text
stringlengths 791
228k
| parts
listlengths 6
567
|
|---|---|
### Into the 20th century
By 1909 Wedel and Schulau had grown into one another and Schulau was amalgamated into Wedel. Development continued with the construction of a power plant and in 1930 a hospital was built. Like the rest of the country, the city was hard hit by the [Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). Several large firms collapsed: the sugar processor let go nearly 400 workers and overall unemployment was high with over 20 percent of the population living on public support.
This impacted the political life in Wedel. From 1929 the number of political meetings rose significantly. With public marches and mass meetings in particular the extreme parties determined the political scenery in the town. It came often to violent incidents.
Then the Nazis took power in Wedel as they did over the entire Germany. Important administrative posts were occupied by the Nazis. The labor parties SPD and the KPD in Wedel, quite strongly represented before the Nazis came, were forbidden and went temporarily into the resistance. Many of their members were arrested and spent years in concentration camps.
In the 1930s the most important structural change of the townscape was the new building of the city hall in the Bahnhofstrasse, the housing developments at the Vosshagen, the Nordschleswig settlement and the Milich Settlement.
In 1939 Wedel honored its third honorary citizen. After the first honorary citizen, a mayor of many years and the second one a publicly engaged physician for the poor this honor was given to Rudolf Hoeckner a painter well known even outside the realms of Wedel.
At the same time people of Wedel wanted to attach a plaque to the birth house of another famous Wedel Burger. But to honor Ernst Barlach was not desired at this time because of the Nazi regime.
|
[
"### Into the 20th century",
"By 1909 Wedel and Schulau had grown into one another and Schulau was amalgamated into Wedel. Development continued with the construction of a power plant and in 1930 a hospital was built. Like the rest of the country, the city was hard hit by the [Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). Several large firms collapsed: the sugar processor let go nearly 400 workers and overall unemployment was high with over 20 percent of the population living on public support.",
"This impacted the political life in Wedel. From 1929 the number of political meetings rose significantly. With public marches and mass meetings in particular the extreme parties determined the political scenery in the town. It came often to violent incidents.\nThen the Nazis took power in Wedel as they did over the entire Germany. Important administrative posts were occupied by the Nazis. The labor parties SPD and the KPD in Wedel, quite strongly represented before the Nazis came, were forbidden and went temporarily into the resistance. Many of their members were arrested and spent years in concentration camps.",
"In the 1930s the most important structural change of the townscape was the new building of the city hall in the Bahnhofstrasse, the housing developments at the Vosshagen, the Nordschleswig settlement and the Milich Settlement.",
"In 1939 Wedel honored its third honorary citizen. After the first honorary citizen, a mayor of many years and the second one a publicly engaged physician for the poor this honor was given to Rudolf Hoeckner a painter well known even outside the realms of Wedel.",
"At the same time people of Wedel wanted to attach a plaque to the birth house of another famous Wedel Burger. But to honor Ernst Barlach was not desired at this time because of the Nazi regime.",
""
] |
### Post War
A severe housing shortage developed as refugees streamed west out of former German territories following the war, adding to the problem caused by the bombing. A 1947 census showed that Wedel had 7,902 native inhabitants and more than 6,500 refugees.
Large\-scale housing construction programs were undertaken by the city, including the construction of barrack settlements, to help integrate the refugees and other homeless. Under the plan each person was allowed {{convert\|4\.9\|m2\|ft2\|abbr\=on}} of living space.
In 1954 the largest and most ambitious reconstruction project in the country was started. The building of the garden city of Elbhochufer on a {{convert\|40\|ha\|acre}} area. By 1962 almost 1,200 rental flats and apartmentst and over 500 row homes were created. The city grew quickly and began to attract new business.
The well known attraction in Wedel is the Wedel\-Schulau [Willkomm\-Höft](/wiki/Willkomm-H%C3%B6ft "Willkomm-Höft") or Welcome Point, established in 1952 to greet incoming ships.[Welcome\-point.de](http://www.welcome-point.de) The Hamburg Yachting Club was established in the city in 1960–61 .
In 1962 and again in 1976, large [tidal bores](/wiki/Tidal_bore "Tidal bore") reached Wedel. As protection, [dikes](/wiki/Dike_%28construction%29 "Dike (construction)") were built in 1978 that turned the surrounding marshes into beautiful hiking paths.
|
[
"### Post War",
"A severe housing shortage developed as refugees streamed west out of former German territories following the war, adding to the problem caused by the bombing. A 1947 census showed that Wedel had 7,902 native inhabitants and more than 6,500 refugees.",
"Large\\-scale housing construction programs were undertaken by the city, including the construction of barrack settlements, to help integrate the refugees and other homeless. Under the plan each person was allowed {{convert\\|4\\.9\\|m2\\|ft2\\|abbr\\=on}} of living space.",
"In 1954 the largest and most ambitious reconstruction project in the country was started. The building of the garden city of Elbhochufer on a {{convert\\|40\\|ha\\|acre}} area. By 1962 almost 1,200 rental flats and apartmentst and over 500 row homes were created. The city grew quickly and began to attract new business.",
"The well known attraction in Wedel is the Wedel\\-Schulau [Willkomm\\-Höft](/wiki/Willkomm-H%C3%B6ft \"Willkomm-Höft\") or Welcome Point, established in 1952 to greet incoming ships.[Welcome\\-point.de](http://www.welcome-point.de) The Hamburg Yachting Club was established in the city in 1960–61 .",
"In 1962 and again in 1976, large [tidal bores](/wiki/Tidal_bore \"Tidal bore\") reached Wedel. As protection, [dikes](/wiki/Dike_%28construction%29 \"Dike (construction)\") were built in 1978 that turned the surrounding marshes into beautiful hiking paths.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1968–1970: Formation, first album and *Time and a Word*{{anchor\|Mabel Greer's Toyshop}}
{{multiple image\|align\=right
\| footer \= Yes formed in the basement of the then Lucky Horseshoe Cafe (left) at 184 \[\[Shaftesbury Avenue]], London in mid\-1968\. Right: commemorative plaque at the address.
\| width \=
\| image1 \= Yes plaque Basement 184 Shaftesbury Avenue London WC2 8JB.jpg
\| width1 \= 190
\| image2 \= Yes the English Progressive Rock Band (cropped).jpg
\| width2 \= 142
}}
In late 1967, bassist [Chris Squire](/wiki/Chris_Squire "Chris Squire") and guitarist [Peter Banks](/wiki/Peter_Banks "Peter Banks"), both formerly of [the Syn](/wiki/The_Syn "The Syn"), joined the [psychedelic rock](/wiki/Psychedelic_rock "Psychedelic rock") band [Mabel Greer's Toyshop](/wiki/Mabel_Greer%27s_Toyshop "Mabel Greer's Toyshop"), which had formed in 1966 by Clive Bayley and Robert Hagger.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/mabel\-greer\-s\-toyshop\-reunite\|title\=Mabel Greer's Toyshop reunite\|publisher\=Loudersound\|date\=13 November 2014\|first\=Scott\|last\=Munro\|access\-date\=13 July 2024}}{{cite web\|url\=https://zacharymule.com/wp/?p\=2458\|title\=Yes\-terday and Today: An interview with Mabel Greer's Toyshop about their surprising comeback and some "unfinished business"\|first\=Kevin\|last\=Renick\|date\=7 February 2015\|publisher\=Zacharymule\|access\-date\=12 July 2024}} They played at the [Marquee Club](/wiki/Marquee_Club "Marquee Club") in [Soho](/wiki/Soho "Soho"), London where Jack Barrie, owner of the nearby La Chasse club, saw them perform. "There was nothing outstanding about them", he recalled, "the musicianship was very good but it was obvious they weren't going anywhere".Welch 2008, p. 23\. Barrie introduced Squire to singer [Jon Anderson](/wiki/Jon_Anderson "Jon Anderson"), a worker at the bar in La Chasse, who found they shared interests in [Simon \& Garfunkel](/wiki/Simon_%26_Garfunkel "Simon & Garfunkel") and harmony singing. That evening at Squire's house they wrote "Sweetness" which was included on the first Yes album, and Anderson subsequently joined as lead vocalist.Welch 2008, p. 24\. In June 1968, Hagger was replaced by [Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford "Bill Bruford"), who had placed an advertisement in *[Melody Maker](/wiki/Melody_Maker "Melody Maker")*,Welch 2008, p. 33–34\.Welch 2008, p. 37\. while in July the classically trained organist and pianist [Tony Kaye](/wiki/Tony_Kaye_%28musician%29 "Tony Kaye (musician)"), of Johnny Taylor's Star Combo and the Federals, became the keyboardist.Welch 2008, p. 38 This lineup rehearsed in the basement of The Lucky Horseshoe cafe on [Shaftesbury Avenue](/wiki/Shaftesbury_Avenue "Shaftesbury Avenue") between 10 June and 9 July 1968\.Bruford, p. 35Welch 2008, p. 39Welch 2008, p. 44 Meanwhile, Banks had left Mabel Greer's Toyshop to join Neat Change, but he was dismissed by this group on 14 July 1968 and was finally recalled by Squire, replacing Bayley as guitarist. The last gig by Mabel Greer's Toyshop was on 27 July, at Newmarket.Welch 2008, op. cit.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forgotten\-yesterdays.com/dates.asp?qbandid\=6\&qyear\=0\&qdateid\=7501\|title\=07/27/1968 Newmarket, United Kingdom\|accessdate\=24 September 2023}}
Having considered the experience of Mabel Greer's Toyshop concluded, the group exchanged ideas for a new name. Anderson suggested Life and Squire thought of World,Yesspeak Live: The Director's Cut but the five agreed on Yes, which Banks had thought of a couple of years before.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/4822acba\-543b\-11e8\-b3ee\-41e0209208ec \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/4822acba\-543b\-11e8\-b3ee\-41e0209208ec \|archive\-date\=10 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription\|title\=A tale of Two Yesses\|website\=Financial Times\|date\=11 May 2018\|last1\=Hunter\-Tilney\|first1\=Ludovic\|quote\=A band meeting was convened. 'I said, "Why don't we call ourselves Life?" And Chris said, "World". And \[guitarist] Peter Banks, bless him, said "Yes". And we said, "The Yes?" He said, "No, no, no. Just Yes." So we said OK. And that's how it started.'}} After rehearsals between 31 July and 2 August, the first gig as Yes followed at a youth camp in [East Mersea](/wiki/East_Mersea "East Mersea"), Essex on 3 August.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forgotten\-yesterdays.com/dates.asp?qbandid\=1\&qyear\=1968\&qdateid\=619\|title\=08/03/1968 Mersea, United Kingdom\|website\=Forgotten Yesterdays\|accessdate\=15 September 2023}} Early sets were formed of cover songs from artists such as [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles"), [The 5th Dimension](/wiki/The_5th_Dimension "The 5th Dimension") and [Traffic](/wiki/Traffic_%28band%29 "Traffic (band)").Welch 2008, p. 45\. On 16 September, Yes performed at Blaise's club in London as a substitute for [Sly and the Family Stone](/wiki/Sly_and_the_Family_Stone "Sly and the Family Stone"), who had failed to turn up. They were well received by the audience, including the host [Roy Flynn](/wiki/Roy_Flynn "Roy Flynn"), who became the band's manager that night.Welch 2008, pp. 50–51\. That month, Bruford decided to quit performing to study at the [University of Leeds](/wiki/University_of_Leeds "University of Leeds").Welch 2008, pp. 52–53\. His replacement, Tony O'Reilly of [the Koobas](/wiki/The_Koobas "The Koobas"), struggled to perform with the rest of the group on stage and former Warriors and future [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson") drummer Ian Wallace subbed for one gig on 5 November 1968\. After Bruford was refused a year's sabbatical leave from Leeds, Anderson and Squire convinced him to return for Yes's supporting slot for [Cream's](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") farewell concert at the [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall "Royal Albert Hall") on 26 November.
After seeing an early [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson") gig in 1969, Yes realised that there was suddenly stiff competition on the London gigging circuit, and they needed to be much more technically proficient, starting regular rehearsals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=8Sjxnnx\-jqU \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/8Sjxnnx\-jqU\| archive\-date\=11 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Interview with Peter Banks by Mark Powell\|date\=7 April 2010 \|publisher\=\[\[Cherry Red Records\|Cherry Red TV]]\|access\-date\=21 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} They subsequently signed a deal with [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"), and, that August, released their debut album *[Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28Yes_album%29 "Yes (Yes album)")*.Welch 2008, p. 315 Compiled of mostly original material, the record includes renditions of "[Every Little Thing](/wiki/Every_Little_Thing_%28Beatles_song%29 "Every Little Thing (Beatles song)")" by the Beatles and "I See You" by [The Byrds](/wiki/The_Byrds "The Byrds"). Although the album failed to break into the UK album charts, *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* critic [Lester Bangs](/wiki/Lester_Bangs "Lester Bangs") complimented the album's "sense of style, taste and subtlety".{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/yes/albums/album/113178/review/6067812/yes\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603085300/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/yes/albums/album/113178/review/6067812/yes\|archive\-date\=3 June 2008\|title\=Yes: Yes: Music Reviews: Rolling Stone\|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]\|date\=7 February 1970\|access\-date\=14 March 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} *Melody Maker* columnist Tony Wilson chose Yes and [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin") as the two bands "most likely to succeed".Liner notes on Yes (1969\)
Following a tour of Scandinavia with [Faces](/wiki/Faces_%28band%29 "Faces (band)"), Yes performed a solo concert at the [Queen Elizabeth Hall](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hall "Queen Elizabeth Hall") on 21 March 1970\. The second half consisted of excerpts from their second album *[Time and a Word](/wiki/Time_and_a_Word "Time and a Word")*, accompanied by a 20\-piece youth orchestra.Welch 2008, p. 77\. Banks left the group on 18 April 1970, just three months before the album's release. Having expressed dissatisfaction with the idea of recording with an orchestra as well as the sacking of Flynn earlier in the year,Welch 2008, p. 80\. Banks later indicated that he was fired by Anderson and Squire, and that Kaye and Bruford had no prior knowledge that it would be happening. Similar to the first album, *Time and a Word* features original songs and two new covers–"Everydays" by [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield "Buffalo Springfield") and "No Opportunity Necessary, No Experience Needed" by [Richie Havens](/wiki/Richie_Havens "Richie Havens"). The album broke into the UK charts, peaking at number 45\.{{Cite web \|title\=YES {{!}} full Official Chart History {{!}} Official Charts Company \|url\=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/16452/yes/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014043851/https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/16452/yes/ \|archive\-date\=14 October 2022 \|access\-date\=14 October 2022 \|website\=www.officialcharts.com \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Banks' replacement was [Tomorrow](/wiki/Tomorrow_%28band%29 "Tomorrow (band)") guitarist [Steve Howe](/wiki/Steve_Howe "Steve Howe"), who appears in the photograph of the group on the American issue despite not having played on it.Welch, 2008, p. 89
### 1970–1974: *The Yes Album*, *Fragile*, *Close to the Edge* and *Tales from Topographic Oceans*
[thumb\|upright\|Steve Howe in 1977](/wiki/File:Steve_howe.jpg "Steve howe.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Rick Wakeman with Yes in March 1974, months before his first departure from the band](/wiki/File:Rick_Wakeman_-_Winterland_1974.jpg "Rick Wakeman - Winterland 1974.jpg")
The band retreated to a rented farmhouse in [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon") to write and rehearse new songs for their following album. Howe established himself as an integral part of the group's sound with his [Gibson ES\-175](/wiki/Gibson_ES-175 "Gibson ES-175") and variety of acoustic guitars. With producer and engineer [Eddy Offord](/wiki/Eddy_Offord "Eddy Offord"), recording sessions lasted as long as 12 hours with each track being assembled from small sections at a time, which were pieced together to form a complete track. The band would then learn to play the song through after the final mix was complete.{{cite web\|url\=http://nfte.org/interviews/EO234\.html\|title\=Conversation with Eddy Offord\|first\=Tim\|last\=Morse\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Notes From the Edge \|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Released in February 1971, *[The Yes Album](/wiki/The_Yes_Album "The Yes Album")* peaked at number 4 in the UK and number 40 on the U.S. [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200") charts.
Yes embarked on a 28\-day tour of Europe with [Iron Butterfly](/wiki/Iron_Butterfly "Iron Butterfly") in January 1971\.Welch 2008, p. 102 The band purchased Iron Butterfly's entire [public address system](/wiki/Public_address_system "Public address system"), which improved their on\-stage performance and sound.Welch 2008, p. 104\. Their first date in North America followed on 24 June in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton"), Alberta, Canada, supporting [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 "Jethro Tull (band)").Bruford, p. 55 Friction arose between Howe and Kaye on tour;Welch 2008, p. 109\. this, along with Kaye's reported reluctance to play the [Mellotron](/wiki/Mellotron "Mellotron") and the [Minimoog](/wiki/Minimoog "Minimoog") synthesizer, preferring to stick exclusively to [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano") and [Hammond organ](/wiki/Hammond_organ "Hammond organ"),{{cite book\|first\=John\|last\=Tobler\|year\=1992\|title\=NME Rock 'N' Roll Years\|edition\=1st\|publisher\=Reed International Books Ltd\|location\=London\|page\=229\|id\=CN 5585}} led to the keyboardist being fired from the band in the summer of 1971\. Anderson recalled in a 2019 interview: "Steve and Chris came over and said, 'Look, Tony Kaye... great guy.' But, you know, we'd just seen [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman "Rick Wakeman") about a month earlier. And I said, 'There's that Rick Wakeman guy,' and we've got to get on with life and move on, you know, rather than keep going on, set in the same circle. And that's what happens with a band."{{cite web\|url\=https://bestclassicbands.com/jon\-anderson\-interview\-3\-26\-19/ \|title\=Jon Anderson Interview? Yes, Indeed \|last\=Brodsky \|first\=Greg \|publisher\=Best Classic Bands \|date\=26 March 2019\|access\-date\=16 April 2019}} Wakeman, a classically trained player who had left the folk rock group [Strawbs](/wiki/Strawbs "Strawbs") earlier in the year, was already a noted studio musician, with credits including [T. Rex](/wiki/T._Rex_%28band%29 "T. Rex (band)"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens "Cat Stevens") and [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John"). Squire commented that he could play "a grand piano for three bars, a Mellotron for two bars and a Moog for the next one absolutely spot on",{{cite video\|people\=Squire, Chris\|title\=BBC broadcast of Sounding Out: Yes on 10 January 1972}} which gave Yes the orchestral and choral textures that befitted their new material.
Released on 12 November 1971,{{cite magazine\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Sounds/70s/Sounds\-1971\-10\-23\-S\-OCR.pdf\|title\=No Yes\|magazine\=Sounds\|page\=2\|date\=23 October 1971\|access\-date\=24 July 2022\|via\=World Radio History}} the band's fourth album *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 "Fragile (Yes album)")* showcased their growing interest in the structures of classical music, with an excerpt of *[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird "The Firebird")* by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky") being played at the start of their concerts since the album's [1971–1972 tour](/wiki/Fragile_Tour "Fragile Tour").*Yessongs* track listing. Atlantic Records 1973\. Each member performed a solo track on the album, and it marked the start of their long collaboration with artist [Roger Dean](/wiki/Roger_Dean_%28artist%29 "Roger Dean (artist)"), who designed the [group's logo](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo "Yes bubble logo"), album art and stage sets. *Fragile* peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 4 in the U.S.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/awards \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430165547/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/awards \|archive\-date\=30 April 2016 \|title\=Yes Billboard Albums \|website\=Allmusic\|access\-date\=12 October 2022}} after it was released there in January 1972, and was their first record to reach the top ten in North America. A shorter version of the opening track, "[Roundabout](/wiki/Roundabout_%28Yes_song%29 "Roundabout (Yes song)")", was released as a single that peaked at number 13 on the *Billboard* [Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") singles chart.
In February 1972, Yes recorded a cover version of "[America](/wiki/America_%28Simon_%26_Garfunkel_song%29 "America (Simon & Garfunkel song)")" by [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") and released it in July. The single reached number 46 on the U.S. singles chart.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/biography\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013092446/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/biography\|archive\-date\=13 October 2022\|title\=Yes Biography\|website\=Allmusic\|access\-date\=13 October 2022\|url\-status\=bot: unknown}} The track subsequently appeared on *[The New Age of Atlantic](/wiki/The_New_Age_of_Atlantic "The New Age of Atlantic")*, a 1972 compilation album of several bands signed to Atlantic Records, and again in the 1975 compilation *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 "Yesterdays (Yes album)")*.
Released in September 1972, *[Close to the Edge](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge "Close to the Edge")*, the band's fifth album, was their most ambitious work so far. At 19 minutes, the [title track](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_%28song%29 "Close to the Edge (song)") took up an entire side on the vinyl record and combined elements of classical music, psychedelic rock, pop and jazz. The album reached number 3 in the U.S. and number 4 on the UK charts.Welch 2008, p. 185\. "[And You and I](/wiki/And_You_and_I "And You and I")" was released as a single that peaked at number 42 in the U.S. The growing critical and commercial success of the band was not enough to retain Bruford, who left Yes in the summer of 1972, before the album's release, to join [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson"). The band considered several possible replacements, including [Aynsley Dunbar](/wiki/Aynsley_Dunbar "Aynsley Dunbar") (who was playing with [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa "Frank Zappa") at the time),{{cite web\|title\=Chris Squire Takes A Straight And Stronger Course\|url\=http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\-squire\-takes\-a\-straight\-and\-stronger\-course\-by\-rick\-suchow\-bass\-musician\-magazine\-march\-2013/\|website\=Bass Musician Magazine\|author\=Rick Suchow\|date\=March 2013\|publisher\=V.I.E., LLC\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=20 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620064253/http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\-squire\-takes\-a\-straight\-and\-stronger\-course\-by\-rick\-suchow\-bass\-musician\-magazine\-march\-2013/\|url\-status\=dead}} and decided on former [Plastic Ono Band](/wiki/Plastic_Ono_Band "Plastic Ono Band") drummer [Alan White](/wiki/Alan_White_%28Yes_drummer%29 "Alan White (Yes drummer)"), a friend of Anderson and Offord who had once sat in with the band weeks before Bruford's departure.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.moderndrummer.com/2005/05/alan\-white\-3/\|title\=Yes' Alan White Exclusive Interview: Modern Drummer Magazine\|date\=18 May 2005\|publisher\=Moderndrummer.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} White learned the band's repertoire in three days before embarking on their [1972–1973 tour](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_Tour "Close to the Edge Tour").
By this point, Yes were beginning to enjoy worldwide commercial and critical success. Their early touring with White was featured on *[Yessongs](/wiki/Yessongs "Yessongs")*, a triple live album released in May 1973 that documented shows from 1972\. The album reached number 7 in the UK and number 12 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 136\. A [concert film](/wiki/Yessongs_%28film%29 "Yessongs (film)") of the same name premiered in 1975Welch 2008, p. 146\. that documented their shows at London's [Rainbow Theatre](/wiki/Rainbow_Theatre "Rainbow Theatre") in December 1972, with added psychedelic visual images and effects.
{{quote box
\| quote \= It is a fragmented masterpiece, assembled with loving care and long hours in the studio. Brilliant in patches, but often taking far too long to make its various points, and curiously lacking in warmth or personal expression ..."Ritual" is a dance of celebration and brings the first enjoyable moments, where Alan's driving drums have something to grip on to and the lyrics of la la la speak volumes. But even this cannot last long and cohesion is lost once more to the gods of drab self indulgence.
\| source \= —''\[\[Melody Maker]]'' review of ''\[\[Tales from Topographic Oceans]]'', 1973{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\=5\&tname\=5\&tdate\=135\&navb\=10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030718012628/http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\=5\&tname\=5\&tdate\=135\&navb\=10\|archive\-date\=18 July 2003\|title\=Yes – Adrift on the Oceans\|publisher\=Melody Maker\|date\=1 December 1973\|access\-date\=4 November 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
\| width \= 33%
\| align \= right
}}
*[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans "Tales from Topographic Oceans")* was the band's sixth studio album, released on 7 December 1973\.["BRIT Certified – bpi"](https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified), search "Tales from Topographic Oceans" It marked a change in their fortunes and polarised fans and critics alike. The double vinyl set was based on Anderson's interpretation of the [Shastric](/wiki/Shastra "Shastra") scriptures from a footnote within [Paramahansa Yogananda](/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda "Paramahansa Yogananda")'s book *[Autobiography of a Yogi](/wiki/Autobiography_of_a_Yogi "Autobiography of a Yogi")*. The album became the first LP in the UK to ship gold before the record arrived at retailers.{{cite news\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DQkEAAAAMBAJ\|title\=Yes LP Breaks Ground in U.K.\|date\=15 December 1973\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=42\|access\-date\=11 February 2012}} It went on to [top the UK charts](/wiki/List_of_UK_Albums_Chart_number_ones_of_the_1970s%231974 "List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1970s#1974") for two weeks while reaching number 6 in the U.S., and became the band's fourth consecutive gold album. Wakeman was not pleased with the record and is critical of much of its material.{{cite news\|title\=Yes, we were the original Spinal Tap, says Rick Wakeman of Seventies prog\-rock supergroup\|url\=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\-23537889\-yes\-we\-were\-the\-original\-spinal\-tap\-says\-rick\-wakeman\-of\-seventies\-prog\-rock\-supergroup.do\|work\=London Evening Standard\|date\=17 August 2009\|access\-date\=15 October 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102143937/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\-23537889\-yes\-we\-were\-the\-original\-spinal\-tap\-says\-rick\-wakeman\-of\-seventies\-prog\-rock\-supergroup.do\|archive\-date\=2 November 2009\|url\-status\=dead}} He felt sections were "bled to death" and contained too much musical padding.Chambers 2002, p. 233\. Wakeman left the band after the [1973–1974 tour](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans_Tour "Tales from Topographic Oceans Tour"); his solo album *[Journey to the Centre of the Earth](/wiki/Journey_to_the_Centre_of_the_Earth_%28album%29 "Journey to the Centre of the Earth (album)")* topped the UK charts in May 1974\.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\_the\_no1\_albums.php?show\=3 \|title\= Number 1 Albums – 1970s \|publisher\= The Official Charts Company \|access\-date\= 11 February 2012 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091230114951/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\_the\_no1\_albums.php?show\=3 \|archive\-date\= 30 December 2009 \|url\-status\= dead \|df\= dmy\-all }} The tour included five consecutive sold\-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre, the first time a rock band achieved this.Wooding, p. 114\.
### 1974–1980: *Relayer*, *Going for the One*, *Tormato* and the Paris sessions
Several musicians were approached to replace Wakeman, including [Vangelis Papathanassiou](/wiki/Vangelis_Papathanassiou "Vangelis Papathanassiou"), [Eddie Jobson](/wiki/Eddie_Jobson "Eddie Jobson") of [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music "Roxy Music") and former Atlantis/Cat Stevens keyboardist [Jean Roussel](/wiki/Jean_Roussel "Jean Roussel"). Howe says he also asked [Keith Emerson](/wiki/Keith_Emerson "Keith Emerson"), who did not want to leave [Emerson, Lake \& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer "Emerson, Lake & Palmer").{{sfn\|Howe\|2021\|p\=108}} Yes ultimately chose Swiss keyboardist [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz "Patrick Moraz") of [Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28band%29 "Refugee (band)"), who arrived in August 1974{{cite news \|title\= News Briefs \|magazine\=Billboard \|date\=31 August 1974}} during the recording sessions for *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer "Relayer")*, which took place at Squire's home in [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water "Virginia Water"), Surrey. Released in November that year, *Relayer* showcased a [jazz fusion](/wiki/Jazz_fusion "Jazz fusion")\-influenced direction the band were pursuing. The album features the 22\-minute track titled "[The Gates of Delirium](/wiki/The_Gates_of_Delirium "The Gates of Delirium")", which highlights a battle initially inspired by *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace "War and Peace")* by [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy "Leo Tolstoy"). Its closing section, "Soon", was subsequently released as a single. The album reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 5 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 154\. Yes embarked on their [1974–1975 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Relayer_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Relayer Tour") to support *Relayer*. The compilation album *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 "Yesterdays (Yes album)")*, released in 1975, contained tracks from Yes's first two albums, the B\-side track from their "Sweet Dreams" single from 1970 titled "Dear Father", and the original ten\-minute version of their cover of "America".{{Cite news\|title\=Relayer \& Yesterdays\|magazine\=Rolling Stone\|first\=Ken\|last\=Barnes\|date\=19 June 1975}}
Between 1975 and 1976, each member of the band released a solo album. Their subsequent [1976 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%231976_Solo_Albums_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#1976 Solo Albums Tour") of North America with [Peter Frampton](/wiki/Peter_Frampton "Peter Frampton") featured some of the band's most\-attended shows. The show of 12 June, also supported by [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright "Gary Wright") and [Pousette\-Dart Band](/wiki/Pousette-Dart_Band "Pousette-Dart Band") at [John F. Kennedy Stadium](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Stadium_%28Philadelphia%29 "John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)") in Philadelphia, attracted over 100,000 people.{{cite news\|title\=Yestour '76 – Laser Show Intrigues Audiences\|work\=Circus Magazine\|date\=13 September 1976\|author\=Peter Crescenti}} Roger Dean's brother Martyn was the main designer behind the tour's "Crab Nebula" stage set, while Roger and fabric designer Felicity Youette provided the backgrounds.
[thumb\|right\|Yes performing in 1977](/wiki/File:Yes_11111977_01_400_%28cropped%29.jpg "Yes 11111977 01 400 (cropped).jpg")
In late 1976, the band travelled to Switzerland and started recording for their album *[Going for the One](/wiki/Going_for_the_One "Going for the One")* at [Mountain Studios](/wiki/Mountain_Studios "Mountain Studios"), [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux "Montreux"). It was then that Anderson sent early versions of "Going for the One" and "[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories "Wonderous Stories")" to Wakeman, who felt he could contribute to such material better than the band's past releases. Moraz was let go, after Wakeman was booked on a session musician basis. Upon its release in July 1977, *Going for the One* [topped](/wiki/List_of_number-one_albums_from_the_1970s_%28UK%29%231977 "List of number-one albums from the 1970s (UK)#1977") the UK album charts for two weeks and reached number 8 in the U.S. "[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories "Wonderous Stories")" and "Going for the One" were released as singles in the UK and reached numbers 7 and 25, respectively.Welch 2008, p. 166 Although the album's cover was designed by [Hipgnosis](/wiki/Hipgnosis "Hipgnosis"), it still features their Roger Dean ["bubble" logotype](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo "Yes bubble logo"). The band's [1977 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Going_for_the_One_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Going for the One Tour") spanned across six months.
*[Tormato](/wiki/Tormato "Tormato")* was released in September 1978 at the height of [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock "Punk rock") in England, during which the music press criticised Yes as representing the bloated excesses of early\-1970s progressive rock. The album saw the band continuing their movement towards shorter songs; no track runs longer than eight minutes.{{Cite news\|title\=The Yes Decade\|date\=17 October 1978\|website\=Circus Magazine\|first\=Kurt\|last\=Loder}} Wakeman replaced his Mellotrons with the [Birotron](/wiki/Birotron "Birotron"), a [tape replay keyboard](/wiki/Sampler_%28musical_instrument%29 "Sampler (musical instrument)"), and Squire experimented with harmonisers and Mu\-tron pedals with his bass. Production was handled collectively by the band and saw disagreements at the mixing stage among the members. With heavy commercial rock\-radio airplay, the album reached number 8 in the UK and number 10 in the U.S. charts, and was also certified platinum (1 million copies sold) by the [RIAA](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America "Recording Industry Association of America"). Despite internal and external criticisms of the album, the band's [1978–1979 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Tormato_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Tormato Tour") was a commercial success. Concerts were performed [in the round](/wiki/Theatre_in_the_round "Theatre in the round") with a £50,000 revolving stage and a 360\-degree sound system fitted above it. Their dates at Madison Square Gardens earned Yes a [Golden Ticket Award](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden_Gold_Ticket_Award "Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award") for grossing over $1 million in box office receipts.Wooding, p. 197
In October 1979, the band convened in Paris with producer [Roy Thomas Baker](/wiki/Roy_Thomas_Baker "Roy Thomas Baker"). Their diverse approach was now succumbing to division, as Anderson and Wakeman favoured the more fantastical and delicate approach while the rest preferred a heavier rock sound. Howe, Squire and White liked none of the music Anderson was offering at the time as it was too lightweight and lacking in the heaviness that they were generating in their own writing sessions. The Paris sessions abruptly ended in December after White broke his foot while rollerskating in a roller disco.{{cite web\|url\=http://lithiummagazine.com/interview\-chris\-squire\-yes\-march\-19\-2014\|title\=An Interview with Chris Squire of YES – March 19, 2014\|work\=Lithium Magazine\|date\=21 March 2014\|access\-date\=22 March 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322030334/http://lithiummagazine.com/interview\-chris\-squire\-yes\-march\-19\-2014\|archive\-date\=22 March 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}
When the band, minus Wakeman (who had only committed to recording keyboard overdubs once new material would be ready to record), reconvened in February to resume work on the project, their growing musical differences, combined with internal dissension, obstructed progress. Journalist Chris Welch, after attending a rehearsal, noted that Anderson "was singing without his usual conviction and seemed disinclined to talk".Welch, Musicians Only, 14 June 1980, p. 5\. By late March, Howe, Squire and White had begun demoing material as an instrumental trio, increasingly uncertain about Anderson's future involvement. Eventually, a serious band dispute over finance saw Anderson leave Yes, with a dispirited Wakeman departing at around the same time.
### 1980–1981: *Drama* and split
In 1980, pop duo [The Buggles](/wiki/The_Buggles "The Buggles") (singer [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn "Trevor Horn") and keyboardist [Geoff Downes](/wiki/Geoff_Downes "Geoff Downes")) secured the services of [Brian Lane](/wiki/Brian_Lane_%28manager%29 "Brian Lane (manager)"), who had managed Yes since 1970, as their manager. The Buggles were best known for their 1979 hit single "[Video Killed the Radio Star](/wiki/Video_Killed_the_Radio_Star "Video Killed the Radio Star")" from their album *[The Age of Plastic](/wiki/The_Age_of_Plastic "The Age of Plastic")*. At this point, the departure of Anderson and Wakeman had been kept secret from everyone outside the Yes inner circle. Seeing an option of continuing the band with new creative input and expertise, Squire revealed the situation to Horn and Downes and suggested that they join Yes as full\-time members. Horn and Downes accepted the invitation and the reconfigured band recorded the *[Drama](/wiki/Drama_%28Yes_album%29 "Drama (Yes album)")* album, which was released in August 1980\. The record displayed a heavier, harder sound than the material Yes recorded with Anderson and Wakeman in 1979, opening with the lengthy hard rocker "[Machine Messiah](/wiki/Machine_Messiah "Machine Messiah")". The album received substantial radio airplay in the late summer–fall of 1980, and peaked at number 2 in the UK and number 18 in the U.S., though it was the first Yes album to not be certified Gold by the RIAA since 1971\. Their [1980 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Drama_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Drama Tour") of North America and the UK received a mixed reaction from audiences. They were well received in the United States and were awarded with a commemorative certificate after they performed a record 16 consecutive sold\-out concerts at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden") since 1974\.Welch 2008, p. 197\.
After the *Drama* tour, Yes reconvened in England to decide the band's next step, beginning by dismissing Lane as their manager. Horn was also dismissed,{{cite book \|last1\=Horn \|first1\=Trevor \|title\=Adventures in Modern Recording \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Nine Eight Books \|location\=UK \|isbn\=978\-1\-7887\-0603\-2 \|page\=95}} and went on to pursue a career in music production, with White and Squire next to depart. Left as the sole remaining members, Downes and Howe opted not to continue with the group and went their own separate ways in December 1980\.
*[Yesshows](/wiki/Yesshows "Yesshows")*, a live album recorded during 1976 to 1978, mixed in mid\-1979 and originally intended for release in late 1979, was released in November 1980, peaking at number 22 in the UK charts and number 43 in the US.
An announcement came from the group's management in March 1981 confirming that Yes no longer existed. Downes and Howe soon reunited to form [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 "Asia (band)") with former [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson") bassist and vocalist [John Wetton](/wiki/John_Wetton "John Wetton"), and drummer [Carl Palmer](/wiki/Carl_Palmer "Carl Palmer") from [Emerson, Lake \& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer "Emerson, Lake & Palmer"). Squire and White continued to work together, initially recording sessions with [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page "Jimmy Page") for a proposed band called [XYZ](/wiki/XYZ_%28UK_band%29 "XYZ (UK band)") (short for "ex\-Yes\-and\-Zeppelin") in the spring of 1981\. Page's former bandmate [Robert Plant](/wiki/Robert_Plant "Robert Plant") was also to be involved as the vocalist but he lost enthusiasm, citing his ongoing grieving for recently deceased Led Zeppelin drummer [John Bonham](/wiki/John_Bonham "John Bonham"). The short\-lived group produced a few demo tracks, elements of which would appear in Page's band the Firm and on future Yes tracks "Mind Drive" and "Can You Imagine?". In late 1981, Squire and White released "[Run with the Fox](/wiki/Run_with_the_Fox "Run with the Fox")", a Christmas single with Squire on vocals which received radio airplay through the 1980s and early 1990s during the Christmas periods. A second Yes compilation album, *[Classic Yes](/wiki/Classic_Yes "Classic Yes"),* was released in November 1981\.
### 1982–1988: Reformation, *90125* and *Big Generator*
At the beginning of 1982, [Phil Carson](/wiki/Phil_Carson "Phil Carson") of Atlantic Records introduced Squire and White to guitarist and singer [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin "Trevor Rabin"), who had initially made his name with the South African supergroup [Rabbitt](/wiki/Rabbitt "Rabbitt"), subsequently releasing three solo albums, working as a record producer and even briefly considered being a member of [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 "Asia (band)"). The three teamed up in a new band called [Cinema](/wiki/Cinema_%28band%29 "Cinema (band)"), for which Squire also recruited the original Yes keyboard player Tony Kaye. Later in 1982, Cinema entered the studio to record their debut album. Although Rabin and Squire initially shared lead vocals for the project, Trevor Horn was briefly brought into Cinema as a potential singer,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/rabin.html\|title\=Trevor Rabin – Capturing adrenaline \|publisher\=Innerviews.org\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} but soon opted to become the band's producer instead.
Horn worked well with the band. However, his clashes with Tony Kaye (complicated by the fact that Rabin was playing most of the keyboards during the recording sessions) led to Kaye's departure during the recording, though some of his playing was kept on the final album and he had returned by the time it was released. Meanwhile, Squire encountered Jon Anderson (who, since leaving Yes, had released two solo albums and had success with the [Jon and Vangelis](/wiki/Jon_and_Vangelis "Jon and Vangelis") project) at a Los Angeles party and, encouraged by Atlantic Records vice president [Phil Carson](/wiki/Phil_Carson "Phil Carson"), played Anderson the Cinema demo tracks. Anderson was then invited into the project as lead singer and joined in April 1983 during the last few weeks of the sessions, having comparatively little creative input beyond adding his lead vocals and re\-writing some lyrics.
At the suggestion of Carson and other Atlantic executives, Cinema then changed their name to Yes in June 1983\. Rabin initially objected to this, as he now found that he had inadvertently joined a reunited band with a history and expectations, rather than help launch a new group.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scoremagacine.com/Entrevistas\_eng\_det.php?Codigo\=19\|title\=Web dedicada a la Música de Cine y Bandas Sonoras\|publisher\=ScoreMagacine.com\|date\=22 September 2005\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=5 July 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705221320/http://www.scoremagacine.com/Entrevistas\_eng\_det.php?Codigo\=19\|url\-status\=dead}} However, with four of the five members having been members of Yes (with three of them being original members, including the distinctive lead singer) it suggested that the name change was sound commercial strategy. The new album marked a significant change in style as the revived Yes had adopted more of a [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock "Pop rock") sound with few moments that recalled their progressive rock past. This incarnation of the band has sometimes been informally referred to as "Yes\-West", reflecting the band's new base in Los Angeles rather than London.
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Trevor Rabin in 2017](/wiki/File:Trevor_Rabin_July_2017.jpg "Trevor Rabin July 2017.jpg")
Yes released their comeback album *[90125](/wiki/90125 "90125")* (named after its catalogue serial number on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records")) in November 1983\. It became their biggest\-selling album, certified by the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA "RIAA") at triple\-platinum (3 million copies) in sales in the U.S., and introduced the band to younger fans. "Owner of a Lonely Heart" [topped](/wiki/List_of_number-one_mainstream_rock_hits_%28United_States%29 "List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)") the [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks "Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks") chart for four weeks and went on to reach the [number\-one spot](/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number-one_singles_of_1984 "List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1984") on the *Billboard* Hot 100 singles chart, the only single from Yes to do so, for two weeks in January 1984\. Kaye's short\-term replacement on keyboards, [Eddie Jobson](/wiki/Eddie_Jobson "Eddie Jobson"), appeared briefly in the original video but was edited out as much as possible once Kaye had been persuaded to return to the band.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yesfans.com/archive/index.php/t\-36085\.html\|title\=Why I did not join Yes – by Eddie Jobson \[Archive] – Yesfans.com: The place for YES fans since 2001\|publisher\=Yesfans.com\|date\=20 February 2004\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}
In 1984, two further singles from the album "[Leave It](/wiki/Leave_It "Leave It")" and "[It Can Happen](/wiki/It_Can_Happen_%28Yes_song%29 "It Can Happen (Yes song)")" reached number 24 and 57, respectively. Yes also earned their only [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award") for [Best Rock Instrumental Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Instrumental_Performance "Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance") in 1985 for the two\-minute track "[Cinema](/wiki/Cinema_%28Yes_song%29 "Cinema (Yes song)")".{{cite magazine\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7CQEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PT151\|title\=27th Annual Grammy Awards Final Nominations\|date\=26 January 1985\|access\-date\=12 February 2011\|volume\=97\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|page\=78\|magazine\=Billboard\|issn\=0006\-2510\|issue\=4}} They were also nominated for an award for [Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Performance_by_a_Duo_or_Group_with_Vocals "Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals") with "Owner of a Lonely Heart", and a [Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Performance_by_a_Duo_or_Group_with_Vocal "Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal") award with *90125*.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1985/02/22/and\-whats\-your\-line\-on\-the\-winners/\|title\=And What's Your Line on the Winners?\|date\=22 February 1985\|newspaper\=The Chicago Tribune\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The band's [1984–1985 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%239012Live_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#9012Live Tour") was the most lucrative in their history and spawned the home video release *[9012Live](/wiki/9012Live_%28video%29 "9012Live (video)")*, a concert film directed by [Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh "Steven Soderbergh") with added special effects from [Charlex](/wiki/Charlex "Charlex") that cost $1 million.{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/660003811\.html?FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+28%2C\+1986\&author\=Steve\+Morse%2C\+Globe\+Staff\&pub\=Boston\+Globe\+%28pre\-1997\+Fulltext%29\&desc\=GENESIS%3A\+PART\-TIME\+SOLOISTS%2C\+PART\-TIME\+BAND\&pqatl\=google\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118162911/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/660003811\.html?FMT\=ABS\&FMTS\=ABS:FT\&type\=current\&date\=Feb\+28%2C\+1986\&author\=Steve\+Morse%2C\+Globe\+Staff\&pub\=Boston\+Globe\+%28pre\-1997\+Fulltext%29\&desc\=GENESIS%3A\+PART\-TIME\+SOLOISTS%2C\+PART\-TIME\+BAND\&pqatl\=google\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=18 November 2012\|title\=Genesis: Part\-Time Soloists, Part\-Time Band \|date\=28 February 1986\|first\=Steve\|last\=Morse\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|newspaper\=Boston Globe}} Issued in 1985, an accompanying live album also appeared that year, *[9012Live: The Solos](/wiki/9012Live:The_Solos "The Solos")*, which earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance for Squire's solo track, a rendition of "[Amazing Grace](/wiki/Amazing_Grace "Amazing Grace")".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rockonthenet.com/archive/1987/grammys.htm\|title\=29th Grammy Awards – 1987\|publisher\=Rock on the Net\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}
Yes began recording for their twelfth album, *[Big Generator](/wiki/Big_Generator "Big Generator")*, in 1985, initially with Trevor Horn returning as producer. The sessions underwent many starts and stops due to the use of multiple recording locations in Italy, London and Los Angeles, with interpersonal problems leading to Horn leaving the sessions partway through, all of which kept the album from timely completion (the album was intended for a 1986 release, but by the end of that year it was still incomplete).{{cite AV media\|title\=Yesyears documentary 1991\|quote\=Chris Squire on Big Generator: "It was supposed to come out a year before it did, which would've been better timing"}} Eventually Rabin took over final production. The album was released in September 1987, and immediately began receiving heavy radio airplay, with sales reaching number 17 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. *Big Generator* earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1988, and was also certified platinum (with 1 million\-plus in sales) by the RIAA.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=CeslAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6885,4044707\&dq\|title\=Irish rockers among Grammy nominees\|date\=15 January 1988\|author\=Larry McShane\|website\=\[\[The Telegraph (Nashua)\|The Telegraph]]\|publisher\=Telegraph Publishing Company\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The single "[Love Will Find a Way](/wiki/Love_Will_Find_a_Way_%28Yes_song%29 "Love Will Find a Way (Yes song)")" topped the Mainstream Rock chart, while "[Rhythm of Love](/wiki/Rhythm_of_Love_%28Yes_song%29 "Rhythm of Love (Yes song)")" reached number 2 and "[Shoot High Aim Low](/wiki/Shoot_High_Aim_Low "Shoot High Aim Low")" number 11\. The [1987–1988 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Big_Generator_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Big Generator Tour") ended with an appearance at Madison Square Garden on 14 May 1988 as part of the star\-studded [Atlantic Records 40th anniversary concert](/wiki/Atlantic_Records_40th_Anniversary "Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary").
### 1988–1995: *Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe*, *Union* and *Talk*
By the end of 1988, Anderson felt creatively sidelined by Rabin and Squire and had grown tired of the musical direction of the "Yes\-West" lineup. He took leave of the band, asserting that he would never stay in Yes purely for the money, and started work in [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat "Montserrat") on a solo project that eventually involved Wakeman, Howe and Bruford. This collaboration led to suggestions that there would be some kind of reformation of the "classic" Yes, although from the start the project had included bass player [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin "Tony Levin"), whom Bruford had worked with in King Crimson. The project, rather than taking over or otherwise using the Yes name, was called [Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe "Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe") (ABWH).
Their [eponymous album](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_%28album%29 "Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (album)"), released in June 1989, featured "Brother of Mine", which became an MTV hit and went gold in the United States. It later emerged that the four band members had not all recorded together; Anderson and producer [Chris Kimsey](/wiki/Chris_Kimsey "Chris Kimsey") slotted their parts into place. Howe has stated publicly that he was unhappy with the mix of his guitars on the album,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\.html\|title\=Steve Howe – Into the storm\|publisher\=Innerviews\|year\=2012\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723040600/http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\.html\|archive\-date\=23 July 2015}} though a version of "Fist of Fire" with more of Howe's guitars left intact appeared on the *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969-%29 "Yes (1969-)")* box set in 2002\. ABWH toured in [1989 and 1990](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe Tour") as "An Evening of Yes Music" which featured Levin, keyboardist [Julian Colbeck](/wiki/Julian_Colbeck "Julian Colbeck"), and guitarist [Milton McDonald](/wiki/Milton_McDonald "Milton McDonald") as support musicians. A live album and home video were recorded and released in 1993, both titled *[An Evening of Yes Music Plus](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_Plus "An Evening of Yes Music Plus")* that featured [Jeff Berlin](/wiki/Jeff_Berlin "Jeff Berlin") on bass due to Levin suffering from illness. The tour was also dogged by legal battles sparked by Atlantic Records due to the band's references to Yes in promotional materials and the tour title.
Following the tour, the group returned to the recording studio to produce their second album, tentatively called *Dialogue*. After hearing the tracks, [Arista Records](/wiki/Arista_Records "Arista Records") refused to release the album as they felt the initial mixes were weak.Chambers 2002, p. 112 They encouraged the group to seek outside songwriters, preferably ones who could help them deliver hit singles. Anderson approached Rabin about the situation, and Rabin sent Anderson a demo tape with three songs, indicating that ABWH could have one but had to send the others back. Arista listened to them and wanted all of them, proposing to create a combined album with both Yes factions.Chambers 2002, p. 112\-113 The "Yes\-West" group were working on a follow\-up to *Big Generator* and had been shopping around for a new singer, auditioning [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson") of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 "Steve Walsh (musician)") of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 "Kansas (band)"), [Robbie Nevil](/wiki/Robbie_Nevil "Robbie Nevil") of "[C'est la Vie](/wiki/C%27est_la_Vie_%28Robbie_Nevil_song%29 "C'est la Vie (Robbie Nevil song)")" fame,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/30492578/\|title\=Yes: a weird return of '70s once\-weres and '80s wanna\-bes\|first\=Roger\|last\=Catlin\|page\=4\|date\=18 April 1991\|newspaper\=Hartford Courant\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|url\-access\=subscription\|access\-date\=11 April 2019}} and [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") of [World Trade](/wiki/World_Trade_%28band%29 "World Trade (band)"). Walsh only spent one day with them, but Sherwood and the band worked well enough together and continued with writing sessions. Arista suggested that the "Yes\-West" group, with Anderson on vocals, record the four songs to add to the new album which would then be released under the Yes name.
*[Union](/wiki/Union_%28Yes_album%29 "Union (Yes album)")* was released in April 1991 and is the thirteenth studio album from Yes. Each group played their own songs, with Anderson singing on all tracks. Squire sang background vocals on a few of the ABWH tracks, with Tony Levin playing all the bass on those songs. The album does not feature all eight members playing at once. The track "Masquerade" earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1992\.{{cite news\|url\=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date\=19920108\&slug\=1469119\|title\=Grammy Nominations Span Streisand, Seal, Seattle Symphony\|date\=8 January 1992\|access\-date\=12 February 2011\|website\=\[\[The Seattle Times]]\|publisher\=\[\[The Seattle Times Company]]}} Howe described the nomination for a track he had recorded solo at home as "pure justice", following the difficulties in making the album.{{sfn\|Morse\|1996\|p\=91}} *Union* sold approximately 1\.5 million copies worldwide, and peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. charts. Two singles from the album were released. "[Lift Me Up](/wiki/Lift_Me_Up_%28Yes_song%29 "Lift Me Up (Yes song)")" topped the Mainstream Rock charts in May 1991 for six weeks, while "[Saving My Heart](/wiki/Saving_My_Heart "Saving My Heart")" peaked at number 9\.
Almost the entire band have openly stated their dislike of *Union*.Welch 2008, pp. 324–325 Bruford has disowned the album entirely, and Wakeman was reportedly unable to recognise any of his keyboard work in the final edit and threw his copy of the album out of his limousine.Welch 2008, p. 420 He has since referred to the album as "Onion" because it makes him cry when he thinks about it. *Union* co\-producer [Jonathan Elias](/wiki/Jonathan_Elias "Jonathan Elias") later stated publicly in an interview that Anderson, as the associate producer, knew of the session musicians' involvement. He added that he and Anderson had even initiated their contributions, because hostility between some of the band members at the time was preventing work from being accomplished.{{cite web\|author\=Henry Potts\|url\=http://www.bondegezou.co.uk/iv/jeinterview.htm\|title\=Bondegezou.co.uk\|publisher\=Bondegezou.co.uk\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The [1991–1992 Union tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Union_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Union Tour") united all eight members on a revolving circular stage.{{Cite journal\|last\=Sutcliffe\|first\=Phil\|date\=5 March 1991\|title\=Stories\|journal\=Q Magazine\|volume\=55\|pages\=12–13}} Following the tour's conclusion in 1992, Bruford chose not to remain involved with Yes and returned to his jazz project *[Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28album%29 "Earthworks (album)")*. Howe also ceased his involvement with the band at this time. In August 1991, while the *Union* tour was underway, Atlantic released *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears "Yesyears")*, a four\-CD box set anthology. Two accompanying home videos, *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears_%28video%29 "Yesyears (video)")* and *[Greatest Video Hits](/wiki/Greatest_Video_Hits_%28Yes_video%29 "Greatest Video Hits (Yes video)")*, were also released during 1991\.
In 1993, the album *[Symphonic Music of Yes](/wiki/Symphonic_Music_of_Yes "Symphonic Music of Yes")* was released, featuring orchestrated Yes tracks arranged by [Dee Palmer](/wiki/Dee_Palmer "Dee Palmer"). Howe, Bruford and Anderson perform on the record, joined by the [London Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/London_Philharmonic_Orchestra "London Philharmonic Orchestra"), the [English Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/English_Chamber_Orchestra "English Chamber Orchestra") and the [London Community Gospel Choir](/wiki/London_Community_Gospel_Choir "London Community Gospel Choir"). Howe and Bruford performed together on television (presented as "Yes") to promote the album, marking Bruford's final performance under the Yes name before retiring from performing.{{Cite web \|last\=Ewingpublished \|first\=Jerry \|date\=10 August 2022 \|title\=Revisiting the car\-crash moment Yes inadvertently performed as a power trio on live TV \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/revisiting\-the\-car\-crash\-moment\-yes\-inadvertently\-performed\-as\-a\-power\-trio\-on\-live\-tv \|website\=loudersound \|language\=en}}
The next Yes studio album, as with *Union*, was masterminded by a record company, rather than by the band itself.Welch 2008, p. 336 Victory Music approached Rabin with a proposal to produce an album solely with the *90125* lineup. Rabin initially countered by requesting that Wakeman also be included. Rabin began assembling the album at his home, using the then\-pioneering concept of a digital home studio, and used material written by himself and Anderson.{{Cite web \|last\=DeRiso \|first\=Nick \|date\=10 May 2014 \|title\=Trevor Rabin and Jon Anderson on Yes' Most Overlooked Album \|url\=https://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/05/10/it\-was\-a\-perfect\-storm\-trevor\-rabin\-and\-jon\-anderson\-remember\-yes\-most\-overlooked\-album/ \|access\-date\=9 October 2022 \|website\=Something Else! \|language\=en\-US}} The new album was well into production in 1993, but Wakeman's involvement had finally been cancelled, as his refusal to leave his long\-serving management created insuperable legal problems.
*[Talk](/wiki/Talk_%28Yes_album%29 "Talk (Yes album)")* was released in March 1994 and is the band's fourteenth studio release. Its cover was designed by [pop artist](/wiki/Pop_art "Pop art") [Peter Max](/wiki/Peter_Max "Peter Max"). The record was largely composed and performed by Rabin, with the other band members following Rabin's tracks for their respective instrumentation.{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\-talk/\|author\=Jeff Giles\|title\=Revisiting Yes' Confused 1994 Album, 'Talk'\|date\=21 March 2014\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} It was digitally recorded and produced by Rabin with engineer Michael Jay, using 3\.4 [GB](/wiki/Gigabyte "Gigabyte") of hard disk storage split among four networked [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh "Apple Macintosh") computers running [Digital Performer](/wiki/Digital_Performer "Digital Performer"). The album blended elements of radio\-friendly rock with a more structurally ambitious approach taken from the band's progressive blueprint, with the fifteen\-minute track "[Endless Dream](/wiki/Endless_Dream_%28Yes_song%29 "Endless Dream (Yes song)")". The album reached number 20 in the UK and number 33 in the U.S. The track "[The Calling](/wiki/The_Calling_%28Yes_song%29 "The Calling (Yes song)")" reached number 2 on the *Billboard* [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks "Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks") chart and "[Walls](/wiki/Walls_%28Yes_song%29 "Walls (Yes song)")", which Rabin had written with former [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp") songwriter and co\-founder [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson"), peaked at number 24\. It also became Yes's second\-last\-charting single.{{cite web\|url\=http://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/12/25/roger\-hodgson\-yes\-trevor\-rabin/\|title\=Roger Hodgson collaboration represents road not taken for Yes: 'One of those things that fizzled out'\|publisher\=Something Else! Reviews\|date\=25 December 2014\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Rabin and Hodgson wrote a lot of material together and became close friends. Yes performed "Walls" on *[Late Show with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Show_with_David_Letterman "Late Show with David Letterman")* on 20 June 1994\.
The [1994 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Talk_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Talk Tour") (for which the band included side man [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") on additional guitar and keyboards) used a sound system developed by Rabin named Concertsonics which allowed the audience located in certain seating areas to tune portable FM radios to a specific frequency, so they could hear the concert with headphones.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1994/08/05/yes\-mines\-cutting\-edge\-of\-sound/\|date\=5 August 1994\|author\=Parry Gettelman\|work\=Orlando Sentinel\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|title\=Yes Mines Cutting Edge Of Sound}}
In early 1995, following the tour, disagreements and dissatisfactions forced another change in the band. 1990s Yes manager Jon Brewer has stated that Squire had not appreciated the *Talk* production process: "(he) didn't like that. He didn't think it was what Yes was all about; he was very much against a computerised, digital sound at that time. So Trevor and Chris moved away from one another for quite a while."{{cite news \|last1\=Hughes \|first1\=Rob \|title\=Former Manager And Friend Jon Brewer Remembers Chris Squire \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/former\-manager\-and\-friend\-jon\-brewer\-remembers\-chris\-squire \|access\-date\=15 May 2024 \|work\=\[\[Prog (magazine)\|Prog]] \|date\=2015\-09\-28}} For his part, Rabin felt that he had achieved his highest ambitions with *Talk* and lamented its disappointing reception, feeling that this was due to the fact that it "just wasn't what people wanted to hear at the time." Having remarked at the conclusion of the tour "I think I'm done", Rabin quit the band and returned to Los Angeles, where he shifted his focus to composing for films. Kaye also left Yes to pursue other projects.
### 1995–2000: *Keys to Ascension*, *Open Your Eyes* and *The Ladder*
In November 1995, Anderson, Squire and White resurrected the "classic" 1970s lineup of Yes by inviting Wakeman and Howe back to the band, recording two new lengthy tracks called "Be the One" and "That, That Is". In March 1996 Yes performed three live shows at the [Fremont Theater](/wiki/Fremont_Theater "Fremont Theater") in [San Luis Obispo](/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo "San Luis Obispo"), California which were recorded and released, along with the new studio tracks, that October on [CMC International](/wiki/CMC_International "CMC International") Records as the *[Keys to Ascension](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension "Keys to Ascension")* album, which peaked at number 48 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. A same\-titled [live video](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_%28video%29 "Keys to Ascension (video)") of the shows was also released that year.
Yes continued to record new tracks in the studio, drawing some material written around the time of the XYZ project. At one point the new songs were to be released as a studio album, but commercial considerations meant that the new tracks were eventually packaged with the remainder of the 1996 San Luis Obispo shows in November 1997 on *[Keys to Ascension 2](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_2 "Keys to Ascension 2")*. The record managed to reach number 62 in the UK, but failed to chart in the U.S. Disgruntled at the way a potential studio album had been sacrificed in favour of the *Keys to Ascension* releases (as well as the way in which a Yes tour was being arranged without his input or agreement), Wakeman left the group again. (The studio material from both albums would eventually be compiled and re\-released without the live tracks onto a single CD, 2001's *[Keystudio](/wiki/Keystudio "Keystudio")*.)
With Yes in disarray again, Squire turned to Billy Sherwood (by now the band's engineer) for help.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.allaboutjazz.com/something\-else\-interview\-billy\-sherwood\-formerly\-of\-yes.php\#.VHNWNrFFDVU\|title\=Something Else! Interview: Billy Sherwood, Formerly of Yes\|publisher\=News.allaboutjazz.com\|date\=13 October 2011\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Both men had been working on a side project called [Conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28band%29 "Conspiracy (band)") and reworked existing demos and recordings from there to turn them into Yes songs, and also worked on new material with Anderson and White. (Howe's involvement at this stage was minimal, mainly taking place towards the end of the sessions.) Sherwood's integral involvement with the writing, production, and performance of the music led to his finally joining Yes as a full member (taking on the role of harmony singer, keyboardist and second guitarist).
The results of the sessions were released in November 1997 as the seventeenth Yes studio album, *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_album%29 "Open Your Eyes (Yes album)")* (on the Beyond Music label, who ensured that the group had greater control in packaging and naming). The music (mainly at Sherwood's urging) attempted to bridge the differing Yes styles of the 1970s and 1980s. (Sherwood: "My goal was to try to break down those partisan walls… For that, I am proud—to have aligned planets for a moment in time.") However, *Open Your Eyes* was not a chart success; the record peaked at number 151 on the *Billboard* 200 but failed to enter the charts in the UK. The [title single](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_song%29 "Open Your Eyes (Yes song)") managed to reach number 33 on the mainstream rock chart.
For the [1997/1998 *Open Your Eyes* tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Open_Your_Eyes_and_Thirtieth_Anniversary_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Open Your Eyes and Thirtieth Anniversary Tour"), Yes hired Russian keyboard player [Igor Khoroshev](/wiki/Igor_Khoroshev "Igor Khoroshev"), who had played on some of the album tracks. Significantly, the tour setlist featured only a few pieces from the new album, and mostly concentrated on earlier material. Anderson and Howe, who had been less involved with the writing and production on *Open Your Eyes* than they'd wished, would express dissatisfaction about the album later.
By the time the band came to record their eighteenth studio album *[The Ladder](/wiki/The_Ladder_%28Yes_album%29 "The Ladder (Yes album)")* with producer [Bruce Fairbairn](/wiki/Bruce_Fairbairn "Bruce Fairbairn"), Khoroshev had become a full\-time member (with Sherwood now concentrating on songwriting, vocal arrangements and second guitar). With Khoroshev's classically influenced keyboard style, and with all members now making more or less equal writing contributions, the band's sound found a balance between its eclectic 1970s progressive rock style and the more polished pop sound sought on the previous album. *The Ladder* also featured Latin music ingredients and clear world music influences, mostly brought in by Alan White (although Fairbairn's multi\-instrumentalist colleague [Randy Raine\-Reusch](/wiki/Randy_Raine-Reusch "Randy Raine-Reusch") made a strong contribution to the album's textures). One of the album tracks, "Homeworld (The Ladder)", was written for Relic Entertainment's [Homeworld](/wiki/Homeworld "Homeworld"), a real\-time strategy computer game, and was used as the credits and outro theme. Pleased with the result of the album's creation, the band had been in tentative discussions to continue work with Fairbairn on future projects, but he died suddenly during the final mixing sessions of the album.{{cite magazine \|last\=Morse\|first\=Tim\|date\=March 2000\|title\=Chris Squire Still Climbing\|magazine\=Bass Player\|url\=https://yesinthepress.com/2000/mar/mar\_00\.html\|location\= \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=30 May 2023}}
*The Ladder* was released in September 1999, peaking at number 36 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. While [on tour in 1999 and early 2000](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23The_Ladder_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#The Ladder Tour"), Yes recorded their performance at the [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues "House of Blues") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley "Las Vegas Valley") on 31 October 1999, releasing it in September 2000 as a live album and DVD called *[House of Yes: Live from House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Yes:Live_from_House_of_Blues "Live from House of Blues")*. As Sherwood saw his role in Yes as creating and performing new music, and the rest of the band now wished to concentrate on performing the back catalogue, he amicably resigned from Yes at the end of the tour.
In summer 2000, Yes embarked on the three\-month [Masterworks tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Masterworks_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Masterworks Tour") of the United States, on which they performed only material which had been released between 1970 and 1974 (*The Yes Album* through to *Relayer*). While on tour, Khoroshev was involved in a backstage incident of sexual assault with a female security guard at Nissan Pavilion in [Bristow, Virginia](/wiki/Bristow%2C_Virginia "Bristow, Virginia") on 23 July 2000{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dailypress.com/2000/07/26/yes\-keyboardist\-needs\-to\-keep\-his\-hands\-on\-the\-keys/\|title\=Yes Keyboardist Needs To Keep His Hands On The Keys\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|publisher\=Daily Press\|date\=26 July 2000\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=30 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630160439/http://articles.dailypress.com/2000\-07\-26/news/0007260043\_1\_guards\-battery\-sexually\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.pollstar.com/article/touchy\-feely\-musician\-gets\-slapped\-11021\|title\=Touchy\-Feely Musician Gets Slapped\|magazine\=Pollstar\|date\=26 July 2000\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\_00\.html\|title\=Yes in the Press\|publisher\=Zenponies.com\|date\=28 July 2000\|access\-date\=21 September 2017\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033404/http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\_00\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} and parted company with the band at the end of the tour.
### 2001–2009: *Magnification*, *35th Anniversary Collection*, hiatus and side projects
Following the departures of Sherwood and Khoroshev and the death of Fairbairn, Yes once again set about reinventing themselves, this time choosing to record without a keyboardist, opting instead to include a 60\-piece orchestra conducted by [Larry Groupé](/wiki/Larry_Group%C3%A9 "Larry Groupé"); the first time the band used an orchestra since *Time and a Word* in 1970\. The result was their nineteenth studio album, 2001's *[Magnification](/wiki/Magnification_%28album%29 "Magnification (album)")*. The record was not a chart success; it peaked at number 71 in the UK and number 186 in the U.S. The Yes Symphonic Tour ran from July to December 2001 and had the band performing on stage with an orchestra and American keyboardist [Tom Brislin](/wiki/Tom_Brislin "Tom Brislin"). Their two shows in Amsterdam, in November, were recorded for their 2002 DVD and 2009 CD release *[Symphonic Live](/wiki/Symphonic_Live "Symphonic Live")*. The band invited Wakeman to play with them for the filming, but he was on a solo tour at the time.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nfte.org/interviews/rw263\.html\|title\=Conversation with Rick Wakeman\|first\=Mike\|last\=Tiano\|publisher\=Notes from the Edge\|date\=14 July 2002\|access\-date\=9 December 2017}}
Following Wakeman's announcement of his return in April 2002, Yes embarked on their [Full Circle Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Full_Circle_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Full Circle Tour") in 2002–2003 that included their first performances in Australia since 1973\.{{cite magazine\|title\=''Billboard'' Spotlight: Yes 35th Anniversary\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0REEAAAAMBAJ\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=1 November 2003\|pages\=45–46, 48–50, 55–59\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media Inc}} The band's appearance in [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux "Montreux") on this tour was documented on the album and DVD *[Live at Montreux 2003](/wiki/Live_at_Montreux_2003 "Live at Montreux 2003")*, released in 2007\. In 2002, [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records "Rhino Records") issued *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969%E2%80%93%29 "Yes (1969–)")*, a five CD box set of classic, rare and unreleased tracks from the band's history, including some from the 1979 Paris sessions, followed a year later by the compilation album *[The Ultimate Yes: 35th Anniversary Collection](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Yes:35th_Anniversary_Collection "35th Anniversary Collection")*, which reached number 10 in the UK charts, their highest\-charting album since 1991, and number 131 in the U.S. During 2003 and 2004, Rhino also released remastered editions of all Yes' studio albums up to, and including, *90125*, all featuring rare and previously unreleased bonus tracks. These editions would be collected in 2013 as *[The Studio Albums 1969–1987](/wiki/The_Studio_Albums_1969%E2%80%931987 "The Studio Albums 1969–1987")* box set, with *Big Generator* also receiving the same treatment.
On 26 January 2004, the film *[Yesspeak](/wiki/Yesspeak "Yesspeak")* premiered in a number of select theatres, followed by a closed\-circuit live acoustic performance of the group. Both *Yesspeak* and the acoustic performance, titled *[Yes Acoustic: Guaranteed No Hiss](/wiki/Yes_Acoustic:Guaranteed_No_Hiss "Guaranteed No Hiss")*, were released on DVD later that year. A [35th anniversary tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%2335th_Anniversary_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#35th Anniversary Tour") followed in 2004 which was documented on the DVD *[Songs from Tsongas](/wiki/Songs_from_Tsongas "Songs from Tsongas")*, released in 2005\.
In 2004, Squire, Howe and White reunited for one night only with former members [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn "Trevor Horn"), [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin "Trevor Rabin") and [Geoff Downes](/wiki/Geoff_Downes "Geoff Downes") during a show celebrating Horn's career, performing three Yes songs. The show video was released in DVD in 2008 under the name *Trevor Horn and Friends: Slaves to the Rhythm*.{{cite web\|title\=2004 concert with Trevor Horn\|url\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=75O9XiiYHPA \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/75O9XiiYHPA\| archive\-date\=11 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|website\=\[\[YouTube]]\| date\=19 June 2011 \|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\|title\=Trevor Horn and Friends: Slaves to Rhythm\|url\=https://www.popmatters.com/review/108749\-trevor\-horn\-and\-friends\-slaves\-to\-rhythm/\|website\=Popmatter.com\|date\=23 July 2009\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} On 18 March 2003, minor planet [(7707\) Yes](/wiki/7707_Yes "7707 Yes") was named in honour of the band.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/rocknroll/0007707\.html\|title\=(7707\) Yes\|publisher\=Cbat.eps.harvard.edu\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}
After their 35th Anniversary Tour, Yes described themselves as "on hiatus". Howe recalls this break as very much welcomed by the band due to the heavy touring of the previous year and a half, and in his opinion necessary{{sfn\|Howe\|2021\|p\=234}} since the band's performance on the later (European) shows of the Full Circle Tour had started to deteriorate as a result of heavier alcohol consumption by Squire and other members in spite of rules the band had agreed on in 2001 barring drinking prior to or during shows.{{sfn\|Howe\|2021\|p\=227\-28}}
During this period, Anderson toured both solo and jointly with Wakeman (for concerts focused largely on Yes material); Squire released his long\-awaited second solo album, and White launched his own eponymous band [White](/wiki/White_%28band%29 "White (band)") (subsequently joining fellow Yes\-men Tony Kaye and Billy Sherwood in [Circa](/wiki/Circa_%28band%29 "Circa (band)")). Wakeman also continued to release solo material, as did Howe, who released three solo albums and also reunited to record, release and tour with once\-and\-future Yes bandmate Geoff Downes in the reunion of the original [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 "Asia (band)") lineup.
In May 2008, a fortieth\-anniversary Close to the Edge and Back Tour—which was to feature [Oliver Wakeman](/wiki/Oliver_Wakeman "Oliver Wakeman") on keyboards—was announced. Anderson has said that they had been preparing four new "lengthy, multi\-movement compositions" for the tour,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/ex\-yes\-frontman\-jon\-anderson\-opens\-up\-about\-getting\-fired\-20110706\|title\=Ex\-Yes Frontman Jon Anderson Opens Up About Getting Fired\|work\=Rolling Stone Music \|author\=Andy Greene\|date\=6 July 2011\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} but he had expressed disinterest in producing a new studio album after the low sales of *Magnification*, suggesting that recording one was not "logical anymore".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1045684/yes\-reveals\-very\-different\-new\-material\|title\=Yes Reveals 'Very Different' New Material\|magazine\=Billboard\|author\=Gary Graff\|date\=1 May 2010\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The tour was abruptly cancelled prior to rehearsals, after Anderson suffered an asthma attack and was diagnosed with acute respiratory failure, and was advised by doctors to avoid touring for six months.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/nme\-1293\-1332478\|title\=Yes cancel 40th anniversary tour\|publisher\=NME\|date\=4 June 2008\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}
In September 2008, the remaining three members, eager to resume touring regardless of Anderson's availability, announced a tour billed as Steve Howe, Chris Squire and Alan White of Yes, with Oliver Wakeman on keyboards and new lead singer [Benoît David](/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_David "Benoît David"), a Canadian musician who'd previously played with [Mystery](/wiki/Mystery_%28band%29 "Mystery (band)") and with Yes tribute band Close to the Edge.{{cite web\|url\=http://hardrockhideout.wordpress.com/2008/09/12/yes\-to\-tour\-with\-replacement\-singer/\|title\=Yes To Tour With Replacement Singer\|author\=Rob Rockitt\|website\=Hard Rock Hideout\|date\=12 September 2008\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Anderson expressed his disappointment that his former bandmates had not waited for his recovery, nor handled the situation "in a more gentlemanly fashion", and while he wished them well, he referred to their ongoing endeavours as "solo work" and emphasised his view that their band "is not Yes".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/yes\-jon\-anderson\-disappointed\-that\-band\-recruited\-replacement\-20080924\|author\=Daniel Kreps\|title\=Yes' Jon Anderson "Disappointed" That Band Recruited Replacement\|date\=24 September 2008\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Anderson later stated "I didn’t leave the band, they got a new singer… you’ve got to move on, do your own thing, it’s okay. But you’re still a friend of mine because we went through so much together…" {{cite web \|title\="I contacted Steve Howe and got very little back. Eventually you say, ‘OK, I’ve got to move on’": Jon Anderson is finally over the idea of rejoining Yes \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/i\-contacted\-steve\-howe\-and\-got\-very\-little\-back\-eventually\-you\-say\-ok\-ive\-got\-to\-move\-on\-jon\-anderson\-is\-finally\-over\-the\-idea\-of\-rejoining\-yes \|website\=Classic Rock \|publisher\=Louder Sound \|access\-date\=23 September 2024}}
As Anderson was a co\-owner of the Yes trademark, the remaining members agreed at the time not to tour with the Yes name.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/487686312/\|title\=Rock band says Yes to YouTube star\|first\=Brian\|last\=Mansfield\|newspaper\=Calgary Herald\|page\=C7\|date\=4 November 2008\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|access\-date\=22 April 2019}} The [In the Present Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23In_the_Present_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#In the Present Tour") started in November 2008, but it was cut short in the following February when Squire required emergency surgery on an [aneurysm](/wiki/Aneurysm "Aneurysm") in his leg.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.musicnewsnet.com/2009/02/prog\-rockers\-yes\-cancel\-slate\-of\-gigs.html\|title\=Prog Rockers YES Cancel Slate of Gigs\|author\=Mal Westerly\|publisher\=MusicNewsNet.com\|date\=12 February 2009\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=18 February 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218144241/http://www.musicnewsnet.com/2009/02/prog\-rockers\-yes\-cancel\-slate\-of\-gigs.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.radioswissjazz.ch/en/music\-database/musician/3327448684dbe1a0846abd180f6a9f4e54a7d/biography\|title\=Chris Squire\|publisher\=Radio Swiss Jazz\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=14 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214162110/http://www.radioswissjazz.ch/en/music\-database/musician/3327448684dbe1a0846abd180f6a9f4e54a7d/biography\|url\-status\=dead}} Touring resumed in June 2009, with Asia and Peter Frampton supporting the band at several shows.
### 2009–2015: Lineup changes, *Fly from Here*, *Heaven \& Earth* and album series tours
In October 2009, Squire declared that the new lineup from the *In the Present* Tour "is now Yes", and the tour, with the band now billed as Yes, continued through 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://auralmoon.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=2885\|title\=Yes\|publisher\=Aural Moon\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Their 2010 studio sessions would yield material eventually to be released as *[From a Page](/wiki/From_a_Page "From a Page")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-revisit\-2010\-recordings\-for\-new\-album\-from\-a\-page\|title\=Yes revisit 2010 recordings for new album From A Page\|date\=25 October 2019\|publisher\=Louder Sound}}
In August 2010, it was announced that new material had been written for *[Fly from Here](/wiki/Fly_from_Here "Fly from Here")*, Yes's twentieth studio album.{{cite web\|url\=http://newsok.com/yes\-peter\-frampton\-performing\-at\-lucky\-star\-casino\-in\-oklahoma/article/3472712/?page\=2\|title\=Yes, Peter Frampton performing at Lucky Star Casino in Oklahoma\|author\=Genbe Triplett\|publisher\=NewsOK.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/276493\|author\=Earl Dittman\|title\=On the road again, Prog\-rockers Yes say 'no' to calling it quits\|publisher\=DigitalJournal\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Yes then signed a deal with [Frontiers Records](/wiki/Frontiers_Records "Frontiers Records") and began recording in Los Angeles with Trevor Horn serving as producer. Much of the album material was extrapolated from a pair of songs written by Horn and Geoff Downes around the time that they had been Yes members during 1980 and the *Drama* album. During the recording sessions, the band thought it would be wise to bring Downes back to replace Oliver Wakeman on keyboards, reasoning that he was closer to the material. Asserting that all studio recording was to be carried out by "the lineup that actually ... does the work", Howe dispelled rumours that an invitation to sing on the record had been extended to Anderson, who subsequently announced a new project as an ongoing collaboration with former Yes members Wakeman and Rabin.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.premierguitar.com/articles/Interview\_Steve\_Howe\_on\_Asias\_Omega\_Touring\_With\_Yes\_and\_the\_Steve\_Howe\_Trio?page\=2 \|title\=Interview: Steve Howe on Asia's "Omega", Touring With Yes, and the Steve Howe Trio\|date\=29 July 2010\|publisher\=Premier Guitar\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite journal\|title\=Trevor Rabin Interview\|first\=Malcolm\|last\=Dome\|journal\=Classic Rock Presents ... Prog\|date\=March 2010\|issue\=14}}{{cite journal\|title\=Saying Yes to Seizing the Moment\|first\=Mike\|last\=Mettler\|journal\=Progression\|issue\=70\|date\=Fall 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://guitarinternational.com/2010/10/21/interivew\-with\-composer\-guitarist\-and\-recording\-artist\-trevor\-rabin/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220072808/http://guitarinternational.com/2010/10/21/interivew\-with\-composer\-guitarist\-and\-recording\-artist\-trevor\-rabin/\|date\=21 October 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=20 February 2011\|title\=Trevor Rabin Interview: Guitarist, Composer, Performer\|first\=Arlene R.\|last\=Weiss\|publisher\=Guitar International\|access\-date\=20 January 2016}}
Upon completion of recording in March 2011,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bradenton.com/2011/03/10/3020865/yes\-squire\-on\-bands\-first\-album.html\|title\=Yes' Squire on band's first album in a decade\|publisher\=Bradenton.com\|date\=10 March 2011\|access\-date\=13 March 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317021234/http://www.bradenton.com/2011/03/10/3020865/yes\-squire\-on\-bands\-first\-album.html\|archive\-date\=17 March 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} and post\-production a month later,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theweekender.com/music/Affirmative\_action\_03\-22\-2011\.html\|title\=Affirmative action\|author\=Nikki M. Mascali\|work\=The Weekender\|date\=22 March 2011\|access\-date\=12 August 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721143943/http://www.theweekender.com/music/Affirmative\_action\_03\-22\-2011\.html\|archive\-date\=21 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} the album was released worldwide that July.{{cite web\|url\=http://heraldbuzzworthy.blogspot.com/2011/03/new\-yes\-album\-fly\-from\-here\-ready\-for.html\|title\=Buzz Worthy: New Yes album 'Fly From Here' ready for release\|publisher\=Buzz Worthy\|date\=3 March 2011\|access\-date\=22 March 2017}} *Fly from Here* peaked at number 30 in the UK and 36 in the U.S.
In March 2011 Yes embarked on their [Rite of Spring and Fly from Here tours](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Rite_of_Spring_and_Fly_From_Here_Tours_2011-2012 "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Rite of Spring and Fly From Here Tours 2011-2012") to support *Fly from Here*,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.expressandstar.com/entertainment/2011/11/12/concert\-review\-yes\-at\-birmingham\-symphony\-hall/\|title\=Concert review: Yes at Birmingham Symphony Hall\|work\=Express \& Star\|date\=12 November 2011\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} with [Styx](/wiki/Styx_%28band%29 "Styx (band)") and [Procol Harum](/wiki/Procol_Harum "Procol Harum") supporting on select dates. 2011 saw the release of the live Yes album and DVD, *[In the Present – Live from Lyon](/wiki/In_the_Present_%E2%80%93_Live_from_Lyon "In the Present – Live from Lyon")*, taken from the band's previous tour. Trevor Rabin joined the band in playing "Owner of a Lonely Heart" at one show in Los Angeles.
[thumb\|In February 2012, David was replaced by singer Jon Davison (pictured).](/wiki/File:Jon_Davison_-_24_de_Maio_de_2013.JPG "Jon Davison - 24 de Maio de 2013.JPG")
In February 2012, after David contracted a respiratory illness, he was replaced by [Glass Hammer](/wiki/Glass_Hammer "Glass Hammer") singer [Jon Davison](/wiki/Jon_Davison "Jon Davison").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.noise11\.com/news/exclusive\-yes\-recruit\-another\-new\-singer\-20120208\|title\=EXCLUSIVE: Yes Recruit Another New Singer\|publisher\=Noise11\|access\-date\=8 February 2012\|first\=Paul\|last\=Cashmere\|date\=8 February 2012}} Davison was recommended to Squire by their common friend [Taylor Hawkins](/wiki/Taylor_Hawkins "Taylor Hawkins"), drummer for the [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters "Foo Fighters").{{Cite web \|last\=Ramsey \|first\=Bill \|date\=13 September 2012 \|title\=Glass Hammer Singer is Yes Frontman \|url\=http://www.chattanoogapulse.com/articles/glass\-hammer\-singer\-is\-yes\-frontman/ \|access\-date\=13 October 2022 \|website\=The Pulse » Chattanooga's Weekly Alternative \|language\=en\-us}} Following the announcement Anderson expressed his disappointment that "they had to get yet another singer after the guy who replaced me became ill," stating that he offered to "get back with them" due to his being "healthy again", and expressed his view that "they have let a lot of fans down."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dallasobserver.com/music/jon\-anderson\-on\-obama\-radiohead\-and\-yes\-7051743\|title\=Jon Anderson on Obama, Radiohead and Yes \|date\=28 February 2012 \|newspaper\=Dallas Observer}} Davison would join Yes to complete the band's scheduled dates across the year.
On 7 March 2013, founding guitarist [Peter Banks](/wiki/Peter_Banks "Peter Banks") died of heart failure.
From March 2013 to June 2014, Yes completed their [Three Album Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Three_Album_Tour_2013-2014 "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Three Album Tour 2013-2014") where they performed *The Yes Album*, *Close to the Edge* and *Going for the One* in their entirety.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.progrockmag.com/news/steve\-howe\-wanted\-3\-album\-yes\-tour\-for\-years/\|title\=Steve Howe Wanted 3\-Album Yes Tour For Years\|author\=Martin Kielty\|publisher\=Progrockmag.com\|date\=18 December 2012\|access\-date\=14 March 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128022113/http://www.progrockmag.com/news/steve\-howe\-wanted\-3\-album\-yes\-tour\-for\-years/\|archive\-date\=28 January 2013\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.guitarworld.com/yes\-revisit\-three\-classic\-albums\-2013\-north\-american\-tour\|title\=Yes to Revisit Three Classic Albums on 2013 North American Tour\|publisher\=GuitarWorld\|date\=10 December 2012\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|author\=Damian Fanelli}} During the tour, they led a progressive\-rock themed cruise titled "Cruise to the Edge".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yesworld.com/\|title\=Official website for the progressive rock band YES\|publisher\=Yesworld.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} A second cruise happened in April 2014, and the band headlined the November 2015 edition. The show on 11 May 2014 in Bristol was released as *[Like It Is: Yes at the Bristol Hippodrome](/wiki/Like_It_Is:Yes_at_the_Bristol_Hippodrome "Yes at the Bristol Hippodrome")* in 2014, featuring performances of *Going for the One* and *The Yes Album*.
*[Heaven \& Earth](/wiki/Heaven_%26_Earth_%28Yes_album%29 "Heaven & Earth (Yes album)")*, the band's twenty\-first studio album and first with Davison, was recorded between January and March 2014,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lordsofmetal.nl/nl/interviews/view/id/4957\|title\=Lords of Metal ezine \|publisher\=Lordsofmetal.nl\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/asiageoff/status/441997244611317760\|title\=Twitter / asiageoff: See ya Los Angeles! Done my \|publisher\=Twitter\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.jambase.com/article/tour\-dates\-yes\-u\-s\-summer\-tour\-2014\|title\=Tour Dates \| Yes U.S Summer Tour 2014 on JamBase\|publisher\=Jambase.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} at Neptune Studios in Los Angeles with [Roy Thomas Baker](/wiki/Roy_Thomas_Baker "Roy Thomas Baker") as producer and former band member [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") as engineer on backing vocals{{cite news\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid\=10152035889019141\&set\=a.147650954140\.117254\.752104140\&type\=1\&stream\_ref\=10 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/752104140/10152035889019141 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Billy Sherwood announces involvement in next Yes album on Facebook\|date\=5 March 2014\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} and mixer. Squire enjoyed working with Baker again, describing him as a "force in the studio" (Baker had previously worked with the group in the late 70s on a project that had ultimately been scrapped).{{Cite magazine \|last1\=Graff \|first1\=Gary \|date\=2 April 2014 \|title\=Chris Squire of Yes Talks 'Heaven and Earth' Album, New Singer, Rock Hall \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\-news/chris\-squire\-of\-yes\-talks\-heaven\-and\-earth\-album\-new\-singer\-rock\-hall\-6032603/ \|access\-date\=9 October 2022 \|magazine\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}} Howe reflected that he "tried to slow down" the album production in hopes that "maybe we could refine it ..." and compared it to the success of the band's classic works in which they "arranged the hell out of" the material.{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2017/04/askyes\-qa\-steve\-howe\-march\-2017/\|title\=\#askYES – Q\&A with Steve Howe – March 2017\|date\=3 April 2017\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} He wrote later that Baker behaved erratically and was difficult to work with, and was dissatisfied with the final mixes of the album.{{sfn\|Howe\|2021\|p\=281–84}}
To promote *Heaven \& Earth*, Yes resumed touring between July and November 2014 with a world tour covering North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, playing *Fragile* and *Close to the Edge* in their entirety with select songs from *Heaven \& Earth* and encores.{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2014/03/yes\-u\-s\-tour\-summer\-2014\-fragile\-close\-edge\-greatest\-hits\-heaven\-earth/\|title\=Yes US 2014 Summer Tour: Fragile, Close To The Edge, Heaven \& Earth\|date\=24 March 2014\|publisher\=Yesworld.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/360864\|title\=Interview with rock band Yes: 'Cruise To The Edge' (Includes interview)\|publisher\=DigitalJournal\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The show in [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona "Mesa, Arizona"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona") was released in 2015 as *[Like It Is: Yes at the Mesa Arts Center](/wiki/Like_It_Is:Yes_at_the_Mesa_Arts_Center "Yes at the Mesa Arts Center")* which features the performances of *Close to the Edge* and *Fragile*.{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2015/04/yes\-and\-toto\-2015\-north\-american\-summer\-tour/\|title\=YES \& Toto Summer 2015 Tour\|publisher\=Yesworld.com\|date\=23 April 2015\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.amazon.com/Like\-\-Yes\-Live\-Mesa\-Center/dp/B00WN515N6/ref\=sr\_1\_2?ie\=UTF8\&qid\=1430429093\&sr\=8\-2\&keywords\=yes\+like\+it\+is \|title\=YES: Like It Is\-Yes Live At The Mesa Arts Center \[2 CD/DVD Combo]: Music\|website\=Amazon.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}
### 2015–2018: Squire's death, Yes Featuring ARW, and 50th Anniversary Tour
In May 2015, news of Squire's diagnosis with [acute erythroid leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_erythroid_leukaemia "Acute erythroid leukaemia") was made public. This resulted in former guitarist [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") replacing him for their [2015 summer North American tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23North_American_Summer_Tour_2015 "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#North American Summer Tour 2015") with [Toto](/wiki/Toto_%28band%29 "Toto (band)") between August–September, and their third annual Cruise to the Edge voyage in November, while Squire was receiving treatment. His condition deteriorated soon after, and he died on 27 June at his home in Phoenix, Arizona. Downes first announced Squire's death on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter").{{cite magazine\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321153658/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/chris\-squire\-yes\-bassist\-and\-co\-founder\-dead\-at\-67\-20150628\|archive\-date\=21 March 2016\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/chris\-squire\-yes\-bassist\-and\-co\-founder\-dead\-at\-67\-20150628\#ixzz3eOA0r7w8\|title\=Chris Squire, Yes Bassist and Co\-Founder, Dead at 67\|author\=Daniel Kreps\|date\=28 June 2015\|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Squire asked White and Sherwood to continue the legacy of the band,{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/6640906/yes\-moving\-forward\-chris\-squire\-death\-interview\|title\=Yes Continues On After Death of Bassist Chris Squire: 'Absolutely We're Moving Ahead'\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=21 July 2015\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} which Sherwood recalled "was paramount in his mind ... so I'm happy to be doing that."{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2015/08/askyes\-qa\-with\-billy\-sherwood\-25\-august\-2015/\|title\=\#askYES – Q\&A with Billy Sherwood – 25 August 2015\|date\=27 August 2015\|publisher\=Yes\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Yes performed without Squire, for the first time in their 47\-year history, on 7 August 2015 in Mashantucket, Connecticut.{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2015/05/chris\-squire\-to\-undergo\-treatment\-for\-leukemia/\|title\=Chris Squire to undergo treatment for Leukemia\|date\=19 May 2015\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yesworld.com/2015/04/yes\-and\-toto\-2015\-north\-american\-summer\-tour/\|title\=YES \& Toto 2015 North American Summer Tour\|date\=6 April 2015\|website\=Yesworld.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://yes.concerttournewshub.com/\|title\=Yes \& Toto 2015 Co\-Headlining North American Summer Tour Schedule\|date\=6 April 2015\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417034432/http://yes.concerttournewshub.com/\|archive\-date\=17 April 2015}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2015/apr/06/yes\-and\-toto\-teaming\-up\-for\-tour/\|title\=Yes \& Toto announce joint tour\|date\=6 April 2015\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} In November 2015, they completed their annual Cruise to the Edge voyage.
In January 2016, former Yes members Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman announced their new group, [Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman](/wiki/Yes_Featuring_Jon_Anderson%2C_Trevor_Rabin%2C_Rick_Wakeman "Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman") (ARW), something that had been in the works for the previous six years.{{cite episode\|series\=Rick's Place\|first\=Rick\|last\=Wakeman\|station\=\[\[Planet Rock (radio station)\|Planet Rock]]\|date\=6 February 2010\|time\=10:00 a.m.–12:00 a.m.}} Wakeman stated that Squire's passing inspired them to go ahead with the band.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.theqrocks.com/2016/02/24/ex\-yes\-members\-jon\-anderson\-rick\-wakeman\-and\-trevor\-rabin\-team\-up\-for\-new\-music/\|title\=Ex\-Yes Members Jon Anderson, Rick Wakeman and Trevor Rabin Team Up for New Music\|website\=WHDQ}} Anderson said they had begun writing new material.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/TheJonAnderson/posts/10153760509980435 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/72582375434/10153760509980435 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Jon Anderson – I think about writing everyday, so it's ...\|publisher\=Facebook\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} Their first tour, [An Evening of Yes Music and More](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_and_More "An Evening of Yes Music and More"), began in October 2016 and lasted for one year with drummer Lou Molino III and bassist Lee Pomeroy. Following Yes's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the band renamed themselves Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman.{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/two\-yes\-bands\-jon\-anderson/\|title\=Double the Yes? Jon Anderson Says No Problem!\|date\=20 February 2018\|access\-date\=29 June 2018\|publisher\=Ultimate Classic Rock}} After a [four\-month tour](/wiki/Quintessential_Yes:The_50th_Anniversary_Tour "The 50th Anniversary Tour") in 2018 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Yes, the group disbanded.
Meanwhile, Howe \& White's ongoing Yes lineup performed *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 "Fragile (Yes album)")* and *[Drama](/wiki/Drama_%28Yes_album%29 "Drama (Yes album)")* in their entirety on their April–June, [2016 European tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29 "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)"). [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn "Trevor Horn") was a guest vocalist for two UK shows, singing "Tempus Fugit".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iguitarmag.com/news/2016/04/trevor\-horn\-to\-join\-yes\-on\-stage\-at\-royal\-albert\-hall/\|title\=Trevor Horn to join Yes on stage at Royal Albert Hall\|work\=Interactive Guitar Magazine\|date\=2016}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} For the subsequent North American tour between July and September of that year, the set was changed to include *Drama* and sides one and four of *[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans "Tales from Topographic Oceans")*.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/yes\-plot\-summer\-tour\-behind\-drama\-topographic\-oceans\-lps\-20160411\|title\=Yes Plot Summer Tour Behind 'Drama,' 'Topographic Oceans' LPs\|author\=Ryan Reed\|date\=11 April 2016\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|magazine\=Rolling Stone}} White missed the latter to recover from back surgery; he was replaced by American drummer [Jay Schellen](/wiki/Jay_Schellen "Jay Schellen").{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/7439179/yes\-drummer\-alan\-white\-back\-surgery\-summer\-tour\|title\=Yes Drummer Alan White Bows Out of Summer Tour After Surgery, Will Rejoin 'In the Near Future'\|author\=Colin Stutz\|date\=18 July 2016\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} [Dylan Howe](/wiki/Dylan_Howe "Dylan Howe"), Steve's son, had originally been asked to be White's standby, but was prevented from being involved by visa problems."All My Yesterdays", by Steve Howe, Omnibus Press, 2020, p. 290 White returned on a part\-time basis in November for their 2016 Japanese tour;{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2016/09/yes\-announce\-japanese\-tour\-in\-november\-2016\|title\=YES announce Japanese Tour in November 2016\|date\=September 2016\|website\=yesworld.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\.74071\.223599747652021/1394185793926738/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/1394185793926738 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Alan White rejoins YES for Japan Tour \& Cruise To The Edge\|date\=14 October 2016\|website\=Facebook\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} until the following February, Schellen continued to sit in for White on most shows, with White playing on some songs. The live album *[Topographic Drama – Live Across America](/wiki/Topographic_Drama_%E2%80%93_Live_Across_America "Topographic Drama – Live Across America")*, recorded on the 2016 tour, was released in late 2017 and marks Yes's first not to feature Squire.{{cite web\|url\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\-09\-28/yes\-announce\-new\-live\-album\-topographic\-drama\|title\=Yes announce new live album Topographic Drama\|first\=Scott\|last\=Munro\|date\=28 September 2017\|publisher\=Team Rock\|access\-date\=30 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\-topographic\-drama/\|title\=Yes Announce 'Topographic Drama' Live Album\|work\=Ultimate Classic Rock\|date\=28 September 2017\|access\-date\=9 October 2017}} In February 2017, Yes toured the U.S. which included their headline spot at Cruise to the Edge.
