePlane.jpg\") park is accessible by ferries, floatplanes, and passenger ships during the summer months—from [Houghton](/wiki/Houghton%2C_Michigan \"Houghton, Michigan\") and [Copper Harbor](/wiki/Copper_Harbor%2C_Michigan \"Copper Harbor, Michigan\") in Michigan and [Grand Portage](/wiki/Grand_Portage_%28community%29%2C_Minnesota \"Grand Portage (community), Minnesota\") in Minnesota. Private boats travel to the island from the coasts of Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Isle Royale is quite popular with [day\\-trippers](/wiki/Day-tripper \"Day-tripper\") in private boats, and day\\-trip ferry service is provided from Copper Harbor and Grand Portage to and from the park.", "Isle Royale is the only American national park to entirely close in the winter months, from November 1 through April 15, due to extreme weather conditions and for the safety and protection of visitors.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \\|title\\=Operating Hours \\& Seasons \\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081822/https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Isle Royale is the least\\-visited national park in the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States \"Contiguous United States\"), due to the winter closing and the distance across Lake Superior to reach the park. The average annual visitation was about 19,000 in the period from 2009 to 2018, with 25,798 visiting in 2018\\. Only three of the most remote Alaskan national parks{{mdash}}[Lake Clark](/wiki/Lake_Clark_National_Park_and_Preserve \"Lake Clark National Park and Preserve\"), [Kobuk Valley](/wiki/Kobuk_Valley_National_Park \"Kobuk Valley National Park\") and [Gates of the Arctic](/wiki/Gates_of_the_Arctic_National_Park_and_Preserve \"Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve\"){{mdash}}receive fewer visitors.", "#### Ships", "[right\\|thumb\\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG \"Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG\")\nScheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton.", "The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics.", "The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV \"Isle Royale Queen IV\") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor.", "The *Sea Hunter* operates round\\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument \"Grand Portage National Monument\") or other attractions in the same day.", "The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III \"Ranger III\")* is a {{cvt\\|165\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water.", "The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.", "" ]
### Access {{See also\|Isle Royale Ferry Service}}[thumb\|right\|Floatplane taking off from Ozaagaateng on Washington Harbor—Beaver Island can be seen in the background at rightThe](/wiki/File:IsleRoyalePlane.jpg "IsleRoyalePlane.jpg") park is accessible by ferries, floatplanes, and passenger ships during the summer months—from [Houghton](/wiki/Houghton%2C_Michigan "Houghton, Michigan") and [Copper Harbor](/wiki/Copper_Harbor%2C_Michigan "Copper Harbor, Michigan") in Michigan and [Grand Portage](/wiki/Grand_Portage_%28community%29%2C_Minnesota "Grand Portage (community), Minnesota") in Minnesota. Private boats travel to the island from the coasts of Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Isle Royale is quite popular with [day\-trippers](/wiki/Day-tripper "Day-tripper") in private boats, and day\-trip ferry service is provided from Copper Harbor and Grand Portage to and from the park. Isle Royale is the only American national park to entirely close in the winter months, from November 1 through April 15, due to extreme weather conditions and for the safety and protection of visitors.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \|title\=Operating Hours \& Seasons \|access\-date\=February 10, 2017 \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081822/https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \|url\-status\=live }} Isle Royale is the least\-visited national park in the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States "Contiguous United States"), due to the winter closing and the distance across Lake Superior to reach the park. The average annual visitation was about 19,000 in the period from 2009 to 2018, with 25,798 visiting in 2018\. Only three of the most remote Alaskan national parks{{mdash}}[Lake Clark](/wiki/Lake_Clark_National_Park_and_Preserve "Lake Clark National Park and Preserve"), [Kobuk Valley](/wiki/Kobuk_Valley_National_Park "Kobuk Valley National Park") and [Gates of the Arctic](/wiki/Gates_of_the_Arctic_National_Park_and_Preserve "Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve"){{mdash}}receive fewer visitors. #### Ships [right\|thumb\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG "Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG") Scheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton. The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics. The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV "Isle Royale Queen IV") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor. The *Sea Hunter* operates round\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument "Grand Portage National Monument") or other attractions in the same day. The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III "Ranger III")* is a {{cvt\|165\|ft\|adj\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water. The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.