[thumb\|Yes performing at the [Westbury Theatre](/wiki/NYCB_Theatre_at_Westbury "NYCB Theatre at Westbury") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") on 18 July 2018](/wiki/File:Yesperformingwestbury20184.jpg "Yesperformingwestbury20184.jpg")
Yes toured the U.S. and Canada with the Yestival Tour from August to September 2017, performing at least one song from each album from *Yes* to *Drama*.{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\-2017\-dates\-yestival/\|title\=Yes Announce Summer 2017 'Yestival' Tour Dates\|author\=Jeff Giles\|date\=6 April 2017 \|publisher\=Ultimate Classic Rock\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} [Dylan Howe](/wiki/Dylan_Howe "Dylan Howe") joined the band as a second drummer.{{cite news\|url\=http://bravewords.com/news/yes\-drummer\-alan\-white\-welcomes\-dylan\-howe\-to\-join\-rhythm\-section\-for\-north\-american\-yestival\-tour\|title\=YES Drummer Alan White Welcomes Dylan Howe To Join Rhythm Section For North American Yestival Tour\|publisher\=Bravewords\|date\=26 July 2017\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The tour was cut short following the unexpected death of Howe's son and Dylan's brother [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil_Howe "Virgil Howe").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\.74071\.223599747652021/1859385384073441/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/1859385384073441 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Due to the tragic, unexpected death of guitarist Steve Howe's beloved younger son, Virgil\|work\=Yes' official \[\[facebook]]\|first\=John\|last\=Walters\|date\=11 June 2018\|access\-date\=6 July 2018}}{{cbignore}}
In February 2018, Yes headlined Cruise to the Edge involving original keyboardist [Tony Kaye](/wiki/Tony_Kaye_%28musician%29 "Tony Kaye (musician)") as a special guest, marking his first performances with the band since 1994\.{{cite web\|url\=http://therockrevival.com/classic\-rock/yes50\-celebrating\-50\-years\-yes/\|title\=\#YES50: Celebrating 50 Years of Yes\|date\=29 May 2018\|publisher\=The Rock Revival\|first\=Johnnie\|last\=Crow\|access\-date\=29 May 2018}} This was followed by the band's 50th Anniversary Tour with a European leg in March, playing half of *Tales from Topographic Oceans* and a selection of songs from their history. The two London dates included an anniversary fan convention which coincided with the release of *[Fly from Here – Return Trip](/wiki/Fly_from_Here%23Fly_from_Here_%E2%80%93_Return_Trip "Fly from Here#Fly from Here – Return Trip")*, a new version of the album with new lead vocals and mixes by Horn, who also performed as a special guest singer during a few shows on the leg.{{cite web\|url\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\-09\-05/yes\-announce\-50th\-anniversary\-uk\-and\-european\-tour\|title\=Yes announce 50th anniversary UK and European tour\|author\=Scott Munro\|date\=5 September 2017\|publisher\=Team Rock\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\-12\-07/yes\-announce\-weekend\-of\-london\-events\-to\-celebrate\-50th\-anniversary\|title\=Yes announce weekend of London events to celebrate 50th anniversary\|date\=7 December 2017\|first\=Scott\|last\=Munro\|publisher\=Team Rock\|access\-date\=8 December 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\-trevor\-horn\-50th\-anniversary\-tour/\|title\=TREVOR HORN TO REJOIN YES FOR THREE ANNIVERSARY SHOWS\|work\=Ultimate Classic Rock\|date\=12 March 2018 \|access\-date\=13 March 2018}} A U.S. leg in June and July also included guest performances from Kaye, Horn, [Tom Brislin](/wiki/Tom_Brislin "Tom Brislin") and [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz "Patrick Moraz"), who had last performed with Yes in 1976\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/yes\-50th\-anniversary\-tour\-to\-feature\-tony\-kaye\-as\-special\-guest/\|title\=YES: 50th\-Anniversary Tour To Feature TONY KAYE As 'Special Guest'\|website\=Blabbermouth.net\|date\=2 May 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2018/03/yes50\-tour\-commences\-tuesday\-13th\-march/\|title\=\#YES50 TOUR commences Tuesday 13th March
\|work\=Yesworld.com\|date\=9 March 2018
\|access\-date\=11 March 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.686832491328742\.1073741830\.223599747652021/2228599030485406/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2228599030485406 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Who's ready for Patrick Moraz AND Tony Kaye with YES, live in Philadelphia on July 20 \& 21? \|work\=Yes' official facebook\|date\= 24 May 2018\|access\-date\=25 May 2018}}{{cbignore}} The tour culminated with a Japanese leg in February 2019\.{{cite web\|url\=https://udo.jp/concert/Yes\|title\=YES／イエス – CELEBRATING 50 YEARS OF YES\|publisher\=UDO Artists\|access\-date\=25 October 2018}} Schellen continued to play as a second drummer to support White, who had a bacterial infection in his joints from November 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2018/05/founding\-member\-tony\-kaye\-talks\-50\-years\-yes\-ahead\-joining\-band\-summers\-35\-date\-north\-american\-tour/\|title\=Tony Kaye Talks 50 Years Of YES and More\|work\=Yesworld.com\|date\=22 May 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\.74071\.223599747652021/1924544957557483/?type\=3\&theater\|title\=TONY KAYE, founder member of YES is Special Guest for the band's 2018 \#YES50 50th Anniversary\|work\=Yes' official \[\[facebook]]\|date\=1 November 2017\|access\-date\=2 November 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\.74071\.223599747652021/2059173634094614/?type\=3\&theater \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2059173634094614 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2022 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=MESSAGE FROM ALAN WHITE\|work\=Yes' official \[\[facebook]]\|date\=2 January 2018\|access\-date\=2 January 2018}}{{cbignore}} The tour was documented with the live album *[Yes 50 Live](/wiki/Yes_50_Live "Yes 50 Live")*, released in 2019\.
### 2019–present: *The Quest*, White's death, *Mirror to the Sky*, and upcoming 24th album
In June and July 2019, Yes headlined the Royal Affair Tour across the U.S. with a lineup featuring [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 "Asia (band)"), [John Lodge](/wiki/John_Lodge_%28musician%29 "John Lodge (musician)") and [Carl Palmer](/wiki/Carl_Palmer "Carl Palmer")'s [ELP](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer "Emerson, Lake & Palmer") Legacy with [Arthur Brown](/wiki/Arthur_Brown_%28musician%29 "Arthur Brown (musician)").{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2019/04/yes\-announces\-the\-royal\-affair\-tour\-launching\-june\-12\-in\-bethlehem\-pa/\|title\=YES Announces "The Royal Affair Tour" Launching June 12 In Bethlehem, Pa\|last\=yesadmin\|date\=2 April 2019}}{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/yes\-announce\-royal\-affair\-tour\-with\-asia\-john\-lodge\-carl\-palmer\-816530/ \|title\=Yes Announce 'Royal Affair Tour' With Asia, John Lodge, Carl Palmer \|date\=2 April 2019 \|first\=Andy \|last\=Greene \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|access\-date\=3 April 2019}} This was followed by previously unreleased music, recorded during the *Fly from Here* sessions, released as *[From a Page](/wiki/From_a_Page "From a Page")*, a release spearheaded by Oliver Wakeman who wrote most of its material. The CD version includes an expanded edition of *[In the Present – Live from Lyon](/wiki/In_the_Present_%E2%80%93_Live_from_Lyon "In the Present – Live from Lyon")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/yes\-reveals\-four\-previously\-unreleased\-2010\-recordings\-on\-the\-new\-from\-a\-page\-mini\-box\-set/\|title\=YES Reveals Four Previously Unreleased 2010 Recordings On The New 'From A Page' Mini\-Box Set\|date\=25 October 2019\|website\=Blabbermouth.net}} A live album from the Royal Affair Tour, entitled *[The Royal Affair Tour: Live from Las Vegas](/wiki/The_Royal_Affair_Tour:Live_from_Las_Vegas "Live from Las Vegas")*, was released in October 2020\. Videos of Dean creating the album cover were streamed live on Facebook.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-announce\-new\-live\-album\-for\-october\|title\=Yes announce new live album for October\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=2 September 2020\|work\=Louder Sound\|access\-date\=3 September 2020}} Yes had planned to resume touring in 2020, beginning with a short U.S. leg in March and their appearance on Cruise to the Edge, followed by a European tour that continued their Album Series Tour and featured *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer "Relayer")* performed in its entirety.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-announce\-tour\-with\-alan\-parsons\-live\-project\|title\=Yes announce tour with Alan Parsons Live Project\|publisher\=Louder Sound\|first\=Scott\|last\=Munro\|date\=21 January 2020\|access\-date\=22 January 2020}} Both tours were postponed due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2020/03/yes\-postpone\-forthcoming\-u\-s\-dates\-and\-cancel\-appearances\-on\-cruise\-to\-the\-edge/\|title\=YES Cancel Forthcoming U.S. Dates And Will Not Be Performing On This Year's "Cruise To The Edge"\|website\=Yesworld.com\|date\=11 March 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=http://yesworld.com/2020/03/yes\-postpones\-album\-series\-2020\-tour/\|title\=YES Postpone UK \& European Album Series 2020 Tour Dates\|website\=Yesworld.com\|date\=20 March 2020}} Later in 2020, Davison and Sherwood formed Arc of Life, a new group featuring Schellen and keyboardist [Dave Kerzner](/wiki/Dave_Kerzner "Dave Kerzner").{{cite news \|last1\=Ewing \|first1\=Jerry \|title\=Yes alumni announce new band Arc Of Life and release video for You Make It Real \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-alumni\-announce\-new\-band\-arc\-of\-life\-and\-release\-video\-for\-you\-make\-it\-real \|work\=\[\[Prog (magazine)\|Prog]] \|date\=9 December 2020}}
Yes worked on new material for their twenty\-second studio album *[The Quest](/wiki/The_Quest_%28Yes_album%29 "The Quest (Yes album)")*, from late 2019 through 2021, with Howe as the sole producer. The lockdowns brought on by the COVID\-19 pandemic resulted in members recording their parts in separate studios and sending them to Howe and engineer Curtis Schwartz in England. In 2021, Howe, Davison and Downes got together and completed the album.{{cite podcast \|url\=https://www.podbean.com/media/share/pb\-edfdt\-e462f3 \|title\=Jon Davison – Interview Sessions With The Singer For Legendary Prog/Rock Band – Yes \|number\=6\|via\=PodBean \|website\=Rock Music Alliance: Channel 1 \|host\=Cole Coleman \|date\=25 July 2020 \|access\-date\=15 February 2023}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=55WfMco8UO4 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/55WfMco8UO4\|publisher\=SOAL Night Live\- The Musical Talk Show\| archive\-date\=11 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Levin, Torn, White\- (Tony Levin, David Torn \& Alan White)\|date\=19 January 2021 \|via\=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\|url\=https://biffbampop.com/2021/02/27/exclusive\-interview\-geoff\-downes\-discusses\-the\-new\-downes\-braide\-association\-album\-halcyon\-hymns/\|title\=Exclusive Interview: Geoff Downes Discusses The New Downes Braide Association Album, Halcyon Hymns\|date\=27 February 2021\|first\=Andy\|last\=Burns\|website\=Biff Bam Pop!}} *The Quest* was released on 1 October 2021, being the band's first new album in seven years, and the opening two tracks, "The Ice Bridge" and "Dare to Know", were released as digital singles.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-release\-first\-new\-music\-for\-seven\-yeas\|title\=Yes release first new music in seven years with new single The Ice Bridge\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=26 July 2021\|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-release\-video\-for\-new\-single\-dare\-to\-know\|title\=Yes release video for new single Dare To Know\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=1 September 2021\|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}} The album reached No. 20 in the UK. By the time *The Quest* was released, Yes had already discussed plans regarding a follow\-up album. In May 2022, Sherwood confirmed that the band had started to record new material.{{cite web\|url\=https://anchor.fm/yesshift/episodes/Ep\-44\-\-\-Billy\-Sherwood\-Interview\-e1ioon9\|title\=Ep 44 – Billy Sherwood Interview\|work\=Yesshift Podcast\|date\=19 May 2022\|access\-date\=1 June 2022}}
On 22 May 2022, Yes announced that White would sit out of their upcoming tour due to health issues and that Schellen would handle the drums. White died on 26 May.{{cite web \|last1\=Ewing \|first1\=Jerry \|title\=Yes drummer Alan White dead at 72 \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-drummer\-alan\-white\-dead\-at\-72 \|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=26 May 2022 \|date\=26 May 2022}} The band kicked off a tour in June 2022 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of *Close to the Edge*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-announce\-theyll\-celebrate\-50\-years\-of\-close\-to\-the\-edge\-this\-june\|title\=Yes announce they'll celebrate 50 years of Close To The Edge this June\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=8 March 2022\|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}} They had originally planned to resume their Album Series Tour with a European leg featuring *Relayer* performed in its entirety, before the dates were rescheduled for 2023 and the program changed.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-reschedule\-relayer\-live\-european\-dates\-for\-2023\|title\=Yes reschedule Relayer live European dates for 2023\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=21 April 2022\|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}} A tribute concert for White was held in Seattle on 2 October, featuring special guests and former Yes guitarist [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin "Trevor Rabin").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stgpresents.org/calendar/13566/alan\-white\-celebrating\-his\-life\-and\-music\|title\=Alan White – Celebrating His Life and Music\|work\=Seattle Theatre Group\|access\-date\=22 September 2022}}
In January 2023, Yes announced that [Warner Music Group](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group "Warner Music Group") had acquired the recorded music rights and associated income streams relating to 12 studio albums from 1969 to 1987, and several live and compilation releases.{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/2023/music/news/yes\-catalog\-acquired\-warner\-music\-1235498598/\|title\=Yes Catalog Acquired by Warner Music Group\|first\=Jem\|last\=Aswad\|date\=23 January 2023\|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|access\-date\=24 January 2023}} In February, Schellen joined the band as a permanent member.{{Cite web \|last\=Ewing \|first\=Jerry \|date\=14 February 2023 \|title\=Drummer Jay Schellen joins Yes on a permanent basis \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/drummer\-jay\-schellen\-joins\-yes\-on\-a\-permanent\-basis \|access\-date\=14 February 2023\|website\=Prog}}{{cite news \|title\=Jay Schellen Joins YES as a Permanent Member \|url\=https://www.yesworld.com/2023/02/jay\-schellen\-joins\-yes\-as\-a\-permanent\-member/ \|access\-date\=17 February 2023 \|work\=YesWorld}}
In 2023, Yes had planned to continue their Album Series Tour with *Relayer* performed in its entirety across Europe and the UK,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-announce\-relayer\-tour\-dates\-for\-june\-2023\|title\=Yes announce Relayer tour dates for June 2023\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=12 October 2022\|website\=Prog\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}} but it was subsequently delayed to 2024 due to insurance incentives related to COVID\-19 and [acts of war](/wiki/Casus_belli "Casus belli") being withdrawn.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\-postpone\-relayer\-tour\-yet\-again\|title\=Yes postpone Relayer tour yet again\|first\=Jerry\|last\=Ewing\|date\=17 March 2023\|publisher\=Loudersound\|access\-date\=19 March 2023}} The non\-cancelled UK dates were later rescheduled for The Classic Tales of Yes Tour 2024\.{{Cite tweet\|user\=yesofficial\|url\=https://twitter.com/yesofficial/status/1655860285838614528\|number\=1655860285838614528\|title\=THE CLASSIC TALES OF YES TOUR 2024 Find Tickets now at http://yesworld.com/live YES announce UK dates for the Classic Tales of YES Tour 2024\. The 9 UK dates include a visit to London's Royal Albert Hall and the Bristol Beacon together with 7 dates rescheduled from the cancelled 2023 tour, for which all tickets remain valid.}} Meanwhile, Anderson toured in Spring 2023 \& Spring/Summer 2024 under the title "Yes Epics and Classics" with a setlist primarily devoted to early 70s Yes material. About the tour, which features Anderson backed by The Band Geeks, he tells *Rolling Stone*: "In my mind… I'm still in Yes" and expressed his desire at the time for a reunion with Howe, though after recording and releasing *[True](/wiki/True_%28Jon_Anderson_album%29 "True (Jon Anderson album)")* later expressed the opposite sentiment, saying "No. Not right now… I’ve got the Yes that I wanted" and called making that album "one of the most wonderful experiences of my life."{{cite web \|url\=https://richiecastellano.com/jonyesepic/ \|title\=YES Legend Jon Anderson To Tour With The Band Geeks Spring 2023! \|date\=May 2023 \|website\=richiecastellano.com \|accessdate\=4 May 2023}}{{cite magazine \|title\=Yes Refuses To Reunite With Singer Jon Anderson. He's OK With That \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-features/jon\-anderson\-seventies\-yes\-throwback\-tour\-1234698321/ \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|access\-date\=24 May 2023}}
On 10 March 2023, Yes announced that their new studio album, *[Mirror to the Sky](/wiki/Mirror_to_the_Sky "Mirror to the Sky")*, was set for release on 19 May 2023\.{{cite web\|url\=https://ramzine.co.uk/interviews/jon\-davison\-of\-yes\-continuing\-with\-the\-quest/\|title\=Jon Davison of Yes ... Continuing with The Quest !!\|first\=Laurence\|last\=Todd\|date\=30 January 2023\|website\=RAMzine\|access\-date\=15 February 2023}}*Prog*, March 2023 issue On the same day the opening track, "Cut from the Stars", was released as a digital single, followed by the release of "All Connected" a few weeks later.{{cite web \|title\=YES announce new studio album 'Mirror To The Sky' for release 19th May 2023; launch first single 'Cut From The Stars' \|url\=https://allabouttherock.co.uk/yes\-announce\-new\-studio\-album\-mirror\-to\-the\-sky\-for\-release\-19th\-may\-2023\-launch\-first\-single\-cut\-from\-the\-stars/ \|website\=All About the Rock \|date\=10 March 2023 \|access\-date\=10 March 2023}} Band members have said that the formation of this album was based on continuing the creative process from *The Quest*, further developing "song sketches, structures, and ideas that were demanding attention".{{cite web \|title\=YES announce new studio album 'Mirror To The Sky' for release 19th May 2023 \|url\=https://www.yesworld.com/ \|website\=YesWorld \|publisher\=YesWorld.com \|access\-date\=11 May 2023}} In January 2024, Billy Sherwood stated in an interview with Rolling Stone that the band have already started working on their follow\-up album to *Mirror to the Sky*.{{cite magazine \|title\=This Prog\-Rock Wizard Has Kept Yes Alive for the Past 30 Years \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-features/yes\-prog\-rock\-billy\-sherwood\-1234939989/?fbclid\=IwAR3iFW\_Fhpda7h6KVhe9dicGDx\-ckm9eeUhWpm\_lI0GUfN\_YDt4VZ\_\-czzI \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \| date\=14 January 2024 \| publisher\=Rollingstone.com \| access\-date\=27 January 2024 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1968–1970: Formation, first album and *Time and a Word*{{anchor\\|Mabel Greer's Toyshop}}",
"{{multiple image\\|align\\=right\n \\| footer \\= Yes formed in the basement of the then Lucky Horseshoe Cafe (left) at 184 \\[\\[Shaftesbury Avenue]], London in mid\\-1968\\. Right: commemorative plaque at the address.\n \\| width \\=\n \\| image1 \\= Yes plaque Basement 184 Shaftesbury Avenue London WC2 8JB.jpg\n \\| width1 \\= 190\n \\| image2 \\= Yes the English Progressive Rock Band (cropped).jpg\n \\| width2 \\= 142\n}}\nIn late 1967, bassist [Chris Squire](/wiki/Chris_Squire \"Chris Squire\") and guitarist [Peter Banks](/wiki/Peter_Banks \"Peter Banks\"), both formerly of [the Syn](/wiki/The_Syn \"The Syn\"), joined the [psychedelic rock](/wiki/Psychedelic_rock \"Psychedelic rock\") band [Mabel Greer's Toyshop](/wiki/Mabel_Greer%27s_Toyshop \"Mabel Greer's Toyshop\"), which had formed in 1966 by Clive Bayley and Robert Hagger.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/mabel\\-greer\\-s\\-toyshop\\-reunite\\|title\\=Mabel Greer's Toyshop reunite\\|publisher\\=Loudersound\\|date\\=13 November 2014\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Munro\\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2024}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://zacharymule.com/wp/?p\\=2458\\|title\\=Yes\\-terday and Today: An interview with Mabel Greer's Toyshop about their surprising comeback and some \"unfinished business\"\\|first\\=Kevin\\|last\\=Renick\\|date\\=7 February 2015\\|publisher\\=Zacharymule\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2024}} They played at the [Marquee Club](/wiki/Marquee_Club \"Marquee Club\") in [Soho](/wiki/Soho \"Soho\"), London where Jack Barrie, owner of the nearby La Chasse club, saw them perform. \"There was nothing outstanding about them\", he recalled, \"the musicianship was very good but it was obvious they weren't going anywhere\".Welch 2008, p. 23\\. Barrie introduced Squire to singer [Jon Anderson](/wiki/Jon_Anderson \"Jon Anderson\"), a worker at the bar in La Chasse, who found they shared interests in [Simon \\& Garfunkel](/wiki/Simon_%26_Garfunkel \"Simon & Garfunkel\") and harmony singing. That evening at Squire's house they wrote \"Sweetness\" which was included on the first Yes album, and Anderson subsequently joined as lead vocalist.Welch 2008, p. 24\\. In June 1968, Hagger was replaced by [Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford \"Bill Bruford\"), who had placed an advertisement in *[Melody Maker](/wiki/Melody_Maker \"Melody Maker\")*,Welch 2008, p. 33–34\\.Welch 2008, p. 37\\. while in July the classically trained organist and pianist [Tony Kaye](/wiki/Tony_Kaye_%28musician%29 \"Tony Kaye (musician)\"), of Johnny Taylor's Star Combo and the Federals, became the keyboardist.Welch 2008, p. 38 This lineup rehearsed in the basement of The Lucky Horseshoe cafe on [Shaftesbury Avenue](/wiki/Shaftesbury_Avenue \"Shaftesbury Avenue\") between 10 June and 9 July 1968\\.Bruford, p. 35Welch 2008, p. 39Welch 2008, p. 44 Meanwhile, Banks had left Mabel Greer's Toyshop to join Neat Change, but he was dismissed by this group on 14 July 1968 and was finally recalled by Squire, replacing Bayley as guitarist. The last gig by Mabel Greer's Toyshop was on 27 July, at Newmarket.Welch 2008, op. cit.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forgotten\\-yesterdays.com/dates.asp?qbandid\\=6\\&qyear\\=0\\&qdateid\\=7501\\|title\\=07/27/1968 Newmarket, United Kingdom\\|accessdate\\=24 September 2023}}",
"Having considered the experience of Mabel Greer's Toyshop concluded, the group exchanged ideas for a new name. Anderson suggested Life and Squire thought of World,Yesspeak Live: The Director's Cut but the five agreed on Yes, which Banks had thought of a couple of years before.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/4822acba\\-543b\\-11e8\\-b3ee\\-41e0209208ec \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/4822acba\\-543b\\-11e8\\-b3ee\\-41e0209208ec \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\|title\\=A tale of Two Yesses\\|website\\=Financial Times\\|date\\=11 May 2018\\|last1\\=Hunter\\-Tilney\\|first1\\=Ludovic\\|quote\\=A band meeting was convened. 'I said, \"Why don't we call ourselves Life?\" And Chris said, \"World\". And \\[guitarist] Peter Banks, bless him, said \"Yes\". And we said, \"The Yes?\" He said, \"No, no, no. Just Yes.\" So we said OK. And that's how it started.'}} After rehearsals between 31 July and 2 August, the first gig as Yes followed at a youth camp in [East Mersea](/wiki/East_Mersea \"East Mersea\"), Essex on 3 August.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forgotten\\-yesterdays.com/dates.asp?qbandid\\=1\\&qyear\\=1968\\&qdateid\\=619\\|title\\=08/03/1968 Mersea, United Kingdom\\|website\\=Forgotten Yesterdays\\|accessdate\\=15 September 2023}} Early sets were formed of cover songs from artists such as [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\"), [The 5th Dimension](/wiki/The_5th_Dimension \"The 5th Dimension\") and [Traffic](/wiki/Traffic_%28band%29 \"Traffic (band)\").Welch 2008, p. 45\\. On 16 September, Yes performed at Blaise's club in London as a substitute for [Sly and the Family Stone](/wiki/Sly_and_the_Family_Stone \"Sly and the Family Stone\"), who had failed to turn up. They were well received by the audience, including the host [Roy Flynn](/wiki/Roy_Flynn \"Roy Flynn\"), who became the band's manager that night.Welch 2008, pp. 50–51\\. That month, Bruford decided to quit performing to study at the [University of Leeds](/wiki/University_of_Leeds \"University of Leeds\").Welch 2008, pp. 52–53\\. His replacement, Tony O'Reilly of [the Koobas](/wiki/The_Koobas \"The Koobas\"), struggled to perform with the rest of the group on stage and former Warriors and future [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\") drummer Ian Wallace subbed for one gig on 5 November 1968\\. After Bruford was refused a year's sabbatical leave from Leeds, Anderson and Squire convinced him to return for Yes's supporting slot for [Cream's](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") farewell concert at the [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall \"Royal Albert Hall\") on 26 November.",
"After seeing an early [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\") gig in 1969, Yes realised that there was suddenly stiff competition on the London gigging circuit, and they needed to be much more technically proficient, starting regular rehearsals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=8Sjxnnx\\-jqU \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/8Sjxnnx\\-jqU\\| archive\\-date\\=11 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Interview with Peter Banks by Mark Powell\\|date\\=7 April 2010 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cherry Red Records\\|Cherry Red TV]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} They subsequently signed a deal with [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"), and, that August, released their debut album *[Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28Yes_album%29 \"Yes (Yes album)\")*.Welch 2008, p. 315 Compiled of mostly original material, the record includes renditions of \"[Every Little Thing](/wiki/Every_Little_Thing_%28Beatles_song%29 \"Every Little Thing (Beatles song)\")\" by the Beatles and \"I See You\" by [The Byrds](/wiki/The_Byrds \"The Byrds\"). Although the album failed to break into the UK album charts, *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* critic [Lester Bangs](/wiki/Lester_Bangs \"Lester Bangs\") complimented the album's \"sense of style, taste and subtlety\".{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/yes/albums/album/113178/review/6067812/yes\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603085300/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/yes/albums/album/113178/review/6067812/yes\\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2008\\|title\\=Yes: Yes: Music Reviews: Rolling Stone\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|date\\=7 February 1970\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} *Melody Maker* columnist Tony Wilson chose Yes and [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\") as the two bands \"most likely to succeed\".Liner notes on Yes (1969\\)",
"Following a tour of Scandinavia with [Faces](/wiki/Faces_%28band%29 \"Faces (band)\"), Yes performed a solo concert at the [Queen Elizabeth Hall](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hall \"Queen Elizabeth Hall\") on 21 March 1970\\. The second half consisted of excerpts from their second album *[Time and a Word](/wiki/Time_and_a_Word \"Time and a Word\")*, accompanied by a 20\\-piece youth orchestra.Welch 2008, p. 77\\. Banks left the group on 18 April 1970, just three months before the album's release. Having expressed dissatisfaction with the idea of recording with an orchestra as well as the sacking of Flynn earlier in the year,Welch 2008, p. 80\\. Banks later indicated that he was fired by Anderson and Squire, and that Kaye and Bruford had no prior knowledge that it would be happening. Similar to the first album, *Time and a Word* features original songs and two new covers–\"Everydays\" by [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield \"Buffalo Springfield\") and \"No Opportunity Necessary, No Experience Needed\" by [Richie Havens](/wiki/Richie_Havens \"Richie Havens\"). The album broke into the UK charts, peaking at number 45\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=YES {{!}} full Official Chart History {{!}} Official Charts Company \\|url\\=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/16452/yes/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014043851/https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/16452/yes/ \\|archive\\-date\\=14 October 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2022 \\|website\\=www.officialcharts.com \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Banks' replacement was [Tomorrow](/wiki/Tomorrow_%28band%29 \"Tomorrow (band)\") guitarist [Steve Howe](/wiki/Steve_Howe \"Steve Howe\"), who appears in the photograph of the group on the American issue despite not having played on it.Welch, 2008, p. 89",
"### 1970–1974: *The Yes Album*, *Fragile*, *Close to the Edge* and *Tales from Topographic Oceans*",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Steve Howe in 1977](/wiki/File:Steve_howe.jpg \"Steve howe.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Rick Wakeman with Yes in March 1974, months before his first departure from the band](/wiki/File:Rick_Wakeman_-_Winterland_1974.jpg \"Rick Wakeman - Winterland 1974.jpg\")\nThe band retreated to a rented farmhouse in [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\") to write and rehearse new songs for their following album. Howe established himself as an integral part of the group's sound with his [Gibson ES\\-175](/wiki/Gibson_ES-175 \"Gibson ES-175\") and variety of acoustic guitars. With producer and engineer [Eddy Offord](/wiki/Eddy_Offord \"Eddy Offord\"), recording sessions lasted as long as 12 hours with each track being assembled from small sections at a time, which were pieced together to form a complete track. The band would then learn to play the song through after the final mix was complete.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nfte.org/interviews/EO234\\.html\\|title\\=Conversation with Eddy Offord\\|first\\=Tim\\|last\\=Morse\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Notes From the Edge \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Released in February 1971, *[The Yes Album](/wiki/The_Yes_Album \"The Yes Album\")* peaked at number 4 in the UK and number 40 on the U.S. [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") charts.",
"Yes embarked on a 28\\-day tour of Europe with [Iron Butterfly](/wiki/Iron_Butterfly \"Iron Butterfly\") in January 1971\\.Welch 2008, p. 102 The band purchased Iron Butterfly's entire [public address system](/wiki/Public_address_system \"Public address system\"), which improved their on\\-stage performance and sound.Welch 2008, p. 104\\. Their first date in North America followed on 24 June in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\"), Alberta, Canada, supporting [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 \"Jethro Tull (band)\").Bruford, p. 55 Friction arose between Howe and Kaye on tour;Welch 2008, p. 109\\. this, along with Kaye's reported reluctance to play the [Mellotron](/wiki/Mellotron \"Mellotron\") and the [Minimoog](/wiki/Minimoog \"Minimoog\") synthesizer, preferring to stick exclusively to [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\") and [Hammond organ](/wiki/Hammond_organ \"Hammond organ\"),{{cite book\\|first\\=John\\|last\\=Tobler\\|year\\=1992\\|title\\=NME Rock 'N' Roll Years\\|edition\\=1st\\|publisher\\=Reed International Books Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|page\\=229\\|id\\=CN 5585}} led to the keyboardist being fired from the band in the summer of 1971\\. Anderson recalled in a 2019 interview: \"Steve and Chris came over and said, 'Look, Tony Kaye... great guy.' But, you know, we'd just seen [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman \"Rick Wakeman\") about a month earlier. And I said, 'There's that Rick Wakeman guy,' and we've got to get on with life and move on, you know, rather than keep going on, set in the same circle. And that's what happens with a band.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bestclassicbands.com/jon\\-anderson\\-interview\\-3\\-26\\-19/ \\|title\\=Jon Anderson Interview? Yes, Indeed \\|last\\=Brodsky \\|first\\=Greg \\|publisher\\=Best Classic Bands \\|date\\=26 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2019}} Wakeman, a classically trained player who had left the folk rock group [Strawbs](/wiki/Strawbs \"Strawbs\") earlier in the year, was already a noted studio musician, with credits including [T. Rex](/wiki/T._Rex_%28band%29 \"T. Rex (band)\"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens \"Cat Stevens\") and [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John \"Elton John\"). Squire commented that he could play \"a grand piano for three bars, a Mellotron for two bars and a Moog for the next one absolutely spot on\",{{cite video\\|people\\=Squire, Chris\\|title\\=BBC broadcast of Sounding Out: Yes on 10 January 1972}} which gave Yes the orchestral and choral textures that befitted their new material.",
"Released on 12 November 1971,{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Sounds/70s/Sounds\\-1971\\-10\\-23\\-S\\-OCR.pdf\\|title\\=No Yes\\|magazine\\=Sounds\\|page\\=2\\|date\\=23 October 1971\\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2022\\|via\\=World Radio History}} the band's fourth album *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 \"Fragile (Yes album)\")* showcased their growing interest in the structures of classical music, with an excerpt of *[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird \"The Firebird\")* by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") being played at the start of their concerts since the album's [1971–1972 tour](/wiki/Fragile_Tour \"Fragile Tour\").*Yessongs* track listing. Atlantic Records 1973\\. Each member performed a solo track on the album, and it marked the start of their long collaboration with artist [Roger Dean](/wiki/Roger_Dean_%28artist%29 \"Roger Dean (artist)\"), who designed the [group's logo](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo \"Yes bubble logo\"), album art and stage sets. *Fragile* peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 4 in the U.S.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/awards \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430165547/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/awards \\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2016 \\|title\\=Yes Billboard Albums \\|website\\=Allmusic\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2022}} after it was released there in January 1972, and was their first record to reach the top ten in North America. A shorter version of the opening track, \"[Roundabout](/wiki/Roundabout_%28Yes_song%29 \"Roundabout (Yes song)\")\", was released as a single that peaked at number 13 on the *Billboard* [Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\") singles chart.",
"In February 1972, Yes recorded a cover version of \"[America](/wiki/America_%28Simon_%26_Garfunkel_song%29 \"America (Simon & Garfunkel song)\")\" by [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon \"Paul Simon\") and released it in July. The single reached number 46 on the U.S. singles chart.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/biography\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013092446/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/biography\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2022\\|title\\=Yes Biography\\|website\\=Allmusic\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown}} The track subsequently appeared on *[The New Age of Atlantic](/wiki/The_New_Age_of_Atlantic \"The New Age of Atlantic\")*, a 1972 compilation album of several bands signed to Atlantic Records, and again in the 1975 compilation *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 \"Yesterdays (Yes album)\")*.",
"Released in September 1972, *[Close to the Edge](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge \"Close to the Edge\")*, the band's fifth album, was their most ambitious work so far. At 19 minutes, the [title track](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_%28song%29 \"Close to the Edge (song)\") took up an entire side on the vinyl record and combined elements of classical music, psychedelic rock, pop and jazz. The album reached number 3 in the U.S. and number 4 on the UK charts.Welch 2008, p. 185\\. \"[And You and I](/wiki/And_You_and_I \"And You and I\")\" was released as a single that peaked at number 42 in the U.S. The growing critical and commercial success of the band was not enough to retain Bruford, who left Yes in the summer of 1972, before the album's release, to join [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\"). The band considered several possible replacements, including [Aynsley Dunbar](/wiki/Aynsley_Dunbar \"Aynsley Dunbar\") (who was playing with [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa \"Frank Zappa\") at the time),{{cite web\\|title\\=Chris Squire Takes A Straight And Stronger Course\\|url\\=http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\\-squire\\-takes\\-a\\-straight\\-and\\-stronger\\-course\\-by\\-rick\\-suchow\\-bass\\-musician\\-magazine\\-march\\-2013/\\|website\\=Bass Musician Magazine\\|author\\=Rick Suchow\\|date\\=March 2013\\|publisher\\=V.I.E., LLC\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620064253/http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\\-squire\\-takes\\-a\\-straight\\-and\\-stronger\\-course\\-by\\-rick\\-suchow\\-bass\\-musician\\-magazine\\-march\\-2013/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and decided on former [Plastic Ono Band](/wiki/Plastic_Ono_Band \"Plastic Ono Band\") drummer [Alan White](/wiki/Alan_White_%28Yes_drummer%29 \"Alan White (Yes drummer)\"), a friend of Anderson and Offord who had once sat in with the band weeks before Bruford's departure.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.moderndrummer.com/2005/05/alan\\-white\\-3/\\|title\\=Yes' Alan White Exclusive Interview: Modern Drummer Magazine\\|date\\=18 May 2005\\|publisher\\=Moderndrummer.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} White learned the band's repertoire in three days before embarking on their [1972–1973 tour](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_Tour \"Close to the Edge Tour\").",
"By this point, Yes were beginning to enjoy worldwide commercial and critical success. Their early touring with White was featured on *[Yessongs](/wiki/Yessongs \"Yessongs\")*, a triple live album released in May 1973 that documented shows from 1972\\. The album reached number 7 in the UK and number 12 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 136\\. A [concert film](/wiki/Yessongs_%28film%29 \"Yessongs (film)\") of the same name premiered in 1975Welch 2008, p. 146\\. that documented their shows at London's [Rainbow Theatre](/wiki/Rainbow_Theatre \"Rainbow Theatre\") in December 1972, with added psychedelic visual images and effects.",
"{{quote box\n\\| quote \\= It is a fragmented masterpiece, assembled with loving care and long hours in the studio. Brilliant in patches, but often taking far too long to make its various points, and curiously lacking in warmth or personal expression ...\"Ritual\" is a dance of celebration and brings the first enjoyable moments, where Alan's driving drums have something to grip on to and the lyrics of la la la speak volumes. But even this cannot last long and cohesion is lost once more to the gods of drab self indulgence.\n\\| source \\= —''\\[\\[Melody Maker]]'' review of ''\\[\\[Tales from Topographic Oceans]]'', 1973{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\\=5\\&tname\\=5\\&tdate\\=135\\&navb\\=10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030718012628/http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\\=5\\&tname\\=5\\&tdate\\=135\\&navb\\=10\\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2003\\|title\\=Yes – Adrift on the Oceans\\|publisher\\=Melody Maker\\|date\\=1 December 1973\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}\n\\| width \\= 33%\n\\| align \\= right\n}}",
"*[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans \"Tales from Topographic Oceans\")* was the band's sixth studio album, released on 7 December 1973\\.[\"BRIT Certified – bpi\"](https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified), search \"Tales from Topographic Oceans\" It marked a change in their fortunes and polarised fans and critics alike. The double vinyl set was based on Anderson's interpretation of the [Shastric](/wiki/Shastra \"Shastra\") scriptures from a footnote within [Paramahansa Yogananda](/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda \"Paramahansa Yogananda\")'s book *[Autobiography of a Yogi](/wiki/Autobiography_of_a_Yogi \"Autobiography of a Yogi\")*. The album became the first LP in the UK to ship gold before the record arrived at retailers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DQkEAAAAMBAJ\\|title\\=Yes LP Breaks Ground in U.K.\\|date\\=15 December 1973\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=42\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2012}} It went on to [top the UK charts](/wiki/List_of_UK_Albums_Chart_number_ones_of_the_1970s%231974 \"List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1970s#1974\") for two weeks while reaching number 6 in the U.S., and became the band's fourth consecutive gold album. Wakeman was not pleased with the record and is critical of much of its material.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yes, we were the original Spinal Tap, says Rick Wakeman of Seventies prog\\-rock supergroup\\|url\\=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\\-23537889\\-yes\\-we\\-were\\-the\\-original\\-spinal\\-tap\\-says\\-rick\\-wakeman\\-of\\-seventies\\-prog\\-rock\\-supergroup.do\\|work\\=London Evening Standard\\|date\\=17 August 2009\\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102143937/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\\-23537889\\-yes\\-we\\-were\\-the\\-original\\-spinal\\-tap\\-says\\-rick\\-wakeman\\-of\\-seventies\\-prog\\-rock\\-supergroup.do\\|archive\\-date\\=2 November 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He felt sections were \"bled to death\" and contained too much musical padding.Chambers 2002, p. 233\\. Wakeman left the band after the [1973–1974 tour](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans_Tour \"Tales from Topographic Oceans Tour\"); his solo album *[Journey to the Centre of the Earth](/wiki/Journey_to_the_Centre_of_the_Earth_%28album%29 \"Journey to the Centre of the Earth (album)\")* topped the UK charts in May 1974\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\\_the\\_no1\\_albums.php?show\\=3 \\|title\\= Number 1 Albums – 1970s \\|publisher\\= The Official Charts Company \\|access\\-date\\= 11 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091230114951/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\\_the\\_no1\\_albums.php?show\\=3 \\|archive\\-date\\= 30 December 2009 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }} The tour included five consecutive sold\\-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre, the first time a rock band achieved this.Wooding, p. 114\\.",
"### 1974–1980: *Relayer*, *Going for the One*, *Tormato* and the Paris sessions",
"Several musicians were approached to replace Wakeman, including [Vangelis Papathanassiou](/wiki/Vangelis_Papathanassiou \"Vangelis Papathanassiou\"), [Eddie Jobson](/wiki/Eddie_Jobson \"Eddie Jobson\") of [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music \"Roxy Music\") and former Atlantis/Cat Stevens keyboardist [Jean Roussel](/wiki/Jean_Roussel \"Jean Roussel\"). Howe says he also asked [Keith Emerson](/wiki/Keith_Emerson \"Keith Emerson\"), who did not want to leave [Emerson, Lake \\& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer \"Emerson, Lake & Palmer\").{{sfn\\|Howe\\|2021\\|p\\=108}} Yes ultimately chose Swiss keyboardist [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz \"Patrick Moraz\") of [Refugee](/wiki/Refugee_%28band%29 \"Refugee (band)\"), who arrived in August 1974{{cite news \\|title\\= News Briefs \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|date\\=31 August 1974}} during the recording sessions for *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer \"Relayer\")*, which took place at Squire's home in [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water \"Virginia Water\"), Surrey. Released in November that year, *Relayer* showcased a [jazz fusion](/wiki/Jazz_fusion \"Jazz fusion\")\\-influenced direction the band were pursuing. The album features the 22\\-minute track titled \"[The Gates of Delirium](/wiki/The_Gates_of_Delirium \"The Gates of Delirium\")\", which highlights a battle initially inspired by *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace \"War and Peace\")* by [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy \"Leo Tolstoy\"). Its closing section, \"Soon\", was subsequently released as a single. The album reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 5 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 154\\. Yes embarked on their [1974–1975 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Relayer_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Relayer Tour\") to support *Relayer*. The compilation album *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 \"Yesterdays (Yes album)\")*, released in 1975, contained tracks from Yes's first two albums, the B\\-side track from their \"Sweet Dreams\" single from 1970 titled \"Dear Father\", and the original ten\\-minute version of their cover of \"America\".{{Cite news\\|title\\=Relayer \\& Yesterdays\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone\\|first\\=Ken\\|last\\=Barnes\\|date\\=19 June 1975}}",
"Between 1975 and 1976, each member of the band released a solo album. Their subsequent [1976 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%231976_Solo_Albums_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#1976 Solo Albums Tour\") of North America with [Peter Frampton](/wiki/Peter_Frampton \"Peter Frampton\") featured some of the band's most\\-attended shows. The show of 12 June, also supported by [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright \"Gary Wright\") and [Pousette\\-Dart Band](/wiki/Pousette-Dart_Band \"Pousette-Dart Band\") at [John F. Kennedy Stadium](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Stadium_%28Philadelphia%29 \"John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)\") in Philadelphia, attracted over 100,000 people.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yestour '76 – Laser Show Intrigues Audiences\\|work\\=Circus Magazine\\|date\\=13 September 1976\\|author\\=Peter Crescenti}} Roger Dean's brother Martyn was the main designer behind the tour's \"Crab Nebula\" stage set, while Roger and fabric designer Felicity Youette provided the backgrounds.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Yes performing in 1977](/wiki/File:Yes_11111977_01_400_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Yes 11111977 01 400 (cropped).jpg\")\nIn late 1976, the band travelled to Switzerland and started recording for their album *[Going for the One](/wiki/Going_for_the_One \"Going for the One\")* at [Mountain Studios](/wiki/Mountain_Studios \"Mountain Studios\"), [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux \"Montreux\"). It was then that Anderson sent early versions of \"Going for the One\" and \"[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories \"Wonderous Stories\")\" to Wakeman, who felt he could contribute to such material better than the band's past releases. Moraz was let go, after Wakeman was booked on a session musician basis. Upon its release in July 1977, *Going for the One* [topped](/wiki/List_of_number-one_albums_from_the_1970s_%28UK%29%231977 \"List of number-one albums from the 1970s (UK)#1977\") the UK album charts for two weeks and reached number 8 in the U.S. \"[Wonderous Stories](/wiki/Wonderous_Stories \"Wonderous Stories\")\" and \"Going for the One\" were released as singles in the UK and reached numbers 7 and 25, respectively.Welch 2008, p. 166 Although the album's cover was designed by [Hipgnosis](/wiki/Hipgnosis \"Hipgnosis\"), it still features their Roger Dean [\"bubble\" logotype](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo \"Yes bubble logo\"). The band's [1977 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Going_for_the_One_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Going for the One Tour\") spanned across six months.",
"*[Tormato](/wiki/Tormato \"Tormato\")* was released in September 1978 at the height of [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock \"Punk rock\") in England, during which the music press criticised Yes as representing the bloated excesses of early\\-1970s progressive rock. The album saw the band continuing their movement towards shorter songs; no track runs longer than eight minutes.{{Cite news\\|title\\=The Yes Decade\\|date\\=17 October 1978\\|website\\=Circus Magazine\\|first\\=Kurt\\|last\\=Loder}} Wakeman replaced his Mellotrons with the [Birotron](/wiki/Birotron \"Birotron\"), a [tape replay keyboard](/wiki/Sampler_%28musical_instrument%29 \"Sampler (musical instrument)\"), and Squire experimented with harmonisers and Mu\\-tron pedals with his bass. Production was handled collectively by the band and saw disagreements at the mixing stage among the members. With heavy commercial rock\\-radio airplay, the album reached number 8 in the UK and number 10 in the U.S. charts, and was also certified platinum (1 million copies sold) by the [RIAA](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\"). Despite internal and external criticisms of the album, the band's [1978–1979 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281960s%E2%80%9370s%29%23Tormato_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1960s–70s)#Tormato Tour\") was a commercial success. Concerts were performed [in the round](/wiki/Theatre_in_the_round \"Theatre in the round\") with a £50,000 revolving stage and a 360\\-degree sound system fitted above it. Their dates at Madison Square Gardens earned Yes a [Golden Ticket Award](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden_Gold_Ticket_Award \"Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award\") for grossing over $1 million in box office receipts.Wooding, p. 197",
"In October 1979, the band convened in Paris with producer [Roy Thomas Baker](/wiki/Roy_Thomas_Baker \"Roy Thomas Baker\"). Their diverse approach was now succumbing to division, as Anderson and Wakeman favoured the more fantastical and delicate approach while the rest preferred a heavier rock sound. Howe, Squire and White liked none of the music Anderson was offering at the time as it was too lightweight and lacking in the heaviness that they were generating in their own writing sessions. The Paris sessions abruptly ended in December after White broke his foot while rollerskating in a roller disco.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://lithiummagazine.com/interview\\-chris\\-squire\\-yes\\-march\\-19\\-2014\\|title\\=An Interview with Chris Squire of YES – March 19, 2014\\|work\\=Lithium Magazine\\|date\\=21 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322030334/http://lithiummagazine.com/interview\\-chris\\-squire\\-yes\\-march\\-19\\-2014\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"When the band, minus Wakeman (who had only committed to recording keyboard overdubs once new material would be ready to record), reconvened in February to resume work on the project, their growing musical differences, combined with internal dissension, obstructed progress. Journalist Chris Welch, after attending a rehearsal, noted that Anderson \"was singing without his usual conviction and seemed disinclined to talk\".Welch, Musicians Only, 14 June 1980, p. 5\\. By late March, Howe, Squire and White had begun demoing material as an instrumental trio, increasingly uncertain about Anderson's future involvement. Eventually, a serious band dispute over finance saw Anderson leave Yes, with a dispirited Wakeman departing at around the same time.",
"### 1980–1981: *Drama* and split",
"In 1980, pop duo [The Buggles](/wiki/The_Buggles \"The Buggles\") (singer [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn \"Trevor Horn\") and keyboardist [Geoff Downes](/wiki/Geoff_Downes \"Geoff Downes\")) secured the services of [Brian Lane](/wiki/Brian_Lane_%28manager%29 \"Brian Lane (manager)\"), who had managed Yes since 1970, as their manager. The Buggles were best known for their 1979 hit single \"[Video Killed the Radio Star](/wiki/Video_Killed_the_Radio_Star \"Video Killed the Radio Star\")\" from their album *[The Age of Plastic](/wiki/The_Age_of_Plastic \"The Age of Plastic\")*. At this point, the departure of Anderson and Wakeman had been kept secret from everyone outside the Yes inner circle. Seeing an option of continuing the band with new creative input and expertise, Squire revealed the situation to Horn and Downes and suggested that they join Yes as full\\-time members. Horn and Downes accepted the invitation and the reconfigured band recorded the *[Drama](/wiki/Drama_%28Yes_album%29 \"Drama (Yes album)\")* album, which was released in August 1980\\. The record displayed a heavier, harder sound than the material Yes recorded with Anderson and Wakeman in 1979, opening with the lengthy hard rocker \"[Machine Messiah](/wiki/Machine_Messiah \"Machine Messiah\")\". The album received substantial radio airplay in the late summer–fall of 1980, and peaked at number 2 in the UK and number 18 in the U.S., though it was the first Yes album to not be certified Gold by the RIAA since 1971\\. Their [1980 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Drama_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Drama Tour\") of North America and the UK received a mixed reaction from audiences. They were well received in the United States and were awarded with a commemorative certificate after they performed a record 16 consecutive sold\\-out concerts at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\") since 1974\\.Welch 2008, p. 197\\.",
"After the *Drama* tour, Yes reconvened in England to decide the band's next step, beginning by dismissing Lane as their manager. Horn was also dismissed,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Horn \\|first1\\=Trevor \\|title\\=Adventures in Modern Recording \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Nine Eight Books \\|location\\=UK \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-7887\\-0603\\-2 \\|page\\=95}} and went on to pursue a career in music production, with White and Squire next to depart. Left as the sole remaining members, Downes and Howe opted not to continue with the group and went their own separate ways in December 1980\\.",
"*[Yesshows](/wiki/Yesshows \"Yesshows\")*, a live album recorded during 1976 to 1978, mixed in mid\\-1979 and originally intended for release in late 1979, was released in November 1980, peaking at number 22 in the UK charts and number 43 in the US.",
"An announcement came from the group's management in March 1981 confirming that Yes no longer existed. Downes and Howe soon reunited to form [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 \"Asia (band)\") with former [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\") bassist and vocalist [John Wetton](/wiki/John_Wetton \"John Wetton\"), and drummer [Carl Palmer](/wiki/Carl_Palmer \"Carl Palmer\") from [Emerson, Lake \\& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer \"Emerson, Lake & Palmer\"). Squire and White continued to work together, initially recording sessions with [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page \"Jimmy Page\") for a proposed band called [XYZ](/wiki/XYZ_%28UK_band%29 \"XYZ (UK band)\") (short for \"ex\\-Yes\\-and\\-Zeppelin\") in the spring of 1981\\. Page's former bandmate [Robert Plant](/wiki/Robert_Plant \"Robert Plant\") was also to be involved as the vocalist but he lost enthusiasm, citing his ongoing grieving for recently deceased Led Zeppelin drummer [John Bonham](/wiki/John_Bonham \"John Bonham\"). The short\\-lived group produced a few demo tracks, elements of which would appear in Page's band the Firm and on future Yes tracks \"Mind Drive\" and \"Can You Imagine?\". In late 1981, Squire and White released \"[Run with the Fox](/wiki/Run_with_the_Fox \"Run with the Fox\")\", a Christmas single with Squire on vocals which received radio airplay through the 1980s and early 1990s during the Christmas periods. A second Yes compilation album, *[Classic Yes](/wiki/Classic_Yes \"Classic Yes\"),* was released in November 1981\\.",
"### 1982–1988: Reformation, *90125* and *Big Generator*",
"At the beginning of 1982, [Phil Carson](/wiki/Phil_Carson \"Phil Carson\") of Atlantic Records introduced Squire and White to guitarist and singer [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin \"Trevor Rabin\"), who had initially made his name with the South African supergroup [Rabbitt](/wiki/Rabbitt \"Rabbitt\"), subsequently releasing three solo albums, working as a record producer and even briefly considered being a member of [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 \"Asia (band)\"). The three teamed up in a new band called [Cinema](/wiki/Cinema_%28band%29 \"Cinema (band)\"), for which Squire also recruited the original Yes keyboard player Tony Kaye. Later in 1982, Cinema entered the studio to record their debut album. Although Rabin and Squire initially shared lead vocals for the project, Trevor Horn was briefly brought into Cinema as a potential singer,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/rabin.html\\|title\\=Trevor Rabin – Capturing adrenaline \\|publisher\\=Innerviews.org\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} but soon opted to become the band's producer instead.",
"Horn worked well with the band. However, his clashes with Tony Kaye (complicated by the fact that Rabin was playing most of the keyboards during the recording sessions) led to Kaye's departure during the recording, though some of his playing was kept on the final album and he had returned by the time it was released. Meanwhile, Squire encountered Jon Anderson (who, since leaving Yes, had released two solo albums and had success with the [Jon and Vangelis](/wiki/Jon_and_Vangelis \"Jon and Vangelis\") project) at a Los Angeles party and, encouraged by Atlantic Records vice president [Phil Carson](/wiki/Phil_Carson \"Phil Carson\"), played Anderson the Cinema demo tracks. Anderson was then invited into the project as lead singer and joined in April 1983 during the last few weeks of the sessions, having comparatively little creative input beyond adding his lead vocals and re\\-writing some lyrics.",
"At the suggestion of Carson and other Atlantic executives, Cinema then changed their name to Yes in June 1983\\. Rabin initially objected to this, as he now found that he had inadvertently joined a reunited band with a history and expectations, rather than help launch a new group.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scoremagacine.com/Entrevistas\\_eng\\_det.php?Codigo\\=19\\|title\\=Web dedicada a la Música de Cine y Bandas Sonoras\\|publisher\\=ScoreMagacine.com\\|date\\=22 September 2005\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705221320/http://www.scoremagacine.com/Entrevistas\\_eng\\_det.php?Codigo\\=19\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, with four of the five members having been members of Yes (with three of them being original members, including the distinctive lead singer) it suggested that the name change was sound commercial strategy. The new album marked a significant change in style as the revived Yes had adopted more of a [pop rock](/wiki/Pop_rock \"Pop rock\") sound with few moments that recalled their progressive rock past. This incarnation of the band has sometimes been informally referred to as \"Yes\\-West\", reflecting the band's new base in Los Angeles rather than London.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Trevor Rabin in 2017](/wiki/File:Trevor_Rabin_July_2017.jpg \"Trevor Rabin July 2017.jpg\")\nYes released their comeback album *[90125](/wiki/90125 \"90125\")* (named after its catalogue serial number on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\")) in November 1983\\. It became their biggest\\-selling album, certified by the [RIAA](/wiki/RIAA \"RIAA\") at triple\\-platinum (3 million copies) in sales in the U.S., and introduced the band to younger fans. \"Owner of a Lonely Heart\" [topped](/wiki/List_of_number-one_mainstream_rock_hits_%28United_States%29 \"List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)\") the [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks \"Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks\") chart for four weeks and went on to reach the [number\\-one spot](/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number-one_singles_of_1984 \"List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1984\") on the *Billboard* Hot 100 singles chart, the only single from Yes to do so, for two weeks in January 1984\\. Kaye's short\\-term replacement on keyboards, [Eddie Jobson](/wiki/Eddie_Jobson \"Eddie Jobson\"), appeared briefly in the original video but was edited out as much as possible once Kaye had been persuaded to return to the band.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yesfans.com/archive/index.php/t\\-36085\\.html\\|title\\=Why I did not join Yes – by Eddie Jobson \\[Archive] – Yesfans.com: The place for YES fans since 2001\\|publisher\\=Yesfans.com\\|date\\=20 February 2004\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}",
"In 1984, two further singles from the album \"[Leave It](/wiki/Leave_It \"Leave It\")\" and \"[It Can Happen](/wiki/It_Can_Happen_%28Yes_song%29 \"It Can Happen (Yes song)\")\" reached number 24 and 57, respectively. Yes also earned their only [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") for [Best Rock Instrumental Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Instrumental_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance\") in 1985 for the two\\-minute track \"[Cinema](/wiki/Cinema_%28Yes_song%29 \"Cinema (Yes song)\")\".{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7CQEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PT151\\|title\\=27th Annual Grammy Awards Final Nominations\\|date\\=26 January 1985\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2011\\|volume\\=97\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|page\\=78\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|issn\\=0006\\-2510\\|issue\\=4}} They were also nominated for an award for [Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Performance_by_a_Duo_or_Group_with_Vocals \"Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals\") with \"Owner of a Lonely Heart\", and a [Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Performance_by_a_Duo_or_Group_with_Vocal \"Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal\") award with *90125*.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1985/02/22/and\\-whats\\-your\\-line\\-on\\-the\\-winners/\\|title\\=And What's Your Line on the Winners?\\|date\\=22 February 1985\\|newspaper\\=The Chicago Tribune\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The band's [1984–1985 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%239012Live_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#9012Live Tour\") was the most lucrative in their history and spawned the home video release *[9012Live](/wiki/9012Live_%28video%29 \"9012Live (video)\")*, a concert film directed by [Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh \"Steven Soderbergh\") with added special effects from [Charlex](/wiki/Charlex \"Charlex\") that cost $1 million.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/660003811\\.html?FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+28%2C\\+1986\\&author\\=Steve\\+Morse%2C\\+Globe\\+Staff\\&pub\\=Boston\\+Globe\\+%28pre\\-1997\\+Fulltext%29\\&desc\\=GENESIS%3A\\+PART\\-TIME\\+SOLOISTS%2C\\+PART\\-TIME\\+BAND\\&pqatl\\=google\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118162911/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/access/660003811\\.html?FMT\\=ABS\\&FMTS\\=ABS:FT\\&type\\=current\\&date\\=Feb\\+28%2C\\+1986\\&author\\=Steve\\+Morse%2C\\+Globe\\+Staff\\&pub\\=Boston\\+Globe\\+%28pre\\-1997\\+Fulltext%29\\&desc\\=GENESIS%3A\\+PART\\-TIME\\+SOLOISTS%2C\\+PART\\-TIME\\+BAND\\&pqatl\\=google\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2012\\|title\\=Genesis: Part\\-Time Soloists, Part\\-Time Band \\|date\\=28 February 1986\\|first\\=Steve\\|last\\=Morse\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|newspaper\\=Boston Globe}} Issued in 1985, an accompanying live album also appeared that year, *[9012Live: The Solos](/wiki/9012Live:The_Solos \"The Solos\")*, which earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance for Squire's solo track, a rendition of \"[Amazing Grace](/wiki/Amazing_Grace \"Amazing Grace\")\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rockonthenet.com/archive/1987/grammys.htm\\|title\\=29th Grammy Awards – 1987\\|publisher\\=Rock on the Net\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}",
"Yes began recording for their twelfth album, *[Big Generator](/wiki/Big_Generator \"Big Generator\")*, in 1985, initially with Trevor Horn returning as producer. The sessions underwent many starts and stops due to the use of multiple recording locations in Italy, London and Los Angeles, with interpersonal problems leading to Horn leaving the sessions partway through, all of which kept the album from timely completion (the album was intended for a 1986 release, but by the end of that year it was still incomplete).{{cite AV media\\|title\\=Yesyears documentary 1991\\|quote\\=Chris Squire on Big Generator: \"It was supposed to come out a year before it did, which would've been better timing\"}} Eventually Rabin took over final production. The album was released in September 1987, and immediately began receiving heavy radio airplay, with sales reaching number 17 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. *Big Generator* earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1988, and was also certified platinum (with 1 million\\-plus in sales) by the RIAA.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=CeslAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6885,4044707\\&dq\\|title\\=Irish rockers among Grammy nominees\\|date\\=15 January 1988\\|author\\=Larry McShane\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Telegraph (Nashua)\\|The Telegraph]]\\|publisher\\=Telegraph Publishing Company\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The single \"[Love Will Find a Way](/wiki/Love_Will_Find_a_Way_%28Yes_song%29 \"Love Will Find a Way (Yes song)\")\" topped the Mainstream Rock chart, while \"[Rhythm of Love](/wiki/Rhythm_of_Love_%28Yes_song%29 \"Rhythm of Love (Yes song)\")\" reached number 2 and \"[Shoot High Aim Low](/wiki/Shoot_High_Aim_Low \"Shoot High Aim Low\")\" number 11\\. The [1987–1988 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Big_Generator_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Big Generator Tour\") ended with an appearance at Madison Square Garden on 14 May 1988 as part of the star\\-studded [Atlantic Records 40th anniversary concert](/wiki/Atlantic_Records_40th_Anniversary \"Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary\").",
"### 1988–1995: *Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe*, *Union* and *Talk*",
"By the end of 1988, Anderson felt creatively sidelined by Rabin and Squire and had grown tired of the musical direction of the \"Yes\\-West\" lineup. He took leave of the band, asserting that he would never stay in Yes purely for the money, and started work in [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat \"Montserrat\") on a solo project that eventually involved Wakeman, Howe and Bruford. This collaboration led to suggestions that there would be some kind of reformation of the \"classic\" Yes, although from the start the project had included bass player [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin \"Tony Levin\"), whom Bruford had worked with in King Crimson. The project, rather than taking over or otherwise using the Yes name, was called [Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe \"Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe\") (ABWH).",
"Their [eponymous album](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_%28album%29 \"Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (album)\"), released in June 1989, featured \"Brother of Mine\", which became an MTV hit and went gold in the United States. It later emerged that the four band members had not all recorded together; Anderson and producer [Chris Kimsey](/wiki/Chris_Kimsey \"Chris Kimsey\") slotted their parts into place. Howe has stated publicly that he was unhappy with the mix of his guitars on the album,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\\.html\\|title\\=Steve Howe – Into the storm\\|publisher\\=Innerviews\\|year\\=2012\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723040600/http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2015}} though a version of \"Fist of Fire\" with more of Howe's guitars left intact appeared on the *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969-%29 \"Yes (1969-)\")* box set in 2002\\. ABWH toured in [1989 and 1990](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe Tour\") as \"An Evening of Yes Music\" which featured Levin, keyboardist [Julian Colbeck](/wiki/Julian_Colbeck \"Julian Colbeck\"), and guitarist [Milton McDonald](/wiki/Milton_McDonald \"Milton McDonald\") as support musicians. A live album and home video were recorded and released in 1993, both titled *[An Evening of Yes Music Plus](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_Plus \"An Evening of Yes Music Plus\")* that featured [Jeff Berlin](/wiki/Jeff_Berlin \"Jeff Berlin\") on bass due to Levin suffering from illness. The tour was also dogged by legal battles sparked by Atlantic Records due to the band's references to Yes in promotional materials and the tour title.",
"Following the tour, the group returned to the recording studio to produce their second album, tentatively called *Dialogue*. After hearing the tracks, [Arista Records](/wiki/Arista_Records \"Arista Records\") refused to release the album as they felt the initial mixes were weak.Chambers 2002, p. 112 They encouraged the group to seek outside songwriters, preferably ones who could help them deliver hit singles. Anderson approached Rabin about the situation, and Rabin sent Anderson a demo tape with three songs, indicating that ABWH could have one but had to send the others back. Arista listened to them and wanted all of them, proposing to create a combined album with both Yes factions.Chambers 2002, p. 112\\-113 The \"Yes\\-West\" group were working on a follow\\-up to *Big Generator* and had been shopping around for a new singer, auditioning [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\") of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 \"Steve Walsh (musician)\") of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 \"Kansas (band)\"), [Robbie Nevil](/wiki/Robbie_Nevil \"Robbie Nevil\") of \"[C'est la Vie](/wiki/C%27est_la_Vie_%28Robbie_Nevil_song%29 \"C'est la Vie (Robbie Nevil song)\")\" fame,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/30492578/\\|title\\=Yes: a weird return of '70s once\\-weres and '80s wanna\\-bes\\|first\\=Roger\\|last\\=Catlin\\|page\\=4\\|date\\=18 April 1991\\|newspaper\\=Hartford Courant\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2019}} and [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") of [World Trade](/wiki/World_Trade_%28band%29 \"World Trade (band)\"). Walsh only spent one day with them, but Sherwood and the band worked well enough together and continued with writing sessions. Arista suggested that the \"Yes\\-West\" group, with Anderson on vocals, record the four songs to add to the new album which would then be released under the Yes name.",
"*[Union](/wiki/Union_%28Yes_album%29 \"Union (Yes album)\")* was released in April 1991 and is the thirteenth studio album from Yes. Each group played their own songs, with Anderson singing on all tracks. Squire sang background vocals on a few of the ABWH tracks, with Tony Levin playing all the bass on those songs. The album does not feature all eight members playing at once. The track \"Masquerade\" earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1992\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date\\=19920108\\&slug\\=1469119\\|title\\=Grammy Nominations Span Streisand, Seal, Seattle Symphony\\|date\\=8 January 1992\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2011\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Seattle Times]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Seattle Times Company]]}} Howe described the nomination for a track he had recorded solo at home as \"pure justice\", following the difficulties in making the album.{{sfn\\|Morse\\|1996\\|p\\=91}} *Union* sold approximately 1\\.5 million copies worldwide, and peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. charts. Two singles from the album were released. \"[Lift Me Up](/wiki/Lift_Me_Up_%28Yes_song%29 \"Lift Me Up (Yes song)\")\" topped the Mainstream Rock charts in May 1991 for six weeks, while \"[Saving My Heart](/wiki/Saving_My_Heart \"Saving My Heart\")\" peaked at number 9\\.",
"Almost the entire band have openly stated their dislike of *Union*.Welch 2008, pp. 324–325 Bruford has disowned the album entirely, and Wakeman was reportedly unable to recognise any of his keyboard work in the final edit and threw his copy of the album out of his limousine.Welch 2008, p. 420 He has since referred to the album as \"Onion\" because it makes him cry when he thinks about it. *Union* co\\-producer [Jonathan Elias](/wiki/Jonathan_Elias \"Jonathan Elias\") later stated publicly in an interview that Anderson, as the associate producer, knew of the session musicians' involvement. He added that he and Anderson had even initiated their contributions, because hostility between some of the band members at the time was preventing work from being accomplished.{{cite web\\|author\\=Henry Potts\\|url\\=http://www.bondegezou.co.uk/iv/jeinterview.htm\\|title\\=Bondegezou.co.uk\\|publisher\\=Bondegezou.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The [1991–1992 Union tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Union_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Union Tour\") united all eight members on a revolving circular stage.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Sutcliffe\\|first\\=Phil\\|date\\=5 March 1991\\|title\\=Stories\\|journal\\=Q Magazine\\|volume\\=55\\|pages\\=12–13}} Following the tour's conclusion in 1992, Bruford chose not to remain involved with Yes and returned to his jazz project *[Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28album%29 \"Earthworks (album)\")*. Howe also ceased his involvement with the band at this time. In August 1991, while the *Union* tour was underway, Atlantic released *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears \"Yesyears\")*, a four\\-CD box set anthology. Two accompanying home videos, *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears_%28video%29 \"Yesyears (video)\")* and *[Greatest Video Hits](/wiki/Greatest_Video_Hits_%28Yes_video%29 \"Greatest Video Hits (Yes video)\")*, were also released during 1991\\.",
"In 1993, the album *[Symphonic Music of Yes](/wiki/Symphonic_Music_of_Yes \"Symphonic Music of Yes\")* was released, featuring orchestrated Yes tracks arranged by [Dee Palmer](/wiki/Dee_Palmer \"Dee Palmer\"). Howe, Bruford and Anderson perform on the record, joined by the [London Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/London_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"London Philharmonic Orchestra\"), the [English Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/English_Chamber_Orchestra \"English Chamber Orchestra\") and the [London Community Gospel Choir](/wiki/London_Community_Gospel_Choir \"London Community Gospel Choir\"). Howe and Bruford performed together on television (presented as \"Yes\") to promote the album, marking Bruford's final performance under the Yes name before retiring from performing.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ewingpublished \\|first\\=Jerry \\|date\\=10 August 2022 \\|title\\=Revisiting the car\\-crash moment Yes inadvertently performed as a power trio on live TV \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/revisiting\\-the\\-car\\-crash\\-moment\\-yes\\-inadvertently\\-performed\\-as\\-a\\-power\\-trio\\-on\\-live\\-tv \\|website\\=loudersound \\|language\\=en}}",
"The next Yes studio album, as with *Union*, was masterminded by a record company, rather than by the band itself.Welch 2008, p. 336 Victory Music approached Rabin with a proposal to produce an album solely with the *90125* lineup. Rabin initially countered by requesting that Wakeman also be included. Rabin began assembling the album at his home, using the then\\-pioneering concept of a digital home studio, and used material written by himself and Anderson.{{Cite web \\|last\\=DeRiso \\|first\\=Nick \\|date\\=10 May 2014 \\|title\\=Trevor Rabin and Jon Anderson on Yes' Most Overlooked Album \\|url\\=https://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/05/10/it\\-was\\-a\\-perfect\\-storm\\-trevor\\-rabin\\-and\\-jon\\-anderson\\-remember\\-yes\\-most\\-overlooked\\-album/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2022 \\|website\\=Something Else! \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The new album was well into production in 1993, but Wakeman's involvement had finally been cancelled, as his refusal to leave his long\\-serving management created insuperable legal problems.",
"*[Talk](/wiki/Talk_%28Yes_album%29 \"Talk (Yes album)\")* was released in March 1994 and is the band's fourteenth studio release. Its cover was designed by [pop artist](/wiki/Pop_art \"Pop art\") [Peter Max](/wiki/Peter_Max \"Peter Max\"). The record was largely composed and performed by Rabin, with the other band members following Rabin's tracks for their respective instrumentation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\\-talk/\\|author\\=Jeff Giles\\|title\\=Revisiting Yes' Confused 1994 Album, 'Talk'\\|date\\=21 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} It was digitally recorded and produced by Rabin with engineer Michael Jay, using 3\\.4 [GB](/wiki/Gigabyte \"Gigabyte\") of hard disk storage split among four networked [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh \"Apple Macintosh\") computers running [Digital Performer](/wiki/Digital_Performer \"Digital Performer\"). The album blended elements of radio\\-friendly rock with a more structurally ambitious approach taken from the band's progressive blueprint, with the fifteen\\-minute track \"[Endless Dream](/wiki/Endless_Dream_%28Yes_song%29 \"Endless Dream (Yes song)\")\". The album reached number 20 in the UK and number 33 in the U.S. The track \"[The Calling](/wiki/The_Calling_%28Yes_song%29 \"The Calling (Yes song)\")\" reached number 2 on the *Billboard* [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks \"Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks\") chart and \"[Walls](/wiki/Walls_%28Yes_song%29 \"Walls (Yes song)\")\", which Rabin had written with former [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\") songwriter and co\\-founder [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\"), peaked at number 24\\. It also became Yes's second\\-last\\-charting single.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/12/25/roger\\-hodgson\\-yes\\-trevor\\-rabin/\\|title\\=Roger Hodgson collaboration represents road not taken for Yes: 'One of those things that fizzled out'\\|publisher\\=Something Else! Reviews\\|date\\=25 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Rabin and Hodgson wrote a lot of material together and became close friends. Yes performed \"Walls\" on *[Late Show with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Show_with_David_Letterman \"Late Show with David Letterman\")* on 20 June 1994\\.",
"The [1994 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Talk_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Talk Tour\") (for which the band included side man [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") on additional guitar and keyboards) used a sound system developed by Rabin named Concertsonics which allowed the audience located in certain seating areas to tune portable FM radios to a specific frequency, so they could hear the concert with headphones.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1994/08/05/yes\\-mines\\-cutting\\-edge\\-of\\-sound/\\|date\\=5 August 1994\\|author\\=Parry Gettelman\\|work\\=Orlando Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|title\\=Yes Mines Cutting Edge Of Sound}}",
"In early 1995, following the tour, disagreements and dissatisfactions forced another change in the band. 1990s Yes manager Jon Brewer has stated that Squire had not appreciated the *Talk* production process: \"(he) didn't like that. He didn't think it was what Yes was all about; he was very much against a computerised, digital sound at that time. So Trevor and Chris moved away from one another for quite a while.\"{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hughes \\|first1\\=Rob \\|title\\=Former Manager And Friend Jon Brewer Remembers Chris Squire \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/former\\-manager\\-and\\-friend\\-jon\\-brewer\\-remembers\\-chris\\-squire \\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Prog (magazine)\\|Prog]] \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-28}} For his part, Rabin felt that he had achieved his highest ambitions with *Talk* and lamented its disappointing reception, feeling that this was due to the fact that it \"just wasn't what people wanted to hear at the time.\" Having remarked at the conclusion of the tour \"I think I'm done\", Rabin quit the band and returned to Los Angeles, where he shifted his focus to composing for films. Kaye also left Yes to pursue other projects.",
"### 1995–2000: *Keys to Ascension*, *Open Your Eyes* and *The Ladder*",
"In November 1995, Anderson, Squire and White resurrected the \"classic\" 1970s lineup of Yes by inviting Wakeman and Howe back to the band, recording two new lengthy tracks called \"Be the One\" and \"That, That Is\". In March 1996 Yes performed three live shows at the [Fremont Theater](/wiki/Fremont_Theater \"Fremont Theater\") in [San Luis Obispo](/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo \"San Luis Obispo\"), California which were recorded and released, along with the new studio tracks, that October on [CMC International](/wiki/CMC_International \"CMC International\") Records as the *[Keys to Ascension](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension \"Keys to Ascension\")* album, which peaked at number 48 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. A same\\-titled [live video](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_%28video%29 \"Keys to Ascension (video)\") of the shows was also released that year.",
"Yes continued to record new tracks in the studio, drawing some material written around the time of the XYZ project. At one point the new songs were to be released as a studio album, but commercial considerations meant that the new tracks were eventually packaged with the remainder of the 1996 San Luis Obispo shows in November 1997 on *[Keys to Ascension 2](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_2 \"Keys to Ascension 2\")*. The record managed to reach number 62 in the UK, but failed to chart in the U.S. Disgruntled at the way a potential studio album had been sacrificed in favour of the *Keys to Ascension* releases (as well as the way in which a Yes tour was being arranged without his input or agreement), Wakeman left the group again. (The studio material from both albums would eventually be compiled and re\\-released without the live tracks onto a single CD, 2001's *[Keystudio](/wiki/Keystudio \"Keystudio\")*.)",
"With Yes in disarray again, Squire turned to Billy Sherwood (by now the band's engineer) for help.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.allaboutjazz.com/something\\-else\\-interview\\-billy\\-sherwood\\-formerly\\-of\\-yes.php\\#.VHNWNrFFDVU\\|title\\=Something Else! Interview: Billy Sherwood, Formerly of Yes\\|publisher\\=News.allaboutjazz.com\\|date\\=13 October 2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Both men had been working on a side project called [Conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28band%29 \"Conspiracy (band)\") and reworked existing demos and recordings from there to turn them into Yes songs, and also worked on new material with Anderson and White. (Howe's involvement at this stage was minimal, mainly taking place towards the end of the sessions.) Sherwood's integral involvement with the writing, production, and performance of the music led to his finally joining Yes as a full member (taking on the role of harmony singer, keyboardist and second guitarist).",
"The results of the sessions were released in November 1997 as the seventeenth Yes studio album, *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_album%29 \"Open Your Eyes (Yes album)\")* (on the Beyond Music label, who ensured that the group had greater control in packaging and naming). The music (mainly at Sherwood's urging) attempted to bridge the differing Yes styles of the 1970s and 1980s. (Sherwood: \"My goal was to try to break down those partisan walls… For that, I am proud—to have aligned planets for a moment in time.\") However, *Open Your Eyes* was not a chart success; the record peaked at number 151 on the *Billboard* 200 but failed to enter the charts in the UK. The [title single](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_song%29 \"Open Your Eyes (Yes song)\") managed to reach number 33 on the mainstream rock chart.",
"For the [1997/1998 *Open Your Eyes* tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Open_Your_Eyes_and_Thirtieth_Anniversary_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Open Your Eyes and Thirtieth Anniversary Tour\"), Yes hired Russian keyboard player [Igor Khoroshev](/wiki/Igor_Khoroshev \"Igor Khoroshev\"), who had played on some of the album tracks. Significantly, the tour setlist featured only a few pieces from the new album, and mostly concentrated on earlier material. Anderson and Howe, who had been less involved with the writing and production on *Open Your Eyes* than they'd wished, would express dissatisfaction about the album later.",
"By the time the band came to record their eighteenth studio album *[The Ladder](/wiki/The_Ladder_%28Yes_album%29 \"The Ladder (Yes album)\")* with producer [Bruce Fairbairn](/wiki/Bruce_Fairbairn \"Bruce Fairbairn\"), Khoroshev had become a full\\-time member (with Sherwood now concentrating on songwriting, vocal arrangements and second guitar). With Khoroshev's classically influenced keyboard style, and with all members now making more or less equal writing contributions, the band's sound found a balance between its eclectic 1970s progressive rock style and the more polished pop sound sought on the previous album. *The Ladder* also featured Latin music ingredients and clear world music influences, mostly brought in by Alan White (although Fairbairn's multi\\-instrumentalist colleague [Randy Raine\\-Reusch](/wiki/Randy_Raine-Reusch \"Randy Raine-Reusch\") made a strong contribution to the album's textures). One of the album tracks, \"Homeworld (The Ladder)\", was written for Relic Entertainment's [Homeworld](/wiki/Homeworld \"Homeworld\"), a real\\-time strategy computer game, and was used as the credits and outro theme. Pleased with the result of the album's creation, the band had been in tentative discussions to continue work with Fairbairn on future projects, but he died suddenly during the final mixing sessions of the album.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Morse\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=March 2000\\|title\\=Chris Squire Still Climbing\\|magazine\\=Bass Player\\|url\\=https://yesinthepress.com/2000/mar/mar\\_00\\.html\\|location\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2023}}",
"*The Ladder* was released in September 1999, peaking at number 36 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. While [on tour in 1999 and early 2000](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23The_Ladder_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#The Ladder Tour\"), Yes recorded their performance at the [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues \"House of Blues\") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley \"Las Vegas Valley\") on 31 October 1999, releasing it in September 2000 as a live album and DVD called *[House of Yes: Live from House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Yes:Live_from_House_of_Blues \"Live from House of Blues\")*. As Sherwood saw his role in Yes as creating and performing new music, and the rest of the band now wished to concentrate on performing the back catalogue, he amicably resigned from Yes at the end of the tour.",
"In summer 2000, Yes embarked on the three\\-month [Masterworks tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Masterworks_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Masterworks Tour\") of the United States, on which they performed only material which had been released between 1970 and 1974 (*The Yes Album* through to *Relayer*). While on tour, Khoroshev was involved in a backstage incident of sexual assault with a female security guard at Nissan Pavilion in [Bristow, Virginia](/wiki/Bristow%2C_Virginia \"Bristow, Virginia\") on 23 July 2000{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dailypress.com/2000/07/26/yes\\-keyboardist\\-needs\\-to\\-keep\\-his\\-hands\\-on\\-the\\-keys/\\|title\\=Yes Keyboardist Needs To Keep His Hands On The Keys\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|publisher\\=Daily Press\\|date\\=26 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630160439/http://articles.dailypress.com/2000\\-07\\-26/news/0007260043\\_1\\_guards\\-battery\\-sexually\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.pollstar.com/article/touchy\\-feely\\-musician\\-gets\\-slapped\\-11021\\|title\\=Touchy\\-Feely Musician Gets Slapped\\|magazine\\=Pollstar\\|date\\=26 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\\_00\\.html\\|title\\=Yes in the Press\\|publisher\\=Zenponies.com\\|date\\=28 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033404/http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\\_00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and parted company with the band at the end of the tour.",
"### 2001–2009: *Magnification*, *35th Anniversary Collection*, hiatus and side projects",
"Following the departures of Sherwood and Khoroshev and the death of Fairbairn, Yes once again set about reinventing themselves, this time choosing to record without a keyboardist, opting instead to include a 60\\-piece orchestra conducted by [Larry Groupé](/wiki/Larry_Group%C3%A9 \"Larry Groupé\"); the first time the band used an orchestra since *Time and a Word* in 1970\\. The result was their nineteenth studio album, 2001's *[Magnification](/wiki/Magnification_%28album%29 \"Magnification (album)\")*. The record was not a chart success; it peaked at number 71 in the UK and number 186 in the U.S. The Yes Symphonic Tour ran from July to December 2001 and had the band performing on stage with an orchestra and American keyboardist [Tom Brislin](/wiki/Tom_Brislin \"Tom Brislin\"). Their two shows in Amsterdam, in November, were recorded for their 2002 DVD and 2009 CD release *[Symphonic Live](/wiki/Symphonic_Live \"Symphonic Live\")*. The band invited Wakeman to play with them for the filming, but he was on a solo tour at the time.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nfte.org/interviews/rw263\\.html\\|title\\=Conversation with Rick Wakeman\\|first\\=Mike\\|last\\=Tiano\\|publisher\\=Notes from the Edge\\|date\\=14 July 2002\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2017}}",
"Following Wakeman's announcement of his return in April 2002, Yes embarked on their [Full Circle Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Full_Circle_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Full Circle Tour\") in 2002–2003 that included their first performances in Australia since 1973\\.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=''Billboard'' Spotlight: Yes 35th Anniversary\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0REEAAAAMBAJ\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=1 November 2003\\|pages\\=45–46, 48–50, 55–59\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media Inc}} The band's appearance in [Montreux](/wiki/Montreux \"Montreux\") on this tour was documented on the album and DVD *[Live at Montreux 2003](/wiki/Live_at_Montreux_2003 \"Live at Montreux 2003\")*, released in 2007\\. In 2002, [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records \"Rhino Records\") issued *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969%E2%80%93%29 \"Yes (1969–)\")*, a five CD box set of classic, rare and unreleased tracks from the band's history, including some from the 1979 Paris sessions, followed a year later by the compilation album *[The Ultimate Yes: 35th Anniversary Collection](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Yes:35th_Anniversary_Collection \"35th Anniversary Collection\")*, which reached number 10 in the UK charts, their highest\\-charting album since 1991, and number 131 in the U.S. During 2003 and 2004, Rhino also released remastered editions of all Yes' studio albums up to, and including, *90125*, all featuring rare and previously unreleased bonus tracks. These editions would be collected in 2013 as *[The Studio Albums 1969–1987](/wiki/The_Studio_Albums_1969%E2%80%931987 \"The Studio Albums 1969–1987\")* box set, with *Big Generator* also receiving the same treatment.",
"On 26 January 2004, the film *[Yesspeak](/wiki/Yesspeak \"Yesspeak\")* premiered in a number of select theatres, followed by a closed\\-circuit live acoustic performance of the group. Both *Yesspeak* and the acoustic performance, titled *[Yes Acoustic: Guaranteed No Hiss](/wiki/Yes_Acoustic:Guaranteed_No_Hiss \"Guaranteed No Hiss\")*, were released on DVD later that year. A [35th anniversary tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%2335th_Anniversary_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#35th Anniversary Tour\") followed in 2004 which was documented on the DVD *[Songs from Tsongas](/wiki/Songs_from_Tsongas \"Songs from Tsongas\")*, released in 2005\\.",
"In 2004, Squire, Howe and White reunited for one night only with former members [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn \"Trevor Horn\"), [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin \"Trevor Rabin\") and [Geoff Downes](/wiki/Geoff_Downes \"Geoff Downes\") during a show celebrating Horn's career, performing three Yes songs. The show video was released in DVD in 2008 under the name *Trevor Horn and Friends: Slaves to the Rhythm*.{{cite web\\|title\\=2004 concert with Trevor Horn\\|url\\=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=75O9XiiYHPA \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/75O9XiiYHPA\\| archive\\-date\\=11 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\| date\\=19 June 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Trevor Horn and Friends: Slaves to Rhythm\\|url\\=https://www.popmatters.com/review/108749\\-trevor\\-horn\\-and\\-friends\\-slaves\\-to\\-rhythm/\\|website\\=Popmatter.com\\|date\\=23 July 2009\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} On 18 March 2003, minor planet [(7707\\) Yes](/wiki/7707_Yes \"7707 Yes\") was named in honour of the band.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/rocknroll/0007707\\.html\\|title\\=(7707\\) Yes\\|publisher\\=Cbat.eps.harvard.edu\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}",
"After their 35th Anniversary Tour, Yes described themselves as \"on hiatus\". Howe recalls this break as very much welcomed by the band due to the heavy touring of the previous year and a half, and in his opinion necessary{{sfn\\|Howe\\|2021\\|p\\=234}} since the band's performance on the later (European) shows of the Full Circle Tour had started to deteriorate as a result of heavier alcohol consumption by Squire and other members in spite of rules the band had agreed on in 2001 barring drinking prior to or during shows.{{sfn\\|Howe\\|2021\\|p\\=227\\-28}}",
"During this period, Anderson toured both solo and jointly with Wakeman (for concerts focused largely on Yes material); Squire released his long\\-awaited second solo album, and White launched his own eponymous band [White](/wiki/White_%28band%29 \"White (band)\") (subsequently joining fellow Yes\\-men Tony Kaye and Billy Sherwood in [Circa](/wiki/Circa_%28band%29 \"Circa (band)\")). Wakeman also continued to release solo material, as did Howe, who released three solo albums and also reunited to record, release and tour with once\\-and\\-future Yes bandmate Geoff Downes in the reunion of the original [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 \"Asia (band)\") lineup.",
"In May 2008, a fortieth\\-anniversary Close to the Edge and Back Tour—which was to feature [Oliver Wakeman](/wiki/Oliver_Wakeman \"Oliver Wakeman\") on keyboards—was announced. Anderson has said that they had been preparing four new \"lengthy, multi\\-movement compositions\" for the tour,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/ex\\-yes\\-frontman\\-jon\\-anderson\\-opens\\-up\\-about\\-getting\\-fired\\-20110706\\|title\\=Ex\\-Yes Frontman Jon Anderson Opens Up About Getting Fired\\|work\\=Rolling Stone Music \\|author\\=Andy Greene\\|date\\=6 July 2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} but he had expressed disinterest in producing a new studio album after the low sales of *Magnification*, suggesting that recording one was not \"logical anymore\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1045684/yes\\-reveals\\-very\\-different\\-new\\-material\\|title\\=Yes Reveals 'Very Different' New Material\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|author\\=Gary Graff\\|date\\=1 May 2010\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The tour was abruptly cancelled prior to rehearsals, after Anderson suffered an asthma attack and was diagnosed with acute respiratory failure, and was advised by doctors to avoid touring for six months.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/nme\\-1293\\-1332478\\|title\\=Yes cancel 40th anniversary tour\\|publisher\\=NME\\|date\\=4 June 2008\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}",
"In September 2008, the remaining three members, eager to resume touring regardless of Anderson's availability, announced a tour billed as Steve Howe, Chris Squire and Alan White of Yes, with Oliver Wakeman on keyboards and new lead singer [Benoît David](/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_David \"Benoît David\"), a Canadian musician who'd previously played with [Mystery](/wiki/Mystery_%28band%29 \"Mystery (band)\") and with Yes tribute band Close to the Edge.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hardrockhideout.wordpress.com/2008/09/12/yes\\-to\\-tour\\-with\\-replacement\\-singer/\\|title\\=Yes To Tour With Replacement Singer\\|author\\=Rob Rockitt\\|website\\=Hard Rock Hideout\\|date\\=12 September 2008\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Anderson expressed his disappointment that his former bandmates had not waited for his recovery, nor handled the situation \"in a more gentlemanly fashion\", and while he wished them well, he referred to their ongoing endeavours as \"solo work\" and emphasised his view that their band \"is not Yes\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/yes\\-jon\\-anderson\\-disappointed\\-that\\-band\\-recruited\\-replacement\\-20080924\\|author\\=Daniel Kreps\\|title\\=Yes' Jon Anderson \"Disappointed\" That Band Recruited Replacement\\|date\\=24 September 2008\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Anderson later stated \"I didn’t leave the band, they got a new singer… you’ve got to move on, do your own thing, it’s okay. But you’re still a friend of mine because we went through so much together…\" {{cite web \\|title\\=\"I contacted Steve Howe and got very little back. Eventually you say, ‘OK, I’ve got to move on’\": Jon Anderson is finally over the idea of rejoining Yes \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/i\\-contacted\\-steve\\-howe\\-and\\-got\\-very\\-little\\-back\\-eventually\\-you\\-say\\-ok\\-ive\\-got\\-to\\-move\\-on\\-jon\\-anderson\\-is\\-finally\\-over\\-the\\-idea\\-of\\-rejoining\\-yes \\|website\\=Classic Rock \\|publisher\\=Louder Sound \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2024}}",
"As Anderson was a co\\-owner of the Yes trademark, the remaining members agreed at the time not to tour with the Yes name.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/487686312/\\|title\\=Rock band says Yes to YouTube star\\|first\\=Brian\\|last\\=Mansfield\\|newspaper\\=Calgary Herald\\|page\\=C7\\|date\\=4 November 2008\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2019}} The [In the Present Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23In_the_Present_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#In the Present Tour\") started in November 2008, but it was cut short in the following February when Squire required emergency surgery on an [aneurysm](/wiki/Aneurysm \"Aneurysm\") in his leg.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.musicnewsnet.com/2009/02/prog\\-rockers\\-yes\\-cancel\\-slate\\-of\\-gigs.html\\|title\\=Prog Rockers YES Cancel Slate of Gigs\\|author\\=Mal Westerly\\|publisher\\=MusicNewsNet.com\\|date\\=12 February 2009\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218144241/http://www.musicnewsnet.com/2009/02/prog\\-rockers\\-yes\\-cancel\\-slate\\-of\\-gigs.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.radioswissjazz.ch/en/music\\-database/musician/3327448684dbe1a0846abd180f6a9f4e54a7d/biography\\|title\\=Chris Squire\\|publisher\\=Radio Swiss Jazz\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=14 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214162110/http://www.radioswissjazz.ch/en/music\\-database/musician/3327448684dbe1a0846abd180f6a9f4e54a7d/biography\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Touring resumed in June 2009, with Asia and Peter Frampton supporting the band at several shows.",
"### 2009–2015: Lineup changes, *Fly from Here*, *Heaven \\& Earth* and album series tours",
"In October 2009, Squire declared that the new lineup from the *In the Present* Tour \"is now Yes\", and the tour, with the band now billed as Yes, continued through 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://auralmoon.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=2885\\|title\\=Yes\\|publisher\\=Aural Moon\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Their 2010 studio sessions would yield material eventually to be released as *[From a Page](/wiki/From_a_Page \"From a Page\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-revisit\\-2010\\-recordings\\-for\\-new\\-album\\-from\\-a\\-page\\|title\\=Yes revisit 2010 recordings for new album From A Page\\|date\\=25 October 2019\\|publisher\\=Louder Sound}}",
"In August 2010, it was announced that new material had been written for *[Fly from Here](/wiki/Fly_from_Here \"Fly from Here\")*, Yes's twentieth studio album.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://newsok.com/yes\\-peter\\-frampton\\-performing\\-at\\-lucky\\-star\\-casino\\-in\\-oklahoma/article/3472712/?page\\=2\\|title\\=Yes, Peter Frampton performing at Lucky Star Casino in Oklahoma\\|author\\=Genbe Triplett\\|publisher\\=NewsOK.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/276493\\|author\\=Earl Dittman\\|title\\=On the road again, Prog\\-rockers Yes say 'no' to calling it quits\\|publisher\\=DigitalJournal\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Yes then signed a deal with [Frontiers Records](/wiki/Frontiers_Records \"Frontiers Records\") and began recording in Los Angeles with Trevor Horn serving as producer. Much of the album material was extrapolated from a pair of songs written by Horn and Geoff Downes around the time that they had been Yes members during 1980 and the *Drama* album. During the recording sessions, the band thought it would be wise to bring Downes back to replace Oliver Wakeman on keyboards, reasoning that he was closer to the material. Asserting that all studio recording was to be carried out by \"the lineup that actually ... does the work\", Howe dispelled rumours that an invitation to sing on the record had been extended to Anderson, who subsequently announced a new project as an ongoing collaboration with former Yes members Wakeman and Rabin.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.premierguitar.com/articles/Interview\\_Steve\\_Howe\\_on\\_Asias\\_Omega\\_Touring\\_With\\_Yes\\_and\\_the\\_Steve\\_Howe\\_Trio?page\\=2 \\|title\\=Interview: Steve Howe on Asia's \"Omega\", Touring With Yes, and the Steve Howe Trio\\|date\\=29 July 2010\\|publisher\\=Premier Guitar\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=Trevor Rabin Interview\\|first\\=Malcolm\\|last\\=Dome\\|journal\\=Classic Rock Presents ... Prog\\|date\\=March 2010\\|issue\\=14}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=Saying Yes to Seizing the Moment\\|first\\=Mike\\|last\\=Mettler\\|journal\\=Progression\\|issue\\=70\\|date\\=Fall 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://guitarinternational.com/2010/10/21/interivew\\-with\\-composer\\-guitarist\\-and\\-recording\\-artist\\-trevor\\-rabin/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220072808/http://guitarinternational.com/2010/10/21/interivew\\-with\\-composer\\-guitarist\\-and\\-recording\\-artist\\-trevor\\-rabin/\\|date\\=21 October 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2011\\|title\\=Trevor Rabin Interview: Guitarist, Composer, Performer\\|first\\=Arlene R.\\|last\\=Weiss\\|publisher\\=Guitar International\\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2016}}",
"Upon completion of recording in March 2011,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bradenton.com/2011/03/10/3020865/yes\\-squire\\-on\\-bands\\-first\\-album.html\\|title\\=Yes' Squire on band's first album in a decade\\|publisher\\=Bradenton.com\\|date\\=10 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317021234/http://www.bradenton.com/2011/03/10/3020865/yes\\-squire\\-on\\-bands\\-first\\-album.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and post\\-production a month later,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theweekender.com/music/Affirmative\\_action\\_03\\-22\\-2011\\.html\\|title\\=Affirmative action\\|author\\=Nikki M. Mascali\\|work\\=The Weekender\\|date\\=22 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721143943/http://www.theweekender.com/music/Affirmative\\_action\\_03\\-22\\-2011\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} the album was released worldwide that July.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://heraldbuzzworthy.blogspot.com/2011/03/new\\-yes\\-album\\-fly\\-from\\-here\\-ready\\-for.html\\|title\\=Buzz Worthy: New Yes album 'Fly From Here' ready for release\\|publisher\\=Buzz Worthy\\|date\\=3 March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2017}} *Fly from Here* peaked at number 30 in the UK and 36 in the U.S.",
"In March 2011 Yes embarked on their [Rite of Spring and Fly from Here tours](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Rite_of_Spring_and_Fly_From_Here_Tours_2011-2012 \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Rite of Spring and Fly From Here Tours 2011-2012\") to support *Fly from Here*,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.expressandstar.com/entertainment/2011/11/12/concert\\-review\\-yes\\-at\\-birmingham\\-symphony\\-hall/\\|title\\=Concert review: Yes at Birmingham Symphony Hall\\|work\\=Express \\& Star\\|date\\=12 November 2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} with [Styx](/wiki/Styx_%28band%29 \"Styx (band)\") and [Procol Harum](/wiki/Procol_Harum \"Procol Harum\") supporting on select dates. 2011 saw the release of the live Yes album and DVD, *[In the Present – Live from Lyon](/wiki/In_the_Present_%E2%80%93_Live_from_Lyon \"In the Present – Live from Lyon\")*, taken from the band's previous tour. Trevor Rabin joined the band in playing \"Owner of a Lonely Heart\" at one show in Los Angeles.",
"[thumb\\|In February 2012, David was replaced by singer Jon Davison (pictured).](/wiki/File:Jon_Davison_-_24_de_Maio_de_2013.JPG \"Jon Davison - 24 de Maio de 2013.JPG\")\nIn February 2012, after David contracted a respiratory illness, he was replaced by [Glass Hammer](/wiki/Glass_Hammer \"Glass Hammer\") singer [Jon Davison](/wiki/Jon_Davison \"Jon Davison\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.noise11\\.com/news/exclusive\\-yes\\-recruit\\-another\\-new\\-singer\\-20120208\\|title\\=EXCLUSIVE: Yes Recruit Another New Singer\\|publisher\\=Noise11\\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2012\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Cashmere\\|date\\=8 February 2012}} Davison was recommended to Squire by their common friend [Taylor Hawkins](/wiki/Taylor_Hawkins \"Taylor Hawkins\"), drummer for the [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters \"Foo Fighters\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ramsey \\|first\\=Bill \\|date\\=13 September 2012 \\|title\\=Glass Hammer Singer is Yes Frontman \\|url\\=http://www.chattanoogapulse.com/articles/glass\\-hammer\\-singer\\-is\\-yes\\-frontman/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022 \\|website\\=The Pulse » Chattanooga's Weekly Alternative \\|language\\=en\\-us}} Following the announcement Anderson expressed his disappointment that \"they had to get yet another singer after the guy who replaced me became ill,\" stating that he offered to \"get back with them\" due to his being \"healthy again\", and expressed his view that \"they have let a lot of fans down.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dallasobserver.com/music/jon\\-anderson\\-on\\-obama\\-radiohead\\-and\\-yes\\-7051743\\|title\\=Jon Anderson on Obama, Radiohead and Yes \\|date\\=28 February 2012 \\|newspaper\\=Dallas Observer}} Davison would join Yes to complete the band's scheduled dates across the year.",
"On 7 March 2013, founding guitarist [Peter Banks](/wiki/Peter_Banks \"Peter Banks\") died of heart failure.",
"From March 2013 to June 2014, Yes completed their [Three Album Tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Three_Album_Tour_2013-2014 \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Three Album Tour 2013-2014\") where they performed *The Yes Album*, *Close to the Edge* and *Going for the One* in their entirety.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.progrockmag.com/news/steve\\-howe\\-wanted\\-3\\-album\\-yes\\-tour\\-for\\-years/\\|title\\=Steve Howe Wanted 3\\-Album Yes Tour For Years\\|author\\=Martin Kielty\\|publisher\\=Progrockmag.com\\|date\\=18 December 2012\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128022113/http://www.progrockmag.com/news/steve\\-howe\\-wanted\\-3\\-album\\-yes\\-tour\\-for\\-years/\\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.guitarworld.com/yes\\-revisit\\-three\\-classic\\-albums\\-2013\\-north\\-american\\-tour\\|title\\=Yes to Revisit Three Classic Albums on 2013 North American Tour\\|publisher\\=GuitarWorld\\|date\\=10 December 2012\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|author\\=Damian Fanelli}} During the tour, they led a progressive\\-rock themed cruise titled \"Cruise to the Edge\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yesworld.com/\\|title\\=Official website for the progressive rock band YES\\|publisher\\=Yesworld.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} A second cruise happened in April 2014, and the band headlined the November 2015 edition. The show on 11 May 2014 in Bristol was released as *[Like It Is: Yes at the Bristol Hippodrome](/wiki/Like_It_Is:Yes_at_the_Bristol_Hippodrome \"Yes at the Bristol Hippodrome\")* in 2014, featuring performances of *Going for the One* and *The Yes Album*.",
"*[Heaven \\& Earth](/wiki/Heaven_%26_Earth_%28Yes_album%29 \"Heaven & Earth (Yes album)\")*, the band's twenty\\-first studio album and first with Davison, was recorded between January and March 2014,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lordsofmetal.nl/nl/interviews/view/id/4957\\|title\\=Lords of Metal ezine \\|publisher\\=Lordsofmetal.nl\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/asiageoff/status/441997244611317760\\|title\\=Twitter / asiageoff: See ya Los Angeles! Done my \\|publisher\\=Twitter\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jambase.com/article/tour\\-dates\\-yes\\-u\\-s\\-summer\\-tour\\-2014\\|title\\=Tour Dates \\| Yes U.S Summer Tour 2014 on JamBase\\|publisher\\=Jambase.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} at Neptune Studios in Los Angeles with [Roy Thomas Baker](/wiki/Roy_Thomas_Baker \"Roy Thomas Baker\") as producer and former band member [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") as engineer on backing vocals{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid\\=10152035889019141\\&set\\=a.147650954140\\.117254\\.752104140\\&type\\=1\\&stream\\_ref\\=10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/752104140/10152035889019141 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Billy Sherwood announces involvement in next Yes album on Facebook\\|date\\=5 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} and mixer. Squire enjoyed working with Baker again, describing him as a \"force in the studio\" (Baker had previously worked with the group in the late 70s on a project that had ultimately been scrapped).{{Cite magazine \\|last1\\=Graff \\|first1\\=Gary \\|date\\=2 April 2014 \\|title\\=Chris Squire of Yes Talks 'Heaven and Earth' Album, New Singer, Rock Hall \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\\-news/chris\\-squire\\-of\\-yes\\-talks\\-heaven\\-and\\-earth\\-album\\-new\\-singer\\-rock\\-hall\\-6032603/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2022 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Howe reflected that he \"tried to slow down\" the album production in hopes that \"maybe we could refine it ...\" and compared it to the success of the band's classic works in which they \"arranged the hell out of\" the material.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2017/04/askyes\\-qa\\-steve\\-howe\\-march\\-2017/\\|title\\=\\#askYES – Q\\&A with Steve Howe – March 2017\\|date\\=3 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} He wrote later that Baker behaved erratically and was difficult to work with, and was dissatisfied with the final mixes of the album.{{sfn\\|Howe\\|2021\\|p\\=281–84}}",
"To promote *Heaven \\& Earth*, Yes resumed touring between July and November 2014 with a world tour covering North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, playing *Fragile* and *Close to the Edge* in their entirety with select songs from *Heaven \\& Earth* and encores.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2014/03/yes\\-u\\-s\\-tour\\-summer\\-2014\\-fragile\\-close\\-edge\\-greatest\\-hits\\-heaven\\-earth/\\|title\\=Yes US 2014 Summer Tour: Fragile, Close To The Edge, Heaven \\& Earth\\|date\\=24 March 2014\\|publisher\\=Yesworld.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/360864\\|title\\=Interview with rock band Yes: 'Cruise To The Edge' (Includes interview)\\|publisher\\=DigitalJournal\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The show in [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona \"Mesa, Arizona\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\") was released in 2015 as *[Like It Is: Yes at the Mesa Arts Center](/wiki/Like_It_Is:Yes_at_the_Mesa_Arts_Center \"Yes at the Mesa Arts Center\")* which features the performances of *Close to the Edge* and *Fragile*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2015/04/yes\\-and\\-toto\\-2015\\-north\\-american\\-summer\\-tour/\\|title\\=YES \\& Toto Summer 2015 Tour\\|publisher\\=Yesworld.com\\|date\\=23 April 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amazon.com/Like\\-\\-Yes\\-Live\\-Mesa\\-Center/dp/B00WN515N6/ref\\=sr\\_1\\_2?ie\\=UTF8\\&qid\\=1430429093\\&sr\\=8\\-2\\&keywords\\=yes\\+like\\+it\\+is \\|title\\=YES: Like It Is\\-Yes Live At The Mesa Arts Center \\[2 CD/DVD Combo]: Music\\|website\\=Amazon.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}",
"### 2015–2018: Squire's death, Yes Featuring ARW, and 50th Anniversary Tour",
"In May 2015, news of Squire's diagnosis with [acute erythroid leukaemia](/wiki/Acute_erythroid_leukaemia \"Acute erythroid leukaemia\") was made public. This resulted in former guitarist [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") replacing him for their [2015 summer North American tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23North_American_Summer_Tour_2015 \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#North American Summer Tour 2015\") with [Toto](/wiki/Toto_%28band%29 \"Toto (band)\") between August–September, and their third annual Cruise to the Edge voyage in November, while Squire was receiving treatment. His condition deteriorated soon after, and he died on 27 June at his home in Phoenix, Arizona. Downes first announced Squire's death on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\").{{cite magazine\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321153658/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/chris\\-squire\\-yes\\-bassist\\-and\\-co\\-founder\\-dead\\-at\\-67\\-20150628\\|archive\\-date\\=21 March 2016\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/chris\\-squire\\-yes\\-bassist\\-and\\-co\\-founder\\-dead\\-at\\-67\\-20150628\\#ixzz3eOA0r7w8\\|title\\=Chris Squire, Yes Bassist and Co\\-Founder, Dead at 67\\|author\\=Daniel Kreps\\|date\\=28 June 2015\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Squire asked White and Sherwood to continue the legacy of the band,{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/6640906/yes\\-moving\\-forward\\-chris\\-squire\\-death\\-interview\\|title\\=Yes Continues On After Death of Bassist Chris Squire: 'Absolutely We're Moving Ahead'\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=21 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} which Sherwood recalled \"was paramount in his mind ... so I'm happy to be doing that.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2015/08/askyes\\-qa\\-with\\-billy\\-sherwood\\-25\\-august\\-2015/\\|title\\=\\#askYES – Q\\&A with Billy Sherwood – 25 August 2015\\|date\\=27 August 2015\\|publisher\\=Yes\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Yes performed without Squire, for the first time in their 47\\-year history, on 7 August 2015 in Mashantucket, Connecticut.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2015/05/chris\\-squire\\-to\\-undergo\\-treatment\\-for\\-leukemia/\\|title\\=Chris Squire to undergo treatment for Leukemia\\|date\\=19 May 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yesworld.com/2015/04/yes\\-and\\-toto\\-2015\\-north\\-american\\-summer\\-tour/\\|title\\=YES \\& Toto 2015 North American Summer Tour\\|date\\=6 April 2015\\|website\\=Yesworld.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yes.concerttournewshub.com/\\|title\\=Yes \\& Toto 2015 Co\\-Headlining North American Summer Tour Schedule\\|date\\=6 April 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417034432/http://yes.concerttournewshub.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2015}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2015/apr/06/yes\\-and\\-toto\\-teaming\\-up\\-for\\-tour/\\|title\\=Yes \\& Toto announce joint tour\\|date\\=6 April 2015\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} In November 2015, they completed their annual Cruise to the Edge voyage.",
"In January 2016, former Yes members Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman announced their new group, [Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman](/wiki/Yes_Featuring_Jon_Anderson%2C_Trevor_Rabin%2C_Rick_Wakeman \"Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman\") (ARW), something that had been in the works for the previous six years.{{cite episode\\|series\\=Rick's Place\\|first\\=Rick\\|last\\=Wakeman\\|station\\=\\[\\[Planet Rock (radio station)\\|Planet Rock]]\\|date\\=6 February 2010\\|time\\=10:00 a.m.–12:00 a.m.}} Wakeman stated that Squire's passing inspired them to go ahead with the band.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theqrocks.com/2016/02/24/ex\\-yes\\-members\\-jon\\-anderson\\-rick\\-wakeman\\-and\\-trevor\\-rabin\\-team\\-up\\-for\\-new\\-music/\\|title\\=Ex\\-Yes Members Jon Anderson, Rick Wakeman and Trevor Rabin Team Up for New Music\\|website\\=WHDQ}} Anderson said they had begun writing new material.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/TheJonAnderson/posts/10153760509980435 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/72582375434/10153760509980435 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Jon Anderson – I think about writing everyday, so it's ...\\|publisher\\=Facebook\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} Their first tour, [An Evening of Yes Music and More](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_and_More \"An Evening of Yes Music and More\"), began in October 2016 and lasted for one year with drummer Lou Molino III and bassist Lee Pomeroy. Following Yes's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the band renamed themselves Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/two\\-yes\\-bands\\-jon\\-anderson/\\|title\\=Double the Yes? Jon Anderson Says No Problem!\\|date\\=20 February 2018\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2018\\|publisher\\=Ultimate Classic Rock}} After a [four\\-month tour](/wiki/Quintessential_Yes:The_50th_Anniversary_Tour \"The 50th Anniversary Tour\") in 2018 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Yes, the group disbanded.",
"Meanwhile, Howe \\& White's ongoing Yes lineup performed *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 \"Fragile (Yes album)\")* and *[Drama](/wiki/Drama_%28Yes_album%29 \"Drama (Yes album)\")* in their entirety on their April–June, [2016 European tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29 \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)\"). [Trevor Horn](/wiki/Trevor_Horn \"Trevor Horn\") was a guest vocalist for two UK shows, singing \"Tempus Fugit\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iguitarmag.com/news/2016/04/trevor\\-horn\\-to\\-join\\-yes\\-on\\-stage\\-at\\-royal\\-albert\\-hall/\\|title\\=Trevor Horn to join Yes on stage at Royal Albert Hall\\|work\\=Interactive Guitar Magazine\\|date\\=2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} For the subsequent North American tour between July and September of that year, the set was changed to include *Drama* and sides one and four of *[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans \"Tales from Topographic Oceans\")*.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/yes\\-plot\\-summer\\-tour\\-behind\\-drama\\-topographic\\-oceans\\-lps\\-20160411\\|title\\=Yes Plot Summer Tour Behind 'Drama,' 'Topographic Oceans' LPs\\|author\\=Ryan Reed\\|date\\=11 April 2016\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone}} White missed the latter to recover from back surgery; he was replaced by American drummer [Jay Schellen](/wiki/Jay_Schellen \"Jay Schellen\").{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/7439179/yes\\-drummer\\-alan\\-white\\-back\\-surgery\\-summer\\-tour\\|title\\=Yes Drummer Alan White Bows Out of Summer Tour After Surgery, Will Rejoin 'In the Near Future'\\|author\\=Colin Stutz\\|date\\=18 July 2016\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} [Dylan Howe](/wiki/Dylan_Howe \"Dylan Howe\"), Steve's son, had originally been asked to be White's standby, but was prevented from being involved by visa problems.\"All My Yesterdays\", by Steve Howe, Omnibus Press, 2020, p. 290 White returned on a part\\-time basis in November for their 2016 Japanese tour;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2016/09/yes\\-announce\\-japanese\\-tour\\-in\\-november\\-2016\\|title\\=YES announce Japanese Tour in November 2016\\|date\\=September 2016\\|website\\=yesworld.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\\.74071\\.223599747652021/1394185793926738/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/1394185793926738 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Alan White rejoins YES for Japan Tour \\& Cruise To The Edge\\|date\\=14 October 2016\\|website\\=Facebook\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cbignore}} until the following February, Schellen continued to sit in for White on most shows, with White playing on some songs. The live album *[Topographic Drama – Live Across America](/wiki/Topographic_Drama_%E2%80%93_Live_Across_America \"Topographic Drama – Live Across America\")*, recorded on the 2016 tour, was released in late 2017 and marks Yes's first not to feature Squire.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\\-09\\-28/yes\\-announce\\-new\\-live\\-album\\-topographic\\-drama\\|title\\=Yes announce new live album Topographic Drama\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Munro\\|date\\=28 September 2017\\|publisher\\=Team Rock\\|access\\-date\\=30 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\\-topographic\\-drama/\\|title\\=Yes Announce 'Topographic Drama' Live Album\\|work\\=Ultimate Classic Rock\\|date\\=28 September 2017\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017}} In February 2017, Yes toured the U.S. which included their headline spot at Cruise to the Edge.",
"[thumb\\|Yes performing at the [Westbury Theatre](/wiki/NYCB_Theatre_at_Westbury \"NYCB Theatre at Westbury\") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") on 18 July 2018](/wiki/File:Yesperformingwestbury20184.jpg \"Yesperformingwestbury20184.jpg\")\nYes toured the U.S. and Canada with the Yestival Tour from August to September 2017, performing at least one song from each album from *Yes* to *Drama*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\\-2017\\-dates\\-yestival/\\|title\\=Yes Announce Summer 2017 'Yestival' Tour Dates\\|author\\=Jeff Giles\\|date\\=6 April 2017 \\|publisher\\=Ultimate Classic Rock\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} [Dylan Howe](/wiki/Dylan_Howe \"Dylan Howe\") joined the band as a second drummer.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://bravewords.com/news/yes\\-drummer\\-alan\\-white\\-welcomes\\-dylan\\-howe\\-to\\-join\\-rhythm\\-section\\-for\\-north\\-american\\-yestival\\-tour\\|title\\=YES Drummer Alan White Welcomes Dylan Howe To Join Rhythm Section For North American Yestival Tour\\|publisher\\=Bravewords\\|date\\=26 July 2017\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The tour was cut short following the unexpected death of Howe's son and Dylan's brother [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil_Howe \"Virgil Howe\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\\.74071\\.223599747652021/1859385384073441/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/1859385384073441 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Due to the tragic, unexpected death of guitarist Steve Howe's beloved younger son, Virgil\\|work\\=Yes' official \\[\\[facebook]]\\|first\\=John\\|last\\=Walters\\|date\\=11 June 2018\\|access\\-date\\=6 July 2018}}{{cbignore}}",
"In February 2018, Yes headlined Cruise to the Edge involving original keyboardist [Tony Kaye](/wiki/Tony_Kaye_%28musician%29 \"Tony Kaye (musician)\") as a special guest, marking his first performances with the band since 1994\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://therockrevival.com/classic\\-rock/yes50\\-celebrating\\-50\\-years\\-yes/\\|title\\=\\#YES50: Celebrating 50 Years of Yes\\|date\\=29 May 2018\\|publisher\\=The Rock Revival\\|first\\=Johnnie\\|last\\=Crow\\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2018}} This was followed by the band's 50th Anniversary Tour with a European leg in March, playing half of *Tales from Topographic Oceans* and a selection of songs from their history. The two London dates included an anniversary fan convention which coincided with the release of *[Fly from Here – Return Trip](/wiki/Fly_from_Here%23Fly_from_Here_%E2%80%93_Return_Trip \"Fly from Here#Fly from Here – Return Trip\")*, a new version of the album with new lead vocals and mixes by Horn, who also performed as a special guest singer during a few shows on the leg.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\\-09\\-05/yes\\-announce\\-50th\\-anniversary\\-uk\\-and\\-european\\-tour\\|title\\=Yes announce 50th anniversary UK and European tour\\|author\\=Scott Munro\\|date\\=5 September 2017\\|publisher\\=Team Rock\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://teamrock.com/news/2017\\-12\\-07/yes\\-announce\\-weekend\\-of\\-london\\-events\\-to\\-celebrate\\-50th\\-anniversary\\|title\\=Yes announce weekend of London events to celebrate 50th anniversary\\|date\\=7 December 2017\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Munro\\|publisher\\=Team Rock\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\\-trevor\\-horn\\-50th\\-anniversary\\-tour/\\|title\\=TREVOR HORN TO REJOIN YES FOR THREE ANNIVERSARY SHOWS\\|work\\=Ultimate Classic Rock\\|date\\=12 March 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2018}} A U.S. leg in June and July also included guest performances from Kaye, Horn, [Tom Brislin](/wiki/Tom_Brislin \"Tom Brislin\") and [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz \"Patrick Moraz\"), who had last performed with Yes in 1976\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/yes\\-50th\\-anniversary\\-tour\\-to\\-feature\\-tony\\-kaye\\-as\\-special\\-guest/\\|title\\=YES: 50th\\-Anniversary Tour To Feature TONY KAYE As 'Special Guest'\\|website\\=Blabbermouth.net\\|date\\=2 May 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2018/03/yes50\\-tour\\-commences\\-tuesday\\-13th\\-march/\\|title\\=\\#YES50 TOUR commences Tuesday 13th March\n\\|work\\=Yesworld.com\\|date\\=9 March 2018\n\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.686832491328742\\.1073741830\\.223599747652021/2228599030485406/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2228599030485406 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Who's ready for Patrick Moraz AND Tony Kaye with YES, live in Philadelphia on July 20 \\& 21? \\|work\\=Yes' official facebook\\|date\\= 24 May 2018\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2018}}{{cbignore}} The tour culminated with a Japanese leg in February 2019\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://udo.jp/concert/Yes\\|title\\=YES／イエス – CELEBRATING 50 YEARS OF YES\\|publisher\\=UDO Artists\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2018}} Schellen continued to play as a second drummer to support White, who had a bacterial infection in his joints from November 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2018/05/founding\\-member\\-tony\\-kaye\\-talks\\-50\\-years\\-yes\\-ahead\\-joining\\-band\\-summers\\-35\\-date\\-north\\-american\\-tour/\\|title\\=Tony Kaye Talks 50 Years Of YES and More\\|work\\=Yesworld.com\\|date\\=22 May 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\\.74071\\.223599747652021/1924544957557483/?type\\=3\\&theater\\|title\\=TONY KAYE, founder member of YES is Special Guest for the band's 2018 \\#YES50 50th Anniversary\\|work\\=Yes' official \\[\\[facebook]]\\|date\\=1 November 2017\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/yestheband/photos/a.232253266786669\\.74071\\.223599747652021/2059173634094614/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/223599747652021/2059173634094614 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=MESSAGE FROM ALAN WHITE\\|work\\=Yes' official \\[\\[facebook]]\\|date\\=2 January 2018\\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2018}}{{cbignore}} The tour was documented with the live album *[Yes 50 Live](/wiki/Yes_50_Live \"Yes 50 Live\")*, released in 2019\\.",
"### 2019–present: *The Quest*, White's death, *Mirror to the Sky*, and upcoming 24th album",
"In June and July 2019, Yes headlined the Royal Affair Tour across the U.S. with a lineup featuring [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28band%29 \"Asia (band)\"), [John Lodge](/wiki/John_Lodge_%28musician%29 \"John Lodge (musician)\") and [Carl Palmer](/wiki/Carl_Palmer \"Carl Palmer\")'s [ELP](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer \"Emerson, Lake & Palmer\") Legacy with [Arthur Brown](/wiki/Arthur_Brown_%28musician%29 \"Arthur Brown (musician)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2019/04/yes\\-announces\\-the\\-royal\\-affair\\-tour\\-launching\\-june\\-12\\-in\\-bethlehem\\-pa/\\|title\\=YES Announces \"The Royal Affair Tour\" Launching June 12 In Bethlehem, Pa\\|last\\=yesadmin\\|date\\=2 April 2019}}{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/yes\\-announce\\-royal\\-affair\\-tour\\-with\\-asia\\-john\\-lodge\\-carl\\-palmer\\-816530/ \\|title\\=Yes Announce 'Royal Affair Tour' With Asia, John Lodge, Carl Palmer \\|date\\=2 April 2019 \\|first\\=Andy \\|last\\=Greene \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2019}} This was followed by previously unreleased music, recorded during the *Fly from Here* sessions, released as *[From a Page](/wiki/From_a_Page \"From a Page\")*, a release spearheaded by Oliver Wakeman who wrote most of its material. The CD version includes an expanded edition of *[In the Present – Live from Lyon](/wiki/In_the_Present_%E2%80%93_Live_from_Lyon \"In the Present – Live from Lyon\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/yes\\-reveals\\-four\\-previously\\-unreleased\\-2010\\-recordings\\-on\\-the\\-new\\-from\\-a\\-page\\-mini\\-box\\-set/\\|title\\=YES Reveals Four Previously Unreleased 2010 Recordings On The New 'From A Page' Mini\\-Box Set\\|date\\=25 October 2019\\|website\\=Blabbermouth.net}} A live album from the Royal Affair Tour, entitled *[The Royal Affair Tour: Live from Las Vegas](/wiki/The_Royal_Affair_Tour:Live_from_Las_Vegas \"Live from Las Vegas\")*, was released in October 2020\\. Videos of Dean creating the album cover were streamed live on Facebook.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-announce\\-new\\-live\\-album\\-for\\-october\\|title\\=Yes announce new live album for October\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=2 September 2020\\|work\\=Louder Sound\\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2020}} Yes had planned to resume touring in 2020, beginning with a short U.S. leg in March and their appearance on Cruise to the Edge, followed by a European tour that continued their Album Series Tour and featured *[Relayer](/wiki/Relayer \"Relayer\")* performed in its entirety.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-announce\\-tour\\-with\\-alan\\-parsons\\-live\\-project\\|title\\=Yes announce tour with Alan Parsons Live Project\\|publisher\\=Louder Sound\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Munro\\|date\\=21 January 2020\\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2020}} Both tours were postponed due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2020/03/yes\\-postpone\\-forthcoming\\-u\\-s\\-dates\\-and\\-cancel\\-appearances\\-on\\-cruise\\-to\\-the\\-edge/\\|title\\=YES Cancel Forthcoming U.S. Dates And Will Not Be Performing On This Year's \"Cruise To The Edge\"\\|website\\=Yesworld.com\\|date\\=11 March 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://yesworld.com/2020/03/yes\\-postpones\\-album\\-series\\-2020\\-tour/\\|title\\=YES Postpone UK \\& European Album Series 2020 Tour Dates\\|website\\=Yesworld.com\\|date\\=20 March 2020}} Later in 2020, Davison and Sherwood formed Arc of Life, a new group featuring Schellen and keyboardist [Dave Kerzner](/wiki/Dave_Kerzner \"Dave Kerzner\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ewing \\|first1\\=Jerry \\|title\\=Yes alumni announce new band Arc Of Life and release video for You Make It Real \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-alumni\\-announce\\-new\\-band\\-arc\\-of\\-life\\-and\\-release\\-video\\-for\\-you\\-make\\-it\\-real \\|work\\=\\[\\[Prog (magazine)\\|Prog]] \\|date\\=9 December 2020}}",
"Yes worked on new material for their twenty\\-second studio album *[The Quest](/wiki/The_Quest_%28Yes_album%29 \"The Quest (Yes album)\")*, from late 2019 through 2021, with Howe as the sole producer. The lockdowns brought on by the COVID\\-19 pandemic resulted in members recording their parts in separate studios and sending them to Howe and engineer Curtis Schwartz in England. In 2021, Howe, Davison and Downes got together and completed the album.{{cite podcast \\|url\\=https://www.podbean.com/media/share/pb\\-edfdt\\-e462f3 \\|title\\=Jon Davison – Interview Sessions With The Singer For Legendary Prog/Rock Band – Yes \\|number\\=6\\|via\\=PodBean \\|website\\=Rock Music Alliance: Channel 1 \\|host\\=Cole Coleman \\|date\\=25 July 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=55WfMco8UO4 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/55WfMco8UO4\\|publisher\\=SOAL Night Live\\- The Musical Talk Show\\| archive\\-date\\=11 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Levin, Torn, White\\- (Tony Levin, David Torn \\& Alan White)\\|date\\=19 January 2021 \\|via\\=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://biffbampop.com/2021/02/27/exclusive\\-interview\\-geoff\\-downes\\-discusses\\-the\\-new\\-downes\\-braide\\-association\\-album\\-halcyon\\-hymns/\\|title\\=Exclusive Interview: Geoff Downes Discusses The New Downes Braide Association Album, Halcyon Hymns\\|date\\=27 February 2021\\|first\\=Andy\\|last\\=Burns\\|website\\=Biff Bam Pop!}} *The Quest* was released on 1 October 2021, being the band's first new album in seven years, and the opening two tracks, \"The Ice Bridge\" and \"Dare to Know\", were released as digital singles.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-release\\-first\\-new\\-music\\-for\\-seven\\-yeas\\|title\\=Yes release first new music in seven years with new single The Ice Bridge\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=26 July 2021\\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-release\\-video\\-for\\-new\\-single\\-dare\\-to\\-know\\|title\\=Yes release video for new single Dare To Know\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=1 September 2021\\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}} The album reached No. 20 in the UK. By the time *The Quest* was released, Yes had already discussed plans regarding a follow\\-up album. In May 2022, Sherwood confirmed that the band had started to record new material.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://anchor.fm/yesshift/episodes/Ep\\-44\\-\\-\\-Billy\\-Sherwood\\-Interview\\-e1ioon9\\|title\\=Ep 44 – Billy Sherwood Interview\\|work\\=Yesshift Podcast\\|date\\=19 May 2022\\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2022}}",
"On 22 May 2022, Yes announced that White would sit out of their upcoming tour due to health issues and that Schellen would handle the drums. White died on 26 May.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Ewing \\|first1\\=Jerry \\|title\\=Yes drummer Alan White dead at 72 \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-drummer\\-alan\\-white\\-dead\\-at\\-72 \\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2022 \\|date\\=26 May 2022}} The band kicked off a tour in June 2022 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of *Close to the Edge*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-announce\\-theyll\\-celebrate\\-50\\-years\\-of\\-close\\-to\\-the\\-edge\\-this\\-june\\|title\\=Yes announce they'll celebrate 50 years of Close To The Edge this June\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=8 March 2022\\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}} They had originally planned to resume their Album Series Tour with a European leg featuring *Relayer* performed in its entirety, before the dates were rescheduled for 2023 and the program changed.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-reschedule\\-relayer\\-live\\-european\\-dates\\-for\\-2023\\|title\\=Yes reschedule Relayer live European dates for 2023\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=21 April 2022\\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}} A tribute concert for White was held in Seattle on 2 October, featuring special guests and former Yes guitarist [Trevor Rabin](/wiki/Trevor_Rabin \"Trevor Rabin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stgpresents.org/calendar/13566/alan\\-white\\-celebrating\\-his\\-life\\-and\\-music\\|title\\=Alan White – Celebrating His Life and Music\\|work\\=Seattle Theatre Group\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2022}}",
"In January 2023, Yes announced that [Warner Music Group](/wiki/Warner_Music_Group \"Warner Music Group\") had acquired the recorded music rights and associated income streams relating to 12 studio albums from 1969 to 1987, and several live and compilation releases.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2023/music/news/yes\\-catalog\\-acquired\\-warner\\-music\\-1235498598/\\|title\\=Yes Catalog Acquired by Warner Music Group\\|first\\=Jem\\|last\\=Aswad\\|date\\=23 January 2023\\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2023}} In February, Schellen joined the band as a permanent member.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ewing \\|first\\=Jerry \\|date\\=14 February 2023 \\|title\\=Drummer Jay Schellen joins Yes on a permanent basis \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/drummer\\-jay\\-schellen\\-joins\\-yes\\-on\\-a\\-permanent\\-basis \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2023\\|website\\=Prog}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Jay Schellen Joins YES as a Permanent Member \\|url\\=https://www.yesworld.com/2023/02/jay\\-schellen\\-joins\\-yes\\-as\\-a\\-permanent\\-member/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2023 \\|work\\=YesWorld}}",
"In 2023, Yes had planned to continue their Album Series Tour with *Relayer* performed in its entirety across Europe and the UK,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-announce\\-relayer\\-tour\\-dates\\-for\\-june\\-2023\\|title\\=Yes announce Relayer tour dates for June 2023\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=12 October 2022\\|website\\=Prog\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}} but it was subsequently delayed to 2024 due to insurance incentives related to COVID\\-19 and [acts of war](/wiki/Casus_belli \"Casus belli\") being withdrawn.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/news/yes\\-postpone\\-relayer\\-tour\\-yet\\-again\\|title\\=Yes postpone Relayer tour yet again\\|first\\=Jerry\\|last\\=Ewing\\|date\\=17 March 2023\\|publisher\\=Loudersound\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2023}} The non\\-cancelled UK dates were later rescheduled for The Classic Tales of Yes Tour 2024\\.{{Cite tweet\\|user\\=yesofficial\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/yesofficial/status/1655860285838614528\\|number\\=1655860285838614528\\|title\\=THE CLASSIC TALES OF YES TOUR 2024 Find Tickets now at http://yesworld.com/live YES announce UK dates for the Classic Tales of YES Tour 2024\\. The 9 UK dates include a visit to London's Royal Albert Hall and the Bristol Beacon together with 7 dates rescheduled from the cancelled 2023 tour, for which all tickets remain valid.}} Meanwhile, Anderson toured in Spring 2023 \\& Spring/Summer 2024 under the title \"Yes Epics and Classics\" with a setlist primarily devoted to early 70s Yes material. About the tour, which features Anderson backed by The Band Geeks, he tells *Rolling Stone*: \"In my mind… I'm still in Yes\" and expressed his desire at the time for a reunion with Howe, though after recording and releasing *[True](/wiki/True_%28Jon_Anderson_album%29 \"True (Jon Anderson album)\")* later expressed the opposite sentiment, saying \"No. Not right now… I’ve got the Yes that I wanted\" and called making that album \"one of the most wonderful experiences of my life.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://richiecastellano.com/jonyesepic/ \\|title\\=YES Legend Jon Anderson To Tour With The Band Geeks Spring 2023! \\|date\\=May 2023 \\|website\\=richiecastellano.com \\|accessdate\\=4 May 2023}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Yes Refuses To Reunite With Singer Jon Anderson. He's OK With That \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-features/jon\\-anderson\\-seventies\\-yes\\-throwback\\-tour\\-1234698321/ \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2023}}",
"On 10 March 2023, Yes announced that their new studio album, *[Mirror to the Sky](/wiki/Mirror_to_the_Sky \"Mirror to the Sky\")*, was set for release on 19 May 2023\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ramzine.co.uk/interviews/jon\\-davison\\-of\\-yes\\-continuing\\-with\\-the\\-quest/\\|title\\=Jon Davison of Yes ... Continuing with The Quest !!\\|first\\=Laurence\\|last\\=Todd\\|date\\=30 January 2023\\|website\\=RAMzine\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2023}}*Prog*, March 2023 issue On the same day the opening track, \"Cut from the Stars\", was released as a digital single, followed by the release of \"All Connected\" a few weeks later.{{cite web \\|title\\=YES announce new studio album 'Mirror To The Sky' for release 19th May 2023; launch first single 'Cut From The Stars' \\|url\\=https://allabouttherock.co.uk/yes\\-announce\\-new\\-studio\\-album\\-mirror\\-to\\-the\\-sky\\-for\\-release\\-19th\\-may\\-2023\\-launch\\-first\\-single\\-cut\\-from\\-the\\-stars/ \\|website\\=All About the Rock \\|date\\=10 March 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2023}} Band members have said that the formation of this album was based on continuing the creative process from *The Quest*, further developing \"song sketches, structures, and ideas that were demanding attention\".{{cite web \\|title\\=YES announce new studio album 'Mirror To The Sky' for release 19th May 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.yesworld.com/ \\|website\\=YesWorld \\|publisher\\=YesWorld.com \\|access\\-date\\=11 May 2023}} In January 2024, Billy Sherwood stated in an interview with Rolling Stone that the band have already started working on their follow\\-up album to *Mirror to the Sky*.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=This Prog\\-Rock Wizard Has Kept Yes Alive for the Past 30 Years \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-features/yes\\-prog\\-rock\\-billy\\-sherwood\\-1234939989/?fbclid\\=IwAR3iFW\\_Fhpda7h6KVhe9dicGDx\\-ckm9eeUhWpm\\_lI0GUfN\\_YDt4VZ\\_\\-czzI \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\| date\\=14 January 2024 \\| publisher\\=Rollingstone.com \\| access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 }}",
""
] |
### 1970–1974: *The Yes Album*, *Fragile*, *Close to the Edge* and *Tales from Topographic Oceans*
[thumb\|upright\|Steve Howe in 1977](/wiki/File:Steve_howe.jpg "Steve howe.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Rick Wakeman with Yes in March 1974, months before his first departure from the band](/wiki/File:Rick_Wakeman_-_Winterland_1974.jpg "Rick Wakeman - Winterland 1974.jpg")
The band retreated to a rented farmhouse in [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon") to write and rehearse new songs for their following album. Howe established himself as an integral part of the group's sound with his [Gibson ES\-175](/wiki/Gibson_ES-175 "Gibson ES-175") and variety of acoustic guitars. With producer and engineer [Eddy Offord](/wiki/Eddy_Offord "Eddy Offord"), recording sessions lasted as long as 12 hours with each track being assembled from small sections at a time, which were pieced together to form a complete track. The band would then learn to play the song through after the final mix was complete.{{cite web\|url\=http://nfte.org/interviews/EO234\.html\|title\=Conversation with Eddy Offord\|first\=Tim\|last\=Morse\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Notes From the Edge \|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Released in February 1971, *[The Yes Album](/wiki/The_Yes_Album "The Yes Album")* peaked at number 4 in the UK and number 40 on the U.S. [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200") charts.
Yes embarked on a 28\-day tour of Europe with [Iron Butterfly](/wiki/Iron_Butterfly "Iron Butterfly") in January 1971\.Welch 2008, p. 102 The band purchased Iron Butterfly's entire [public address system](/wiki/Public_address_system "Public address system"), which improved their on\-stage performance and sound.Welch 2008, p. 104\. Their first date in North America followed on 24 June in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton"), Alberta, Canada, supporting [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 "Jethro Tull (band)").Bruford, p. 55 Friction arose between Howe and Kaye on tour;Welch 2008, p. 109\. this, along with Kaye's reported reluctance to play the [Mellotron](/wiki/Mellotron "Mellotron") and the [Minimoog](/wiki/Minimoog "Minimoog") synthesizer, preferring to stick exclusively to [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano") and [Hammond organ](/wiki/Hammond_organ "Hammond organ"),{{cite book\|first\=John\|last\=Tobler\|year\=1992\|title\=NME Rock 'N' Roll Years\|edition\=1st\|publisher\=Reed International Books Ltd\|location\=London\|page\=229\|id\=CN 5585}} led to the keyboardist being fired from the band in the summer of 1971\. Anderson recalled in a 2019 interview: "Steve and Chris came over and said, 'Look, Tony Kaye... great guy.' But, you know, we'd just seen [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman "Rick Wakeman") about a month earlier. And I said, 'There's that Rick Wakeman guy,' and we've got to get on with life and move on, you know, rather than keep going on, set in the same circle. And that's what happens with a band."{{cite web\|url\=https://bestclassicbands.com/jon\-anderson\-interview\-3\-26\-19/ \|title\=Jon Anderson Interview? Yes, Indeed \|last\=Brodsky \|first\=Greg \|publisher\=Best Classic Bands \|date\=26 March 2019\|access\-date\=16 April 2019}} Wakeman, a classically trained player who had left the folk rock group [Strawbs](/wiki/Strawbs "Strawbs") earlier in the year, was already a noted studio musician, with credits including [T. Rex](/wiki/T._Rex_%28band%29 "T. Rex (band)"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens "Cat Stevens") and [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John"). Squire commented that he could play "a grand piano for three bars, a Mellotron for two bars and a Moog for the next one absolutely spot on",{{cite video\|people\=Squire, Chris\|title\=BBC broadcast of Sounding Out: Yes on 10 January 1972}} which gave Yes the orchestral and choral textures that befitted their new material.
Released on 12 November 1971,{{cite magazine\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Sounds/70s/Sounds\-1971\-10\-23\-S\-OCR.pdf\|title\=No Yes\|magazine\=Sounds\|page\=2\|date\=23 October 1971\|access\-date\=24 July 2022\|via\=World Radio History}} the band's fourth album *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 "Fragile (Yes album)")* showcased their growing interest in the structures of classical music, with an excerpt of *[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird "The Firebird")* by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky") being played at the start of their concerts since the album's [1971–1972 tour](/wiki/Fragile_Tour "Fragile Tour").*Yessongs* track listing. Atlantic Records 1973\. Each member performed a solo track on the album, and it marked the start of their long collaboration with artist [Roger Dean](/wiki/Roger_Dean_%28artist%29 "Roger Dean (artist)"), who designed the [group's logo](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo "Yes bubble logo"), album art and stage sets. *Fragile* peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 4 in the U.S.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/awards \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430165547/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/awards \|archive\-date\=30 April 2016 \|title\=Yes Billboard Albums \|website\=Allmusic\|access\-date\=12 October 2022}} after it was released there in January 1972, and was their first record to reach the top ten in North America. A shorter version of the opening track, "[Roundabout](/wiki/Roundabout_%28Yes_song%29 "Roundabout (Yes song)")", was released as a single that peaked at number 13 on the *Billboard* [Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") singles chart.
In February 1972, Yes recorded a cover version of "[America](/wiki/America_%28Simon_%26_Garfunkel_song%29 "America (Simon & Garfunkel song)")" by [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") and released it in July. The single reached number 46 on the U.S. singles chart.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/biography\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013092446/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\-mn0000685647/biography\|archive\-date\=13 October 2022\|title\=Yes Biography\|website\=Allmusic\|access\-date\=13 October 2022\|url\-status\=bot: unknown}} The track subsequently appeared on *[The New Age of Atlantic](/wiki/The_New_Age_of_Atlantic "The New Age of Atlantic")*, a 1972 compilation album of several bands signed to Atlantic Records, and again in the 1975 compilation *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 "Yesterdays (Yes album)")*.
Released in September 1972, *[Close to the Edge](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge "Close to the Edge")*, the band's fifth album, was their most ambitious work so far. At 19 minutes, the [title track](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_%28song%29 "Close to the Edge (song)") took up an entire side on the vinyl record and combined elements of classical music, psychedelic rock, pop and jazz. The album reached number 3 in the U.S. and number 4 on the UK charts.Welch 2008, p. 185\. "[And You and I](/wiki/And_You_and_I "And You and I")" was released as a single that peaked at number 42 in the U.S. The growing critical and commercial success of the band was not enough to retain Bruford, who left Yes in the summer of 1972, before the album's release, to join [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson"). The band considered several possible replacements, including [Aynsley Dunbar](/wiki/Aynsley_Dunbar "Aynsley Dunbar") (who was playing with [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa "Frank Zappa") at the time),{{cite web\|title\=Chris Squire Takes A Straight And Stronger Course\|url\=http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\-squire\-takes\-a\-straight\-and\-stronger\-course\-by\-rick\-suchow\-bass\-musician\-magazine\-march\-2013/\|website\=Bass Musician Magazine\|author\=Rick Suchow\|date\=March 2013\|publisher\=V.I.E., LLC\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=20 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620064253/http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\-squire\-takes\-a\-straight\-and\-stronger\-course\-by\-rick\-suchow\-bass\-musician\-magazine\-march\-2013/\|url\-status\=dead}} and decided on former [Plastic Ono Band](/wiki/Plastic_Ono_Band "Plastic Ono Band") drummer [Alan White](/wiki/Alan_White_%28Yes_drummer%29 "Alan White (Yes drummer)"), a friend of Anderson and Offord who had once sat in with the band weeks before Bruford's departure.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.moderndrummer.com/2005/05/alan\-white\-3/\|title\=Yes' Alan White Exclusive Interview: Modern Drummer Magazine\|date\=18 May 2005\|publisher\=Moderndrummer.com\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} White learned the band's repertoire in three days before embarking on their [1972–1973 tour](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_Tour "Close to the Edge Tour").
By this point, Yes were beginning to enjoy worldwide commercial and critical success. Their early touring with White was featured on *[Yessongs](/wiki/Yessongs "Yessongs")*, a triple live album released in May 1973 that documented shows from 1972\. The album reached number 7 in the UK and number 12 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 136\. A [concert film](/wiki/Yessongs_%28film%29 "Yessongs (film)") of the same name premiered in 1975Welch 2008, p. 146\. that documented their shows at London's [Rainbow Theatre](/wiki/Rainbow_Theatre "Rainbow Theatre") in December 1972, with added psychedelic visual images and effects.
{{quote box
\| quote \= It is a fragmented masterpiece, assembled with loving care and long hours in the studio. Brilliant in patches, but often taking far too long to make its various points, and curiously lacking in warmth or personal expression ..."Ritual" is a dance of celebration and brings the first enjoyable moments, where Alan's driving drums have something to grip on to and the lyrics of la la la speak volumes. But even this cannot last long and cohesion is lost once more to the gods of drab self indulgence.
\| source \= —''\[\[Melody Maker]]'' review of ''\[\[Tales from Topographic Oceans]]'', 1973{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\=5\&tname\=5\&tdate\=135\&navb\=10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030718012628/http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\=5\&tname\=5\&tdate\=135\&navb\=10\|archive\-date\=18 July 2003\|title\=Yes – Adrift on the Oceans\|publisher\=Melody Maker\|date\=1 December 1973\|access\-date\=4 November 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
\| width \= 33%
\| align \= right
}}
*[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans "Tales from Topographic Oceans")* was the band's sixth studio album, released on 7 December 1973\.["BRIT Certified – bpi"](https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified), search "Tales from Topographic Oceans" It marked a change in their fortunes and polarised fans and critics alike. The double vinyl set was based on Anderson's interpretation of the [Shastric](/wiki/Shastra "Shastra") scriptures from a footnote within [Paramahansa Yogananda](/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda "Paramahansa Yogananda")'s book *[Autobiography of a Yogi](/wiki/Autobiography_of_a_Yogi "Autobiography of a Yogi")*. The album became the first LP in the UK to ship gold before the record arrived at retailers.{{cite news\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DQkEAAAAMBAJ\|title\=Yes LP Breaks Ground in U.K.\|date\=15 December 1973\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=42\|access\-date\=11 February 2012}} It went on to [top the UK charts](/wiki/List_of_UK_Albums_Chart_number_ones_of_the_1970s%231974 "List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1970s#1974") for two weeks while reaching number 6 in the U.S., and became the band's fourth consecutive gold album. Wakeman was not pleased with the record and is critical of much of its material.{{cite news\|title\=Yes, we were the original Spinal Tap, says Rick Wakeman of Seventies prog\-rock supergroup\|url\=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\-23537889\-yes\-we\-were\-the\-original\-spinal\-tap\-says\-rick\-wakeman\-of\-seventies\-prog\-rock\-supergroup.do\|work\=London Evening Standard\|date\=17 August 2009\|access\-date\=15 October 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102143937/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\-23537889\-yes\-we\-were\-the\-original\-spinal\-tap\-says\-rick\-wakeman\-of\-seventies\-prog\-rock\-supergroup.do\|archive\-date\=2 November 2009\|url\-status\=dead}} He felt sections were "bled to death" and contained too much musical padding.Chambers 2002, p. 233\. Wakeman left the band after the [1973–1974 tour](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans_Tour "Tales from Topographic Oceans Tour"); his solo album *[Journey to the Centre of the Earth](/wiki/Journey_to_the_Centre_of_the_Earth_%28album%29 "Journey to the Centre of the Earth (album)")* topped the UK charts in May 1974\.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\_the\_no1\_albums.php?show\=3 \|title\= Number 1 Albums – 1970s \|publisher\= The Official Charts Company \|access\-date\= 11 February 2012 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091230114951/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\_the\_no1\_albums.php?show\=3 \|archive\-date\= 30 December 2009 \|url\-status\= dead \|df\= dmy\-all }} The tour included five consecutive sold\-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre, the first time a rock band achieved this.Wooding, p. 114\.
|
[
"### 1970–1974: *The Yes Album*, *Fragile*, *Close to the Edge* and *Tales from Topographic Oceans*",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Steve Howe in 1977](/wiki/File:Steve_howe.jpg \"Steve howe.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Rick Wakeman with Yes in March 1974, months before his first departure from the band](/wiki/File:Rick_Wakeman_-_Winterland_1974.jpg \"Rick Wakeman - Winterland 1974.jpg\")\nThe band retreated to a rented farmhouse in [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\") to write and rehearse new songs for their following album. Howe established himself as an integral part of the group's sound with his [Gibson ES\\-175](/wiki/Gibson_ES-175 \"Gibson ES-175\") and variety of acoustic guitars. With producer and engineer [Eddy Offord](/wiki/Eddy_Offord \"Eddy Offord\"), recording sessions lasted as long as 12 hours with each track being assembled from small sections at a time, which were pieced together to form a complete track. The band would then learn to play the song through after the final mix was complete.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nfte.org/interviews/EO234\\.html\\|title\\=Conversation with Eddy Offord\\|first\\=Tim\\|last\\=Morse\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Notes From the Edge \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Released in February 1971, *[The Yes Album](/wiki/The_Yes_Album \"The Yes Album\")* peaked at number 4 in the UK and number 40 on the U.S. [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") charts.",
"Yes embarked on a 28\\-day tour of Europe with [Iron Butterfly](/wiki/Iron_Butterfly \"Iron Butterfly\") in January 1971\\.Welch 2008, p. 102 The band purchased Iron Butterfly's entire [public address system](/wiki/Public_address_system \"Public address system\"), which improved their on\\-stage performance and sound.Welch 2008, p. 104\\. Their first date in North America followed on 24 June in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\"), Alberta, Canada, supporting [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 \"Jethro Tull (band)\").Bruford, p. 55 Friction arose between Howe and Kaye on tour;Welch 2008, p. 109\\. this, along with Kaye's reported reluctance to play the [Mellotron](/wiki/Mellotron \"Mellotron\") and the [Minimoog](/wiki/Minimoog \"Minimoog\") synthesizer, preferring to stick exclusively to [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\") and [Hammond organ](/wiki/Hammond_organ \"Hammond organ\"),{{cite book\\|first\\=John\\|last\\=Tobler\\|year\\=1992\\|title\\=NME Rock 'N' Roll Years\\|edition\\=1st\\|publisher\\=Reed International Books Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|page\\=229\\|id\\=CN 5585}} led to the keyboardist being fired from the band in the summer of 1971\\. Anderson recalled in a 2019 interview: \"Steve and Chris came over and said, 'Look, Tony Kaye... great guy.' But, you know, we'd just seen [Rick Wakeman](/wiki/Rick_Wakeman \"Rick Wakeman\") about a month earlier. And I said, 'There's that Rick Wakeman guy,' and we've got to get on with life and move on, you know, rather than keep going on, set in the same circle. And that's what happens with a band.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bestclassicbands.com/jon\\-anderson\\-interview\\-3\\-26\\-19/ \\|title\\=Jon Anderson Interview? Yes, Indeed \\|last\\=Brodsky \\|first\\=Greg \\|publisher\\=Best Classic Bands \\|date\\=26 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2019}} Wakeman, a classically trained player who had left the folk rock group [Strawbs](/wiki/Strawbs \"Strawbs\") earlier in the year, was already a noted studio musician, with credits including [T. Rex](/wiki/T._Rex_%28band%29 \"T. Rex (band)\"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens \"Cat Stevens\") and [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John \"Elton John\"). Squire commented that he could play \"a grand piano for three bars, a Mellotron for two bars and a Moog for the next one absolutely spot on\",{{cite video\\|people\\=Squire, Chris\\|title\\=BBC broadcast of Sounding Out: Yes on 10 January 1972}} which gave Yes the orchestral and choral textures that befitted their new material.",
"Released on 12 November 1971,{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Sounds/70s/Sounds\\-1971\\-10\\-23\\-S\\-OCR.pdf\\|title\\=No Yes\\|magazine\\=Sounds\\|page\\=2\\|date\\=23 October 1971\\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2022\\|via\\=World Radio History}} the band's fourth album *[Fragile](/wiki/Fragile_%28Yes_album%29 \"Fragile (Yes album)\")* showcased their growing interest in the structures of classical music, with an excerpt of *[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird \"The Firebird\")* by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") being played at the start of their concerts since the album's [1971–1972 tour](/wiki/Fragile_Tour \"Fragile Tour\").*Yessongs* track listing. Atlantic Records 1973\\. Each member performed a solo track on the album, and it marked the start of their long collaboration with artist [Roger Dean](/wiki/Roger_Dean_%28artist%29 \"Roger Dean (artist)\"), who designed the [group's logo](/wiki/Yes_bubble_logo \"Yes bubble logo\"), album art and stage sets. *Fragile* peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 4 in the U.S.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/awards \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430165547/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/awards \\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2016 \\|title\\=Yes Billboard Albums \\|website\\=Allmusic\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2022}} after it was released there in January 1972, and was their first record to reach the top ten in North America. A shorter version of the opening track, \"[Roundabout](/wiki/Roundabout_%28Yes_song%29 \"Roundabout (Yes song)\")\", was released as a single that peaked at number 13 on the *Billboard* [Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\") singles chart.",
"In February 1972, Yes recorded a cover version of \"[America](/wiki/America_%28Simon_%26_Garfunkel_song%29 \"America (Simon & Garfunkel song)\")\" by [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon \"Paul Simon\") and released it in July. The single reached number 46 on the U.S. singles chart.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/biography\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013092446/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/yes\\-mn0000685647/biography\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2022\\|title\\=Yes Biography\\|website\\=Allmusic\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2022\\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown}} The track subsequently appeared on *[The New Age of Atlantic](/wiki/The_New_Age_of_Atlantic \"The New Age of Atlantic\")*, a 1972 compilation album of several bands signed to Atlantic Records, and again in the 1975 compilation *[Yesterdays](/wiki/Yesterdays_%28Yes_album%29 \"Yesterdays (Yes album)\")*.",
"Released in September 1972, *[Close to the Edge](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge \"Close to the Edge\")*, the band's fifth album, was their most ambitious work so far. At 19 minutes, the [title track](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_%28song%29 \"Close to the Edge (song)\") took up an entire side on the vinyl record and combined elements of classical music, psychedelic rock, pop and jazz. The album reached number 3 in the U.S. and number 4 on the UK charts.Welch 2008, p. 185\\. \"[And You and I](/wiki/And_You_and_I \"And You and I\")\" was released as a single that peaked at number 42 in the U.S. The growing critical and commercial success of the band was not enough to retain Bruford, who left Yes in the summer of 1972, before the album's release, to join [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\"). The band considered several possible replacements, including [Aynsley Dunbar](/wiki/Aynsley_Dunbar \"Aynsley Dunbar\") (who was playing with [Frank Zappa](/wiki/Frank_Zappa \"Frank Zappa\") at the time),{{cite web\\|title\\=Chris Squire Takes A Straight And Stronger Course\\|url\\=http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\\-squire\\-takes\\-a\\-straight\\-and\\-stronger\\-course\\-by\\-rick\\-suchow\\-bass\\-musician\\-magazine\\-march\\-2013/\\|website\\=Bass Musician Magazine\\|author\\=Rick Suchow\\|date\\=March 2013\\|publisher\\=V.I.E., LLC\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620064253/http://bassmusicianmagazine.com/2013/03/chris\\-squire\\-takes\\-a\\-straight\\-and\\-stronger\\-course\\-by\\-rick\\-suchow\\-bass\\-musician\\-magazine\\-march\\-2013/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and decided on former [Plastic Ono Band](/wiki/Plastic_Ono_Band \"Plastic Ono Band\") drummer [Alan White](/wiki/Alan_White_%28Yes_drummer%29 \"Alan White (Yes drummer)\"), a friend of Anderson and Offord who had once sat in with the band weeks before Bruford's departure.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.moderndrummer.com/2005/05/alan\\-white\\-3/\\|title\\=Yes' Alan White Exclusive Interview: Modern Drummer Magazine\\|date\\=18 May 2005\\|publisher\\=Moderndrummer.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} White learned the band's repertoire in three days before embarking on their [1972–1973 tour](/wiki/Close_to_the_Edge_Tour \"Close to the Edge Tour\").",
"By this point, Yes were beginning to enjoy worldwide commercial and critical success. Their early touring with White was featured on *[Yessongs](/wiki/Yessongs \"Yessongs\")*, a triple live album released in May 1973 that documented shows from 1972\\. The album reached number 7 in the UK and number 12 in the U.S.Welch 2008, p. 136\\. A [concert film](/wiki/Yessongs_%28film%29 \"Yessongs (film)\") of the same name premiered in 1975Welch 2008, p. 146\\. that documented their shows at London's [Rainbow Theatre](/wiki/Rainbow_Theatre \"Rainbow Theatre\") in December 1972, with added psychedelic visual images and effects.",
"{{quote box\n\\| quote \\= It is a fragmented masterpiece, assembled with loving care and long hours in the studio. Brilliant in patches, but often taking far too long to make its various points, and curiously lacking in warmth or personal expression ...\"Ritual\" is a dance of celebration and brings the first enjoyable moments, where Alan's driving drums have something to grip on to and the lyrics of la la la speak volumes. But even this cannot last long and cohesion is lost once more to the gods of drab self indulgence.\n\\| source \\= —''\\[\\[Melody Maker]]'' review of ''\\[\\[Tales from Topographic Oceans]]'', 1973{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\\=5\\&tname\\=5\\&tdate\\=135\\&navb\\=10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030718012628/http://www.forgottenyesterdays.com/date.asp?s\\=5\\&tname\\=5\\&tdate\\=135\\&navb\\=10\\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2003\\|title\\=Yes – Adrift on the Oceans\\|publisher\\=Melody Maker\\|date\\=1 December 1973\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}\n\\| width \\= 33%\n\\| align \\= right\n}}",
"*[Tales from Topographic Oceans](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans \"Tales from Topographic Oceans\")* was the band's sixth studio album, released on 7 December 1973\\.[\"BRIT Certified – bpi\"](https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified), search \"Tales from Topographic Oceans\" It marked a change in their fortunes and polarised fans and critics alike. The double vinyl set was based on Anderson's interpretation of the [Shastric](/wiki/Shastra \"Shastra\") scriptures from a footnote within [Paramahansa Yogananda](/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda \"Paramahansa Yogananda\")'s book *[Autobiography of a Yogi](/wiki/Autobiography_of_a_Yogi \"Autobiography of a Yogi\")*. The album became the first LP in the UK to ship gold before the record arrived at retailers.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DQkEAAAAMBAJ\\|title\\=Yes LP Breaks Ground in U.K.\\|date\\=15 December 1973\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=42\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2012}} It went on to [top the UK charts](/wiki/List_of_UK_Albums_Chart_number_ones_of_the_1970s%231974 \"List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1970s#1974\") for two weeks while reaching number 6 in the U.S., and became the band's fourth consecutive gold album. Wakeman was not pleased with the record and is critical of much of its material.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yes, we were the original Spinal Tap, says Rick Wakeman of Seventies prog\\-rock supergroup\\|url\\=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\\-23537889\\-yes\\-we\\-were\\-the\\-original\\-spinal\\-tap\\-says\\-rick\\-wakeman\\-of\\-seventies\\-prog\\-rock\\-supergroup.do\\|work\\=London Evening Standard\\|date\\=17 August 2009\\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102143937/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article\\-23537889\\-yes\\-we\\-were\\-the\\-original\\-spinal\\-tap\\-says\\-rick\\-wakeman\\-of\\-seventies\\-prog\\-rock\\-supergroup.do\\|archive\\-date\\=2 November 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He felt sections were \"bled to death\" and contained too much musical padding.Chambers 2002, p. 233\\. Wakeman left the band after the [1973–1974 tour](/wiki/Tales_from_Topographic_Oceans_Tour \"Tales from Topographic Oceans Tour\"); his solo album *[Journey to the Centre of the Earth](/wiki/Journey_to_the_Centre_of_the_Earth_%28album%29 \"Journey to the Centre of the Earth (album)\")* topped the UK charts in May 1974\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\\_the\\_no1\\_albums.php?show\\=3 \\|title\\= Number 1 Albums – 1970s \\|publisher\\= The Official Charts Company \\|access\\-date\\= 11 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091230114951/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/all\\_the\\_no1\\_albums.php?show\\=3 \\|archive\\-date\\= 30 December 2009 \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }} The tour included five consecutive sold\\-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre, the first time a rock band achieved this.Wooding, p. 114\\.",
""
] |
### 1988–1995: *Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe*, *Union* and *Talk*
By the end of 1988, Anderson felt creatively sidelined by Rabin and Squire and had grown tired of the musical direction of the "Yes\-West" lineup. He took leave of the band, asserting that he would never stay in Yes purely for the money, and started work in [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat "Montserrat") on a solo project that eventually involved Wakeman, Howe and Bruford. This collaboration led to suggestions that there would be some kind of reformation of the "classic" Yes, although from the start the project had included bass player [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin "Tony Levin"), whom Bruford had worked with in King Crimson. The project, rather than taking over or otherwise using the Yes name, was called [Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe "Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe") (ABWH).
Their [eponymous album](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_%28album%29 "Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (album)"), released in June 1989, featured "Brother of Mine", which became an MTV hit and went gold in the United States. It later emerged that the four band members had not all recorded together; Anderson and producer [Chris Kimsey](/wiki/Chris_Kimsey "Chris Kimsey") slotted their parts into place. Howe has stated publicly that he was unhappy with the mix of his guitars on the album,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\.html\|title\=Steve Howe – Into the storm\|publisher\=Innerviews\|year\=2012\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723040600/http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\.html\|archive\-date\=23 July 2015}} though a version of "Fist of Fire" with more of Howe's guitars left intact appeared on the *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969-%29 "Yes (1969-)")* box set in 2002\. ABWH toured in [1989 and 1990](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe Tour") as "An Evening of Yes Music" which featured Levin, keyboardist [Julian Colbeck](/wiki/Julian_Colbeck "Julian Colbeck"), and guitarist [Milton McDonald](/wiki/Milton_McDonald "Milton McDonald") as support musicians. A live album and home video were recorded and released in 1993, both titled *[An Evening of Yes Music Plus](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_Plus "An Evening of Yes Music Plus")* that featured [Jeff Berlin](/wiki/Jeff_Berlin "Jeff Berlin") on bass due to Levin suffering from illness. The tour was also dogged by legal battles sparked by Atlantic Records due to the band's references to Yes in promotional materials and the tour title.
Following the tour, the group returned to the recording studio to produce their second album, tentatively called *Dialogue*. After hearing the tracks, [Arista Records](/wiki/Arista_Records "Arista Records") refused to release the album as they felt the initial mixes were weak.Chambers 2002, p. 112 They encouraged the group to seek outside songwriters, preferably ones who could help them deliver hit singles. Anderson approached Rabin about the situation, and Rabin sent Anderson a demo tape with three songs, indicating that ABWH could have one but had to send the others back. Arista listened to them and wanted all of them, proposing to create a combined album with both Yes factions.Chambers 2002, p. 112\-113 The "Yes\-West" group were working on a follow\-up to *Big Generator* and had been shopping around for a new singer, auditioning [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson") of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 "Steve Walsh (musician)") of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 "Kansas (band)"), [Robbie Nevil](/wiki/Robbie_Nevil "Robbie Nevil") of "[C'est la Vie](/wiki/C%27est_la_Vie_%28Robbie_Nevil_song%29 "C'est la Vie (Robbie Nevil song)")" fame,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/30492578/\|title\=Yes: a weird return of '70s once\-weres and '80s wanna\-bes\|first\=Roger\|last\=Catlin\|page\=4\|date\=18 April 1991\|newspaper\=Hartford Courant\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|url\-access\=subscription\|access\-date\=11 April 2019}} and [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") of [World Trade](/wiki/World_Trade_%28band%29 "World Trade (band)"). Walsh only spent one day with them, but Sherwood and the band worked well enough together and continued with writing sessions. Arista suggested that the "Yes\-West" group, with Anderson on vocals, record the four songs to add to the new album which would then be released under the Yes name.
*[Union](/wiki/Union_%28Yes_album%29 "Union (Yes album)")* was released in April 1991 and is the thirteenth studio album from Yes. Each group played their own songs, with Anderson singing on all tracks. Squire sang background vocals on a few of the ABWH tracks, with Tony Levin playing all the bass on those songs. The album does not feature all eight members playing at once. The track "Masquerade" earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1992\.{{cite news\|url\=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date\=19920108\&slug\=1469119\|title\=Grammy Nominations Span Streisand, Seal, Seattle Symphony\|date\=8 January 1992\|access\-date\=12 February 2011\|website\=\[\[The Seattle Times]]\|publisher\=\[\[The Seattle Times Company]]}} Howe described the nomination for a track he had recorded solo at home as "pure justice", following the difficulties in making the album.{{sfn\|Morse\|1996\|p\=91}} *Union* sold approximately 1\.5 million copies worldwide, and peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. charts. Two singles from the album were released. "[Lift Me Up](/wiki/Lift_Me_Up_%28Yes_song%29 "Lift Me Up (Yes song)")" topped the Mainstream Rock charts in May 1991 for six weeks, while "[Saving My Heart](/wiki/Saving_My_Heart "Saving My Heart")" peaked at number 9\.
Almost the entire band have openly stated their dislike of *Union*.Welch 2008, pp. 324–325 Bruford has disowned the album entirely, and Wakeman was reportedly unable to recognise any of his keyboard work in the final edit and threw his copy of the album out of his limousine.Welch 2008, p. 420 He has since referred to the album as "Onion" because it makes him cry when he thinks about it. *Union* co\-producer [Jonathan Elias](/wiki/Jonathan_Elias "Jonathan Elias") later stated publicly in an interview that Anderson, as the associate producer, knew of the session musicians' involvement. He added that he and Anderson had even initiated their contributions, because hostility between some of the band members at the time was preventing work from being accomplished.{{cite web\|author\=Henry Potts\|url\=http://www.bondegezou.co.uk/iv/jeinterview.htm\|title\=Bondegezou.co.uk\|publisher\=Bondegezou.co.uk\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} The [1991–1992 Union tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Union_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Union Tour") united all eight members on a revolving circular stage.{{Cite journal\|last\=Sutcliffe\|first\=Phil\|date\=5 March 1991\|title\=Stories\|journal\=Q Magazine\|volume\=55\|pages\=12–13}} Following the tour's conclusion in 1992, Bruford chose not to remain involved with Yes and returned to his jazz project *[Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28album%29 "Earthworks (album)")*. Howe also ceased his involvement with the band at this time. In August 1991, while the *Union* tour was underway, Atlantic released *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears "Yesyears")*, a four\-CD box set anthology. Two accompanying home videos, *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears_%28video%29 "Yesyears (video)")* and *[Greatest Video Hits](/wiki/Greatest_Video_Hits_%28Yes_video%29 "Greatest Video Hits (Yes video)")*, were also released during 1991\.
In 1993, the album *[Symphonic Music of Yes](/wiki/Symphonic_Music_of_Yes "Symphonic Music of Yes")* was released, featuring orchestrated Yes tracks arranged by [Dee Palmer](/wiki/Dee_Palmer "Dee Palmer"). Howe, Bruford and Anderson perform on the record, joined by the [London Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/London_Philharmonic_Orchestra "London Philharmonic Orchestra"), the [English Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/English_Chamber_Orchestra "English Chamber Orchestra") and the [London Community Gospel Choir](/wiki/London_Community_Gospel_Choir "London Community Gospel Choir"). Howe and Bruford performed together on television (presented as "Yes") to promote the album, marking Bruford's final performance under the Yes name before retiring from performing.{{Cite web \|last\=Ewingpublished \|first\=Jerry \|date\=10 August 2022 \|title\=Revisiting the car\-crash moment Yes inadvertently performed as a power trio on live TV \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/revisiting\-the\-car\-crash\-moment\-yes\-inadvertently\-performed\-as\-a\-power\-trio\-on\-live\-tv \|website\=loudersound \|language\=en}}
The next Yes studio album, as with *Union*, was masterminded by a record company, rather than by the band itself.Welch 2008, p. 336 Victory Music approached Rabin with a proposal to produce an album solely with the *90125* lineup. Rabin initially countered by requesting that Wakeman also be included. Rabin began assembling the album at his home, using the then\-pioneering concept of a digital home studio, and used material written by himself and Anderson.{{Cite web \|last\=DeRiso \|first\=Nick \|date\=10 May 2014 \|title\=Trevor Rabin and Jon Anderson on Yes' Most Overlooked Album \|url\=https://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/05/10/it\-was\-a\-perfect\-storm\-trevor\-rabin\-and\-jon\-anderson\-remember\-yes\-most\-overlooked\-album/ \|access\-date\=9 October 2022 \|website\=Something Else! \|language\=en\-US}} The new album was well into production in 1993, but Wakeman's involvement had finally been cancelled, as his refusal to leave his long\-serving management created insuperable legal problems.
*[Talk](/wiki/Talk_%28Yes_album%29 "Talk (Yes album)")* was released in March 1994 and is the band's fourteenth studio release. Its cover was designed by [pop artist](/wiki/Pop_art "Pop art") [Peter Max](/wiki/Peter_Max "Peter Max"). The record was largely composed and performed by Rabin, with the other band members following Rabin's tracks for their respective instrumentation.{{cite web\|url\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\-talk/\|author\=Jeff Giles\|title\=Revisiting Yes' Confused 1994 Album, 'Talk'\|date\=21 March 2014\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} It was digitally recorded and produced by Rabin with engineer Michael Jay, using 3\.4 [GB](/wiki/Gigabyte "Gigabyte") of hard disk storage split among four networked [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh "Apple Macintosh") computers running [Digital Performer](/wiki/Digital_Performer "Digital Performer"). The album blended elements of radio\-friendly rock with a more structurally ambitious approach taken from the band's progressive blueprint, with the fifteen\-minute track "[Endless Dream](/wiki/Endless_Dream_%28Yes_song%29 "Endless Dream (Yes song)")". The album reached number 20 in the UK and number 33 in the U.S. The track "[The Calling](/wiki/The_Calling_%28Yes_song%29 "The Calling (Yes song)")" reached number 2 on the *Billboard* [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks "Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks") chart and "[Walls](/wiki/Walls_%28Yes_song%29 "Walls (Yes song)")", which Rabin had written with former [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp "Supertramp") songwriter and co\-founder [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson "Roger Hodgson"), peaked at number 24\. It also became Yes's second\-last\-charting single.{{cite web\|url\=http://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/12/25/roger\-hodgson\-yes\-trevor\-rabin/\|title\=Roger Hodgson collaboration represents road not taken for Yes: 'One of those things that fizzled out'\|publisher\=Something Else! Reviews\|date\=25 December 2014\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Rabin and Hodgson wrote a lot of material together and became close friends. Yes performed "Walls" on *[Late Show with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Show_with_David_Letterman "Late Show with David Letterman")* on 20 June 1994\.
The [1994 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Talk_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Talk Tour") (for which the band included side man [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood "Billy Sherwood") on additional guitar and keyboards) used a sound system developed by Rabin named Concertsonics which allowed the audience located in certain seating areas to tune portable FM radios to a specific frequency, so they could hear the concert with headphones.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1994/08/05/yes\-mines\-cutting\-edge\-of\-sound/\|date\=5 August 1994\|author\=Parry Gettelman\|work\=Orlando Sentinel\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|title\=Yes Mines Cutting Edge Of Sound}}
In early 1995, following the tour, disagreements and dissatisfactions forced another change in the band. 1990s Yes manager Jon Brewer has stated that Squire had not appreciated the *Talk* production process: "(he) didn't like that. He didn't think it was what Yes was all about; he was very much against a computerised, digital sound at that time. So Trevor and Chris moved away from one another for quite a while."{{cite news \|last1\=Hughes \|first1\=Rob \|title\=Former Manager And Friend Jon Brewer Remembers Chris Squire \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/former\-manager\-and\-friend\-jon\-brewer\-remembers\-chris\-squire \|access\-date\=15 May 2024 \|work\=\[\[Prog (magazine)\|Prog]] \|date\=2015\-09\-28}} For his part, Rabin felt that he had achieved his highest ambitions with *Talk* and lamented its disappointing reception, feeling that this was due to the fact that it "just wasn't what people wanted to hear at the time." Having remarked at the conclusion of the tour "I think I'm done", Rabin quit the band and returned to Los Angeles, where he shifted his focus to composing for films. Kaye also left Yes to pursue other projects.
|
[
"### 1988–1995: *Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe*, *Union* and *Talk*",
"By the end of 1988, Anderson felt creatively sidelined by Rabin and Squire and had grown tired of the musical direction of the \"Yes\\-West\" lineup. He took leave of the band, asserting that he would never stay in Yes purely for the money, and started work in [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat \"Montserrat\") on a solo project that eventually involved Wakeman, Howe and Bruford. This collaboration led to suggestions that there would be some kind of reformation of the \"classic\" Yes, although from the start the project had included bass player [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin \"Tony Levin\"), whom Bruford had worked with in King Crimson. The project, rather than taking over or otherwise using the Yes name, was called [Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe \"Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe\") (ABWH).",
"Their [eponymous album](/wiki/Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_%28album%29 \"Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (album)\"), released in June 1989, featured \"Brother of Mine\", which became an MTV hit and went gold in the United States. It later emerged that the four band members had not all recorded together; Anderson and producer [Chris Kimsey](/wiki/Chris_Kimsey \"Chris Kimsey\") slotted their parts into place. Howe has stated publicly that he was unhappy with the mix of his guitars on the album,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\\.html\\|title\\=Steve Howe – Into the storm\\|publisher\\=Innerviews\\|year\\=2012\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723040600/http://www.innerviews.org/inner/howe2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2015}} though a version of \"Fist of Fire\" with more of Howe's guitars left intact appeared on the *[In a Word: Yes](/wiki/In_a_Word:Yes_%281969-%29 \"Yes (1969-)\")* box set in 2002\\. ABWH toured in [1989 and 1990](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Anderson_Bruford_Wakeman_Howe_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe Tour\") as \"An Evening of Yes Music\" which featured Levin, keyboardist [Julian Colbeck](/wiki/Julian_Colbeck \"Julian Colbeck\"), and guitarist [Milton McDonald](/wiki/Milton_McDonald \"Milton McDonald\") as support musicians. A live album and home video were recorded and released in 1993, both titled *[An Evening of Yes Music Plus](/wiki/An_Evening_of_Yes_Music_Plus \"An Evening of Yes Music Plus\")* that featured [Jeff Berlin](/wiki/Jeff_Berlin \"Jeff Berlin\") on bass due to Levin suffering from illness. The tour was also dogged by legal battles sparked by Atlantic Records due to the band's references to Yes in promotional materials and the tour title.",
"Following the tour, the group returned to the recording studio to produce their second album, tentatively called *Dialogue*. After hearing the tracks, [Arista Records](/wiki/Arista_Records \"Arista Records\") refused to release the album as they felt the initial mixes were weak.Chambers 2002, p. 112 They encouraged the group to seek outside songwriters, preferably ones who could help them deliver hit singles. Anderson approached Rabin about the situation, and Rabin sent Anderson a demo tape with three songs, indicating that ABWH could have one but had to send the others back. Arista listened to them and wanted all of them, proposing to create a combined album with both Yes factions.Chambers 2002, p. 112\\-113 The \"Yes\\-West\" group were working on a follow\\-up to *Big Generator* and had been shopping around for a new singer, auditioning [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\") of [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 \"Steve Walsh (musician)\") of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 \"Kansas (band)\"), [Robbie Nevil](/wiki/Robbie_Nevil \"Robbie Nevil\") of \"[C'est la Vie](/wiki/C%27est_la_Vie_%28Robbie_Nevil_song%29 \"C'est la Vie (Robbie Nevil song)\")\" fame,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/30492578/\\|title\\=Yes: a weird return of '70s once\\-weres and '80s wanna\\-bes\\|first\\=Roger\\|last\\=Catlin\\|page\\=4\\|date\\=18 April 1991\\|newspaper\\=Hartford Courant\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2019}} and [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") of [World Trade](/wiki/World_Trade_%28band%29 \"World Trade (band)\"). Walsh only spent one day with them, but Sherwood and the band worked well enough together and continued with writing sessions. Arista suggested that the \"Yes\\-West\" group, with Anderson on vocals, record the four songs to add to the new album which would then be released under the Yes name.",
"*[Union](/wiki/Union_%28Yes_album%29 \"Union (Yes album)\")* was released in April 1991 and is the thirteenth studio album from Yes. Each group played their own songs, with Anderson singing on all tracks. Squire sang background vocals on a few of the ABWH tracks, with Tony Levin playing all the bass on those songs. The album does not feature all eight members playing at once. The track \"Masquerade\" earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1992\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date\\=19920108\\&slug\\=1469119\\|title\\=Grammy Nominations Span Streisand, Seal, Seattle Symphony\\|date\\=8 January 1992\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2011\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Seattle Times]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Seattle Times Company]]}} Howe described the nomination for a track he had recorded solo at home as \"pure justice\", following the difficulties in making the album.{{sfn\\|Morse\\|1996\\|p\\=91}} *Union* sold approximately 1\\.5 million copies worldwide, and peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. charts. Two singles from the album were released. \"[Lift Me Up](/wiki/Lift_Me_Up_%28Yes_song%29 \"Lift Me Up (Yes song)\")\" topped the Mainstream Rock charts in May 1991 for six weeks, while \"[Saving My Heart](/wiki/Saving_My_Heart \"Saving My Heart\")\" peaked at number 9\\.",
"Almost the entire band have openly stated their dislike of *Union*.Welch 2008, pp. 324–325 Bruford has disowned the album entirely, and Wakeman was reportedly unable to recognise any of his keyboard work in the final edit and threw his copy of the album out of his limousine.Welch 2008, p. 420 He has since referred to the album as \"Onion\" because it makes him cry when he thinks about it. *Union* co\\-producer [Jonathan Elias](/wiki/Jonathan_Elias \"Jonathan Elias\") later stated publicly in an interview that Anderson, as the associate producer, knew of the session musicians' involvement. He added that he and Anderson had even initiated their contributions, because hostility between some of the band members at the time was preventing work from being accomplished.{{cite web\\|author\\=Henry Potts\\|url\\=http://www.bondegezou.co.uk/iv/jeinterview.htm\\|title\\=Bondegezou.co.uk\\|publisher\\=Bondegezou.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} The [1991–1992 Union tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Union_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Union Tour\") united all eight members on a revolving circular stage.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Sutcliffe\\|first\\=Phil\\|date\\=5 March 1991\\|title\\=Stories\\|journal\\=Q Magazine\\|volume\\=55\\|pages\\=12–13}} Following the tour's conclusion in 1992, Bruford chose not to remain involved with Yes and returned to his jazz project *[Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28album%29 \"Earthworks (album)\")*. Howe also ceased his involvement with the band at this time. In August 1991, while the *Union* tour was underway, Atlantic released *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears \"Yesyears\")*, a four\\-CD box set anthology. Two accompanying home videos, *[Yesyears](/wiki/Yesyears_%28video%29 \"Yesyears (video)\")* and *[Greatest Video Hits](/wiki/Greatest_Video_Hits_%28Yes_video%29 \"Greatest Video Hits (Yes video)\")*, were also released during 1991\\.",
"In 1993, the album *[Symphonic Music of Yes](/wiki/Symphonic_Music_of_Yes \"Symphonic Music of Yes\")* was released, featuring orchestrated Yes tracks arranged by [Dee Palmer](/wiki/Dee_Palmer \"Dee Palmer\"). Howe, Bruford and Anderson perform on the record, joined by the [London Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/London_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"London Philharmonic Orchestra\"), the [English Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/English_Chamber_Orchestra \"English Chamber Orchestra\") and the [London Community Gospel Choir](/wiki/London_Community_Gospel_Choir \"London Community Gospel Choir\"). Howe and Bruford performed together on television (presented as \"Yes\") to promote the album, marking Bruford's final performance under the Yes name before retiring from performing.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ewingpublished \\|first\\=Jerry \\|date\\=10 August 2022 \\|title\\=Revisiting the car\\-crash moment Yes inadvertently performed as a power trio on live TV \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/revisiting\\-the\\-car\\-crash\\-moment\\-yes\\-inadvertently\\-performed\\-as\\-a\\-power\\-trio\\-on\\-live\\-tv \\|website\\=loudersound \\|language\\=en}}",
"The next Yes studio album, as with *Union*, was masterminded by a record company, rather than by the band itself.Welch 2008, p. 336 Victory Music approached Rabin with a proposal to produce an album solely with the *90125* lineup. Rabin initially countered by requesting that Wakeman also be included. Rabin began assembling the album at his home, using the then\\-pioneering concept of a digital home studio, and used material written by himself and Anderson.{{Cite web \\|last\\=DeRiso \\|first\\=Nick \\|date\\=10 May 2014 \\|title\\=Trevor Rabin and Jon Anderson on Yes' Most Overlooked Album \\|url\\=https://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/05/10/it\\-was\\-a\\-perfect\\-storm\\-trevor\\-rabin\\-and\\-jon\\-anderson\\-remember\\-yes\\-most\\-overlooked\\-album/ \\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2022 \\|website\\=Something Else! \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The new album was well into production in 1993, but Wakeman's involvement had finally been cancelled, as his refusal to leave his long\\-serving management created insuperable legal problems.",
"*[Talk](/wiki/Talk_%28Yes_album%29 \"Talk (Yes album)\")* was released in March 1994 and is the band's fourteenth studio release. Its cover was designed by [pop artist](/wiki/Pop_art \"Pop art\") [Peter Max](/wiki/Peter_Max \"Peter Max\"). The record was largely composed and performed by Rabin, with the other band members following Rabin's tracks for their respective instrumentation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/yes\\-talk/\\|author\\=Jeff Giles\\|title\\=Revisiting Yes' Confused 1994 Album, 'Talk'\\|date\\=21 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} It was digitally recorded and produced by Rabin with engineer Michael Jay, using 3\\.4 [GB](/wiki/Gigabyte \"Gigabyte\") of hard disk storage split among four networked [Apple Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh \"Apple Macintosh\") computers running [Digital Performer](/wiki/Digital_Performer \"Digital Performer\"). The album blended elements of radio\\-friendly rock with a more structurally ambitious approach taken from the band's progressive blueprint, with the fifteen\\-minute track \"[Endless Dream](/wiki/Endless_Dream_%28Yes_song%29 \"Endless Dream (Yes song)\")\". The album reached number 20 in the UK and number 33 in the U.S. The track \"[The Calling](/wiki/The_Calling_%28Yes_song%29 \"The Calling (Yes song)\")\" reached number 2 on the *Billboard* [Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Mainstream_Rock_Tracks \"Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks\") chart and \"[Walls](/wiki/Walls_%28Yes_song%29 \"Walls (Yes song)\")\", which Rabin had written with former [Supertramp](/wiki/Supertramp \"Supertramp\") songwriter and co\\-founder [Roger Hodgson](/wiki/Roger_Hodgson \"Roger Hodgson\"), peaked at number 24\\. It also became Yes's second\\-last\\-charting single.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://somethingelsereviews.com/2014/12/25/roger\\-hodgson\\-yes\\-trevor\\-rabin/\\|title\\=Roger Hodgson collaboration represents road not taken for Yes: 'One of those things that fizzled out'\\|publisher\\=Something Else! Reviews\\|date\\=25 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Rabin and Hodgson wrote a lot of material together and became close friends. Yes performed \"Walls\" on *[Late Show with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Show_with_David_Letterman \"Late Show with David Letterman\")* on 20 June 1994\\.",
"The [1994 tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Talk_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Talk Tour\") (for which the band included side man [Billy Sherwood](/wiki/Billy_Sherwood \"Billy Sherwood\") on additional guitar and keyboards) used a sound system developed by Rabin named Concertsonics which allowed the audience located in certain seating areas to tune portable FM radios to a specific frequency, so they could hear the concert with headphones.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1994/08/05/yes\\-mines\\-cutting\\-edge\\-of\\-sound/\\|date\\=5 August 1994\\|author\\=Parry Gettelman\\|work\\=Orlando Sentinel\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|title\\=Yes Mines Cutting Edge Of Sound}}",
"In early 1995, following the tour, disagreements and dissatisfactions forced another change in the band. 1990s Yes manager Jon Brewer has stated that Squire had not appreciated the *Talk* production process: \"(he) didn't like that. He didn't think it was what Yes was all about; he was very much against a computerised, digital sound at that time. So Trevor and Chris moved away from one another for quite a while.\"{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hughes \\|first1\\=Rob \\|title\\=Former Manager And Friend Jon Brewer Remembers Chris Squire \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/former\\-manager\\-and\\-friend\\-jon\\-brewer\\-remembers\\-chris\\-squire \\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Prog (magazine)\\|Prog]] \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-28}} For his part, Rabin felt that he had achieved his highest ambitions with *Talk* and lamented its disappointing reception, feeling that this was due to the fact that it \"just wasn't what people wanted to hear at the time.\" Having remarked at the conclusion of the tour \"I think I'm done\", Rabin quit the band and returned to Los Angeles, where he shifted his focus to composing for films. Kaye also left Yes to pursue other projects.",
""
] |
### 1995–2000: *Keys to Ascension*, *Open Your Eyes* and *The Ladder*
In November 1995, Anderson, Squire and White resurrected the "classic" 1970s lineup of Yes by inviting Wakeman and Howe back to the band, recording two new lengthy tracks called "Be the One" and "That, That Is". In March 1996 Yes performed three live shows at the [Fremont Theater](/wiki/Fremont_Theater "Fremont Theater") in [San Luis Obispo](/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo "San Luis Obispo"), California which were recorded and released, along with the new studio tracks, that October on [CMC International](/wiki/CMC_International "CMC International") Records as the *[Keys to Ascension](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension "Keys to Ascension")* album, which peaked at number 48 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. A same\-titled [live video](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_%28video%29 "Keys to Ascension (video)") of the shows was also released that year.
Yes continued to record new tracks in the studio, drawing some material written around the time of the XYZ project. At one point the new songs were to be released as a studio album, but commercial considerations meant that the new tracks were eventually packaged with the remainder of the 1996 San Luis Obispo shows in November 1997 on *[Keys to Ascension 2](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_2 "Keys to Ascension 2")*. The record managed to reach number 62 in the UK, but failed to chart in the U.S. Disgruntled at the way a potential studio album had been sacrificed in favour of the *Keys to Ascension* releases (as well as the way in which a Yes tour was being arranged without his input or agreement), Wakeman left the group again. (The studio material from both albums would eventually be compiled and re\-released without the live tracks onto a single CD, 2001's *[Keystudio](/wiki/Keystudio "Keystudio")*.)
With Yes in disarray again, Squire turned to Billy Sherwood (by now the band's engineer) for help.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.allaboutjazz.com/something\-else\-interview\-billy\-sherwood\-formerly\-of\-yes.php\#.VHNWNrFFDVU\|title\=Something Else! Interview: Billy Sherwood, Formerly of Yes\|publisher\=News.allaboutjazz.com\|date\=13 October 2011\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}} Both men had been working on a side project called [Conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28band%29 "Conspiracy (band)") and reworked existing demos and recordings from there to turn them into Yes songs, and also worked on new material with Anderson and White. (Howe's involvement at this stage was minimal, mainly taking place towards the end of the sessions.) Sherwood's integral involvement with the writing, production, and performance of the music led to his finally joining Yes as a full member (taking on the role of harmony singer, keyboardist and second guitarist).
The results of the sessions were released in November 1997 as the seventeenth Yes studio album, *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_album%29 "Open Your Eyes (Yes album)")* (on the Beyond Music label, who ensured that the group had greater control in packaging and naming). The music (mainly at Sherwood's urging) attempted to bridge the differing Yes styles of the 1970s and 1980s. (Sherwood: "My goal was to try to break down those partisan walls… For that, I am proud—to have aligned planets for a moment in time.") However, *Open Your Eyes* was not a chart success; the record peaked at number 151 on the *Billboard* 200 but failed to enter the charts in the UK. The [title single](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_song%29 "Open Your Eyes (Yes song)") managed to reach number 33 on the mainstream rock chart.
For the [1997/1998 *Open Your Eyes* tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Open_Your_Eyes_and_Thirtieth_Anniversary_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Open Your Eyes and Thirtieth Anniversary Tour"), Yes hired Russian keyboard player [Igor Khoroshev](/wiki/Igor_Khoroshev "Igor Khoroshev"), who had played on some of the album tracks. Significantly, the tour setlist featured only a few pieces from the new album, and mostly concentrated on earlier material. Anderson and Howe, who had been less involved with the writing and production on *Open Your Eyes* than they'd wished, would express dissatisfaction about the album later.
By the time the band came to record their eighteenth studio album *[The Ladder](/wiki/The_Ladder_%28Yes_album%29 "The Ladder (Yes album)")* with producer [Bruce Fairbairn](/wiki/Bruce_Fairbairn "Bruce Fairbairn"), Khoroshev had become a full\-time member (with Sherwood now concentrating on songwriting, vocal arrangements and second guitar). With Khoroshev's classically influenced keyboard style, and with all members now making more or less equal writing contributions, the band's sound found a balance between its eclectic 1970s progressive rock style and the more polished pop sound sought on the previous album. *The Ladder* also featured Latin music ingredients and clear world music influences, mostly brought in by Alan White (although Fairbairn's multi\-instrumentalist colleague [Randy Raine\-Reusch](/wiki/Randy_Raine-Reusch "Randy Raine-Reusch") made a strong contribution to the album's textures). One of the album tracks, "Homeworld (The Ladder)", was written for Relic Entertainment's [Homeworld](/wiki/Homeworld "Homeworld"), a real\-time strategy computer game, and was used as the credits and outro theme. Pleased with the result of the album's creation, the band had been in tentative discussions to continue work with Fairbairn on future projects, but he died suddenly during the final mixing sessions of the album.{{cite magazine \|last\=Morse\|first\=Tim\|date\=March 2000\|title\=Chris Squire Still Climbing\|magazine\=Bass Player\|url\=https://yesinthepress.com/2000/mar/mar\_00\.html\|location\= \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=30 May 2023}}
*The Ladder* was released in September 1999, peaking at number 36 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. While [on tour in 1999 and early 2000](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23The_Ladder_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#The Ladder Tour"), Yes recorded their performance at the [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues "House of Blues") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley "Las Vegas Valley") on 31 October 1999, releasing it in September 2000 as a live album and DVD called *[House of Yes: Live from House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Yes:Live_from_House_of_Blues "Live from House of Blues")*. As Sherwood saw his role in Yes as creating and performing new music, and the rest of the band now wished to concentrate on performing the back catalogue, he amicably resigned from Yes at the end of the tour.
In summer 2000, Yes embarked on the three\-month [Masterworks tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Masterworks_Tour "List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Masterworks Tour") of the United States, on which they performed only material which had been released between 1970 and 1974 (*The Yes Album* through to *Relayer*). While on tour, Khoroshev was involved in a backstage incident of sexual assault with a female security guard at Nissan Pavilion in [Bristow, Virginia](/wiki/Bristow%2C_Virginia "Bristow, Virginia") on 23 July 2000{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dailypress.com/2000/07/26/yes\-keyboardist\-needs\-to\-keep\-his\-hands\-on\-the\-keys/\|title\=Yes Keyboardist Needs To Keep His Hands On The Keys\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|publisher\=Daily Press\|date\=26 July 2000\|access\-date\=22 September 2017\|archive\-date\=30 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630160439/http://articles.dailypress.com/2000\-07\-26/news/0007260043\_1\_guards\-battery\-sexually\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.pollstar.com/article/touchy\-feely\-musician\-gets\-slapped\-11021\|title\=Touchy\-Feely Musician Gets Slapped\|magazine\=Pollstar\|date\=26 July 2000\|access\-date\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\_00\.html\|title\=Yes in the Press\|publisher\=Zenponies.com\|date\=28 July 2000\|access\-date\=21 September 2017\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033404/http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\_00\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} and parted company with the band at the end of the tour.
|
[
"### 1995–2000: *Keys to Ascension*, *Open Your Eyes* and *The Ladder*",
"In November 1995, Anderson, Squire and White resurrected the \"classic\" 1970s lineup of Yes by inviting Wakeman and Howe back to the band, recording two new lengthy tracks called \"Be the One\" and \"That, That Is\". In March 1996 Yes performed three live shows at the [Fremont Theater](/wiki/Fremont_Theater \"Fremont Theater\") in [San Luis Obispo](/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo \"San Luis Obispo\"), California which were recorded and released, along with the new studio tracks, that October on [CMC International](/wiki/CMC_International \"CMC International\") Records as the *[Keys to Ascension](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension \"Keys to Ascension\")* album, which peaked at number 48 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. A same\\-titled [live video](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_%28video%29 \"Keys to Ascension (video)\") of the shows was also released that year.",
"Yes continued to record new tracks in the studio, drawing some material written around the time of the XYZ project. At one point the new songs were to be released as a studio album, but commercial considerations meant that the new tracks were eventually packaged with the remainder of the 1996 San Luis Obispo shows in November 1997 on *[Keys to Ascension 2](/wiki/Keys_to_Ascension_2 \"Keys to Ascension 2\")*. The record managed to reach number 62 in the UK, but failed to chart in the U.S. Disgruntled at the way a potential studio album had been sacrificed in favour of the *Keys to Ascension* releases (as well as the way in which a Yes tour was being arranged without his input or agreement), Wakeman left the group again. (The studio material from both albums would eventually be compiled and re\\-released without the live tracks onto a single CD, 2001's *[Keystudio](/wiki/Keystudio \"Keystudio\")*.)",
"With Yes in disarray again, Squire turned to Billy Sherwood (by now the band's engineer) for help.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.allaboutjazz.com/something\\-else\\-interview\\-billy\\-sherwood\\-formerly\\-of\\-yes.php\\#.VHNWNrFFDVU\\|title\\=Something Else! Interview: Billy Sherwood, Formerly of Yes\\|publisher\\=News.allaboutjazz.com\\|date\\=13 October 2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}} Both men had been working on a side project called [Conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28band%29 \"Conspiracy (band)\") and reworked existing demos and recordings from there to turn them into Yes songs, and also worked on new material with Anderson and White. (Howe's involvement at this stage was minimal, mainly taking place towards the end of the sessions.) Sherwood's integral involvement with the writing, production, and performance of the music led to his finally joining Yes as a full member (taking on the role of harmony singer, keyboardist and second guitarist).",
"The results of the sessions were released in November 1997 as the seventeenth Yes studio album, *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_album%29 \"Open Your Eyes (Yes album)\")* (on the Beyond Music label, who ensured that the group had greater control in packaging and naming). The music (mainly at Sherwood's urging) attempted to bridge the differing Yes styles of the 1970s and 1980s. (Sherwood: \"My goal was to try to break down those partisan walls… For that, I am proud—to have aligned planets for a moment in time.\") However, *Open Your Eyes* was not a chart success; the record peaked at number 151 on the *Billboard* 200 but failed to enter the charts in the UK. The [title single](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Yes_song%29 \"Open Your Eyes (Yes song)\") managed to reach number 33 on the mainstream rock chart.",
"For the [1997/1998 *Open Your Eyes* tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23Open_Your_Eyes_and_Thirtieth_Anniversary_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#Open Your Eyes and Thirtieth Anniversary Tour\"), Yes hired Russian keyboard player [Igor Khoroshev](/wiki/Igor_Khoroshev \"Igor Khoroshev\"), who had played on some of the album tracks. Significantly, the tour setlist featured only a few pieces from the new album, and mostly concentrated on earlier material. Anderson and Howe, who had been less involved with the writing and production on *Open Your Eyes* than they'd wished, would express dissatisfaction about the album later.",
"By the time the band came to record their eighteenth studio album *[The Ladder](/wiki/The_Ladder_%28Yes_album%29 \"The Ladder (Yes album)\")* with producer [Bruce Fairbairn](/wiki/Bruce_Fairbairn \"Bruce Fairbairn\"), Khoroshev had become a full\\-time member (with Sherwood now concentrating on songwriting, vocal arrangements and second guitar). With Khoroshev's classically influenced keyboard style, and with all members now making more or less equal writing contributions, the band's sound found a balance between its eclectic 1970s progressive rock style and the more polished pop sound sought on the previous album. *The Ladder* also featured Latin music ingredients and clear world music influences, mostly brought in by Alan White (although Fairbairn's multi\\-instrumentalist colleague [Randy Raine\\-Reusch](/wiki/Randy_Raine-Reusch \"Randy Raine-Reusch\") made a strong contribution to the album's textures). One of the album tracks, \"Homeworld (The Ladder)\", was written for Relic Entertainment's [Homeworld](/wiki/Homeworld \"Homeworld\"), a real\\-time strategy computer game, and was used as the credits and outro theme. Pleased with the result of the album's creation, the band had been in tentative discussions to continue work with Fairbairn on future projects, but he died suddenly during the final mixing sessions of the album.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Morse\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=March 2000\\|title\\=Chris Squire Still Climbing\\|magazine\\=Bass Player\\|url\\=https://yesinthepress.com/2000/mar/mar\\_00\\.html\\|location\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2023}}",
"*The Ladder* was released in September 1999, peaking at number 36 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. While [on tour in 1999 and early 2000](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%281980s%E2%80%9390s%29%23The_Ladder_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (1980s–90s)#The Ladder Tour\"), Yes recorded their performance at the [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues \"House of Blues\") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley \"Las Vegas Valley\") on 31 October 1999, releasing it in September 2000 as a live album and DVD called *[House of Yes: Live from House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Yes:Live_from_House_of_Blues \"Live from House of Blues\")*. As Sherwood saw his role in Yes as creating and performing new music, and the rest of the band now wished to concentrate on performing the back catalogue, he amicably resigned from Yes at the end of the tour.",
"In summer 2000, Yes embarked on the three\\-month [Masterworks tour](/wiki/List_of_Yes_concert_tours_%282000s%E2%80%9310s%29%23Masterworks_Tour \"List of Yes concert tours (2000s–10s)#Masterworks Tour\") of the United States, on which they performed only material which had been released between 1970 and 1974 (*The Yes Album* through to *Relayer*). While on tour, Khoroshev was involved in a backstage incident of sexual assault with a female security guard at Nissan Pavilion in [Bristow, Virginia](/wiki/Bristow%2C_Virginia \"Bristow, Virginia\") on 23 July 2000{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dailypress.com/2000/07/26/yes\\-keyboardist\\-needs\\-to\\-keep\\-his\\-hands\\-on\\-the\\-keys/\\|title\\=Yes Keyboardist Needs To Keep His Hands On The Keys\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|publisher\\=Daily Press\\|date\\=26 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630160439/http://articles.dailypress.com/2000\\-07\\-26/news/0007260043\\_1\\_guards\\-battery\\-sexually\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.pollstar.com/article/touchy\\-feely\\-musician\\-gets\\-slapped\\-11021\\|title\\=Touchy\\-Feely Musician Gets Slapped\\|magazine\\=Pollstar\\|date\\=26 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\\_00\\.html\\|title\\=Yes in the Press\\|publisher\\=Zenponies.com\\|date\\=28 July 2000\\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033404/http://zenponies.com/yitp/2000/jul/jul28\\_00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and parted company with the band at the end of the tour.",
""
] |
Music career
------------
In the late 1980s, Van Leeuwen played in Jester, a successful southern California band fronted by vocalist Eric Book. Jester released an EP, which is the earliest and most rare recording of a 16\-year\-old Van Leeuwen. He then played in a small band called Little Boots, with which he recorded a number of demos and played a few shows before the band's breakup. His next band was [60 Cycle](/wiki/60_Cycle "60 Cycle"), which released their debut "Pretender" in 1995, and their self\-titled album the following year. It was during his time in 60 Cycle that Van Leeuwen met Kellii Scott, and the two started working on a project (later to be known as [Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28American_band%29 "Enemy (American band)")). Van Leeuwen went on to play in [Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 "Failure (band)"). The band released three records and didn't enjoy any commercial success, but was praised by critics as a talented and almost revolutionary group.{{cite web \|url\=http://margo.student.utwente.nl/cees/misterenemy/story.html \|title\=Biography \|publisher\=Margo.student.utwente.nl \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014 \|archive\-date\=July 30, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730124849/http://margo.student.utwente.nl/cees/misterenemy/story.html \|url\-status\=dead }} It was during a tour with Failure when Van Leeuwen met former [Kyuss](/wiki/Kyuss "Kyuss") guitarist [Josh Homme](/wiki/Josh_Homme "Josh Homme"), who was presently playing rhythm guitar with [The Screaming Trees](/wiki/The_Screaming_Trees "The Screaming Trees"). After the breakup of Failure, Van Leeuwen became a [session musician](/wiki/Session_musician "Session musician") and [recording engineer](/wiki/Recording_engineer "Recording engineer"), working with groups such as [Orgy](/wiki/Orgy_%28band%29 "Orgy (band)"), [Crazy Town](/wiki/Crazy_Town "Crazy Town"), [Coal Chamber](/wiki/Coal_Chamber "Coal Chamber") and [KoRn](/wiki/KoRn "KoRn").