[ "### Access", "{{See also\\|Isle Royale Ferry Service}}[thumb\\|right\\|Floatplane taking off from Ozaagaateng on Washington Harbor—Beaver Island can be seen in the background at rightThe](/wiki/File:IsleRoyalePlane.jpg \"IsleRoyalePlane.jpg\") park is accessible by ferries, floatplanes, and passenger ships during the summer months—from [Houghton](/wiki/Houghton%2C_Michigan \"Houghton, Michigan\") and [Copper Harbor](/wiki/Copper_Harbor%2C_Michigan \"Copper Harbor, Michigan\") in Michigan and [Grand Portage](/wiki/Grand_Portage_%28community%29%2C_Minnesota \"Grand Portage (community), Minnesota\") in Minnesota. Private boats travel to the island from the coasts of Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. Isle Royale is quite popular with [day\\-trippers](/wiki/Day-tripper \"Day-tripper\") in private boats, and day\\-trip ferry service is provided from Copper Harbor and Grand Portage to and from the park.", "Isle Royale is the only American national park to entirely close in the winter months, from November 1 through April 15, due to extreme weather conditions and for the safety and protection of visitors.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \\|title\\=Operating Hours \\& Seasons \\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081822/https://www.nps.gov/isro/planyourvisit/hours.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Isle Royale is the least\\-visited national park in the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States \"Contiguous United States\"), due to the winter closing and the distance across Lake Superior to reach the park. The average annual visitation was about 19,000 in the period from 2009 to 2018, with 25,798 visiting in 2018\\. Only three of the most remote Alaskan national parks{{mdash}}[Lake Clark](/wiki/Lake_Clark_National_Park_and_Preserve \"Lake Clark National Park and Preserve\"), [Kobuk Valley](/wiki/Kobuk_Valley_National_Park \"Kobuk Valley National Park\") and [Gates of the Arctic](/wiki/Gates_of_the_Arctic_National_Park_and_Preserve \"Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve\"){{mdash}}receive fewer visitors.", "#### Ships", "[right\\|thumb\\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG \"Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG\")\nScheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton.", "The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics.", "The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV \"Isle Royale Queen IV\") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor.", "The *Sea Hunter* operates round\\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument \"Grand Portage National Monument\") or other attractions in the same day.", "The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III \"Ranger III\")* is a {{cvt\\|165\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water.", "The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.", "" ]
#### Ships [right\|thumb\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG "Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG") Scheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton. The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics. The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV "Isle Royale Queen IV") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor. The *Sea Hunter* operates round\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument "Grand Portage National Monument") or other attractions in the same day. The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III "Ranger III")* is a {{cvt\|165\|ft\|adj\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water. The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.
[ "#### Ships", "[right\\|thumb\\|*Isle Royale Queen IV* at Copper Harbor](/wiki/File:Isle_Royale_Queen_IV_in_Copper_Harbor.JPG \"Isle Royale Queen IV in Copper Harbor.JPG\")\nScheduled ferry service operates from Grand Portage, Copper Harbor and Houghton.", "The Grand Portage ferries reach the island in 1½ hours, and stay 4 hours at the island, allowing time for hiking, a guided hike or program by the park staff, and picnics.", "The [*Isle Royale Queen*](/wiki/Isle_Royale_Queen_IV \"Isle Royale Queen IV\") serves park visitors out of Copper Harbor, on the northern Upper Peninsula coast of Michigan. It arrives at Rock Harbor in the park in 3 to 3½ hours and spends 3½ hours before returning to Copper Harbor.", "The *Sea Hunter* operates round\\-trips and offers day trips to the Ozaagaateng visitor center through much of the season, and less frequently in early summer and autumn; it will transport kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the park from the water. It is the fastest ferry serving the island and arrives in 1½ hours, including some sightseeing points along the way out and back. Because of the relatively short boat ride, day visitors are able to get four hours on the island, and get back to the mainland