### A Perfect Circle
It was during his time as a session musician that Van Leeuwen met [Tool](/wiki/Tool_%28band%29 "Tool (band)") frontman [Maynard James Keenan](/wiki/Maynard_James_Keenan "Maynard James Keenan"), who offered him a spot in his and [Billy Howerdel](/wiki/Billy_Howerdel "Billy Howerdel")'s new band, [A Perfect Circle](/wiki/A_Perfect_Circle "A Perfect Circle"). The band played their first show at LA's Viper Club Reception on August 15, 1999\. After playing shows in Los Angeles, the band entered the studio to begin work on their debut album, *[Mer de Noms](/wiki/Mer_de_Noms "Mer de Noms")*.{{cite book\|last\= McIver \|first\= Joel \|title\= Nu\-metal: The Next Generation of Rock \& Punk \|publisher\= Omnibus Press \|year\= 2002 \|page\=27 }}{{cite news\|last\=Kielty \|first\=Tom \|title\=New on disc; A Perfect Circle Mer de Noms Virgin \|date\=June 22, 2000 \|work\=\[\[Boston Globe]] \|page\=Calendar; 8 }} The album was released on May 23, 2000, making it the highest ever debut for a new rock band, selling over 188,000 copies in its first week, and appearing at number four on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200").{{cite web \|title\=A Perfect Circle Storms Onto Chart with Highest Debuting First Album Ever From a Rock Band \|publisher\=NY Rock \|date\=June 2, 2000 \|url\=http://www.nyrock.com/worldbeat/06\_2000/060200\.asp \|access\-date\=September 3, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708222440/http://www.nyrock.com/worldbeat/06\_2000/060200\.asp \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2008 }} Van Leeuwen toured extensively with the band, initially as the opening act for [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails "Nine Inch Nails"), followed a number of headlining tours around the world.{{cite web \|last\= Zahlaway \|first\= Jon \|title\= A Perfect Circle lines up winter headlining tour \|publisher\= LiveDaily \|date\=December 8, 2000 \|url\=http://www.livedaily.com/news/2305\.html \|access\-date\= March 29, 2008}} Van Leeuwen recorded guitar parts on only three tracks of [A Perfect Circle](/wiki/A_Perfect_Circle "A Perfect Circle")'s second album, *[Thirteenth Step](/wiki/Thirteenth_Step "Thirteenth Step")*, before successfully auditioning for a spot in Josh Homme's [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age "Queens of the Stone Age").
### Queens of the Stone Age
After outperforming [Jeordie White](/wiki/Jeordie_White "Jeordie White") and others in the audition, Van Leeuwen was welcomed as the band's second guitarist for their *[Songs for the Deaf](/wiki/Songs_for_the_Deaf "Songs for the Deaf")* tour. Besides playing guitar, Van Leeuwen also performed on [lap steel guitar](/wiki/Lap_steel_guitar "Lap steel guitar"), keyboards, backing vocals and occasionally bass guitar. Due to the band's schedule, Van Leeuwen had only one week to learn 30 songs before the tour began. For the European leg of the album's supporting tour, [Dave Grohl](/wiki/Dave_Grohl "Dave Grohl") left to return to his main band [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters_%28band%29 "Foo Fighters (band)"). He was replaced with former [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 "Danzig (band)") drummer [Joey Castillo](/wiki/Joey_Castillo "Joey Castillo"). *Songs for the Deaf* was a critical and commercial success,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\_of\_the\_stoneage/news\_feature\_032805 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328170858/http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\_of\_the\_stoneage/news\_feature\_032805/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=March 28, 2005 \|title\=Queens of the Stone Age: A Stone Unturned \|publisher\=MTV \|date\=March 9, 2006 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014}} and the singles "[No One Knows](/wiki/No_One_Knows "No One Knows")" and "[Go with the Flow](/wiki/Go_with_the_Flow "Go with the Flow")" became hits on both radio and [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"). The tour culminated in a number of headline dates in Australia in January 2004\.
Van Leeuwen's first recording with QOTSA was *[Lullabies to Paralyze](/wiki/Lullabies_to_Paralyze "Lullabies to Paralyze")*. The band entered the studio with [long\-time collaborator](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_contributors "Queens of the Stone Age contributors") and multi\-instrumentalist [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes "Alain Johannes"), who replaced Nick Oliveri on the album. Van Leeuwen aimed to fill in some of the gaps in the music where he felt the sound could be expanded through atmospheric and ambient textures made by guitar, lap steel and piano. The album (the title of which is taken from a lyric in *Mosquito Song* from Songs for the Deaf){{cite news \| url\=http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\=artist\_texte\&artist\_id\=1639 \| publisher\=Vertigo \| title\=Queens of the Stone Age Interview \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \| archive\-date\=July 21, 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721121411/http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\=artist\_texte\&artist\_id\=1639 \| url\-status\=dead }} featured several guest appearances, most notably [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top")'s [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons "Billy Gibbons"), who performed backing vocals and lead guitar on "[Burn the Witch](/wiki/Burn_the_Witch_%28Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_song%29 "Burn the Witch (Queens of the Stone Age song)")" and the ZZ Top cover, "Precious and Grace". Despite reportedly turning down an invitation to remain with the band, [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan "Mark Lanegan") recorded vocals on new tracks, and appeared with the band on the supporting tour when scheduling and his health permitted. The album was leaked onto the internet in February 2005, and was aired by Australian radio on March 3, 2005, as an unsubstantiated 'World Premiere'. The album was then officially released on March 22, 2005, in the US, and debuted as number 5 on the [Billboard Music Chart](/wiki/Billboard_Music_Chart "Billboard Music Chart"): the greatest initial success of any QOTSA record to date. On November 22, 2005, the band released a live album/DVD set called *[Over the Years and Through the Woods](/wiki/Over_the_Years_and_Through_the_Woods "Over the Years and Through the Woods")*, which featured a live concert filmed in London, and bonus features (including rare videos dating from 1998 to 2005\).
After touring to support the album, the band headed back into the studio in July 2006\. A year later, Van Leeuwen reported that the band had written new material that was "still in its infancy",{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/queens\-of\-the\-stone\-age/29795 \|title\=Queens of the Stone Age discuss Duluth tour \|format\=article \|work\=\[\[NME]] \|access\-date\=July 21, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307051237/http://www.nme.com/news/queens\-of\-the\-stone\-age/29795 \|archive\-date\=March 7, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }} which Homme later suggested might be released as an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play"). This matured into their 2007 release *Era Vulgaris*, to which Van Leeuwen contributed a significant amount of material.
[thumb\|Van Leeuwen performing with [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age "Queens of the Stone Age") in 2007](/wiki/File:Troy%2BVan%2BLeeuwen.jpg "Troy+Van+Leeuwen.jpg")
Several sites reported that the album would include many guest vocalists, including [Trent Reznor](/wiki/Trent_Reznor "Trent Reznor") from [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails "Nine Inch Nails"), [Julian Casablancas](/wiki/Julian_Casablancas "Julian Casablancas") from [The Strokes](/wiki/The_Strokes "The Strokes"), [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan "Mark Lanegan"), [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons "Billy Gibbons") of [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top"),{{cite magazine \| url\=http://www.spin.com/features/news/2007/02/070223\_qotsa/ \| magazine\=\[\[Spin (magazine)\|Spin.com]] \| title\=Casablancas, Reznor Rumored Guests on QOTSA Album \| date\=February 23, 2007 \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007}} and wittingly, deceased humorist [Erma Bombeck](/wiki/Erma_Bombeck "Erma Bombeck").{{cite web
\| url \=http://www.ultimate\-guitar.com/news/video\_news/queens\_of\_the\_stone\_age\_will\_not\_settle\_down\_except\_for\_fans.html
\| title \=Queens of the Stone Age Will Not Settle Down, Except For Fans
\| publisher \=\[\[Ultimate Guitar Archive\|Ultimate\-guitar.com]]
\| access\-date \=May 9, 2007
}} Josh Homme described the record as "dark, hard, and electrical, sort of like a construction worker".{{cite web \| url\=http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \| publisher\=qotsa.com \| title\=Ask the Band \| date\=November 4, 2006 \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070205175824/http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \|archive\-date \= February 5, 2007}} *Era Vulgaris* was completed in early April 2007{{cite magazine \|url \= https://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\-qotsa\-foofighters\-marilynmanson\-rogerwaters/ \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070614012331/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\-qotsa\-foofighters\-marilynmanson\-rogerwaters/ \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-date \= June 14, 2007 \|title \= Smoking Section: Playing poker with the Strokes, Foo Fighters album news, Marilyn Manson's "dirty" film, Roger Waters calls from the road \|author \= Scaggs, Austin \|date \= April 6, 2007 \|magazine \= Rolling Stone \|access\-date \= April 10, 2007}} and released in June 2007 in the US{{cite web \|url \= http://www.qotsa.com/ \|title \= Queens of the Stone Age official website \|year \= 2007 \|access\-date \= April 10, 2007}} The tracks "[Sick, Sick, Sick](/wiki/Sick%2C_Sick%2C_Sick "Sick, Sick, Sick")" and "[3's \& 7's](/wiki/3%27s_%26_7%27s "3's & 7's")" were released as singles in early June.{{cite magazine
\|url\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|title\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork
\|magazine\=\[\[Uncut (magazine)\|Uncut.com]]
\|access\-date\=July 14, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|archive\-date\=May 28, 2007 }}
Bassist [Michael Shuman](/wiki/Michael_Shuman "Michael Shuman") ([Wires on Fire](/wiki/Wires_on_Fire "Wires on Fire"), [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28band%29 "Jubilee (band)")) and keyboardist [Dean Fertita](/wiki/Dean_Fertita "Dean Fertita") ([The Waxwings](/wiki/The_Waxwings "The Waxwings"), [The Raconteurs](/wiki/The_Raconteurs "The Raconteurs")) took over touring duties from [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes "Alain Johannes") and [Natasha Shneider](/wiki/Natasha_Shneider "Natasha Shneider") respectively.{{cite magazine
\|url\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|title\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork
\|magazine\=\[\[Uncut (magazine)\|Uncut.com]]
\|access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|archive\-date\=May 28, 2007 }}
{{cite news
\|url \= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=71399
\|title \= QUEENS OF THE STONE AGE Films 'Sick, Sick, Sick' Video
\|date \= April 28, 2007
\|work \= \[\[Blabbermouth.net]]
\|access\-date \= May 9, 2007
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070506035321/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=71399
\|archive\-date \= May 6, 2007
\|df \= mdy\-all
}}
Following a subsequent interview with Homme, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")* reported that the EP "could contain as many as 10 B\-sides recorded during the *Era Vulgaris* sessions."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \|title\=Princes Charming – well, almost \|format\=interview \|newspaper\=The Globe and Mail \|access\-date\=August 25, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070826192819/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2007 }} It was since reported however that the EP would not be released due to the record label's unwillingness to put out another QOTSA release at this time.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1047979/homme\-itching\-to\-record\-with\-new\-qotsa\-lineup \|title\=Homme Itching To Record With New QOTSA Lineup \|magazine\=Billboard \|date\=October 18, 2007 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014}} In a September issue of [NME](/wiki/NME "NME") Magazine, Homme stated that he was going back to make the new QOTSA and [Desert Sessions](/wiki/Desert_Sessions "Desert Sessions") records, along with remastering the 1998 (QOTSA) [self\-titled album](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_%28album%29 "Queens of the Stone Age (album)") for an early 2009 release. Homme also stated Queens' new album is going to be a "desert orgy in the dark".
In 2013, QOTSA released [...Like Clockwork](/wiki/...Like_Clockwork "...Like Clockwork"), Van Leeuwen's third full album with the band. On the album, Van Leeuwen plays guitar, percussion, [twelve\-string guitar](/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar "Twelve-string guitar"), twelve\-string [slide guitar](/wiki/Slide_guitar "Slide guitar"), [lap steel](/wiki/Lap_steel "Lap steel"), synthesizers, acoustic guitar and provides vocals. The album was the first QOTSA album to reach number one on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200"). It also reached number two on the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") and was nominated for three [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards"), including [Best Rock Album](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Album "Grammy Award for Best Rock Album").
### Other musical work
In 2001, Van Leeuwen joined the [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 "Supergroup (music)") [Revenge of the Triads](/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Triads "Revenge of the Triads") with [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails "Nine Inch Nails") keyboardist [Charlie Clouser](/wiki/Charlie_Clouser "Charlie Clouser") and [Snake River Conspiracy](/wiki/Snake_River_Conspiracy "Snake River Conspiracy") bassist/producer [Jason Slater](/wiki/Jason_Slater "Jason Slater"). Van Leeuwen, who acted the band's main vocalist,{{Cite web \|date\=2002\-05\-06 \|title\=CC news \|url\=https://www.theninhotline.com/news/permalink/1020699802 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207081649/https://www.theninhotline.com/news/permalink/1020699802 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-07 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-06 \|website\=www.theninhotline.com}} described the band as a mixture of all three of the members influences, and stated that the band did not fit in any specific genre.{{Cite web \|date\= \|title\=What is Enemy? {{!}} Interview \|url\=http://www.enemyonline.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020720052247/http://www.enemyonline.com/ \|archive\-date\=2002\-07\-20 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-06 \|website\=enemyonline \|type\=\[\[Adobe Flash]] emulator required}} The band was signed to LMC Records, an independent label distributed by [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records"), and worked on a debut album before breaking up almost exactly a year later due to problems with LMC not paying the band and the members' losing interest in the project. The album remains unfinished and unreleased.{{Cite web \|last\=Blabbermouth \|date\=2002\-12\-16 \|title\=REVENGE OF THE TRIADS Cease To Exist \|url\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/revenge\-of\-the\-triads\-cease\-to\-exist/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-06 \|website\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET \|language\=en}}
In 2005, Van Leeuwen released *[Hooray For Dark Matter](/wiki/Hooray_For_Dark_Matter "Hooray For Dark Matter")* with his side project [Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28American_band%29 "Enemy (American band)"). The album features bassist Eddie Nappi from the [Mark Lanegan Band](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan_Band "Mark Lanegan Band"), and his former bandmate from [Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 "Failure (band)") Kelli Scott on drums (who had replaced [Quicksand](/wiki/Quicksand_%28band%29 "Quicksand (band)")'s Alan Cage). Van Leeuwen describes Enemy as his "big, dumb rock trio",{{cite web\|url\=http://www.last.fm/music/Enemy/\+wiki \|title\=Enemy's Biography – Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and pictures at \|publisher\=Last.fm \|date\=November 26, 2013 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014}} and "a vehicle driven by pure and utter disgust of mediocrity and general frustration with the human condition". During Van Leeuwen's time with A Perfect Circle, Enemy recorded a five track demo in what he called "Guerilla\-style recording" at various studios.[http://www.vh1\.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect\_circle.jhtml](http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect_circle.jhtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228124909/http://www.vh1\.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect\_circle.jhtml\|date\=February 28, 2008}} The band (unusually) offered to be signed by a record label by advertising for the princely sum of $250,000 on [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay"). Enemy was ultimately signed by [Control Group/TCG](/wiki/The_Control_Group "The Control Group"), who released their debut album. After joining the Queens of the Stone Age, Van Leeuwen has also contributed music to band members' various side projects: such as [The Desert Sessions](/wiki/The_Desert_Sessions "The Desert Sessions"), [Mondo Generator](/wiki/Mondo_Generator "Mondo Generator"), [Eagles of Death Metal](/wiki/Eagles_of_Death_Metal "Eagles of Death Metal"), [The Gutter Twins](/wiki/The_Gutter_Twins "The Gutter Twins") and [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan "Mark Lanegan")'s solo album *[Bubblegum](/wiki/Bubblegum_%28Mark_Lanegan_album%29 "Bubblegum (Mark Lanegan album)")*. After the *Era Vulgaris* tour's end, Van Leeuwen began touring with his current side project, [Sweethead](/wiki/Sweethead "Sweethead").
In 2016, Van Leeuwen toured with [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop "Iggy Pop"), [Josh Homme](/wiki/Josh_Homme "Josh Homme"), [Matt Helders](/wiki/Matt_Helders "Matt Helders") and [Matt Sweeney](/wiki/Matt_Sweeney "Matt Sweeney") in support of their album *[Post Pop Depression](/wiki/Post_Pop_Depression "Post Pop Depression")*.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/24/arts/music/iggy\-pop\-josh\-homme\-post\-pop\-depression.html\|title\=Iggy Pop and Josh Homme Team Up for Secret Album\|date\=January 24, 2016\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=January 21, 2016}} He also formed [Gone Is Gone](/wiki/Gone_Is_Gone "Gone Is Gone"), a [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 "Supergroup (music)") also consisting of [Troy Sanders](/wiki/Troy_Sanders "Troy Sanders"), the singer and bass player from [Mastodon](/wiki/Mastodon_%28band%29 "Mastodon (band)"), [Tony Hajjar](/wiki/Tony_Hajjar "Tony Hajjar"), the drummer for [At the Drive\-In](/wiki/At_the_Drive-In "At the Drive-In"), and Mike Zarin,Reed, Ryan. (April 13, 2016\) [Mastodon, At the Drive\-In, QOTSA Members Form New Band Gone Is Gone](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/mastodon-at-the-drive-in-qotsa-members-form-supergroup-gone-is-gone-20160413). Rolling Stone. Retrieved on January 17, 2017\. a multi\-instrumentalist who appeared with Van Leeuwen on Sweethead's *[Descent To The Surface](/wiki/Descent_To_The_Surface "Descent To The Surface")*. An [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") wwa released in the summer of 2016, and the band released a studio [album](/wiki/Album "Album") early the next year.[Mastodon, Queens of the Stone Age, At the Drive\-In Members Form Supergroup Gone is Gone, Tease New Song "Violescent": Listen](http://pitchfork.com/news/64785-mastodon-queens-of-the-stone-age-at-the-drive-in-members-form-supergroup-gone-is-gone-tease-new-song-violescent-listen/). Pitchfork (April 13, 2016\). Retrieved on January 17, 2017\. In 2017, he contributed guitar parts to [Chelsea Wolfe](/wiki/Chelsea_Wolfe "Chelsea Wolfe")'s fifth studio album, [Hiss Spun](/wiki/Hiss_Spun "Hiss Spun"). In 2021, he was a guest musician on the album *[Ultrapop](/wiki/Ultrapop "Ultrapop")* by the Detroit hardcore collective [The Armed](/wiki/The_Armed "The Armed")[Interview: Guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen Talks His Guest Appearance on The Armed’s ‘ULTRAPOP’](https://web.archive.org/web/20210621192954/https://newnoisemagazine.com/interview-guitarist-troy-van-leeuwen-talks-his-guest-appearance-on-the-armeds-ultrapop/). New Noise Magazine (June 21, 2021\). Retrieved on March 9, 2024\. and appeared again on their 2023 album *[Perfect Saviors](/wiki/Perfect_Saviors "Perfect Saviors")* and also performing some shows like adult swim festival.
In 2022, Van Leeuwen took on touring guitarist duties for [The Damned](/wiki/The_Damned_%28band%29 "The Damned (band)") on the US dates of their tour, temporarily replacing [Captain Sensible](/wiki/Captain_Sensible "Captain Sensible").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.punknews.org/amp/77237/captain\-sensible\-will\-not\-be\-on\-upcoming\-damned\-us\-tour\|title\=Captain Sensible will not be on upcoming Damned US tour\|website\=PunkNews.org\|access\-date\=May 13, 2022}} Later that year, he served as the touring guitarist for [alternative rock](/wiki/Alternative_rock "Alternative rock") band [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction "Jane's Addiction") while longtime member [Dave Navarro](/wiki/Dave_Navarro "Dave Navarro") was ill with [long COVID](/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stereogum.com/2201272/dave\-navarro\-skipping\-janes\-addiction\-smashing\-pumpkins\-tour\-due\-to\-long\-covid/news/\|title\=Dave Navarro Skipping Jane's Addiction/Smashing Pumpkins Tour Due To Long COVID \|work\=\[\[Stereogum]]\|last\=Brodsky \|first\=Rachel \|date\=September 29, 2022\|access\-date\=September 30, 2022}}
|
[
"Music career\n------------",
"In the late 1980s, Van Leeuwen played in Jester, a successful southern California band fronted by vocalist Eric Book. Jester released an EP, which is the earliest and most rare recording of a 16\\-year\\-old Van Leeuwen. He then played in a small band called Little Boots, with which he recorded a number of demos and played a few shows before the band's breakup. His next band was [60 Cycle](/wiki/60_Cycle \"60 Cycle\"), which released their debut \"Pretender\" in 1995, and their self\\-titled album the following year. It was during his time in 60 Cycle that Van Leeuwen met Kellii Scott, and the two started working on a project (later to be known as [Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28American_band%29 \"Enemy (American band)\")). Van Leeuwen went on to play in [Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 \"Failure (band)\"). The band released three records and didn't enjoy any commercial success, but was praised by critics as a talented and almost revolutionary group.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://margo.student.utwente.nl/cees/misterenemy/story.html \\|title\\=Biography \\|publisher\\=Margo.student.utwente.nl \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 30, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730124849/http://margo.student.utwente.nl/cees/misterenemy/story.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} It was during a tour with Failure when Van Leeuwen met former [Kyuss](/wiki/Kyuss \"Kyuss\") guitarist [Josh Homme](/wiki/Josh_Homme \"Josh Homme\"), who was presently playing rhythm guitar with [The Screaming Trees](/wiki/The_Screaming_Trees \"The Screaming Trees\"). After the breakup of Failure, Van Leeuwen became a [session musician](/wiki/Session_musician \"Session musician\") and [recording engineer](/wiki/Recording_engineer \"Recording engineer\"), working with groups such as [Orgy](/wiki/Orgy_%28band%29 \"Orgy (band)\"), [Crazy Town](/wiki/Crazy_Town \"Crazy Town\"), [Coal Chamber](/wiki/Coal_Chamber \"Coal Chamber\") and [KoRn](/wiki/KoRn \"KoRn\").",
"### A Perfect Circle",
"It was during his time as a session musician that Van Leeuwen met [Tool](/wiki/Tool_%28band%29 \"Tool (band)\") frontman [Maynard James Keenan](/wiki/Maynard_James_Keenan \"Maynard James Keenan\"), who offered him a spot in his and [Billy Howerdel](/wiki/Billy_Howerdel \"Billy Howerdel\")'s new band, [A Perfect Circle](/wiki/A_Perfect_Circle \"A Perfect Circle\"). The band played their first show at LA's Viper Club Reception on August 15, 1999\\. After playing shows in Los Angeles, the band entered the studio to begin work on their debut album, *[Mer de Noms](/wiki/Mer_de_Noms \"Mer de Noms\")*.{{cite book\\|last\\= McIver \\|first\\= Joel \\|title\\= Nu\\-metal: The Next Generation of Rock \\& Punk \\|publisher\\= Omnibus Press \\|year\\= 2002 \\|page\\=27 }}{{cite news\\|last\\=Kielty \\|first\\=Tom \\|title\\=New on disc; A Perfect Circle Mer de Noms Virgin \\|date\\=June 22, 2000 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Boston Globe]] \\|page\\=Calendar; 8 }} The album was released on May 23, 2000, making it the highest ever debut for a new rock band, selling over 188,000 copies in its first week, and appearing at number four on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\").{{cite web \\|title\\=A Perfect Circle Storms Onto Chart with Highest Debuting First Album Ever From a Rock Band \\|publisher\\=NY Rock \\|date\\=June 2, 2000 \\|url\\=http://www.nyrock.com/worldbeat/06\\_2000/060200\\.asp \\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708222440/http://www.nyrock.com/worldbeat/06\\_2000/060200\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2008 }} Van Leeuwen toured extensively with the band, initially as the opening act for [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails \"Nine Inch Nails\"), followed a number of headlining tours around the world.{{cite web \\|last\\= Zahlaway \\|first\\= Jon \\|title\\= A Perfect Circle lines up winter headlining tour \\|publisher\\= LiveDaily \\|date\\=December 8, 2000 \\|url\\=http://www.livedaily.com/news/2305\\.html \\|access\\-date\\= March 29, 2008}} Van Leeuwen recorded guitar parts on only three tracks of [A Perfect Circle](/wiki/A_Perfect_Circle \"A Perfect Circle\")'s second album, *[Thirteenth Step](/wiki/Thirteenth_Step \"Thirteenth Step\")*, before successfully auditioning for a spot in Josh Homme's [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age \"Queens of the Stone Age\").",
"### Queens of the Stone Age",
"After outperforming [Jeordie White](/wiki/Jeordie_White \"Jeordie White\") and others in the audition, Van Leeuwen was welcomed as the band's second guitarist for their *[Songs for the Deaf](/wiki/Songs_for_the_Deaf \"Songs for the Deaf\")* tour. Besides playing guitar, Van Leeuwen also performed on [lap steel guitar](/wiki/Lap_steel_guitar \"Lap steel guitar\"), keyboards, backing vocals and occasionally bass guitar. Due to the band's schedule, Van Leeuwen had only one week to learn 30 songs before the tour began. For the European leg of the album's supporting tour, [Dave Grohl](/wiki/Dave_Grohl \"Dave Grohl\") left to return to his main band [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters_%28band%29 \"Foo Fighters (band)\"). He was replaced with former [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 \"Danzig (band)\") drummer [Joey Castillo](/wiki/Joey_Castillo \"Joey Castillo\"). *Songs for the Deaf* was a critical and commercial success,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stoneage/news\\_feature\\_032805 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328170858/http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stoneage/news\\_feature\\_032805/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=March 28, 2005 \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone Age: A Stone Unturned \\|publisher\\=MTV \\|date\\=March 9, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014}} and the singles \"[No One Knows](/wiki/No_One_Knows \"No One Knows\")\" and \"[Go with the Flow](/wiki/Go_with_the_Flow \"Go with the Flow\")\" became hits on both radio and [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\"). The tour culminated in a number of headline dates in Australia in January 2004\\.",
"Van Leeuwen's first recording with QOTSA was *[Lullabies to Paralyze](/wiki/Lullabies_to_Paralyze \"Lullabies to Paralyze\")*. The band entered the studio with [long\\-time collaborator](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_contributors \"Queens of the Stone Age contributors\") and multi\\-instrumentalist [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes \"Alain Johannes\"), who replaced Nick Oliveri on the album. Van Leeuwen aimed to fill in some of the gaps in the music where he felt the sound could be expanded through atmospheric and ambient textures made by guitar, lap steel and piano. The album (the title of which is taken from a lyric in *Mosquito Song* from Songs for the Deaf){{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\\=artist\\_texte\\&artist\\_id\\=1639 \\| publisher\\=Vertigo \\| title\\=Queens of the Stone Age Interview \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\| archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721121411/http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\\=artist\\_texte\\&artist\\_id\\=1639 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} featured several guest appearances, most notably [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\")'s [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons \"Billy Gibbons\"), who performed backing vocals and lead guitar on \"[Burn the Witch](/wiki/Burn_the_Witch_%28Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_song%29 \"Burn the Witch (Queens of the Stone Age song)\")\" and the ZZ Top cover, \"Precious and Grace\". Despite reportedly turning down an invitation to remain with the band, [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan \"Mark Lanegan\") recorded vocals on new tracks, and appeared with the band on the supporting tour when scheduling and his health permitted. The album was leaked onto the internet in February 2005, and was aired by Australian radio on March 3, 2005, as an unsubstantiated 'World Premiere'. The album was then officially released on March 22, 2005, in the US, and debuted as number 5 on the [Billboard Music Chart](/wiki/Billboard_Music_Chart \"Billboard Music Chart\"): the greatest initial success of any QOTSA record to date. On November 22, 2005, the band released a live album/DVD set called *[Over the Years and Through the Woods](/wiki/Over_the_Years_and_Through_the_Woods \"Over the Years and Through the Woods\")*, which featured a live concert filmed in London, and bonus features (including rare videos dating from 1998 to 2005\\).",
"After touring to support the album, the band headed back into the studio in July 2006\\. A year later, Van Leeuwen reported that the band had written new material that was \"still in its infancy\",{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/queens\\-of\\-the\\-stone\\-age/29795 \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone Age discuss Duluth tour \\|format\\=article \\|work\\=\\[\\[NME]] \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307051237/http://www.nme.com/news/queens\\-of\\-the\\-stone\\-age/29795 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 7, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} which Homme later suggested might be released as an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\"). This matured into their 2007 release *Era Vulgaris*, to which Van Leeuwen contributed a significant amount of material.",
"[thumb\\|Van Leeuwen performing with [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age \"Queens of the Stone Age\") in 2007](/wiki/File:Troy%2BVan%2BLeeuwen.jpg \"Troy+Van+Leeuwen.jpg\")",
"Several sites reported that the album would include many guest vocalists, including [Trent Reznor](/wiki/Trent_Reznor \"Trent Reznor\") from [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails \"Nine Inch Nails\"), [Julian Casablancas](/wiki/Julian_Casablancas \"Julian Casablancas\") from [The Strokes](/wiki/The_Strokes \"The Strokes\"), [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan \"Mark Lanegan\"), [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons \"Billy Gibbons\") of [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\"),{{cite magazine \\| url\\=http://www.spin.com/features/news/2007/02/070223\\_qotsa/ \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Spin (magazine)\\|Spin.com]] \\| title\\=Casablancas, Reznor Rumored Guests on QOTSA Album \\| date\\=February 23, 2007 \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007}} and wittingly, deceased humorist [Erma Bombeck](/wiki/Erma_Bombeck \"Erma Bombeck\").{{cite web\n\\| url \\=http://www.ultimate\\-guitar.com/news/video\\_news/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stone\\_age\\_will\\_not\\_settle\\_down\\_except\\_for\\_fans.html\n\\| title \\=Queens of the Stone Age Will Not Settle Down, Except For Fans\n\\| publisher \\=\\[\\[Ultimate Guitar Archive\\|Ultimate\\-guitar.com]]\n\\| access\\-date \\=May 9, 2007\n}} Josh Homme described the record as \"dark, hard, and electrical, sort of like a construction worker\".{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \\| publisher\\=qotsa.com \\| title\\=Ask the Band \\| date\\=November 4, 2006 \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070205175824/http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \\|archive\\-date \\= February 5, 2007}} *Era Vulgaris* was completed in early April 2007{{cite magazine \\|url \\= https://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\\-qotsa\\-foofighters\\-marilynmanson\\-rogerwaters/ \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070614012331/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\\-qotsa\\-foofighters\\-marilynmanson\\-rogerwaters/ \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-date \\= June 14, 2007 \\|title \\= Smoking Section: Playing poker with the Strokes, Foo Fighters album news, Marilyn Manson's \"dirty\" film, Roger Waters calls from the road \\|author \\= Scaggs, Austin \\|date \\= April 6, 2007 \\|magazine \\= Rolling Stone \\|access\\-date \\= April 10, 2007}} and released in June 2007 in the US{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.qotsa.com/ \\|title \\= Queens of the Stone Age official website \\|year \\= 2007 \\|access\\-date \\= April 10, 2007}} The tracks \"[Sick, Sick, Sick](/wiki/Sick%2C_Sick%2C_Sick \"Sick, Sick, Sick\")\" and \"[3's \\& 7's](/wiki/3%27s_%26_7%27s \"3's & 7's\")\" were released as singles in early June.{{cite magazine\n \\|url\\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork \n \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Uncut (magazine)\\|Uncut.com]] \n \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|archive\\-date\\=May 28, 2007 }}\n Bassist [Michael Shuman](/wiki/Michael_Shuman \"Michael Shuman\") ([Wires on Fire](/wiki/Wires_on_Fire \"Wires on Fire\"), [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28band%29 \"Jubilee (band)\")) and keyboardist [Dean Fertita](/wiki/Dean_Fertita \"Dean Fertita\") ([The Waxwings](/wiki/The_Waxwings \"The Waxwings\"), [The Raconteurs](/wiki/The_Raconteurs \"The Raconteurs\")) took over touring duties from [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes \"Alain Johannes\") and [Natasha Shneider](/wiki/Natasha_Shneider \"Natasha Shneider\") respectively.{{cite magazine\n \\|url\\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork \n \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Uncut (magazine)\\|Uncut.com]] \n \\|access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|archive\\-date\\=May 28, 2007 }}\n{{cite news\n \\|url \\= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=71399\n \\|title \\= QUEENS OF THE STONE AGE Films 'Sick, Sick, Sick' Video\n \\|date \\= April 28, 2007\n\\|work \\= \\[\\[Blabbermouth.net]]\n \\|access\\-date \\= May 9, 2007\n\\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070506035321/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=71399\n \\|archive\\-date \\= May 6, 2007\n\\|df \\= mdy\\-all\n}}",
"Following a subsequent interview with Homme, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")* reported that the EP \"could contain as many as 10 B\\-sides recorded during the *Era Vulgaris* sessions.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \\|title\\=Princes Charming – well, almost \\|format\\=interview \\|newspaper\\=The Globe and Mail \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070826192819/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2007 }} It was since reported however that the EP would not be released due to the record label's unwillingness to put out another QOTSA release at this time.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1047979/homme\\-itching\\-to\\-record\\-with\\-new\\-qotsa\\-lineup \\|title\\=Homme Itching To Record With New QOTSA Lineup \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|date\\=October 18, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014}} In a September issue of [NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\") Magazine, Homme stated that he was going back to make the new QOTSA and [Desert Sessions](/wiki/Desert_Sessions \"Desert Sessions\") records, along with remastering the 1998 (QOTSA) [self\\-titled album](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_%28album%29 \"Queens of the Stone Age (album)\") for an early 2009 release. Homme also stated Queens' new album is going to be a \"desert orgy in the dark\".",
"In 2013, QOTSA released [...Like Clockwork](/wiki/...Like_Clockwork \"...Like Clockwork\"), Van Leeuwen's third full album with the band. On the album, Van Leeuwen plays guitar, percussion, [twelve\\-string guitar](/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar \"Twelve-string guitar\"), twelve\\-string [slide guitar](/wiki/Slide_guitar \"Slide guitar\"), [lap steel](/wiki/Lap_steel \"Lap steel\"), synthesizers, acoustic guitar and provides vocals. The album was the first QOTSA album to reach number one on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"). It also reached number two on the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") and was nominated for three [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards \"Grammy Awards\"), including [Best Rock Album](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Album \"Grammy Award for Best Rock Album\").",
"### Other musical work",
"In 2001, Van Leeuwen joined the [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 \"Supergroup (music)\") [Revenge of the Triads](/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Triads \"Revenge of the Triads\") with [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails \"Nine Inch Nails\") keyboardist [Charlie Clouser](/wiki/Charlie_Clouser \"Charlie Clouser\") and [Snake River Conspiracy](/wiki/Snake_River_Conspiracy \"Snake River Conspiracy\") bassist/producer [Jason Slater](/wiki/Jason_Slater \"Jason Slater\"). Van Leeuwen, who acted the band's main vocalist,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2002\\-05\\-06 \\|title\\=CC news \\|url\\=https://www.theninhotline.com/news/permalink/1020699802 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207081649/https://www.theninhotline.com/news/permalink/1020699802 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-06 \\|website\\=www.theninhotline.com}} described the band as a mixture of all three of the members influences, and stated that the band did not fit in any specific genre.{{Cite web \\|date\\= \\|title\\=What is Enemy? {{!}} Interview \\|url\\=http://www.enemyonline.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020720052247/http://www.enemyonline.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-07\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-06 \\|website\\=enemyonline \\|type\\=\\[\\[Adobe Flash]] emulator required}} The band was signed to LMC Records, an independent label distributed by [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\"), and worked on a debut album before breaking up almost exactly a year later due to problems with LMC not paying the band and the members' losing interest in the project. The album remains unfinished and unreleased.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Blabbermouth \\|date\\=2002\\-12\\-16 \\|title\\=REVENGE OF THE TRIADS Cease To Exist \\|url\\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/revenge\\-of\\-the\\-triads\\-cease\\-to\\-exist/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-06 \\|website\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2005, Van Leeuwen released *[Hooray For Dark Matter](/wiki/Hooray_For_Dark_Matter \"Hooray For Dark Matter\")* with his side project [Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28American_band%29 \"Enemy (American band)\"). The album features bassist Eddie Nappi from the [Mark Lanegan Band](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan_Band \"Mark Lanegan Band\"), and his former bandmate from [Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 \"Failure (band)\") Kelli Scott on drums (who had replaced [Quicksand](/wiki/Quicksand_%28band%29 \"Quicksand (band)\")'s Alan Cage). Van Leeuwen describes Enemy as his \"big, dumb rock trio\",{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.last.fm/music/Enemy/\\+wiki \\|title\\=Enemy's Biography – Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and pictures at \\|publisher\\=Last.fm \\|date\\=November 26, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014}} and \"a vehicle driven by pure and utter disgust of mediocrity and general frustration with the human condition\". During Van Leeuwen's time with A Perfect Circle, Enemy recorded a five track demo in what he called \"Guerilla\\-style recording\" at various studios.[http://www.vh1\\.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect\\_circle.jhtml](http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect_circle.jhtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228124909/http://www.vh1\\.com/artists/news/1374470/20001127/perfect\\_circle.jhtml\\|date\\=February 28, 2008}} The band (unusually) offered to be signed by a record label by advertising for the princely sum of $250,000 on [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\"). Enemy was ultimately signed by [Control Group/TCG](/wiki/The_Control_Group \"The Control Group\"), who released their debut album. After joining the Queens of the Stone Age, Van Leeuwen has also contributed music to band members' various side projects: such as [The Desert Sessions](/wiki/The_Desert_Sessions \"The Desert Sessions\"), [Mondo Generator](/wiki/Mondo_Generator \"Mondo Generator\"), [Eagles of Death Metal](/wiki/Eagles_of_Death_Metal \"Eagles of Death Metal\"), [The Gutter Twins](/wiki/The_Gutter_Twins \"The Gutter Twins\") and [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan \"Mark Lanegan\")'s solo album *[Bubblegum](/wiki/Bubblegum_%28Mark_Lanegan_album%29 \"Bubblegum (Mark Lanegan album)\")*. After the *Era Vulgaris* tour's end, Van Leeuwen began touring with his current side project, [Sweethead](/wiki/Sweethead \"Sweethead\").",
"In 2016, Van Leeuwen toured with [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop \"Iggy Pop\"), [Josh Homme](/wiki/Josh_Homme \"Josh Homme\"), [Matt Helders](/wiki/Matt_Helders \"Matt Helders\") and [Matt Sweeney](/wiki/Matt_Sweeney \"Matt Sweeney\") in support of their album *[Post Pop Depression](/wiki/Post_Pop_Depression \"Post Pop Depression\")*.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/24/arts/music/iggy\\-pop\\-josh\\-homme\\-post\\-pop\\-depression.html\\|title\\=Iggy Pop and Josh Homme Team Up for Secret Album\\|date\\=January 24, 2016\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=January 21, 2016}} He also formed [Gone Is Gone](/wiki/Gone_Is_Gone \"Gone Is Gone\"), a [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 \"Supergroup (music)\") also consisting of [Troy Sanders](/wiki/Troy_Sanders \"Troy Sanders\"), the singer and bass player from [Mastodon](/wiki/Mastodon_%28band%29 \"Mastodon (band)\"), [Tony Hajjar](/wiki/Tony_Hajjar \"Tony Hajjar\"), the drummer for [At the Drive\\-In](/wiki/At_the_Drive-In \"At the Drive-In\"), and Mike Zarin,Reed, Ryan. (April 13, 2016\\) [Mastodon, At the Drive\\-In, QOTSA Members Form New Band Gone Is Gone](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/mastodon-at-the-drive-in-qotsa-members-form-supergroup-gone-is-gone-20160413). Rolling Stone. Retrieved on January 17, 2017\\. a multi\\-instrumentalist who appeared with Van Leeuwen on Sweethead's *[Descent To The Surface](/wiki/Descent_To_The_Surface \"Descent To The Surface\")*. An [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") wwa released in the summer of 2016, and the band released a studio [album](/wiki/Album \"Album\") early the next year.[Mastodon, Queens of the Stone Age, At the Drive\\-In Members Form Supergroup Gone is Gone, Tease New Song \"Violescent\": Listen](http://pitchfork.com/news/64785-mastodon-queens-of-the-stone-age-at-the-drive-in-members-form-supergroup-gone-is-gone-tease-new-song-violescent-listen/). Pitchfork (April 13, 2016\\). Retrieved on January 17, 2017\\. In 2017, he contributed guitar parts to [Chelsea Wolfe](/wiki/Chelsea_Wolfe \"Chelsea Wolfe\")'s fifth studio album, [Hiss Spun](/wiki/Hiss_Spun \"Hiss Spun\"). In 2021, he was a guest musician on the album *[Ultrapop](/wiki/Ultrapop \"Ultrapop\")* by the Detroit hardcore collective [The Armed](/wiki/The_Armed \"The Armed\")[Interview: Guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen Talks His Guest Appearance on The Armed’s ‘ULTRAPOP’](https://web.archive.org/web/20210621192954/https://newnoisemagazine.com/interview-guitarist-troy-van-leeuwen-talks-his-guest-appearance-on-the-armeds-ultrapop/). New Noise Magazine (June 21, 2021\\). Retrieved on March 9, 2024\\. and appeared again on their 2023 album *[Perfect Saviors](/wiki/Perfect_Saviors \"Perfect Saviors\")* and also performing some shows like adult swim festival.",
"In 2022, Van Leeuwen took on touring guitarist duties for [The Damned](/wiki/The_Damned_%28band%29 \"The Damned (band)\") on the US dates of their tour, temporarily replacing [Captain Sensible](/wiki/Captain_Sensible \"Captain Sensible\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.punknews.org/amp/77237/captain\\-sensible\\-will\\-not\\-be\\-on\\-upcoming\\-damned\\-us\\-tour\\|title\\=Captain Sensible will not be on upcoming Damned US tour\\|website\\=PunkNews.org\\|access\\-date\\=May 13, 2022}} Later that year, he served as the touring guitarist for [alternative rock](/wiki/Alternative_rock \"Alternative rock\") band [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction \"Jane's Addiction\") while longtime member [Dave Navarro](/wiki/Dave_Navarro \"Dave Navarro\") was ill with [long COVID](/wiki/Long_COVID \"Long COVID\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stereogum.com/2201272/dave\\-navarro\\-skipping\\-janes\\-addiction\\-smashing\\-pumpkins\\-tour\\-due\\-to\\-long\\-covid/news/\\|title\\=Dave Navarro Skipping Jane's Addiction/Smashing Pumpkins Tour Due To Long COVID \\|work\\=\\[\\[Stereogum]]\\|last\\=Brodsky \\|first\\=Rachel \\|date\\=September 29, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2022}}",
""
] |
### Queens of the Stone Age
After outperforming [Jeordie White](/wiki/Jeordie_White "Jeordie White") and others in the audition, Van Leeuwen was welcomed as the band's second guitarist for their *[Songs for the Deaf](/wiki/Songs_for_the_Deaf "Songs for the Deaf")* tour. Besides playing guitar, Van Leeuwen also performed on [lap steel guitar](/wiki/Lap_steel_guitar "Lap steel guitar"), keyboards, backing vocals and occasionally bass guitar. Due to the band's schedule, Van Leeuwen had only one week to learn 30 songs before the tour began. For the European leg of the album's supporting tour, [Dave Grohl](/wiki/Dave_Grohl "Dave Grohl") left to return to his main band [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters_%28band%29 "Foo Fighters (band)"). He was replaced with former [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 "Danzig (band)") drummer [Joey Castillo](/wiki/Joey_Castillo "Joey Castillo"). *Songs for the Deaf* was a critical and commercial success,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\_of\_the\_stoneage/news\_feature\_032805 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328170858/http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\_of\_the\_stoneage/news\_feature\_032805/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=March 28, 2005 \|title\=Queens of the Stone Age: A Stone Unturned \|publisher\=MTV \|date\=March 9, 2006 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014}} and the singles "[No One Knows](/wiki/No_One_Knows "No One Knows")" and "[Go with the Flow](/wiki/Go_with_the_Flow "Go with the Flow")" became hits on both radio and [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"). The tour culminated in a number of headline dates in Australia in January 2004\.
Van Leeuwen's first recording with QOTSA was *[Lullabies to Paralyze](/wiki/Lullabies_to_Paralyze "Lullabies to Paralyze")*. The band entered the studio with [long\-time collaborator](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_contributors "Queens of the Stone Age contributors") and multi\-instrumentalist [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes "Alain Johannes"), who replaced Nick Oliveri on the album. Van Leeuwen aimed to fill in some of the gaps in the music where he felt the sound could be expanded through atmospheric and ambient textures made by guitar, lap steel and piano. The album (the title of which is taken from a lyric in *Mosquito Song* from Songs for the Deaf){{cite news \| url\=http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\=artist\_texte\&artist\_id\=1639 \| publisher\=Vertigo \| title\=Queens of the Stone Age Interview \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \| archive\-date\=July 21, 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721121411/http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\=artist\_texte\&artist\_id\=1639 \| url\-status\=dead }} featured several guest appearances, most notably [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top")'s [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons "Billy Gibbons"), who performed backing vocals and lead guitar on "[Burn the Witch](/wiki/Burn_the_Witch_%28Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_song%29 "Burn the Witch (Queens of the Stone Age song)")" and the ZZ Top cover, "Precious and Grace". Despite reportedly turning down an invitation to remain with the band, [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan "Mark Lanegan") recorded vocals on new tracks, and appeared with the band on the supporting tour when scheduling and his health permitted. The album was leaked onto the internet in February 2005, and was aired by Australian radio on March 3, 2005, as an unsubstantiated 'World Premiere'. The album was then officially released on March 22, 2005, in the US, and debuted as number 5 on the [Billboard Music Chart](/wiki/Billboard_Music_Chart "Billboard Music Chart"): the greatest initial success of any QOTSA record to date. On November 22, 2005, the band released a live album/DVD set called *[Over the Years and Through the Woods](/wiki/Over_the_Years_and_Through_the_Woods "Over the Years and Through the Woods")*, which featured a live concert filmed in London, and bonus features (including rare videos dating from 1998 to 2005\).
After touring to support the album, the band headed back into the studio in July 2006\. A year later, Van Leeuwen reported that the band had written new material that was "still in its infancy",{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/queens\-of\-the\-stone\-age/29795 \|title\=Queens of the Stone Age discuss Duluth tour \|format\=article \|work\=\[\[NME]] \|access\-date\=July 21, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307051237/http://www.nme.com/news/queens\-of\-the\-stone\-age/29795 \|archive\-date\=March 7, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }} which Homme later suggested might be released as an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play"). This matured into their 2007 release *Era Vulgaris*, to which Van Leeuwen contributed a significant amount of material.
[thumb\|Van Leeuwen performing with [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age "Queens of the Stone Age") in 2007](/wiki/File:Troy%2BVan%2BLeeuwen.jpg "Troy+Van+Leeuwen.jpg")
Several sites reported that the album would include many guest vocalists, including [Trent Reznor](/wiki/Trent_Reznor "Trent Reznor") from [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails "Nine Inch Nails"), [Julian Casablancas](/wiki/Julian_Casablancas "Julian Casablancas") from [The Strokes](/wiki/The_Strokes "The Strokes"), [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan "Mark Lanegan"), [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons "Billy Gibbons") of [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top"),{{cite magazine \| url\=http://www.spin.com/features/news/2007/02/070223\_qotsa/ \| magazine\=\[\[Spin (magazine)\|Spin.com]] \| title\=Casablancas, Reznor Rumored Guests on QOTSA Album \| date\=February 23, 2007 \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007}} and wittingly, deceased humorist [Erma Bombeck](/wiki/Erma_Bombeck "Erma Bombeck").{{cite web
\| url \=http://www.ultimate\-guitar.com/news/video\_news/queens\_of\_the\_stone\_age\_will\_not\_settle\_down\_except\_for\_fans.html
\| title \=Queens of the Stone Age Will Not Settle Down, Except For Fans
\| publisher \=\[\[Ultimate Guitar Archive\|Ultimate\-guitar.com]]
\| access\-date \=May 9, 2007
}} Josh Homme described the record as "dark, hard, and electrical, sort of like a construction worker".{{cite web \| url\=http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \| publisher\=qotsa.com \| title\=Ask the Band \| date\=November 4, 2006 \| access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070205175824/http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \|archive\-date \= February 5, 2007}} *Era Vulgaris* was completed in early April 2007{{cite magazine \|url \= https://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\-qotsa\-foofighters\-marilynmanson\-rogerwaters/ \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070614012331/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\-qotsa\-foofighters\-marilynmanson\-rogerwaters/ \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-date \= June 14, 2007 \|title \= Smoking Section: Playing poker with the Strokes, Foo Fighters album news, Marilyn Manson's "dirty" film, Roger Waters calls from the road \|author \= Scaggs, Austin \|date \= April 6, 2007 \|magazine \= Rolling Stone \|access\-date \= April 10, 2007}} and released in June 2007 in the US{{cite web \|url \= http://www.qotsa.com/ \|title \= Queens of the Stone Age official website \|year \= 2007 \|access\-date \= April 10, 2007}} The tracks "[Sick, Sick, Sick](/wiki/Sick%2C_Sick%2C_Sick "Sick, Sick, Sick")" and "[3's \& 7's](/wiki/3%27s_%26_7%27s "3's & 7's")" were released as singles in early June.{{cite magazine
\|url\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|title\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork
\|magazine\=\[\[Uncut (magazine)\|Uncut.com]]
\|access\-date\=July 14, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|archive\-date\=May 28, 2007 }}
Bassist [Michael Shuman](/wiki/Michael_Shuman "Michael Shuman") ([Wires on Fire](/wiki/Wires_on_Fire "Wires on Fire"), [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28band%29 "Jubilee (band)")) and keyboardist [Dean Fertita](/wiki/Dean_Fertita "Dean Fertita") ([The Waxwings](/wiki/The_Waxwings "The Waxwings"), [The Raconteurs](/wiki/The_Raconteurs "The Raconteurs")) took over touring duties from [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes "Alain Johannes") and [Natasha Shneider](/wiki/Natasha_Shneider "Natasha Shneider") respectively.{{cite magazine
\|url\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|title\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork
\|magazine\=\[\[Uncut (magazine)\|Uncut.com]]
\|access\-date\=May 9, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737
\|archive\-date\=May 28, 2007 }}
{{cite news
\|url \= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=71399
\|title \= QUEENS OF THE STONE AGE Films 'Sick, Sick, Sick' Video
\|date \= April 28, 2007
\|work \= \[\[Blabbermouth.net]]
\|access\-date \= May 9, 2007
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070506035321/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=71399
\|archive\-date \= May 6, 2007
\|df \= mdy\-all
}}
Following a subsequent interview with Homme, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")* reported that the EP "could contain as many as 10 B\-sides recorded during the *Era Vulgaris* sessions."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \|title\=Princes Charming – well, almost \|format\=interview \|newspaper\=The Globe and Mail \|access\-date\=August 25, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070826192819/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2007 }} It was since reported however that the EP would not be released due to the record label's unwillingness to put out another QOTSA release at this time.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1047979/homme\-itching\-to\-record\-with\-new\-qotsa\-lineup \|title\=Homme Itching To Record With New QOTSA Lineup \|magazine\=Billboard \|date\=October 18, 2007 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2014}} In a September issue of [NME](/wiki/NME "NME") Magazine, Homme stated that he was going back to make the new QOTSA and [Desert Sessions](/wiki/Desert_Sessions "Desert Sessions") records, along with remastering the 1998 (QOTSA) [self\-titled album](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_%28album%29 "Queens of the Stone Age (album)") for an early 2009 release. Homme also stated Queens' new album is going to be a "desert orgy in the dark".
In 2013, QOTSA released [...Like Clockwork](/wiki/...Like_Clockwork "...Like Clockwork"), Van Leeuwen's third full album with the band. On the album, Van Leeuwen plays guitar, percussion, [twelve\-string guitar](/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar "Twelve-string guitar"), twelve\-string [slide guitar](/wiki/Slide_guitar "Slide guitar"), [lap steel](/wiki/Lap_steel "Lap steel"), synthesizers, acoustic guitar and provides vocals. The album was the first QOTSA album to reach number one on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200"). It also reached number two on the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") and was nominated for three [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards"), including [Best Rock Album](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Album "Grammy Award for Best Rock Album").
|
[
"### Queens of the Stone Age",
"After outperforming [Jeordie White](/wiki/Jeordie_White \"Jeordie White\") and others in the audition, Van Leeuwen was welcomed as the band's second guitarist for their *[Songs for the Deaf](/wiki/Songs_for_the_Deaf \"Songs for the Deaf\")* tour. Besides playing guitar, Van Leeuwen also performed on [lap steel guitar](/wiki/Lap_steel_guitar \"Lap steel guitar\"), keyboards, backing vocals and occasionally bass guitar. Due to the band's schedule, Van Leeuwen had only one week to learn 30 songs before the tour began. For the European leg of the album's supporting tour, [Dave Grohl](/wiki/Dave_Grohl \"Dave Grohl\") left to return to his main band [Foo Fighters](/wiki/Foo_Fighters_%28band%29 \"Foo Fighters (band)\"). He was replaced with former [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 \"Danzig (band)\") drummer [Joey Castillo](/wiki/Joey_Castillo \"Joey Castillo\"). *Songs for the Deaf* was a critical and commercial success,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stoneage/news\\_feature\\_032805 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328170858/http://www.mtv.com/bands/q/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stoneage/news\\_feature\\_032805/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=March 28, 2005 \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone Age: A Stone Unturned \\|publisher\\=MTV \\|date\\=March 9, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014}} and the singles \"[No One Knows](/wiki/No_One_Knows \"No One Knows\")\" and \"[Go with the Flow](/wiki/Go_with_the_Flow \"Go with the Flow\")\" became hits on both radio and [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\"). The tour culminated in a number of headline dates in Australia in January 2004\\.",
"Van Leeuwen's first recording with QOTSA was *[Lullabies to Paralyze](/wiki/Lullabies_to_Paralyze \"Lullabies to Paralyze\")*. The band entered the studio with [long\\-time collaborator](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_contributors \"Queens of the Stone Age contributors\") and multi\\-instrumentalist [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes \"Alain Johannes\"), who replaced Nick Oliveri on the album. Van Leeuwen aimed to fill in some of the gaps in the music where he felt the sound could be expanded through atmospheric and ambient textures made by guitar, lap steel and piano. The album (the title of which is taken from a lyric in *Mosquito Song* from Songs for the Deaf){{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\\=artist\\_texte\\&artist\\_id\\=1639 \\| publisher\\=Vertigo \\| title\\=Queens of the Stone Age Interview \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\| archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721121411/http://www.vertigo.fm/main.php?site\\=artist\\_texte\\&artist\\_id\\=1639 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} featured several guest appearances, most notably [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\")'s [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons \"Billy Gibbons\"), who performed backing vocals and lead guitar on \"[Burn the Witch](/wiki/Burn_the_Witch_%28Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_song%29 \"Burn the Witch (Queens of the Stone Age song)\")\" and the ZZ Top cover, \"Precious and Grace\". Despite reportedly turning down an invitation to remain with the band, [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan \"Mark Lanegan\") recorded vocals on new tracks, and appeared with the band on the supporting tour when scheduling and his health permitted. The album was leaked onto the internet in February 2005, and was aired by Australian radio on March 3, 2005, as an unsubstantiated 'World Premiere'. The album was then officially released on March 22, 2005, in the US, and debuted as number 5 on the [Billboard Music Chart](/wiki/Billboard_Music_Chart \"Billboard Music Chart\"): the greatest initial success of any QOTSA record to date. On November 22, 2005, the band released a live album/DVD set called *[Over the Years and Through the Woods](/wiki/Over_the_Years_and_Through_the_Woods \"Over the Years and Through the Woods\")*, which featured a live concert filmed in London, and bonus features (including rare videos dating from 1998 to 2005\\).",
"After touring to support the album, the band headed back into the studio in July 2006\\. A year later, Van Leeuwen reported that the band had written new material that was \"still in its infancy\",{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/queens\\-of\\-the\\-stone\\-age/29795 \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone Age discuss Duluth tour \\|format\\=article \\|work\\=\\[\\[NME]] \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307051237/http://www.nme.com/news/queens\\-of\\-the\\-stone\\-age/29795 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 7, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} which Homme later suggested might be released as an [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\"). This matured into their 2007 release *Era Vulgaris*, to which Van Leeuwen contributed a significant amount of material.",
"[thumb\\|Van Leeuwen performing with [Queens of the Stone Age](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age \"Queens of the Stone Age\") in 2007](/wiki/File:Troy%2BVan%2BLeeuwen.jpg \"Troy+Van+Leeuwen.jpg\")",
"Several sites reported that the album would include many guest vocalists, including [Trent Reznor](/wiki/Trent_Reznor \"Trent Reznor\") from [Nine Inch Nails](/wiki/Nine_Inch_Nails \"Nine Inch Nails\"), [Julian Casablancas](/wiki/Julian_Casablancas \"Julian Casablancas\") from [The Strokes](/wiki/The_Strokes \"The Strokes\"), [Mark Lanegan](/wiki/Mark_Lanegan \"Mark Lanegan\"), [Billy Gibbons](/wiki/Billy_Gibbons \"Billy Gibbons\") of [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\"),{{cite magazine \\| url\\=http://www.spin.com/features/news/2007/02/070223\\_qotsa/ \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Spin (magazine)\\|Spin.com]] \\| title\\=Casablancas, Reznor Rumored Guests on QOTSA Album \\| date\\=February 23, 2007 \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007}} and wittingly, deceased humorist [Erma Bombeck](/wiki/Erma_Bombeck \"Erma Bombeck\").{{cite web\n\\| url \\=http://www.ultimate\\-guitar.com/news/video\\_news/queens\\_of\\_the\\_stone\\_age\\_will\\_not\\_settle\\_down\\_except\\_for\\_fans.html\n\\| title \\=Queens of the Stone Age Will Not Settle Down, Except For Fans\n\\| publisher \\=\\[\\[Ultimate Guitar Archive\\|Ultimate\\-guitar.com]]\n\\| access\\-date \\=May 9, 2007\n}} Josh Homme described the record as \"dark, hard, and electrical, sort of like a construction worker\".{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \\| publisher\\=qotsa.com \\| title\\=Ask the Band \\| date\\=November 4, 2006 \\| access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070205175824/http://www.rekordsrekords.com/asktheband/100406/newrecord.mov \\|archive\\-date \\= February 5, 2007}} *Era Vulgaris* was completed in early April 2007{{cite magazine \\|url \\= https://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\\-qotsa\\-foofighters\\-marilynmanson\\-rogerwaters/ \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070614012331/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2007/04/06/strokes\\-qotsa\\-foofighters\\-marilynmanson\\-rogerwaters/ \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-date \\= June 14, 2007 \\|title \\= Smoking Section: Playing poker with the Strokes, Foo Fighters album news, Marilyn Manson's \"dirty\" film, Roger Waters calls from the road \\|author \\= Scaggs, Austin \\|date \\= April 6, 2007 \\|magazine \\= Rolling Stone \\|access\\-date \\= April 10, 2007}} and released in June 2007 in the US{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.qotsa.com/ \\|title \\= Queens of the Stone Age official website \\|year \\= 2007 \\|access\\-date \\= April 10, 2007}} The tracks \"[Sick, Sick, Sick](/wiki/Sick%2C_Sick%2C_Sick \"Sick, Sick, Sick\")\" and \"[3's \\& 7's](/wiki/3%27s_%26_7%27s \"3's & 7's\")\" were released as singles in early June.{{cite magazine\n \\|url\\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork \n \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Uncut (magazine)\\|Uncut.com]] \n \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|archive\\-date\\=May 28, 2007 }}\n Bassist [Michael Shuman](/wiki/Michael_Shuman \"Michael Shuman\") ([Wires on Fire](/wiki/Wires_on_Fire \"Wires on Fire\"), [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28band%29 \"Jubilee (band)\")) and keyboardist [Dean Fertita](/wiki/Dean_Fertita \"Dean Fertita\") ([The Waxwings](/wiki/The_Waxwings \"The Waxwings\"), [The Raconteurs](/wiki/The_Raconteurs \"The Raconteurs\")) took over touring duties from [Alain Johannes](/wiki/Alain_Johannes \"Alain Johannes\") and [Natasha Shneider](/wiki/Natasha_Shneider \"Natasha Shneider\") respectively.{{cite magazine\n \\|url\\=http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|title\\=Queens of the Stone age unveil new album artwork \n \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Uncut (magazine)\\|Uncut.com]] \n \\|access\\-date\\=May 9, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528083532/http://www.uncut.co.uk/news/uncut/news/9737 \n \\|archive\\-date\\=May 28, 2007 }}\n{{cite news\n \\|url \\= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=71399\n \\|title \\= QUEENS OF THE STONE AGE Films 'Sick, Sick, Sick' Video\n \\|date \\= April 28, 2007\n\\|work \\= \\[\\[Blabbermouth.net]]\n \\|access\\-date \\= May 9, 2007\n\\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070506035321/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=71399\n \\|archive\\-date \\= May 6, 2007\n\\|df \\= mdy\\-all\n}}",
"Following a subsequent interview with Homme, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")* reported that the EP \"could contain as many as 10 B\\-sides recorded during the *Era Vulgaris* sessions.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \\|title\\=Princes Charming – well, almost \\|format\\=interview \\|newspaper\\=The Globe and Mail \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070826192819/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070822\\.wqueens22/BNStory/Entertainment \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2007 }} It was since reported however that the EP would not be released due to the record label's unwillingness to put out another QOTSA release at this time.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1047979/homme\\-itching\\-to\\-record\\-with\\-new\\-qotsa\\-lineup \\|title\\=Homme Itching To Record With New QOTSA Lineup \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|date\\=October 18, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2014}} In a September issue of [NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\") Magazine, Homme stated that he was going back to make the new QOTSA and [Desert Sessions](/wiki/Desert_Sessions \"Desert Sessions\") records, along with remastering the 1998 (QOTSA) [self\\-titled album](/wiki/Queens_of_the_Stone_Age_%28album%29 \"Queens of the Stone Age (album)\") for an early 2009 release. Homme also stated Queens' new album is going to be a \"desert orgy in the dark\".",
"In 2013, QOTSA released [...Like Clockwork](/wiki/...Like_Clockwork \"...Like Clockwork\"), Van Leeuwen's third full album with the band. On the album, Van Leeuwen plays guitar, percussion, [twelve\\-string guitar](/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar \"Twelve-string guitar\"), twelve\\-string [slide guitar](/wiki/Slide_guitar \"Slide guitar\"), [lap steel](/wiki/Lap_steel \"Lap steel\"), synthesizers, acoustic guitar and provides vocals. The album was the first QOTSA album to reach number one on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"). It also reached number two on the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") and was nominated for three [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards \"Grammy Awards\"), including [Best Rock Album](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Album \"Grammy Award for Best Rock Album\").",
""
] |
Applications to practice
------------------------
Although little empirical research asseses the in\-depth application of interpersonal neurobiology, various IPNB\-informed studies have been conducted.
### Counselling
#### Miller et al. 2016
This small study (n\=6\) used an [interpretative phenomenological analysis](/wiki/Interpretative_phenomenological_analysis "Interpretative phenomenological analysis") (IPA) framework in collecting beliefs about the potential improvements of counsellors clinical practice after learning IPNB in a one\-year course. In sum, the counsellors accepted that IPNB facilitated personal and professional development. They reported an increase in compassion, empathy, and acceptance towards self and others. They also reported increased self\-awareness, presence in relationships with others, and confidence in their own intuition as clinicians, all of which are proven qualities for effective counselling.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Miller\|first1\=Raissa M.\|last2\=Barrio Minton\|first2\=Casey A.\|date\=January 2016\|title\=Experiences Learning Interpersonal Neurobiology: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis\|journal\=Journal of Mental Health Counseling\|language\=en\|volume\=38\|issue\=1\|pages\=47–61\|doi\=10\.17744/mehc.38\.1\.04\|issn\=1040\-2861\|url\=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc699972/}} The majority of participants noted movement toward more secure attachments, allowing them to better engage with clients. They reported greater awareness of reactions to clients that were due to their own personal histories, allowing them to respond more to clients' needs rather than their own needs. Participants reported that IPNB's perspective on experiences influencing brain development and the mind helped them see individuals' struggles in a less pathological frame. This shift in understanding client struggles was deemed likely to improve the empathy and thus, interpersonal relationship and selected interventions between practitioner and client.
The subjective nature of the IPA framework and small sample size limits the reliability and validity of the study. Participants had relatively homogenous gender and ethnic characteristics, limiting the study's generality.
#### Meyer et al. 2013
Meyer, et al. (2013\) addressed IPNB through the biological and interpersonal processes occurring within infant/caregiver relationships, and what this development of the [nature vs nurture](/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture "Nature versus nurture") debate implies for counsellors. The study encouraged counsellors to take a holistic approach to practice, incorporating natural and nurturing influences, such as viewing the emotions learned from caregivers in relation to psychological functioning. Counsellors may measure constructs such as affect regulation to understand a patient's emotional development and relate it to the state of integrative fibres in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. It recommended implementing IPNB concepts of attachment into the counselling relationship helping form a secure attachment between counsellor and client and aiding the client to reconstruct healthy affect patterns in a safe environment. The study advocated attuned communication, emotional mirroring, and empathy. It advised counsellors to determine what emotional patterns are in effect and attempt the neural wiring of healthy patterns.
### Therapies
#### Badenoch and Cox, 2013
Badenoch and Cox's (2013\) text shares their experience of integrating IPNB into [group therapy](/wiki/Group_psychotherapy "Group psychotherapy"). It reported increased empathetic and mindful awareness between therapist and group members via a thorough understanding of IPNB. They report that this mindful awareness of the self and others assists the integration between prefrontal cortex and limbic regions, enhancing emotional regulation and sense of confidence, followed by increased compassion. This reported calmness provides calms the room, allowing a larger range of experiences to emerge. Infant\-caregiver relationships in IPNB are explored to allow patients to recognise that previously believed character flaws may actually be indicative of neurobiological development issues, which decrease shame and heighten self\-compassion. Information on neuroplasticity suggesting the potential to rewire unhealthy neural pathways is reported to have alleviated longstanding struggles within the group.{{Citation \|last1\=Badenoch \|first1\=Bonnie \|title\=Integrating interpersonal neurobiology with group psychotherapy\* \|date\=2018\-05\-15 \|work\=The Interpersonal Neurobiology of Group Psychotherapy and Group Process \|pages\=1–23 \|publisher\=Routledge \|doi\=10\.4324/9780429482120\-1 \|isbn\=978\-0\-429\-48212\-0 \|last2\=Cox \|first2\=Paul}}
An implicit memory activity involving the recall of a recent pleasant experience e.g., "playing frisbee with my dog in the park last Sunday," and reflecting afterwards was reportedly effective in the group therapy. Recalling the positive feeling allowed patients to be more in\-touch with their emotions and strengthen their emotional control. Understanding the types of memories and emotions may enable a group therapist to see participants with greater clarity and to discern the memory patterns affecting the movement or sensations of the body. It may allow group therapists to maintain therapist\-patient connections.
### Other
#### Page, L. 2006
Page's (2006\) journal illustrates the application of IPNB concepts into leadership/management in constituting organisational change. Page states the mindful and social awareness IPNB\-informed teachings can induce may allow more collaborative, contingent communication, allowing others to 'feel felt.' Page then believes this attuned communication and energy is then imitated and mirrored by employees. Over time, neural, mental, and behavioral patterns become engrained within the organisation, encouraging employees to take on the challenge of distributed leadership, enhancing individual and organizational complexity.{{Cite journal\|last\=Page\|first\=Linda J\|date\=2006 \|title\=Why Can't We Trust Our Brains? \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1891/9780826194268\.0005 \|journal\=Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience \|place\=New York, NY \|publisher\=Springer Publishing Company \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-23\|pages\=22–31\|doi\=10\.1891/9780826194268\.0005 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8261\-9419\-0 \|via\=PCPI}}
|
[
"Applications to practice\n------------------------",
"Although little empirical research asseses the in\\-depth application of interpersonal neurobiology, various IPNB\\-informed studies have been conducted.",
"### Counselling",
"#### Miller et al. 2016",
"This small study (n\\=6\\) used an [interpretative phenomenological analysis](/wiki/Interpretative_phenomenological_analysis \"Interpretative phenomenological analysis\") (IPA) framework in collecting beliefs about the potential improvements of counsellors clinical practice after learning IPNB in a one\\-year course. In sum, the counsellors accepted that IPNB facilitated personal and professional development. They reported an increase in compassion, empathy, and acceptance towards self and others. They also reported increased self\\-awareness, presence in relationships with others, and confidence in their own intuition as clinicians, all of which are proven qualities for effective counselling.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Miller\\|first1\\=Raissa M.\\|last2\\=Barrio Minton\\|first2\\=Casey A.\\|date\\=January 2016\\|title\\=Experiences Learning Interpersonal Neurobiology: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis\\|journal\\=Journal of Mental Health Counseling\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=38\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=47–61\\|doi\\=10\\.17744/mehc.38\\.1\\.04\\|issn\\=1040\\-2861\\|url\\=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc699972/}} The majority of participants noted movement toward more secure attachments, allowing them to better engage with clients. They reported greater awareness of reactions to clients that were due to their own personal histories, allowing them to respond more to clients' needs rather than their own needs. Participants reported that IPNB's perspective on experiences influencing brain development and the mind helped them see individuals' struggles in a less pathological frame. This shift in understanding client struggles was deemed likely to improve the empathy and thus, interpersonal relationship and selected interventions between practitioner and client.",
"The subjective nature of the IPA framework and small sample size limits the reliability and validity of the study. Participants had relatively homogenous gender and ethnic characteristics, limiting the study's generality.",
"#### Meyer et al. 2013",
"Meyer, et al. (2013\\) addressed IPNB through the biological and interpersonal processes occurring within infant/caregiver relationships, and what this development of the [nature vs nurture](/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture \"Nature versus nurture\") debate implies for counsellors. The study encouraged counsellors to take a holistic approach to practice, incorporating natural and nurturing influences, such as viewing the emotions learned from caregivers in relation to psychological functioning. Counsellors may measure constructs such as affect regulation to understand a patient's emotional development and relate it to the state of integrative fibres in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. It recommended implementing IPNB concepts of attachment into the counselling relationship helping form a secure attachment between counsellor and client and aiding the client to reconstruct healthy affect patterns in a safe environment. The study advocated attuned communication, emotional mirroring, and empathy. It advised counsellors to determine what emotional patterns are in effect and attempt the neural wiring of healthy patterns.",
"### Therapies",
"#### Badenoch and Cox, 2013",
"Badenoch and Cox's (2013\\) text shares their experience of integrating IPNB into [group therapy](/wiki/Group_psychotherapy \"Group psychotherapy\"). It reported increased empathetic and mindful awareness between therapist and group members via a thorough understanding of IPNB. They report that this mindful awareness of the self and others assists the integration between prefrontal cortex and limbic regions, enhancing emotional regulation and sense of confidence, followed by increased compassion. This reported calmness provides calms the room, allowing a larger range of experiences to emerge. Infant\\-caregiver relationships in IPNB are explored to allow patients to recognise that previously believed character flaws may actually be indicative of neurobiological development issues, which decrease shame and heighten self\\-compassion. Information on neuroplasticity suggesting the potential to rewire unhealthy neural pathways is reported to have alleviated longstanding struggles within the group.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Badenoch \\|first1\\=Bonnie \\|title\\=Integrating interpersonal neurobiology with group psychotherapy\\* \\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-15 \\|work\\=The Interpersonal Neurobiology of Group Psychotherapy and Group Process \\|pages\\=1–23 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9780429482120\\-1 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-429\\-48212\\-0 \\|last2\\=Cox \\|first2\\=Paul}}",
"An implicit memory activity involving the recall of a recent pleasant experience e.g., \"playing frisbee with my dog in the park last Sunday,\" and reflecting afterwards was reportedly effective in the group therapy. Recalling the positive feeling allowed patients to be more in\\-touch with their emotions and strengthen their emotional control. Understanding the types of memories and emotions may enable a group therapist to see participants with greater clarity and to discern the memory patterns affecting the movement or sensations of the body. It may allow group therapists to maintain therapist\\-patient connections.",
"### Other",
"#### Page, L. 2006",
"Page's (2006\\) journal illustrates the application of IPNB concepts into leadership/management in constituting organisational change. Page states the mindful and social awareness IPNB\\-informed teachings can induce may allow more collaborative, contingent communication, allowing others to 'feel felt.' Page then believes this attuned communication and energy is then imitated and mirrored by employees. Over time, neural, mental, and behavioral patterns become engrained within the organisation, encouraging employees to take on the challenge of distributed leadership, enhancing individual and organizational complexity.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Page\\|first\\=Linda J\\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Why Can't We Trust Our Brains? \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1891/9780826194268\\.0005 \\|journal\\=Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience \\|place\\=New York, NY \\|publisher\\=Springer Publishing Company \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-23\\|pages\\=22–31\\|doi\\=10\\.1891/9780826194268\\.0005 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8261\\-9419\\-0 \\|via\\=PCPI}}",
""
] |
Career
------
He earned his doctorate in applied psychology in 1951 from [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University") under Harold E. Burtt, then took a position with the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") in the Perceptual\-Motor Research Laboratory. In 1957, Fleishman started working at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University") under the Department of Psychology and the Department of Industrial Administration.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.managementresearchinstitute.com/people.aspx\|title\=MRI : Edwin A Fleishman, PhD Psychology, President, human abilities and job skills (Management Research Institute)\|website\=managementresearchinstitute.com\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-08}} At Yale, he started and ran the Human Skills Research Laboratory and taught graduate and undergraduate courses in psychological measurement, organizational psychology, and human performance. It was at Yale he returned to studying organizational psychology and piloted a number of studies on productivity, leader\-subordinate relationships, job selection and training, and prediction of performance.
From 1963 to 1975, Fleishman left Yale to work with the [American Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences](/wiki/American_Institutes_for_Research "American Institutes for Research") (AIR), serving as senior vice\-president and director of the Washington office, where he expanded on his research in the area of human performance. It was at this time in 1974, where he was elected president of the International Association of Applied Psychology, a position he held for 8 years.
After his time in AIR, Fleishman worked as a visiting professor in the School of Administration of the [University of California, Irvine](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Irvine "University of California, Irvine") from 1975 to 1976, where he continued research on the categorization of human tasks and predictions about human performance. In 1976, Fleishman returned to Washington as founding president of Advanced Research Resources Organization (ARRO) to continue his previous work.
In 1986, Fleishman started working at [George Mason University](/wiki/George_Mason_University "George Mason University") as Distinguished University Professor of Psychology and faculty member in the Psychology Department. Here, he founded the first Center for Behavioral and Cognitive Studies, which was recognized by GMU with an Award of Excellence.
He is the author of several books and was the Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology and the recipient of [APA's Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology](/wiki/APA_Distinguished_Scientific_Award_for_the_Applications_of_Psychology "APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology") in 1980\.{{Cite web\|title\=APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology\|url\=http://www.apa.org/about/awards/applications\-of\-psychology.aspx?tab\=3\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-08\|website\=apa.org}}{{Cite journal\|date\=November 1999\|title\=Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology: Edwin A. Fleishman.\|url\=http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2000\-03491\-012\|journal\=American Psychologist\|volume\=54\|issue\=11\|pages\=1004–1016\|doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066x.54\.11\.1003}}
In 1998 and 1999, he was awarded the [APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology](/wiki/APA_Award_for_Distinguished_Contributions_to_the_International_Advancement_of_Psychology "APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology").{{Cite journal\|date\=1999\|title\=Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology: Edwin A. Fleishman.\|url\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066X.54\.11\.1003\|journal\=American Psychologist\|language\=en\|volume\=54\|issue\=11\|pages\=1004–1016\|doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066X.54\.11\.1003\|issn\=1935\-990X}}
He was also a former president of the [International Association of Applied Psychology](/wiki/International_Association_of_Applied_Psychology "International Association of Applied Psychology") (IAAP), the [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association "American Psychological Association")'s (APA) Divisions of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Evaluation and Measurement, and its Society of Engineering Psychologists, as well as the [Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology](/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Organizational_Psychology "Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology") (SIOP).
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He earned his doctorate in applied psychology in 1951 from [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\") under Harold E. Burtt, then took a position with the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") in the Perceptual\\-Motor Research Laboratory. In 1957, Fleishman started working at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\") under the Department of Psychology and the Department of Industrial Administration.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.managementresearchinstitute.com/people.aspx\\|title\\=MRI : Edwin A Fleishman, PhD Psychology, President, human abilities and job skills (Management Research Institute)\\|website\\=managementresearchinstitute.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-08}} At Yale, he started and ran the Human Skills Research Laboratory and taught graduate and undergraduate courses in psychological measurement, organizational psychology, and human performance. It was at Yale he returned to studying organizational psychology and piloted a number of studies on productivity, leader\\-subordinate relationships, job selection and training, and prediction of performance.",
"From 1963 to 1975, Fleishman left Yale to work with the [American Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences](/wiki/American_Institutes_for_Research \"American Institutes for Research\") (AIR), serving as senior vice\\-president and director of the Washington office, where he expanded on his research in the area of human performance. It was at this time in 1974, where he was elected president of the International Association of Applied Psychology, a position he held for 8 years.",
"After his time in AIR, Fleishman worked as a visiting professor in the School of Administration of the [University of California, Irvine](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Irvine \"University of California, Irvine\") from 1975 to 1976, where he continued research on the categorization of human tasks and predictions about human performance. In 1976, Fleishman returned to Washington as founding president of Advanced Research Resources Organization (ARRO) to continue his previous work.",
"In 1986, Fleishman started working at [George Mason University](/wiki/George_Mason_University \"George Mason University\") as Distinguished University Professor of Psychology and faculty member in the Psychology Department. Here, he founded the first Center for Behavioral and Cognitive Studies, which was recognized by GMU with an Award of Excellence.",
"He is the author of several books and was the Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology and the recipient of [APA's Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology](/wiki/APA_Distinguished_Scientific_Award_for_the_Applications_of_Psychology \"APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology\") in 1980\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology\\|url\\=http://www.apa.org/about/awards/applications\\-of\\-psychology.aspx?tab\\=3\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-08\\|website\\=apa.org}}{{Cite journal\\|date\\=November 1999\\|title\\=Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology: Edwin A. Fleishman.\\|url\\=http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2000\\-03491\\-012\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=1004–1016\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066x.54\\.11\\.1003}}",
"In 1998 and 1999, he was awarded the [APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology](/wiki/APA_Award_for_Distinguished_Contributions_to_the_International_Advancement_of_Psychology \"APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology\").{{Cite journal\\|date\\=1999\\|title\\=Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology: Edwin A. Fleishman.\\|url\\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066X.54\\.11\\.1003\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=1004–1016\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066X.54\\.11\\.1003\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X}}",
"He was also a former president of the [International Association of Applied Psychology](/wiki/International_Association_of_Applied_Psychology \"International Association of Applied Psychology\") (IAAP), the [American Psychological Association](/wiki/American_Psychological_Association \"American Psychological Association\")'s (APA) Divisions of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Evaluation and Measurement, and its Society of Engineering Psychologists, as well as the [Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology](/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Organizational_Psychology \"Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology\") (SIOP).",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|The tell with the ruins of the Mamluk minaret built in 1337](/wiki/File:Old_Yavne.jpg "Old Yavne.jpg")
Based on written sources and archaeology, the history of Yavneh/Jabneh/Yibna goes back to the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") and possibly to the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age"). The [Hebrew Bible](/wiki/Hebrew_Bible "Hebrew Bible") mentions Yavneh repeatedly, as does [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"). For more see [Yavne](/wiki/Yavne "Yavne").
### Bronze and Iron Age
Salvage excavations carried out in 2001 by the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority "Israel Antiquities Authority") uncovered several burials at the northern foot of the original tell. Most of the burials are dated to the later [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age"). One burial points to a late [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") occupation.
A large [Philistine](/wiki/Philistine "Philistine") *[favissa](/wiki/Favissa "Favissa")* (deposit of cultic artifacts) was discovered on Temple Hill.{{Cite book\|last1\=Kletter\|first1\=Raz\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IPZ\-RCIF4EEC\|title\=Yavneh\|last2\=Ziffer\|first2\=Irit\|last3\=Zwickel\|first3\=Wolfgang\|date\=2010\|publisher\=Saint\-Paul\|isbn\=978\-3\-7278\-1667\-3\|language\=en}} Two excavation seasons in the 2000s led by Professor [Dan Bahat](/wiki/Dan_Bahat "Dan Bahat") revealed some Iron Age remains.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2016}} Pottery sherds of the Iron Age and Persian period were discovered at the surface of the tell.
#### Roman period with Herodians
In Roman times, the city was known as **Iamnia**, also spelled **Jamnia**. It was bequeathed by [Herod the Great](/wiki/Herod_the_Great "Herod the Great") upon his death to his sister [Salome I](/wiki/Salome_I "Salome I"). Upon her death, it passed to the Roman emperor [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus"), who managed it as a private [imperial estate](/wiki/Imperial_estate_%28Roman%29 "Imperial estate (Roman)"), a status it was to maintain for at least a century.{{Cite journal \|first\=Raz \|last\=Kletter \|year\=2004 \|title\=Tel Yavne \|journal\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \|volume\=116 \|url\=http://www.hadashot\-esi.org.il/Report\_Detail\_Eng.aspx?id\=30\&mag\_id\=108 \|access\-date\=2017\-12\-31}} After Salome's death, Iamnia came into the property of [Livia](/wiki/Livia "Livia"), the future Roman empress, and then to her son [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius "Tiberius").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jabneh\|title\=Jabneh\|publisher\=Jewish Virtual Library}}
During the [First Jewish–Roman War](/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War "First Jewish–Roman War"), when the Roman army had quelled the insurrection in [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee "Galilee"), the army then marched upon Iamnia and [Azotus](/wiki/Ashdod_%28ancient_city%29 "Ashdod (ancient city)"), taking both towns and stationing garrisons within them.{{Cite web\|title\=Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book IV, Whiston chapter 3, Whiston section 2\|url\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\=Perseus:text:1999\.01\.0148:book\=4:whiston\+chapter\=3:whiston\+section\=2\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31\|website\=www.perseus.tufts.edu}} According to rabbinic tradition, the [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim") [Yohanan ben Zakkai](/wiki/Yohanan_ben_Zakkai "Yohanan ben Zakkai") and his disciples were permitted to settle in Iamnia during the outbreak of the war, after Zakkai, realizing that [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") was about to fall, sneaked out of the city and asked [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian "Vespasian"), the commander of the besieging Roman forces, for the right to settle in Yavne and teach his disciples.{{cite book\|last\=Nathan ha\-Bavli\|author\-link\=Nathan the Babylonian\|editor\=Shemuel Yerushalmi\|title\=Avot de\-Rabbi Natan \|year\=1976\|location\=Jerusalem \|publisher\=Mekhon Masoret\|page\=29 (chapter 4, section 5\) \|oclc\=232936057 \|language\=he \|title\-link\=Avot de\-Rabbi Natan}}{{cite book \|author\-last\=Ben\-Israel\|author\-first\=Uriah\|editor\=Alon, David\|contribution\=Yavne \|title\=Israel Guide \- Sharon, Southern Coastal Plain and Northern Negev (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country)\|volume\=6 \|publisher\=\[\[Keter Publishing House]] \|location\=Jerusalem\|year\=1979\|page\=132 \|language\=he\|oclc\=745203905 }} Upon the fall of Jerusalem, his school functioned as a re\-establishment of the [Sanhedrin](/wiki/Sanhedrin "Sanhedrin").{{Cite web\|title\=Babylonian Talmud: Gittin 56\|url\=http://www.come\-and\-hear.com/gittin/gittin\_56\.html\#PARTb\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31\|website\=www.come\-and\-hear.com}}
### Byzantine period
[thumb\|left\|The [Madaba Map](/wiki/Madaba_Map "Madaba Map"), showing {{lang\-gr\|ΊΑΒΝΗΛΗΚΑΙΊΑΜΝΙΑ}}) (Lit. "Jabneel, which is also Jamnia")](/wiki/File:The_Madaba_Map%2C_part_of_a_floor_mosaic_in_the_early_Byzantine_church_of_Saint_George_depicting_the_Holy_Land_in_the_6th_century_AD%2C_Madaba%2C_Jordan_%2834477841931%29.jpg "The Madaba Map, part of a floor mosaic in the early Byzantine church of Saint George depicting the Holy Land in the 6th century AD, Madaba, Jordan (34477841931).jpg")
Byzantine period finds from excavations include an aqueduct east of the tell, and a kiln.{{Cite journal \|last\=Velednizki \|first\=Noy \|year\=2004 \|title\=Yavne Final Report \|journal\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \|volume\=116 \|url\=http://www.hadashot\-esi.org.il/report\_detail\_eng.aspx?id\=31\&mag\_id\=108 \|access\-date\=2010\-08\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719082703/http://www.hadashot\-esi.org.il/report\_detail\_eng.aspx?id\=31\&mag\_id\=108 \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-19 }}{{Cite journal \|first\=Ofer \|last\=Sion \|year\=2005 \|title\=Yavne Final Report \|journal\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \|volume\=117 \|url\=http://www.hadashot\-esi.org.il/report\_detail\_eng.aspx?id\=222\&mag\_id\=110 \|access\-date \= 2017\-12\-31 }} The world's largest wine factory from the Byzantine period has been uncovered by Israeli archaeologists, after a two\-year excavation process; the importance of its wine was exemplified by its use by emperor Justin II in 566 at his table during his coronation feast.{{Cite web\|author\=Jeevan Ravindran\|title\=World's largest Byzantine wine factory uncovered in Israel\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/israel\-byzantine\-wine\-factory\-scn\-scli\-intl/index.html\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31\|website\=CNN\|date\=12 October 2021 \|language\=en}}
### Early Islamic period
The historian [al\-Baladhuri](/wiki/Al-Baladhuri "Al-Baladhuri") (d. 892 CE) mentioned Yibna as one of ten towns in [Jund Filastin](/wiki/Jund_Filastin "Jund Filastin") conquered by the [Rashidun army](/wiki/Rashidun_army "Rashidun army") led by [Amr ibn al\-As](/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As "Amr ibn al-As") during the [Muslim conquest of the Levant](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant "Muslim conquest of the Levant").{{Cite book\|last\=Le Strange\|first\=G. (Guy)\|url\=http://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft\|title\=Palestine under the Moslems; a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500\. Translated from the works of the mediaeval Arab geographers\|date\=1890\|publisher\=London A.P. Watt\|others\=Robarts \- University of Toronto}} The 9th\-century historian [Ya'qubi](/wiki/Ya%27qubi "Ya'qubi") wrote that it was an ancient city built on a hill and inhabited by [Samaritans](/wiki/Samaritans "Samaritans").
The geographer [al\-Maqdisi](/wiki/Al-Maqdisi "Al-Maqdisi"), writing around 985, said that "Yubna has a beautiful [mosque](/wiki/Mosque "Mosque"). From this place come the excellent [figs known by the name of Damascene](/wiki/Damson "Damson")." The geographer [Yaqut al\-Hamawi](/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi "Yaqut al-Hamawi") wrote that in Yubna there was a tomb said to be that of [Abu Hurayra](/wiki/Abu_Hurayra "Abu Hurayra"), a [Companion of the Prophet](/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet "Companions of the Prophet"). The author of the *Marasid* also adds that tomb seen here is also said to be that of [Abd Allah ibn Sa'd](/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Sa%27d "Abd Allah ibn Sa'd"), another Companion of the Prophet.
In 2007, remains ranging from the early Islamic period until the British Mandate period were uncovered.{{Cite web\|title\=Volume 121 Year 2009 Tel Yavne\|url\=http://www.hadashot\-esi.org.il/report\_detail\_eng.aspx?id\=1110\&mag\_id\=115\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31\|website\=www.hadashot\-esi.org.il}} An additional kiln, and part of a commercial/industrial area were uncovered at the west of the tell in 2009\.
### Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk periods
[thumb\|[Yibna Bridge](/wiki/Yibna_Bridge "Yibna Bridge"), one in a series of bridges built by Sultan [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars "Baybars") in medieval Egypt and Palestine](/wiki/File:Mamluk_bridge%2C_Yavne008.jpg "Mamluk bridge, Yavne008.jpg")
[thumb\|The [Mausoleum of Abu Huraira](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Abu_Huraira "Mausoleum of Abu Huraira"), 2010](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_10149_rabbi_gamliel_tomb_in_yavneh.jpg "PikiWiki Israel 10149 rabbi gamliel tomb in yavneh.jpg")
The [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusade "Crusade") called the city **Ibelin** and built a [castle](/wiki/Ibelin_%28castle%29 "Ibelin (castle)") there in 1141\. Two excavation seasons led by Professor [Dan Bahat](/wiki/Dan_Bahat "Dan Bahat") starting in 2005 revealed the main gate.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2016}} Its namesake noble family, the [house of Ibelin](/wiki/House_of_Ibelin "House of Ibelin"), was important in the [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") and later in the [Kingdom of Cyprus](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus "Kingdom of Cyprus"). Salvage excavations at the west of the tell unearthed a stash of 53 Crusader coins of the 12th and 13th centuries.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\-3697876,00\.html \|script\-title\=he:מטמון נדיר נמצא בחפירות ארכיאולוגיות בתל יבנה \|trans\-title\=Rare Treasure Found in Excavations at Tel Yavne \|language\=he \|publisher\=Ynet.co.il (local) \|first\=Ilanit \|last\=Shimron \|date\=2009\-04\-06 \|access\-date\=2010\-08\-08}}
Ibelin was first sacked by [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin") before his army was comprehensively routed at the [Battle of Montgisard](/wiki/Battle_of_Montgisard "Battle of Montgisard") in late 1177\. In August 1187, it was retaken by Saladin and burned down, and ceased for some time to form part of the Crusaders' kingdom.Fischer, Moshe and Taxel, Itamar. ["Ancient Yavneh: Its History and Archaeology"](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Itamar_Taxel/publication/307577653_Fischer_M_and_Taxel_I_2007_Ancient_Yavneh_Its_History_and_Archaeology_Tel_Aviv_34_204-284/links/57c9b13708ae59825180f324/Fischer-M-and-Taxel-I-2007-Ancient-Yavneh-Its-History-and-Archaeology-Tel-Aviv-34-204-284.pdf), in *Tel Aviv* Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, December 2007, vol. 34: No 2, pp.204\-284, 247 The Jewish traveler [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela "Benjamin of Tudela") (1130–1173\) identified Jamnia (*Jabneh*) of classical writers with the *Ibelin* of the Crusades. He places the ancient city of Jamnia at three parasangs from [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa "Jaffa") and two from [Ashdod](/wiki/Ashdod "Ashdod") (*Azotus*).{{Cite web\|title\=JABNEH \- JewishEncyclopedia.com\|url\=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8375\-jabneh\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31\|website\=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}
During the [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate "Mamluk Sultanate") period (13th–16th centuries), Yibna was a key site along the Cairo—Damascus road, which served as a center for rural religious and economic life.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Marom \|first1\=Roy \|last2\=Taxel \|first2\=Itamar \|date\=2023\-10\-01 \|title\=Ḥamāma: The historical geography of settlement continuity and change in Majdal 'Asqalan's hinterland, 1270–1750 CE \|journal\=Journal of Historical Geography \|volume\=82 \|pages\=49–65 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jhg.2023\.08\.003 \|issn\=0305\-7488\|doi\-access\=free }} Ibelin's parish church was converted into a mosque, to which a minaret was added during the Mamluk period in 1337\. The minaret survives until today, while the mosque (the former Crusader church) was blown up by the Israeli army in 1950\.{{Cite book\|last\=Pringle\|first\=Denys\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2Y0tA0xLzwEC\&pg\=PA378\|title\=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus: Volume 2, L\-Z (excluding Tyre)\|date\=1993\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-39037\-8\|language\=en}}\[Raz Kletter, Irit Ziffer, Wolfgang Zwickel. "Yavneh I: The Excavation of the 'Temple Hill' Repository Pit and the Cult Stands." Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica (OBOSA), Book 30\. Academic Press Fribourg, Switzerland ({{ISBN\|978\-3\-7278\-1667\-3}}) and Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht, Göttingen ({{ISBN\|978\-3\-525\-54361\-0}}). 2010\. Pages 2\-13 ]
The [Mausoleum of Abu Huraira](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Abu_Huraira "Mausoleum of Abu Huraira"), a *[maqam](/wiki/Maqam_%28shrine%29 "Maqam (shrine)")* (religious shrine), in Yibna was described as "one of the finest domed mausoleums in Palestine". The site has been considered by Muslims as the tomb of Abu Huraira since the 12th century. After Israel's capture of Yibna in 1948, the shrine was taken over by [Sephardic Jews](/wiki/Sephardic_Jews "Sephardic Jews") who consider the tomb as the burial place of Rabbi [Gamaliel of Yavne](/wiki/Gamaliel_II "Gamaliel II").{{Cite journal\|last\=Petersen\|first\=Andrew\|title\=Gazetteer 6\. S\-Z\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/21620272}}
### Ottoman period
The village became part of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") in 1517\. In the 1596 Ottoman tax registers, it fell under the *[nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya "Nahiya")* (subdistrict) of [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_City "Gaza City"), part of the *[liwa'](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 "Liwa (Arabic)")* (district) of [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Sanjak "Gaza Sanjak"), with a population of 129 households, an estimated 710 persons, all Muslims. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on a number of crops, including wheat, barley, summer crops, [sesame seeds](/wiki/Sesame_seed "Sesame seed") and fruits, as well as goats, beehives and vineyards; a total of 34,000 [akçe](/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e "Akçe"). Three quarters of the revenues went to a [waqf](/wiki/Waqf "Waqf") (religious endowment).Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 143\. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 421
In the [French campaign in Egypt and Syria](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria "French campaign in Egypt and Syria") in 1799, it was shown on the map that [Pierre Jacotin](/wiki/Pierre_Jacotin "Pierre Jacotin") compiled that year as 'Ebneh'.Karmon, 1960, p. [171](http://www.jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201182028/http://jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,\_Y\_1960\_Jacotin\_Map\_(IEJ\_10\).pdf \|date\=2017\-12\-01 }}
An American missionary, [William Thomson](/wiki/William_McClure_Thomson "William McClure Thomson"), who visited Yibna in 1834, described it as a village on hill inhabited by 3,000 Muslims who worked in agriculture. He wrote that an inscription on the mosque indicated that it had been built in 1386, while [Denys Pringle](/wiki/Denys_Pringle "Denys Pringle") indicates 1337 as the construction year of the minaret.Thompson (1880\), I:145\-49\. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p.421{{Cite book\|last\=Thomson\|first\=William M.\|url\=http://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_2DUHAAAAQAAJ\|title\=The land and the book ; or, biblical illustrations drawn from the manners and customs, the scenes and scenery of the Holy Land\|date\=1861\|publisher\=London : T. Nelson\|others\=Oxford University}} In 1838, Yibna was noted as a Muslim village in the Gaza district.{{Cite book\|last1\=Robinson\|first1\=Edward\|url\=http://archive.org/details/biblicalresearch03robiuoft\|title\=Biblical researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea : a journal of travels in the year 1838\|last2\=Smith\|first2\=Eli\|date\=1841\|publisher\=Boston : Crocker\|others\=Robarts \- University of Toronto}}
An Ottoman village list from 1870 found that Yibna had a population of 1,042 living in 348 houses, although this number only counted adult males.{{Cite book\|last\=Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas\|url\=http://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde01deut\|title\=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina\-Vereins\|date\=1878\|publisher\=Leipzig, O. Harrassowitz \[etc.]\|others\=Getty Research Institute}}{{Cite book\|last1\=Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas\|url\=http://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_BZobAQAAIAAJ\|title\=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina\-Vereins\|last2\=Deutsches Evangelisches Institut für Altertumswissenschaft des Heiligen Landes\|date\=1878\|publisher\=Leipzig : K. Baedeker\|others\=University of California}} In 1882, the [Palestine Exploration Fund](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund "Palestine Exploration Fund")'s *[Survey of Western Palestine](/wiki/PEF_Survey_of_Palestine "PEF Survey of Palestine")* described Yibna as a large village partly built of stone and situated on a hill. It had olive trees and corn to the north, and gardens nearby.{{Cite book\|last1\=Conder\|first1\=C. R. (Claude Reignier)\|url\=http://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp02conduoft\|title\=The survey of western Palestine : memoirs of the topography, orography, hydrography, and archaeology\|last2\=Kitchener\|first2\=Horatio Herbert Kitchener\|last3\=Palmer\|first3\=Edward Henry\|last4\=Besant\|first4\=Walter\|date\=1881–1883\|publisher\=London : Committee of the Palestine exploration fund\|others\=Robarts \- University of Toronto}}
### British Mandate
{{multiple image
\|image1\=Yibna 1946\.jpg
\|image2\=Yibna 1946 BOA.jpg
\|caption1\=1946 \[\[Survey of Palestine]] map
\|caption2\=1946 built\-on area detail
\|align\=left
\|width1\=120
\|width2\=150
}}
In 1921, an elementary school for boys was founded in Yibna. By 1941\-42 it had 445 students. A school for girls was founded in 1943, and by 1948 it had 44 students.
In the [1922 census of Palestine](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine "1922 census of Palestine") conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Yibna had a population of 1,791; all Muslims,{{Cite web\|url\=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922\|title\=Palestine Census ( 1922\)\|via\=Internet Archive}} increasing in the [1931 census](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine "1931 census of Palestine") to 3,600, of whom all were Muslims except for seven Christians, two Jews and one [Baháʼí](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith"), living in a total of 794 houses.{{Cite book\|last\=E. Mills\|url\=http://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931\.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas\|title\=Census of Palestine 1931\. Population of villages, towns and administrative areas\|date\=1932}}
In 1941, [Kibbutz](/wiki/Kibbutz "Kibbutz") [Yavne](/wiki/Yavne "Yavne") was established nearby by refugees from Germany, followed by a [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah "Youth Aliyah") village, [Givat Washington](/wiki/Givat_Washington "Givat Washington"), in 1946\.
In [1944\-45](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 "Village Statistics, 1945"), Yibna had a population of 5,400 Muslims and 20 Christians, while the total land area was 59,554 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam "Dunam"), according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [68](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/al-Ramla/Page-068.jpg)
In addition there were 1,500 nomads living around the village. A total of 6,468 dunams of village land was used for citrus and bananas, 15,124 were used for cereals, 11,091 were irrigated or used for orchards, of which 25 were planted with olive trees,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945*. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [117](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/al-Ramla/Page-117.jpg) while 127 dunams were classified as built\-up areas.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [167](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/al-Ramla/Page-167.jpg)
File:Yibna 1929\.jpg\|Yibna 1929 1:20,000
File:Yibna 1941\.jpg\|Yibna 1941 1:20,000
File:Yibna 1945\.jpg\|Yibna 1945 1:250,000
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The tell with the ruins of the Mamluk minaret built in 1337](/wiki/File:Old_Yavne.jpg \"Old Yavne.jpg\")\nBased on written sources and archaeology, the history of Yavneh/Jabneh/Yibna goes back to the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") and possibly to the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\"). The [Hebrew Bible](/wiki/Hebrew_Bible \"Hebrew Bible\") mentions Yavneh repeatedly, as does [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"). For more see [Yavne](/wiki/Yavne \"Yavne\").",
"### Bronze and Iron Age",
"Salvage excavations carried out in 2001 by the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority \"Israel Antiquities Authority\") uncovered several burials at the northern foot of the original tell. Most of the burials are dated to the later [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\"). One burial points to a late [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") occupation.",
"A large [Philistine](/wiki/Philistine \"Philistine\") *[favissa](/wiki/Favissa \"Favissa\")* (deposit of cultic artifacts) was discovered on Temple Hill.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Kletter\\|first1\\=Raz\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IPZ\\-RCIF4EEC\\|title\\=Yavneh\\|last2\\=Ziffer\\|first2\\=Irit\\|last3\\=Zwickel\\|first3\\=Wolfgang\\|date\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Saint\\-Paul\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-7278\\-1667\\-3\\|language\\=en}} Two excavation seasons in the 2000s led by Professor [Dan Bahat](/wiki/Dan_Bahat \"Dan Bahat\") revealed some Iron Age remains.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2016}} Pottery sherds of the Iron Age and Persian period were discovered at the surface of the tell.",
"#### Roman period with Herodians",
"In Roman times, the city was known as **Iamnia**, also spelled **Jamnia**. It was bequeathed by [Herod the Great](/wiki/Herod_the_Great \"Herod the Great\") upon his death to his sister [Salome I](/wiki/Salome_I \"Salome I\"). Upon her death, it passed to the Roman emperor [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\"), who managed it as a private [imperial estate](/wiki/Imperial_estate_%28Roman%29 \"Imperial estate (Roman)\"), a status it was to maintain for at least a century.{{Cite journal \\|first\\=Raz \\|last\\=Kletter \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Tel Yavne \\|journal\\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \\|volume\\=116 \\|url\\=http://www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il/Report\\_Detail\\_Eng.aspx?id\\=30\\&mag\\_id\\=108 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-31}} After Salome's death, Iamnia came into the property of [Livia](/wiki/Livia \"Livia\"), the future Roman empress, and then to her son [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius \"Tiberius\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jabneh\\|title\\=Jabneh\\|publisher\\=Jewish Virtual Library}}",
"During the [First Jewish–Roman War](/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War \"First Jewish–Roman War\"), when the Roman army had quelled the insurrection in [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee \"Galilee\"), the army then marched upon Iamnia and [Azotus](/wiki/Ashdod_%28ancient_city%29 \"Ashdod (ancient city)\"), taking both towns and stationing garrisons within them.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book IV, Whiston chapter 3, Whiston section 2\\|url\\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\\=Perseus:text:1999\\.01\\.0148:book\\=4:whiston\\+chapter\\=3:whiston\\+section\\=2\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=www.perseus.tufts.edu}} According to rabbinic tradition, the [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\") [Yohanan ben Zakkai](/wiki/Yohanan_ben_Zakkai \"Yohanan ben Zakkai\") and his disciples were permitted to settle in Iamnia during the outbreak of the war, after Zakkai, realizing that [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") was about to fall, sneaked out of the city and asked [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian \"Vespasian\"), the commander of the besieging Roman forces, for the right to settle in Yavne and teach his disciples.{{cite book\\|last\\=Nathan ha\\-Bavli\\|author\\-link\\=Nathan the Babylonian\\|editor\\=Shemuel Yerushalmi\\|title\\=Avot de\\-Rabbi Natan \\|year\\=1976\\|location\\=Jerusalem \\|publisher\\=Mekhon Masoret\\|page\\=29 (chapter 4, section 5\\) \\|oclc\\=232936057 \\|language\\=he \\|title\\-link\\=Avot de\\-Rabbi Natan}}{{cite book \\|author\\-last\\=Ben\\-Israel\\|author\\-first\\=Uriah\\|editor\\=Alon, David\\|contribution\\=Yavne \\|title\\=Israel Guide \\- Sharon, Southern Coastal Plain and Northern Negev (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country)\\|volume\\=6 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Keter Publishing House]] \\|location\\=Jerusalem\\|year\\=1979\\|page\\=132 \\|language\\=he\\|oclc\\=745203905 }} Upon the fall of Jerusalem, his school functioned as a re\\-establishment of the [Sanhedrin](/wiki/Sanhedrin \"Sanhedrin\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Babylonian Talmud: Gittin 56\\|url\\=http://www.come\\-and\\-hear.com/gittin/gittin\\_56\\.html\\#PARTb\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=www.come\\-and\\-hear.com}}",
"### Byzantine period",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The [Madaba Map](/wiki/Madaba_Map \"Madaba Map\"), showing {{lang\\-gr\\|ΊΑΒΝΗΛΗΚΑΙΊΑΜΝΙΑ}}) (Lit. \"Jabneel, which is also Jamnia\")](/wiki/File:The_Madaba_Map%2C_part_of_a_floor_mosaic_in_the_early_Byzantine_church_of_Saint_George_depicting_the_Holy_Land_in_the_6th_century_AD%2C_Madaba%2C_Jordan_%2834477841931%29.jpg \"The Madaba Map, part of a floor mosaic in the early Byzantine church of Saint George depicting the Holy Land in the 6th century AD, Madaba, Jordan (34477841931).jpg\")\nByzantine period finds from excavations include an aqueduct east of the tell, and a kiln.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Velednizki \\|first\\=Noy \\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=Yavne Final Report \\|journal\\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \\|volume\\=116 \\|url\\=http://www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il/report\\_detail\\_eng.aspx?id\\=31\\&mag\\_id\\=108 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719082703/http://www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il/report\\_detail\\_eng.aspx?id\\=31\\&mag\\_id\\=108 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-19 }}{{Cite journal \\|first\\=Ofer \\|last\\=Sion \\|year\\=2005 \\|title\\=Yavne Final Report \\|journal\\=Excavations and Surveys in Israel \\|volume\\=117 \\|url\\=http://www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il/report\\_detail\\_eng.aspx?id\\=222\\&mag\\_id\\=110 \\|access\\-date \\= 2017\\-12\\-31 }} The world's largest wine factory from the Byzantine period has been uncovered by Israeli archaeologists, after a two\\-year excavation process; the importance of its wine was exemplified by its use by emperor Justin II in 566 at his table during his coronation feast.{{Cite web\\|author\\=Jeevan Ravindran\\|title\\=World's largest Byzantine wine factory uncovered in Israel\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/israel\\-byzantine\\-wine\\-factory\\-scn\\-scli\\-intl/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=CNN\\|date\\=12 October 2021 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Early Islamic period",
"The historian [al\\-Baladhuri](/wiki/Al-Baladhuri \"Al-Baladhuri\") (d. 892 CE) mentioned Yibna as one of ten towns in [Jund Filastin](/wiki/Jund_Filastin \"Jund Filastin\") conquered by the [Rashidun army](/wiki/Rashidun_army \"Rashidun army\") led by [Amr ibn al\\-As](/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As \"Amr ibn al-As\") during the [Muslim conquest of the Levant](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant \"Muslim conquest of the Levant\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Le Strange\\|first\\=G. (Guy)\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft\\|title\\=Palestine under the Moslems; a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500\\. Translated from the works of the mediaeval Arab geographers\\|date\\=1890\\|publisher\\=London A.P. Watt\\|others\\=Robarts \\- University of Toronto}} The 9th\\-century historian [Ya'qubi](/wiki/Ya%27qubi \"Ya'qubi\") wrote that it was an ancient city built on a hill and inhabited by [Samaritans](/wiki/Samaritans \"Samaritans\").",
"The geographer [al\\-Maqdisi](/wiki/Al-Maqdisi \"Al-Maqdisi\"), writing around 985, said that \"Yubna has a beautiful [mosque](/wiki/Mosque \"Mosque\"). From this place come the excellent [figs known by the name of Damascene](/wiki/Damson \"Damson\").\" The geographer [Yaqut al\\-Hamawi](/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi \"Yaqut al-Hamawi\") wrote that in Yubna there was a tomb said to be that of [Abu Hurayra](/wiki/Abu_Hurayra \"Abu Hurayra\"), a [Companion of the Prophet](/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet \"Companions of the Prophet\"). The author of the *Marasid* also adds that tomb seen here is also said to be that of [Abd Allah ibn Sa'd](/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Sa%27d \"Abd Allah ibn Sa'd\"), another Companion of the Prophet.",
"In 2007, remains ranging from the early Islamic period until the British Mandate period were uncovered.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Volume 121 Year 2009 Tel Yavne\\|url\\=http://www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il/report\\_detail\\_eng.aspx?id\\=1110\\&mag\\_id\\=115\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=www.hadashot\\-esi.org.il}} An additional kiln, and part of a commercial/industrial area were uncovered at the west of the tell in 2009\\.",
"### Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk periods",
"[thumb\\|[Yibna Bridge](/wiki/Yibna_Bridge \"Yibna Bridge\"), one in a series of bridges built by Sultan [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars \"Baybars\") in medieval Egypt and Palestine](/wiki/File:Mamluk_bridge%2C_Yavne008.jpg \"Mamluk bridge, Yavne008.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The [Mausoleum of Abu Huraira](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Abu_Huraira \"Mausoleum of Abu Huraira\"), 2010](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_10149_rabbi_gamliel_tomb_in_yavneh.jpg \"PikiWiki Israel 10149 rabbi gamliel tomb in yavneh.jpg\")\nThe [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusade \"Crusade\") called the city **Ibelin** and built a [castle](/wiki/Ibelin_%28castle%29 \"Ibelin (castle)\") there in 1141\\. Two excavation seasons led by Professor [Dan Bahat](/wiki/Dan_Bahat \"Dan Bahat\") starting in 2005 revealed the main gate.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2016}} Its namesake noble family, the [house of Ibelin](/wiki/House_of_Ibelin \"House of Ibelin\"), was important in the [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") and later in the [Kingdom of Cyprus](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus \"Kingdom of Cyprus\"). Salvage excavations at the west of the tell unearthed a stash of 53 Crusader coins of the 12th and 13th centuries.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\\-3697876,00\\.html \\|script\\-title\\=he:מטמון נדיר נמצא בחפירות ארכיאולוגיות בתל יבנה \\|trans\\-title\\=Rare Treasure Found in Excavations at Tel Yavne \\|language\\=he \\|publisher\\=Ynet.co.il (local) \\|first\\=Ilanit \\|last\\=Shimron \\|date\\=2009\\-04\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-08}}",
"Ibelin was first sacked by [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\") before his army was comprehensively routed at the [Battle of Montgisard](/wiki/Battle_of_Montgisard \"Battle of Montgisard\") in late 1177\\. In August 1187, it was retaken by Saladin and burned down, and ceased for some time to form part of the Crusaders' kingdom.Fischer, Moshe and Taxel, Itamar. [\"Ancient Yavneh: Its History and Archaeology\"](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Itamar_Taxel/publication/307577653_Fischer_M_and_Taxel_I_2007_Ancient_Yavneh_Its_History_and_Archaeology_Tel_Aviv_34_204-284/links/57c9b13708ae59825180f324/Fischer-M-and-Taxel-I-2007-Ancient-Yavneh-Its-History-and-Archaeology-Tel-Aviv-34-204-284.pdf), in *Tel Aviv* Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, December 2007, vol. 34: No 2, pp.204\\-284, 247 The Jewish traveler [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela \"Benjamin of Tudela\") (1130–1173\\) identified Jamnia (*Jabneh*) of classical writers with the *Ibelin* of the Crusades. He places the ancient city of Jamnia at three parasangs from [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa \"Jaffa\") and two from [Ashdod](/wiki/Ashdod \"Ashdod\") (*Azotus*).{{Cite web\\|title\\=JABNEH \\- JewishEncyclopedia.com\\|url\\=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8375\\-jabneh\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}",
"During the [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate \"Mamluk Sultanate\") period (13th–16th centuries), Yibna was a key site along the Cairo—Damascus road, which served as a center for rural religious and economic life.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Marom \\|first1\\=Roy \\|last2\\=Taxel \\|first2\\=Itamar \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Ḥamāma: The historical geography of settlement continuity and change in Majdal 'Asqalan's hinterland, 1270–1750 CE \\|journal\\=Journal of Historical Geography \\|volume\\=82 \\|pages\\=49–65 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jhg.2023\\.08\\.003 \\|issn\\=0305\\-7488\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Ibelin's parish church was converted into a mosque, to which a minaret was added during the Mamluk period in 1337\\. The minaret survives until today, while the mosque (the former Crusader church) was blown up by the Israeli army in 1950\\.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Pringle\\|first\\=Denys\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2Y0tA0xLzwEC\\&pg\\=PA378\\|title\\=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus: Volume 2, L\\-Z (excluding Tyre)\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-39037\\-8\\|language\\=en}}\\[Raz Kletter, Irit Ziffer, Wolfgang Zwickel. \"Yavneh I: The Excavation of the 'Temple Hill' Repository Pit and the Cult Stands.\" Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica (OBOSA), Book 30\\. Academic Press Fribourg, Switzerland ({{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-7278\\-1667\\-3}}) and Vandenhoeck \\& Ruprecht, Göttingen ({{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-525\\-54361\\-0}}). 2010\\. Pages 2\\-13 ]",
"The [Mausoleum of Abu Huraira](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Abu_Huraira \"Mausoleum of Abu Huraira\"), a *[maqam](/wiki/Maqam_%28shrine%29 \"Maqam (shrine)\")* (religious shrine), in Yibna was described as \"one of the finest domed mausoleums in Palestine\". The site has been considered by Muslims as the tomb of Abu Huraira since the 12th century. After Israel's capture of Yibna in 1948, the shrine was taken over by [Sephardic Jews](/wiki/Sephardic_Jews \"Sephardic Jews\") who consider the tomb as the burial place of Rabbi [Gamaliel of Yavne](/wiki/Gamaliel_II \"Gamaliel II\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Petersen\\|first\\=Andrew\\|title\\=Gazetteer 6\\. S\\-Z\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/21620272}}",
"### Ottoman period",
"The village became part of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") in 1517\\. In the 1596 Ottoman tax registers, it fell under the *[nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya \"Nahiya\")* (subdistrict) of [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_City \"Gaza City\"), part of the *[liwa'](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 \"Liwa (Arabic)\")* (district) of [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Sanjak \"Gaza Sanjak\"), with a population of 129 households, an estimated 710 persons, all Muslims. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on a number of crops, including wheat, barley, summer crops, [sesame seeds](/wiki/Sesame_seed \"Sesame seed\") and fruits, as well as goats, beehives and vineyards; a total of 34,000 [akçe](/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e \"Akçe\"). Three quarters of the revenues went to a [waqf](/wiki/Waqf \"Waqf\") (religious endowment).Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 143\\. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 421",
"In the [French campaign in Egypt and Syria](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria \"French campaign in Egypt and Syria\") in 1799, it was shown on the map that [Pierre Jacotin](/wiki/Pierre_Jacotin \"Pierre Jacotin\") compiled that year as 'Ebneh'.Karmon, 1960, p. [171](http://www.jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201182028/http://jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,\\_Y\\_1960\\_Jacotin\\_Map\\_(IEJ\\_10\\).pdf \\|date\\=2017\\-12\\-01 }}",
"An American missionary, [William Thomson](/wiki/William_McClure_Thomson \"William McClure Thomson\"), who visited Yibna in 1834, described it as a village on hill inhabited by 3,000 Muslims who worked in agriculture. He wrote that an inscription on the mosque indicated that it had been built in 1386, while [Denys Pringle](/wiki/Denys_Pringle \"Denys Pringle\") indicates 1337 as the construction year of the minaret.Thompson (1880\\), I:145\\-49\\. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p.421{{Cite book\\|last\\=Thomson\\|first\\=William M.\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_2DUHAAAAQAAJ\\|title\\=The land and the book ; or, biblical illustrations drawn from the manners and customs, the scenes and scenery of the Holy Land\\|date\\=1861\\|publisher\\=London : T. Nelson\\|others\\=Oxford University}} In 1838, Yibna was noted as a Muslim village in the Gaza district.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Robinson\\|first1\\=Edward\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/biblicalresearch03robiuoft\\|title\\=Biblical researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea : a journal of travels in the year 1838\\|last2\\=Smith\\|first2\\=Eli\\|date\\=1841\\|publisher\\=Boston : Crocker\\|others\\=Robarts \\- University of Toronto}}",
"An Ottoman village list from 1870 found that Yibna had a population of 1,042 living in 348 houses, although this number only counted adult males.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde01deut\\|title\\=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina\\-Vereins\\|date\\=1878\\|publisher\\=Leipzig, O. Harrassowitz \\[etc.]\\|others\\=Getty Research Institute}}{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_BZobAQAAIAAJ\\|title\\=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina\\-Vereins\\|last2\\=Deutsches Evangelisches Institut für Altertumswissenschaft des Heiligen Landes\\|date\\=1878\\|publisher\\=Leipzig : K. Baedeker\\|others\\=University of California}} In 1882, the [Palestine Exploration Fund](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund \"Palestine Exploration Fund\")'s *[Survey of Western Palestine](/wiki/PEF_Survey_of_Palestine \"PEF Survey of Palestine\")* described Yibna as a large village partly built of stone and situated on a hill. It had olive trees and corn to the north, and gardens nearby.{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Conder\\|first1\\=C. R. (Claude Reignier)\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp02conduoft\\|title\\=The survey of western Palestine : memoirs of the topography, orography, hydrography, and archaeology\\|last2\\=Kitchener\\|first2\\=Horatio Herbert Kitchener\\|last3\\=Palmer\\|first3\\=Edward Henry\\|last4\\=Besant\\|first4\\=Walter\\|date\\=1881–1883\\|publisher\\=London : Committee of the Palestine exploration fund\\|others\\=Robarts \\- University of Toronto}}",
"### British Mandate",
"{{multiple image\n\\|image1\\=Yibna 1946\\.jpg\n\\|image2\\=Yibna 1946 BOA.jpg\n\\|caption1\\=1946 \\[\\[Survey of Palestine]] map\n\\|caption2\\=1946 built\\-on area detail\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|width1\\=120\n\\|width2\\=150\n}}\nIn 1921, an elementary school for boys was founded in Yibna. By 1941\\-42 it had 445 students. A school for girls was founded in 1943, and by 1948 it had 44 students.",
"In the [1922 census of Palestine](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine \"1922 census of Palestine\") conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Yibna had a population of 1,791; all Muslims,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922\\|title\\=Palestine Census ( 1922\\)\\|via\\=Internet Archive}} increasing in the [1931 census](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine \"1931 census of Palestine\") to 3,600, of whom all were Muslims except for seven Christians, two Jews and one [Baháʼí](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith \"Baháʼí Faith\"), living in a total of 794 houses.{{Cite book\\|last\\=E. Mills\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931\\.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas\\|title\\=Census of Palestine 1931\\. Population of villages, towns and administrative areas\\|date\\=1932}}",
"In 1941, [Kibbutz](/wiki/Kibbutz \"Kibbutz\") [Yavne](/wiki/Yavne \"Yavne\") was established nearby by refugees from Germany, followed by a [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah \"Youth Aliyah\") village, [Givat Washington](/wiki/Givat_Washington \"Givat Washington\"), in 1946\\.",
"In [1944\\-45](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 \"Village Statistics, 1945\"), Yibna had a population of 5,400 Muslims and 20 Christians, while the total land area was 59,554 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam \"Dunam\"), according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [68](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/al-Ramla/Page-068.jpg)\nIn addition there were 1,500 nomads living around the village. A total of 6,468 dunams of village land was used for citrus and bananas, 15,124 were used for cereals, 11,091 were irrigated or used for orchards, of which 25 were planted with olive trees,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945*. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [117](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/al-Ramla/Page-117.jpg) while 127 dunams were classified as built\\-up areas.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [167](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/al-Ramla/Page-167.jpg)",
"",
"File:Yibna 1929\\.jpg\\|Yibna 1929 1:20,000\nFile:Yibna 1941\\.jpg\\|Yibna 1941 1:20,000\nFile:Yibna 1945\\.jpg\\|Yibna 1945 1:250,000",
"",
""
] |
Early life
----------
Piazzoni was born on April 14, 1872, in [Intragna](/wiki/Intragna "Intragna"), [Ticino](/wiki/Ticino "Ticino"), Switzerland.{{Cite web \|last\=Young \|first\=Kerri \|date\=2021\-09\-02 \|title\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \|url\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\-50\-asian\-art\-museum\-moves\-into\-the\-main\-and\-the\-fight\-for\-the\-piazzoni\-murals/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-06 \|website\=San Francisco Heritage \|language\=en\-US}} He moved at the age of 15 to his father's dairy farm in the [Carmel Valley](/wiki/Carmel_Valley%2C_California "Carmel Valley, California"). His uncle [Luigi Piazzoni](/wiki/Luigi_Piazzoni "Luigi Piazzoni"), had the Luigi Piazzoni ranch adjacent to his father's ranch.{{cite web\|url\=https://bolinasmuseum.org/exhibitions/the\-piazzoni\-legacy/\|title\=The Piazzoni Legacy, Three Generations Paint the Splendors of California\|work\=Bolinas Museum\|author\=Jan Holloway\|place\=\|date\=June 26, 2005\|access\-date\=2023\-01\-16}}{{cite book\|last\=Chatham\|first\=Russell\|url\=https://archive.org/details/russellchathamon0000chat/page/119/mode/1up?q\=%22Piazzoni\+Ranch%22\|title\=Russell Chatham: One Hundred Paintings\|work\=Clark City Press\|place\=Livingston, Montana\|date\=1990\|access\-date\=2023\-01\-16}}Neff, Emily Ballew. *The Modern West: American Landscapes, 1890\-1950*, Yale University Press, 2006, p. 108\. After training with [Arthur Frank Mathews](/wiki/Arthur_Frank_Mathews "Arthur Frank Mathews") at the [Mark Hopkins Institute of Art](/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_Institute_of_Art "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art") (later the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute "San Francisco Art Institute")),Sunset, Volume 21 By Southern Pacific Company. Passenger Dept, 1908, page 738 Piazzoni trained for three years in Paris at the [Académie Julian](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Julian "Académie Julian") and under [Jean\-Léon Gérôme](/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me "Jean-Léon Gérôme"). He then returned to California to begin his career and set up his own teaching studio.
Specializing in landscapes in a muted palette, most scholars count Piazzoni among the [Tonalists](/wiki/Tonalism "Tonalism"),*On the Edge of America: California Modernist Art, 1900\-1950*; by Paul J. Karlstrom, 1996, p. 99 and was one of the most influential exponents of this style in California.{{Cite book\|last\=Bockhorst\|first\=Paul\|title\=Impressions of California: Early currents in art 1850\-1930\|publisher\=The Irvine Museum\|year\=1996\|isbn\=0\-9635\-468\-8\-0\|location\=\|pages\=15\|chapter\=Preface}} He sought out the lighting effects of certain times of day, taking a "special interest in full moonrises, the viewing of which became a family ritual. Venturing up a hill, the family would cheer the appearance of the moon. Piazzoni knew the exact time for each moonrise and kept precise records."Twilight and Reverie: California Tonalist Painting 1890\-1930, Harvey L. Jones, 1995, accessed at [http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/2aa/2aa594\.htm](http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/2aa/2aa594.htm) He was able to portray the essential qualities of a scene and achieve a strong mood, using only minimal descriptive details.
[left\|thumb\|*Silence* by Gottardo Fidele Piazzoni, c. 1912, oil on panel, De Young Museum](/wiki/File:Silence_by_Gottardo_Fidele_Piazzoni%2C_c._1912.JPG "Silence by Gottardo Fidele Piazzoni, c. 1912.JPG")
Piazzoni's best\-known public work may be his 14 murals for the former headquarters of the [San Francisco Public Library](/wiki/San_Francisco_Public_Library "San Francisco Public Library") for architect [George W. Kelham](/wiki/George_W._Kelham "George W. Kelham"), ten of them dating from 1932, the other four painted in 1945 and not installed until the 1970s.{{Cite web\|url\=http://articles.sfgate.com/2005\-06\-27/entertainment/17378805\_1\_asian\-art\-museum\-murals\-young\-museum\|title\=THE NEW DE YOUNG / Controversy over, Piazzoni murals settle into de Young's landscape\|date\=27 June 2005}} After public debate and lawsuits in the late 1990s, the ten principal murals can now be seen at the [M. H. de Young Memorial Museum](/wiki/M._H._de_Young_Memorial_Museum "M. H. de Young Memorial Museum").
By early 1901 Piazzoni was sharing a studio with fellow painter [Xavier Martínez](/wiki/Xavier_Mart%C3%ADnez "Xavier Martínez"), with whom he founded a year later the short\-lived California Society of Artists.{{cite book\|last1\=Edwards\|first1\=Robert W.\| title\=Jennie V. Cannon: The Untold History of the Carmel and Berkeley Art Colonies, Vol. 1\|date\=2012\|publisher\=East Bay Heritage Project\| location\=Oakland, Calif.\| isbn\=9781467545679\| pages\=46, 94, 188, 196, 200, 207, 217, 252, 306, 372, 443–445, 493, 541, 543, 577–578, 580–582, 690}} An online facsimile of the entire text of Vol. 1 is posted on the Traditional Fine Arts Organization website ({{cite web \|url\=http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/10aa/10aa557\.htm \|title\=Jennie V. Cannon: The Untold History of the Carmel and Berkeley Art Colonies, vol. One, East Bay Heritage Project, Oakland, 2012; by Robert W. Edwards \|accessdate\=2016\-06\-07 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429115613/http://tfaoi.com/aa/10aa/10aa557\.htm \|archivedate\=2016\-04\-29 }}). He was also a co\-founder of the [California Society of Etchers](/wiki/California_Society_of_Printmakers "California Society of Printmakers") in 1912, with Robert B. Harshe, art professor at Stanford University;{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/specialcollections/aic/museum/harshe.html \|title\=Robert Harshe Papers\|website\= Ryerson and Burnham Libraries: The Art Institute of Chicago \|accessdate\=2011\-05\-21 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522041257/http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/specialcollections/aic/museum/harshe.html \|archivedate\=2011\-05\-22 \|url\-status\=dead }} [Pedro Joseph de Lemos](/wiki/Pedro_Joseph_de_Lemos "Pedro Joseph de Lemos"), professor at [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute "San Francisco Art Institute");{{Cite web \|last\=Young \|first\=Kerri \|date\=2021\-09\-02 \|title\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \|url\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\-50\-asian\-art\-museum\-moves\-into\-the\-main\-and\-the\-fight\-for\-the\-piazzoni\-murals/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-06 \|website\=San Francisco Heritage \|language\=en\-US}} and [Ralph Stackpole](/wiki/Ralph_Stackpole "Ralph Stackpole"), sculptor, printmaker, and at that time Piazzoni's studio assistant. He enthusiastically advanced the career of sculptor [Arthur Putnam](/wiki/Arthur_Putnam "Arthur Putnam"). He was also a member of the [Bohemian Club](/wiki/Bohemian_Club "Bohemian Club"), exhibited with the Berkeley and Monterey art colonies, taught at the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute "San Francisco Art Institute"),{{Cite web \|last\=Young \|first\=Kerri \|date\=2021\-09\-02 \|title\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \|url\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\-50\-asian\-art\-museum\-moves\-into\-the\-main\-and\-the\-fight\-for\-the\-piazzoni\-murals/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-06 \|website\=San Francisco Heritage \|language\=en\-US}} and served on the jury and advisory committee of the Art Gallery at the [Hotel Del Monte](/wiki/Hotel_Del_Monte "Hotel Del Monte"). In 1927 he publicly protested when the directors of the municipal Oakland Art Gallery threatened to remove two displayed paintings of “explicit female nudes.”*The Oakland Tribune*, 9 February 1927, p. 1\.
Piazzoni was also a good friend of Impressionist [Granville Redmond](/wiki/Granville_Redmond "Granville Redmond") and introduced the deaf\-mute artist to Charlie Chaplin. The relationship of Redmond, Chaplin and Piazzoni is explored in a play by [Steve Hauk](/wiki/Steve_Hauk "Steve Hauk"), "The Floating Hat," published by the Traditional Fine Art Organization, Inc. The play is also in the collection of the Gallaudet University library.
Among his students were [George Post](/wiki/George_Post_%28painter%29 "George Post (painter)"), [Rinaldo Cuneo](/wiki/Rinaldo_Cuneo "Rinaldo Cuneo"), [Dorr Bothwell](/wiki/Dorr_Bothwell "Dorr Bothwell"), and [Clayton Sumner Price](/wiki/Clayton_Sumner_Price "Clayton Sumner Price"). American landscape painter Mireille Piazzoni Wood was Piazzoni's daughter, painter\-writer Philip Wood his son\-in\-law. Artists Thomas Wood and [Russell Chatham](/wiki/Russell_Chatham "Russell Chatham") are Piazzoni grandsons.
|
[
"Early life\n----------",
"Piazzoni was born on April 14, 1872, in [Intragna](/wiki/Intragna \"Intragna\"), [Ticino](/wiki/Ticino \"Ticino\"), Switzerland.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Young \\|first\\=Kerri \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \\|url\\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\\-50\\-asian\\-art\\-museum\\-moves\\-into\\-the\\-main\\-and\\-the\\-fight\\-for\\-the\\-piazzoni\\-murals/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-06 \\|website\\=San Francisco Heritage \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He moved at the age of 15 to his father's dairy farm in the [Carmel Valley](/wiki/Carmel_Valley%2C_California \"Carmel Valley, California\"). His uncle [Luigi Piazzoni](/wiki/Luigi_Piazzoni \"Luigi Piazzoni\"), had the Luigi Piazzoni ranch adjacent to his father's ranch.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bolinasmuseum.org/exhibitions/the\\-piazzoni\\-legacy/\\|title\\=The Piazzoni Legacy, Three Generations Paint the Splendors of California\\|work\\=Bolinas Museum\\|author\\=Jan Holloway\\|place\\=\\|date\\=June 26, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-16}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Chatham\\|first\\=Russell\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/russellchathamon0000chat/page/119/mode/1up?q\\=%22Piazzoni\\+Ranch%22\\|title\\=Russell Chatham: One Hundred Paintings\\|work\\=Clark City Press\\|place\\=Livingston, Montana\\|date\\=1990\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-16}}Neff, Emily Ballew. *The Modern West: American Landscapes, 1890\\-1950*, Yale University Press, 2006, p. 108\\. After training with [Arthur Frank Mathews](/wiki/Arthur_Frank_Mathews \"Arthur Frank Mathews\") at the [Mark Hopkins Institute of Art](/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_Institute_of_Art \"Mark Hopkins Institute of Art\") (later the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute \"San Francisco Art Institute\")),Sunset, Volume 21 By Southern Pacific Company. Passenger Dept, 1908, page 738 Piazzoni trained for three years in Paris at the [Académie Julian](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Julian \"Académie Julian\") and under [Jean\\-Léon Gérôme](/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me \"Jean-Léon Gérôme\"). He then returned to California to begin his career and set up his own teaching studio.",
"Specializing in landscapes in a muted palette, most scholars count Piazzoni among the [Tonalists](/wiki/Tonalism \"Tonalism\"),*On the Edge of America: California Modernist Art, 1900\\-1950*; by Paul J. Karlstrom, 1996, p. 99 and was one of the most influential exponents of this style in California.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Bockhorst\\|first\\=Paul\\|title\\=Impressions of California: Early currents in art 1850\\-1930\\|publisher\\=The Irvine Museum\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=0\\-9635\\-468\\-8\\-0\\|location\\=\\|pages\\=15\\|chapter\\=Preface}} He sought out the lighting effects of certain times of day, taking a \"special interest in full moonrises, the viewing of which became a family ritual. Venturing up a hill, the family would cheer the appearance of the moon. Piazzoni knew the exact time for each moonrise and kept precise records.\"Twilight and Reverie: California Tonalist Painting 1890\\-1930, Harvey L. Jones, 1995, accessed at [http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/2aa/2aa594\\.htm](http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/2aa/2aa594.htm) He was able to portray the essential qualities of a scene and achieve a strong mood, using only minimal descriptive details.\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Silence* by Gottardo Fidele Piazzoni, c. 1912, oil on panel, De Young Museum](/wiki/File:Silence_by_Gottardo_Fidele_Piazzoni%2C_c._1912.JPG \"Silence by Gottardo Fidele Piazzoni, c. 1912.JPG\")\nPiazzoni's best\\-known public work may be his 14 murals for the former headquarters of the [San Francisco Public Library](/wiki/San_Francisco_Public_Library \"San Francisco Public Library\") for architect [George W. Kelham](/wiki/George_W._Kelham \"George W. Kelham\"), ten of them dating from 1932, the other four painted in 1945 and not installed until the 1970s.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://articles.sfgate.com/2005\\-06\\-27/entertainment/17378805\\_1\\_asian\\-art\\-museum\\-murals\\-young\\-museum\\|title\\=THE NEW DE YOUNG / Controversy over, Piazzoni murals settle into de Young's landscape\\|date\\=27 June 2005}} After public debate and lawsuits in the late 1990s, the ten principal murals can now be seen at the [M. H. de Young Memorial Museum](/wiki/M._H._de_Young_Memorial_Museum \"M. H. de Young Memorial Museum\").",
"By early 1901 Piazzoni was sharing a studio with fellow painter [Xavier Martínez](/wiki/Xavier_Mart%C3%ADnez \"Xavier Martínez\"), with whom he founded a year later the short\\-lived California Society of Artists.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Edwards\\|first1\\=Robert W.\\| title\\=Jennie V. Cannon: The Untold History of the Carmel and Berkeley Art Colonies, Vol. 1\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=East Bay Heritage Project\\| location\\=Oakland, Calif.\\| isbn\\=9781467545679\\| pages\\=46, 94, 188, 196, 200, 207, 217, 252, 306, 372, 443–445, 493, 541, 543, 577–578, 580–582, 690}} An online facsimile of the entire text of Vol. 1 is posted on the Traditional Fine Arts Organization website ({{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/10aa/10aa557\\.htm \\|title\\=Jennie V. Cannon: The Untold History of the Carmel and Berkeley Art Colonies, vol. One, East Bay Heritage Project, Oakland, 2012; by Robert W. Edwards \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-06\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429115613/http://tfaoi.com/aa/10aa/10aa557\\.htm \\|archivedate\\=2016\\-04\\-29 }}). He was also a co\\-founder of the [California Society of Etchers](/wiki/California_Society_of_Printmakers \"California Society of Printmakers\") in 1912, with Robert B. Harshe, art professor at Stanford University;{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/specialcollections/aic/museum/harshe.html \\|title\\=Robert Harshe Papers\\|website\\= Ryerson and Burnham Libraries: The Art Institute of Chicago \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-05\\-21 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522041257/http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/specialcollections/aic/museum/harshe.html \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-05\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Pedro Joseph de Lemos](/wiki/Pedro_Joseph_de_Lemos \"Pedro Joseph de Lemos\"), professor at [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute \"San Francisco Art Institute\");{{Cite web \\|last\\=Young \\|first\\=Kerri \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \\|url\\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\\-50\\-asian\\-art\\-museum\\-moves\\-into\\-the\\-main\\-and\\-the\\-fight\\-for\\-the\\-piazzoni\\-murals/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-06 \\|website\\=San Francisco Heritage \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and [Ralph Stackpole](/wiki/Ralph_Stackpole \"Ralph Stackpole\"), sculptor, printmaker, and at that time Piazzoni's studio assistant. He enthusiastically advanced the career of sculptor [Arthur Putnam](/wiki/Arthur_Putnam \"Arthur Putnam\"). He was also a member of the [Bohemian Club](/wiki/Bohemian_Club \"Bohemian Club\"), exhibited with the Berkeley and Monterey art colonies, taught at the [San Francisco Art Institute](/wiki/San_Francisco_Art_Institute \"San Francisco Art Institute\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Young \\|first\\=Kerri \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=Heritage 50: Asian Art Museum Moves into the Main and the Fight for the Piazzoni murals \\|url\\=https://www.sfheritage.org/news/heritage\\-50\\-asian\\-art\\-museum\\-moves\\-into\\-the\\-main\\-and\\-the\\-fight\\-for\\-the\\-piazzoni\\-murals/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-06 \\|website\\=San Francisco Heritage \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and served on the jury and advisory committee of the Art Gallery at the [Hotel Del Monte](/wiki/Hotel_Del_Monte \"Hotel Del Monte\"). In 1927 he publicly protested when the directors of the municipal Oakland Art Gallery threatened to remove two displayed paintings of “explicit female nudes.”*The Oakland Tribune*, 9 February 1927, p. 1\\.",
"Piazzoni was also a good friend of Impressionist [Granville Redmond](/wiki/Granville_Redmond \"Granville Redmond\") and introduced the deaf\\-mute artist to Charlie Chaplin. The relationship of Redmond, Chaplin and Piazzoni is explored in a play by [Steve Hauk](/wiki/Steve_Hauk \"Steve Hauk\"), \"The Floating Hat,\" published by the Traditional Fine Art Organization, Inc. The play is also in the collection of the Gallaudet University library.",
"Among his students were [George Post](/wiki/George_Post_%28painter%29 \"George Post (painter)\"), [Rinaldo Cuneo](/wiki/Rinaldo_Cuneo \"Rinaldo Cuneo\"), [Dorr Bothwell](/wiki/Dorr_Bothwell \"Dorr Bothwell\"), and [Clayton Sumner Price](/wiki/Clayton_Sumner_Price \"Clayton Sumner Price\"). American landscape painter Mireille Piazzoni Wood was Piazzoni's daughter, painter\\-writer Philip Wood his son\\-in\\-law. Artists Thomas Wood and [Russell Chatham](/wiki/Russell_Chatham \"Russell Chatham\") are Piazzoni grandsons.",
""
] |
History
-------
Surbandar, a small coastal town in the [Gwadar District of Balochistan, Pakistan](/wiki/Gwadar_District_of_Balochistan%2C_Pakistan "Gwadar District of Balochistan, Pakistan"), is a place where history, culture, and the sea intertwine. Nestled along the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea"), Surbandar has long been a fishing village, its identity shaped by the ebb and flow of the tides and the rhythms of coastal life. While Surbandar remains a modest settlement, its history is rich with the influences of ancient trade routes, regional powers, and the modern developments that are transforming the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") region.
* + Early Beginnings
The history of Surbandar is intimately linked to the broader historical context of the [Makran](/wiki/Makran "Makran") coast, a region that has been inhabited for millennia. The [Makran](/wiki/Makran "Makran") coast, stretching from present\-day Iran through Balochistan to [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi"), has always been a significant corridor for trade and communication between [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), and beyond. Evidence suggests that the coastal areas, including Surbandar, have seen human settlement and maritime activity for centuries, if not longer.
The people of Surbandar, like their neighbors along the [Makran](/wiki/Makran "Makran") coast, have historically relied on the sea for their livelihood. Fishing has been the primary occupation, with techniques and traditions passed down through generations. The sea was not just a source of food but also a means of connecting with distant lands, as Surbandar was part of the intricate web of maritime trade routes that crisscrossed the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea").
* + Islamic and Colonial Influence
With the spread of [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") in the 7th century, the [Makran](/wiki/Makran "Makran") coast, including the area around Surbandar, came under [Muslim rule](/wiki/Muslim_rule "Muslim rule"). The region saw the influence of various [Islamic empires](/wiki/Islamic_empires "Islamic empires"), including the [Ghorids](/wiki/Ghorids "Ghorids") and the [Mughals](/wiki/Mughals "Mughals"), who controlled parts of Balochistan at different times. Despite these changes in political power, the daily life of Surbandar's inhabitants remained largely focused on fishing and local trade.
In the [18th century](/wiki/18th_century "18th century"), the geopolitical landscape of the region shifted when [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") and its surrounding areas, including Surbandar, came under the control of the [Sultanate of Oman](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Oman "Sultanate of Oman"). The [Omani](/wiki/Omani "Omani") period marked the development of [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") as a small but significant port town, though Surbandar itself remained a fishing village with a relatively stable way of life. The town's proximity to [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") meant that it was part of the broader economic and cultural exchanges that occurred along the coast.
* + Surbandar in the Modern Era
The modern history of Surbandar is closely tied to the political changes in the region during the [20th century](/wiki/20th_century "20th century"). In 1958, the [Sultanate of Oman](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Oman "Sultanate of Oman") sold [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), integrating the region into the newly independent country. This transfer marked the beginning of a new chapter in Surbandar's history, as [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") started to gain attention for its strategic location on the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea").
For much of the [20th century](/wiki/20th_century "20th century"), Surbandar remained a quiet fishing village, with limited infrastructure and development. However, the 21st century brought significant changes to the region with the launch of the China\-Pakistan Economic Corridor [(CPEC)](/wiki/%28CPEC%29 "(CPEC)") and the development of [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port "Gwadar Port"). These projects have transformed [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") into a focal point of international interest, with the potential to turn the entire region into a hub of trade and economic activity.
While Surbandar has not yet experienced the same level of development as [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar"), its proximity to the port city means that it could see significant changes in the coming years. The ongoing development projects are likely to bring new opportunities, as well as challenges, to the people of Surbandar. The town's history, rooted in the sea and shaped by centuries of continuity and change, will continue to evolve as it navigates the currents of modernity.
Surbandar, with its long history as a coastal settlement, is a testament to the enduring connection between the people of [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan "Balochistan") and the sea. From its early days as part of ancient trade routes to its modern role in the [Gwadar district](/wiki/Gwadar_district "Gwadar district"), Surbandar has maintained its identity as a fishing village while being influenced by the broader historical forces at play. As the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") region continues to develop, Surbandar's history will be an essential part of understanding the cultural and economic transformations taking place along [Pakistan's coast](/wiki/Pakistan%27s_coast "Pakistan's coast").{{Cite web \|date\=29 April 2013 \|title\=First evidence of a leatherback turtle along Pakistan’s coastline \|url\=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf\_news/?208408/First\-evidence\-of\-a\-leatherback\-turtle\-along\-Pakistans\-coastline \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=wwf.panda.org \|language\=en}}\<ref\>{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-04\-17 \|title\=Leatherback turtle spotted for the first time at Gwadar \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/536967/leatherback\-turtle\-spotted\-for\-the\-first\-time\-at\-gwadar \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-22 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}}
In 2013, a [leatherback turtle](/wiki/Leatherback_sea_turtle "Leatherback sea turtle") was successfully caught and released near the village, with the help of local fishermen and [WWF](/wiki/World_Wildlife_Foundation "World Wildlife Foundation")\-Pakistan
In 2017, the [Gwadar Development Authority](/wiki/Gwadar_Development_Authority "Gwadar Development Authority") constructed a [jetty at Surbandar](/wiki/Jetty_at_Surbandar "Jetty at Surbandar").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Surbandar, a small coastal town in the [Gwadar District of Balochistan, Pakistan](/wiki/Gwadar_District_of_Balochistan%2C_Pakistan \"Gwadar District of Balochistan, Pakistan\"), is a place where history, culture, and the sea intertwine. Nestled along the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\"), Surbandar has long been a fishing village, its identity shaped by the ebb and flow of the tides and the rhythms of coastal life. While Surbandar remains a modest settlement, its history is rich with the influences of ancient trade routes, regional powers, and the modern developments that are transforming the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") region.",
"* + Early Beginnings",
"The history of Surbandar is intimately linked to the broader historical context of the [Makran](/wiki/Makran \"Makran\") coast, a region that has been inhabited for millennia. The [Makran](/wiki/Makran \"Makran\") coast, stretching from present\\-day Iran through Balochistan to [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\"), has always been a significant corridor for trade and communication between [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), and beyond. Evidence suggests that the coastal areas, including Surbandar, have seen human settlement and maritime activity for centuries, if not longer.",
"The people of Surbandar, like their neighbors along the [Makran](/wiki/Makran \"Makran\") coast, have historically relied on the sea for their livelihood. Fishing has been the primary occupation, with techniques and traditions passed down through generations. The sea was not just a source of food but also a means of connecting with distant lands, as Surbandar was part of the intricate web of maritime trade routes that crisscrossed the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\").",
"* + Islamic and Colonial Influence",
"With the spread of [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") in the 7th century, the [Makran](/wiki/Makran \"Makran\") coast, including the area around Surbandar, came under [Muslim rule](/wiki/Muslim_rule \"Muslim rule\"). The region saw the influence of various [Islamic empires](/wiki/Islamic_empires \"Islamic empires\"), including the [Ghorids](/wiki/Ghorids \"Ghorids\") and the [Mughals](/wiki/Mughals \"Mughals\"), who controlled parts of Balochistan at different times. Despite these changes in political power, the daily life of Surbandar's inhabitants remained largely focused on fishing and local trade.",
"In the [18th century](/wiki/18th_century \"18th century\"), the geopolitical landscape of the region shifted when [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") and its surrounding areas, including Surbandar, came under the control of the [Sultanate of Oman](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Oman \"Sultanate of Oman\"). The [Omani](/wiki/Omani \"Omani\") period marked the development of [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") as a small but significant port town, though Surbandar itself remained a fishing village with a relatively stable way of life. The town's proximity to [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") meant that it was part of the broader economic and cultural exchanges that occurred along the coast.",
"* + Surbandar in the Modern Era",
"The modern history of Surbandar is closely tied to the political changes in the region during the [20th century](/wiki/20th_century \"20th century\"). In 1958, the [Sultanate of Oman](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Oman \"Sultanate of Oman\") sold [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), integrating the region into the newly independent country. This transfer marked the beginning of a new chapter in Surbandar's history, as [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") started to gain attention for its strategic location on the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\").",
"For much of the [20th century](/wiki/20th_century \"20th century\"), Surbandar remained a quiet fishing village, with limited infrastructure and development. However, the 21st century brought significant changes to the region with the launch of the China\\-Pakistan Economic Corridor [(CPEC)](/wiki/%28CPEC%29 \"(CPEC)\") and the development of [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port \"Gwadar Port\"). These projects have transformed [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") into a focal point of international interest, with the potential to turn the entire region into a hub of trade and economic activity.",
"While Surbandar has not yet experienced the same level of development as [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\"), its proximity to the port city means that it could see significant changes in the coming years. The ongoing development projects are likely to bring new opportunities, as well as challenges, to the people of Surbandar. The town's history, rooted in the sea and shaped by centuries of continuity and change, will continue to evolve as it navigates the currents of modernity.",
"Surbandar, with its long history as a coastal settlement, is a testament to the enduring connection between the people of [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan \"Balochistan\") and the sea. From its early days as part of ancient trade routes to its modern role in the [Gwadar district](/wiki/Gwadar_district \"Gwadar district\"), Surbandar has maintained its identity as a fishing village while being influenced by the broader historical forces at play. As the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") region continues to develop, Surbandar's history will be an essential part of understanding the cultural and economic transformations taking place along [Pakistan's coast](/wiki/Pakistan%27s_coast \"Pakistan's coast\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=29 April 2013 \\|title\\=First evidence of a leatherback turtle along Pakistan’s coastline \\|url\\=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf\\_news/?208408/First\\-evidence\\-of\\-a\\-leatherback\\-turtle\\-along\\-Pakistans\\-coastline \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=wwf.panda.org \\|language\\=en}}\\<ref\\>{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-17 \\|title\\=Leatherback turtle spotted for the first time at Gwadar \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/536967/leatherback\\-turtle\\-spotted\\-for\\-the\\-first\\-time\\-at\\-gwadar \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2013, a [leatherback turtle](/wiki/Leatherback_sea_turtle \"Leatherback sea turtle\") was successfully caught and released near the village, with the help of local fishermen and [WWF](/wiki/World_Wildlife_Foundation \"World Wildlife Foundation\")\\-Pakistan",
"In 2017, the [Gwadar Development Authority](/wiki/Gwadar_Development_Authority \"Gwadar Development Authority\") constructed a [jetty at Surbandar](/wiki/Jetty_at_Surbandar \"Jetty at Surbandar\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
Surbandar is a relatively small town with a population that has traditionally been stable, reflecting the limited economic opportunities and the self\-sustaining nature of its economy. The town is primarily inhabited by ethnic [Baloch people](/wiki/Baloch_people "Baloch people"), who have lived in the region for generations. The population is predominantly [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim"), with local tradition and customs strongly influenced by [Baloch culture](/wiki/Baloch_culture "Baloch culture") and [Islamic practices](/wiki/Islamic_practices "Islamic practices").
The town's population structure is typical of many rural communities in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), with a significant proportion of young people. The younger generation often faces the dual challenge of maintaining traditional livelihoods, such as fishing, while also seeking new opportunities brought by the recent developments in the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") region. The presence of extended families living together is common, which strengthens community bonds but also reflects the challenges of economic migration, as some members of the younger generation move to nearby cities or abroad for better opportunities.
* + Economic Demographics
Fishing is the cornerstone of Surbandar’s economy, with the majority of the population directly or indirectly involved in the fishing industry. Traditional fishing methods are still prevalent, although there is a growing awareness of modern techniques and the potential for increased earnings through improved infrastructure and access to larger markets. The town’s economy is mostly informal, with small\-scale trade, local markets, and subsistence farming complementing the fishing industry.
Recent developments in [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") have started to influence the economic landscape of Surbandar. While many residents continue to rely on fishing, some have begun to explore opportunities in the construction and service sectors associated with the growing infrastructure around [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port "Gwadar Port"). However, this transition is still in its early stages, and the town’s economy remains largely traditional.
* + Education and Literacy
Education in Surbandar, like in many rural areas of [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan "Balochistan"), faces significant challenges. While there are primary schools in the town, access to higher education is limited, with many children having to travel to nearby towns or cities for secondary education. Literacy rates in Surbandar are improving, but they still lag behind national averages, particularly for women. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance of education, with local and national efforts aimed at improving literacy and educational outcomes.
In recent years, there has been a slight increase in educational initiatives, often supported by non\-governmental organizations and government programs aimed at enhancing educational facilities and encouraging school attendance. These efforts are crucial for equipping the younger generation with the skills needed to navigate the changing economic landscape of the region.
* + Cultural and Social Demographics
The culture of Surbandar is deeply influenced by [Baloch traditions](/wiki/Baloch_traditions "Baloch traditions"), which are evident in the town’s social structures, celebrations, and daily life. [The Baloch people](/wiki/The_Baloch_people "The Baloch people") are known for their strong sense of community and hospitality, which are central to the social fabric of Surbandar. Traditional music, dance, and storytelling remain integral parts of cultural life, especially during local festivals and celebrations.
Social life in Surbandar is closely tied to the rhythms of the sea, with fishing activities dictating the pace of daily life. The community is tight\-knit, with social gatherings and communal activities playing a vital role in maintaining social cohesion. Religious practices are also a significant part of life, with the local mosque serving as a central gathering point for the community.
* + Challenges and Future Prospects
The demographics of Surbandar are at a crossroads, with the town facing both opportunities and challenges as it navigates the changes brought about by development in the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar "Gwadar") region. The influx of new economic opportunities could potentially lead to demographic shifts, with more people moving to the area or residents seeking new forms of employment. However, there are also concerns about the potential impact on the town’s traditional way of life and the preservation of its cultural heritage.
One of the most pressing challenges for Surbandar is ensuring that its population benefits from the development taking place in the region. This includes improving access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure, as well as creating opportunities for sustainable economic growth that can support the town’s population in the long term.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"Surbandar is a relatively small town with a population that has traditionally been stable, reflecting the limited economic opportunities and the self\\-sustaining nature of its economy. The town is primarily inhabited by ethnic [Baloch people](/wiki/Baloch_people \"Baloch people\"), who have lived in the region for generations. The population is predominantly [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\"), with local tradition and customs strongly influenced by [Baloch culture](/wiki/Baloch_culture \"Baloch culture\") and [Islamic practices](/wiki/Islamic_practices \"Islamic practices\").",
"The town's population structure is typical of many rural communities in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), with a significant proportion of young people. The younger generation often faces the dual challenge of maintaining traditional livelihoods, such as fishing, while also seeking new opportunities brought by the recent developments in the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") region. The presence of extended families living together is common, which strengthens community bonds but also reflects the challenges of economic migration, as some members of the younger generation move to nearby cities or abroad for better opportunities.",
"* + Economic Demographics",
"Fishing is the cornerstone of Surbandar’s economy, with the majority of the population directly or indirectly involved in the fishing industry. Traditional fishing methods are still prevalent, although there is a growing awareness of modern techniques and the potential for increased earnings through improved infrastructure and access to larger markets. The town’s economy is mostly informal, with small\\-scale trade, local markets, and subsistence farming complementing the fishing industry.",
"Recent developments in [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") have started to influence the economic landscape of Surbandar. While many residents continue to rely on fishing, some have begun to explore opportunities in the construction and service sectors associated with the growing infrastructure around [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port \"Gwadar Port\"). However, this transition is still in its early stages, and the town’s economy remains largely traditional.",
"* + Education and Literacy",
"Education in Surbandar, like in many rural areas of [Balochistan](/wiki/Balochistan \"Balochistan\"), faces significant challenges. While there are primary schools in the town, access to higher education is limited, with many children having to travel to nearby towns or cities for secondary education. Literacy rates in Surbandar are improving, but they still lag behind national averages, particularly for women. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance of education, with local and national efforts aimed at improving literacy and educational outcomes.",
"In recent years, there has been a slight increase in educational initiatives, often supported by non\\-governmental organizations and government programs aimed at enhancing educational facilities and encouraging school attendance. These efforts are crucial for equipping the younger generation with the skills needed to navigate the changing economic landscape of the region.",
"* + Cultural and Social Demographics",
"The culture of Surbandar is deeply influenced by [Baloch traditions](/wiki/Baloch_traditions \"Baloch traditions\"), which are evident in the town’s social structures, celebrations, and daily life. [The Baloch people](/wiki/The_Baloch_people \"The Baloch people\") are known for their strong sense of community and hospitality, which are central to the social fabric of Surbandar. Traditional music, dance, and storytelling remain integral parts of cultural life, especially during local festivals and celebrations.",
"Social life in Surbandar is closely tied to the rhythms of the sea, with fishing activities dictating the pace of daily life. The community is tight\\-knit, with social gatherings and communal activities playing a vital role in maintaining social cohesion. Religious practices are also a significant part of life, with the local mosque serving as a central gathering point for the community.",
"* + Challenges and Future Prospects",
"The demographics of Surbandar are at a crossroads, with the town facing both opportunities and challenges as it navigates the changes brought about by development in the [Gwadar](/wiki/Gwadar \"Gwadar\") region. The influx of new economic opportunities could potentially lead to demographic shifts, with more people moving to the area or residents seeking new forms of employment. However, there are also concerns about the potential impact on the town’s traditional way of life and the preservation of its cultural heritage.",
"One of the most pressing challenges for Surbandar is ensuring that its population benefits from the development taking place in the region. This includes improving access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure, as well as creating opportunities for sustainable economic growth that can support the town’s population in the long term.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the film, Sandhya – a Brahmin dancer falls in love with Hari, a [Dalit](/wiki/Dalit "Dalit"). She visits her maternal grandfather – who is a staunch Hindu pundit – accompanied by her father and Hari, to perform at the village temple of Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga "Durga"), where her grandfather is the head priest. There, the grandfather decides to get Sandhya married to his adopted grandson Nandu, who is also a priest at the temple, but with a broader mind. Hari, citing the apparent caste difference, urges Sandhya to marry Nandu.
Hence Sandhya marries Nandu. However, when Nandu enters the bedroom on their wedding night, he sees Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga "Durga") in Sandhya, not his wife. This continues for a few nights, and people start talking about Nandu spending his nights outside the house. Before long, Sandhya confronts Nandu at the temple and asks him to try and accept her. Here Nandu tells her that he sees Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga "Durga") in her, and not his wife because she belongs to someone else and not him. They are bound into this marriage by the Pundit's chants, *mantras*, and the *seven pheras*, but Sandhya has taken the *eighth phera*, which is the *phera* of the heart and mind, with someone else, and thus she belongs to that person alone and must go back to him, whoever that may be. This is a warning by Goddess Durga to let Sandhya marry her lover.
Nandu explains this to the rest of the family, and the grandfather accepts Sandhya's love for Hari, despite Hari being of a low\-caste. This comes as a result of Nandu explaining the truth, that every person is a human being first, and a [Shudra](/wiki/Shudra "Shudra") at birth. It is only because of his/her deeds that a person becomes a Brahmin. The common misinterpretation of the Hindu caste system is that a person acquires his caste at birth, which is not so, as explained above.
Hari soon gets this news, and quickly arrives at the village. Even though the head priest of the village, Nandu's grandfather accepts Sandhya and Hari's relationship, his son and the rest of the village oppose it, and a fight breaks out. In the end, both, Hari and Sandhya lose their lives.
Deven Verma, who plays the head priest's blood\-related grandson, provides for the counter view throughout the film, and is the only one besides Nandu, who understands the real meaning of the [Vedas](/wiki/Vedas "Vedas"), and supports him towards the end.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the film, Sandhya – a Brahmin dancer falls in love with Hari, a [Dalit](/wiki/Dalit \"Dalit\"). She visits her maternal grandfather – who is a staunch Hindu pundit – accompanied by her father and Hari, to perform at the village temple of Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga \"Durga\"), where her grandfather is the head priest. There, the grandfather decides to get Sandhya married to his adopted grandson Nandu, who is also a priest at the temple, but with a broader mind. Hari, citing the apparent caste difference, urges Sandhya to marry Nandu.",
"Hence Sandhya marries Nandu. However, when Nandu enters the bedroom on their wedding night, he sees Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga \"Durga\") in Sandhya, not his wife. This continues for a few nights, and people start talking about Nandu spending his nights outside the house. Before long, Sandhya confronts Nandu at the temple and asks him to try and accept her. Here Nandu tells her that he sees Goddess [Durga](/wiki/Durga \"Durga\") in her, and not his wife because she belongs to someone else and not him. They are bound into this marriage by the Pundit's chants, *mantras*, and the *seven pheras*, but Sandhya has taken the *eighth phera*, which is the *phera* of the heart and mind, with someone else, and thus she belongs to that person alone and must go back to him, whoever that may be. This is a warning by Goddess Durga to let Sandhya marry her lover.",
"Nandu explains this to the rest of the family, and the grandfather accepts Sandhya's love for Hari, despite Hari being of a low\\-caste. This comes as a result of Nandu explaining the truth, that every person is a human being first, and a [Shudra](/wiki/Shudra \"Shudra\") at birth. It is only because of his/her deeds that a person becomes a Brahmin. The common misinterpretation of the Hindu caste system is that a person acquires his caste at birth, which is not so, as explained above.",
"Hari soon gets this news, and quickly arrives at the village. Even though the head priest of the village, Nandu's grandfather accepts Sandhya and Hari's relationship, his son and the rest of the village oppose it, and a fight breaks out. In the end, both, Hari and Sandhya lose their lives.",
"Deven Verma, who plays the head priest's blood\\-related grandson, provides for the counter view throughout the film, and is the only one besides Nandu, who understands the real meaning of the [Vedas](/wiki/Vedas \"Vedas\"), and supports him towards the end.",
""
] |
Game descriptions
-----------------
### *King's Quest ZZT*
Alexander sets out on adventure to stop Ravenlos (the evil cousin of Mordack and Manannan).
Following Rosella and Valenice's return to Castle Daventry, a big festival is held. A messenger comes to the castle, explaining to them that Ravenlos, the evil cousin of the sorcerer Manannan has conquered the island of Llewdor, and is planning to conquer Daventry. Graham was furious of the news, and asked his son Prince Alexander to defend the kingdom. Alexander was not willing to go fight against him and his army, until his father collapses sick, which changes Alexander's mind. Alexander visits the old wise gnome for a medicine for his father, and after he is healed, he sets off for the long and dangerous mission. Along the way he meets strange creatures like Centaurs, Elves and Ogres and visits many places, like the mountains of Llewdor, the island of Tamir, and the Aberian Desert.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=0ZqucSN6CXQ](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZqucSN6CXQ) YouTube video of gameplay[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=8txlm0OMTlY](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8txlm0OMTlY) King's Quest ZZT Let's play
A nod to the *King's Quest ZZT* games is made in *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 "The Silver Lining (video game)")*’s "The Four Winds" meta\-fiction newsletter. This includes the events surrounding the Centaurs and the Ogres in *King's Quest ZZT* (and a nod towards ZZT2\), with expanded material tying it into the Phoenix Online Studios' backstories for the wind Sirocco, Zephyr, and the wizard Crispin..[Ask Crispin, September 19](https://archive.today/20130111095525/http://www.tsl-game.com/fourwinds/?p=1246)
### *King's Quest ZZT 2*
While Alexander is staying in the Elven village, hostilities have shocked the country of Daventry again. The Relentless Army attacks the castle and kidnaps his parents. Alexander travels to stop invading forces and prevent the Kingdom of Dalban's plans
### *King's Quest 2 ¼: Breast Intentions*
*KQ2 ¼* takes place between *KQ2* and *KQ3*. Valanice sets out on an adventure to find her kidnapped son, and save him from starvation. The game uses the classic AGI system. Along the way she meets the woodcutter and his wife, pirates, henchmen, Charon, Rumplestiltskin, and others.
### *King's Quest V: The Text Adventure*
A text based re\-imagining of the *King's Quest V* adventure. It contains an almost completely original script, with all new descriptions for the events and areas in the game.
### *Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\|I\|t's}} Day*
*Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\|I\|t's}} Day* is an unofficial adventure [fangame](/wiki/Fangame "Fangame") developed and released in [free download format](/wiki/Freeware "Freeware") by Jstudios for Microsoft Windows on May 26, 2007\.[Adventure Game Studio Game Page](https://archive.today/20130419122455/http://www.adventuregamestudio.co.uk/Games.aspx/Detail/888)[Jstudios webpage](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) It is a short parody of the *[King's Quest](/wiki/King%27s_Quest "King's Quest")* series (specifically *[King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_V:Absence_Makes_the_Heart_Go_Yonder%21 "Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!")* and the fangame *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 "The Silver Lining (video game)"))* starring Cedric the Owl from *King's Quest V*. The game is set a short while after *[King's Quest VIII: Mask of Eternity](/wiki/King%27s_Quest:Mask_of_Eternity "Mask of Eternity")*.Narrator: "After the dealing's in *King's Quest VIII TM*, the royal family of Daventry is planning a cellebration".
#### Plot
Cedric receives an invitation from King Alexander to attend a birthday ceremony in the Land of the Green Isles.[Jstudios website](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) Having had a curse put on him by Crispin, Cedric must attempt to make his way to Crispin and have the curse removed so he can fly to the Green Isles. Cedric explores new locations in Serenia, including Cedric's treehouse, the Inverted Tower of Repunzel, and thwarts snakes and scorpions to make his way to Crispin's house, and finally to the Green Isles. The game includes a full voice cast (minus the narrator).
#### Gameplay
The gameplay is similar to the interface found in *[King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_VII:The_Princeless_Bride "The Princeless Bride")*. It includes a single icon interface, an inventory section, and a feature to look at items. The single cursor can be used to speak to characters or look at objects on the screen. The art style is a crude mix of KQ7 animation style, with close\-up photos from KQ5 and KQ6\. The background artwork is a mix of crude hand\-drawn art, and images taken from KQ5 and KQ6\.
The game has a total of 8 points, with not much more than ten puzzles to solve.[Game Solution](http://gamesolutions.efzeven.nl/owls-quest-walkthrough-joel-page2007/) There are a total of three ways to die in the game (killed by a scorpion, a snake, or falling into a pit).
#### Development
The game was developed by Joel Page using the [Adventure Game Studio](/wiki/Adventure_Game_Studio "Adventure Game Studio"), created for the monthly AGS competition. It has a full voice cast except the narrator. All parts presumably done by Joel Page (as he is the single person on the credit screen). The game uses a mix of music largely taken from KQ7\.
The parody aspects of the game poke fun at situations in KQ5 with mixed results. For example, Cedric encounters and can be killed by things he warned about in KQ5\. He is forced to go into places, he would have told Graham to avoid in KQ5\. The game makes fun of Crispin's mispronunciation and use of generic magic words (in which case he uses the 'bibbidi bobbidi boo' from Cinderella). It makes fun of Cedric's "annoying" voice and nature. It even attempts to break the fourth wall at times with Cedric conversing with the narrator.
#### Reception
The game was given a special two part "Let's Play" review on [That Guy with the Glasses](/wiki/That_Guy_with_the_Glasses "That Guy with the Glasses") by [Paw Dugan](/wiki/Paw_Dugan "Paw Dugan"). In the videos he and his co\-host kept a running timer of the total number of typographical and grammatical errors in the game's script. They also pointed out the satirical aspects of the game that make fun of Cedric, and certain over\-used plot contrivances in KQ5\. They poke fun at the game's bugs. The videos also show the replies from the live events audience making fun of the game. Some of the footage were used in a special on Sierra fan game development scene.[That Guy with the Glasses Owl's Quest Let's Play Review](http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/teamt/paw/lppaw/33091-lets-play-live-owls-quest)
|
[
"Game descriptions\n-----------------",
"### *King's Quest ZZT*",
"Alexander sets out on adventure to stop Ravenlos (the evil cousin of Mordack and Manannan).",
"Following Rosella and Valenice's return to Castle Daventry, a big festival is held. A messenger comes to the castle, explaining to them that Ravenlos, the evil cousin of the sorcerer Manannan has conquered the island of Llewdor, and is planning to conquer Daventry. Graham was furious of the news, and asked his son Prince Alexander to defend the kingdom. Alexander was not willing to go fight against him and his army, until his father collapses sick, which changes Alexander's mind. Alexander visits the old wise gnome for a medicine for his father, and after he is healed, he sets off for the long and dangerous mission. Along the way he meets strange creatures like Centaurs, Elves and Ogres and visits many places, like the mountains of Llewdor, the island of Tamir, and the Aberian Desert.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=0ZqucSN6CXQ](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZqucSN6CXQ) YouTube video of gameplay[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=8txlm0OMTlY](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8txlm0OMTlY) King's Quest ZZT Let's play",
"A nod to the *King's Quest ZZT* games is made in *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 \"The Silver Lining (video game)\")*’s \"The Four Winds\" meta\\-fiction newsletter. This includes the events surrounding the Centaurs and the Ogres in *King's Quest ZZT* (and a nod towards ZZT2\\), with expanded material tying it into the Phoenix Online Studios' backstories for the wind Sirocco, Zephyr, and the wizard Crispin..[Ask Crispin, September 19](https://archive.today/20130111095525/http://www.tsl-game.com/fourwinds/?p=1246)",
"### *King's Quest ZZT 2*",
"While Alexander is staying in the Elven village, hostilities have shocked the country of Daventry again. The Relentless Army attacks the castle and kidnaps his parents. Alexander travels to stop invading forces and prevent the Kingdom of Dalban's plans",
"### *King's Quest 2 ¼: Breast Intentions*",
"*KQ2 ¼* takes place between *KQ2* and *KQ3*. Valanice sets out on an adventure to find her kidnapped son, and save him from starvation. The game uses the classic AGI system. Along the way she meets the woodcutter and his wife, pirates, henchmen, Charon, Rumplestiltskin, and others.",
"### *King's Quest V: The Text Adventure*",
"A text based re\\-imagining of the *King's Quest V* adventure. It contains an almost completely original script, with all new descriptions for the events and areas in the game.",
"### *Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\\|I\\|t's}} Day*",
"*Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\\|I\\|t's}} Day* is an unofficial adventure [fangame](/wiki/Fangame \"Fangame\") developed and released in [free download format](/wiki/Freeware \"Freeware\") by Jstudios for Microsoft Windows on May 26, 2007\\.[Adventure Game Studio Game Page](https://archive.today/20130419122455/http://www.adventuregamestudio.co.uk/Games.aspx/Detail/888)[Jstudios webpage](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) It is a short parody of the *[King's Quest](/wiki/King%27s_Quest \"King's Quest\")* series (specifically *[King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_V:Absence_Makes_the_Heart_Go_Yonder%21 \"Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!\")* and the fangame *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 \"The Silver Lining (video game)\"))* starring Cedric the Owl from *King's Quest V*. The game is set a short while after *[King's Quest VIII: Mask of Eternity](/wiki/King%27s_Quest:Mask_of_Eternity \"Mask of Eternity\")*.Narrator: \"After the dealing's in *King's Quest VIII TM*, the royal family of Daventry is planning a cellebration\".",
"#### Plot",
"Cedric receives an invitation from King Alexander to attend a birthday ceremony in the Land of the Green Isles.[Jstudios website](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) Having had a curse put on him by Crispin, Cedric must attempt to make his way to Crispin and have the curse removed so he can fly to the Green Isles. Cedric explores new locations in Serenia, including Cedric's treehouse, the Inverted Tower of Repunzel, and thwarts snakes and scorpions to make his way to Crispin's house, and finally to the Green Isles. The game includes a full voice cast (minus the narrator).",
"#### Gameplay",
"The gameplay is similar to the interface found in *[King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_VII:The_Princeless_Bride \"The Princeless Bride\")*. It includes a single icon interface, an inventory section, and a feature to look at items. The single cursor can be used to speak to characters or look at objects on the screen. The art style is a crude mix of KQ7 animation style, with close\\-up photos from KQ5 and KQ6\\. The background artwork is a mix of crude hand\\-drawn art, and images taken from KQ5 and KQ6\\.",
"The game has a total of 8 points, with not much more than ten puzzles to solve.[Game Solution](http://gamesolutions.efzeven.nl/owls-quest-walkthrough-joel-page2007/) There are a total of three ways to die in the game (killed by a scorpion, a snake, or falling into a pit).",
"#### Development",
"The game was developed by Joel Page using the [Adventure Game Studio](/wiki/Adventure_Game_Studio \"Adventure Game Studio\"), created for the monthly AGS competition. It has a full voice cast except the narrator. All parts presumably done by Joel Page (as he is the single person on the credit screen). The game uses a mix of music largely taken from KQ7\\.",
"The parody aspects of the game poke fun at situations in KQ5 with mixed results. For example, Cedric encounters and can be killed by things he warned about in KQ5\\. He is forced to go into places, he would have told Graham to avoid in KQ5\\. The game makes fun of Crispin's mispronunciation and use of generic magic words (in which case he uses the 'bibbidi bobbidi boo' from Cinderella). It makes fun of Cedric's \"annoying\" voice and nature. It even attempts to break the fourth wall at times with Cedric conversing with the narrator.",
"#### Reception",
"The game was given a special two part \"Let's Play\" review on [That Guy with the Glasses](/wiki/That_Guy_with_the_Glasses \"That Guy with the Glasses\") by [Paw Dugan](/wiki/Paw_Dugan \"Paw Dugan\"). In the videos he and his co\\-host kept a running timer of the total number of typographical and grammatical errors in the game's script. They also pointed out the satirical aspects of the game that make fun of Cedric, and certain over\\-used plot contrivances in KQ5\\. They poke fun at the game's bugs. The videos also show the replies from the live events audience making fun of the game. Some of the footage were used in a special on Sierra fan game development scene.[That Guy with the Glasses Owl's Quest Let's Play Review](http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/teamt/paw/lppaw/33091-lets-play-live-owls-quest)",
""
] |
### *Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\|I\|t's}} Day*
*Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\|I\|t's}} Day* is an unofficial adventure [fangame](/wiki/Fangame "Fangame") developed and released in [free download format](/wiki/Freeware "Freeware") by Jstudios for Microsoft Windows on May 26, 2007\.[Adventure Game Studio Game Page](https://archive.today/20130419122455/http://www.adventuregamestudio.co.uk/Games.aspx/Detail/888)[Jstudios webpage](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) It is a short parody of the *[King's Quest](/wiki/King%27s_Quest "King's Quest")* series (specifically *[King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_V:Absence_Makes_the_Heart_Go_Yonder%21 "Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!")* and the fangame *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 "The Silver Lining (video game)"))* starring Cedric the Owl from *King's Quest V*. The game is set a short while after *[King's Quest VIII: Mask of Eternity](/wiki/King%27s_Quest:Mask_of_Eternity "Mask of Eternity")*.Narrator: "After the dealing's in *King's Quest VIII TM*, the royal family of Daventry is planning a cellebration".
#### Plot
Cedric receives an invitation from King Alexander to attend a birthday ceremony in the Land of the Green Isles.[Jstudios website](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) Having had a curse put on him by Crispin, Cedric must attempt to make his way to Crispin and have the curse removed so he can fly to the Green Isles. Cedric explores new locations in Serenia, including Cedric's treehouse, the Inverted Tower of Repunzel, and thwarts snakes and scorpions to make his way to Crispin's house, and finally to the Green Isles. The game includes a full voice cast (minus the narrator).
#### Gameplay
The gameplay is similar to the interface found in *[King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_VII:The_Princeless_Bride "The Princeless Bride")*. It includes a single icon interface, an inventory section, and a feature to look at items. The single cursor can be used to speak to characters or look at objects on the screen. The art style is a crude mix of KQ7 animation style, with close\-up photos from KQ5 and KQ6\. The background artwork is a mix of crude hand\-drawn art, and images taken from KQ5 and KQ6\.
The game has a total of 8 points, with not much more than ten puzzles to solve.[Game Solution](http://gamesolutions.efzeven.nl/owls-quest-walkthrough-joel-page2007/) There are a total of three ways to die in the game (killed by a scorpion, a snake, or falling into a pit).
#### Development
The game was developed by Joel Page using the [Adventure Game Studio](/wiki/Adventure_Game_Studio "Adventure Game Studio"), created for the monthly AGS competition. It has a full voice cast except the narrator. All parts presumably done by Joel Page (as he is the single person on the credit screen). The game uses a mix of music largely taken from KQ7\.
The parody aspects of the game poke fun at situations in KQ5 with mixed results. For example, Cedric encounters and can be killed by things he warned about in KQ5\. He is forced to go into places, he would have told Graham to avoid in KQ5\. The game makes fun of Crispin's mispronunciation and use of generic magic words (in which case he uses the 'bibbidi bobbidi boo' from Cinderella). It makes fun of Cedric's "annoying" voice and nature. It even attempts to break the fourth wall at times with Cedric conversing with the narrator.
#### Reception
The game was given a special two part "Let's Play" review on [That Guy with the Glasses](/wiki/That_Guy_with_the_Glasses "That Guy with the Glasses") by [Paw Dugan](/wiki/Paw_Dugan "Paw Dugan"). In the videos he and his co\-host kept a running timer of the total number of typographical and grammatical errors in the game's script. They also pointed out the satirical aspects of the game that make fun of Cedric, and certain over\-used plot contrivances in KQ5\. They poke fun at the game's bugs. The videos also show the replies from the live events audience making fun of the game. Some of the footage were used in a special on Sierra fan game development scene.[That Guy with the Glasses Owl's Quest Let's Play Review](http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/teamt/paw/lppaw/33091-lets-play-live-owls-quest)
|
[
"### *Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\\|I\\|t's}} Day*",
"*Owl's Quest: Every Owl Has {{notatypo\\|I\\|t's}} Day* is an unofficial adventure [fangame](/wiki/Fangame \"Fangame\") developed and released in [free download format](/wiki/Freeware \"Freeware\") by Jstudios for Microsoft Windows on May 26, 2007\\.[Adventure Game Studio Game Page](https://archive.today/20130419122455/http://www.adventuregamestudio.co.uk/Games.aspx/Detail/888)[Jstudios webpage](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) It is a short parody of the *[King's Quest](/wiki/King%27s_Quest \"King's Quest\")* series (specifically *[King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_V:Absence_Makes_the_Heart_Go_Yonder%21 \"Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!\")* and the fangame *[The Silver Lining](/wiki/The_Silver_Lining_%28video_game%29 \"The Silver Lining (video game)\"))* starring Cedric the Owl from *King's Quest V*. The game is set a short while after *[King's Quest VIII: Mask of Eternity](/wiki/King%27s_Quest:Mask_of_Eternity \"Mask of Eternity\")*.Narrator: \"After the dealing's in *King's Quest VIII TM*, the royal family of Daventry is planning a cellebration\".",
"#### Plot",
"Cedric receives an invitation from King Alexander to attend a birthday ceremony in the Land of the Green Isles.[Jstudios website](https://sites.google.com/site/joelphilippage/games) Having had a curse put on him by Crispin, Cedric must attempt to make his way to Crispin and have the curse removed so he can fly to the Green Isles. Cedric explores new locations in Serenia, including Cedric's treehouse, the Inverted Tower of Repunzel, and thwarts snakes and scorpions to make his way to Crispin's house, and finally to the Green Isles. The game includes a full voice cast (minus the narrator).",
"#### Gameplay",
"The gameplay is similar to the interface found in *[King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride](/wiki/King%27s_Quest_VII:The_Princeless_Bride \"The Princeless Bride\")*. It includes a single icon interface, an inventory section, and a feature to look at items. The single cursor can be used to speak to characters or look at objects on the screen. The art style is a crude mix of KQ7 animation style, with close\\-up photos from KQ5 and KQ6\\. The background artwork is a mix of crude hand\\-drawn art, and images taken from KQ5 and KQ6\\.",
"The game has a total of 8 points, with not much more than ten puzzles to solve.[Game Solution](http://gamesolutions.efzeven.nl/owls-quest-walkthrough-joel-page2007/) There are a total of three ways to die in the game (killed by a scorpion, a snake, or falling into a pit).",
"#### Development",
"The game was developed by Joel Page using the [Adventure Game Studio](/wiki/Adventure_Game_Studio \"Adventure Game Studio\"), created for the monthly AGS competition. It has a full voice cast except the narrator. All parts presumably done by Joel Page (as he is the single person on the credit screen). The game uses a mix of music largely taken from KQ7\\.",
"The parody aspects of the game poke fun at situations in KQ5 with mixed results. For example, Cedric encounters and can be killed by things he warned about in KQ5\\. He is forced to go into places, he would have told Graham to avoid in KQ5\\. The game makes fun of Crispin's mispronunciation and use of generic magic words (in which case he uses the 'bibbidi bobbidi boo' from Cinderella). It makes fun of Cedric's \"annoying\" voice and nature. It even attempts to break the fourth wall at times with Cedric conversing with the narrator.",
"#### Reception",
"The game was given a special two part \"Let's Play\" review on [That Guy with the Glasses](/wiki/That_Guy_with_the_Glasses \"That Guy with the Glasses\") by [Paw Dugan](/wiki/Paw_Dugan \"Paw Dugan\"). In the videos he and his co\\-host kept a running timer of the total number of typographical and grammatical errors in the game's script. They also pointed out the satirical aspects of the game that make fun of Cedric, and certain over\\-used plot contrivances in KQ5\\. They poke fun at the game's bugs. The videos also show the replies from the live events audience making fun of the game. Some of the footage were used in a special on Sierra fan game development scene.[That Guy with the Glasses Owl's Quest Let's Play Review](http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/teamt/paw/lppaw/33091-lets-play-live-owls-quest)",
""
] |
Career
------
### *Forever Amber*
Winsor became interested in the [Restoration](/wiki/English_Restoration "English Restoration") period through her husband. Herwig was writing a paper for school on [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"), and, out of boredom, Winsor read one of his research books.{{citation\|last\=Guttridge\|first\=Peter\|title\=Obituary: Kathleen Winsor: Author of the racy bestseller 'Forever Amber'\|newspaper\=The Independent (London, England)\|date\=May 29, 2003\|page\=20 \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/kathleen\-winsor\-36575\.html \|accessdate\= January 29, 2020}}
Her husband joined the military at the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") and spent five years with the [United States Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marines "United States Marines") fighting in the [Pacific theatre](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War"). During that time, Winsor studied the Restoration period, claiming to have read 356 books on the subject. She began writing a novel based on her research. Her fifth draft of the novel was accepted for publication. The publishers promptly edited the book down to one\-fifth of its original size. The resulting novel, *[Forever Amber](/wiki/Forever_Amber_%28novel%29 "Forever Amber (novel)")*, was 972 pages long. The novel took readers on a frolic through Restoration England and offered vivid images of fashion, politics, affairs and public disasters of the time, including the plague and the [Great Fire of London](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London "Great Fire of London").
The book appeared in 1944\. It attracted criticism for its blatant sexual references. Fourteen [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._states "U.S. states") banned it as [pornography](/wiki/Pornography "Pornography") and the [Hays Office](/wiki/Production_Code "Production Code") also condemned it, but within a month the movie rights had been purchased by [Twentieth Century Fox](/wiki/Twentieth_Century_Fox "Twentieth Century Fox"). [The film](/wiki/Forever_Amber_%28film%29 "Forever Amber (film)"), directed by [Otto Preminger](/wiki/Otto_Preminger "Otto Preminger") and starring [Linda Darnell](/wiki/Linda_Darnell "Linda Darnell") and [Cornel Wilde](/wiki/Cornel_Wilde "Cornel Wilde"), was released in 1947\.
Despite being banned, *Forever Amber* became one of the bestselling American novels of the 1940s.*The Robe* by Lloyd Douglas actually spent twice as long on the best seller list. *The Robe* had sold 3,724,391 copies by 1967 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914040804/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/f02/search.cgi?title=The+Robe)) and Forever Amber had sold 2,925,268 copies by 1977 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914040750/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/s05/search.cgi?title=Forever+Amber)) Another bestseller from the 1940s, *A Tree Grows in Brooklyn*, had sold 2,487,740 copies by 1975 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914042622/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/f02/search.cgi?title=A+Tree+Grows+in+Brooklyn)). It sold over 100,000 copies in its first week of release, and went on to sell over three million copies.
### Later career
Made a celebrity by the success of her novel, Winsor found it unthinkable to return to the married life she had known with Herwig and, in 1946, they divorced. Ten days later, she became the sixth wife of the big\-band leader and clarinetist [Artie Shaw](/wiki/Artie_Shaw "Artie Shaw"), despite the fact that two years previously Shaw had castigated his then\-wife, [Ava Gardner](/wiki/Ava_Gardner "Ava Gardner"), for reading such a "trashy novel" as *Forever Amber.* The marriage to Shaw ended in 1948, and Winsor soon married her divorce attorney, Arnold Krakower. That marriage likewise ended in divorce, in 1953\. In 1956 Winsor married for the fourth time, to [Paul A. Porter](/wiki/Paul_A._Porter "Paul A. Porter"), a former head of the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission"). They remained married until Porter's death in 1975\.
Winsor's next commercially successful novel, *Star Money*, appeared in 1950, and was a portrait closely drawn from her experience of becoming a bestselling author. But in five subsequent novels, the last appearing in 1986 – *The Lovers*, *[Calais](/wiki/Calais_%28novel%29 "Calais (novel)")*, *Robert and Arabella*, *Jacintha*, and *Wanderers Eastward, Wanderers West* – she failed to make as much of an impact. In 2000 a new edition of *Forever Amber* was published with a foreword by [Barbara Taylor Bradford](/wiki/Barbara_Taylor_Bradford "Barbara Taylor Bradford").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### *Forever Amber*",
"Winsor became interested in the [Restoration](/wiki/English_Restoration \"English Restoration\") period through her husband. Herwig was writing a paper for school on [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"), and, out of boredom, Winsor read one of his research books.{{citation\\|last\\=Guttridge\\|first\\=Peter\\|title\\=Obituary: Kathleen Winsor: Author of the racy bestseller 'Forever Amber'\\|newspaper\\=The Independent (London, England)\\|date\\=May 29, 2003\\|page\\=20 \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/kathleen\\-winsor\\-36575\\.html \\|accessdate\\= January 29, 2020}}",
"Her husband joined the military at the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") and spent five years with the [United States Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marines \"United States Marines\") fighting in the [Pacific theatre](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\"). During that time, Winsor studied the Restoration period, claiming to have read 356 books on the subject. She began writing a novel based on her research. Her fifth draft of the novel was accepted for publication. The publishers promptly edited the book down to one\\-fifth of its original size. The resulting novel, *[Forever Amber](/wiki/Forever_Amber_%28novel%29 \"Forever Amber (novel)\")*, was 972 pages long. The novel took readers on a frolic through Restoration England and offered vivid images of fashion, politics, affairs and public disasters of the time, including the plague and the [Great Fire of London](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London \"Great Fire of London\").",
"The book appeared in 1944\\. It attracted criticism for its blatant sexual references. Fourteen [U.S. states](/wiki/U.S._states \"U.S. states\") banned it as [pornography](/wiki/Pornography \"Pornography\") and the [Hays Office](/wiki/Production_Code \"Production Code\") also condemned it, but within a month the movie rights had been purchased by [Twentieth Century Fox](/wiki/Twentieth_Century_Fox \"Twentieth Century Fox\"). [The film](/wiki/Forever_Amber_%28film%29 \"Forever Amber (film)\"), directed by [Otto Preminger](/wiki/Otto_Preminger \"Otto Preminger\") and starring [Linda Darnell](/wiki/Linda_Darnell \"Linda Darnell\") and [Cornel Wilde](/wiki/Cornel_Wilde \"Cornel Wilde\"), was released in 1947\\.",
"Despite being banned, *Forever Amber* became one of the bestselling American novels of the 1940s.*The Robe* by Lloyd Douglas actually spent twice as long on the best seller list. *The Robe* had sold 3,724,391 copies by 1967 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914040804/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/f02/search.cgi?title=The+Robe)) and Forever Amber had sold 2,925,268 copies by 1977 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914040750/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/s05/search.cgi?title=Forever+Amber)) Another bestseller from the 1940s, *A Tree Grows in Brooklyn*, had sold 2,487,740 copies by 1975 ([source](https://archive.today/20130914042622/http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/f02/search.cgi?title=A+Tree+Grows+in+Brooklyn)). It sold over 100,000 copies in its first week of release, and went on to sell over three million copies.",
"### Later career",
"Made a celebrity by the success of her novel, Winsor found it unthinkable to return to the married life she had known with Herwig and, in 1946, they divorced. Ten days later, she became the sixth wife of the big\\-band leader and clarinetist [Artie Shaw](/wiki/Artie_Shaw \"Artie Shaw\"), despite the fact that two years previously Shaw had castigated his then\\-wife, [Ava Gardner](/wiki/Ava_Gardner \"Ava Gardner\"), for reading such a \"trashy novel\" as *Forever Amber.* The marriage to Shaw ended in 1948, and Winsor soon married her divorce attorney, Arnold Krakower. That marriage likewise ended in divorce, in 1953\\. In 1956 Winsor married for the fourth time, to [Paul A. Porter](/wiki/Paul_A._Porter \"Paul A. Porter\"), a former head of the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\"). They remained married until Porter's death in 1975\\.",
"Winsor's next commercially successful novel, *Star Money*, appeared in 1950, and was a portrait closely drawn from her experience of becoming a bestselling author. But in five subsequent novels, the last appearing in 1986 – *The Lovers*, *[Calais](/wiki/Calais_%28novel%29 \"Calais (novel)\")*, *Robert and Arabella*, *Jacintha*, and *Wanderers Eastward, Wanderers West* – she failed to make as much of an impact. In 2000 a new edition of *Forever Amber* was published with a foreword by [Barbara Taylor Bradford](/wiki/Barbara_Taylor_Bradford \"Barbara Taylor Bradford\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The congregation of the Sisters of Holy Cross developed from the Marianites of Holy Cross, founded in Le Mans, France in 1841 by Moreau and [Léocadie Gascoin](/wiki/L%C3%A9ocadie_Gascoin "Léocadie Gascoin"). The Congregation of Holy Cross is under the patronage of [Our Lady of the Seven Dolors](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows "Our Lady of Sorrows").
### Canada
In 1841, [Ignace Bourget](/wiki/Ignace_Bourget "Ignace Bourget"), Bishop of Montreal, returned from a trip to France, having persuaded a number of religious congregations to establish a presence in the diocese. Father Saint\-Germain, parish priest at Saint\-Laurent Church asked Bishop [Ignace Bourget](/wiki/Ignace_Bourget "Ignace Bourget") to obtain some members of the Marianites of Holy Cross for his parish. On his return from Rome in 1847, Bourget introduced the Fathers of the Congregation of Holy Cross, the [Clerics of St. Viator](/wiki/Clerics_of_St._Viator "Clerics of St. Viator"), and the Mariantes to the diocese, Sisters of the Holy Cross.[Bruchési, Paul. "Ignace Bourget." The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02721a.htm) Vol. 2\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907\. 29 May 2020 {{PD\-notice}}
In 1847 four sisters with some companions from the motherhouse in France opened the Couvent Notre\-Dame\-des\-Anges at [St. Laurent, Canada](/wiki/Saint-Laurent%2C_Quebec "Saint-Laurent, Quebec"), which formed the nucleus of the subsequently erected province. Holy Cross priests and brothers ran the [Collège Saint\-Laurent](/wiki/C%C3%A9gep_de_Saint-Laurent "Cégep de Saint-Laurent"), the sisters taught girls at the nearby Collège Basile\-Moreau. In 1970, the Collège Basile\-Moreau was purchased by the government of Quebec and became [Vanier College](/wiki/Vanier_College "Vanier College").[Bratulic, Anna. "HolyCross Treasures Come Home", *Saint\-Laurent News*, September 17, 2006](https://www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/about/history/holy_cross_article.html)
In 1849 four sisters took charge of the boys' orphan asylum in New Orleans, and from there a house was opened in 1854 in New York with the sanction of Father Moreau. Sisters were sent to this establishment from Canada, and New Orleans.Antoine, Sister Mary. ["Sisters of the Holy Cross." The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07405b.htm) Vol. 7\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910\. 20 February 2020{{PD\-notice}} Misunderstandings due to orders issued from France and the American foundation in Notre Dame, Indiana led in 1867 to the withdrawal of the American sisters as a separate congregation, the "Sisters of the Holy Cross". Two years later, due to the difficulty posed by long distance and slow communications with Le Mans, the Canadian community became separate as the "Sisters of Holy Cross and of the Seven Dolors" (since 1981, the Sisters of Holy Cross).["About the Congregation of Holy Cross", Notre Dame College Prep](https://www.nddons.org/s/1034/16/index.aspx?pgid=2199&gid=1) The revised constitutions were approved in 1910\. The houses of New Orleans and New York remained subject to France.
In 1856, at the request of Reverend John MacLaughlin, Pastor of St. Finnan's Parish, four sisters left Montreal to teach at St. Margaret's School in [Alexandria](/wiki/North_Glengarry%2C_Ontario "North Glengarry, Ontario"), Ontario. In 1928, bilingual classes were begun. In 1912, four Sisters of Holy Cross went to teach in [St. Raphael's West](/wiki/South_Glengarry%2C_Ontario "South Glengarry, Ontario") in 1912\.[Holland C.S.C, Gertrude. "Sisters of Holy Cross in the Diocese of Alexandria\-Cornwall (English Section)", Archdiocese of Ottawa–Cornwall](https://eng.alexandria-cornwall.ca/holy-cross-sisters) In 1920, Bishop [Émile Grouard](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Grouard "Émile Grouard") asked the sisters to establish a boarding school in [Grouard\-McLennan](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Grouard%E2%80%93McLennan "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Grouard–McLennan").[Kunguavi, Thadiwe. "Sisters of Holy Cross dedicated to educating the whole person", *Western Catholic Reporter*, September 28, 2015](https://www.wcr.ab.ca/This-Week/Stories/entryid/6893) That same year, Sisters of Holy Cross arrived to teach school in [Falher](/wiki/Falher "Falher"), Alberta.
In 1902, Our Lady of Sorrows Province was established composed of the French\-speaking houses in Quebec; St. Joseph Province of the English\-speaking houses of Ontario and Quebec; and most of the New England houses as Sacred Heart Province. The provincial house for Sacred Heart Province was later established at St. George Manor in [Manchester, New Hampshire](/wiki/Manchester%2C_New_Hampshire "Manchester, New Hampshire").