earlier in the afternoon. This gives visitors on a tight schedule time to visit the [Grand Portage National Monument](/wiki/Grand_Portage_National_Monument \"Grand Portage National Monument\") or other attractions in the same day.", "The *[Ranger III](/wiki/Ranger_III \"Ranger III\")* is a {{cvt\\|165\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} ship that serves park visitors from Houghton, Michigan to Rock Harbor. It is operated by the National Park Service, and is said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, along with canoes, kayaks, and even small powerboats. It is a six\\-hour voyage from Houghton to the park. The ship stays overnight at Rock Harbor before returning the next day, making two round trips each week from June to mid\\-September. Briefly in the 2008 season, the Ranger III carried visitors to and from Ozaagaateng. This was not continued after four trips, due to low interest and long crossing times. In 2012, Park Superintendent Phyllis Green required the *Ranger III* to purify its ballast water.", "The *Voyageur II*, out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. In the fall season, in addition to carrying campers and hikers, it provides day\\-trip service to Ozaagaateng on weekends. The Voyageur transports kayaks and canoes for visitors wanting to explore the island from the water. The *Voyageur II* and other boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one\\-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Ozaagaateng. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Ozaagaateng several days later, or vice versa. Hikers frequently ride it in one direction to do a cross\\-island hike and then get picked up at the other end.", "" ]
Vattipanam (Fixed deposit) -------------------------- In 1790, [Sakthan Thampuran](/wiki/Sakthan_Thampuran "Sakthan Thampuran") (1751–1805\), became the ruler of [Kochi](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin "Kingdom of Cochin"). He was an efficient ruler. He never encouraged Portuguese Missioners but offered land and other grants to Syrian Christians. His Grants to Syrian Christians paved way for the flourish of Syrian Christians in Trichur District. During his time the business in foreign trade improved. This resulted in more income to the people. Church members gave more to the church. The church made improvements to its buildings. Still the church had more savings. This was the condition of [Kochi](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin "Kingdom of Cochin") when Mar Thoma VI was consecrated in 1796\. But by 1799, situation in [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore "Travancore") was different. When [Velu Thampi](/wiki/Velu_Thampi "Velu Thampi") took charge as the Dalawa (prime minister) of [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore "Travancore"), treasury was empty. At that time [Velu Thampi](/wiki/Velu_Thampi "Velu Thampi") was in good terms with the British. He made an agreement with them. According to that [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore "Travancore") had to pay a large sum to the British for protection. So the [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore "Travancore") government was forced to collect more money from its people.Sankunny Menon, P. *A History of [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore "Travancore") from the Earliest Times*, p. 251\. It was at this time [Mar Thoma VI](/wiki/Mar_Thoma_VI "Mar Thoma VI") and Mar Thoma VII, discussed what to do with the extra money. They thought of depositing the additional income as a fixed deposit and with the interest they could begin training the priests. While it was going on [Mar Thoma VI](/wiki/Mar_Thoma_VI "Mar Thoma VI") died on 8 April 1808 at [Niranam](/wiki/Niranam "Niranam") and Mar Thoma VII was enthroned as the Malankara Metropolitan. Soon after becoming the Metropolitan Mar Thoma VII continued to discuss with [Col. Macaulay](/wiki/Colin_Macaulay "Colin Macaulay"), the British resident, and the church decided to deposit as loan in perpetuity a sum of 3000 Poovarahan (Market value of a poovarahan, known as Star Pagoda had a market value of Rs 3\.50 in 2002\).[Unknown](http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/Indian%20Christianity/CHAPTER%20TEN.htm){{dl\|date\=June 2024}} The deposit was handed over to Col. Maccaulay on 1 December 1808 and he issued the receipt. The agreement stipulated that interest should be paid to the Malankara Metropolitan. This deposit is now known as *Vattipanam*.Mathew, P. V. Nazrani Christians of [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala "Kerala"). (Malayalam), p. 248\. Later when there were more than one Metropolitans in Malankara church, it became necessary to decide the rightful authority to receive the interest. So the government convened meetings with the church leaders and according to their decision issued proclamations authorising that person