### United States
By the 1880s, many French\-Canadian had emigrated to New England in search of employment. pastors of parishes in mill towns began to ask [Édouard\-Charles Fabre](/wiki/%C3%89douard-Charles_Fabre "Édouard-Charles Fabre"), Archbishop of Montreal, for sisters to staff their parish schools. He recommended the Sisters of Holy Cross. The schools would be bilingual and a mix of both boys and girls. Although mixed classes were not customary, the sisters accepted. The first sisters to be assigned outside Canada arrived at St. Joseph Parish in [North Grosvenordale, Connecticut](/wiki/North_Grosvenordale%2C_Connecticut "North Grosvenordale, Connecticut") in 1881\. In 1883, they came to the parish of St. Louis de Gonzague in [Nashua, New Hampshire](/wiki/Nashua%2C_New_Hampshire "Nashua, New Hampshire"). Around 1886, sisters from St. Laurent went to Sacred Heart Parish in [New Bedford, Massachusetts](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts "New Bedford, Massachusetts"). Among the tasks undertaken in addition to their teaching responsibilities, the sisters prepared children to receive the sacraments, trained altar servers, and served as sacristans. Between 1881 and 1902 sixteen foundations in five dioceses were established in the United States.[Parent C.S.C., Louise. "The Mission of the Sisters of Holy Cross in the New England States", Conference on the History of the Congregation of Holy Cross, 1962](http://village.hcc-nd.edu/hodonnell/HCHA/1982-6.pdf)
In 1945 the sisters established the Teacher Training Institute in Manchester; it developed into [Notre Dame College](/wiki/Notre_Dame_College_%28New_Hampshire%29 "Notre Dame College (New Hampshire)") which was in operation from 1950 to 2002\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The congregation of the Sisters of Holy Cross developed from the Marianites of Holy Cross, founded in Le Mans, France in 1841 by Moreau and [Léocadie Gascoin](/wiki/L%C3%A9ocadie_Gascoin \"Léocadie Gascoin\"). The Congregation of Holy Cross is under the patronage of [Our Lady of the Seven Dolors](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows \"Our Lady of Sorrows\").",
"### Canada",
"In 1841, [Ignace Bourget](/wiki/Ignace_Bourget \"Ignace Bourget\"), Bishop of Montreal, returned from a trip to France, having persuaded a number of religious congregations to establish a presence in the diocese. Father Saint\\-Germain, parish priest at Saint\\-Laurent Church asked Bishop [Ignace Bourget](/wiki/Ignace_Bourget \"Ignace Bourget\") to obtain some members of the Marianites of Holy Cross for his parish. On his return from Rome in 1847, Bourget introduced the Fathers of the Congregation of Holy Cross, the [Clerics of St. Viator](/wiki/Clerics_of_St._Viator \"Clerics of St. Viator\"), and the Mariantes to the diocese, Sisters of the Holy Cross.[Bruchési, Paul. \"Ignace Bourget.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02721a.htm) Vol. 2\\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907\\. 29 May 2020 {{PD\\-notice}}",
"In 1847 four sisters with some companions from the motherhouse in France opened the Couvent Notre\\-Dame\\-des\\-Anges at [St. Laurent, Canada](/wiki/Saint-Laurent%2C_Quebec \"Saint-Laurent, Quebec\"), which formed the nucleus of the subsequently erected province. Holy Cross priests and brothers ran the [Collège Saint\\-Laurent](/wiki/C%C3%A9gep_de_Saint-Laurent \"Cégep de Saint-Laurent\"), the sisters taught girls at the nearby Collège Basile\\-Moreau. In 1970, the Collège Basile\\-Moreau was purchased by the government of Quebec and became [Vanier College](/wiki/Vanier_College \"Vanier College\").[Bratulic, Anna. \"HolyCross Treasures Come Home\", *Saint\\-Laurent News*, September 17, 2006](https://www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/about/history/holy_cross_article.html)",
"In 1849 four sisters took charge of the boys' orphan asylum in New Orleans, and from there a house was opened in 1854 in New York with the sanction of Father Moreau. Sisters were sent to this establishment from Canada, and New Orleans.Antoine, Sister Mary. [\"Sisters of the Holy Cross.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07405b.htm) Vol. 7\\. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910\\. 20 February 2020{{PD\\-notice}} Misunderstandings due to orders issued from France and the American foundation in Notre Dame, Indiana led in 1867 to the withdrawal of the American sisters as a separate congregation, the \"Sisters of the Holy Cross\". Two years later, due to the difficulty posed by long distance and slow communications with Le Mans, the Canadian community became separate as the \"Sisters of Holy Cross and of the Seven Dolors\" (since 1981, the Sisters of Holy Cross).[\"About the Congregation of Holy Cross\", Notre Dame College Prep](https://www.nddons.org/s/1034/16/index.aspx?pgid=2199&gid=1) The revised constitutions were approved in 1910\\. The houses of New Orleans and New York remained subject to France.",
"In 1856, at the request of Reverend John MacLaughlin, Pastor of St. Finnan's Parish, four sisters left Montreal to teach at St. Margaret's School in [Alexandria](/wiki/North_Glengarry%2C_Ontario \"North Glengarry, Ontario\"), Ontario. In 1928, bilingual classes were begun. In 1912, four Sisters of Holy Cross went to teach in [St. Raphael's West](/wiki/South_Glengarry%2C_Ontario \"South Glengarry, Ontario\") in 1912\\.[Holland C.S.C, Gertrude. \"Sisters of Holy Cross in the Diocese of Alexandria\\-Cornwall (English Section)\", Archdiocese of Ottawa–Cornwall](https://eng.alexandria-cornwall.ca/holy-cross-sisters) In 1920, Bishop [Émile Grouard](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Grouard \"Émile Grouard\") asked the sisters to establish a boarding school in [Grouard\\-McLennan](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Grouard%E2%80%93McLennan \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Grouard–McLennan\").[Kunguavi, Thadiwe. \"Sisters of Holy Cross dedicated to educating the whole person\", *Western Catholic Reporter*, September 28, 2015](https://www.wcr.ab.ca/This-Week/Stories/entryid/6893) That same year, Sisters of Holy Cross arrived to teach school in [Falher](/wiki/Falher \"Falher\"), Alberta.",
"In 1902, Our Lady of Sorrows Province was established composed of the French\\-speaking houses in Quebec; St. Joseph Province of the English\\-speaking houses of Ontario and Quebec; and most of the New England houses as Sacred Heart Province. The provincial house for Sacred Heart Province was later established at St. George Manor in [Manchester, New Hampshire](/wiki/Manchester%2C_New_Hampshire \"Manchester, New Hampshire\").",
"### United States",
"By the 1880s, many French\\-Canadian had emigrated to New England in search of employment. pastors of parishes in mill towns began to ask [Édouard\\-Charles Fabre](/wiki/%C3%89douard-Charles_Fabre \"Édouard-Charles Fabre\"), Archbishop of Montreal, for sisters to staff their parish schools. He recommended the Sisters of Holy Cross. The schools would be bilingual and a mix of both boys and girls. Although mixed classes were not customary, the sisters accepted. The first sisters to be assigned outside Canada arrived at St. Joseph Parish in [North Grosvenordale, Connecticut](/wiki/North_Grosvenordale%2C_Connecticut \"North Grosvenordale, Connecticut\") in 1881\\. In 1883, they came to the parish of St. Louis de Gonzague in [Nashua, New Hampshire](/wiki/Nashua%2C_New_Hampshire \"Nashua, New Hampshire\"). Around 1886, sisters from St. Laurent went to Sacred Heart Parish in [New Bedford, Massachusetts](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts \"New Bedford, Massachusetts\"). Among the tasks undertaken in addition to their teaching responsibilities, the sisters prepared children to receive the sacraments, trained altar servers, and served as sacristans. Between 1881 and 1902 sixteen foundations in five dioceses were established in the United States.[Parent C.S.C., Louise. \"The Mission of the Sisters of Holy Cross in the New England States\", Conference on the History of the Congregation of Holy Cross, 1962](http://village.hcc-nd.edu/hodonnell/HCHA/1982-6.pdf)",
"In 1945 the sisters established the Teacher Training Institute in Manchester; it developed into [Notre Dame College](/wiki/Notre_Dame_College_%28New_Hampshire%29 \"Notre Dame College (New Hampshire)\") which was in operation from 1950 to 2002\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Prehistory
The [prehistory](/wiki/Prehistory "Prehistory") of the lands around what is now the Preston Docks, and the use of the River Ribble as a waterway dates back many thousands of years. Excavation for the docks in the 1880s uncovered [neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") artefacts around 6,000 to 10,000 years old, some of which can be viewed in Preston's [Harris Museum](/wiki/Harris_Museum "Harris Museum").{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.harrismuseum.org.uk/collections/122\-archaeology \|title\=Collections \- Archaeology \|publisher\=Harris Museum, Art Gallery \& Library \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}}
### Pre–Industrial Revolution
Historical evidence shows that the Ribble played a role by ancient and pre\-medieval cultures in their conquest of Britain, with artefacts of [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon "Saxon"), [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain") and [Viking](/wiki/Viking "Viking") origin recovered from the lands surrounding the river banks.
Records from [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") times show that Preston was already a trading port by the 12th century when a portmote (a type of court{{Cite Merriam\-Webster\|Portmote\|accessdate\=2023\-05\-05}}) would meet at regular intervals to give judgement on matters relating to the operation of the port, and increasing trade through the port was recorded from around the mid\-14th century.{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.visitpreston.com/welcome/preston\-s\-history/buildings\-and\-heritage/preston\-docks\-waterways\-history \|title\=Preston Dock and Waterways History \|publisher\=Visit Preston \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}} Even in these early times, the Ribble suffered from [silt deposits](/wiki/Silt "Silt"), and the first recorded instance of the river being dredged to improve passage dates to the 16th century.
### 18th century
The [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") saw a boom in the [textile industry](/wiki/Textile_industry "Textile industry") in [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire "Lancashire") and Preston was no exception; by the end of 18th century around a dozen large textile mills had sprung up across the town. Textiles were not Preston's only industry; the abolition of the town's royal charter in 1790 as a [Guild Town](/wiki/Guild "Guild") permitted freedom of trade, and other manufacturing industries quickly began to emerge.{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.visitpreston.com/visit/events/preston\-guild/preston\-guild\-history/preston\-guild\-past\-present\-future \|title\=About Preston Guild History \|publisher\=Visit Preston \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}} New markets were soon found for these goods, with many being shipped to overseas destinations. There was also an ever\-increasing influx of timber, coal and cotton for the town's mills and factories, food for its growing population, and later, wood pulp for the paper mills at the near\-by town of [Darwen](/wiki/Darwen "Darwen").{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.prestonstation.org.uk/Docks.html \|title\=Preston Dock \|publisher\=Preston Station Past and Present \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Ships would come up\-river to Preston to unload and shelter in a natural basin known in its time as 'Preston Anchorage', where the Moorbrook joined the Ribble,{{efn\|The course of the Moorbrook, also historically referred to as the Moor Brook, was interrupted during Preston's history in the 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to the construction of the Lancaster Canal in 1792\-1797, the Moorbrook flowed westward from what is now the A6 North Road, following a course that ran parallel to Aqueduct Street and Waters Lane, then through the northern edge of an area known as Preston Marsh (located on northeast bank of the Ribble, around the junction of what is now Strand Road and Waters Lane) to enter the Ribble further west at Marsh End, just to the east of where Morrisons supermarket is now located on Mariners Way. On the opposite (i.e. southern) bank of the Ribble was an area known as Penwortham Marsh which would flood during spring tides, increasing the size of this "natural basin", and it was here on the river's northern bank that Preston's original wharves were located. The reclamation work and the construction of retaining walls by the Ribble Navigation Company in the mid 1800s stabilised the river's banks and diminished the size of this basin, but by then the New Quays had been built. The diversion of the Ribble in the 1880s for the construction of the Albert Edward Basin and the reclamation of land along the river's north shore for the new docks resulted in the Moorbrook \- or what little of it by then remained \- no longer flowing into the Ribble.Information derived from various historic maps of Preston viewed at Harris Museum and Public Library, and from Lancashire County Council ''Maps and Related Information Online'' (MARIO). 26 February 2020\.}} where the town's original docks were located. However, by the last decade of the 18th century the town's wharf facilities were already struggling to keep up with demand, with the shallowness of the river limiting ships \- particularly larger ones\- to around the time of high tides, and by loading and unloading facilities and storage warehouses built on marshlands surrounding the river banks which were prone to flooding.
### 19th century
{{anchor\|River Ribble Navigation Act 1806}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
\| short\_title \= River Ribble Navigation Act 1806
\| type \= Act
\| parliament \= Parliament of the United Kingdom
\| long\_title \=
\| year \= 1806
\| citation \= \[\[46 Geo. 3]]. c. cxxi
\| introduced\_commons \=
\| introduced\_lords \=
\| territorial\_extent \=
\| royal\_assent \= 12 July 1806
\| commencement \=
\| expiry\_date \=
\| repeal\_date \=
\| amends \=
\| replaces \=
\| amendments \=
\| repealing\_legislation \= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838
\| related\_legislation \=
\| status \= repealed
\| legislation\_history \=
\| theyworkforyou \=
\| millbankhansard \=
\| original\_text \= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Geo3/46/121/pdfs/ukla\_18060121\_en.pdf
\| revised\_text \=
\| use\_new\_UK\-LEG \=
\| UK\-LEG\_title \=
\| collapsed \= yes
}}
[thumb\|Map of Preston from 1889, showing the original course of the River Ribble along with the planned diversion to the south](/wiki/File:Map_of_Preston_1889.jpg "Map of Preston 1889.jpg")
In the early 1800s the Preston Consortium was founded to propose ways in which the river could be better used to facilitate trade. Along with representation from the town council (which retained 30% ownership of the corporation), it included some of Preston's largest private companies. This led to the creation of the first Ribble Navigation Company in 1806, whose primary purpose was to commence a program of land reclamation and fixing the course of the river within training walls built along its banks. Construction of a new wharf commenced a few years later further downstream along the section of the river where Marsh Lane joined Strand Road. The new wharves, known as the New Quays (later renamed to Victoria Quay), opened in 1825\.{{cite web \|URL\=https://lancashirepast.com/2018/06/07/preston\-dock\-curiosities/ \|title\=Preston Dock Curiosities \|publisher\=Lancashire Past \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}} Construction commenced on supporting infrastructure with the Victoria Bonded Warehouse off Strand Road opening in 1843 and a number of shipyards built along the banks of the river.{{cite book \|title\=Life In Victorian Preston \|author\=David John Hindle \|publisher\=Amberley Publishing \|publication\-place\=Gloucestershire UK \|date\=2014 \|ISBN\=9781445619163}} In 1846 a [branch line](/wiki/Branch_line "Branch line") was opened from [Preston Railway Station](/wiki/Preston_railway_station "Preston railway station") to what was now Victoria Quay to provide a direct rail link to the docks.
{{anchor\|River Ribble Navigation Act 1838\|Ribble Navigation Company Act 1844\|Ribble Navigation Act 1853}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
\| short\_title \= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838
\| type \= Act
\| parliament \= Parliament of the United Kingdom
\| long\_title \= An Act to repeal an Act passed in the Forty\-sixth Year of the Reign of His Majesty King George the Third, for improving the Navigation of the River Ribble in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and for the further Improvement of the Navigation of the said River.
\| year \= 1838
\| citation \= \[\[1 \& 2 Vict.]] c. viii
\| introduced\_commons \=
\| introduced\_lords \=
\| territorial\_extent \=
\| royal\_assent \= 9 May 1838
\| commencement \=
\| expiry\_date \=
\| repeal\_date \=
\| amends \=
\| replaces \= River Ribble Navigation Act 1806
\| amendments \=
\| repealing\_legislation \= Ribble Navigation Act 1853
\| related\_legislation \=
\| status \= repealed
\| legislation\_history \=
\| theyworkforyou \=
\| millbankhansard \=
\| original\_text \= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/1\-2/8/pdfs/ukla\_18380008\_en.pdf
\| revised\_text \=
\| use\_new\_UK\-LEG \=
\| UK\-LEG\_title \=
\| collapsed \= yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
\| short\_title \= Ribble Navigation Company Act 1844
\| type \= Act
\| parliament \= Parliament of the United Kingdom
\| long\_title \= An Act to enable the Ribble Navigation Company to raise a further Sum of Money; and to enable the Owners of reclaimed Lands to pay a Sum in gross in lieu of the annual Rents.
\| year \= 1844
\| citation \= \[\[7 \& 8 Vict.]] c. i
\| introduced\_commons \=
\| introduced\_lords \=
\| territorial\_extent \=
\| royal\_assent \= 2 April 1844
\| commencement \=
\| expiry\_date \=
\| repeal\_date \=
\| amends \=
\| replaces \=
\| amendments \=
\| repealing\_legislation \= Ribble Navigation Act 1853
\| related\_legislation \=
\| status \= repealed
\| legislation\_history \=
\| theyworkforyou \=
\| millbankhansard \=
\| original\_text \=
\| revised\_text \=
\| use\_new\_UK\-LEG \=
\| UK\-LEG\_title \=
\| collapsed \= yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
\| short\_title \= Ribble Navigation Act 1853
\| type \= Act
\| parliament \= Parliament of the United Kingdom
\| long\_title \=
\| year \= 1853
\| citation \= \[\[16 \& 17 Vict.]] c. clxx
\| introduced\_commons \=
\| introduced\_lords \=
\| territorial\_extent \=
\| royal\_assent \= 4 August 1853
\| commencement \=
\| expiry\_date \=
\| repeal\_date \=
\| amends \=
\| replaces \= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838
\| amendments \=
\| repealing\_legislation \= \[\[Preston Corporation Act 1964]]
\| related\_legislation \=
\| status \= repealed
\| legislation\_history \=
\| theyworkforyou \=
\| millbankhansard \=
\| original\_text \= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/16\-17/170/pdfs/ukla\_18530170\_en.pdf
\| revised\_text \=
\| use\_new\_UK\-LEG \=
\| UK\-LEG\_title \=
\| collapsed \= yes
}}
The shallowness of the river was still an issue and in 1837 the engineer [Robert Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Stevenson_%28civil_engineer%29 "Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)") was commissioned by the corporation to develop plan to merge the river's multiple channels together into a single course and making it deep enough to be safely navigable by larger vessels. As a result, a {{convert\|22\.5\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} channel, the Gut,{{efn\|The Ribble has a number of channels, the main shipping channel being the Gut which runs {{convert\|12\|mi\|order\=flip}} to the Ribble Estuary where it branches into a number of channels of varying depths into the Irish Sea. From 1850 these included the New (or South) Gut, listed with a depth of {{convert\|22\|\-\|29\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} at high\-water, and the shallower Penfold Channel, listed at {{convert\|18\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} at high\-water.{{cite book \|title\=British Islands Pilot: The west coast of England and Wales, Volume 2 \|publisher\=United States Hydrographic Office \|date\=1917 \|ISBN\=9781120167712}} For more information, refer \[http://www.heskethbank.com/history/evolution\_of\_ribble\_estuary/evolution\_of\_ribble\_estuary\_part\_3\.pdf Report on the Evolution of The Ribble Estuary]}} was dredged in the river up to its estuary at [Lytham](/wiki/Lytham_St_Annes "Lytham St Annes"). The second Ribble Navigation Company was created in 1838 and lasted until 1853, followed by the third company in 1853 which lasted until 1883\. Both of these companies continued the work of the first, dredging and fixing the course of the river and by 1880 around {{convert\|445\|hectare}} of land along the surrounding banks had been reclaimed. The third company was bestowed with more power for land reclamation not only for the docks but also to benefit Preston overall, and created around {{convert\|4,000\|acre\|order\=flip}} of new farmland from the former tidal stretches and mudflats.
However, even with the new deeper navigation channel there was still an ongoing issue of the river's shallowness which not only limited vessels' journeys but also restricted the mooring of increasingly larger vessels to the new Victoria Quays (which, by 1860, had only been in operation for 35 years) and in 1861 the Preston Consortium discussed a proposal to locate the docks away from the river in deeper water with a constant level maintained by a series of locks. Nothing came from this proposal until 1882 when the corporation voted to adopt this as their strategy for their town's future port. In 1883, Parliament passed the Preston Dock Act to allow construction of the new docks. In 1884 construction began with the diversion of the River Ribble and the excavation of the new basin, with the first sod being turned on 11 October 1884\. On 17 July 1885 the dock's foundation stone was laid by Queen Victoria's eldest son, Albert Edward the Prince of Wales, after whom the basin is named.
The dock was officially opened on 25 June 1892 by Alfred, the Prince of Edinburgh, Queen Victoria's second eldest son, and the new Port of Preston commenced operations. The first ship to enter the lock and use the new docks was the steam yacht *Aline*, carrying the royal party for the opening ceremony. There are contrary records as to what was the commercial vessel to use the new docks, with some saying it was SS *Lady Louise*, chartered by the Lancashire firm [EH Booth and Co Ltd](/wiki/Booths "Booths"), and which carried an inbound load of cargo, while others say it was the *Hebe*, which unloaded a cargo of cement. However, what is not disputed is the fanfare that accompanied the opening of the docks, with over 10,000 members of the public in attendance and a "flotilla" of small boats and pleasure craft on the Ribble.
### 20th century
[thumb\|Looking eastward up the Ribble, with the entrance to the docks on the left](/wiki/File:Preston_Riversway_Docks.jpg "Preston Riversway Docks.jpg")
From its slow beginnings the docks experienced a steady growth in trade in the early decades of the 20th century. With the outbreak of the First World War the docks took on a new role, exporting munitions produced by local factories that had been retooled for the war effort. After the cessation of hostilities the port experienced a downturn in trade from which it never fully recovered in the inter\-war period. In the 1920s the rail line from the site of the old Victory Quay was extended along both side of the docks, allowing an increase in the volume of goods transiting to and from the port.
During the Second World War the docks again aided Britain's war effort, when it was taken over by the military and used as a marshalling post for the [D\-Day landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings "Normandy landings") in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy"), 1944\. During the course of the war the docks had to be closed twice due to [naval mines](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"). In the years after the Second World War, the volume of goods passing in and out of the port increased, aided by a ferry service to Northern Ireland commencing in 1948\. Traffic increased even further until a peak in the 1960s, but warning signs for its future were beginning to appear. Ferry services ceased by the early 1970s, and although [containerised cargo](/wiki/Containerization "Containerization") meant ships could be loaded and unloaded more quickly, economies of scale meant container vessels increased in size, and the age\-old problem of the shallowness of the Ribble took greater significance; constant dredging operations were now costing around half of the port's annual income.
The period 1960–1972 was the busiest in the dock's history but from then it experienced a continued and noticeable fall in revenue brought about from a reduction in trade and the cost of dredging required to keep the port open, and in 1981 an Act of Parliament was passed to close the docks. On 22 October 1981 the last Preston\-based ship, the dredger *Hoveringham V* left the docks and on 31 October, the port's last official day of operation, the Singapore\-based MV *Sea Rhine* became the final vessel to leave the docks, thus signalling the closure of the Port of Preston.
### Post\-redevelopment
Following redevelopment of the former Preston Dock, greater emphasis has been placed upon the role that Riversway and the Albert Edward Basin play in the community's leisure and lifestyle, and the area has hosted several significant events:
* During the 2012 Preston Guild celebrations, held every 20 years and unique within Great Britain, Riversway played an important role, especially with the year's Riversway Festival when more than 60 guest boats entered the basin. The Royal Navy [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_vessel "Patrol vessel") {{HMS\|Charger\|P292\|6}}, a semi\-regular visitor to the city, was formally adopted by Preston, allowing the vessel and its crew to "officially" participate in the celebrations.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2014/07/prestons\-adopted\-navy\-ship\-hms\-charger\-at\-the\-docks/ \|title\=Preston’s adopted navy ship HMS Charger at the Docks \|publisher\=Blog Preston \|author\=Ed Walker \|date\=12 July 2014 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
* The Riversway Festival (formerly the Preston Maritime Festival) was an annual summer event first held in the 1992 Preston Guild to celebrate the city's maritime heritage. Various activities are held on the basin, including a dragon boat regatta, a dinghy "grand prix", displays by the [Sea Cadets](/wiki/Sea_Cadets_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Sea Cadets (United Kingdom)") and brightly decorated guest vessels including [narrowboats](/wiki/Narrowboat "Narrowboat") from the [Lancaster Canal](/wiki/Lancaster_Canal "Lancaster Canal"). Following the 2012 festival the council cancelled funding for the event due to budget cuts and the 2013 festival, which only went ahead due to the efforts of volunteers, was the last occurrence of this event. There have been subsequent discussions to resurrect the festival but no outcome has been forthcoming.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2014/07/riversway\-festival\-cancelled\-for\-2014/ \|title\=Riversway Festival cancelled for 2014 \|publisher\=Blog Preston \|author\=Ed Walker \|date\=3 July 2014 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
* The [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway "Ribble Steam Railway"), which has operated on former docklands railway facilities since 2005, hosts weekend steam train excursions which have proven popular with locals and tourists. Around 2010, the company proposed the construction of a new station at the Strand Road level crossing to attract more tourists (given its close proximity to Preston station), and possibly extend their line westward out to the [Ribble Link](/wiki/Ribble_Link "Ribble Link"). Preliminary approval was granted by the council{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.lep.co.uk/news/steam\-rail\-plan\-go\-ahead\-1\-4103994 \|title\=Steam rail plan go\-ahead \|publisher\=Lancashire Evening Post \|date\=31 December 2011}} but plans appear to have fallen through due to lack of funding. However, the company is continuing expanding its facilities with the construction of a "Railway Exploration Centre".{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/news/railway\-exploration\-centre\-gets\-the\-green\-light/ \|title\=Railway Exploration Centre Gets The Green Light \|publisher\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
* In 2019 a community volunteer group CLEARED (Community Led Action to Revitalise the Dock) has been formed to clean up the docks and the waters of the basin, and in particular, to address the issue of blue\-green algae ([cyanobacteria](/wiki/Cyanobacteria "Cyanobacteria")).{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.lep.co.uk/health/preston\-dock\-clean\-all\-systems\-go\-1173226 \|title\=Preston Dock clean\-up 'all systems go' \|publisher\=Lancashire Evening Post \|author\=Brian Ellis \|date\=17 November 2019 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Prehistory",
"The [prehistory](/wiki/Prehistory \"Prehistory\") of the lands around what is now the Preston Docks, and the use of the River Ribble as a waterway dates back many thousands of years. Excavation for the docks in the 1880s uncovered [neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") artefacts around 6,000 to 10,000 years old, some of which can be viewed in Preston's [Harris Museum](/wiki/Harris_Museum \"Harris Museum\").{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.harrismuseum.org.uk/collections/122\\-archaeology \\|title\\=Collections \\- Archaeology \\|publisher\\=Harris Museum, Art Gallery \\& Library \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}}",
"### Pre–Industrial Revolution",
"Historical evidence shows that the Ribble played a role by ancient and pre\\-medieval cultures in their conquest of Britain, with artefacts of [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon \"Saxon\"), [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\") and [Viking](/wiki/Viking \"Viking\") origin recovered from the lands surrounding the river banks.",
"Records from [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") times show that Preston was already a trading port by the 12th century when a portmote (a type of court{{Cite Merriam\\-Webster\\|Portmote\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-05\\-05}}) would meet at regular intervals to give judgement on matters relating to the operation of the port, and increasing trade through the port was recorded from around the mid\\-14th century.{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.visitpreston.com/welcome/preston\\-s\\-history/buildings\\-and\\-heritage/preston\\-docks\\-waterways\\-history \\|title\\=Preston Dock and Waterways History \\|publisher\\=Visit Preston \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}} Even in these early times, the Ribble suffered from [silt deposits](/wiki/Silt \"Silt\"), and the first recorded instance of the river being dredged to improve passage dates to the 16th century.",
"### 18th century",
"The [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") saw a boom in the [textile industry](/wiki/Textile_industry \"Textile industry\") in [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\") and Preston was no exception; by the end of 18th century around a dozen large textile mills had sprung up across the town. Textiles were not Preston's only industry; the abolition of the town's royal charter in 1790 as a [Guild Town](/wiki/Guild \"Guild\") permitted freedom of trade, and other manufacturing industries quickly began to emerge.{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.visitpreston.com/visit/events/preston\\-guild/preston\\-guild\\-history/preston\\-guild\\-past\\-present\\-future \\|title\\=About Preston Guild History \\|publisher\\=Visit Preston \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}} New markets were soon found for these goods, with many being shipped to overseas destinations. There was also an ever\\-increasing influx of timber, coal and cotton for the town's mills and factories, food for its growing population, and later, wood pulp for the paper mills at the near\\-by town of [Darwen](/wiki/Darwen \"Darwen\").{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.prestonstation.org.uk/Docks.html \\|title\\=Preston Dock \\|publisher\\=Preston Station Past and Present \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Ships would come up\\-river to Preston to unload and shelter in a natural basin known in its time as 'Preston Anchorage', where the Moorbrook joined the Ribble,{{efn\\|The course of the Moorbrook, also historically referred to as the Moor Brook, was interrupted during Preston's history in the 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to the construction of the Lancaster Canal in 1792\\-1797, the Moorbrook flowed westward from what is now the A6 North Road, following a course that ran parallel to Aqueduct Street and Waters Lane, then through the northern edge of an area known as Preston Marsh (located on northeast bank of the Ribble, around the junction of what is now Strand Road and Waters Lane) to enter the Ribble further west at Marsh End, just to the east of where Morrisons supermarket is now located on Mariners Way. On the opposite (i.e. southern) bank of the Ribble was an area known as Penwortham Marsh which would flood during spring tides, increasing the size of this \"natural basin\", and it was here on the river's northern bank that Preston's original wharves were located. The reclamation work and the construction of retaining walls by the Ribble Navigation Company in the mid 1800s stabilised the river's banks and diminished the size of this basin, but by then the New Quays had been built. The diversion of the Ribble in the 1880s for the construction of the Albert Edward Basin and the reclamation of land along the river's north shore for the new docks resulted in the Moorbrook \\- or what little of it by then remained \\- no longer flowing into the Ribble.Information derived from various historic maps of Preston viewed at Harris Museum and Public Library, and from Lancashire County Council ''Maps and Related Information Online'' (MARIO). 26 February 2020\\.}} where the town's original docks were located. However, by the last decade of the 18th century the town's wharf facilities were already struggling to keep up with demand, with the shallowness of the river limiting ships \\- particularly larger ones\\- to around the time of high tides, and by loading and unloading facilities and storage warehouses built on marshlands surrounding the river banks which were prone to flooding.",
"### 19th century",
"{{anchor\\|River Ribble Navigation Act 1806}}\n{{Infobox UK legislation\n\\| short\\_title \\= River Ribble Navigation Act 1806\n\\| type \\= Act\n\\| parliament \\= Parliament of the United Kingdom\n\\| long\\_title \\= \n\\| year \\= 1806\n\\| citation \\= \\[\\[46 Geo. 3]]. c. cxxi\n\\| introduced\\_commons \\= \n\\| introduced\\_lords \\= \n\\| territorial\\_extent \\= \n\\| royal\\_assent \\= 12 July 1806\n\\| commencement \\= \n\\| expiry\\_date \\= \n\\| repeal\\_date \\= \n\\| amends \\= \n\\| replaces \\= \n\\| amendments \\= \n\\| repealing\\_legislation \\= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838\n\\| related\\_legislation \\= \n\\| status \\= repealed\n\\| legislation\\_history \\= \n\\| theyworkforyou \\= \n\\| millbankhansard \\= \n\\| original\\_text \\= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Geo3/46/121/pdfs/ukla\\_18060121\\_en.pdf\n\\| revised\\_text \\= \n\\| use\\_new\\_UK\\-LEG \\= \n\\| UK\\-LEG\\_title \\= \n\\| collapsed \\= yes\n}}\n[thumb\\|Map of Preston from 1889, showing the original course of the River Ribble along with the planned diversion to the south](/wiki/File:Map_of_Preston_1889.jpg \"Map of Preston 1889.jpg\")",
"In the early 1800s the Preston Consortium was founded to propose ways in which the river could be better used to facilitate trade. Along with representation from the town council (which retained 30% ownership of the corporation), it included some of Preston's largest private companies. This led to the creation of the first Ribble Navigation Company in 1806, whose primary purpose was to commence a program of land reclamation and fixing the course of the river within training walls built along its banks. Construction of a new wharf commenced a few years later further downstream along the section of the river where Marsh Lane joined Strand Road. The new wharves, known as the New Quays (later renamed to Victoria Quay), opened in 1825\\.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://lancashirepast.com/2018/06/07/preston\\-dock\\-curiosities/ \\|title\\=Preston Dock Curiosities \\|publisher\\=Lancashire Past \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}} Construction commenced on supporting infrastructure with the Victoria Bonded Warehouse off Strand Road opening in 1843 and a number of shipyards built along the banks of the river.{{cite book \\|title\\=Life In Victorian Preston \\|author\\=David John Hindle \\|publisher\\=Amberley Publishing \\|publication\\-place\\=Gloucestershire UK \\|date\\=2014 \\|ISBN\\=9781445619163}} In 1846 a [branch line](/wiki/Branch_line \"Branch line\") was opened from [Preston Railway Station](/wiki/Preston_railway_station \"Preston railway station\") to what was now Victoria Quay to provide a direct rail link to the docks.",
"{{anchor\\|River Ribble Navigation Act 1838\\|Ribble Navigation Company Act 1844\\|Ribble Navigation Act 1853}}\n{{Infobox UK legislation\n\\| short\\_title \\= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838\n\\| type \\= Act\n\\| parliament \\= Parliament of the United Kingdom\n\\| long\\_title \\= An Act to repeal an Act passed in the Forty\\-sixth Year of the Reign of His Majesty King George the Third, for improving the Navigation of the River Ribble in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and for the further Improvement of the Navigation of the said River.\n\\| year \\= 1838\n\\| citation \\= \\[\\[1 \\& 2 Vict.]] c. viii\n\\| introduced\\_commons \\= \n\\| introduced\\_lords \\= \n\\| territorial\\_extent \\= \n\\| royal\\_assent \\= 9 May 1838\n\\| commencement \\= \n\\| expiry\\_date \\= \n\\| repeal\\_date \\= \n\\| amends \\= \n\\| replaces \\= River Ribble Navigation Act 1806\n\\| amendments \\= \n\\| repealing\\_legislation \\= Ribble Navigation Act 1853\n\\| related\\_legislation \\= \n\\| status \\= repealed\n\\| legislation\\_history \\= \n\\| theyworkforyou \\= \n\\| millbankhansard \\= \n\\| original\\_text \\= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/1\\-2/8/pdfs/ukla\\_18380008\\_en.pdf\n\\| revised\\_text \\= \n\\| use\\_new\\_UK\\-LEG \\= \n\\| UK\\-LEG\\_title \\= \n\\| collapsed \\= yes\n}}\n{{Infobox UK legislation\n\\| short\\_title \\= Ribble Navigation Company Act 1844\n\\| type \\= Act\n\\| parliament \\= Parliament of the United Kingdom\n\\| long\\_title \\= An Act to enable the Ribble Navigation Company to raise a further Sum of Money; and to enable the Owners of reclaimed Lands to pay a Sum in gross in lieu of the annual Rents.\n\\| year \\= 1844\n\\| citation \\= \\[\\[7 \\& 8 Vict.]] c. i\n\\| introduced\\_commons \\= \n\\| introduced\\_lords \\= \n\\| territorial\\_extent \\= \n\\| royal\\_assent \\= 2 April 1844\n\\| commencement \\= \n\\| expiry\\_date \\= \n\\| repeal\\_date \\= \n\\| amends \\= \n\\| replaces \\= \n\\| amendments \\= \n\\| repealing\\_legislation \\= Ribble Navigation Act 1853\n\\| related\\_legislation \\= \n\\| status \\= repealed\n\\| legislation\\_history \\= \n\\| theyworkforyou \\= \n\\| millbankhansard \\= \n\\| original\\_text \\= \n\\| revised\\_text \\= \n\\| use\\_new\\_UK\\-LEG \\= \n\\| UK\\-LEG\\_title \\= \n\\| collapsed \\= yes\n}}\n{{Infobox UK legislation\n\\| short\\_title \\= Ribble Navigation Act 1853\n\\| type \\= Act\n\\| parliament \\= Parliament of the United Kingdom\n\\| long\\_title \\= \n\\| year \\= 1853\n\\| citation \\= \\[\\[16 \\& 17 Vict.]] c. clxx\n\\| introduced\\_commons \\= \n\\| introduced\\_lords \\= \n\\| territorial\\_extent \\= \n\\| royal\\_assent \\= 4 August 1853\n\\| commencement \\= \n\\| expiry\\_date \\= \n\\| repeal\\_date \\= \n\\| amends \\= \n\\| replaces \\= River Ribble Navigation Act 1838\n\\| amendments \\= \n\\| repealing\\_legislation \\= \\[\\[Preston Corporation Act 1964]]\n\\| related\\_legislation \\= \n\\| status \\= repealed\n\\| legislation\\_history \\= \n\\| theyworkforyou \\= \n\\| millbankhansard \\= \n\\| original\\_text \\= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/16\\-17/170/pdfs/ukla\\_18530170\\_en.pdf\n\\| revised\\_text \\= \n\\| use\\_new\\_UK\\-LEG \\= \n\\| UK\\-LEG\\_title \\= \n\\| collapsed \\= yes\n}}\nThe shallowness of the river was still an issue and in 1837 the engineer [Robert Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Stevenson_%28civil_engineer%29 \"Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)\") was commissioned by the corporation to develop plan to merge the river's multiple channels together into a single course and making it deep enough to be safely navigable by larger vessels. As a result, a {{convert\\|22\\.5\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} channel, the Gut,{{efn\\|The Ribble has a number of channels, the main shipping channel being the Gut which runs {{convert\\|12\\|mi\\|order\\=flip}} to the Ribble Estuary where it branches into a number of channels of varying depths into the Irish Sea. From 1850 these included the New (or South) Gut, listed with a depth of {{convert\\|22\\|\\-\\|29\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} at high\\-water, and the shallower Penfold Channel, listed at {{convert\\|18\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} at high\\-water.{{cite book \\|title\\=British Islands Pilot: The west coast of England and Wales, Volume 2 \\|publisher\\=United States Hydrographic Office \\|date\\=1917 \\|ISBN\\=9781120167712}} For more information, refer \\[http://www.heskethbank.com/history/evolution\\_of\\_ribble\\_estuary/evolution\\_of\\_ribble\\_estuary\\_part\\_3\\.pdf Report on the Evolution of The Ribble Estuary]}} was dredged in the river up to its estuary at [Lytham](/wiki/Lytham_St_Annes \"Lytham St Annes\"). The second Ribble Navigation Company was created in 1838 and lasted until 1853, followed by the third company in 1853 which lasted until 1883\\. Both of these companies continued the work of the first, dredging and fixing the course of the river and by 1880 around {{convert\\|445\\|hectare}} of land along the surrounding banks had been reclaimed. The third company was bestowed with more power for land reclamation not only for the docks but also to benefit Preston overall, and created around {{convert\\|4,000\\|acre\\|order\\=flip}} of new farmland from the former tidal stretches and mudflats.",
"However, even with the new deeper navigation channel there was still an ongoing issue of the river's shallowness which not only limited vessels' journeys but also restricted the mooring of increasingly larger vessels to the new Victoria Quays (which, by 1860, had only been in operation for 35 years) and in 1861 the Preston Consortium discussed a proposal to locate the docks away from the river in deeper water with a constant level maintained by a series of locks. Nothing came from this proposal until 1882 when the corporation voted to adopt this as their strategy for their town's future port. In 1883, Parliament passed the Preston Dock Act to allow construction of the new docks. In 1884 construction began with the diversion of the River Ribble and the excavation of the new basin, with the first sod being turned on 11 October 1884\\. On 17 July 1885 the dock's foundation stone was laid by Queen Victoria's eldest son, Albert Edward the Prince of Wales, after whom the basin is named.",
"The dock was officially opened on 25 June 1892 by Alfred, the Prince of Edinburgh, Queen Victoria's second eldest son, and the new Port of Preston commenced operations. The first ship to enter the lock and use the new docks was the steam yacht *Aline*, carrying the royal party for the opening ceremony. There are contrary records as to what was the commercial vessel to use the new docks, with some saying it was SS *Lady Louise*, chartered by the Lancashire firm [EH Booth and Co Ltd](/wiki/Booths \"Booths\"), and which carried an inbound load of cargo, while others say it was the *Hebe*, which unloaded a cargo of cement. However, what is not disputed is the fanfare that accompanied the opening of the docks, with over 10,000 members of the public in attendance and a \"flotilla\" of small boats and pleasure craft on the Ribble.",
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|Looking eastward up the Ribble, with the entrance to the docks on the left](/wiki/File:Preston_Riversway_Docks.jpg \"Preston Riversway Docks.jpg\")",
"From its slow beginnings the docks experienced a steady growth in trade in the early decades of the 20th century. With the outbreak of the First World War the docks took on a new role, exporting munitions produced by local factories that had been retooled for the war effort. After the cessation of hostilities the port experienced a downturn in trade from which it never fully recovered in the inter\\-war period. In the 1920s the rail line from the site of the old Victory Quay was extended along both side of the docks, allowing an increase in the volume of goods transiting to and from the port.",
"During the Second World War the docks again aided Britain's war effort, when it was taken over by the military and used as a marshalling post for the [D\\-Day landings](/wiki/Normandy_landings \"Normandy landings\") in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\"), 1944\\. During the course of the war the docks had to be closed twice due to [naval mines](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"). In the years after the Second World War, the volume of goods passing in and out of the port increased, aided by a ferry service to Northern Ireland commencing in 1948\\. Traffic increased even further until a peak in the 1960s, but warning signs for its future were beginning to appear. Ferry services ceased by the early 1970s, and although [containerised cargo](/wiki/Containerization \"Containerization\") meant ships could be loaded and unloaded more quickly, economies of scale meant container vessels increased in size, and the age\\-old problem of the shallowness of the Ribble took greater significance; constant dredging operations were now costing around half of the port's annual income.",
"The period 1960–1972 was the busiest in the dock's history but from then it experienced a continued and noticeable fall in revenue brought about from a reduction in trade and the cost of dredging required to keep the port open, and in 1981 an Act of Parliament was passed to close the docks. On 22 October 1981 the last Preston\\-based ship, the dredger *Hoveringham V* left the docks and on 31 October, the port's last official day of operation, the Singapore\\-based MV *Sea Rhine* became the final vessel to leave the docks, thus signalling the closure of the Port of Preston.",
"### Post\\-redevelopment",
"Following redevelopment of the former Preston Dock, greater emphasis has been placed upon the role that Riversway and the Albert Edward Basin play in the community's leisure and lifestyle, and the area has hosted several significant events:\n* During the 2012 Preston Guild celebrations, held every 20 years and unique within Great Britain, Riversway played an important role, especially with the year's Riversway Festival when more than 60 guest boats entered the basin. The Royal Navy [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_vessel \"Patrol vessel\") {{HMS\\|Charger\\|P292\\|6}}, a semi\\-regular visitor to the city, was formally adopted by Preston, allowing the vessel and its crew to \"officially\" participate in the celebrations.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2014/07/prestons\\-adopted\\-navy\\-ship\\-hms\\-charger\\-at\\-the\\-docks/ \\|title\\=Preston’s adopted navy ship HMS Charger at the Docks \\|publisher\\=Blog Preston \\|author\\=Ed Walker \\|date\\=12 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}\n* The Riversway Festival (formerly the Preston Maritime Festival) was an annual summer event first held in the 1992 Preston Guild to celebrate the city's maritime heritage. Various activities are held on the basin, including a dragon boat regatta, a dinghy \"grand prix\", displays by the [Sea Cadets](/wiki/Sea_Cadets_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Sea Cadets (United Kingdom)\") and brightly decorated guest vessels including [narrowboats](/wiki/Narrowboat \"Narrowboat\") from the [Lancaster Canal](/wiki/Lancaster_Canal \"Lancaster Canal\"). Following the 2012 festival the council cancelled funding for the event due to budget cuts and the 2013 festival, which only went ahead due to the efforts of volunteers, was the last occurrence of this event. There have been subsequent discussions to resurrect the festival but no outcome has been forthcoming.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2014/07/riversway\\-festival\\-cancelled\\-for\\-2014/ \\|title\\=Riversway Festival cancelled for 2014 \\|publisher\\=Blog Preston \\|author\\=Ed Walker \\|date\\=3 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}\n* The [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway \"Ribble Steam Railway\"), which has operated on former docklands railway facilities since 2005, hosts weekend steam train excursions which have proven popular with locals and tourists. Around 2010, the company proposed the construction of a new station at the Strand Road level crossing to attract more tourists (given its close proximity to Preston station), and possibly extend their line westward out to the [Ribble Link](/wiki/Ribble_Link \"Ribble Link\"). Preliminary approval was granted by the council{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.lep.co.uk/news/steam\\-rail\\-plan\\-go\\-ahead\\-1\\-4103994 \\|title\\=Steam rail plan go\\-ahead \\|publisher\\=Lancashire Evening Post \\|date\\=31 December 2011}} but plans appear to have fallen through due to lack of funding. However, the company is continuing expanding its facilities with the construction of a \"Railway Exploration Centre\".{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/news/railway\\-exploration\\-centre\\-gets\\-the\\-green\\-light/ \\|title\\=Railway Exploration Centre Gets The Green Light \\|publisher\\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}\n* In 2019 a community volunteer group CLEARED (Community Led Action to Revitalise the Dock) has been formed to clean up the docks and the waters of the basin, and in particular, to address the issue of blue\\-green algae ([cyanobacteria](/wiki/Cyanobacteria \"Cyanobacteria\")).{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.lep.co.uk/health/preston\\-dock\\-clean\\-all\\-systems\\-go\\-1173226 \\|title\\=Preston Dock clean\\-up 'all systems go' \\|publisher\\=Lancashire Evening Post \\|author\\=Brian Ellis \\|date\\=17 November 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}",
""
] |
Albert Edward Basin and Dock
----------------------------
[thumb\|400px\|The Albert Edward Basin looking west at dusk](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Preston_20171119.jpg "Albert Edward Basin Preston 20171119.jpg")
The Albert Edward Basin is {{convert\|3,000\|feet\|metres}} long by {{convert\|600\|feet\|metres}} wide{{efn\| Regarding metric measurements: ''Engineering Timelines'' reports the dock's dimensions as "914m long by 183m wide", which converts to 2998\.69 by 600\.39 feet. However, original plans for the dock show Imperial measurements of 3000 by 600 feet; therefore any discrepancies in this or other conversions to metric should be ignored and the original Imperial measurements should be considered as canon.}} and covers an area of around {{convert\|42\|acre}}, and provided over {{convert\|1\.8\|km\|mi\|1\|abbr\=on}} of quayside for loading and unloading vessels. At it opening in 1892 it was the largest:
* single dock; and
* inland dock; and
* enclosed dock in Europe.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2017/06/things\-you\-never\-knew\-about\-preston\-docks/ \|title\=Things you never knew about Preston Docks \|publisher\=Blog Preston \|author\=Ed Walker \|date\=23 June 2017 \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}}
The main [basin](/wiki/Canal_basin "Canal basin") flows into a short canal approximately {{convert\|200\|metres\|ft}} long, at the end of which is a series of lock gates to control the level of water in the basin. The canal then flows into a tidal basin of around 15 acres in area, at the end of which is another lock gate before another short canal approximately {{convert\|100\|metres\|ft}} long which flows into the River Ribble. The water in the basin is maintained to a level within a {{convert\|2\|m\|adj\=on}} range, originally by staff of the Preston Corporation, and now by the Preston City Council, who operate the lock gates (and since 1985, the swing bridge) to permit the passage of craft to and from the river. When the basin's water levels drop, they are topped up by water from the Ribble on spring tides. The size of vessels that can enter the basin are constrained by the length of the boat lock and the width of the lock gates.
The cost of building the basin and operating the docks (including on\-going dredging of the river) proved a financial burden, and in its 90\-year history the port only reported a profit on 17 years.
### Construction
[thumb\|Plan of the Albert Edward Basin and Preston Dock, 1882](/wiki/File:Plan_of_River_Ribble_Diversion_1882.jpg "Plan of River Ribble Diversion 1882.jpg")
[thumb\|Excavation of the Albert Edward Basin, 1890](/wiki/File:Construction_of_Albert_Edward_Basin_1890.jpg "Construction of Albert Edward Basin 1890.jpg")
The need for a new dock immune from the Ribble's tides was first proposed by the Preston Corporation in 1861\. In 1882 the corporation officially adopted the proposal for construction of a new dock basin separate from the river by a system of locks to regulate the water level. This began a lengthy period of planning and negotiations, with approval first being required from Westminster to give the corporation the powers to raise the necessary funds, estimated at half a million pounds. In 1883 the *Ribble Navigation and Preston Dock Act* was passed by parliament which allowed the corporation to divert the river and create a new basin, based on the plans drawn up by the engineer Edward Garlick. The Act also allowed the corporation to acquire the Dock Navigation Company and the Preston Dock Branch Line railway from the North Union Railway company in order to develop Preston as a major port.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/news/ribble\-steam\-railway\-and\-preston\-docks/ \|title\=Ribble Steam Railway and Preston Docks \|publisher\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Construction began in 1884 and there was an enormous amount of work that had to be done. The river, which ran parallel to Strand Road and followed a course further north than its current location, was diverted so that the new dock basin could be created. A new channel was cut to the south, with a sharp bend taking the river westward from about opposite the old Victory Quay at Marsh lane, through the area known as Penwortham Marsh. The old section of river was dammed at both ends and the water pumped out. Excavation began on the site of the new shipping and tidal basins, with around {{convert\|5000000\|m3\|spell\=in}} of earth, sand and rock removed, which was used to fill the old river bed to create the dock's northern quays. The new shipping basin was {{convert\|40\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} deep, {{convert\|3000\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} long and {{convert\|600\|ft\|m\|order\=flip}} wide, with concrete walls and granite copings. Construction required the demolition of the old docks and a temporary wharf, "Diversion Quay", was built at the east end of the new river channel to allow trade to continue.
The scope of he endeavour meant that the initial estimate of half a million pounds was soon exceeded and the corporation needed further funding of another equivalent amount to complete the project. Construction was delayed while approval was again sought from Westminster to raise the additional funds. This resulted in a long mortgage being taken out that would not be paid off by Preston's rate payers for over 60 years. Construction was also drawn out by several owners of Preston's textile mills, who, fearing the industries the new dock would attract would drive up the cost of labour, opposed the venture. They formed a political party, "The Party of Caution", and contested local elections with the aim of stopping public money being spent building the dock.
On 21 May 1892 the concrete walls of a temporary dam built to hold back the Ribble were breached, allowing the basin to begin filling with water, and the new Port of Preston began operating a month later, with the official opening ceremony held on 25 June 1892\. Initial facilities were at first limited, but the docklands railway was soon extended and new warehouses and cargo handling facilities were constructed as the volume of trade through the dock increased.
### Operation
[thumb\|400px\|Ships moored at Albert Edward Dock, c.1930](/wiki/File:Ships_moored_at_Preston_Dock_c1930.jpg "Ships moored at Preston Dock c1930.jpg")
[thumb\|400px\|Engineering works to the east of Albert Edward Basin (along Strand Road), 1899\. Railway tracks of the Preston Dock Branch Line can be seen in the foreground.](/wiki/File:The_Street_railway_journal_%281899%29_%2814759108972%29.jpg "The Street railway journal (1899) (14759108972).jpg")
The new dock was not an immediate success, used by just four vessels in its first year of operation; however, by 1900 this number had grown to 170 and the future appeared rosy. The creation of the Preston Dock Branch Line railway in the 1840s, and later extensions in the 1890s and 1920s, allowed goods to be transported directly to and from ships, minimising loading and unloading times and providing the Port of Preston with a competitive advantage over other nearby ports.
Over the course of its history the dock handled a wide variety of general cargoes. Incoming vessels would unload raw cotton, timber, china clay, fruit (including bananas and citrus from the West Indies), wheat, horses, cattle, coal, petroleum products, fishmeal, fertilisers, and wood pulp and [esparto grass](/wiki/Esparto_grass "Esparto grass") for paper making. Out\-going vessels were mostly loaded with cotton products and other textiles from Preston's mills, and later manufactured goods from the town's growing industries. Pre\-World War I saw a rise in popularity in excursion steamers operating from the docks providing day trips to nearby destinations, and post\-World War II saw the introduction of passenger and vehicular ferry services to Northern Ireland. During both world wars the docks were used by the military for general wartime cargo and strategic operations, including the D\-Day landings in 1944\.
The dock's quayside facilities were developed to match the rising trade, originally handling bulk cargo but later upgraded to containerised service, the first dock in the UK to provide such a facility. Trade increased throughout the 1950s so much so that the charge for the port that had been levied on Preston residents’ rates bills since the opening of the dock was finally cancelled. Large quantities of fruit were being imported from the [Windward](/wiki/British_Windward_Islands "British Windward Islands") and [Leeward Islands](/wiki/Leeward_Islands "Leeward Islands"); in one year the entire citrus crop from [Dominica](/wiki/Dominica "Dominica") and [Saint Lucia](/wiki/Saint_Lucia "Saint Lucia") came through the port.
The period 1960–1972 was the busiest in the dock's history, and peak volume was reached in 1968 when 2\.5 million tons of trade passed through the port. However, the [Dockers Strikes](/wiki/UK_dockers%27_strike_%281970%29 "UK dockers' strike (1970)") of 1969 and 1970 severely disrupted the port's ferry services and deterred much of its foreign traffic and resulted in a noticeable fall in revenue, a trend that was not to be reversed. The docks continued to experience a steady decrease in trade, including the abandonment of ferry services, and in 1975 the first serious financial trouble began after an operating loss of £1\.5m, the largest in the port's history, was reported.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.lep.co.uk/news/how\-time\-was\-called\-preston\-docks\-765403 \|title\=How time was called on Preston Docks \|publisher\=Lancashire Evening post \|author\=Imogen Cooper \|date\=2 November 2016 \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}}
Constant dredging of the Ribble proved a huge burden upon the port's revenue; in 1975 45% of the dock's income was spent on dredging operations. A report to the then Preston Borough Council in September 1979 advised that there was no future prospect for operating the port at a profit and it was resolved that the docks should be closed and the area redeveloped.
### Closure
Following a boom period in the 1960s Preston Dock suffered a series of financial setbacks in the early 1970s, which led to a record loss of £1\.5 million in 1975, and each subsequent year of the decade recorded losses of between £800,000 and £1 million.
As early as 1975 reports were produced looking into what could be done to stem the losses. However, the rising cost of operations and the decreasing revenues from diminishing trade{{efn\|The number of ships visiting the port in 1975 was recorded at 675 but fell to 538 just one year later.}} led to the then Preston Borough Council deciding to close the port, and a phased closure was announced in 1976, which would result in the redundancy of 450 workers. However, a campaign to keep the port open, led by the public, newspapers, dockside workers, trade unions and local industry, gave the port a reprieve and the council applied for and received a grant of £2 million from Westminster for a two\-year trial to revive the port's ailing fortunes. The council had still found no feasible solutions to the dock's inherent problems 18 months later, including a suggestion to redevelop the docks into a multi\-functional estate creating an additional 1,500 jobs, which was rejected by the unions and local Labour councillors. With no further government funding available and facing the prospect of subsidising the dock at a cost of around a million pounds a year \- a cost that Preston could not afford in a time of national economic downturn \- in October 1979 the final decision was made to close the port in two years time.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2016/08/12/why\-did\-preston\-port\-close/ \|title\=Why did Preston port close? \|publisher\=Chuffs, Puffs \& Whistles \|author\=Ribble Steam Railway \|date\=12 August 2016 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
Closing the dock was not a straightforward procedure; a Private Members' Bill and an Act of Parliament would be required which would take about six months to prepare. Nor would it be cheap; it would require paying off outstanding debts and loans, and the payment of compensation including redundancy pay. The total cost was estimated at £3\.5 million over 10 years, which would be recovered through the sale of the dock's assets and a levy imposed upon Preston's ratepayers. Assets identified for sale included cranes, dredgers and miscellaneous small vessels, pipelines and large fixtures, with an estimated value of £1\.5 million.
The Port of Preston was formally closed by the *Preston Dock Closure Act* on 31 October 1981, with the direct loss of 350 jobs.
### Redevelopment
[thumb\|Looking southeast across the Albert Edward Basin from the northwest side of the docks](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Preston_20141110.jpg "Albert Edward Basin Preston 20141110.jpg")
[thumb\|Preston Dock swing bridge](/wiki/File:Swingbridge%2C_Preston_Docks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_802026.jpg "Swingbridge, Preston Docks - geograph.org.uk - 802026.jpg")
In 1980 with the looming closure of the dock the [Central Lancashire](/wiki/Central_Lancashire "Central Lancashire") Development Corporation carried out a preliminary study, *Preston Dock Redevelopment – Summary Report (1980\)*, broadly proposing to redevelop over {{convert\|380\|acre\|order\=flip}} of the former docklands for mixed use (similar to the suggestion proposed but rejected when the dock's closure was first announced in 1976\). However, their study identified a number of major constraints including polluted water and contaminated land, inadequacy of flood defences, and lack of infrastructure which would result in high costs of clearance and reclamation. The study also identified that for any redevelopment to be successful, a partnership between the council and private enterprise, would be necessary, and that funding was available from Westminster in accordance with the *Derelict Land Grants* scheme.
The proposed name for the redeveloped site would be "Riversway", as it was to be mostly built on land that was the original course of the river, and the council began inviting bids from national and local consortia to produce detailed proposals for the redevelopment. Due to the size of the project and the associated constraints, the process was protracted and it was not until 1985 that a plan was finally chosen, submitted by [Holder Mathias](/wiki/Holder_Mathias "Holder Mathias") (Architects) of London and the [Balfour Beatty](/wiki/Balfour_Beatty "Balfour Beatty") corporation. The plan proposed that the former northern quayside would be redeveloped for retail use, the southern quayside for residential use, and the basin would feature a public marina. The area to the west of Riversway, tentatively referred to as "Riversway West", would be reserved for future commercial and light industrial use. The plan's general strategy was that the clearance, reclamation and infrastructure works would commence immediately to attract investment from the private sector to redevelop individual site. A condition of the proposal was that Balfour Beatty retained the development rights on the prime waterfront area north and east of the dock basin, in return for funding the road infrastructure project.
The plan identified that the existing docklands railway along the north side of the basin occupied valuable development sites, and the railway would be diverted along the banks of the Ribble behind the dock's southern quay. This necessitated the construction of a {{convert\|1,000\|t\|adj\=on}} swing bridge across the entrance to the lock which, to save money, had the railway tracks running down the centre of the roadway. Construction of the new infrastructure began in 1985 and generally proceeded from east to west, and continued until 1992\. New roads were constructed, including:
* 'Mariners Way', running parallel to Waters Lane along the basin's northern quayside, following the original course of the Ribble.
* 'Navigation Way', running parallel between the northern bank of the Ribble and the basin's southern quayside, across the new swing bridge on the western side of the basin and joining Mariners Way.
* 'Port Way', running east from Strand Road along the north bank of the Ribble (from about opposite the site of the 1820s port) and turning north along the eastern end of the basin to join Waters Lane, and providing access into Mariner's Way.
* 'Pedders Way', running from Waters Lane down to the western end of the basin, providing access to Mariners Way and Navigation Way, as well as to the existing industrial estate in Chain Caul Way.
* 'Channel Way', a smaller road running west from the A59 near Strand Road to provide east\-bound traffic access to Riversway, it runs to the northern end of Port Way (also following the original course of the Ribble) to Strand Road, as well as providing access to a potential new business park to the east of Riversway.
Only four of the dock's original buildings{{efn\|Some websites state that the lighthouse located in front of the Morrisons supermarket is an original from the Preston Docks; however, this is a replica constructed in 1986\.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/5961548 \|title\=SD5192: Lighthouse at Albert Edward Dock \|publisher\=Geograph UK \|author\=Thomas Nugent \|date\=19 October 2018 \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}}}} were retained:
* Shed No.3 on the south side of the basin, redeveloped for residential use as "Victoria Mansions"
* Customs House on Dock Road
* the office of Transport Ferry Service off Pedders Way (subsequently demolished for new development)
* the original Pump House building adjacent to the tidal basin (subsequently demolished for new development)
Following the opening of Riversway in July 1987,{{cite book \|title\=Preston in 50 Buildings \|author\=Keith Johnson \|date\=2016 \|publisher\=Amberley Publishing \|publication\-place\=Gloucestershire, UK \|ISBN\=9781445658971}} over 2,000 jobs have been created from the opening of new and the relocation of exiting businesses. Subsequent development has seen the construction of residential areas commencing from 1989 and the new industrial zone to the west in 1992\.
### Health hazards
#### Cyanobacteria
[thumb\|The preserved crane on the southwest side of the docks. In front of this is an old mooring buoy. Blue\-green algae is discolouring the water](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Crane_Preston_20180805.jpg "Albert Edward Basin Crane Preston 20180805.jpg")
Since the dock's closure as a working port, the waters of the basin have suffered from frequent blooms of [blue\-green algae](/wiki/Cyanobacteria "Cyanobacteria") (cyanobacteria), which can be toxic to humans and animals. Despite repeated attempts to cure the problem and improve water quality, outbreaks still occur and are most prevalent in the warmer months, and signs are posted around the basin by the [Preston City Council](/wiki/Preston_City_Council "Preston City Council") warning against swimming (including pets).{{cite web \|title\=Visitor Information Albert Edward Basin \|publisher\=Preston City Council \|url\=http://www.preston.gov.uk/leisure\-and\-culture/riversway/visiting\-riversway/blue\-green\-algal\-blooms/ \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=3 March 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928095347/http://www.preston.gov.uk/leisure\-and\-culture/riversway/visiting\-riversway/blue\-green\-algal\-blooms/ \|archive\-date\=28 September 2011 }}{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.lep.co.uk/best\-in/outdoors/locals\-launch\-bid\-clean\-water\-preston\-dock\-924894 \|title\=Locals launch bid to clean up water in Preston Dock \|publisher\=Lancashire Evening Post \|author\=Brian Ellis \|date\=23 October 2019 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
#### Industrial waste
Redevelopment of the former docks saw the removal of land contaminated by industrial use. It was deemed that the most cost\-effective solution was to create a purpose\-made disposal area, licensed by the city's [Waste Disposal Authority](/wiki/Waste_disposal_authority "Waste disposal authority"), on the river bank west of the main development. The contaminated soils were sealed in clay\-lined containment cells and covered over, and the details recorded on a contaminated land register held by the council.
In 2002–03 the council undertook an extensive investigation into soil and groundwater conditions at the site, and the basin and the river were sampled for any leakage from the containment cells. It was reported that no further remedial work was required to protect the Albert Edward Dock or the River Ribble due to low chemical concentrations. Furthermore, a cost\-benefit analysis on the recovery of remaining hydrocarbons would have proved prohibitively expensive with little benefit to the environmental quality of the river. Therefore, in light of the findings and agreement with the [Environment Agency](/wiki/Environment_Agency "Environment Agency") this investigation was concluded.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.preston.gov.uk/media/209/Contaminated\-Land\-Strategy\-2012/pdf/Contaminated\-Land\-Strategy\-2012\.pdf?m\=636906835179970000 \|title\=Contaminated Land Strategy 2012 \|publisher\=Preston City Council \|date\=March 2012 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}}
|
[
"Albert Edward Basin and Dock\n----------------------------",
"[thumb\\|400px\\|The Albert Edward Basin looking west at dusk](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Preston_20171119.jpg \"Albert Edward Basin Preston 20171119.jpg\")",
"The Albert Edward Basin is {{convert\\|3,000\\|feet\\|metres}} long by {{convert\\|600\\|feet\\|metres}} wide{{efn\\| Regarding metric measurements: ''Engineering Timelines'' reports the dock's dimensions as \"914m long by 183m wide\", which converts to 2998\\.69 by 600\\.39 feet. However, original plans for the dock show Imperial measurements of 3000 by 600 feet; therefore any discrepancies in this or other conversions to metric should be ignored and the original Imperial measurements should be considered as canon.}} and covers an area of around {{convert\\|42\\|acre}}, and provided over {{convert\\|1\\.8\\|km\\|mi\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} of quayside for loading and unloading vessels. At it opening in 1892 it was the largest:\n* single dock; and\n* inland dock; and\n* enclosed dock in Europe.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.blogpreston.co.uk/2017/06/things\\-you\\-never\\-knew\\-about\\-preston\\-docks/ \\|title\\=Things you never knew about Preston Docks \\|publisher\\=Blog Preston \\|author\\=Ed Walker \\|date\\=23 June 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}}",
"The main [basin](/wiki/Canal_basin \"Canal basin\") flows into a short canal approximately {{convert\\|200\\|metres\\|ft}} long, at the end of which is a series of lock gates to control the level of water in the basin. The canal then flows into a tidal basin of around 15 acres in area, at the end of which is another lock gate before another short canal approximately {{convert\\|100\\|metres\\|ft}} long which flows into the River Ribble. The water in the basin is maintained to a level within a {{convert\\|2\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} range, originally by staff of the Preston Corporation, and now by the Preston City Council, who operate the lock gates (and since 1985, the swing bridge) to permit the passage of craft to and from the river. When the basin's water levels drop, they are topped up by water from the Ribble on spring tides. The size of vessels that can enter the basin are constrained by the length of the boat lock and the width of the lock gates.",
"The cost of building the basin and operating the docks (including on\\-going dredging of the river) proved a financial burden, and in its 90\\-year history the port only reported a profit on 17 years.",
"### Construction",
"[thumb\\|Plan of the Albert Edward Basin and Preston Dock, 1882](/wiki/File:Plan_of_River_Ribble_Diversion_1882.jpg \"Plan of River Ribble Diversion 1882.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Excavation of the Albert Edward Basin, 1890](/wiki/File:Construction_of_Albert_Edward_Basin_1890.jpg \"Construction of Albert Edward Basin 1890.jpg\")",
"The need for a new dock immune from the Ribble's tides was first proposed by the Preston Corporation in 1861\\. In 1882 the corporation officially adopted the proposal for construction of a new dock basin separate from the river by a system of locks to regulate the water level. This began a lengthy period of planning and negotiations, with approval first being required from Westminster to give the corporation the powers to raise the necessary funds, estimated at half a million pounds. In 1883 the *Ribble Navigation and Preston Dock Act* was passed by parliament which allowed the corporation to divert the river and create a new basin, based on the plans drawn up by the engineer Edward Garlick. The Act also allowed the corporation to acquire the Dock Navigation Company and the Preston Dock Branch Line railway from the North Union Railway company in order to develop Preston as a major port.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/news/ribble\\-steam\\-railway\\-and\\-preston\\-docks/ \\|title\\=Ribble Steam Railway and Preston Docks \\|publisher\\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Construction began in 1884 and there was an enormous amount of work that had to be done. The river, which ran parallel to Strand Road and followed a course further north than its current location, was diverted so that the new dock basin could be created. A new channel was cut to the south, with a sharp bend taking the river westward from about opposite the old Victory Quay at Marsh lane, through the area known as Penwortham Marsh. The old section of river was dammed at both ends and the water pumped out. Excavation began on the site of the new shipping and tidal basins, with around {{convert\\|5000000\\|m3\\|spell\\=in}} of earth, sand and rock removed, which was used to fill the old river bed to create the dock's northern quays. The new shipping basin was {{convert\\|40\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} deep, {{convert\\|3000\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} long and {{convert\\|600\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip}} wide, with concrete walls and granite copings. Construction required the demolition of the old docks and a temporary wharf, \"Diversion Quay\", was built at the east end of the new river channel to allow trade to continue.",
"The scope of he endeavour meant that the initial estimate of half a million pounds was soon exceeded and the corporation needed further funding of another equivalent amount to complete the project. Construction was delayed while approval was again sought from Westminster to raise the additional funds. This resulted in a long mortgage being taken out that would not be paid off by Preston's rate payers for over 60 years. Construction was also drawn out by several owners of Preston's textile mills, who, fearing the industries the new dock would attract would drive up the cost of labour, opposed the venture. They formed a political party, \"The Party of Caution\", and contested local elections with the aim of stopping public money being spent building the dock.",
"On 21 May 1892 the concrete walls of a temporary dam built to hold back the Ribble were breached, allowing the basin to begin filling with water, and the new Port of Preston began operating a month later, with the official opening ceremony held on 25 June 1892\\. Initial facilities were at first limited, but the docklands railway was soon extended and new warehouses and cargo handling facilities were constructed as the volume of trade through the dock increased.",
"### Operation",
"[thumb\\|400px\\|Ships moored at Albert Edward Dock, c.1930](/wiki/File:Ships_moored_at_Preston_Dock_c1930.jpg \"Ships moored at Preston Dock c1930.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Engineering works to the east of Albert Edward Basin (along Strand Road), 1899\\. Railway tracks of the Preston Dock Branch Line can be seen in the foreground.](/wiki/File:The_Street_railway_journal_%281899%29_%2814759108972%29.jpg \"The Street railway journal (1899) (14759108972).jpg\")",
"The new dock was not an immediate success, used by just four vessels in its first year of operation; however, by 1900 this number had grown to 170 and the future appeared rosy. The creation of the Preston Dock Branch Line railway in the 1840s, and later extensions in the 1890s and 1920s, allowed goods to be transported directly to and from ships, minimising loading and unloading times and providing the Port of Preston with a competitive advantage over other nearby ports.",
"Over the course of its history the dock handled a wide variety of general cargoes. Incoming vessels would unload raw cotton, timber, china clay, fruit (including bananas and citrus from the West Indies), wheat, horses, cattle, coal, petroleum products, fishmeal, fertilisers, and wood pulp and [esparto grass](/wiki/Esparto_grass \"Esparto grass\") for paper making. Out\\-going vessels were mostly loaded with cotton products and other textiles from Preston's mills, and later manufactured goods from the town's growing industries. Pre\\-World War I saw a rise in popularity in excursion steamers operating from the docks providing day trips to nearby destinations, and post\\-World War II saw the introduction of passenger and vehicular ferry services to Northern Ireland. During both world wars the docks were used by the military for general wartime cargo and strategic operations, including the D\\-Day landings in 1944\\.",
"The dock's quayside facilities were developed to match the rising trade, originally handling bulk cargo but later upgraded to containerised service, the first dock in the UK to provide such a facility. Trade increased throughout the 1950s so much so that the charge for the port that had been levied on Preston residents’ rates bills since the opening of the dock was finally cancelled. Large quantities of fruit were being imported from the [Windward](/wiki/British_Windward_Islands \"British Windward Islands\") and [Leeward Islands](/wiki/Leeward_Islands \"Leeward Islands\"); in one year the entire citrus crop from [Dominica](/wiki/Dominica \"Dominica\") and [Saint Lucia](/wiki/Saint_Lucia \"Saint Lucia\") came through the port.",
"The period 1960–1972 was the busiest in the dock's history, and peak volume was reached in 1968 when 2\\.5 million tons of trade passed through the port. However, the [Dockers Strikes](/wiki/UK_dockers%27_strike_%281970%29 \"UK dockers' strike (1970)\") of 1969 and 1970 severely disrupted the port's ferry services and deterred much of its foreign traffic and resulted in a noticeable fall in revenue, a trend that was not to be reversed. The docks continued to experience a steady decrease in trade, including the abandonment of ferry services, and in 1975 the first serious financial trouble began after an operating loss of £1\\.5m, the largest in the port's history, was reported.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.lep.co.uk/news/how\\-time\\-was\\-called\\-preston\\-docks\\-765403 \\|title\\=How time was called on Preston Docks \\|publisher\\=Lancashire Evening post \\|author\\=Imogen Cooper \\|date\\=2 November 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}}",
"Constant dredging of the Ribble proved a huge burden upon the port's revenue; in 1975 45% of the dock's income was spent on dredging operations. A report to the then Preston Borough Council in September 1979 advised that there was no future prospect for operating the port at a profit and it was resolved that the docks should be closed and the area redeveloped.",
"### Closure",
"Following a boom period in the 1960s Preston Dock suffered a series of financial setbacks in the early 1970s, which led to a record loss of £1\\.5 million in 1975, and each subsequent year of the decade recorded losses of between £800,000 and £1 million.",
"As early as 1975 reports were produced looking into what could be done to stem the losses. However, the rising cost of operations and the decreasing revenues from diminishing trade{{efn\\|The number of ships visiting the port in 1975 was recorded at 675 but fell to 538 just one year later.}} led to the then Preston Borough Council deciding to close the port, and a phased closure was announced in 1976, which would result in the redundancy of 450 workers. However, a campaign to keep the port open, led by the public, newspapers, dockside workers, trade unions and local industry, gave the port a reprieve and the council applied for and received a grant of £2 million from Westminster for a two\\-year trial to revive the port's ailing fortunes. The council had still found no feasible solutions to the dock's inherent problems 18 months later, including a suggestion to redevelop the docks into a multi\\-functional estate creating an additional 1,500 jobs, which was rejected by the unions and local Labour councillors. With no further government funding available and facing the prospect of subsidising the dock at a cost of around a million pounds a year \\- a cost that Preston could not afford in a time of national economic downturn \\- in October 1979 the final decision was made to close the port in two years time.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2016/08/12/why\\-did\\-preston\\-port\\-close/ \\|title\\=Why did Preston port close? \\|publisher\\=Chuffs, Puffs \\& Whistles \\|author\\=Ribble Steam Railway \\|date\\=12 August 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}",
"Closing the dock was not a straightforward procedure; a Private Members' Bill and an Act of Parliament would be required which would take about six months to prepare. Nor would it be cheap; it would require paying off outstanding debts and loans, and the payment of compensation including redundancy pay. The total cost was estimated at £3\\.5 million over 10 years, which would be recovered through the sale of the dock's assets and a levy imposed upon Preston's ratepayers. Assets identified for sale included cranes, dredgers and miscellaneous small vessels, pipelines and large fixtures, with an estimated value of £1\\.5 million.",
"The Port of Preston was formally closed by the *Preston Dock Closure Act* on 31 October 1981, with the direct loss of 350 jobs.",
"### Redevelopment",
"[thumb\\|Looking southeast across the Albert Edward Basin from the northwest side of the docks](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Preston_20141110.jpg \"Albert Edward Basin Preston 20141110.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Preston Dock swing bridge](/wiki/File:Swingbridge%2C_Preston_Docks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_802026.jpg \"Swingbridge, Preston Docks - geograph.org.uk - 802026.jpg\")",
"In 1980 with the looming closure of the dock the [Central Lancashire](/wiki/Central_Lancashire \"Central Lancashire\") Development Corporation carried out a preliminary study, *Preston Dock Redevelopment – Summary Report (1980\\)*, broadly proposing to redevelop over {{convert\\|380\\|acre\\|order\\=flip}} of the former docklands for mixed use (similar to the suggestion proposed but rejected when the dock's closure was first announced in 1976\\). However, their study identified a number of major constraints including polluted water and contaminated land, inadequacy of flood defences, and lack of infrastructure which would result in high costs of clearance and reclamation. The study also identified that for any redevelopment to be successful, a partnership between the council and private enterprise, would be necessary, and that funding was available from Westminster in accordance with the *Derelict Land Grants* scheme.",
"The proposed name for the redeveloped site would be \"Riversway\", as it was to be mostly built on land that was the original course of the river, and the council began inviting bids from national and local consortia to produce detailed proposals for the redevelopment. Due to the size of the project and the associated constraints, the process was protracted and it was not until 1985 that a plan was finally chosen, submitted by [Holder Mathias](/wiki/Holder_Mathias \"Holder Mathias\") (Architects) of London and the [Balfour Beatty](/wiki/Balfour_Beatty \"Balfour Beatty\") corporation. The plan proposed that the former northern quayside would be redeveloped for retail use, the southern quayside for residential use, and the basin would feature a public marina. The area to the west of Riversway, tentatively referred to as \"Riversway West\", would be reserved for future commercial and light industrial use. The plan's general strategy was that the clearance, reclamation and infrastructure works would commence immediately to attract investment from the private sector to redevelop individual site. A condition of the proposal was that Balfour Beatty retained the development rights on the prime waterfront area north and east of the dock basin, in return for funding the road infrastructure project.",
"The plan identified that the existing docklands railway along the north side of the basin occupied valuable development sites, and the railway would be diverted along the banks of the Ribble behind the dock's southern quay. This necessitated the construction of a {{convert\\|1,000\\|t\\|adj\\=on}} swing bridge across the entrance to the lock which, to save money, had the railway tracks running down the centre of the roadway. Construction of the new infrastructure began in 1985 and generally proceeded from east to west, and continued until 1992\\. New roads were constructed, including:\n* 'Mariners Way', running parallel to Waters Lane along the basin's northern quayside, following the original course of the Ribble.\n* 'Navigation Way', running parallel between the northern bank of the Ribble and the basin's southern quayside, across the new swing bridge on the western side of the basin and joining Mariners Way.\n* 'Port Way', running east from Strand Road along the north bank of the Ribble (from about opposite the site of the 1820s port) and turning north along the eastern end of the basin to join Waters Lane, and providing access into Mariner's Way.\n* 'Pedders Way', running from Waters Lane down to the western end of the basin, providing access to Mariners Way and Navigation Way, as well as to the existing industrial estate in Chain Caul Way.\n* 'Channel Way', a smaller road running west from the A59 near Strand Road to provide east\\-bound traffic access to Riversway, it runs to the northern end of Port Way (also following the original course of the Ribble) to Strand Road, as well as providing access to a potential new business park to the east of Riversway.",
"Only four of the dock's original buildings{{efn\\|Some websites state that the lighthouse located in front of the Morrisons supermarket is an original from the Preston Docks; however, this is a replica constructed in 1986\\.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/5961548 \\|title\\=SD5192: Lighthouse at Albert Edward Dock \\|publisher\\=Geograph UK \\|author\\=Thomas Nugent \\|date\\=19 October 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}}}} were retained:\n* Shed No.3 on the south side of the basin, redeveloped for residential use as \"Victoria Mansions\"\n* Customs House on Dock Road\n* the office of Transport Ferry Service off Pedders Way (subsequently demolished for new development)\n* the original Pump House building adjacent to the tidal basin (subsequently demolished for new development)",
"Following the opening of Riversway in July 1987,{{cite book \\|title\\=Preston in 50 Buildings \\|author\\=Keith Johnson \\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=Amberley Publishing \\|publication\\-place\\=Gloucestershire, UK \\|ISBN\\=9781445658971}} over 2,000 jobs have been created from the opening of new and the relocation of exiting businesses. Subsequent development has seen the construction of residential areas commencing from 1989 and the new industrial zone to the west in 1992\\.",
"### Health hazards",
"#### Cyanobacteria",
"[thumb\\|The preserved crane on the southwest side of the docks. In front of this is an old mooring buoy. Blue\\-green algae is discolouring the water](/wiki/File:Albert_Edward_Basin_Crane_Preston_20180805.jpg \"Albert Edward Basin Crane Preston 20180805.jpg\")",
"Since the dock's closure as a working port, the waters of the basin have suffered from frequent blooms of [blue\\-green algae](/wiki/Cyanobacteria \"Cyanobacteria\") (cyanobacteria), which can be toxic to humans and animals. Despite repeated attempts to cure the problem and improve water quality, outbreaks still occur and are most prevalent in the warmer months, and signs are posted around the basin by the [Preston City Council](/wiki/Preston_City_Council \"Preston City Council\") warning against swimming (including pets).{{cite web \\|title\\=Visitor Information Albert Edward Basin \\|publisher\\=Preston City Council \\|url\\=http://www.preston.gov.uk/leisure\\-and\\-culture/riversway/visiting\\-riversway/blue\\-green\\-algal\\-blooms/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928095347/http://www.preston.gov.uk/leisure\\-and\\-culture/riversway/visiting\\-riversway/blue\\-green\\-algal\\-blooms/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2011 }}{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.lep.co.uk/best\\-in/outdoors/locals\\-launch\\-bid\\-clean\\-water\\-preston\\-dock\\-924894 \\|title\\=Locals launch bid to clean up water in Preston Dock \\|publisher\\=Lancashire Evening Post \\|author\\=Brian Ellis \\|date\\=23 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}",
"#### Industrial waste",
"Redevelopment of the former docks saw the removal of land contaminated by industrial use. It was deemed that the most cost\\-effective solution was to create a purpose\\-made disposal area, licensed by the city's [Waste Disposal Authority](/wiki/Waste_disposal_authority \"Waste disposal authority\"), on the river bank west of the main development. The contaminated soils were sealed in clay\\-lined containment cells and covered over, and the details recorded on a contaminated land register held by the council.",
"In 2002–03 the council undertook an extensive investigation into soil and groundwater conditions at the site, and the basin and the river were sampled for any leakage from the containment cells. It was reported that no further remedial work was required to protect the Albert Edward Dock or the River Ribble due to low chemical concentrations. Furthermore, a cost\\-benefit analysis on the recovery of remaining hydrocarbons would have proved prohibitively expensive with little benefit to the environmental quality of the river. Therefore, in light of the findings and agreement with the [Environment Agency](/wiki/Environment_Agency \"Environment Agency\") this investigation was concluded.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.preston.gov.uk/media/209/Contaminated\\-Land\\-Strategy\\-2012/pdf/Contaminated\\-Land\\-Strategy\\-2012\\.pdf?m\\=636906835179970000 \\|title\\=Contaminated Land Strategy 2012 \\|publisher\\=Preston City Council \\|date\\=March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}}",
""
] |
Historic facilities
-------------------
### Boat lock
Located at the western end of the Albert Edward Basin is the *Bull Nose*, a series of [lock gates](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29 "Lock (water navigation)") to maintain a constant water level within the basin and to provide ingress and egress for vessels to and from the River Ribble. The lock gates allow vessels up to {{convert\|60\|feet\|metres}} in width to enter the basin. The gates are the original items installed when the docks were constructed in the 1880–1890s, and are made of Greenheart main timbers and Iroko planking. Each gate weighs 98 tons.
The first single pair of gates separates the tidal basin from the River Ribble, to maintain a minimum operating depth in the tidal basin so that during low tide when the level of water in the river is too low to allow vessels to journey to the sea, they can remain in the tidal basin and not take up valuable berthing space along the docks. The main lock is two pairs of gates located on each end of a short canal, separating the tidal basin from the main shipping basin. When vessels enter the lock from the tidal basin, if the water level is lower than the level of the main basin, water is pumped in and once the inner gates are open the vessel can continue to the docks. When vessels enter the lock from the main basin, if the water level is higher than the level of the tidal basin, water is pumped out and once the outer gates are open the vessel can continue into the tidal basin. The lock limits vessels over approximately {{convert\|200\|metres\|ft}} from entering the main basin.
Following the closure of Preston Dock flood mitigation work commenced between 1982 and 1985 to stop flooding during severe storms and exceptionally high tides;{{efn\|In 1977 a combination of high river levels and strong westerly winds blowing a high tide in to the Ribble estuary resulted in the flooding of large areas of the docklands.}} the gates from the river to the tidal basin were repositioned and raised to a higher level so as to also act as storm gates, and flood banks were built along the river edge to a level of {{convert\|8\|metres\|ft}} [above ordnance datum](/wiki/Ordnance_datum "Ordnance datum") (AOD). During these works, all gates were refurbished, for which a large {{convert\|100\|tonne\|adj\=on}} crane was constructed along the southern quayside near the lock, and in 1985 a new control tower building (which also controls the swing bridge) was opened, with operations overseen by the Preston City Council.
The boat lock remains in operation to this day and provides access to the Preston Marina, which was built following redevelopment of the docks. The gates can open up to one hour before [High Water](/wiki/High_water "High water") ([Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool")) and remain open up to two hours after this time. Different opening timetables operate over summer and winter. Vessels arriving outside these hours can remain in the lay\-by berth within the lock chamber, and await the next gate opening. The lock does not provide 24 hour operations; the control tower can be contacted on [VHF](/wiki/Marine_VHF_radio "Marine VHF radio") Channel 16\.{{cite web \|URL\=http://prestonmarina.co.uk/index.php/lock\-gates/ \|title\=Lock gate operating times \|publisher\=Preston marina \|access\-date\=22 February 2020}}
### Docklands Railway
[thumb\|Steam locomotive on Preston Dock, 1968](/wiki/File:Bagnall_0-6-0ST_prob._no._2682_%281942%29_Preston_Docks_08.1968_%282%29_%289859843804%29.jpg "Bagnall 0-6-0ST prob. no. 2682 (1942) Preston Docks 08.1968 (2) (9859843804).jpg")
[thumb\|A preserved steam locomotive of the [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway "Ribble Steam Railway") crossing the Preston Docks swing bridge](/wiki/File:RSR_Preston_Docks_Swing_Bridge_20150913.jpg "RSR Preston Docks Swing Bridge 20150913.jpg")
In 1845 a railway line was built linking the old docks at Victoria Quay to Preston's main railway station{{efn\|Although only a little over a half mile in length, the docklands branch line posed some problems in its construction and operation. A steep\-sided cutting and tunnel had to be dug under Fishergate and West Cliff Terrace and the new line was a rather sharp curve, which limited the wheelbase of the locomotives and wagons that could be used. The line was also quite steep, with a 1:29 gradient. This limited the weight of the trains, as they needed to be held under brakes down the hill, and locomotives required sufficient power to haul the trains up the hill (and the more powerful locomotives were usually the biggest, often too long for the sharply curving track). This was an on\-going problem which limited freight operations until the 1990s, when a more modern class of locomotive was finally introduced.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2016/11/03/bitumen\-trains\-the\-story\-so\-far/ \|title\=Bitumen Trains – The Story So Far \|publisher\=Chuffs, Puffs and Whistles \|author\=Ribble Steam Railway\|date\=3 November 2016 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}}} Unlike many docks which utilise [narrow\-gauge](/wiki/Narrow-gauge_railway "Narrow-gauge railway") tracks, Preston's dockland railway utilised [standard gauge track](/wiki/Standard-gauge_railway "Standard-gauge railway"), allowing freight to be routed directly to and from the [main line](/wiki/Main_line_%28railway%29 "Main line (railway)") without having to be transferred to different [rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock "Rolling stock"). The line, officially known as the Preston Dock Branch Line, was originally operated by the [North Union Railway](/wiki/North_Union_Railway "North Union Railway") until 1889, when ownership and operation transferred to the Preston Corporation. The corporation operated eight small [tank locomotives](/wiki/Tank_locomotive "Tank locomotive") which remained in service until 1968 when they were replaced by [Sentinel](/wiki/Sentinel_Waggon_Works "Sentinel Waggon Works") [diesel shunters](/wiki/Switcher "Switcher"), which remain in operation today with Ribble Rail, a subsidiary of the Ribble Steam railway, working bitumen trains. At the dock's peak the railway comprised around {{convert\|27\|mi\|order\=flip}} of track, with multiple tracks and sidings running on both the north and south sides of the Albert Edward Basin. A marshalling yard, engine sheds and workshops were built at the western end of the docks on the northern shore of the Ribble, which is now the site of museum and workshops of the [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway "Ribble Steam Railway") (RSR).
The railway remained in operation after the docks' closure, with up to nine trains per week continuing to deliver petrol to the [Petrofina](/wiki/Petrofina "Petrofina") petroleum storage tanks on Chain Caul Way (now part of the Anchorage Business park) until the company ceased operations at this site in 1992 and the facility was demolished. This left just one company, the Lancashire Tar Distillers (also located in what is now the Anchorage Business Park), still operating rail services, with three weekly freight trains delivering crude bitumen from the [Lindsey Oil Refinery](/wiki/Lindsey_Oil_Refinery "Lindsey Oil Refinery") in [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire "Lincolnshire") to the distilling plant, and empty trains returning to the Lincolnshire refinery from the Preston Docks.{{efn\|The trains travel overnight from the refinery to Preston via \[\[Hebden Bridge]] in heated tankers which maintain the crude bitumen to between {{convert\|160\|and\|180\|C}} to stop it from hardening. Prior to 1995 (when road transport was temporarily utilised) each train would normally comprise seven and occasionally up ten tankers, each with a loaded weight of {{convert\|102\|t}}, for a total haulage of around {{convert\|700\|\-\|1,000\|t}} per train. In 2004 when rail operations resumed the new 10\-year contract upgraded the required amount of bitumen to {{convert\|110,000\|t}} per annum; as a result the number of tankers increased to ten or twelve, for a total haulage of {{convert\|1,000\|\-\|1,200\|t}} per train. In 2010 a new design of tanker was introduced with an increased load capacity of {{convert\|74\|t}} and able to hold the crude bitumen at a more constant temperature. A more powerful locomotive was brought into service, with each train now comprising fourteen or fifteen tankers for a total haulage of {{convert\|1,400\|\-\|1,500\|t}}. The tankers are hauled by a main line locomotive to a siding off Port Way, where they are collected by a historic Sentinel diesel shunter (which previously operated on the docklands railways in the 1960s) and delivered to the processing plant on Chain Caul Way.}} However, in 1995 the company switched to road transportation and the trains stopped until 2004, when the plant was sold to [Total UK](/wiki/Total_S.A. "Total S.A.") and rail operations recommenced.
The redevelopment of the docks in the 1980s led to removal of many of the rail lines, but in 1985 a single line was built across the new Preston Docks swing bridge which ran along the north bank of the Ribble and rejoined the existing line near the [level crossing](/wiki/Level_crossing "Level crossing") on Strand Road. This section of the line is utilised by the RSR which operates regular trips on preserved rolling stock on weekends from April through to September, and special trains during the winter holiday season.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/standard\-operating\-days/ \|title\=Operating Days \|publisher\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
### Ferry services
In 1948 the Atlantic Steam Navigation company established a passenger and vehicular ferry service operating from the Preston Docks to [Larne](/wiki/Larne "Larne") in [County Antrim](/wiki/County_Antrim "County Antrim"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland"). The company utilised surplus World War Two military vessels known as [Landing Ship, Tank](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank "Landing Ship, Tank") (LST), to be the world' first commercial [roll\-on/roll\-off](/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off "Roll-on/roll-off") ("RoRo") ferry service.{{efn\|The company also utilised floating pontoons from the \[\[Mulberry harbour\|"Mulberry harbours"]] that the \[\[Allies of World War II\|Allies]] built on the Normandy beaches for the D\-Day landings of 1944, which the LSTs used to deliver their wartime cargo, to load vehicles onto these repurposed vessels.}} The service, operating three times a week, proved an immediate success and in 1950 the company commenced a second service to [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast").{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.niferry.co.uk/former\-ferries\-asn\-tt\-po/ \|title\=Former ferries of NI Pt.2: From Atlantic Steam Navigation to P\&O \|publisher\=NI Ferry Site \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Atlantic Steam Navigation were nationalised in 1954, and operated under the trading names of 'Transport Ferry Service' and the 'Continental Line' and in 1957 the first of a number of new vessels, *Bardic*, came into service. This was the first purpose\-built commercial RoRo ferry in the UK, and was soon followed by *Doric* and *Ionic*. The company also provided limited services to:[Atlantic Steam Navigation Company \- Routes](/wiki/Atlantic_Steam_Navigation_Company%23Routes "Atlantic Steam Navigation Company#Routes"). Wikipedia. Retrieved 24 February 2020\.
* [Drogheda](/wiki/Drogheda "Drogheda") (1961–1971\)
* Dublin (1963–1971\)
* [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford "Waterford") (1964–1966\)
Services were disrupted in a prolonged strike at the Preston Docks in 1969, and the company began looking for a new site to locate its operations. In 1973 the company moved its Larne service to its newly purchased site at [Cairnryan](/wiki/Cairnryan "Cairnryan") (near [Stranraer](/wiki/Stranraer "Stranraer")) in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland").{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.portoflarne.co.uk/history/ \|title\=Larne Port \- History \|publisher\=Port of Larne \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} The Belfast service continued operating from Preston until its cancellation in 1975, signalling the end of scheduled ferry services from the Preston Docks.
### Leisure excursions
The dock also provided berthing facilities for leisure traffic, with several paddle steamers offering day trips to several destinations including [Merseyside](/wiki/Merseyside "Merseyside"), the [Fydle coast](/wiki/The_Fylde "The Fylde"), [North Wales](/wiki/North_Wales "North Wales") and the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man").
The *Ribble Passenger Transport Co.* had two vessels named *Ribble Queen* based in Preston. The original *Ribble Queen* was a twin\-screw steamer built in 1903, which operated between 1903 and 1905\. The second, *Ribble Queen 2*, was an older paddle steamer, the former {{ship\|PS\|Greenore\|1896\|6}} built in 1896, which was purchased from the [London and North Western Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway "London and North Western Railway") in 1922 and operated until 1925\. These vessels provided excursion services to [Southport](/wiki/Southport "Southport") and [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool") but neither were successful.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2011/07/27/excursion\-ships\-of\-the\-north\-west/ \|title\=Excursion Ships of the North West \|publisher\=The Ribble Pilot \|author\=Ribble Steam Railway \|date\=27 July 2011 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Excursion services to [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool "Blackpool") was a far more popular route, especially during the [Wakes Week](/wiki/Wakes_week "Wakes week") holidays. The paddle steamer *Nelson*, built by the William Allsup shipyards in 1875 for the South Blackpool Jetty Co., operated to Blackpool's South Pier{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/4209655680/in/set\-72157623143867051 \|title\=Made in Preston \- The Paddle Steamer 'Nelson' \|publisher\=Preston Digital Archive \|date\=23 December 2009 \|access\-date\=28 February 2020}} Another company, the Blackpool Passenger Steamboat Co., which had the largest fleet of excursion vessels in Blackpool, provided trips to and from Blackpool's North Pier on the paddle steamer *Greyhound* from 1895 until the outbreak of the First World War, during which it served as a [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper "Minesweeper").{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.simplonpc.co.uk/NorthWestUK.html \|title\=Excursion Ships of the North West \|publisher\=Simplon Postcards \|author\=Ian Boyle \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}{{cite web \|URL\=http://www.paddlesteamers.info/Greyhound.html \|title\=PS Greyhound \|publisher\=paddlesteamers.info : The Internet's leading database of Paddle Steamers past and present \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Another paddle steamer that operated out of Preston Dock was *Bickerstaffe*, also of the Blackpool Passenger Steamboat Co., which was used extensively during the 1911 railway strike to ferry passengers between Preston and Blackpool.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/5219408303 \|title\=Paddle Steamer Bickerstaffe, Preston Docks c.1911 \|publisher\=Preston Digital Archive \|date\=29 November 2010 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} Like *Greyhound*, it was also pressed into service as minesweeper in World War I.{{cite web \|URL\=https://fyldecoaster.wordpress.com/2017/01/27/blackpools\-paddle\-steamers/ \|title\=Exciting Excursions: Blackpool’s Paddle Steamers \|publisher\=Fylde Coaster \|date\=27 January 2017 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
### Ship breaking
In 1894 the [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield "Sheffield") industrialist [Thomas W Ward](/wiki/Thomas_William_Ward_%28industrialist%29 "Thomas William Ward (industrialist)") opened his first [ship breaking yard](/wiki/Ship_breaking "Ship breaking") at Preston docks.{{citation \|URL\=https://www.naval\-history.net/WW1NavyBritish\-Shipbreak.htm \|title\=The Shipbreaking Industry \|author\=Frank C Bowen \|origyear\=c.1930 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} Ward had a contract with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") and many former warships were broken up after the First World War, including the battleships {{HMS\|Dominion}} and {{HMS\|Hindustan\|1903\|6}}, the cruisers {{HMS\|Skirmisher\|1905\|6}} and {{HMS\|Sutlej\|1899\|6}} and the destroyers {{HMS\|Nith\|1905\|6}} and {{HMS\|Ribble\|1904\|6}}. Merchant and passenger vessels broken up at the yard included {{SS\|Aleppo}} and {{RMS\|Etruria}}. Furniture, fittings and equipment removed from the ships would be traded at Ward's showroom in Sheffield. The weight of the ships' parts had been known to topple cranes, causing the death of a Preston worker in the 1950s.{{cite web \|URL\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2013/10/13/preston\-dock\-shipbreakers/ \|title\=Preston Dock – Shipbreakers \|publisher\=Chuffs, Puffs and Whistles \|author\=Ribble Steam \|date\=13 October 2013 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}}
Demand for scrap fell in the 1960s and the yard faced increasing competition from breakers in India, Bangladesh and the Far East, which enjoyed the financial benefits of extremely low wages and lack of safety regulations, and Ward's business declined.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/muck\-and\-brass \|title\=Shipbreaking at Preston, Barrow and Morecambe \|publisher\=National Museums Liverpool \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} The yard ceased operating in 1970{{cite web \|URL\=https://blog.mechanicallandscapes.com/2016/11/22/464\-shipbreaking\-in\-morecambe/ \|title\=\#464 – Shipbreaking in Morecambe \|publisher\=Mechanical Landscapes \|author\=Andrew Marland \|date\=22 November 2016 \|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} with one of the last major vessels scrapped being the former Second World War destroyer {{HMS\|Holderness\|L48\|6}}, which arrived for breaking on 20 November 1956\.{{cite book \|title\=British Warships Since 1945 Part 3: Destroyers \|publisher\=Maritime Books UK \|author\=Mike Critchley \|date\=1982 \|ISBN\=9780950632391}}
### Ship building
[thumb\|Steamship *Moruya*, built by the William Allsup Calendonian shipyard, 1906](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_129871_Moruya_%28ship%29.jpg "StateLibQld 1 129871 Moruya (ship).jpg")
Following construction of the Victoria Quay, there was a boom in shipbuilding along the Ribble, with a number of [shipyards](/wiki/Shipyard "Shipyard") constructed north and south of the new wharves.{{cite map \|title\=Map of Preston \|cartography\=J. Harkness \|publisher\=Guardian Office, Preston \|year\=1865 \|type\=Offline, Harris Museum and Library, Preston. 26 February 2020 \|scale\=1:10,560}} The earliest known vessel constructed at these new yards was the paddle steamer *Enterprise*, launched in 1834 for the [Mersey ferry service](/wiki/Mersey_Ferry "Mersey Ferry") in Liverpool. The Preston Iron Shipbuilding Co. had a yard to the south of the quays, possibly operating from as early as 1845,{{cite map \|title\=Map of Preston \|cartography\=J. Rapkin \|publisher\=Literary and Philosophical Institution, Preston \|year\=1845 \|type\=Offline, Harris Museum and Library, Preston. 26 February 2020 \|scale\=1:10,560}} with eight vessels recorded as being built between 1865 and 1867\.{{cite web \|URL\=http://shippingandshipbuilding.uk/list.php?builder\=10160 \|title\=Vessel List (Preston) \|publisher\=Shipping and Shipbuilding \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}}
The most successful of Preston's shipbuilders was William Allsop (as he was originally known). Allsop had been a millwright and engineer employed in the town's cotton trade and in 1854 entered into a partnership with a "Mr. Watson" to form the Calendonian Works. In 1873 Allsup (as he was now known) transferred title to his sons and the company became William Allsup \& Sons Ltd Shipbuilders, Engineers and Iron Founders (no record can be found as to what became of Watson) and established three shipyards along the Ribble, specialising in vessels made from iron. Records show at least 26 ships being built,{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Alsupp\_and\_Sons \|title\=Alsupp and Sons \|publisher\=Grace's Guide to British History \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}} including the passenger steamer SS *Toroa* in 1899, which ran aground in 1916 off Babbit Island, [Tasmania](/wiki/Tasmania "Tasmania"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), with the loss of all hands.{{cite web \|URL\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/152760097 \|title\=Daily Telegraph (Launceston, TAS) Tuesday 16 May 1916 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}} In 1899 it was reported that Allsup's main yard was destroyed in a fire,Cheltenham Chronicle, 4 March 1899 but the company continued to build vessels until at least 1902\.{{cite web \|URL\=http://shippingandshipbuilding.uk/list.php?vessel\=\&builder\=10560 \|title\=Vessel List (Preston) \|publisher\=Shipping and Shipbuilding \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}}
The shipbuilding industry was not without its dangers. On 9 April 1884 during a launch of an iron steamer from the Allsup yards the supporting gear snapped and the vessel fell upon five workers; one was immediately killed, another died a few hours later and two more died the following day.Shields Daily Gazette, 10 April 1884 The sole survivor, a riveter named Holmes, was reported as being in a critical condition on 12 April, his fate thereafter unknown.Worcestershire Chronicle, 12 April 1884
Due to a shortage of steel during the First World War, land was leased from Preston Corporation in 1914 by the Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards for four slipways north of the Bull Nose for the construction of ferro\-concrete ships. Orders were placed for ten 700\-ton barges to transport iron ore to Britain from Spain. However, demand for the vessels fell following the cessation of hostilities and only two of the barges were completed and launched, *Cretemanor* (PD110\) in September 1919 and *Cretemoor* (PD 112\) in January 1920\. The order for the other six vessels was cancelled but work had commenced on two further hulls which were abandoned, and they remained near the old slipways until the 1980s.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/29334057111\|title\=Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards, Preston Dock c.1920 \|publisher\=Preston Digital Archive \|date\=2 September 2016 \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}}
The site was then taken over by Mr H.C. Ritchie of Liverpool, who had developed the pre\-cast construction method that the Hughes and Stirling yard used, operating as Ritchie Concrete Engineering and Shipbuilding Company.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/3979714555\|title\=Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards, Preston Dock c.1920 \|publisher\=Preston Digital Archive \|date\=22 September 2009 \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}} The only record found for vessels constructed by the yard under this name was a small [coaster](/wiki/Coastal_trading_vessel "Coastal trading vessel") *Burscough* but its life was very short; built in 1921, it was stripped of all salvageable metal parts in 1924 by the Preston [shipbreakers](/wiki/Ship_breaking "Ship breaking") [Thos. W. Ward](/wiki/Thos._W._Ward "Thos. W. Ward") and its concrete hull towed to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") where it was sunk and used as the foundation for a jetty.{{cite web \|URL\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/22988111209 \|title\=Concrete Coaster 'Burscough' at T.W. Wards Shipbreaking Yard, Preston 1924 \|publisher\=Preston Digital Archive \|date\=27 November 2015 \|access\-date\=26 February 2020}}
### Other
Aside from facilities for the loading, unloading and temporary storage of general cargo and bulk cargo such as timber, the docks provided the following specialised infrastructure:
* Bitumen distillation: In or around 1929 the Lancashire Tar Distillers company constructed a refinery for the distillation of bitumen, located off Chain Caul Way. In 2004 the company was sold to the petroleum company Total UK and the facility is still in use today. The docklands railways is still being utilised for the transport of crude bitumen to these facilities.