to be the Metropolitan to receive the interest. This continued till the death of [Mathews Mar Athanasius](/wiki/Mathews_Mar_Athanasius "Mathews Mar Athanasius") in 1877\. When dispute arose, government decided that the church should ask the courts to decide to whom the interest is to be paid. Later, In 1889 Royal Court (in Seminary Suit) declared [Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II](/wiki/Pulikkottil_Joseph_Mar_Dionysious_II "Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II") as the [Malankara Metropolitan](/wiki/Malankara_Metropolitan "Malankara Metropolitan") and Also in 1928, the High Court of Travancore (in Vattipanam SUIT), declared that Vattasheril [Dionysius VI](/wiki/Dionysius_VI "Dionysius VI") will remain as the [Malankara Metropolitan](/wiki/Malankara_Metropolitan "Malankara Metropolitan")
[ "Vattipanam (Fixed deposit)\n--------------------------", "In 1790, [Sakthan Thampuran](/wiki/Sakthan_Thampuran \"Sakthan Thampuran\") (1751–1805\\), became the ruler of [Kochi](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin \"Kingdom of Cochin\"). He was an efficient ruler. He never encouraged Portuguese Missioners but offered land and other grants to Syrian Christians. His Grants to Syrian Christians paved way for the flourish of Syrian Christians in Trichur District. During his time the business in foreign trade improved. This resulted in more income to the people. Church members gave more to the church. The church made improvements to its buildings. Still the church had more savings. This was the condition of [Kochi](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin \"Kingdom of Cochin\") when Mar Thoma VI was consecrated in 1796\\.", "But by 1799, situation in [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore \"Travancore\") was different. When [Velu Thampi](/wiki/Velu_Thampi \"Velu Thampi\") took charge as the Dalawa (prime minister) of [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore \"Travancore\"), treasury was empty. At that time [Velu Thampi](/wiki/Velu_Thampi \"Velu Thampi\") was in good terms with the British. He made an agreement with them. According to that [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore \"Travancore\") had to pay a large sum to the British for protection. So the [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore \"Travancore\") government was forced to collect more money from its people.Sankunny Menon, P. *A History of [Travancore](/wiki/Travancore \"Travancore\") from the Earliest Times*, p. 251\\.", "It was at this time [Mar Thoma VI](/wiki/Mar_Thoma_VI \"Mar Thoma VI\") and Mar Thoma VII, discussed what to do with the extra money. They thought of depositing the additional income as a fixed deposit and with the interest they could begin training the priests.", "While it was going on [Mar Thoma VI](/wiki/Mar_Thoma_VI \"Mar Thoma VI\") died on 8 April 1808 at [Niranam](/wiki/Niranam \"Niranam\") and Mar Thoma VII was enthroned as the Malankara Metropolitan.", "Soon after becoming the Metropolitan Mar Thoma VII continued to discuss with [Col. Macaulay](/wiki/Colin_Macaulay \"Colin Macaulay\"), the British resident, and the church decided to deposit as loan in perpetuity a sum of 3000 Poovarahan (Market value of a poovarahan, known as Star Pagoda had a market value of Rs 3\\.50 in 2002\\).[Unknown](http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/Indian%20Christianity/CHAPTER%20TEN.htm){{dl\\|date\\=June 2024}} The deposit was handed over to Col. Maccaulay on 1 December 1808 and he issued the receipt. The agreement stipulated that interest should be paid to the Malankara Metropolitan. This deposit is now known as *Vattipanam*.Mathew, P. V. Nazrani Christians of [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala \"Kerala\"). (Malayalam), p. 248\\.", "Later when there were more than one Metropolitans in Malankara church, it became necessary to decide the rightful authority to receive the interest. So the government convened meetings with the church leaders and according to their decision issued proclamations authorising that person to be the Metropolitan to receive the interest. This continued till the death of [Mathews Mar Athanasius](/wiki/Mathews_Mar_Athanasius \"Mathews Mar Athanasius\") in 1877\\. When dispute arose, government decided that the church should ask the courts to decide to whom the interest is to be paid.\nLater, In 1889 Royal Court (in Seminary Suit) declared [Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II](/wiki/Pulikkottil_Joseph_Mar_Dionysious_II \"Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II\") as the [Malankara Metropolitan](/wiki/Malankara_Metropolitan \"Malankara Metropolitan\") and Also in 1928, the High Court of Travancore (in Vattipanam SUIT), declared that Vattasheril [Dionysius VI](/wiki/Dionysius_VI \"Dionysius VI\") will remain as the [Malankara Metropolitan](/wiki/Malankara_Metropolitan \"Malankara Metropolitan\")", "" ]