* Petroleum storage: In 1914 large oil and petroleum storage tanks were built in the north west area of the docklands, which were operated by Petrofino until the company ceased operations at this site in 1992, and the storage tanks were demolished. The docklands railway was utilised for the transport of petroleum to and from these facilities.
From October 1982 to November 1990 the former Isle of Man passenger vessel {{ship\|TSS\|Manxman\|1955\|6}} was moored at Preston Dock. Originally purchased to be used as a museum and visitor centre, the vessel was converted for use as a [floating restaurant](/wiki/Floating_restaurant "Floating restaurant") and bar. Upon expiration of its mooring contract the vessel was towed to Liverpool.{{cite book \|title\=Historic Ships: The Survivors \|author\=Paul Brown \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire UK \|ISBN\=9781848689947}}
Further facilities included a hydraulic power house and a hospital.
|
[
"Historic facilities\n-------------------",
"### Boat lock",
"Located at the western end of the Albert Edward Basin is the *Bull Nose*, a series of [lock gates](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29 \"Lock (water navigation)\") to maintain a constant water level within the basin and to provide ingress and egress for vessels to and from the River Ribble. The lock gates allow vessels up to {{convert\\|60\\|feet\\|metres}} in width to enter the basin. The gates are the original items installed when the docks were constructed in the 1880–1890s, and are made of Greenheart main timbers and Iroko planking. Each gate weighs 98 tons.",
"The first single pair of gates separates the tidal basin from the River Ribble, to maintain a minimum operating depth in the tidal basin so that during low tide when the level of water in the river is too low to allow vessels to journey to the sea, they can remain in the tidal basin and not take up valuable berthing space along the docks. The main lock is two pairs of gates located on each end of a short canal, separating the tidal basin from the main shipping basin. When vessels enter the lock from the tidal basin, if the water level is lower than the level of the main basin, water is pumped in and once the inner gates are open the vessel can continue to the docks. When vessels enter the lock from the main basin, if the water level is higher than the level of the tidal basin, water is pumped out and once the outer gates are open the vessel can continue into the tidal basin. The lock limits vessels over approximately {{convert\\|200\\|metres\\|ft}} from entering the main basin.",
"Following the closure of Preston Dock flood mitigation work commenced between 1982 and 1985 to stop flooding during severe storms and exceptionally high tides;{{efn\\|In 1977 a combination of high river levels and strong westerly winds blowing a high tide in to the Ribble estuary resulted in the flooding of large areas of the docklands.}} the gates from the river to the tidal basin were repositioned and raised to a higher level so as to also act as storm gates, and flood banks were built along the river edge to a level of {{convert\\|8\\|metres\\|ft}} [above ordnance datum](/wiki/Ordnance_datum \"Ordnance datum\") (AOD). During these works, all gates were refurbished, for which a large {{convert\\|100\\|tonne\\|adj\\=on}} crane was constructed along the southern quayside near the lock, and in 1985 a new control tower building (which also controls the swing bridge) was opened, with operations overseen by the Preston City Council.",
"The boat lock remains in operation to this day and provides access to the Preston Marina, which was built following redevelopment of the docks. The gates can open up to one hour before [High Water](/wiki/High_water \"High water\") ([Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\")) and remain open up to two hours after this time. Different opening timetables operate over summer and winter. Vessels arriving outside these hours can remain in the lay\\-by berth within the lock chamber, and await the next gate opening. The lock does not provide 24 hour operations; the control tower can be contacted on [VHF](/wiki/Marine_VHF_radio \"Marine VHF radio\") Channel 16\\.{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://prestonmarina.co.uk/index.php/lock\\-gates/ \\|title\\=Lock gate operating times \\|publisher\\=Preston marina \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2020}}",
"### Docklands Railway",
"[thumb\\|Steam locomotive on Preston Dock, 1968](/wiki/File:Bagnall_0-6-0ST_prob._no._2682_%281942%29_Preston_Docks_08.1968_%282%29_%289859843804%29.jpg \"Bagnall 0-6-0ST prob. no. 2682 (1942) Preston Docks 08.1968 (2) (9859843804).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A preserved steam locomotive of the [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway \"Ribble Steam Railway\") crossing the Preston Docks swing bridge](/wiki/File:RSR_Preston_Docks_Swing_Bridge_20150913.jpg \"RSR Preston Docks Swing Bridge 20150913.jpg\")",
"In 1845 a railway line was built linking the old docks at Victoria Quay to Preston's main railway station{{efn\\|Although only a little over a half mile in length, the docklands branch line posed some problems in its construction and operation. A steep\\-sided cutting and tunnel had to be dug under Fishergate and West Cliff Terrace and the new line was a rather sharp curve, which limited the wheelbase of the locomotives and wagons that could be used. The line was also quite steep, with a 1:29 gradient. This limited the weight of the trains, as they needed to be held under brakes down the hill, and locomotives required sufficient power to haul the trains up the hill (and the more powerful locomotives were usually the biggest, often too long for the sharply curving track). This was an on\\-going problem which limited freight operations until the 1990s, when a more modern class of locomotive was finally introduced.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2016/11/03/bitumen\\-trains\\-the\\-story\\-so\\-far/ \\|title\\=Bitumen Trains – The Story So Far \\|publisher\\=Chuffs, Puffs and Whistles \\|author\\=Ribble Steam Railway\\|date\\=3 November 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}}} Unlike many docks which utilise [narrow\\-gauge](/wiki/Narrow-gauge_railway \"Narrow-gauge railway\") tracks, Preston's dockland railway utilised [standard gauge track](/wiki/Standard-gauge_railway \"Standard-gauge railway\"), allowing freight to be routed directly to and from the [main line](/wiki/Main_line_%28railway%29 \"Main line (railway)\") without having to be transferred to different [rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock \"Rolling stock\"). The line, officially known as the Preston Dock Branch Line, was originally operated by the [North Union Railway](/wiki/North_Union_Railway \"North Union Railway\") until 1889, when ownership and operation transferred to the Preston Corporation. The corporation operated eight small [tank locomotives](/wiki/Tank_locomotive \"Tank locomotive\") which remained in service until 1968 when they were replaced by [Sentinel](/wiki/Sentinel_Waggon_Works \"Sentinel Waggon Works\") [diesel shunters](/wiki/Switcher \"Switcher\"), which remain in operation today with Ribble Rail, a subsidiary of the Ribble Steam railway, working bitumen trains. At the dock's peak the railway comprised around {{convert\\|27\\|mi\\|order\\=flip}} of track, with multiple tracks and sidings running on both the north and south sides of the Albert Edward Basin. A marshalling yard, engine sheds and workshops were built at the western end of the docks on the northern shore of the Ribble, which is now the site of museum and workshops of the [Ribble Steam Railway](/wiki/Ribble_Steam_Railway \"Ribble Steam Railway\") (RSR).",
"The railway remained in operation after the docks' closure, with up to nine trains per week continuing to deliver petrol to the [Petrofina](/wiki/Petrofina \"Petrofina\") petroleum storage tanks on Chain Caul Way (now part of the Anchorage Business park) until the company ceased operations at this site in 1992 and the facility was demolished. This left just one company, the Lancashire Tar Distillers (also located in what is now the Anchorage Business Park), still operating rail services, with three weekly freight trains delivering crude bitumen from the [Lindsey Oil Refinery](/wiki/Lindsey_Oil_Refinery \"Lindsey Oil Refinery\") in [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire \"Lincolnshire\") to the distilling plant, and empty trains returning to the Lincolnshire refinery from the Preston Docks.{{efn\\|The trains travel overnight from the refinery to Preston via \\[\\[Hebden Bridge]] in heated tankers which maintain the crude bitumen to between {{convert\\|160\\|and\\|180\\|C}} to stop it from hardening. Prior to 1995 (when road transport was temporarily utilised) each train would normally comprise seven and occasionally up ten tankers, each with a loaded weight of {{convert\\|102\\|t}}, for a total haulage of around {{convert\\|700\\|\\-\\|1,000\\|t}} per train. In 2004 when rail operations resumed the new 10\\-year contract upgraded the required amount of bitumen to {{convert\\|110,000\\|t}} per annum; as a result the number of tankers increased to ten or twelve, for a total haulage of {{convert\\|1,000\\|\\-\\|1,200\\|t}} per train. In 2010 a new design of tanker was introduced with an increased load capacity of {{convert\\|74\\|t}} and able to hold the crude bitumen at a more constant temperature. A more powerful locomotive was brought into service, with each train now comprising fourteen or fifteen tankers for a total haulage of {{convert\\|1,400\\|\\-\\|1,500\\|t}}. The tankers are hauled by a main line locomotive to a siding off Port Way, where they are collected by a historic Sentinel diesel shunter (which previously operated on the docklands railways in the 1960s) and delivered to the processing plant on Chain Caul Way.}} However, in 1995 the company switched to road transportation and the trains stopped until 2004, when the plant was sold to [Total UK](/wiki/Total_S.A. \"Total S.A.\") and rail operations recommenced.",
"The redevelopment of the docks in the 1980s led to removal of many of the rail lines, but in 1985 a single line was built across the new Preston Docks swing bridge which ran along the north bank of the Ribble and rejoined the existing line near the [level crossing](/wiki/Level_crossing \"Level crossing\") on Strand Road. This section of the line is utilised by the RSR which operates regular trips on preserved rolling stock on weekends from April through to September, and special trains during the winter holiday season.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.org.uk/standard\\-operating\\-days/ \\|title\\=Operating Days \\|publisher\\=Ribble Steam Railway and Museum \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"### Ferry services",
"In 1948 the Atlantic Steam Navigation company established a passenger and vehicular ferry service operating from the Preston Docks to [Larne](/wiki/Larne \"Larne\") in [County Antrim](/wiki/County_Antrim \"County Antrim\"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\"). The company utilised surplus World War Two military vessels known as [Landing Ship, Tank](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank \"Landing Ship, Tank\") (LST), to be the world' first commercial [roll\\-on/roll\\-off](/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off \"Roll-on/roll-off\") (\"RoRo\") ferry service.{{efn\\|The company also utilised floating pontoons from the \\[\\[Mulberry harbour\\|\"Mulberry harbours\"]] that the \\[\\[Allies of World War II\\|Allies]] built on the Normandy beaches for the D\\-Day landings of 1944, which the LSTs used to deliver their wartime cargo, to load vehicles onto these repurposed vessels.}} The service, operating three times a week, proved an immediate success and in 1950 the company commenced a second service to [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\").{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.niferry.co.uk/former\\-ferries\\-asn\\-tt\\-po/ \\|title\\=Former ferries of NI Pt.2: From Atlantic Steam Navigation to P\\&O \\|publisher\\=NI Ferry Site \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Atlantic Steam Navigation were nationalised in 1954, and operated under the trading names of 'Transport Ferry Service' and the 'Continental Line' and in 1957 the first of a number of new vessels, *Bardic*, came into service. This was the first purpose\\-built commercial RoRo ferry in the UK, and was soon followed by *Doric* and *Ionic*. The company also provided limited services to:[Atlantic Steam Navigation Company \\- Routes](/wiki/Atlantic_Steam_Navigation_Company%23Routes \"Atlantic Steam Navigation Company#Routes\"). Wikipedia. Retrieved 24 February 2020\\.\n* [Drogheda](/wiki/Drogheda \"Drogheda\") (1961–1971\\)\n* Dublin (1963–1971\\)\n* [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford \"Waterford\") (1964–1966\\)",
"Services were disrupted in a prolonged strike at the Preston Docks in 1969, and the company began looking for a new site to locate its operations. In 1973 the company moved its Larne service to its newly purchased site at [Cairnryan](/wiki/Cairnryan \"Cairnryan\") (near [Stranraer](/wiki/Stranraer \"Stranraer\")) in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\").{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.portoflarne.co.uk/history/ \\|title\\=Larne Port \\- History \\|publisher\\=Port of Larne \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} The Belfast service continued operating from Preston until its cancellation in 1975, signalling the end of scheduled ferry services from the Preston Docks.",
"### Leisure excursions",
"The dock also provided berthing facilities for leisure traffic, with several paddle steamers offering day trips to several destinations including [Merseyside](/wiki/Merseyside \"Merseyside\"), the [Fydle coast](/wiki/The_Fylde \"The Fylde\"), [North Wales](/wiki/North_Wales \"North Wales\") and the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\").",
"The *Ribble Passenger Transport Co.* had two vessels named *Ribble Queen* based in Preston. The original *Ribble Queen* was a twin\\-screw steamer built in 1903, which operated between 1903 and 1905\\. The second, *Ribble Queen 2*, was an older paddle steamer, the former {{ship\\|PS\\|Greenore\\|1896\\|6}} built in 1896, which was purchased from the [London and North Western Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway \"London and North Western Railway\") in 1922 and operated until 1925\\. These vessels provided excursion services to [Southport](/wiki/Southport \"Southport\") and [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\") but neither were successful.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2011/07/27/excursion\\-ships\\-of\\-the\\-north\\-west/ \\|title\\=Excursion Ships of the North West \\|publisher\\=The Ribble Pilot \\|author\\=Ribble Steam Railway \\|date\\=27 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Excursion services to [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool \"Blackpool\") was a far more popular route, especially during the [Wakes Week](/wiki/Wakes_week \"Wakes week\") holidays. The paddle steamer *Nelson*, built by the William Allsup shipyards in 1875 for the South Blackpool Jetty Co., operated to Blackpool's South Pier{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/4209655680/in/set\\-72157623143867051 \\|title\\=Made in Preston \\- The Paddle Steamer 'Nelson' \\|publisher\\=Preston Digital Archive \\|date\\=23 December 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2020}} Another company, the Blackpool Passenger Steamboat Co., which had the largest fleet of excursion vessels in Blackpool, provided trips to and from Blackpool's North Pier on the paddle steamer *Greyhound* from 1895 until the outbreak of the First World War, during which it served as a [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper \"Minesweeper\").{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.simplonpc.co.uk/NorthWestUK.html \\|title\\=Excursion Ships of the North West \\|publisher\\=Simplon Postcards \\|author\\=Ian Boyle \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://www.paddlesteamers.info/Greyhound.html \\|title\\=PS Greyhound \\|publisher\\=paddlesteamers.info : The Internet's leading database of Paddle Steamers past and present \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Another paddle steamer that operated out of Preston Dock was *Bickerstaffe*, also of the Blackpool Passenger Steamboat Co., which was used extensively during the 1911 railway strike to ferry passengers between Preston and Blackpool.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/5219408303 \\|title\\=Paddle Steamer Bickerstaffe, Preston Docks c.1911 \\|publisher\\=Preston Digital Archive \\|date\\=29 November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} Like *Greyhound*, it was also pressed into service as minesweeper in World War I.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://fyldecoaster.wordpress.com/2017/01/27/blackpools\\-paddle\\-steamers/ \\|title\\=Exciting Excursions: Blackpool’s Paddle Steamers \\|publisher\\=Fylde Coaster \\|date\\=27 January 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"### Ship breaking",
"In 1894 the [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield \"Sheffield\") industrialist [Thomas W Ward](/wiki/Thomas_William_Ward_%28industrialist%29 \"Thomas William Ward (industrialist)\") opened his first [ship breaking yard](/wiki/Ship_breaking \"Ship breaking\") at Preston docks.{{citation \\|URL\\=https://www.naval\\-history.net/WW1NavyBritish\\-Shipbreak.htm \\|title\\=The Shipbreaking Industry \\|author\\=Frank C Bowen \\|origyear\\=c.1930 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} Ward had a contract with the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") and many former warships were broken up after the First World War, including the battleships {{HMS\\|Dominion}} and {{HMS\\|Hindustan\\|1903\\|6}}, the cruisers {{HMS\\|Skirmisher\\|1905\\|6}} and {{HMS\\|Sutlej\\|1899\\|6}} and the destroyers {{HMS\\|Nith\\|1905\\|6}} and {{HMS\\|Ribble\\|1904\\|6}}. Merchant and passenger vessels broken up at the yard included {{SS\\|Aleppo}} and {{RMS\\|Etruria}}. Furniture, fittings and equipment removed from the ships would be traded at Ward's showroom in Sheffield. The weight of the ships' parts had been known to topple cranes, causing the death of a Preston worker in the 1950s.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://ribblesteam.wordpress.com/2013/10/13/preston\\-dock\\-shipbreakers/ \\|title\\=Preston Dock – Shipbreakers \\|publisher\\=Chuffs, Puffs and Whistles \\|author\\=Ribble Steam \\|date\\=13 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}}",
"Demand for scrap fell in the 1960s and the yard faced increasing competition from breakers in India, Bangladesh and the Far East, which enjoyed the financial benefits of extremely low wages and lack of safety regulations, and Ward's business declined.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/muck\\-and\\-brass \\|title\\=Shipbreaking at Preston, Barrow and Morecambe \\|publisher\\=National Museums Liverpool \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} The yard ceased operating in 1970{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://blog.mechanicallandscapes.com/2016/11/22/464\\-shipbreaking\\-in\\-morecambe/ \\|title\\=\\#464 – Shipbreaking in Morecambe \\|publisher\\=Mechanical Landscapes \\|author\\=Andrew Marland \\|date\\=22 November 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} with one of the last major vessels scrapped being the former Second World War destroyer {{HMS\\|Holderness\\|L48\\|6}}, which arrived for breaking on 20 November 1956\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=British Warships Since 1945 Part 3: Destroyers \\|publisher\\=Maritime Books UK \\|author\\=Mike Critchley \\|date\\=1982 \\|ISBN\\=9780950632391}}",
"### Ship building",
"[thumb\\|Steamship *Moruya*, built by the William Allsup Calendonian shipyard, 1906](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_129871_Moruya_%28ship%29.jpg \"StateLibQld 1 129871 Moruya (ship).jpg\")",
"Following construction of the Victoria Quay, there was a boom in shipbuilding along the Ribble, with a number of [shipyards](/wiki/Shipyard \"Shipyard\") constructed north and south of the new wharves.{{cite map \\|title\\=Map of Preston \\|cartography\\=J. Harkness \\|publisher\\=Guardian Office, Preston \\|year\\=1865 \\|type\\=Offline, Harris Museum and Library, Preston. 26 February 2020 \\|scale\\=1:10,560}} The earliest known vessel constructed at these new yards was the paddle steamer *Enterprise*, launched in 1834 for the [Mersey ferry service](/wiki/Mersey_Ferry \"Mersey Ferry\") in Liverpool. The Preston Iron Shipbuilding Co. had a yard to the south of the quays, possibly operating from as early as 1845,{{cite map \\|title\\=Map of Preston \\|cartography\\=J. Rapkin \\|publisher\\=Literary and Philosophical Institution, Preston \\|year\\=1845 \\|type\\=Offline, Harris Museum and Library, Preston. 26 February 2020 \\|scale\\=1:10,560}} with eight vessels recorded as being built between 1865 and 1867\\.{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://shippingandshipbuilding.uk/list.php?builder\\=10160 \\|title\\=Vessel List (Preston) \\|publisher\\=Shipping and Shipbuilding \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}}",
"The most successful of Preston's shipbuilders was William Allsop (as he was originally known). Allsop had been a millwright and engineer employed in the town's cotton trade and in 1854 entered into a partnership with a \"Mr. Watson\" to form the Calendonian Works. In 1873 Allsup (as he was now known) transferred title to his sons and the company became William Allsup \\& Sons Ltd Shipbuilders, Engineers and Iron Founders (no record can be found as to what became of Watson) and established three shipyards along the Ribble, specialising in vessels made from iron. Records show at least 26 ships being built,{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Alsupp\\_and\\_Sons \\|title\\=Alsupp and Sons \\|publisher\\=Grace's Guide to British History \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}} including the passenger steamer SS *Toroa* in 1899, which ran aground in 1916 off Babbit Island, [Tasmania](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), with the loss of all hands.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/152760097 \\|title\\=Daily Telegraph (Launceston, TAS) Tuesday 16 May 1916 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}} In 1899 it was reported that Allsup's main yard was destroyed in a fire,Cheltenham Chronicle, 4 March 1899 but the company continued to build vessels until at least 1902\\.{{cite web \\|URL\\=http://shippingandshipbuilding.uk/list.php?vessel\\=\\&builder\\=10560 \\|title\\=Vessel List (Preston) \\|publisher\\=Shipping and Shipbuilding \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}}",
"The shipbuilding industry was not without its dangers. On 9 April 1884 during a launch of an iron steamer from the Allsup yards the supporting gear snapped and the vessel fell upon five workers; one was immediately killed, another died a few hours later and two more died the following day.Shields Daily Gazette, 10 April 1884 The sole survivor, a riveter named Holmes, was reported as being in a critical condition on 12 April, his fate thereafter unknown.Worcestershire Chronicle, 12 April 1884",
"Due to a shortage of steel during the First World War, land was leased from Preston Corporation in 1914 by the Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards for four slipways north of the Bull Nose for the construction of ferro\\-concrete ships. Orders were placed for ten 700\\-ton barges to transport iron ore to Britain from Spain. However, demand for the vessels fell following the cessation of hostilities and only two of the barges were completed and launched, *Cretemanor* (PD110\\) in September 1919 and *Cretemoor* (PD 112\\) in January 1920\\. The order for the other six vessels was cancelled but work had commenced on two further hulls which were abandoned, and they remained near the old slipways until the 1980s.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/29334057111\\|title\\=Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards, Preston Dock c.1920 \\|publisher\\=Preston Digital Archive \\|date\\=2 September 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}}\nThe site was then taken over by Mr H.C. Ritchie of Liverpool, who had developed the pre\\-cast construction method that the Hughes and Stirling yard used, operating as Ritchie Concrete Engineering and Shipbuilding Company.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/3979714555\\|title\\=Hughes and Stirling Concrete Ship Yards, Preston Dock c.1920 \\|publisher\\=Preston Digital Archive \\|date\\=22 September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}} The only record found for vessels constructed by the yard under this name was a small [coaster](/wiki/Coastal_trading_vessel \"Coastal trading vessel\") *Burscough* but its life was very short; built in 1921, it was stripped of all salvageable metal parts in 1924 by the Preston [shipbreakers](/wiki/Ship_breaking \"Ship breaking\") [Thos. W. Ward](/wiki/Thos._W._Ward \"Thos. W. Ward\") and its concrete hull towed to the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\") where it was sunk and used as the foundation for a jetty.{{cite web \\|URL\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/rpsmithbarney/22988111209 \\|title\\=Concrete Coaster 'Burscough' at T.W. Wards Shipbreaking Yard, Preston 1924 \\|publisher\\=Preston Digital Archive \\|date\\=27 November 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020}}",
"### Other",
"Aside from facilities for the loading, unloading and temporary storage of general cargo and bulk cargo such as timber, the docks provided the following specialised infrastructure:\n* Bitumen distillation: In or around 1929 the Lancashire Tar Distillers company constructed a refinery for the distillation of bitumen, located off Chain Caul Way. In 2004 the company was sold to the petroleum company Total UK and the facility is still in use today. The docklands railways is still being utilised for the transport of crude bitumen to these facilities.\n* Petroleum storage: In 1914 large oil and petroleum storage tanks were built in the north west area of the docklands, which were operated by Petrofino until the company ceased operations at this site in 1992, and the storage tanks were demolished. The docklands railway was utilised for the transport of petroleum to and from these facilities.",
"From October 1982 to November 1990 the former Isle of Man passenger vessel {{ship\\|TSS\\|Manxman\\|1955\\|6}} was moored at Preston Dock. Originally purchased to be used as a museum and visitor centre, the vessel was converted for use as a [floating restaurant](/wiki/Floating_restaurant \"Floating restaurant\") and bar. Upon expiration of its mooring contract the vessel was towed to Liverpool.{{cite book \\|title\\=Historic Ships: The Survivors \\|author\\=Paul Brown \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire UK \\|ISBN\\=9781848689947}}",
"Further facilities included a hydraulic power house and a hospital.",
""
] |
B
-
### Butterball
**Butterball** is one of the first Cenobites introduced in the franchise, appearing both in the initial novella, *[The Hellbound Heart](/wiki/The_Hellbound_Heart "The Hellbound Heart")*, as well as the films *[Hellraiser](/wiki/Hellraiser "Hellraiser")* and *[Hellbound: Hellraiser II](/wiki/Hellbound:Hellraiser_II "Hellraiser II")*. Butterball also made an appearance in Clive Barker's comic book sequel to *Hellbound*, the *Hellraiser* comic book series published by BOOM! comics in 2011\. Despite appearing to be the second\-in\-command of the Cenobites in *The Hellbound Heart*, in the film and comics he primarily functions as a member of [Pinhead](/wiki/Pinhead_%28Hellraiser%29 "Pinhead (Hellraiser)")'s entourage.
#### Appearance
Like the other Cenobites, Butterball has undergone extreme body modification and ritual scarification; other than his massive size and obesity, Butterball's other distinguishing feature is a series of stitches through his eyelids, which he usually keeps hidden by a pair of round sunglasses. Although he is apparently a high\-ranking member of the Cenobites in the novella, and has the most dialogue in the book, in the films he is the most removed of Pinhead's entourage. Butterball is completely stationary and silent, occasionally licking his lips with a bloated tongue. He only becomes physically aggressive during climactic battles, attacking Kirsty at the end of the original *Hellraiser*, Channard at the end of *Hellbound*, and Kirsty again in the seventh issue of Barker's *BOOM!* Hellraiser series.
#### Design
Actor [Simon Bamford](/wiki/Simon_Bamford "Simon Bamford") met Clive Barker through a friend who was doing prop work for Barker's plays. Bamford and Barker became friends, and Bamford joined his theater company. After the company disbanded, Bamford contacted Barker to see what he was doing, and Barker invited him to join his latest project, *Hellraiser*.{{cite book\|title\=The Hellraiser Films and Their Legacy\|last\=Kane\|first\=Paul\|work\=\[\[McFarland \& Company]]\|year\=2006\|isbn\=9780786477173\|page\=22\|publisher\=McFarland \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rSMkCQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA22}} Bamford wore a [fatsuit](/wiki/Fatsuit "Fatsuit") and foam latex mask. He was designed to look as if it would be impossible for him to eat anything else. His torn\-open stomach was meant to give the impression that he could directly interact with his organs at will.{{cite book\|title\=Men, Makeup \& Monsters: Hollywood's Masters of Illustion and FX\|last\=Timpone\|first\=Anthony\|publisher\=\[\[Macmillan Publishers]]\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9780312146788\|page\=170\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Jw9jo0\-\-rXgC\&pg\=PT191}}
#### Appearances
Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\-in\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:
{{blockquote\|text\= "...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...
were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike..."Barker, Clive. "The Hellbound Heart.}}
Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.
Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly "killed" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.
Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 "Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.
Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's "secret weapon", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.
Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels "The Scarlet Gospels")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.
#### Reception
[Shock Till You Drop](/wiki/Shock_Till_You_Drop "Shock Till You Drop") ranked him number seven in their list of the ten best Cenobites, calling him "infamously creepy and mysterious".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com/news/features/395039\-10\-hellraiser\-cenobites\-ranked\-from\-worst\-to\-best/\|title\=10 HELLRAISER Cenobites Ranked From Worst to Best!\|last\=Nicol\|first\=John\|work\=\[\[Shock Till You Drop]]\|date\=2016\-01\-15\|accessdate\=2016\-05\-25}}
|
[
"B\n-",
"### Butterball",
"**Butterball** is one of the first Cenobites introduced in the franchise, appearing both in the initial novella, *[The Hellbound Heart](/wiki/The_Hellbound_Heart \"The Hellbound Heart\")*, as well as the films *[Hellraiser](/wiki/Hellraiser \"Hellraiser\")* and *[Hellbound: Hellraiser II](/wiki/Hellbound:Hellraiser_II \"Hellraiser II\")*. Butterball also made an appearance in Clive Barker's comic book sequel to *Hellbound*, the *Hellraiser* comic book series published by BOOM! comics in 2011\\. Despite appearing to be the second\\-in\\-command of the Cenobites in *The Hellbound Heart*, in the film and comics he primarily functions as a member of [Pinhead](/wiki/Pinhead_%28Hellraiser%29 \"Pinhead (Hellraiser)\")'s entourage.",
"#### Appearance",
"Like the other Cenobites, Butterball has undergone extreme body modification and ritual scarification; other than his massive size and obesity, Butterball's other distinguishing feature is a series of stitches through his eyelids, which he usually keeps hidden by a pair of round sunglasses. Although he is apparently a high\\-ranking member of the Cenobites in the novella, and has the most dialogue in the book, in the films he is the most removed of Pinhead's entourage. Butterball is completely stationary and silent, occasionally licking his lips with a bloated tongue. He only becomes physically aggressive during climactic battles, attacking Kirsty at the end of the original *Hellraiser*, Channard at the end of *Hellbound*, and Kirsty again in the seventh issue of Barker's *BOOM!* Hellraiser series.",
"#### Design",
"Actor [Simon Bamford](/wiki/Simon_Bamford \"Simon Bamford\") met Clive Barker through a friend who was doing prop work for Barker's plays. Bamford and Barker became friends, and Bamford joined his theater company. After the company disbanded, Bamford contacted Barker to see what he was doing, and Barker invited him to join his latest project, *Hellraiser*.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Hellraiser Films and Their Legacy\\|last\\=Kane\\|first\\=Paul\\|work\\=\\[\\[McFarland \\& Company]]\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=9780786477173\\|page\\=22\\|publisher\\=McFarland \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rSMkCQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA22}} Bamford wore a [fatsuit](/wiki/Fatsuit \"Fatsuit\") and foam latex mask. He was designed to look as if it would be impossible for him to eat anything else. His torn\\-open stomach was meant to give the impression that he could directly interact with his organs at will.{{cite book\\|title\\=Men, Makeup \\& Monsters: Hollywood's Masters of Illustion and FX\\|last\\=Timpone\\|first\\=Anthony\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Macmillan Publishers]]\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9780312146788\\|page\\=170\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Jw9jo0\\-\\-rXgC\\&pg\\=PT191}}",
"#### Appearances",
"Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\\-in\\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:",
"{{blockquote\\|text\\= \"...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...\n were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike...\"Barker, Clive. \"The Hellbound Heart.}}",
"Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.",
"Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly \"killed\" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.",
"Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 \"Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)\"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.",
"Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's \"secret weapon\", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.",
"Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels \"The Scarlet Gospels\")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.",
"#### Reception",
"[Shock Till You Drop](/wiki/Shock_Till_You_Drop \"Shock Till You Drop\") ranked him number seven in their list of the ten best Cenobites, calling him \"infamously creepy and mysterious\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com/news/features/395039\\-10\\-hellraiser\\-cenobites\\-ranked\\-from\\-worst\\-to\\-best/\\|title\\=10 HELLRAISER Cenobites Ranked From Worst to Best!\\|last\\=Nicol\\|first\\=John\\|work\\=\\[\\[Shock Till You Drop]]\\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-15\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-25}}",
""
] |
### Butterball
**Butterball** is one of the first Cenobites introduced in the franchise, appearing both in the initial novella, *[The Hellbound Heart](/wiki/The_Hellbound_Heart "The Hellbound Heart")*, as well as the films *[Hellraiser](/wiki/Hellraiser "Hellraiser")* and *[Hellbound: Hellraiser II](/wiki/Hellbound:Hellraiser_II "Hellraiser II")*. Butterball also made an appearance in Clive Barker's comic book sequel to *Hellbound*, the *Hellraiser* comic book series published by BOOM! comics in 2011\. Despite appearing to be the second\-in\-command of the Cenobites in *The Hellbound Heart*, in the film and comics he primarily functions as a member of [Pinhead](/wiki/Pinhead_%28Hellraiser%29 "Pinhead (Hellraiser)")'s entourage.
#### Appearance
Like the other Cenobites, Butterball has undergone extreme body modification and ritual scarification; other than his massive size and obesity, Butterball's other distinguishing feature is a series of stitches through his eyelids, which he usually keeps hidden by a pair of round sunglasses. Although he is apparently a high\-ranking member of the Cenobites in the novella, and has the most dialogue in the book, in the films he is the most removed of Pinhead's entourage. Butterball is completely stationary and silent, occasionally licking his lips with a bloated tongue. He only becomes physically aggressive during climactic battles, attacking Kirsty at the end of the original *Hellraiser*, Channard at the end of *Hellbound*, and Kirsty again in the seventh issue of Barker's *BOOM!* Hellraiser series.
#### Design
Actor [Simon Bamford](/wiki/Simon_Bamford "Simon Bamford") met Clive Barker through a friend who was doing prop work for Barker's plays. Bamford and Barker became friends, and Bamford joined his theater company. After the company disbanded, Bamford contacted Barker to see what he was doing, and Barker invited him to join his latest project, *Hellraiser*.{{cite book\|title\=The Hellraiser Films and Their Legacy\|last\=Kane\|first\=Paul\|work\=\[\[McFarland \& Company]]\|year\=2006\|isbn\=9780786477173\|page\=22\|publisher\=McFarland \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rSMkCQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA22}} Bamford wore a [fatsuit](/wiki/Fatsuit "Fatsuit") and foam latex mask. He was designed to look as if it would be impossible for him to eat anything else. His torn\-open stomach was meant to give the impression that he could directly interact with his organs at will.{{cite book\|title\=Men, Makeup \& Monsters: Hollywood's Masters of Illustion and FX\|last\=Timpone\|first\=Anthony\|publisher\=\[\[Macmillan Publishers]]\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9780312146788\|page\=170\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Jw9jo0\-\-rXgC\&pg\=PT191}}
#### Appearances
Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\-in\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:
{{blockquote\|text\= "...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...
were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike..."Barker, Clive. "The Hellbound Heart.}}
Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.
Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly "killed" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.
Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 "Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.
Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's "secret weapon", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.
Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels "The Scarlet Gospels")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.
#### Reception
[Shock Till You Drop](/wiki/Shock_Till_You_Drop "Shock Till You Drop") ranked him number seven in their list of the ten best Cenobites, calling him "infamously creepy and mysterious".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com/news/features/395039\-10\-hellraiser\-cenobites\-ranked\-from\-worst\-to\-best/\|title\=10 HELLRAISER Cenobites Ranked From Worst to Best!\|last\=Nicol\|first\=John\|work\=\[\[Shock Till You Drop]]\|date\=2016\-01\-15\|accessdate\=2016\-05\-25}}
|
[
"### Butterball",
"**Butterball** is one of the first Cenobites introduced in the franchise, appearing both in the initial novella, *[The Hellbound Heart](/wiki/The_Hellbound_Heart \"The Hellbound Heart\")*, as well as the films *[Hellraiser](/wiki/Hellraiser \"Hellraiser\")* and *[Hellbound: Hellraiser II](/wiki/Hellbound:Hellraiser_II \"Hellraiser II\")*. Butterball also made an appearance in Clive Barker's comic book sequel to *Hellbound*, the *Hellraiser* comic book series published by BOOM! comics in 2011\\. Despite appearing to be the second\\-in\\-command of the Cenobites in *The Hellbound Heart*, in the film and comics he primarily functions as a member of [Pinhead](/wiki/Pinhead_%28Hellraiser%29 \"Pinhead (Hellraiser)\")'s entourage.",
"#### Appearance",
"Like the other Cenobites, Butterball has undergone extreme body modification and ritual scarification; other than his massive size and obesity, Butterball's other distinguishing feature is a series of stitches through his eyelids, which he usually keeps hidden by a pair of round sunglasses. Although he is apparently a high\\-ranking member of the Cenobites in the novella, and has the most dialogue in the book, in the films he is the most removed of Pinhead's entourage. Butterball is completely stationary and silent, occasionally licking his lips with a bloated tongue. He only becomes physically aggressive during climactic battles, attacking Kirsty at the end of the original *Hellraiser*, Channard at the end of *Hellbound*, and Kirsty again in the seventh issue of Barker's *BOOM!* Hellraiser series.",
"#### Design",
"Actor [Simon Bamford](/wiki/Simon_Bamford \"Simon Bamford\") met Clive Barker through a friend who was doing prop work for Barker's plays. Bamford and Barker became friends, and Bamford joined his theater company. After the company disbanded, Bamford contacted Barker to see what he was doing, and Barker invited him to join his latest project, *Hellraiser*.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Hellraiser Films and Their Legacy\\|last\\=Kane\\|first\\=Paul\\|work\\=\\[\\[McFarland \\& Company]]\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=9780786477173\\|page\\=22\\|publisher\\=McFarland \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rSMkCQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA22}} Bamford wore a [fatsuit](/wiki/Fatsuit \"Fatsuit\") and foam latex mask. He was designed to look as if it would be impossible for him to eat anything else. His torn\\-open stomach was meant to give the impression that he could directly interact with his organs at will.{{cite book\\|title\\=Men, Makeup \\& Monsters: Hollywood's Masters of Illustion and FX\\|last\\=Timpone\\|first\\=Anthony\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Macmillan Publishers]]\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9780312146788\\|page\\=170\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Jw9jo0\\-\\-rXgC\\&pg\\=PT191}}",
"#### Appearances",
"Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\\-in\\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:",
"{{blockquote\\|text\\= \"...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...\n were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike...\"Barker, Clive. \"The Hellbound Heart.}}",
"Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.",
"Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly \"killed\" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.",
"Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 \"Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)\"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.",
"Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's \"secret weapon\", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.",
"Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels \"The Scarlet Gospels\")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.",
"#### Reception",
"[Shock Till You Drop](/wiki/Shock_Till_You_Drop \"Shock Till You Drop\") ranked him number seven in their list of the ten best Cenobites, calling him \"infamously creepy and mysterious\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com/news/features/395039\\-10\\-hellraiser\\-cenobites\\-ranked\\-from\\-worst\\-to\\-best/\\|title\\=10 HELLRAISER Cenobites Ranked From Worst to Best!\\|last\\=Nicol\\|first\\=John\\|work\\=\\[\\[Shock Till You Drop]]\\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-15\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-25}}",
""
] |
#### Appearances
Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\-in\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:
{{blockquote\|text\= "...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...
were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike..."Barker, Clive. "The Hellbound Heart.}}
Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.
Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly "killed" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.
Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 "Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.
Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's "secret weapon", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.
Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels "The Scarlet Gospels")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.
|
[
"#### Appearances",
"Butterball is first introduced in the novella *The Hellbound Heart*, in which he is the first of the Cenobites to appear, and their apparent second\\-in\\-command behind the Engineer, whose presence is only summoned in special circumstances:",
"{{blockquote\\|text\\= \"...the hooks that transfixed the flaps of its eyes...\n were wed by an intricate system of chains passed through flesh and bone alike...\"Barker, Clive. \"The Hellbound Heart.}}",
"Along with the other Cenobites, Butterball takes antagonist Frank Cotton back to the Cenobite realm after Cotton opens the Lament Configuration, expecting to find a hedonistic paradise that will cure his sensual nihilism. Despite being warned that what he finds may not be what he is expecting, Frank willingly goes along with the Cenobites, only to find that—past an initial euphoria—the experiences to which the Cenobites subject him are so intense as to be torturous. Butterball is later part of the Cenobite contingent that makes a deal with Frank's brother, Rory's friend, Kirsty, to return Frank to them in exchange for her own freedom, after she unwittingly makes a deal to return to the Cenobite realm by opening the box.",
"Butterball would later appear — and receive a name — in the closing credits of the film adaptation *Hellraiser*. Unlike the other Cenobites, who are sent back by Kirsty (here presented as Frank's niece) to the Cenobite realm during the film's climax, Butterball is seemingly \"killed\" when a section of roof collapses on him as the schism opened by the puzzle box causes a series of tremors to shake Frank's house.",
"Butterball reappears in *Hellbound: Hellraiser II*, with no explanation given as to his revival. Like Pinhead, he is reminded of his humanity by Kirsty, after which he fights to protect her against the newly created Cenobite, [Dr. Channard](/wiki/Dr._Channard_%28Hellraiser%29 \"Dr. Channard (Hellraiser)\"). He is killed by Channard after a brief fight, after which he reverts to a non\\-mutilated human form. This is his last cinematic appearance, though he was revived in the comics.",
"Butterball reappears in Clive Barker's comic book series for BOOM! comics. Butterball appears in the fifth issue as Pinhead's \"secret weapon\", ambushing and restraining Kirsty when she finally confronts Pinhead. The confrontation turns out to be a trap arranged by Pinhead to betray his fellow Cenobites, and Pinhead slips Kirsty one of his knives, which she uses to kill Butterball.",
"Butterball reappears yet again in *[The Scarlet Gospels](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Gospels \"The Scarlet Gospels\")*, once again being betrayed by Pinhead. This time, Pinhead kills him with a spell that liquefies Butterball's innards, causing him to vomit up his internal organs in a geyser of blood. In a final show of contempt, Butterball restrains Pinhead as he dies, so that the projectile of blood strikes Pinhead in the face.",
""
] |
Profile
-------
YEC [generates](/wiki/Electricity_generation "Electricity generation") virtually all of Yukon's electricity supply, and distributes power to a third of the locations outside of [Whitehorse](/wiki/Whitehorse%2C_Yukon "Whitehorse, Yukon"). Their largest customer (a wholesale buyer) is the [Yukon Electrical Company](/wiki/Yukon_Electrical_Company "Yukon Electrical Company") (YECL), a private business that has been operating since 1901, which itself has some smaller hydro operations, and serves primarily the Whitehorse area plus two thirds of the rural communities. YEC itself provides customer electricity directly in Dawson City, Mayo, Faro, Champagne and to some isolated individual customers.
YEC has developed a grid that connects [hydro](/wiki/Hydroelectricity "Hydroelectricity") facilities in [Whitehorse](/wiki/Whitehorse%2C_Yukon "Whitehorse, Yukon") ([Schwatka Lake](/wiki/Schwatka_Lake "Schwatka Lake") Dam \- 40 MW from four wheels, the fourth added in 1983\), [Aishihik Lake](/wiki/Aishihik_Lake "Aishihik Lake") \- 30 MW, and the YECL facilities at Fish Lake near Whitehorse. The communities on the "Whitehorse\-Aishihik\-Faro" grid include Whitehorse, [Champagne](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon "List of communities in Yukon"), [Johnson's Crossing](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon "List of communities in Yukon"), [Faro](/wiki/Faro%2C_Yukon "Faro, Yukon"), and the following communities where it is distributed by YECL: [Haines Junction](/wiki/Haines_Junction%2C_Yukon "Haines Junction, Yukon"), [Carcross](/wiki/Carcross%2C_Yukon "Carcross, Yukon"), [Tagish](/wiki/Tagish%2C_Yukon "Tagish, Yukon"), [Marsh Lake](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon "List of communities in Yukon"), [Teslin](/wiki/Teslin%2C_Yukon "Teslin, Yukon"), [Carmacks](/wiki/Carmacks%2C_Yukon "Carmacks, Yukon") and [Ross River](/wiki/Ross_River%2C_Yukon "Ross River, Yukon").
YEC operates two wind turbines on Haeckel Hill near Whitehorse connected to the Whitehorse\-Aishihik\-Faro grid. The first turbine is a Bonus Energy 150 kW MARK III installed in 1993\. The second turbine, a [Vestas](/wiki/Vestas "Vestas") 660 kW V47 LT II was later installed in 2000\. These units need to be specially adapted to deal with icing and the northern environment.
A second grid, brought on\-line in 2004, connects [Dawson City](/wiki/Dawson_City%2C_Yukon "Dawson City, Yukon") (reliant on diesel power from 1966 to 2004\) via [Stewart Crossing](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon "List of communities in Yukon") to [Mayo](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Yukon "Mayo, Yukon"), and beyond to the YECL\-served communities of [Elsa](/wiki/Elsa%2C_Yukon "Elsa, Yukon") and [Keno City](/wiki/Keno_City%2C_Yukon "Keno City, Yukon"), all drawing on the 5 MW hydro facility just north of Mayo that had mines at Elsa as primary customer until 1989\.
The government of [John Ostashek](/wiki/John_Ostashek "John Ostashek") (1992\-1996\) had promised to connect Mayo, Stewart Crossing and YECL\-served [Pelly Crossing](/wiki/Pelly_Crossing%2C_Yukon "Pelly Crossing, Yukon") to the main southern grid at Carmacks. During their mandate, and the subsequent N.D.P. and Liberal party mandates, this project was not developed, and Pelly Crossing remained on its own YECL diesel generator. The project was finally proceeded with during the later part of the 2000s, partly to meet power requirements for mines in the Minto area, and on June 17, 2011, the two grids began to operate together. The YECL generator at Pelly Crossing is now on standby to the grid.
Off the grid, Yukon Electrical Company Limited operates diesel generators to serve its customers in [Watson Lake\-Upper Liard](/wiki/Watson_Lake%2C_Yukon "Watson Lake, Yukon"), Swift River, [Burwash Landing](/wiki/Burwash_Landing%2C_Yukon "Burwash Landing, Yukon"), [Destruction Bay](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon "List of communities in Yukon"), [Beaver Creek](/wiki/Beaver_Creek%2C_Yukon "Beaver Creek, Yukon") and [Old Crow](/wiki/Old_Crow%2C_Yukon "Old Crow, Yukon"). The possibility of a grid connection to [Atlin, British Columbia](/wiki/Atlin%2C_British_Columbia "Atlin, British Columbia") has probably been eliminated by a decision to construct a hydro project near Atlin, but talk in Atlin of an expansion could still raise that possibility.
Yukon has no connections to the continental power grid, therefore, YEC cannot sell to or buy from networks in [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta") or the [Northwest Territories](/wiki/Northwest_Territories "Northwest Territories"). In addition to the extreme expense of such transmission lines, they would also be subject to disruption from [solar flares](/wiki/Solar_flares "Solar flares").
|
[
"Profile\n-------",
"YEC [generates](/wiki/Electricity_generation \"Electricity generation\") virtually all of Yukon's electricity supply, and distributes power to a third of the locations outside of [Whitehorse](/wiki/Whitehorse%2C_Yukon \"Whitehorse, Yukon\"). Their largest customer (a wholesale buyer) is the [Yukon Electrical Company](/wiki/Yukon_Electrical_Company \"Yukon Electrical Company\") (YECL), a private business that has been operating since 1901, which itself has some smaller hydro operations, and serves primarily the Whitehorse area plus two thirds of the rural communities. YEC itself provides customer electricity directly in Dawson City, Mayo, Faro, Champagne and to some isolated individual customers.",
"YEC has developed a grid that connects [hydro](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\") facilities in [Whitehorse](/wiki/Whitehorse%2C_Yukon \"Whitehorse, Yukon\") ([Schwatka Lake](/wiki/Schwatka_Lake \"Schwatka Lake\") Dam \\- 40 MW from four wheels, the fourth added in 1983\\), [Aishihik Lake](/wiki/Aishihik_Lake \"Aishihik Lake\") \\- 30 MW, and the YECL facilities at Fish Lake near Whitehorse. The communities on the \"Whitehorse\\-Aishihik\\-Faro\" grid include Whitehorse, [Champagne](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon \"List of communities in Yukon\"), [Johnson's Crossing](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon \"List of communities in Yukon\"), [Faro](/wiki/Faro%2C_Yukon \"Faro, Yukon\"), and the following communities where it is distributed by YECL: [Haines Junction](/wiki/Haines_Junction%2C_Yukon \"Haines Junction, Yukon\"), [Carcross](/wiki/Carcross%2C_Yukon \"Carcross, Yukon\"), [Tagish](/wiki/Tagish%2C_Yukon \"Tagish, Yukon\"), [Marsh Lake](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon \"List of communities in Yukon\"), [Teslin](/wiki/Teslin%2C_Yukon \"Teslin, Yukon\"), [Carmacks](/wiki/Carmacks%2C_Yukon \"Carmacks, Yukon\") and [Ross River](/wiki/Ross_River%2C_Yukon \"Ross River, Yukon\").",
"YEC operates two wind turbines on Haeckel Hill near Whitehorse connected to the Whitehorse\\-Aishihik\\-Faro grid. The first turbine is a Bonus Energy 150 kW MARK III installed in 1993\\. The second turbine, a [Vestas](/wiki/Vestas \"Vestas\") 660 kW V47 LT II was later installed in 2000\\. These units need to be specially adapted to deal with icing and the northern environment.",
"A second grid, brought on\\-line in 2004, connects [Dawson City](/wiki/Dawson_City%2C_Yukon \"Dawson City, Yukon\") (reliant on diesel power from 1966 to 2004\\) via [Stewart Crossing](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon \"List of communities in Yukon\") to [Mayo](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Yukon \"Mayo, Yukon\"), and beyond to the YECL\\-served communities of [Elsa](/wiki/Elsa%2C_Yukon \"Elsa, Yukon\") and [Keno City](/wiki/Keno_City%2C_Yukon \"Keno City, Yukon\"), all drawing on the 5 MW hydro facility just north of Mayo that had mines at Elsa as primary customer until 1989\\.",
"The government of [John Ostashek](/wiki/John_Ostashek \"John Ostashek\") (1992\\-1996\\) had promised to connect Mayo, Stewart Crossing and YECL\\-served [Pelly Crossing](/wiki/Pelly_Crossing%2C_Yukon \"Pelly Crossing, Yukon\") to the main southern grid at Carmacks. During their mandate, and the subsequent N.D.P. and Liberal party mandates, this project was not developed, and Pelly Crossing remained on its own YECL diesel generator. The project was finally proceeded with during the later part of the 2000s, partly to meet power requirements for mines in the Minto area, and on June 17, 2011, the two grids began to operate together. The YECL generator at Pelly Crossing is now on standby to the grid.",
"Off the grid, Yukon Electrical Company Limited operates diesel generators to serve its customers in [Watson Lake\\-Upper Liard](/wiki/Watson_Lake%2C_Yukon \"Watson Lake, Yukon\"), Swift River, [Burwash Landing](/wiki/Burwash_Landing%2C_Yukon \"Burwash Landing, Yukon\"), [Destruction Bay](/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Yukon \"List of communities in Yukon\"), [Beaver Creek](/wiki/Beaver_Creek%2C_Yukon \"Beaver Creek, Yukon\") and [Old Crow](/wiki/Old_Crow%2C_Yukon \"Old Crow, Yukon\"). The possibility of a grid connection to [Atlin, British Columbia](/wiki/Atlin%2C_British_Columbia \"Atlin, British Columbia\") has probably been eliminated by a decision to construct a hydro project near Atlin, but talk in Atlin of an expansion could still raise that possibility.",
"Yukon has no connections to the continental power grid, therefore, YEC cannot sell to or buy from networks in [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\") or the [Northwest Territories](/wiki/Northwest_Territories \"Northwest Territories\"). In addition to the extreme expense of such transmission lines, they would also be subject to disruption from [solar flares](/wiki/Solar_flares \"Solar flares\").",
""
] |
Scientific career
-----------------
Ashok is the recipient of over 100 research grants and is actively involved in laboratory and clinical studies looking at the efficacy of certain [antioxidants](/wiki/Antioxidants "Antioxidants") in improving the [fertility](/wiki/Fertility "Fertility") of male patients.
### 1990–1999
In the early years, Ashok and his team at ACRM studied the physiological levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its relationship with sperm quality in healthy volunteers of unproven fertility and in infertile men. They went on to study the negative effects of oxidative stress generated during sperm processing and cryopreservation during ART procedures on semen quality. Ashok and his researchers looked into the cut\-off values for ROS levels to distinguish between fertile and infertile men and the measurement of oxidative stress.
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 8973665 \| volume\=48 \| issue\=6 \| title\=Role of reactive oxygen species in male infertility \| year\=1996 \| journal\=Urology \| pages\=835–50 \| last1 \= Sharma \| first1 \= RK \| last2 \= Agarwal \| first2 \= A\| doi\=10\.1016/s0090\-4295(96\)00313\-5 }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 10548626 \| doi\=10\.1093/humrep/14\.11\.2801 \| volume\=14 \| issue\=11 \| title\=The reactive oxygen species\-total antioxidant capacity score is a new measure of oxidative stress to predict male infertility \| year\=1999 \| journal\=Hum Reprod \| pages\=2801–7 \| last1 \= Sharma \| first1 \= RK \| last2 \= Pasqualotto \| first2 \= FF \| last3 \= Nelson \| first3 \= DR \| last4 \= Thomas \| first4 \= AJ Jr. \| last5 \= Agarwal \| first5 \= A\| doi\-access \= free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 10332447 \| volume\=161 \| issue\=6 \| title\=Varicocele is associated with elevated spermatozoal reactive oxygen species production and diminished seminal plasma antioxidant capacity \| year\=1999 \| journal\=J Urol \| pages\=1831–4 \| last1 \= Hendin \| first1 \= BN \| last2 \= Kolettis \| first2 \= PN \| last3 \= Sharma \| first3 \= RK \| last4 \= Thomas \| first4 \= AJ Jr. \| last5 \= Agarwal \| first5 \= A\| doi\=10\.1016/S0022\-5347(05\)68818\-0 }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 10688996 \| volume\=73 \| issue\=3 \| title\=Relationship between oxidative stress, semen characteristics, and clinical diagnosis in men undergoing infertility investigation \| year\=2000 \| journal\=Fertil Steril \| pages\=459–64 \| last1 \= Pasqualotto \| first1 \= FF \| last2 \= Sharma \| first2 \= RK \| last3 \= Nelson \| first3 \= DR \| last4 \= Thomas \| first4 \= AJ \| last5 \= Agarwal \| first5 \= A\| doi\=10\.1016/s0015\-0282(99\)00567\-1 \| doi\-access \= free }}
### 2000\-2009
In the following decade, Ashok and his team at ACRM investigated the physiological and pathophysiological effects (both direct and indirect) of endogenous and exogenous ROS. Ashok and his researchers continued to examine normal range of ROS generation to distinguish between fertile and infertile men.
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 12749418 \| volume\=79 \| issue\=4 \| title\=Role of reactive oxygen species in the pathophysiology of human reproduction \| year\=2003 \| journal\=Fertil Steril \| pages\=829–43 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Saleh \| first2 \= RA \| last3 \= Bedaiwy \| first3 \= MA\| doi\=10\.1016/s0015\-0282(02\)04948\-8 \| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 12926527 \| doi\=10\.1093/humupd/dmg027 \| volume\=9 \| issue\=4 \| title\=Role of sperm chromatin abnormalities and DNA damage in male infertility \| year\=2003 \| journal\=Hum Reprod Update \| pages\=331–45 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Said \| first2 \= TM\| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 12801566 \| volume\=79 \| title\=Negative effects of increased sperm DNA damage in relation to seminal oxidative stress in men with idiopathic and male factor infertility \| year\=2003 \| journal\=Fertil Steril \| pages\=1597–605 \| last1 \= Saleh \| first1 \= RA \| last2 \= Agarwal \| first2 \= A \| last3 \= Nada \| first3 \= EA \| last4 \= El\-Tonsy \| first4 \= MH \| last5 \= Sharma \| first5 \= RK \| last6 \= Meyer \| first6 \= A \| last7 \= Nelson \| first7 \= DR \| last8 \= Thomas \| first8 \= AJ\| issue\=Suppl 3 \| doi\=10\.1016/s0015\-0282(03\)00337\-6 \| doi\-access \= free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 12969693 \| volume\=80 \| issue\=3 \| title\=Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility \| year\=2003 \| journal\=Fertil Steril \| pages\=531–5 \| last1 \= Wang \| first1 \= X \| last2 \= Sharma \| first2 \= RK \| last3 \= Sikka \| first3 \= SC \| last4 \= Thomas \| first4 \= AJ Jr. \| last5 \= Falcone \| first5 \= T \| last6 \= Agarwal \| first6 \= A\| doi\=10\.1016/s0015\-0282(03\)00756\-8 \| doi\-access \= free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 14688171 \| doi\=10\.1093/humrep/deh024 \| volume\=19 \| issue\=1 \| title\=Relationship between ROS production, apoptosis and DNA denaturation in spermatozoa from patients examined for infertility \| year\=2004 \| journal\=Hum Reprod \| pages\=129–38 \| last1 \= Moustafa \| first1 \= MH \| last2 \= Sharma \| first2 \= RK \| last3 \= Thornton \| first3 \= J \| last4 \= Mascha \| first4 \= E \| last5 \= Abdel\-Hafez \| first5 \= MA \| last6 \= Thomas \| first6 \= AJ Jr. \| last7 \= Agarwal \| first7 \= A\| doi\-access \= free }}
### 2010–2014
In the new millennium, Ashok and his team at ACRM examined the role of antioxidants (e.g. carnitines, vitamins C and E, pentoxifyline) as defense mechanisms to neutralize and prevent the over\-production of ROS in relation to male infertility.
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 21117931 \| doi\=10\.3109/14647273\.2010\.532279 \| volume\=13 \| issue\=4 \| title\=The role of antioxidant therapy in the treatment of male infertility \| year\=2010 \| journal\=Hum Fertil (Camb) \| pages\=217–25 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Sekhon \| first2 \= LH\| s2cid\=31782420 }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 21716893 \| doi\=10\.4103/0970\-1591\.78437 \| volume\=27 \| issue\=1 \| title\=Oxidative stress and antioxidants for idiopathic oligoasthenoteratospermia: Is it justified? \| pmc\=3114591 \| year\=2011 \| journal\=Indian J Urol \| pages\=74–85 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Sekhon \| first2 \= LH \| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 24675655 \| doi\=10\.4103/1008\-682X.126384 \| volume\=16 \| issue\=3 \| title\=Lycopene and male infertility \| pmc\=4023371 \| year\=2014 \| journal\=Asian J Androl \| pages\=420–5 \| last1 \= Durairajanayagam \| first1 \= D \| last2 \= Agarwal \| first2 \= A \| last3 \= Ong \| first3 \= C \| last4 \= Prashast \| first4 \= P \| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 25421286 \| doi\=10\.1186/1477\-7827\-12\-112 \| volume\=12 \| title\=Utility of antioxidants during assisted reproductive techniques: an evidence based review \| pmc\=4258799 \| year\=2014 \| journal\=Reprod Biol Endocrinol \| page\=112 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Durairajanayagam \| first2 \= D \| last3 \= Plessis \| first3 \= SS \| doi\-access\=free }}
### Current research
In the more recent years, Ashok has been working on the studies on [molecular markers](/wiki/Molecular_markers "Molecular markers") of [oxidative stress](/wiki/Oxidative_stress "Oxidative stress"), DNA integrity, effect of radio frequency radiation on [fertility](/wiki/Fertility "Fertility") and [fertility preservation](/wiki/Fertility_preservation "Fertility preservation") in patients with [cancer](/wiki/Cancer "Cancer"). His research focus currently is on the use of [proteomics](/wiki/Proteomics "Proteomics") and bioinformatics tools in discovering the biological processes and pathways underlying OS\-induced infertility.
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 18804757 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.fertnstert.2008\.08\.022 \| volume\=92 \| issue\=4 \| title\=Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF\-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study \| date\=October 2009 \| journal\=Fertil. Steril. \| pages\=1318–25 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Desai \| first2 \= NR \| last3 \= Makker \| first3 \= K \|display\-authors\=etal \| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 21888695 \| doi\=10\.1590/s1677\-55382011000400002 \| volume\=37 \| issue\=4 \| title\=Cell phones and male infertility: a review of recent innovations in technology and consequences \| year\=2011 \| journal\=Int Braz J Urol \| pages\=432–54 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Singh \| first2 \= A \| last3 \= Hamada \| first3 \= A \| last4 \= Kesari \| first4 \= K\| doi\-access \= free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 24813754 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.rbmo.2014\.02\.013 \| volume\=29 \| issue\=1 \| title\=Proteomics, oxidative stress and male infertility \| year\=2014 \| journal\=Reprod Biomed Online \| pages\=32–58 \| last1 \= Agarwal \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Durairajanayagam \| first2 \= D \| last3 \= Halabi \| first3 \= J \| last4 \= Peng \| first4 \= J \| last5 \= Vazquez\-Levin \| first5 \= M\| doi\-access \= free \| hdl \= 11336/6444 \| hdl\-access \= free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 23688036 \| doi\=10\.1186/1477\-7827\-11\-48 \| volume\=11 \| title\=Proteomic analysis of human spermatozoa proteins with oxidative stress \| pmc\=3716960 \| year\=2013 \| journal\=Reprod Biol Endocrinol \| page\=48 \| last1 \= Sharma \| first1 \= R \| last2 \= Agarwal \| first2 \= A \| last3 \= Mohanty \| first3 \= G \| last4 \= Hamada \| first4 \= AJ \| last5 \= Gopalan \| first5 \= B \| last6 \= Willard \| first6 \= B \| last7 \= Yadav \| first7 \= S \| last8 \= Plessis \| first8 \= S \| doi\-access\=free }}
* {{cite journal \| pmid \= 29530785 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.juro.2018\.03\.009 \| volume\=200 \| issue\=2 \| title\=Proteomic Signatures of Sperm Mitochondria in Varicocele: Clinical Use as Biomarkers of Varicocele Associated Infertility \| year\=2018 \| journal\=J Urol \| pages\=414–422 \| last1 \= Samanta \| first1 \= L \| last2 \= Agarwal \| first2 \= A \| last3 \= Swain \| first3 \= N \| last4 \= Sharma \| first4 \= R \| last5 \= Gopalan \| first5 \= B \| last6 \= Esteves \| first6 \= SC \| last7 \= Durairajanayagam \| first7 \= D \| last8 \= Sabanegh \| first8 \= E\| s2cid\=3873797 }}
|
[
"Scientific career\n-----------------",
"Ashok is the recipient of over 100 research grants and is actively involved in laboratory and clinical studies looking at the efficacy of certain [antioxidants](/wiki/Antioxidants \"Antioxidants\") in improving the [fertility](/wiki/Fertility \"Fertility\") of male patients.",
"### 1990–1999",
"In the early years, Ashok and his team at ACRM studied the physiological levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its relationship with sperm quality in healthy volunteers of unproven fertility and in infertile men. They went on to study the negative effects of oxidative stress generated during sperm processing and cryopreservation during ART procedures on semen quality. Ashok and his researchers looked into the cut\\-off values for ROS levels to distinguish between fertile and infertile men and the measurement of oxidative stress.",
"* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 8973665 \\| volume\\=48 \\| issue\\=6 \\| title\\=Role of reactive oxygen species in male infertility \\| year\\=1996 \\| journal\\=Urology \\| pages\\=835–50 \\| last1 \\= Sharma \\| first1 \\= RK \\| last2 \\= Agarwal \\| first2 \\= A\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0090\\-4295(96\\)00313\\-5 }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 10548626 \\| doi\\=10\\.1093/humrep/14\\.11\\.2801 \\| volume\\=14 \\| issue\\=11 \\| title\\=The reactive oxygen species\\-total antioxidant capacity score is a new measure of oxidative stress to predict male infertility \\| year\\=1999 \\| journal\\=Hum Reprod \\| pages\\=2801–7 \\| last1 \\= Sharma \\| first1 \\= RK \\| last2 \\= Pasqualotto \\| first2 \\= FF \\| last3 \\= Nelson \\| first3 \\= DR \\| last4 \\= Thomas \\| first4 \\= AJ Jr. \\| last5 \\= Agarwal \\| first5 \\= A\\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 10332447 \\| volume\\=161 \\| issue\\=6 \\| title\\=Varicocele is associated with elevated spermatozoal reactive oxygen species production and diminished seminal plasma antioxidant capacity \\| year\\=1999 \\| journal\\=J Urol \\| pages\\=1831–4 \\| last1 \\= Hendin \\| first1 \\= BN \\| last2 \\= Kolettis \\| first2 \\= PN \\| last3 \\= Sharma \\| first3 \\= RK \\| last4 \\= Thomas \\| first4 \\= AJ Jr. \\| last5 \\= Agarwal \\| first5 \\= A\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/S0022\\-5347(05\\)68818\\-0 }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 10688996 \\| volume\\=73 \\| issue\\=3 \\| title\\=Relationship between oxidative stress, semen characteristics, and clinical diagnosis in men undergoing infertility investigation \\| year\\=2000 \\| journal\\=Fertil Steril \\| pages\\=459–64 \\| last1 \\= Pasqualotto \\| first1 \\= FF \\| last2 \\= Sharma \\| first2 \\= RK \\| last3 \\= Nelson \\| first3 \\= DR \\| last4 \\= Thomas \\| first4 \\= AJ \\| last5 \\= Agarwal \\| first5 \\= A\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0015\\-0282(99\\)00567\\-1 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"### 2000\\-2009",
"In the following decade, Ashok and his team at ACRM investigated the physiological and pathophysiological effects (both direct and indirect) of endogenous and exogenous ROS. Ashok and his researchers continued to examine normal range of ROS generation to distinguish between fertile and infertile men.",
"* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 12749418 \\| volume\\=79 \\| issue\\=4 \\| title\\=Role of reactive oxygen species in the pathophysiology of human reproduction \\| year\\=2003 \\| journal\\=Fertil Steril \\| pages\\=829–43 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Saleh \\| first2 \\= RA \\| last3 \\= Bedaiwy \\| first3 \\= MA\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0015\\-0282(02\\)04948\\-8 \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 12926527 \\| doi\\=10\\.1093/humupd/dmg027 \\| volume\\=9 \\| issue\\=4 \\| title\\=Role of sperm chromatin abnormalities and DNA damage in male infertility \\| year\\=2003 \\| journal\\=Hum Reprod Update \\| pages\\=331–45 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Said \\| first2 \\= TM\\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 12801566 \\| volume\\=79 \\| title\\=Negative effects of increased sperm DNA damage in relation to seminal oxidative stress in men with idiopathic and male factor infertility \\| year\\=2003 \\| journal\\=Fertil Steril \\| pages\\=1597–605 \\| last1 \\= Saleh \\| first1 \\= RA \\| last2 \\= Agarwal \\| first2 \\= A \\| last3 \\= Nada \\| first3 \\= EA \\| last4 \\= El\\-Tonsy \\| first4 \\= MH \\| last5 \\= Sharma \\| first5 \\= RK \\| last6 \\= Meyer \\| first6 \\= A \\| last7 \\= Nelson \\| first7 \\= DR \\| last8 \\= Thomas \\| first8 \\= AJ\\| issue\\=Suppl 3 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0015\\-0282(03\\)00337\\-6 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 12969693 \\| volume\\=80 \\| issue\\=3 \\| title\\=Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility \\| year\\=2003 \\| journal\\=Fertil Steril \\| pages\\=531–5 \\| last1 \\= Wang \\| first1 \\= X \\| last2 \\= Sharma \\| first2 \\= RK \\| last3 \\= Sikka \\| first3 \\= SC \\| last4 \\= Thomas \\| first4 \\= AJ Jr. \\| last5 \\= Falcone \\| first5 \\= T \\| last6 \\= Agarwal \\| first6 \\= A\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0015\\-0282(03\\)00756\\-8 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 14688171 \\| doi\\=10\\.1093/humrep/deh024 \\| volume\\=19 \\| issue\\=1 \\| title\\=Relationship between ROS production, apoptosis and DNA denaturation in spermatozoa from patients examined for infertility \\| year\\=2004 \\| journal\\=Hum Reprod \\| pages\\=129–38 \\| last1 \\= Moustafa \\| first1 \\= MH \\| last2 \\= Sharma \\| first2 \\= RK \\| last3 \\= Thornton \\| first3 \\= J \\| last4 \\= Mascha \\| first4 \\= E \\| last5 \\= Abdel\\-Hafez \\| first5 \\= MA \\| last6 \\= Thomas \\| first6 \\= AJ Jr. \\| last7 \\= Agarwal \\| first7 \\= A\\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"### 2010–2014",
"In the new millennium, Ashok and his team at ACRM examined the role of antioxidants (e.g. carnitines, vitamins C and E, pentoxifyline) as defense mechanisms to neutralize and prevent the over\\-production of ROS in relation to male infertility.",
"* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 21117931 \\| doi\\=10\\.3109/14647273\\.2010\\.532279 \\| volume\\=13 \\| issue\\=4 \\| title\\=The role of antioxidant therapy in the treatment of male infertility \\| year\\=2010 \\| journal\\=Hum Fertil (Camb) \\| pages\\=217–25 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Sekhon \\| first2 \\= LH\\| s2cid\\=31782420 }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 21716893 \\| doi\\=10\\.4103/0970\\-1591\\.78437 \\| volume\\=27 \\| issue\\=1 \\| title\\=Oxidative stress and antioxidants for idiopathic oligoasthenoteratospermia: Is it justified? \\| pmc\\=3114591 \\| year\\=2011 \\| journal\\=Indian J Urol \\| pages\\=74–85 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Sekhon \\| first2 \\= LH \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 24675655 \\| doi\\=10\\.4103/1008\\-682X.126384 \\| volume\\=16 \\| issue\\=3 \\| title\\=Lycopene and male infertility \\| pmc\\=4023371 \\| year\\=2014 \\| journal\\=Asian J Androl \\| pages\\=420–5 \\| last1 \\= Durairajanayagam \\| first1 \\= D \\| last2 \\= Agarwal \\| first2 \\= A \\| last3 \\= Ong \\| first3 \\= C \\| last4 \\= Prashast \\| first4 \\= P \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 25421286 \\| doi\\=10\\.1186/1477\\-7827\\-12\\-112 \\| volume\\=12 \\| title\\=Utility of antioxidants during assisted reproductive techniques: an evidence based review \\| pmc\\=4258799 \\| year\\=2014 \\| journal\\=Reprod Biol Endocrinol \\| page\\=112 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Durairajanayagam \\| first2 \\= D \\| last3 \\= Plessis \\| first3 \\= SS \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Current research",
"In the more recent years, Ashok has been working on the studies on [molecular markers](/wiki/Molecular_markers \"Molecular markers\") of [oxidative stress](/wiki/Oxidative_stress \"Oxidative stress\"), DNA integrity, effect of radio frequency radiation on [fertility](/wiki/Fertility \"Fertility\") and [fertility preservation](/wiki/Fertility_preservation \"Fertility preservation\") in patients with [cancer](/wiki/Cancer \"Cancer\"). His research focus currently is on the use of [proteomics](/wiki/Proteomics \"Proteomics\") and bioinformatics tools in discovering the biological processes and pathways underlying OS\\-induced infertility.",
"* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 18804757 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.fertnstert.2008\\.08\\.022 \\| volume\\=92 \\| issue\\=4 \\| title\\=Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF\\-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study \\| date\\=October 2009 \\| journal\\=Fertil. Steril. \\| pages\\=1318–25 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Desai \\| first2 \\= NR \\| last3 \\= Makker \\| first3 \\= K \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 21888695 \\| doi\\=10\\.1590/s1677\\-55382011000400002 \\| volume\\=37 \\| issue\\=4 \\| title\\=Cell phones and male infertility: a review of recent innovations in technology and consequences \\| year\\=2011 \\| journal\\=Int Braz J Urol \\| pages\\=432–54 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Singh \\| first2 \\= A \\| last3 \\= Hamada \\| first3 \\= A \\| last4 \\= Kesari \\| first4 \\= K\\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 24813754 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.rbmo.2014\\.02\\.013 \\| volume\\=29 \\| issue\\=1 \\| title\\=Proteomics, oxidative stress and male infertility \\| year\\=2014 \\| journal\\=Reprod Biomed Online \\| pages\\=32–58 \\| last1 \\= Agarwal \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Durairajanayagam \\| first2 \\= D \\| last3 \\= Halabi \\| first3 \\= J \\| last4 \\= Peng \\| first4 \\= J \\| last5 \\= Vazquez\\-Levin \\| first5 \\= M\\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| hdl \\= 11336/6444 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 23688036 \\| doi\\=10\\.1186/1477\\-7827\\-11\\-48 \\| volume\\=11 \\| title\\=Proteomic analysis of human spermatozoa proteins with oxidative stress \\| pmc\\=3716960 \\| year\\=2013 \\| journal\\=Reprod Biol Endocrinol \\| page\\=48 \\| last1 \\= Sharma \\| first1 \\= R \\| last2 \\= Agarwal \\| first2 \\= A \\| last3 \\= Mohanty \\| first3 \\= G \\| last4 \\= Hamada \\| first4 \\= AJ \\| last5 \\= Gopalan \\| first5 \\= B \\| last6 \\= Willard \\| first6 \\= B \\| last7 \\= Yadav \\| first7 \\= S \\| last8 \\= Plessis \\| first8 \\= S \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* {{cite journal \\| pmid \\= 29530785 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.juro.2018\\.03\\.009 \\| volume\\=200 \\| issue\\=2 \\| title\\=Proteomic Signatures of Sperm Mitochondria in Varicocele: Clinical Use as Biomarkers of Varicocele Associated Infertility \\| year\\=2018 \\| journal\\=J Urol \\| pages\\=414–422 \\| last1 \\= Samanta \\| first1 \\= L \\| last2 \\= Agarwal \\| first2 \\= A \\| last3 \\= Swain \\| first3 \\= N \\| last4 \\= Sharma \\| first4 \\= R \\| last5 \\= Gopalan \\| first5 \\= B \\| last6 \\= Esteves \\| first6 \\= SC \\| last7 \\= Durairajanayagam \\| first7 \\= D \\| last8 \\= Sabanegh \\| first8 \\= E\\| s2cid\\=3873797 }}"
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and education
Jacobi was born in [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota") in 1908 and lived there throughout his life. He was a lifelong bachelor. He was a voracious reader at an early age, reading [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne "Jules Verne"), [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe "Edgar Allan Poe"), [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells") as well as the [Frank Merriwell](/wiki/Frank_Merriwell "Frank Merriwell") and [Tom Swift](/wiki/Tom_Swift "Tom Swift") boys' adventure yarns. Jacobi was always a writer; at his junior high school he earned good pocket\-money concocting his own 'dime novels' (short story booklets) and selling them to fellow students as 10 cents\-a\-piece.{{cite web
\|first\=Jack
\|last\=Adrian
\|title\=Obituary: Carl Jacobi
\|work\=The Independent
\|date\=January 23, 2015
\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary\-carl\-jacobi\-1237097\.html
}}
Jacobi attended the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota "University of Minnesota") from 1927 to 1930, majoring in English Literature, where he began his writing career in campus magazines and was an undergraduate classmate of [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei "Donald Wandrei"). He wrote of this period on *[Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories "Thrilling Wonder Stories")* (June 1939\) that "I tried to divide my time between rhetoric courses and the geology lab. As an underclassman I was somewhat undecided whether future life would find me studying rocks and fossils or simply pounding a typewriter. The typewriter won." Jacobi's first stories were published while he was at the university. Long before graduation he made his first professional sale, a short detective tale, "Rumbling Cannon", to *Secret Service Stories.* This ought to have paid around fifty dollars but Jacobi received nothing since the pulp folded soon after the story was published. The last of the stories he published while at university, "Moss Island", was a graduate's contribution to *The Quest* of Central High School, and "Mive" (which won a college\-wide contest judged by [Margaret Culkin Banning](/wiki/Margaret_Culkin_Banning "Margaret Culkin Banning")), published in the University of Minnesota's *The Minnesota Quarterly*. Both stories were later sold to *Amazing Stories* (Winter 1932\) and *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales "Weird Tales")* respectively and marked his debut in professional magazines. "Mive" (*Weird Tales*, 1932\) brought him payment of 25 dollars.Herron, Don. "Jacobi, Carl", in [Sullivan, Jack](/wiki/Jack_Sullivan_%28literary_scholar%29 "Jack Sullivan (literary scholar)"), (ed.) *[The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural](/wiki/The_Penguin_Encyclopedia_of_Horror_and_the_Supernatural "The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural")*. Viking, New York, 1986 {{ISBN\|0\-670\-80902\-0}} (p.229\) "Mive" was praised by [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft "H. P. Lovecraft") in his letter to Jacobi of February 27, 1932: "Mive please me immensely, and I told Wright that I was glad to see at least one story whose weirdness of incident was made convincing by adequate emotional preparation and suitably developed atmosphere." Lovecraft commended Jacobi's work to Derleth and thereby helped set up the long\-term relationship [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House "Arkham House") would have with Jacobi.
Beginning in 1928, Jacobi corresponded with adventure\-pulp veteran [Arthur O. Friel](/wiki/Arthur_O._Friel "Arthur O. Friel").Smith, R. Dixon. "Introduction: "Waking Up Dead". In Jacobi, Carl, *Smoke of the Snake*, Fedogan \& Bremer, Minneapolis, 1994 {{ISBN\|1\-878252\-10\-0}} (pgs. 3\-11\)
Jacobi's early story "The Monument" (1932\) was submitted only once—to [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright "Farnsworth Wright") of *Weird Tales*. It was not submitted subsequently but was discovered in a filing cabinet when R. Dixon Smith was researching his biography *Lost in the Rentharpian Hills: Spanning the Decades with Carl Jacobi* (1985\) and finally saw print when included by Smith in *Smoke of the Snake* (1994\).
### 1930s
Jacobi joined the editorial staff of *The Minnesota Quarterly*, and after graduation in 1931, he became a news reporter, reviewer and sub\-editor for the *Minneapolis Star*, as well as a frequent reviewer of books and plays. He also served on the staff of the *Minnesota Ski\-U\-Mah*, a campus humor magazine (described on the jackets of Jacobi's books as 'a scholastic publication'). After a while regular hours palled, and he left the *Star*, renting an office in uptown Minneapolis in which were typewriter, paper, a few reference books, and a list of editorial addresses in New York.
Jacobi met [August Derleth](/wiki/August_Derleth "August Derleth") in January 1931 when Derleth was visiting Minneapolis to see [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei "Donald Wandrei"). Jacobi had read Derleth's stories in *Weird Tales* and his [Solar Pons](/wiki/Solar_Pons "Solar Pons") stories in *Dragnet* and asked to be introduced; they met together, and with Donald Wandrei, for a literary roundtable at Minneapolis' Rainbow Cafe. Though Derleth and Jacobi corresponded for 40 years thereafter, Jacobi saw him but a few times in St Paul and never visited Derleth's home of [Sauk City](/wiki/Sauk_City "Sauk City"), Wisconsin. Over the following summer, when Derleth worked briefly as an editor for Fawcett Publications, outside Minneapolis, the three men frequently got together for brainstorming sessions.
Jacobi owned his own private retreat, a cabin at [Minnewashta](/wiki/Minnewashta "Minnewashta") in the Carver country outlands of Minneapolis. His intimate familiarity with the terrain and environment there provided the setting for many of his most distinguished stories.
From 1932 until Jacobi's death in 1997, pulp writer [Hugh B. Cave](/wiki/Hugh_B._Cave "Hugh B. Cave") corresponded with Jacobi. Scores of their letters are quoted in Cave's memoir *Magazines I Remember* (Chicago: Tattered Pages Press, 1994\), though many of Jacobi's early letters to Cave were lost in a fire in the early 1970s, along with copies of all Cave's early stories. Jacobi and Cave often criticised and improved each other's stories.{{Cite book
\|title\=Carl Jacobi: An Appreciation
\|editor\=\[\[W. H. Pugmire]]
\|publisher\=Stellar Z Publications
\|year\=1977
}}
Jack Adrian writes:
> In the depression years of the early 1930s, the pulp\-writer needed as formidable a creative armoury as possible, along with a certain amount of luck, and cunning, to crack even the lowest paying markets. Jacobi had a useful knack for dreaming up memorable milieu against which to set his tales, and bizarre situations that stayed in the mind long after the magazine the story itself was in had been finished and tossed away. He may have been the only writer ever to have a story firmly rejected by the redoubtable *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales "Weird Tales")* editor [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright "Farnsworth Wright"), only to have Wright, weeks later, begging for the story back, because an incident in it had stuck in his mind. This was "Revelations in Black", a chilling, and much\-reprinted, vampire tale set in an old stone farmhouse outside of Minneapolis Jacobi had driven past one night (the house's eerie statue\-lined garden, as seen by brilliant moonlight, had caught his eye and his imagination.
Jacobi wrote scores of tales for all the best\-known magazines of fantasy and science fiction and was represented in numerous anthologies of imaginative fiction published in the United States, England and New Zealand. His stories were translated into French, Swedish, Danish and Dutch. Many of his tales were published in anthologies edited by Derleth, and [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House "Arkham House") published his first three short story collections. Stories also appeared in such magazines as *[Short Stories](/wiki/Short_Stories_%28magazine%29 "Short Stories (magazine)")*, *Railroad Magazine*, *The Toronto Star*, *Wonder Stories*, *MacLean's magazine*, *Ghost Stories*, *Strange Stories*, *Thrilling Mystery*, *Startling Stories*, *Complete Stories*, *[Top\-Notch](/wiki/Top-Notch_Magazine "Top-Notch Magazine")* and others. Though best known for his macabre fiction, Jacobi also wrote science fiction, weird\-menace yarns and adventure stories."Jacobi, Carl" in *Encyclopedia of pulp fiction writers* by [Lee Server](/wiki/Lee_Server "Lee Server"). Facts on File (2002\)
{{ISBN\|978\-0\-8160\-4578\-5}}, (pp. 155\-6\)
Already by 1935, Jacobi was seeing a greater percentage of rejected stories. Pressed by financial problems and the need to help his parents survive the Depression, he took a $50 a week job as a [continuity writer](/wiki/Continuity_writer "Continuity writer") for the local radio station where he stayed until 1940\.
Jacobi was fascinated by adventure tales with a Southeast Asia setting, particularly in regard to Dutch central [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo "Borneo") and the [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia"). Jacobi wrote to officials working in Southeast Asia to obtain details for his stories, and he had considerable knowledge of that background in his fiction. According to Jack Adrian, "He would write to those in charge of far\-flung outposts deep in the heart of the Borneo jungle, say, demanding geographical detail, obscure ethnic lore, atmospheric and forestall conditions; anything, in short, you couldn't get out of a book. This way he became an acknowledged expert in a field he had created himself, at the same time inventing whole new fiction subgenres, such as "Borneo terror tale", "New Guinea adventure" and so on. Later he turned the same trick with [Baluchistan](/wiki/Baluchistan "Baluchistan").
In 1939, Jacobi met writer [Clifford D. Simak](/wiki/Clifford_D._Simak "Clifford D. Simak") when Simak moved to Minneapolis to take a job with the Minneapolis *Star*; they became friends. At this time, Jacobi listed his hobbies as "studying the night sky with a 60 power glass; continuing contacts with friends now located in jumping off spots of the South Seas and Malaysia; and collecting old tobacco tins.""Fiction Family: Carl Jacobi in [Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories "Thrilling Wonder Stories") (June 1939\)
### 1940s and 1950s
In 1940–41, Jacobi served as editor of *Midwest Media*, an advertising and radio trade journal. He then spent some years as a reporter, and reviewer of books and plays, for the Minneapolis *Star*. He worked for them for many years, writing fiction on the side. Following this, he "travelled a spell; fooled about with telegraphy, both wireless and Morse for another spell; then turned to writing fiction full\-time."
At the time of the compilation of *[Revelations in Black](/wiki/Revelations_in_Black "Revelations in Black")* (1947\), Jacobi's first collection, Jacobi was at work on a novel, but it is unknown whether this was completed.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2013}}
Jacobi continued to sell stories to *Weird Tales* up through the 1950s, with that market taking eighteen of his stories in all.
When the pulp markets collapsed, Jacobi took regular employment with one of the [Honeywell](/wiki/Honeywell "Honeywell") defense plants as an electronics inspector, a job he had through WWII and beyond, while writing part\-time. He worked the night shift at Honeywell seven days a week, which had a severe effect on both his writing schedule and his health, leading to heart problems.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2013}}
### 1960s
1964 saw the publication of Jacobi's second collection of weird fiction, *[Portraits in Moonlight](/wiki/Portraits_in_Moonlight "Portraits in Moonlight")*, and several short stories published in magazines.
### 1970s and 1980s
In 1972, Arkham House published Jacobi's third collection of weird fiction, *[Disclosures in Scarlet](/wiki/Disclosures_in_Scarlet "Disclosures in Scarlet")*. Don Herron, writing in Jack Sullivan's *Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural*, calls Jacobi's 1972 story "The Unpleasantness at Carver House" his masterpiece – "a ghoulish tale of horror and madness that may rank with the best work of [Robert Aickman](/wiki/Robert_Aickman "Robert Aickman") and [Walter de la Mare](/wiki/Walter_de_la_Mare "Walter de la Mare") in its brilliant use of suggestion. A feeling of unease pervades the story, and its many macabre implications prey on the imagination long after the last sentence is read."
In 1973, Jacobi attended the science\-fiction convention Torcon II [31st World Science Fiction Convention](/wiki/31st_World_Science_Fiction_Convention "31st World Science Fiction Convention"), held in Canada, having been persuaded to attend by literary agent [Kirby McCauley](/wiki/Kirby_McCauley "Kirby McCauley"). There he met such figures as [J. Vernon Shea](/wiki/J._Vernon_Shea "J. Vernon Shea") and [Robert Bloch](/wiki/Robert_Bloch "Robert Bloch"). In the same year, *Etchings and Odysseys* magazine was launched in Minneapolis by [Kirby McCauley](/wiki/Kirby_McCauley "Kirby McCauley"), John Koblas, Eric Carlson, Joe West and others. Jacobi attended the launch, along with [Mary Elizabeth Counselman](/wiki/Mary_Elizabeth_Counselman "Mary Elizabeth Counselman"), who had frequently appeared in the pages of the same magazines as Jacobi. Jacobi also met [E. Hoffman Price](/wiki/E._Hoffman_Price "E. Hoffman Price") (visiting from the West) at both [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei "Donald Wandrei")'s home and at *Etchings and Odysseys* 'headquarters'. Koblas had come to know Jacobi much earlier, and received encouraging criticism from Jacobi on his manuscripts. Jacobi also came much in contact with poet and novelist [Richard L. Tierney](/wiki/Richard_L._Tierney "Richard L. Tierney"), a Twin Cities resident for nine years during the 1970s. During this period, however, Jacobi had suffered a stroke which left one side of his body paralysed and gave him a speech impediment.
1980 saw a collection of Jacobi's stories published in French, under the title *Les ecarlates*. In 1989 appeared a collection of all\-reprint adventure stories from the pulps, *East of Samarinda*. In the late 1980s, Robert M. Price's Cryptic Publications published a number of obscure Jacobi stories in such magazines as *Astro\-Adventures*, *Pulp Stories*, *Pulse\-Pounding Adventure Stories* and *Shudder Stories*.
Jacobi continued to write macabre stories in the 1970s and 1980s. Many are collected in his final volume, *The Smoke of the Snake* (1994\). His last published story, "A Quire of Foolscap" (*Whispers*, Oct 1987\) contains an in\-joke: an unfaithful wife and her lover check into a motel "out on Carcosa", an obvious reference to both Ambrose Bierce's "[An Inhabitant of Carcosa](/wiki/An_Inhabitant_of_Carcosa "An Inhabitant of Carcosa")" and Robert W. Chambers' *[The King in Yellow](/wiki/The_King_in_Yellow "The King in Yellow")*, as well as affectionate praise for [Karl Edward Wagner](/wiki/Karl_Edward_Wagner "Karl Edward Wagner")'s newly established publishing firm (see [Carcosa](/wiki/Carcosa "Carcosa")).
### Later life and death
Debilitating illness crippled Jacobi during the final half\-decade of his life, although his literary agent and biographer R. Dixon Smith did much to alleviate his various afflictions.
Jacobi died at St Louis Park, Minnesota on August 25, 1997\.
A memorial for him was held at the [Arcana (convention)](/wiki/Arcana_%28convention%29 "Arcana (convention)") 27, Sept 26–28, 1997 at the Holiday Inn Express Bandana Square, Minneapolis.
### Critical reception
[Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber "Fritz Leiber") wrote about Jacobi: "his best tales surely include "Mive", "Carnaby's Fish", "Revelations in Black", "Moss Island", "Portrait in Moonlight", "The Lo Prello Paper", "The Aquarium", "The Singleton Barrier"...and "The Unpleasantness at Carver House".
Writer Don Herron has stated "Jacobi has a genuine bent for original, gruesome invention equal to the best writers who emerged from *Weird Tales.*" Herron also said "Jacobi's finest stories have an exquisitely creepy quality from first paragraph to last" and described the story "The Unpleasantness at Carver House" as "Jacobi's masterpiece".
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and education",
"Jacobi was born in [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\") in 1908 and lived there throughout his life. He was a lifelong bachelor. He was a voracious reader at an early age, reading [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne \"Jules Verne\"), [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\"), [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\") as well as the [Frank Merriwell](/wiki/Frank_Merriwell \"Frank Merriwell\") and [Tom Swift](/wiki/Tom_Swift \"Tom Swift\") boys' adventure yarns. Jacobi was always a writer; at his junior high school he earned good pocket\\-money concocting his own 'dime novels' (short story booklets) and selling them to fellow students as 10 cents\\-a\\-piece.{{cite web\n\\|first\\=Jack\n\\|last\\=Adrian\n\\|title\\=Obituary: Carl Jacobi\n\\|work\\=The Independent\n\\|date\\=January 23, 2015\n\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary\\-carl\\-jacobi\\-1237097\\.html\n}}",
"Jacobi attended the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota \"University of Minnesota\") from 1927 to 1930, majoring in English Literature, where he began his writing career in campus magazines and was an undergraduate classmate of [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei \"Donald Wandrei\"). He wrote of this period on *[Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\")* (June 1939\\) that \"I tried to divide my time between rhetoric courses and the geology lab. As an underclassman I was somewhat undecided whether future life would find me studying rocks and fossils or simply pounding a typewriter. The typewriter won.\" Jacobi's first stories were published while he was at the university. Long before graduation he made his first professional sale, a short detective tale, \"Rumbling Cannon\", to *Secret Service Stories.* This ought to have paid around fifty dollars but Jacobi received nothing since the pulp folded soon after the story was published. The last of the stories he published while at university, \"Moss Island\", was a graduate's contribution to *The Quest* of Central High School, and \"Mive\" (which won a college\\-wide contest judged by [Margaret Culkin Banning](/wiki/Margaret_Culkin_Banning \"Margaret Culkin Banning\")), published in the University of Minnesota's *The Minnesota Quarterly*. Both stories were later sold to *Amazing Stories* (Winter 1932\\) and *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales \"Weird Tales\")* respectively and marked his debut in professional magazines. \"Mive\" (*Weird Tales*, 1932\\) brought him payment of 25 dollars.Herron, Don. \"Jacobi, Carl\", in [Sullivan, Jack](/wiki/Jack_Sullivan_%28literary_scholar%29 \"Jack Sullivan (literary scholar)\"), (ed.) *[The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural](/wiki/The_Penguin_Encyclopedia_of_Horror_and_the_Supernatural \"The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural\")*. Viking, New York, 1986 {{ISBN\\|0\\-670\\-80902\\-0}} (p.229\\) \"Mive\" was praised by [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft \"H. P. Lovecraft\") in his letter to Jacobi of February 27, 1932: \"Mive please me immensely, and I told Wright that I was glad to see at least one story whose weirdness of incident was made convincing by adequate emotional preparation and suitably developed atmosphere.\" Lovecraft commended Jacobi's work to Derleth and thereby helped set up the long\\-term relationship [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House \"Arkham House\") would have with Jacobi.",
"Beginning in 1928, Jacobi corresponded with adventure\\-pulp veteran [Arthur O. Friel](/wiki/Arthur_O._Friel \"Arthur O. Friel\").Smith, R. Dixon. \"Introduction: \"Waking Up Dead\". In Jacobi, Carl, *Smoke of the Snake*, Fedogan \\& Bremer, Minneapolis, 1994 {{ISBN\\|1\\-878252\\-10\\-0}} (pgs. 3\\-11\\)",
"Jacobi's early story \"The Monument\" (1932\\) was submitted only once—to [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright \"Farnsworth Wright\") of *Weird Tales*. It was not submitted subsequently but was discovered in a filing cabinet when R. Dixon Smith was researching his biography *Lost in the Rentharpian Hills: Spanning the Decades with Carl Jacobi* (1985\\) and finally saw print when included by Smith in *Smoke of the Snake* (1994\\).",
"### 1930s",
"Jacobi joined the editorial staff of *The Minnesota Quarterly*, and after graduation in 1931, he became a news reporter, reviewer and sub\\-editor for the *Minneapolis Star*, as well as a frequent reviewer of books and plays. He also served on the staff of the *Minnesota Ski\\-U\\-Mah*, a campus humor magazine (described on the jackets of Jacobi's books as 'a scholastic publication'). After a while regular hours palled, and he left the *Star*, renting an office in uptown Minneapolis in which were typewriter, paper, a few reference books, and a list of editorial addresses in New York.",
"Jacobi met [August Derleth](/wiki/August_Derleth \"August Derleth\") in January 1931 when Derleth was visiting Minneapolis to see [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei \"Donald Wandrei\"). Jacobi had read Derleth's stories in *Weird Tales* and his [Solar Pons](/wiki/Solar_Pons \"Solar Pons\") stories in *Dragnet* and asked to be introduced; they met together, and with Donald Wandrei, for a literary roundtable at Minneapolis' Rainbow Cafe. Though Derleth and Jacobi corresponded for 40 years thereafter, Jacobi saw him but a few times in St Paul and never visited Derleth's home of [Sauk City](/wiki/Sauk_City \"Sauk City\"), Wisconsin. Over the following summer, when Derleth worked briefly as an editor for Fawcett Publications, outside Minneapolis, the three men frequently got together for brainstorming sessions.",
"Jacobi owned his own private retreat, a cabin at [Minnewashta](/wiki/Minnewashta \"Minnewashta\") in the Carver country outlands of Minneapolis. His intimate familiarity with the terrain and environment there provided the setting for many of his most distinguished stories.",
"From 1932 until Jacobi's death in 1997, pulp writer [Hugh B. Cave](/wiki/Hugh_B._Cave \"Hugh B. Cave\") corresponded with Jacobi. Scores of their letters are quoted in Cave's memoir *Magazines I Remember* (Chicago: Tattered Pages Press, 1994\\), though many of Jacobi's early letters to Cave were lost in a fire in the early 1970s, along with copies of all Cave's early stories. Jacobi and Cave often criticised and improved each other's stories.{{Cite book\n\\|title\\=Carl Jacobi: An Appreciation\n\\|editor\\=\\[\\[W. H. Pugmire]]\n\\|publisher\\=Stellar Z Publications\n\\|year\\=1977\n}}",
"Jack Adrian writes:",
"",
"> In the depression years of the early 1930s, the pulp\\-writer needed as formidable a creative armoury as possible, along with a certain amount of luck, and cunning, to crack even the lowest paying markets. Jacobi had a useful knack for dreaming up memorable milieu against which to set his tales, and bizarre situations that stayed in the mind long after the magazine the story itself was in had been finished and tossed away. He may have been the only writer ever to have a story firmly rejected by the redoubtable *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales \"Weird Tales\")* editor [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright \"Farnsworth Wright\"), only to have Wright, weeks later, begging for the story back, because an incident in it had stuck in his mind. This was \"Revelations in Black\", a chilling, and much\\-reprinted, vampire tale set in an old stone farmhouse outside of Minneapolis Jacobi had driven past one night (the house's eerie statue\\-lined garden, as seen by brilliant moonlight, had caught his eye and his imagination.",
"Jacobi wrote scores of tales for all the best\\-known magazines of fantasy and science fiction and was represented in numerous anthologies of imaginative fiction published in the United States, England and New Zealand. His stories were translated into French, Swedish, Danish and Dutch. Many of his tales were published in anthologies edited by Derleth, and [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House \"Arkham House\") published his first three short story collections. Stories also appeared in such magazines as *[Short Stories](/wiki/Short_Stories_%28magazine%29 \"Short Stories (magazine)\")*, *Railroad Magazine*, *The Toronto Star*, *Wonder Stories*, *MacLean's magazine*, *Ghost Stories*, *Strange Stories*, *Thrilling Mystery*, *Startling Stories*, *Complete Stories*, *[Top\\-Notch](/wiki/Top-Notch_Magazine \"Top-Notch Magazine\")* and others. Though best known for his macabre fiction, Jacobi also wrote science fiction, weird\\-menace yarns and adventure stories.\"Jacobi, Carl\" in *Encyclopedia of pulp fiction writers* by [Lee Server](/wiki/Lee_Server \"Lee Server\"). Facts on File (2002\\)\n{{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8160\\-4578\\-5}}, (pp. 155\\-6\\)",
"Already by 1935, Jacobi was seeing a greater percentage of rejected stories. Pressed by financial problems and the need to help his parents survive the Depression, he took a $50 a week job as a [continuity writer](/wiki/Continuity_writer \"Continuity writer\") for the local radio station where he stayed until 1940\\.",
"Jacobi was fascinated by adventure tales with a Southeast Asia setting, particularly in regard to Dutch central [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo \"Borneo\") and the [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\"). Jacobi wrote to officials working in Southeast Asia to obtain details for his stories, and he had considerable knowledge of that background in his fiction. According to Jack Adrian, \"He would write to those in charge of far\\-flung outposts deep in the heart of the Borneo jungle, say, demanding geographical detail, obscure ethnic lore, atmospheric and forestall conditions; anything, in short, you couldn't get out of a book. This way he became an acknowledged expert in a field he had created himself, at the same time inventing whole new fiction subgenres, such as \"Borneo terror tale\", \"New Guinea adventure\" and so on. Later he turned the same trick with [Baluchistan](/wiki/Baluchistan \"Baluchistan\").",
"In 1939, Jacobi met writer [Clifford D. Simak](/wiki/Clifford_D._Simak \"Clifford D. Simak\") when Simak moved to Minneapolis to take a job with the Minneapolis *Star*; they became friends. At this time, Jacobi listed his hobbies as \"studying the night sky with a 60 power glass; continuing contacts with friends now located in jumping off spots of the South Seas and Malaysia; and collecting old tobacco tins.\"\"Fiction Family: Carl Jacobi in [Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\") (June 1939\\)",
"### 1940s and 1950s",
"In 1940–41, Jacobi served as editor of *Midwest Media*, an advertising and radio trade journal. He then spent some years as a reporter, and reviewer of books and plays, for the Minneapolis *Star*. He worked for them for many years, writing fiction on the side. Following this, he \"travelled a spell; fooled about with telegraphy, both wireless and Morse for another spell; then turned to writing fiction full\\-time.\"",
"At the time of the compilation of *[Revelations in Black](/wiki/Revelations_in_Black \"Revelations in Black\")* (1947\\), Jacobi's first collection, Jacobi was at work on a novel, but it is unknown whether this was completed.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}}",
"Jacobi continued to sell stories to *Weird Tales* up through the 1950s, with that market taking eighteen of his stories in all.",
"When the pulp markets collapsed, Jacobi took regular employment with one of the [Honeywell](/wiki/Honeywell \"Honeywell\") defense plants as an electronics inspector, a job he had through WWII and beyond, while writing part\\-time. He worked the night shift at Honeywell seven days a week, which had a severe effect on both his writing schedule and his health, leading to heart problems.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}}",
"### 1960s",
"1964 saw the publication of Jacobi's second collection of weird fiction, *[Portraits in Moonlight](/wiki/Portraits_in_Moonlight \"Portraits in Moonlight\")*, and several short stories published in magazines.",
"### 1970s and 1980s",
"In 1972, Arkham House published Jacobi's third collection of weird fiction, *[Disclosures in Scarlet](/wiki/Disclosures_in_Scarlet \"Disclosures in Scarlet\")*. Don Herron, writing in Jack Sullivan's *Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural*, calls Jacobi's 1972 story \"The Unpleasantness at Carver House\" his masterpiece – \"a ghoulish tale of horror and madness that may rank with the best work of [Robert Aickman](/wiki/Robert_Aickman \"Robert Aickman\") and [Walter de la Mare](/wiki/Walter_de_la_Mare \"Walter de la Mare\") in its brilliant use of suggestion. A feeling of unease pervades the story, and its many macabre implications prey on the imagination long after the last sentence is read.\"",
"In 1973, Jacobi attended the science\\-fiction convention Torcon II [31st World Science Fiction Convention](/wiki/31st_World_Science_Fiction_Convention \"31st World Science Fiction Convention\"), held in Canada, having been persuaded to attend by literary agent [Kirby McCauley](/wiki/Kirby_McCauley \"Kirby McCauley\"). There he met such figures as [J. Vernon Shea](/wiki/J._Vernon_Shea \"J. Vernon Shea\") and [Robert Bloch](/wiki/Robert_Bloch \"Robert Bloch\"). In the same year, *Etchings and Odysseys* magazine was launched in Minneapolis by [Kirby McCauley](/wiki/Kirby_McCauley \"Kirby McCauley\"), John Koblas, Eric Carlson, Joe West and others. Jacobi attended the launch, along with [Mary Elizabeth Counselman](/wiki/Mary_Elizabeth_Counselman \"Mary Elizabeth Counselman\"), who had frequently appeared in the pages of the same magazines as Jacobi. Jacobi also met [E. Hoffman Price](/wiki/E._Hoffman_Price \"E. Hoffman Price\") (visiting from the West) at both [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei \"Donald Wandrei\")'s home and at *Etchings and Odysseys* 'headquarters'. Koblas had come to know Jacobi much earlier, and received encouraging criticism from Jacobi on his manuscripts. Jacobi also came much in contact with poet and novelist [Richard L. Tierney](/wiki/Richard_L._Tierney \"Richard L. Tierney\"), a Twin Cities resident for nine years during the 1970s. During this period, however, Jacobi had suffered a stroke which left one side of his body paralysed and gave him a speech impediment.",
"1980 saw a collection of Jacobi's stories published in French, under the title *Les ecarlates*. In 1989 appeared a collection of all\\-reprint adventure stories from the pulps, *East of Samarinda*. In the late 1980s, Robert M. Price's Cryptic Publications published a number of obscure Jacobi stories in such magazines as *Astro\\-Adventures*, *Pulp Stories*, *Pulse\\-Pounding Adventure Stories* and *Shudder Stories*.",
"Jacobi continued to write macabre stories in the 1970s and 1980s. Many are collected in his final volume, *The Smoke of the Snake* (1994\\). His last published story, \"A Quire of Foolscap\" (*Whispers*, Oct 1987\\) contains an in\\-joke: an unfaithful wife and her lover check into a motel \"out on Carcosa\", an obvious reference to both Ambrose Bierce's \"[An Inhabitant of Carcosa](/wiki/An_Inhabitant_of_Carcosa \"An Inhabitant of Carcosa\")\" and Robert W. Chambers' *[The King in Yellow](/wiki/The_King_in_Yellow \"The King in Yellow\")*, as well as affectionate praise for [Karl Edward Wagner](/wiki/Karl_Edward_Wagner \"Karl Edward Wagner\")'s newly established publishing firm (see [Carcosa](/wiki/Carcosa \"Carcosa\")).",
"### Later life and death",
"Debilitating illness crippled Jacobi during the final half\\-decade of his life, although his literary agent and biographer R. Dixon Smith did much to alleviate his various afflictions.",
"Jacobi died at St Louis Park, Minnesota on August 25, 1997\\.",
"A memorial for him was held at the [Arcana (convention)](/wiki/Arcana_%28convention%29 \"Arcana (convention)\") 27, Sept 26–28, 1997 at the Holiday Inn Express Bandana Square, Minneapolis.",
"### Critical reception",
"[Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber \"Fritz Leiber\") wrote about Jacobi: \"his best tales surely include \"Mive\", \"Carnaby's Fish\", \"Revelations in Black\", \"Moss Island\", \"Portrait in Moonlight\", \"The Lo Prello Paper\", \"The Aquarium\", \"The Singleton Barrier\"...and \"The Unpleasantness at Carver House\".",
"Writer Don Herron has stated \"Jacobi has a genuine bent for original, gruesome invention equal to the best writers who emerged from *Weird Tales.*\" Herron also said \"Jacobi's finest stories have an exquisitely creepy quality from first paragraph to last\" and described the story \"The Unpleasantness at Carver House\" as \"Jacobi's masterpiece\".",
""
] |
### 1930s
Jacobi joined the editorial staff of *The Minnesota Quarterly*, and after graduation in 1931, he became a news reporter, reviewer and sub\-editor for the *Minneapolis Star*, as well as a frequent reviewer of books and plays. He also served on the staff of the *Minnesota Ski\-U\-Mah*, a campus humor magazine (described on the jackets of Jacobi's books as 'a scholastic publication'). After a while regular hours palled, and he left the *Star*, renting an office in uptown Minneapolis in which were typewriter, paper, a few reference books, and a list of editorial addresses in New York.
Jacobi met [August Derleth](/wiki/August_Derleth "August Derleth") in January 1931 when Derleth was visiting Minneapolis to see [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei "Donald Wandrei"). Jacobi had read Derleth's stories in *Weird Tales* and his [Solar Pons](/wiki/Solar_Pons "Solar Pons") stories in *Dragnet* and asked to be introduced; they met together, and with Donald Wandrei, for a literary roundtable at Minneapolis' Rainbow Cafe. Though Derleth and Jacobi corresponded for 40 years thereafter, Jacobi saw him but a few times in St Paul and never visited Derleth's home of [Sauk City](/wiki/Sauk_City "Sauk City"), Wisconsin. Over the following summer, when Derleth worked briefly as an editor for Fawcett Publications, outside Minneapolis, the three men frequently got together for brainstorming sessions.
Jacobi owned his own private retreat, a cabin at [Minnewashta](/wiki/Minnewashta "Minnewashta") in the Carver country outlands of Minneapolis. His intimate familiarity with the terrain and environment there provided the setting for many of his most distinguished stories.
From 1932 until Jacobi's death in 1997, pulp writer [Hugh B. Cave](/wiki/Hugh_B._Cave "Hugh B. Cave") corresponded with Jacobi. Scores of their letters are quoted in Cave's memoir *Magazines I Remember* (Chicago: Tattered Pages Press, 1994\), though many of Jacobi's early letters to Cave were lost in a fire in the early 1970s, along with copies of all Cave's early stories. Jacobi and Cave often criticised and improved each other's stories.{{Cite book
\|title\=Carl Jacobi: An Appreciation
\|editor\=\[\[W. H. Pugmire]]
\|publisher\=Stellar Z Publications
\|year\=1977
}}
Jack Adrian writes:
> In the depression years of the early 1930s, the pulp\-writer needed as formidable a creative armoury as possible, along with a certain amount of luck, and cunning, to crack even the lowest paying markets. Jacobi had a useful knack for dreaming up memorable milieu against which to set his tales, and bizarre situations that stayed in the mind long after the magazine the story itself was in had been finished and tossed away. He may have been the only writer ever to have a story firmly rejected by the redoubtable *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales "Weird Tales")* editor [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright "Farnsworth Wright"), only to have Wright, weeks later, begging for the story back, because an incident in it had stuck in his mind. This was "Revelations in Black", a chilling, and much\-reprinted, vampire tale set in an old stone farmhouse outside of Minneapolis Jacobi had driven past one night (the house's eerie statue\-lined garden, as seen by brilliant moonlight, had caught his eye and his imagination.
Jacobi wrote scores of tales for all the best\-known magazines of fantasy and science fiction and was represented in numerous anthologies of imaginative fiction published in the United States, England and New Zealand. His stories were translated into French, Swedish, Danish and Dutch. Many of his tales were published in anthologies edited by Derleth, and [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House "Arkham House") published his first three short story collections. Stories also appeared in such magazines as *[Short Stories](/wiki/Short_Stories_%28magazine%29 "Short Stories (magazine)")*, *Railroad Magazine*, *The Toronto Star*, *Wonder Stories*, *MacLean's magazine*, *Ghost Stories*, *Strange Stories*, *Thrilling Mystery*, *Startling Stories*, *Complete Stories*, *[Top\-Notch](/wiki/Top-Notch_Magazine "Top-Notch Magazine")* and others. Though best known for his macabre fiction, Jacobi also wrote science fiction, weird\-menace yarns and adventure stories."Jacobi, Carl" in *Encyclopedia of pulp fiction writers* by [Lee Server](/wiki/Lee_Server "Lee Server"). Facts on File (2002\)
{{ISBN\|978\-0\-8160\-4578\-5}}, (pp. 155\-6\)
Already by 1935, Jacobi was seeing a greater percentage of rejected stories. Pressed by financial problems and the need to help his parents survive the Depression, he took a $50 a week job as a [continuity writer](/wiki/Continuity_writer "Continuity writer") for the local radio station where he stayed until 1940\.
Jacobi was fascinated by adventure tales with a Southeast Asia setting, particularly in regard to Dutch central [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo "Borneo") and the [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia"). Jacobi wrote to officials working in Southeast Asia to obtain details for his stories, and he had considerable knowledge of that background in his fiction. According to Jack Adrian, "He would write to those in charge of far\-flung outposts deep in the heart of the Borneo jungle, say, demanding geographical detail, obscure ethnic lore, atmospheric and forestall conditions; anything, in short, you couldn't get out of a book. This way he became an acknowledged expert in a field he had created himself, at the same time inventing whole new fiction subgenres, such as "Borneo terror tale", "New Guinea adventure" and so on. Later he turned the same trick with [Baluchistan](/wiki/Baluchistan "Baluchistan").
In 1939, Jacobi met writer [Clifford D. Simak](/wiki/Clifford_D._Simak "Clifford D. Simak") when Simak moved to Minneapolis to take a job with the Minneapolis *Star*; they became friends. At this time, Jacobi listed his hobbies as "studying the night sky with a 60 power glass; continuing contacts with friends now located in jumping off spots of the South Seas and Malaysia; and collecting old tobacco tins.""Fiction Family: Carl Jacobi in [Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories "Thrilling Wonder Stories") (June 1939\)
|
[
"### 1930s",
"Jacobi joined the editorial staff of *The Minnesota Quarterly*, and after graduation in 1931, he became a news reporter, reviewer and sub\\-editor for the *Minneapolis Star*, as well as a frequent reviewer of books and plays. He also served on the staff of the *Minnesota Ski\\-U\\-Mah*, a campus humor magazine (described on the jackets of Jacobi's books as 'a scholastic publication'). After a while regular hours palled, and he left the *Star*, renting an office in uptown Minneapolis in which were typewriter, paper, a few reference books, and a list of editorial addresses in New York.",
"Jacobi met [August Derleth](/wiki/August_Derleth \"August Derleth\") in January 1931 when Derleth was visiting Minneapolis to see [Donald Wandrei](/wiki/Donald_Wandrei \"Donald Wandrei\"). Jacobi had read Derleth's stories in *Weird Tales* and his [Solar Pons](/wiki/Solar_Pons \"Solar Pons\") stories in *Dragnet* and asked to be introduced; they met together, and with Donald Wandrei, for a literary roundtable at Minneapolis' Rainbow Cafe. Though Derleth and Jacobi corresponded for 40 years thereafter, Jacobi saw him but a few times in St Paul and never visited Derleth's home of [Sauk City](/wiki/Sauk_City \"Sauk City\"), Wisconsin. Over the following summer, when Derleth worked briefly as an editor for Fawcett Publications, outside Minneapolis, the three men frequently got together for brainstorming sessions.",
"Jacobi owned his own private retreat, a cabin at [Minnewashta](/wiki/Minnewashta \"Minnewashta\") in the Carver country outlands of Minneapolis. His intimate familiarity with the terrain and environment there provided the setting for many of his most distinguished stories.",
"From 1932 until Jacobi's death in 1997, pulp writer [Hugh B. Cave](/wiki/Hugh_B._Cave \"Hugh B. Cave\") corresponded with Jacobi. Scores of their letters are quoted in Cave's memoir *Magazines I Remember* (Chicago: Tattered Pages Press, 1994\\), though many of Jacobi's early letters to Cave were lost in a fire in the early 1970s, along with copies of all Cave's early stories. Jacobi and Cave often criticised and improved each other's stories.{{Cite book\n\\|title\\=Carl Jacobi: An Appreciation\n\\|editor\\=\\[\\[W. H. Pugmire]]\n\\|publisher\\=Stellar Z Publications\n\\|year\\=1977\n}}",
"Jack Adrian writes:",
"",
"> In the depression years of the early 1930s, the pulp\\-writer needed as formidable a creative armoury as possible, along with a certain amount of luck, and cunning, to crack even the lowest paying markets. Jacobi had a useful knack for dreaming up memorable milieu against which to set his tales, and bizarre situations that stayed in the mind long after the magazine the story itself was in had been finished and tossed away. He may have been the only writer ever to have a story firmly rejected by the redoubtable *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales \"Weird Tales\")* editor [Farnsworth Wright](/wiki/Farnsworth_Wright \"Farnsworth Wright\"), only to have Wright, weeks later, begging for the story back, because an incident in it had stuck in his mind. This was \"Revelations in Black\", a chilling, and much\\-reprinted, vampire tale set in an old stone farmhouse outside of Minneapolis Jacobi had driven past one night (the house's eerie statue\\-lined garden, as seen by brilliant moonlight, had caught his eye and his imagination.",
"Jacobi wrote scores of tales for all the best\\-known magazines of fantasy and science fiction and was represented in numerous anthologies of imaginative fiction published in the United States, England and New Zealand. His stories were translated into French, Swedish, Danish and Dutch. Many of his tales were published in anthologies edited by Derleth, and [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House \"Arkham House\") published his first three short story collections. Stories also appeared in such magazines as *[Short Stories](/wiki/Short_Stories_%28magazine%29 \"Short Stories (magazine)\")*, *Railroad Magazine*, *The Toronto Star*, *Wonder Stories*, *MacLean's magazine*, *Ghost Stories*, *Strange Stories*, *Thrilling Mystery*, *Startling Stories*, *Complete Stories*, *[Top\\-Notch](/wiki/Top-Notch_Magazine \"Top-Notch Magazine\")* and others. Though best known for his macabre fiction, Jacobi also wrote science fiction, weird\\-menace yarns and adventure stories.\"Jacobi, Carl\" in *Encyclopedia of pulp fiction writers* by [Lee Server](/wiki/Lee_Server \"Lee Server\"). Facts on File (2002\\)\n{{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8160\\-4578\\-5}}, (pp. 155\\-6\\)",
"Already by 1935, Jacobi was seeing a greater percentage of rejected stories. Pressed by financial problems and the need to help his parents survive the Depression, he took a $50 a week job as a [continuity writer](/wiki/Continuity_writer \"Continuity writer\") for the local radio station where he stayed until 1940\\.",
"Jacobi was fascinated by adventure tales with a Southeast Asia setting, particularly in regard to Dutch central [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo \"Borneo\") and the [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\"). Jacobi wrote to officials working in Southeast Asia to obtain details for his stories, and he had considerable knowledge of that background in his fiction. According to Jack Adrian, \"He would write to those in charge of far\\-flung outposts deep in the heart of the Borneo jungle, say, demanding geographical detail, obscure ethnic lore, atmospheric and forestall conditions; anything, in short, you couldn't get out of a book. This way he became an acknowledged expert in a field he had created himself, at the same time inventing whole new fiction subgenres, such as \"Borneo terror tale\", \"New Guinea adventure\" and so on. Later he turned the same trick with [Baluchistan](/wiki/Baluchistan \"Baluchistan\").",
"In 1939, Jacobi met writer [Clifford D. Simak](/wiki/Clifford_D._Simak \"Clifford D. Simak\") when Simak moved to Minneapolis to take a job with the Minneapolis *Star*; they became friends. At this time, Jacobi listed his hobbies as \"studying the night sky with a 60 power glass; continuing contacts with friends now located in jumping off spots of the South Seas and Malaysia; and collecting old tobacco tins.\"\"Fiction Family: Carl Jacobi in [Thrilling Wonder Stories](/wiki/Thrilling_Wonder_Stories \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\") (June 1939\\)",
""
] |
Career
------
Reid began acting at age six, becoming a regular on the game show *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28game_show%29 "Child's Play (game show)")*,{{cite news\|title\=13 Questions With Tara Reid\|url\=http://au.askmen.com/celebs/interview\_200/223\_tara\_reid\_interview.html\|access\-date\=June 17, 2014\|work\=\[\[AskMen]]\|archive\-date\=July 14, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714193239/http://au.askmen.com/celebs/interview\_200/223\_tara\_reid\_interview.html\|url\-status\=dead}} and appeared in over 100 commercials for corporations including [Jell\-O](/wiki/Jell-O "Jell-O"), [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s "McDonald's"), [Crayola](/wiki/Crayola "Crayola"), and [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley"). As a teenager, she was on *[Saved by the Bell: The New Class](/wiki/Saved_by_the_Bell:The_New_Class "The New Class")*.
After moving to [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles") in 1997, Reid transitioned to movies, landing a role in 1998's *[The Big Lebowski](/wiki/The_Big_Lebowski "The Big Lebowski")*. Though the film disappointed at the box office, grossing only $17 million in the U.S., it went on to become a [cult classic](/wiki/Cult_film "Cult film"). Later that same year, she appeared in a larger role in a more financially successful film, *[Urban Legend](/wiki/Urban_Legend_%28film%29 "Urban Legend (film)")*, where she portrayed a sexy radio host and which grossed just under $40 million in the US and led to two sequels, though neither included Reid. In 1999, she appeared in a tiny role in another hit, *[Cruel Intentions](/wiki/Cruel_Intentions "Cruel Intentions")*. Reid found her first taste of real mainstream success when she portrayed the role of the virginal Vickie in *[American Pie](/wiki/American_Pie_%28film%29 "American Pie (film)")* (1999\), which grossed over $100 million in the US. The film also marked her first film to reach number one at the box office. In 2001, she reprised the role in *[American Pie 2](/wiki/American_Pie_2 "American Pie 2")*, which opened to $45 million and grossed over $145 million in the US, almost 50% more than its predecessor. Reid did not return for *[American Wedding](/wiki/American_Wedding "American Wedding")* (2003\), but did reprise the character in the fourth theatrical film in the series, *[American Reunion](/wiki/American_Reunion "American Reunion")* (2012\).
Following the success of *American Pie 2*, Reid starred in a number of commercial and critical misfires, including *[Josie and the Pussycats](/wiki/Josie_and_the_Pussycats_%28film%29 "Josie and the Pussycats (film)")* and *[Van Wilder](/wiki/Van_Wilder "Van Wilder")*. She also starred as the youngest daughter of a Texas [gynecologist](/wiki/Gynecologist "Gynecologist") in [Robert Altman](/wiki/Robert_Altman "Robert Altman")'s *[Dr. T \& the Women](/wiki/Dr._T_%26_the_Women "Dr. T & the Women")*, alongside [Richard Gere](/wiki/Richard_Gere "Richard Gere"). She returned to the small screen as a recurring character on the [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") [sitcom](/wiki/Sitcom "Sitcom") *[Scrubs](/wiki/Scrubs_%28TV_series%29 "Scrubs (TV series)")*, appearing in 11 episodes of season three. Shortly thereafter, Reid appeared alongside [Ashton Kutcher](/wiki/Ashton_Kutcher "Ashton Kutcher") in *[My Boss's Daughter](/wiki/My_Boss%27s_Daughter "My Boss's Daughter")*, for which she was nominated for both Worst Supporting Actress and Worst Screen Couple at the 2004 [Golden Raspberry Awards](/wiki/Golden_Raspberry_Awards "Golden Raspberry Awards").
In 2005, she co\-starred in infamous German filmmaker [Uwe Boll](/wiki/Uwe_Boll "Uwe Boll")'s *[Alone in the Dark](/wiki/Alone_in_the_Dark_%282005_film%29 "Alone in the Dark (2005 film)")* with [Christian Slater](/wiki/Christian_Slater "Christian Slater"). Her mispronunciation of "[Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador")" became a popular Internet catchphrase. The film was panned by critics and Reid received a [Razzie Award](/wiki/Razzie_Award "Razzie Award") nomination for Worst Actress. Reid signed on to host the E!'s *Wild On Tara Reid* (later renamed *Taradise*), a program that showcased high\-society vacations and hot spots.{{cite news\|last1\=Itzkoff\|first1\=Dave\|title\=The No. 1 Network of Never\-Were\-Land\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/arts/television/04itzk.html\|access\-date\=June 17, 2014\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=September 4, 2005}} The show premiered on August 10, 2005,{{cite news\|title\=Tara Reid visits Paris and Paris\|url\=http://www.today.com/id/8837962/ns/today\-today\_entertainment/t/tara\-reid\-visits\-paris\-paris/\|access\-date\=June 17, 2014\|work\=\[\[Today.com]]\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=August 5, 2005}} but it was cancelled in September, with [Ted Harbert](/wiki/Ted_Harbert "Ted Harbert"), E! Network's president, saying it was "incredibly difficult to produce with someone well\-known."{{cite news\|title\=INXS plans its next move; a new series gets the ax\|url\=http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/life/columnist/hipclicks/2005\-09\-25\-hip\-clicks\_x.htm\|access\-date\=June 17, 2014\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]\|date\=September 21, 2005}}
In January 2007, Reid filmed a commercial with [Daniel Conn](/wiki/Daniel_Conn "Daniel Conn") for [Dodo](/wiki/Dodo_%28Australian_company%29 "Dodo (Australian company)"), an [Australian](/wiki/Australia "Australia") budget telephone and [Internet service provider](/wiki/Internet_service_provider "Internet service provider"). Between 2007 and 2008, she starred in a number of [direct\-to\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video "Direct-to-video") films, including *7\-10 Split/Strike*, *[If I Had Known I Was a Genius](/wiki/If_I_Had_Known_I_Was_a_Genius "If I Had Known I Was a Genius")* (which was released at the 2007 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival")), and *[Clean Break/Unnatural Causes](/wiki/Clean_Break_%28film%29 "Clean Break (film)")*. She also played the main character in the [made\-for\-television](/wiki/Television_film "Television film") horror film *[Vipers](/wiki/Vipers_%28film%29 "Vipers (film)")*. In 2010, she landed the role of Bonnie in the thriller film *[The Fields](/wiki/The_Fields_%28film%29 "The Fields (film)")*, which was released in 2011\. In March 2011, she filmed a [Funny or Die](/wiki/Funny_or_Die "Funny or Die") spoof trailer for *The Big Lebowski 2*.[Tara Reid talks about making her new 'Big Lebowski 2' spoof for FunnyOrDie \-\- EXCLUSIVE](https://ew.com/article/2011/03/29/big-lebowski-tara-reid-american-pie/) Entertainment Weekly. March 29, 2011
On August 18, 2011, Reid was the second housemate to enter the British reality series *[Celebrity Big Brother 8](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_8%29 "Celebrity Big Brother (British series 8)")*. On September 2, she received the fewest votes and became the third celebrity to be evicted from the house.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2017}}
In September 2011, Reid announced via her official Twitter page that she was to appear in [Jedward](/wiki/Jedward "Jedward")'s new music video for "[Wow Oh Wow](/wiki/Wow_Oh_Wow "Wow Oh Wow")",{{citation needed\|date\=August 2017}} which they started shooting in late October of the same year. In 2014, she appeared in their music video for "Ferocious".
In 2013, she appeared in the hit [Syfy](/wiki/Syfy "Syfy") film *[Sharknado](/wiki/Sharknado "Sharknado")* which spawned five sequels in 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018\. Other projects Reid appeared in during the mid\-2010s included comedy spoof *[The Hungover Games](/wiki/The_Hungover_Games "The Hungover Games")*, horror film *[Charlie's Farm](/wiki/Charlie%27s_Farm "Charlie's Farm")*, the [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood "Bollywood") film *Tie the Knot*, and the TV series *The Big Big Show* with [Andrew Dice Clay](/wiki/Andrew_Dice_Clay "Andrew Dice Clay") and [Tom Green](/wiki/Tom_Green "Tom Green").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/83845/the\-big\-big\-show\-cleared\-in\-75\-of\-us \|title\='The Big Big Show' Cleared In 75% Of U.S. \|publisher\=TVNewsCheck.com \|date\=2015\-03\-18 \|access\-date\=2016\-02\-02}}
In 2019, Reid guest\-starred as herself in an episode of *[The Boys](/wiki/The_Boys_%28TV_series%29 "The Boys (TV series)")* where she attended a comic convention with [Billy Zane](/wiki/Billy_Zane "Billy Zane").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Reid began acting at age six, becoming a regular on the game show *[Child's Play](/wiki/Child%27s_Play_%28game_show%29 \"Child's Play (game show)\")*,{{cite news\\|title\\=13 Questions With Tara Reid\\|url\\=http://au.askmen.com/celebs/interview\\_200/223\\_tara\\_reid\\_interview.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[AskMen]]\\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714193239/http://au.askmen.com/celebs/interview\\_200/223\\_tara\\_reid\\_interview.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and appeared in over 100 commercials for corporations including [Jell\\-O](/wiki/Jell-O \"Jell-O\"), [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s \"McDonald's\"), [Crayola](/wiki/Crayola \"Crayola\"), and [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\"). As a teenager, she was on *[Saved by the Bell: The New Class](/wiki/Saved_by_the_Bell:The_New_Class \"The New Class\")*.",
"After moving to [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\") in 1997, Reid transitioned to movies, landing a role in 1998's *[The Big Lebowski](/wiki/The_Big_Lebowski \"The Big Lebowski\")*. Though the film disappointed at the box office, grossing only $17 million in the U.S., it went on to become a [cult classic](/wiki/Cult_film \"Cult film\"). Later that same year, she appeared in a larger role in a more financially successful film, *[Urban Legend](/wiki/Urban_Legend_%28film%29 \"Urban Legend (film)\")*, where she portrayed a sexy radio host and which grossed just under $40 million in the US and led to two sequels, though neither included Reid. In 1999, she appeared in a tiny role in another hit, *[Cruel Intentions](/wiki/Cruel_Intentions \"Cruel Intentions\")*. Reid found her first taste of real mainstream success when she portrayed the role of the virginal Vickie in *[American Pie](/wiki/American_Pie_%28film%29 \"American Pie (film)\")* (1999\\), which grossed over $100 million in the US. The film also marked her first film to reach number one at the box office. In 2001, she reprised the role in *[American Pie 2](/wiki/American_Pie_2 \"American Pie 2\")*, which opened to $45 million and grossed over $145 million in the US, almost 50% more than its predecessor. Reid did not return for *[American Wedding](/wiki/American_Wedding \"American Wedding\")* (2003\\), but did reprise the character in the fourth theatrical film in the series, *[American Reunion](/wiki/American_Reunion \"American Reunion\")* (2012\\).",
"Following the success of *American Pie 2*, Reid starred in a number of commercial and critical misfires, including *[Josie and the Pussycats](/wiki/Josie_and_the_Pussycats_%28film%29 \"Josie and the Pussycats (film)\")* and *[Van Wilder](/wiki/Van_Wilder \"Van Wilder\")*. She also starred as the youngest daughter of a Texas [gynecologist](/wiki/Gynecologist \"Gynecologist\") in [Robert Altman](/wiki/Robert_Altman \"Robert Altman\")'s *[Dr. T \\& the Women](/wiki/Dr._T_%26_the_Women \"Dr. T & the Women\")*, alongside [Richard Gere](/wiki/Richard_Gere \"Richard Gere\"). She returned to the small screen as a recurring character on the [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") [sitcom](/wiki/Sitcom \"Sitcom\") *[Scrubs](/wiki/Scrubs_%28TV_series%29 \"Scrubs (TV series)\")*, appearing in 11 episodes of season three. Shortly thereafter, Reid appeared alongside [Ashton Kutcher](/wiki/Ashton_Kutcher \"Ashton Kutcher\") in *[My Boss's Daughter](/wiki/My_Boss%27s_Daughter \"My Boss's Daughter\")*, for which she was nominated for both Worst Supporting Actress and Worst Screen Couple at the 2004 [Golden Raspberry Awards](/wiki/Golden_Raspberry_Awards \"Golden Raspberry Awards\").",
"In 2005, she co\\-starred in infamous German filmmaker [Uwe Boll](/wiki/Uwe_Boll \"Uwe Boll\")'s *[Alone in the Dark](/wiki/Alone_in_the_Dark_%282005_film%29 \"Alone in the Dark (2005 film)\")* with [Christian Slater](/wiki/Christian_Slater \"Christian Slater\"). Her mispronunciation of \"[Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Newfoundland and Labrador\")\" became a popular Internet catchphrase. The film was panned by critics and Reid received a [Razzie Award](/wiki/Razzie_Award \"Razzie Award\") nomination for Worst Actress. Reid signed on to host the E!'s *Wild On Tara Reid* (later renamed *Taradise*), a program that showcased high\\-society vacations and hot spots.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Itzkoff\\|first1\\=Dave\\|title\\=The No. 1 Network of Never\\-Were\\-Land\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/arts/television/04itzk.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=September 4, 2005}} The show premiered on August 10, 2005,{{cite news\\|title\\=Tara Reid visits Paris and Paris\\|url\\=http://www.today.com/id/8837962/ns/today\\-today\\_entertainment/t/tara\\-reid\\-visits\\-paris\\-paris/\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[Today.com]]\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=August 5, 2005}} but it was cancelled in September, with [Ted Harbert](/wiki/Ted_Harbert \"Ted Harbert\"), E! Network's president, saying it was \"incredibly difficult to produce with someone well\\-known.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=INXS plans its next move; a new series gets the ax\\|url\\=http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/life/columnist/hipclicks/2005\\-09\\-25\\-hip\\-clicks\\_x.htm\\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]\\|date\\=September 21, 2005}}",
"In January 2007, Reid filmed a commercial with [Daniel Conn](/wiki/Daniel_Conn \"Daniel Conn\") for [Dodo](/wiki/Dodo_%28Australian_company%29 \"Dodo (Australian company)\"), an [Australian](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") budget telephone and [Internet service provider](/wiki/Internet_service_provider \"Internet service provider\"). Between 2007 and 2008, she starred in a number of [direct\\-to\\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video \"Direct-to-video\") films, including *7\\-10 Split/Strike*, *[If I Had Known I Was a Genius](/wiki/If_I_Had_Known_I_Was_a_Genius \"If I Had Known I Was a Genius\")* (which was released at the 2007 [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\")), and *[Clean Break/Unnatural Causes](/wiki/Clean_Break_%28film%29 \"Clean Break (film)\")*. She also played the main character in the [made\\-for\\-television](/wiki/Television_film \"Television film\") horror film *[Vipers](/wiki/Vipers_%28film%29 \"Vipers (film)\")*. In 2010, she landed the role of Bonnie in the thriller film *[The Fields](/wiki/The_Fields_%28film%29 \"The Fields (film)\")*, which was released in 2011\\. In March 2011, she filmed a [Funny or Die](/wiki/Funny_or_Die \"Funny or Die\") spoof trailer for *The Big Lebowski 2*.[Tara Reid talks about making her new 'Big Lebowski 2' spoof for FunnyOrDie \\-\\- EXCLUSIVE](https://ew.com/article/2011/03/29/big-lebowski-tara-reid-american-pie/) Entertainment Weekly. March 29, 2011",
"On August 18, 2011, Reid was the second housemate to enter the British reality series *[Celebrity Big Brother 8](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_8%29 \"Celebrity Big Brother (British series 8)\")*. On September 2, she received the fewest votes and became the third celebrity to be evicted from the house.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2017}}",
"In September 2011, Reid announced via her official Twitter page that she was to appear in [Jedward](/wiki/Jedward \"Jedward\")'s new music video for \"[Wow Oh Wow](/wiki/Wow_Oh_Wow \"Wow Oh Wow\")\",{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2017}} which they started shooting in late October of the same year. In 2014, she appeared in their music video for \"Ferocious\".",
"In 2013, she appeared in the hit [Syfy](/wiki/Syfy \"Syfy\") film *[Sharknado](/wiki/Sharknado \"Sharknado\")* which spawned five sequels in 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018\\. Other projects Reid appeared in during the mid\\-2010s included comedy spoof *[The Hungover Games](/wiki/The_Hungover_Games \"The Hungover Games\")*, horror film *[Charlie's Farm](/wiki/Charlie%27s_Farm \"Charlie's Farm\")*, the [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood \"Bollywood\") film *Tie the Knot*, and the TV series *The Big Big Show* with [Andrew Dice Clay](/wiki/Andrew_Dice_Clay \"Andrew Dice Clay\") and [Tom Green](/wiki/Tom_Green \"Tom Green\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/83845/the\\-big\\-big\\-show\\-cleared\\-in\\-75\\-of\\-us \\|title\\='The Big Big Show' Cleared In 75% Of U.S. \\|publisher\\=TVNewsCheck.com \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-02}}",
"In 2019, Reid guest\\-starred as herself in an episode of *[The Boys](/wiki/The_Boys_%28TV_series%29 \"The Boys (TV series)\")* where she attended a comic convention with [Billy Zane](/wiki/Billy_Zane \"Billy Zane\").",
""
] |
Plot
----
[thumb\|right\|Autographed Julie Adams still, featuring the Creature menacing Kay](/wiki/File:Famous_Actress_Who_Later_Portrayed_an_FDA_Chemist_%28FDA_124%29_%288205683361%29.jpg "Famous Actress Who Later Portrayed an FDA Chemist (FDA 124) (8205683361).jpg")
A [geology](/wiki/Geology "Geology") expedition in the [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest "Amazon rainforest") uncovers [fossilized](/wiki/Fossil "Fossil") evidence (a skeletal hand with webbed fingers) from the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian") period that provides a direct link between land and sea animals. Expedition leader Dr. Carl Maia orders his two assistants to stay in camp while he visits the [marine biology](/wiki/Marine_biology "Marine biology") institute.
Carl reunites with his friend and former student, [ichthyologist](/wiki/Ichthyology "Ichthyology") Dr. David Reed. David works at an aquarium in California, but more recently, he has been a guest at Carl's institute in Brazil to study [lungfish](/wiki/Lungfish "Lungfish"). David persuades his boss, the financially minded Dr. Mark Williams, to fund a return expedition to the Amazon to look for the remainder of the skeleton.
Soon after Carl leaves camp, a [piscine amphibious humanoid](/wiki/List_of_piscine_and_amphibian_humanoids "List of piscine and amphibian humanoids"), a living member of the same species from which the fossil originated, becomes curious about the expedition's camp. When its sudden appearance frightens the assistants, they panic and attack, and in response, the enraged Creature kills them both.
The group goes aboard the tramp steamer *Rita*, captained by crusty Lucas. The expedition consists of David, Carl, Mark, David's girlfriend and colleague Kay Lawrence, and another scientist, Dr. Edwin Thompson. When they arrive at the camp, they discover Carl's assistants have been killed while he was away. Lucas suggests it was likely done by a [jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar "Jaguar"), but the others are unsure.
A further excavation of the area where Carl found the fossil turns up nothing. Mark is ready to give up the search, but David suggests that perhaps thousands of years ago, the part of the embankment containing the rest of the skeleton fell into the water and was washed downriver, broken up by the current. Carl says the tributary empties into a [lagoon](/wiki/Lagoon "Lagoon"). Lucas calls it the "Black Lagoon", a paradise from which no one has ever returned. The scientists decide to risk it, unaware that the Creature \- the [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian") "Gill\-man" \- that killed Carl's assistants has been watching them.
Taking notice of the beautiful Kay, the Creature follows the *Rita* all the way downriver to the Black Lagoon. Once the expedition arrives, David and Mark go diving to collect rock samples from the lagoon floor. After they return, Kay goes swimming and is stalked underwater by the Creature, who then gets briefly caught in one of the ship's drag lines. Although it escapes, the Creature leaves a claw behind in the net, revealing its existence.
After subsequent encounters with the Creature claim the lives of Lucas's crew members, it attacks Kay and attempts to abduct her, but it is captured and locked in a cage aboard the *Rita*. During the night, it escapes and attacks Edwin, who was guarding it. Edwin smashes the Creature with a lantern, driving it off, but he is severely injured. Following this incident, David decides they should return to civilization. Mark, who is obsessed with capturing (or killing) the Creature, objects. As the *Rita* tries to leave, they find the Creature has blocked the lagoon's entrance with fallen logs. While the others attempt to remove the logs, Mark is mauled to death while trying to capture the Creature single\-handed underwater. The Creature then climbs aboard the *Rita* and approaches Kay from behind. She screams as the Creature grabs her, taking her away to its cavern lair. David, Lucas, and Carl pursue them, rescuing Kay and riddling the Creature with bullets. It retreats to the lagoon, where its body sinks into the watery depths.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Autographed Julie Adams still, featuring the Creature menacing Kay](/wiki/File:Famous_Actress_Who_Later_Portrayed_an_FDA_Chemist_%28FDA_124%29_%288205683361%29.jpg \"Famous Actress Who Later Portrayed an FDA Chemist (FDA 124) (8205683361).jpg\")\nA [geology](/wiki/Geology \"Geology\") expedition in the [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest \"Amazon rainforest\") uncovers [fossilized](/wiki/Fossil \"Fossil\") evidence (a skeletal hand with webbed fingers) from the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") period that provides a direct link between land and sea animals. Expedition leader Dr. Carl Maia orders his two assistants to stay in camp while he visits the [marine biology](/wiki/Marine_biology \"Marine biology\") institute.",
"Carl reunites with his friend and former student, [ichthyologist](/wiki/Ichthyology \"Ichthyology\") Dr. David Reed. David works at an aquarium in California, but more recently, he has been a guest at Carl's institute in Brazil to study [lungfish](/wiki/Lungfish \"Lungfish\"). David persuades his boss, the financially minded Dr. Mark Williams, to fund a return expedition to the Amazon to look for the remainder of the skeleton.",
"Soon after Carl leaves camp, a [piscine amphibious humanoid](/wiki/List_of_piscine_and_amphibian_humanoids \"List of piscine and amphibian humanoids\"), a living member of the same species from which the fossil originated, becomes curious about the expedition's camp. When its sudden appearance frightens the assistants, they panic and attack, and in response, the enraged Creature kills them both.",
"The group goes aboard the tramp steamer *Rita*, captained by crusty Lucas. The expedition consists of David, Carl, Mark, David's girlfriend and colleague Kay Lawrence, and another scientist, Dr. Edwin Thompson. When they arrive at the camp, they discover Carl's assistants have been killed while he was away. Lucas suggests it was likely done by a [jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar \"Jaguar\"), but the others are unsure.",
"A further excavation of the area where Carl found the fossil turns up nothing. Mark is ready to give up the search, but David suggests that perhaps thousands of years ago, the part of the embankment containing the rest of the skeleton fell into the water and was washed downriver, broken up by the current. Carl says the tributary empties into a [lagoon](/wiki/Lagoon \"Lagoon\"). Lucas calls it the \"Black Lagoon\", a paradise from which no one has ever returned. The scientists decide to risk it, unaware that the Creature \\- the [amphibious](/wiki/Amphibian \"Amphibian\") \"Gill\\-man\" \\- that killed Carl's assistants has been watching them.",
"Taking notice of the beautiful Kay, the Creature follows the *Rita* all the way downriver to the Black Lagoon. Once the expedition arrives, David and Mark go diving to collect rock samples from the lagoon floor. After they return, Kay goes swimming and is stalked underwater by the Creature, who then gets briefly caught in one of the ship's drag lines. Although it escapes, the Creature leaves a claw behind in the net, revealing its existence.",
"After subsequent encounters with the Creature claim the lives of Lucas's crew members, it attacks Kay and attempts to abduct her, but it is captured and locked in a cage aboard the *Rita*. During the night, it escapes and attacks Edwin, who was guarding it. Edwin smashes the Creature with a lantern, driving it off, but he is severely injured. Following this incident, David decides they should return to civilization. Mark, who is obsessed with capturing (or killing) the Creature, objects. As the *Rita* tries to leave, they find the Creature has blocked the lagoon's entrance with fallen logs. While the others attempt to remove the logs, Mark is mauled to death while trying to capture the Creature single\\-handed underwater. The Creature then climbs aboard the *Rita* and approaches Kay from behind. She screams as the Creature grabs her, taking her away to its cavern lair. David, Lucas, and Carl pursue them, rescuing Kay and riddling the Creature with bullets. It retreats to the lagoon, where its body sinks into the watery depths.",
""
] |
German East Africa
------------------
{{Main\|German East Africa}}
"A History of Tanzania" references that the Germans established a direct rule where German administrators controlled all aspects of the colony’s government. At the top of the administration was a governor who enforced laws, created local decrees, and controlled the military. The governor appointed district officers who were in charge of everything in their districts. Their responsibilities included collecting taxes, awarding punishment, and commanding the local police force.{{cite book \|last1\=Kimambo \|last2\=Isaria \|last3\=Temu \|title\=A History of Tanzania \|publisher\=Historical Association of Tanzania \[by] East African Pub.}} Lands with high populations often had economic potential. In these areas, the Germans forced out the occupants so they could develop these fertile lands for themselves. All resistance to the [Germans](/wiki/Germans "Germans") in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to [Tanganyika](/wiki/German_East_Africa "German East Africa"), European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the [Hehe](/wiki/Hehe_people "Hehe people")—led by [Chief Mkwawa](/wiki/Chief_Mkwawa "Chief Mkwawa")—resisted German expansion,{{cite news\|publisher\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-48754953\|title\=Why is a Tanzanian chief's skull mentioned in the Versailles Treaty?\|access\-date\=21 February 2021}} but were eventually defeated. After a period of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare"), Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898\.
### Maji Maji resistance
{{Main\|Maji Maji Rebellion}}
Widespread discontent re\-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the [Rufiji River](/wiki/Rufiji_River "Rufiji River").{{Cite book \|title\=Flammen über Deutschost: der Maji\-Maji\-Aufstand in Deutsch\-Ostafrika 1905\-1906 : die erste gemeinsame Erhebung schwarzafrikanischer Völker gegen weisse Kolonialherrschaft : ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kolonialgeschichte. \|last\=Nuhn \|first\=Walter \|publisher\=\[\[Bernard \& Graefe]] \|year\=1998 \|isbn\=9783763759699 \|location\=Germany \|language\=de \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3K0PAQAAMAAJ \|trans\-title\=Flames over German East: the Maji Maji uprising in German East Africa 1905\-1906: the first common uprising of black African peoples against white colonial rule: a contribution to German colonial history.}} The tension reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the [Matumbi](/wiki/Matumbi_people "Matumbi people") of [Nandete](/wiki/Nandete "Nandete") led by Kinjikitile Ngwale revolted against the local administrators ([akida](/wiki/Akida "Akida")) and suddenly the revolt grew wider from [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam "Dar Es Salaam") to the [Uluguru](/wiki/Uluguru "Uluguru") Mountains, the [Kilombero Valley](/wiki/Ulanga_River "Ulanga River"), the [Mahenge](/wiki/Mahenge_Mountains "Mahenge Mountains") and [Makonde](/wiki/Makonde_Plateau "Makonde Plateau") plateaux, the [Ruvuma](/wiki/Ruvuma "Ruvuma") in the southernmost part and Kilwa, [Songea](/wiki/Songea "Songea"), [Masasi](/wiki/Masasi "Masasi"), and from [Kilosa](/wiki/Kilosa "Kilosa") to [Iringa](/wiki/Iringa "Iringa") down to the eastern shores of [Lake Nyasa](/wiki/Lake_Nyasa "Lake Nyasa"). The resistance culminated in the [Maji Maji Resistance](/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion "Maji Maji Rebellion") of 1905–1907\.{{Cite journal \|title\=The Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa \|journal\=Central European History \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4547032 \|last\=Sunseri \|first\=Thaddeus \|issue\=34 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=31–51 \|via\=JSTOR \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \|year\=2001 \|doi\=10\.1163/156916101750149121 \|jstor\=4547032 \|s2cid\=145227749 \|issn\=0008\-9389}} The resistance, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes ended only after an estimated 300,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation. Research has shown that traditional hostilities played a large part in the resistance.{{cite journal\|title\=The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion\|last\=Iliffe\|first\=John\|journal\=The Journal of African History\|pages\=495–512}}
Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the [missionaries](/wiki/Missionaries "Missionaries") who tried to destroy all signs of [indigenous beliefs](/wiki/Traditional_African_religion "Traditional African religion"), notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshiped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at [Uwereka](/wiki/Uwereka "Uwereka") in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count [Gustav Adolf von Götzen](/wiki/Gustav_Adolf_von_G%C3%B6tzen "Gustav Adolf von Götzen") turned instantly into an all\-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants. Known as the [Maji\-Maji](/wiki/Maji-Maji "Maji-Maji") war with the main brunt borne by the [Ngoni people](/wiki/Ngoni_people "Ngoni people"), this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in [Tanganyika](/wiki/German_East_Africa "German East Africa").
### World War I
{{Main\|East African Campaign (World War I)}}
[thumb\|200px\|[Battle of Tanga](/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga "Battle of Tanga"), fought between the British and Germans during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")](/wiki/Image:Battle_of_tanga.jpg "Battle of tanga.jpg")
Before the outbreak of the war, German East Africa had been prepared to resist any attack that could be made without extensive preparation. For the first year of hostilities, the Germans were strong enough to conduct offensive operations in their neighbours' territories by, for example, repeatedly attacking railways in [British East Africa](/wiki/British_East_Africa "British East Africa"). The strength of German forces at the beginning of the war is uncertain. Lieutenant\-General [Jan Smuts](/wiki/Jan_Smuts "Jan Smuts"), the commander of British forces in east Africa beginning in 1916, estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 [Askaris](/wiki/Askari%23German_colonies "Askari#German colonies"). The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of the German garrison). In addition, the indigenous population of over 7,000,000 formed a reservoir of manpower from which a force might be drawn, limited only by the supply of German officers and equipment. "There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the ... nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ntz.info/gen/b00628\.html\#id03489\|editor\-last1\=Samler Brown\|editor\-first1\=A.\|editor\-last2\=Gordon Brown\|editor\-first2\=G.\|title\=South and East African Year Book and Guide for 1920, 26th issue\|website\=www.ntz.info\|access\-date\=5 April 2018}}
The geography of German East Africa also was a severe impediment to British and allied forces. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by unhealthy swamps. The line of lakes and mountains to the west proved to be impenetrable. Belgian forces from the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo "Belgian Congo") had to be moved through Uganda. On the south, the [Ruvuma River](/wiki/Ruvuma_River "Ruvuma River") was fordable only its upper reaches. In the north, only one practicable pass about five miles wide existed between the [Pare Mountains](/wiki/Pare_Mountains "Pare Mountains") and [Mount Kilimanjaro](/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro "Mount Kilimanjaro"), and here the German forces had been digging in for eighteen months.
Germany commenced hostilities in 1914 by unsuccessfully attacking from the town of [Tanga](/wiki/Tanga%2C_Tanzania "Tanga, Tanzania"). The British then attacked the town in November 1914 but were thwarted by General [Paul von Lettow\-Vorbeck](/wiki/Paul_von_Lettow-Vorbeck "Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck")'s forces at the [Battle of Tanga](/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga "Battle of Tanga"). The British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") occupied [Mafia Island](/wiki/Mafia_Island "Mafia Island") in January 1915\. However, the "attack on Tanga and the numerous smaller engagements that followed \[showed] the strength ... of \[German forces] and made it evident that a powerful force must be organized before the conquest of \[German East Africa] could be ... undertaken. Such an enterprise had ... to await more favourable conditions on European battlefields and elsewhere. But in July, 1915, the last German troops in S.W. Africa capitulated ... and the nucleus of the requisite force ... became available." British forces from the northeast and southwest and Belgian forces from the northwest steadily attacked and defeated German forces beginning in January 1916\. In October 1916, General Smuts wrote, "With the exception of the [Mahenge Plateau](/wiki/Mahenge "Mahenge") \[the Germans] have lost every healthy or valuable part of their Colony".
Cut\-off from Germany, General Von Lettow by necessity conducted a guerilla campaign throughout 1917, living off the land and dispersing over a wide area. In December, the remaining German forces evacuated the colony by crossing the Ruvuma River into [Portuguese Mozambique](/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique "Portuguese Mozambique"). Those forces were estimated at 320 German troops and 2,500 Askaris. 1,618 Germans and 5,482 Askaris were killed or captured during the last six months of 1917\. In November 1918, his remaining force surrendered near present\-day [Mbala, Zambia](/wiki/Mbala%2C_Zambia "Mbala, Zambia") consisting of 155 Europeans, 1,165 Askaris, 2,294 African porters etc., and 819 African women.
Under the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles"), Germany relinquished all her overseas possessions, including German East Africa.{{cite web\|url\=http://net.lib.byu.edu/\~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa3\.html\|title\=Peace Treaty of Versailles, Articles 118\-158, German Rights and Interests Outside Germany\|website\=net.lib.byu.edu\|access\-date\=5 April 2018}} Britain lost 3,443 men in battle plus 6,558 men to disease.{{rp\|page 246}} The equivalent numbers for Belgium were 683 and 1,300\.{{rp\|page 246}} Germany lost 734 Europeans and 1,798 Africans.{{rp\|page 246}}
Von Lettow's [scorched earth](/wiki/Scorched_earth "Scorched earth") policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the Government's education system, though some [mission](/wiki/Mission_%28Christian%29 "Mission (Christian)") schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Unlike the Belgian, British, French and Portuguese colonial masters in central Africa, Germany had developed an educational program for her Africans that involved elementary, secondary and vocational schools. "Instructor qualifications, curricula, textbooks, teaching materials, all met standards unmatched anywhere in tropical Africa."{{Cite book \| last \= Miller \| first \= Charles \| author\-link \= Charles Miller (author) \| title \= Battle for the Bundu: the First World War in East Africa \| location \= New York\| publisher \= \[\[Macmillan Publishers]] \| year \= 1974 \| page \= 21 \| isbn \=978\-0\-02\-584930\-3}} In 1924, ten years after the beginning of the First World War and six years into British rule, the visiting American Phelps\-Stokes Commission reported: In regards to schools, the Germans have accomplished marvels. Some time must elapse before education attains the standard it had reached under the Germans. But by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue—less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House.
|
[
"German East Africa\n------------------",
"{{Main\\|German East Africa}}\n\"A History of Tanzania\" references that the Germans established a direct rule where German administrators controlled all aspects of the colony’s government. At the top of the administration was a governor who enforced laws, created local decrees, and controlled the military. The governor appointed district officers who were in charge of everything in their districts. Their responsibilities included collecting taxes, awarding punishment, and commanding the local police force.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Kimambo \\|last2\\=Isaria \\|last3\\=Temu \\|title\\=A History of Tanzania \\|publisher\\=Historical Association of Tanzania \\[by] East African Pub.}} Lands with high populations often had economic potential. In these areas, the Germans forced out the occupants so they could develop these fertile lands for themselves. All resistance to the [Germans](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\") in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to [Tanganyika](/wiki/German_East_Africa \"German East Africa\"), European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the [Hehe](/wiki/Hehe_people \"Hehe people\")—led by [Chief Mkwawa](/wiki/Chief_Mkwawa \"Chief Mkwawa\")—resisted German expansion,{{cite news\\|publisher\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-48754953\\|title\\=Why is a Tanzanian chief's skull mentioned in the Versailles Treaty?\\|access\\-date\\=21 February 2021}} but were eventually defeated. After a period of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\"), Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898\\.",
"### Maji Maji resistance",
"{{Main\\|Maji Maji Rebellion}}",
"Widespread discontent re\\-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the [Rufiji River](/wiki/Rufiji_River \"Rufiji River\").{{Cite book \\|title\\=Flammen über Deutschost: der Maji\\-Maji\\-Aufstand in Deutsch\\-Ostafrika 1905\\-1906 : die erste gemeinsame Erhebung schwarzafrikanischer Völker gegen weisse Kolonialherrschaft : ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kolonialgeschichte. \\|last\\=Nuhn \\|first\\=Walter \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bernard \\& Graefe]] \\|year\\=1998 \\|isbn\\=9783763759699 \\|location\\=Germany \\|language\\=de \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3K0PAQAAMAAJ \\|trans\\-title\\=Flames over German East: the Maji Maji uprising in German East Africa 1905\\-1906: the first common uprising of black African peoples against white colonial rule: a contribution to German colonial history.}} The tension reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the [Matumbi](/wiki/Matumbi_people \"Matumbi people\") of [Nandete](/wiki/Nandete \"Nandete\") led by Kinjikitile Ngwale revolted against the local administrators ([akida](/wiki/Akida \"Akida\")) and suddenly the revolt grew wider from [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam \"Dar Es Salaam\") to the [Uluguru](/wiki/Uluguru \"Uluguru\") Mountains, the [Kilombero Valley](/wiki/Ulanga_River \"Ulanga River\"), the [Mahenge](/wiki/Mahenge_Mountains \"Mahenge Mountains\") and [Makonde](/wiki/Makonde_Plateau \"Makonde Plateau\") plateaux, the [Ruvuma](/wiki/Ruvuma \"Ruvuma\") in the southernmost part and Kilwa, [Songea](/wiki/Songea \"Songea\"), [Masasi](/wiki/Masasi \"Masasi\"), and from [Kilosa](/wiki/Kilosa \"Kilosa\") to [Iringa](/wiki/Iringa \"Iringa\") down to the eastern shores of [Lake Nyasa](/wiki/Lake_Nyasa \"Lake Nyasa\"). The resistance culminated in the [Maji Maji Resistance](/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion \"Maji Maji Rebellion\") of 1905–1907\\.{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Baumwollfrage: Cotton Colonialism in German East Africa \\|journal\\=Central European History \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4547032 \\|last\\=Sunseri \\|first\\=Thaddeus \\|issue\\=34 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=31–51 \\|via\\=JSTOR \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|year\\=2001 \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/156916101750149121 \\|jstor\\=4547032 \\|s2cid\\=145227749 \\|issn\\=0008\\-9389}} The resistance, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes ended only after an estimated 300,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation. Research has shown that traditional hostilities played a large part in the resistance.{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion\\|last\\=Iliffe\\|first\\=John\\|journal\\=The Journal of African History\\|pages\\=495–512}}",
"Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the [missionaries](/wiki/Missionaries \"Missionaries\") who tried to destroy all signs of [indigenous beliefs](/wiki/Traditional_African_religion \"Traditional African religion\"), notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshiped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at [Uwereka](/wiki/Uwereka \"Uwereka\") in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count [Gustav Adolf von Götzen](/wiki/Gustav_Adolf_von_G%C3%B6tzen \"Gustav Adolf von Götzen\") turned instantly into an all\\-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants. Known as the [Maji\\-Maji](/wiki/Maji-Maji \"Maji-Maji\") war with the main brunt borne by the [Ngoni people](/wiki/Ngoni_people \"Ngoni people\"), this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in [Tanganyika](/wiki/German_East_Africa \"German East Africa\").",
"### World War I",
"{{Main\\|East African Campaign (World War I)}}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|[Battle of Tanga](/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga \"Battle of Tanga\"), fought between the British and Germans during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\")](/wiki/Image:Battle_of_tanga.jpg \"Battle of tanga.jpg\")",
"Before the outbreak of the war, German East Africa had been prepared to resist any attack that could be made without extensive preparation. For the first year of hostilities, the Germans were strong enough to conduct offensive operations in their neighbours' territories by, for example, repeatedly attacking railways in [British East Africa](/wiki/British_East_Africa \"British East Africa\"). The strength of German forces at the beginning of the war is uncertain. Lieutenant\\-General [Jan Smuts](/wiki/Jan_Smuts \"Jan Smuts\"), the commander of British forces in east Africa beginning in 1916, estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 [Askaris](/wiki/Askari%23German_colonies \"Askari#German colonies\"). The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of the German garrison). In addition, the indigenous population of over 7,000,000 formed a reservoir of manpower from which a force might be drawn, limited only by the supply of German officers and equipment. \"There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the ... nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ntz.info/gen/b00628\\.html\\#id03489\\|editor\\-last1\\=Samler Brown\\|editor\\-first1\\=A.\\|editor\\-last2\\=Gordon Brown\\|editor\\-first2\\=G.\\|title\\=South and East African Year Book and Guide for 1920, 26th issue\\|website\\=www.ntz.info\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018}}",
"The geography of German East Africa also was a severe impediment to British and allied forces. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by unhealthy swamps. The line of lakes and mountains to the west proved to be impenetrable. Belgian forces from the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo \"Belgian Congo\") had to be moved through Uganda. On the south, the [Ruvuma River](/wiki/Ruvuma_River \"Ruvuma River\") was fordable only its upper reaches. In the north, only one practicable pass about five miles wide existed between the [Pare Mountains](/wiki/Pare_Mountains \"Pare Mountains\") and [Mount Kilimanjaro](/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro \"Mount Kilimanjaro\"), and here the German forces had been digging in for eighteen months.",
"Germany commenced hostilities in 1914 by unsuccessfully attacking from the town of [Tanga](/wiki/Tanga%2C_Tanzania \"Tanga, Tanzania\"). The British then attacked the town in November 1914 but were thwarted by General [Paul von Lettow\\-Vorbeck](/wiki/Paul_von_Lettow-Vorbeck \"Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck\")'s forces at the [Battle of Tanga](/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga \"Battle of Tanga\"). The British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") occupied [Mafia Island](/wiki/Mafia_Island \"Mafia Island\") in January 1915\\. However, the \"attack on Tanga and the numerous smaller engagements that followed \\[showed] the strength ... of \\[German forces] and made it evident that a powerful force must be organized before the conquest of \\[German East Africa] could be ... undertaken. Such an enterprise had ... to await more favourable conditions on European battlefields and elsewhere. But in July, 1915, the last German troops in S.W. Africa capitulated ... and the nucleus of the requisite force ... became available.\" British forces from the northeast and southwest and Belgian forces from the northwest steadily attacked and defeated German forces beginning in January 1916\\. In October 1916, General Smuts wrote, \"With the exception of the [Mahenge Plateau](/wiki/Mahenge \"Mahenge\") \\[the Germans] have lost every healthy or valuable part of their Colony\".",
"Cut\\-off from Germany, General Von Lettow by necessity conducted a guerilla campaign throughout 1917, living off the land and dispersing over a wide area. In December, the remaining German forces evacuated the colony by crossing the Ruvuma River into [Portuguese Mozambique](/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique \"Portuguese Mozambique\"). Those forces were estimated at 320 German troops and 2,500 Askaris. 1,618 Germans and 5,482 Askaris were killed or captured during the last six months of 1917\\. In November 1918, his remaining force surrendered near present\\-day [Mbala, Zambia](/wiki/Mbala%2C_Zambia \"Mbala, Zambia\") consisting of 155 Europeans, 1,165 Askaris, 2,294 African porters etc., and 819 African women.",
"Under the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\"), Germany relinquished all her overseas possessions, including German East Africa.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://net.lib.byu.edu/\\~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa3\\.html\\|title\\=Peace Treaty of Versailles, Articles 118\\-158, German Rights and Interests Outside Germany\\|website\\=net.lib.byu.edu\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018}} Britain lost 3,443 men in battle plus 6,558 men to disease.{{rp\\|page 246}} The equivalent numbers for Belgium were 683 and 1,300\\.{{rp\\|page 246}} Germany lost 734 Europeans and 1,798 Africans.{{rp\\|page 246}}",
"Von Lettow's [scorched earth](/wiki/Scorched_earth \"Scorched earth\") policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the Government's education system, though some [mission](/wiki/Mission_%28Christian%29 \"Mission (Christian)\") schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Unlike the Belgian, British, French and Portuguese colonial masters in central Africa, Germany had developed an educational program for her Africans that involved elementary, secondary and vocational schools. \"Instructor qualifications, curricula, textbooks, teaching materials, all met standards unmatched anywhere in tropical Africa.\"{{Cite book \\| last \\= Miller \\| first \\= Charles \\| author\\-link \\= Charles Miller (author) \\| title \\= Battle for the Bundu: the First World War in East Africa \\| location \\= New York\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Macmillan Publishers]] \\| year \\= 1974 \\| page \\= 21 \\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-02\\-584930\\-3}} In 1924, ten years after the beginning of the First World War and six years into British rule, the visiting American Phelps\\-Stokes Commission reported: In regards to schools, the Germans have accomplished marvels. Some time must elapse before education attains the standard it had reached under the Germans. But by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue—less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House.",
""
] |
British administration after World War I
----------------------------------------
In 1919, the population was estimated at 3,500,000\.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2014}}
The first British civilian administrator after the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") was [Sir Horace Archer Byatt](/wiki/Horace_Archer_Byatt "Horace Archer Byatt") [CMG](/wiki/Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George "Order of St Michael and St George"), appointed by Royal Commission on 31 January 1919\.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.microform.co.uk/guides/R96996\.pdf\| title \= "Introduction", ''Government Publications Relating to Tanganyika, 1919\-1961'', authored by James S. Read, Microform Academic Publishers, 2006, accessed 1 November 2014\| access\-date \= 2 November 2014\| archive\-date \= 4 March 2016\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194926/http://www.microform.co.uk/guides/R96996\.pdf\| url\-status \= dead}}{{rp\|page 2}} The colony was renamed [Tanganyika Territory](/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory "Tanganyika Territory") in January 1920\.{{rp\|page 247}}{{rp\|page 3}} In September 1920 by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the initial boundaries of the territory, the Executive Council, and the offices of governor and commander\-in\-chief were established.{{rp\|page 2}} The governor legislated by proclamation or ordinance until 1926\.{{rp\|page 4}}
Britain and [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and [Ruanda\-Urundi](/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi "Ruanda-Urundi") in 1924\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/ibs069\.pdf\&ved\=0CD0QFjAK\&usg\=AFQjCNGXATsA2TynZR\-nfXFINvyANQRV1A\&sig2\=nCoqdUMIaQvihw7lNCeHbg\|title\=Protocol respecting the Boundary between Tanganyika Territory and the Belgian Mandated Territory of Ruanda–Urundi, Kigoma, 5 August 1924, "Burundi\-Tanzania Border", International Boundary Study, United States Department of State, 16 May 1966\|website\=fsu.edu\|access\-date\=5 April 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426224538/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS069\.pdf\|archive\-date\=26 April 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}}
The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of 13 December 1946\.
### British rule through indigenous authorities
Governor Byatt took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule. He authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association, which in 1929 became the [Tanganyika African Association](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_Association "Tanganyika African Association") and later constituted the core of the nationalist movement.{{Cite thesis\|last\=Mashaka\|first\=Riziki\|date\=August 2018\|title\=THE HISTORICAL INFORMATION OF TANZANIA (From Colonialism to Political independence)\|publisher\=University of Campinas\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/37297346\|page\=9}}{{Better source needed\|reason\=A paper, that under its "Refferences"\[sic], includes "4\. Googlesearch/http.www.historyoftanzania.com.wikipedia.". The text is also copied verbatim. The source is potentially one of the others cited in the paper?\|date\=March 2021}} Under the Native Authority Ordinances of 1923, limited powers were granted to certain recognized chiefs who could also exercise powers granted by local customary law.{{rp\|page 6}}
[Sir Donald Cameron](/wiki/Donald_Charles_Cameron_%28colonial_administrator%29 "Donald Charles Cameron (colonial administrator)") became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925\.{{rp\|page 5}} "His work ... was of great significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional indigenous authorities."{{rp\|page 5}} He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule, as evidenced by his *Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native Administration and their Application*.{{rp\|page 6}}
In 1926, the Legislative Council was established with seven unofficial (including two Indians) and thirteen official members, whose function was to advise and consent to ordinances issued by the governor.{{rp\|pages 4–5}} In 1945, the first Africans were appointed to the council.{{rp\|page 5}} The council was reconstituted in 1948 under Governor [Edward Twining](/wiki/Edward_Twining "Edward Twining"), with 15 unofficial members (7 Europeans, 4 Africans, and 4 Indians) and 14 official members.{{rp\|page 9}} [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere "Julius Nyerere") became one of the unofficial members in 1954\.{{rp\|page 9}} The council was again reconstituted in 1955 with 44 unofficial members (10 Europeans, 10 Africans, 10 Indians, and 14 government representatives) and 17 official members.{{rp\|page 9}}
Governor Cameron in 1929 enacted the Native Courts Ordinance No. 5, which removed those courts from the jurisdiction of the colonial courts and provided for a system of appeals with final resort to the governor himself.{{rp\|page 6}}
### Railway development
In 1928, the [Tabora](/wiki/Tabora "Tabora") to [Mwanza](/wiki/Mwanza "Mwanza") railway line was opened to traffic.{{cite report\|title\=XVIIth International Geographical Congress\|publisher\=International Geographical Union\|year\=1952}}{{cite book\|title\=Tanzania: A Political Economy \|edition\=2nd\|isbn\=978\-0\-199\-67996\-6\|page\=107\|last1\=Coulson \|first1\=Andrew \|date\=2013 \|orig\-year\=1982 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|location\=Oxford \|chapter\=Non\-Industrialization \|doi\=10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780199679966\.003\.0010}} The line from [Moshi](/wiki/Moshi%2C_Tanzania "Moshi, Tanzania") to [Arusha](/wiki/Arusha "Arusha") opened in 1930\.{{rp\|page 136}}
### 1931 census
In 1931 a census established the population of [Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28territory%29 "Tanganyika (territory)") at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans.
### Health and education initiatives
Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the [Tsetse fly](/wiki/Tsetse_fly "Tsetse fly") (a carrier of [sleeping sickness](/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis "African trypanosomiasis")), and to fight [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria") and [bilharziasis](/wiki/Bilharziasis "Bilharziasis"); more hospitals were built.
In 1926, the colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only US$290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of [purchasing power parity](/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity "Purchasing power parity").
### Tanganyika wheat scheme
The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war\-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped\-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika, [Freddie Smith](/wiki/Freddie_Smith_%28farmer%29 "Freddie Smith (farmer)"), was in charge, and [David Gordon Hines](/wiki/David_Gordon_Hines "David Gordon Hines") was the accountant responsible for the finances. The scheme had {{convert\|50000\|acre\|km2\|0}} on the [Ardai](/wiki/Ardai "Ardai") plains just outside [Arusha](/wiki/Arusha "Arusha"); {{convert\|25000\|acre\|km2\|0}} on [Mount Kilimanjaro](/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro "Mount Kilimanjaro"); and {{convert\|25000\|acre\|km2\|0}} towards [Ngorongoro](/wiki/Ngorongoro "Ngorongoro") to the west. All the machinery was lend/lease from the US, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs, and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering managers. Most of the workers were [Italian prisoners of war](/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war "Italian prisoners of war") from Somalia and Ethiopia: excellent, skilled engineers and mechanics. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.{{cite interview\|title\=Interview with David Hines\|last\=Ogilvie\|first\=W.D.\|year\=1999}}{{publisher missing\|date\=April 2023}}{{cite news\|title\=Obituary of David Hines\|newspaper\=Daily Telegraph\|location\=London\|date\=2000\-04\-08}}
### World War II
Two days after [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") [invaded](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland") [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") declared war and the British forces in Tanganyika were ordered to [intern](/wiki/Internment "Internment") the German males living in Tanganyika. The British government feared that these Axis country citizens would attempt to help the [Axis forces](/wiki/Axis_forces "Axis forces") and some of the Germans living in Dar es Salaam did attempt to flee the country but were stopped and later interned by [Roald Dahl](/wiki/Roald_Dahl "Roald Dahl") and a small group of Tanganyikan soldiers of the [King's African Rifles](/wiki/King%27s_African_Rifles "King's African Rifles").{{cite book\|title\=Going Solo\|last\=Dahl\|first\=Roald\|publisher\=Puffin Books\|date\=2008\-09\-04\|isbn\=978\-0141322742}}
During the war about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the [Allied forces](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II").{{cite book\|title\=Cultures of the World, Second\|volume\=16\|last1\=Heale\|first1\=Jay\|last2\=Wong\|first2\=Winnie\|publisher\=Cavendish Square Publishing\|location\=Tanzania\|date\=2009\-03\-01\|isbn\=978\-0761434177}} and were part of the 375,000 British colonial troops who fought against the Axis forces. Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles and fought in the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "East African Campaign (World War II)") in [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia") and [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire "Ethiopian Empire") against the Italians, in [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") against the [Vichy French](/wiki/Vichy_French "Vichy French") during the [Madagascar Campaign](/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar "Battle of Madagascar"), and in [Burma](/wiki/Burma "Burma") against the [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") during the [Burma Campaign](/wiki/Burma_Campaign_1944%E2%80%9345 "Burma Campaign 1944–45").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mgtrust.org/afr2\.htm\|title\=African participants in the Second World War\|publisher\=Memorial Gates Trust}} Tanganyika became an important source of food and Tanganyika's export income greatly increased from the pre\-war years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). However, despite the additional income, the war caused [inflation](/wiki/Inflation "Inflation") within the country.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.content.eisa.org.za/old\-page/tanzania\-british\-rule\-between\-wars\-1916\-1945\|date\=September 2005\|title\=Tanzania: British rule between the Wars (1916\-1945\)\|publisher\=Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110085107/www.content.eisa.org.za/old\-page/tanzania\-british\-rule\-between\-wars\-1916\-1945}}
### Transition to independence
In 1947, Tanganyika became a [United Nations trust territory](/wiki/United_Nations_trust_territories "United Nations trust territories") under British control. "Its geography, topography, climate, geopolitics, patterns of settlement and history made Tanganyika the most significant of all UN Trust Territories."{{cite book\|title\=Voices from Tanganyika: Great Britain, The United Nations and the Decolonization of a Trust Territory, 1946\-1961\|last\=Lohrmann\|first\=Ullrich\|publisher\=Lit Verlag\|location\=Berlin, Germany\|year\=2007}}{{rp\|page 11}} But two\-thirds of the population lived in one\-tenth of the territory because of water shortages, soil erosion, unreliable rainfall, tsetse fly infestations, and poor communications and transportation infrastructures.{{rp\|page 11}}
[thumb\|170px\|Stamp of British East Africa with portrait of [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II "Elizabeth II")](/wiki/File:BEA-KUT_1958_MiNr0097_pm_B002.jpg "BEA-KUT 1958 MiNr0097 pm B002.jpg")
#### Multi\-ethnic population
In 1957, only 15 towns had more than 5,000 inhabitants, with the capital [Dar es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam "Dar es Salaam") having the country's highest population of 128,742\.{{rp\|page 12}} Tanganyika was a multi\-racial territory, which made it unique in the trusteeship world. Its total non\-African population in 1957 was 123,310 divided as follows: 95,636 Asians and Arabs (subdivided as 65,461 Indians, 6,299 Pakistanis, 4,776 Goans, and 19,100 Arabs), 3,114 Somalis, and 3,782 "coloured" and "other" individuals. The white population, which included the Europeans (British, Italians, Greeks, and Germans) and white South Africans, totalled 20,598 individuals. Tanganyika's ethnic and economic make\-up posed problems for the British. Their policy was geared to ensuring the continuance of the European presence as necessary to support the country's economy. But the British also had to remain responsive to the political demands of the Africans.{{rp\|page 13}}
Many Africans were government servants, business employees, labourers, and producers of important cash crops during this period. But the vast majority were subsistence farmers who produced barely enough to survive. The standards of housing, clothing, and other social conditions were "equally quite poor."{{rp\|page 12}} The Asians and Arabs were the middle class and tended to be wholesale and retail traders. The white population were missionaries, professional and government servants, and owners and managers of farms, plantations, mines, and other businesses. "White farms were of primary importance as producers of exportable agricultural crops."{{rp\|page 13}}
#### Co\-operative farming started
Britain, through its colonial officer [David Gordon Hines](/wiki/David_Gordon_Hines "David Gordon Hines"), encouraged the development of farming co\-operatives to help convert subsistence farmers to cash husbandry. The subsistence farmers sold their produce to Indian traders at poor prices. By the early 1950s, there were over 400 co\-operatives nationally.{{cite book\|title\=Lonely Planet: East Africa\|edition\=3\|year\=1994\|isbn\=0\-86442\-209\-1\|page\=497\|last1\=Crowther\|first1\=Geoff\|last2\=Finlay\|first2\=Hugh\|publisher\=Lonely Planet Publications}} Co\-operatives formed "unions" for their areas and developed [cotton ginneries](/wiki/Cotton_gin "Cotton gin"), coffee factories, and [tobacco dryers](/wiki/Tobacco%23Curing "Tobacco#Curing"). A major success for Tanzania was the [Moshi](/wiki/Moshi%2C_Kilimanjaro "Moshi, Kilimanjaro") coffee auctions that attracted international buyers after the annual Nairobi auctions.
The disastrous [Tanganyika groundnut scheme](/wiki/Tanganyika_groundnut_scheme "Tanganyika groundnut scheme") began in 1946 and was abandoned in 1951\.
#### UN trust territory
After Tanganyika became a UN trust territory, the British felt extra pressure for political progress. The British principle of "gradualism" was increasingly threatened and was abandoned entirely during the last few years before independence. Five UN missions visited Tanganyika, the UN received several hundred written petitions, and a handful of oral presentations made it to the debating chambers in New York City between 1948 and 1960\.{{rp\|page 16}} The UN and the Africans who used the UN to achieve their purposes were very influential in driving Tanganyika towards independence. The Africans attended public gatherings in Tanganyika with UN representatives. There were peasants, urban workers, government employees, and local chiefs and nobles who personally approached the UN about local matters needing immediate action. And finally, there were Africans at the core of the political process who had the power to mould the future. Their goal was political advancement for Africans, with many supporting the nationalist movement, which had its roots in the African Association (AA). It was formed in 1929 as a social organization for African government servants in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. The AA was renamed the [Tanganyika African Association](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_Association "Tanganyika African Association") (TAA) in 1948 and ceased being concerned with events in Zanzibar.{{rp\|page 17}}
#### African nationalism
Beginning in 1954, African nationalism centered on the [Tanganyika African National Union](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_National_Union "Tanganyika African National Union") (TANU), which was a political organization formed by [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere "Julius Nyerere") in that year{{rp\|page 16}} as the successor to the TAA.{{rp\|page 17}} The TANU won the Legislative Council elections in 1958, 1959, and 1960, with Nyerere becoming chief minister after the 1960 election. Internal self\-government started on 1 May 1961 followed by independence on 9 December 1961\.{{rp\|page 16}}
|
[
"British administration after World War I\n----------------------------------------",
"In 1919, the population was estimated at 3,500,000\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2014}}",
"The first British civilian administrator after the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") was [Sir Horace Archer Byatt](/wiki/Horace_Archer_Byatt \"Horace Archer Byatt\") [CMG](/wiki/Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George \"Order of St Michael and St George\"), appointed by Royal Commission on 31 January 1919\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.microform.co.uk/guides/R96996\\.pdf\\| title \\= \"Introduction\", ''Government Publications Relating to Tanganyika, 1919\\-1961'', authored by James S. Read, Microform Academic Publishers, 2006, accessed 1 November 2014\\| access\\-date \\= 2 November 2014\\| archive\\-date \\= 4 March 2016\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194926/http://www.microform.co.uk/guides/R96996\\.pdf\\| url\\-status \\= dead}}{{rp\\|page 2}} The colony was renamed [Tanganyika Territory](/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory \"Tanganyika Territory\") in January 1920\\.{{rp\\|page 247}}{{rp\\|page 3}} In September 1920 by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the initial boundaries of the territory, the Executive Council, and the offices of governor and commander\\-in\\-chief were established.{{rp\\|page 2}} The governor legislated by proclamation or ordinance until 1926\\.{{rp\\|page 4}}",
"Britain and [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and [Ruanda\\-Urundi](/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi \"Ruanda-Urundi\") in 1924\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/ibs069\\.pdf\\&ved\\=0CD0QFjAK\\&usg\\=AFQjCNGXATsA2TynZR\\-nfXFINvyANQRV1A\\&sig2\\=nCoqdUMIaQvihw7lNCeHbg\\|title\\=Protocol respecting the Boundary between Tanganyika Territory and the Belgian Mandated Territory of Ruanda–Urundi, Kigoma, 5 August 1924, \"Burundi\\-Tanzania Border\", International Boundary Study, United States Department of State, 16 May 1966\\|website\\=fsu.edu\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426224538/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS069\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of 13 December 1946\\.",
"### British rule through indigenous authorities",
"Governor Byatt took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule. He authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association, which in 1929 became the [Tanganyika African Association](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_Association \"Tanganyika African Association\") and later constituted the core of the nationalist movement.{{Cite thesis\\|last\\=Mashaka\\|first\\=Riziki\\|date\\=August 2018\\|title\\=THE HISTORICAL INFORMATION OF TANZANIA (From Colonialism to Political independence)\\|publisher\\=University of Campinas\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/37297346\\|page\\=9}}{{Better source needed\\|reason\\=A paper, that under its \"Refferences\"\\[sic], includes \"4\\. Googlesearch/http.www.historyoftanzania.com.wikipedia.\". The text is also copied verbatim. The source is potentially one of the others cited in the paper?\\|date\\=March 2021}} Under the Native Authority Ordinances of 1923, limited powers were granted to certain recognized chiefs who could also exercise powers granted by local customary law.{{rp\\|page 6}}",
"[Sir Donald Cameron](/wiki/Donald_Charles_Cameron_%28colonial_administrator%29 \"Donald Charles Cameron (colonial administrator)\") became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925\\.{{rp\\|page 5}} \"His work ... was of great significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional indigenous authorities.\"{{rp\\|page 5}} He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule, as evidenced by his *Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native Administration and their Application*.{{rp\\|page 6}}",
"In 1926, the Legislative Council was established with seven unofficial (including two Indians) and thirteen official members, whose function was to advise and consent to ordinances issued by the governor.{{rp\\|pages 4–5}} In 1945, the first Africans were appointed to the council.{{rp\\|page 5}} The council was reconstituted in 1948 under Governor [Edward Twining](/wiki/Edward_Twining \"Edward Twining\"), with 15 unofficial members (7 Europeans, 4 Africans, and 4 Indians) and 14 official members.{{rp\\|page 9}} [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere \"Julius Nyerere\") became one of the unofficial members in 1954\\.{{rp\\|page 9}} The council was again reconstituted in 1955 with 44 unofficial members (10 Europeans, 10 Africans, 10 Indians, and 14 government representatives) and 17 official members.{{rp\\|page 9}}",
"Governor Cameron in 1929 enacted the Native Courts Ordinance No. 5, which removed those courts from the jurisdiction of the colonial courts and provided for a system of appeals with final resort to the governor himself.{{rp\\|page 6}}",
"### Railway development",
"In 1928, the [Tabora](/wiki/Tabora \"Tabora\") to [Mwanza](/wiki/Mwanza \"Mwanza\") railway line was opened to traffic.{{cite report\\|title\\=XVIIth International Geographical Congress\\|publisher\\=International Geographical Union\\|year\\=1952}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Tanzania: A Political Economy \\|edition\\=2nd\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-199\\-67996\\-6\\|page\\=107\\|last1\\=Coulson \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2013 \\|orig\\-year\\=1982 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|location\\=Oxford \\|chapter\\=Non\\-Industrialization \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/acprof:oso/9780199679966\\.003\\.0010}} The line from [Moshi](/wiki/Moshi%2C_Tanzania \"Moshi, Tanzania\") to [Arusha](/wiki/Arusha \"Arusha\") opened in 1930\\.{{rp\\|page 136}}",
"### 1931 census",
"In 1931 a census established the population of [Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28territory%29 \"Tanganyika (territory)\") at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans.",
"### Health and education initiatives",
"Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the [Tsetse fly](/wiki/Tsetse_fly \"Tsetse fly\") (a carrier of [sleeping sickness](/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis \"African trypanosomiasis\")), and to fight [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\") and [bilharziasis](/wiki/Bilharziasis \"Bilharziasis\"); more hospitals were built.",
"In 1926, the colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only US$290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of [purchasing power parity](/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity \"Purchasing power parity\").",
"### Tanganyika wheat scheme",
"The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war\\-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped\\-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika, [Freddie Smith](/wiki/Freddie_Smith_%28farmer%29 \"Freddie Smith (farmer)\"), was in charge, and [David Gordon Hines](/wiki/David_Gordon_Hines \"David Gordon Hines\") was the accountant responsible for the finances. The scheme had {{convert\\|50000\\|acre\\|km2\\|0}} on the [Ardai](/wiki/Ardai \"Ardai\") plains just outside [Arusha](/wiki/Arusha \"Arusha\"); {{convert\\|25000\\|acre\\|km2\\|0}} on [Mount Kilimanjaro](/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro \"Mount Kilimanjaro\"); and {{convert\\|25000\\|acre\\|km2\\|0}} towards [Ngorongoro](/wiki/Ngorongoro \"Ngorongoro\") to the west. All the machinery was lend/lease from the US, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs, and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering managers. Most of the workers were [Italian prisoners of war](/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war \"Italian prisoners of war\") from Somalia and Ethiopia: excellent, skilled engineers and mechanics. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.{{cite interview\\|title\\=Interview with David Hines\\|last\\=Ogilvie\\|first\\=W.D.\\|year\\=1999}}{{publisher missing\\|date\\=April 2023}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Obituary of David Hines\\|newspaper\\=Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=London\\|date\\=2000\\-04\\-08}}",
"### World War II",
"Two days after [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") [invaded](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\") [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") declared war and the British forces in Tanganyika were ordered to [intern](/wiki/Internment \"Internment\") the German males living in Tanganyika. The British government feared that these Axis country citizens would attempt to help the [Axis forces](/wiki/Axis_forces \"Axis forces\") and some of the Germans living in Dar es Salaam did attempt to flee the country but were stopped and later interned by [Roald Dahl](/wiki/Roald_Dahl \"Roald Dahl\") and a small group of Tanganyikan soldiers of the [King's African Rifles](/wiki/King%27s_African_Rifles \"King's African Rifles\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Going Solo\\|last\\=Dahl\\|first\\=Roald\\|publisher\\=Puffin Books\\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-04\\|isbn\\=978\\-0141322742}}",
"During the war about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the [Allied forces](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Cultures of the World, Second\\|volume\\=16\\|last1\\=Heale\\|first1\\=Jay\\|last2\\=Wong\\|first2\\=Winnie\\|publisher\\=Cavendish Square Publishing\\|location\\=Tanzania\\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-01\\|isbn\\=978\\-0761434177}} and were part of the 375,000 British colonial troops who fought against the Axis forces. Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles and fought in the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"East African Campaign (World War II)\") in [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\") and [Abyssinia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire \"Ethiopian Empire\") against the Italians, in [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") against the [Vichy French](/wiki/Vichy_French \"Vichy French\") during the [Madagascar Campaign](/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar \"Battle of Madagascar\"), and in [Burma](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\") against the [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") during the [Burma Campaign](/wiki/Burma_Campaign_1944%E2%80%9345 \"Burma Campaign 1944–45\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mgtrust.org/afr2\\.htm\\|title\\=African participants in the Second World War\\|publisher\\=Memorial Gates Trust}} Tanganyika became an important source of food and Tanganyika's export income greatly increased from the pre\\-war years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). However, despite the additional income, the war caused [inflation](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\") within the country.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.content.eisa.org.za/old\\-page/tanzania\\-british\\-rule\\-between\\-wars\\-1916\\-1945\\|date\\=September 2005\\|title\\=Tanzania: British rule between the Wars (1916\\-1945\\)\\|publisher\\=Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110085107/www.content.eisa.org.za/old\\-page/tanzania\\-british\\-rule\\-between\\-wars\\-1916\\-1945}}",
"### Transition to independence",
"In 1947, Tanganyika became a [United Nations trust territory](/wiki/United_Nations_trust_territories \"United Nations trust territories\") under British control. \"Its geography, topography, climate, geopolitics, patterns of settlement and history made Tanganyika the most significant of all UN Trust Territories.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Voices from Tanganyika: Great Britain, The United Nations and the Decolonization of a Trust Territory, 1946\\-1961\\|last\\=Lohrmann\\|first\\=Ullrich\\|publisher\\=Lit Verlag\\|location\\=Berlin, Germany\\|year\\=2007}}{{rp\\|page 11}} But two\\-thirds of the population lived in one\\-tenth of the territory because of water shortages, soil erosion, unreliable rainfall, tsetse fly infestations, and poor communications and transportation infrastructures.{{rp\\|page 11}}",
"[thumb\\|170px\\|Stamp of British East Africa with portrait of [Queen Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II \"Elizabeth II\")](/wiki/File:BEA-KUT_1958_MiNr0097_pm_B002.jpg \"BEA-KUT 1958 MiNr0097 pm B002.jpg\")",
"#### Multi\\-ethnic population",
"In 1957, only 15 towns had more than 5,000 inhabitants, with the capital [Dar es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam \"Dar es Salaam\") having the country's highest population of 128,742\\.{{rp\\|page 12}} Tanganyika was a multi\\-racial territory, which made it unique in the trusteeship world. Its total non\\-African population in 1957 was 123,310 divided as follows: 95,636 Asians and Arabs (subdivided as 65,461 Indians, 6,299 Pakistanis, 4,776 Goans, and 19,100 Arabs), 3,114 Somalis, and 3,782 \"coloured\" and \"other\" individuals. The white population, which included the Europeans (British, Italians, Greeks, and Germans) and white South Africans, totalled 20,598 individuals. Tanganyika's ethnic and economic make\\-up posed problems for the British. Their policy was geared to ensuring the continuance of the European presence as necessary to support the country's economy. But the British also had to remain responsive to the political demands of the Africans.{{rp\\|page 13}}",
"Many Africans were government servants, business employees, labourers, and producers of important cash crops during this period. But the vast majority were subsistence farmers who produced barely enough to survive. The standards of housing, clothing, and other social conditions were \"equally quite poor.\"{{rp\\|page 12}} The Asians and Arabs were the middle class and tended to be wholesale and retail traders. The white population were missionaries, professional and government servants, and owners and managers of farms, plantations, mines, and other businesses. \"White farms were of primary importance as producers of exportable agricultural crops.\"{{rp\\|page 13}}",
"#### Co\\-operative farming started",
"Britain, through its colonial officer [David Gordon Hines](/wiki/David_Gordon_Hines \"David Gordon Hines\"), encouraged the development of farming co\\-operatives to help convert subsistence farmers to cash husbandry. The subsistence farmers sold their produce to Indian traders at poor prices. By the early 1950s, there were over 400 co\\-operatives nationally.{{cite book\\|title\\=Lonely Planet: East Africa\\|edition\\=3\\|year\\=1994\\|isbn\\=0\\-86442\\-209\\-1\\|page\\=497\\|last1\\=Crowther\\|first1\\=Geoff\\|last2\\=Finlay\\|first2\\=Hugh\\|publisher\\=Lonely Planet Publications}} Co\\-operatives formed \"unions\" for their areas and developed [cotton ginneries](/wiki/Cotton_gin \"Cotton gin\"), coffee factories, and [tobacco dryers](/wiki/Tobacco%23Curing \"Tobacco#Curing\"). A major success for Tanzania was the [Moshi](/wiki/Moshi%2C_Kilimanjaro \"Moshi, Kilimanjaro\") coffee auctions that attracted international buyers after the annual Nairobi auctions.",
"The disastrous [Tanganyika groundnut scheme](/wiki/Tanganyika_groundnut_scheme \"Tanganyika groundnut scheme\") began in 1946 and was abandoned in 1951\\.",
"#### UN trust territory",
"After Tanganyika became a UN trust territory, the British felt extra pressure for political progress. The British principle of \"gradualism\" was increasingly threatened and was abandoned entirely during the last few years before independence. Five UN missions visited Tanganyika, the UN received several hundred written petitions, and a handful of oral presentations made it to the debating chambers in New York City between 1948 and 1960\\.{{rp\\|page 16}} The UN and the Africans who used the UN to achieve their purposes were very influential in driving Tanganyika towards independence. The Africans attended public gatherings in Tanganyika with UN representatives. There were peasants, urban workers, government employees, and local chiefs and nobles who personally approached the UN about local matters needing immediate action. And finally, there were Africans at the core of the political process who had the power to mould the future. Their goal was political advancement for Africans, with many supporting the nationalist movement, which had its roots in the African Association (AA). It was formed in 1929 as a social organization for African government servants in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. The AA was renamed the [Tanganyika African Association](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_Association \"Tanganyika African Association\") (TAA) in 1948 and ceased being concerned with events in Zanzibar.{{rp\\|page 17}}",
"#### African nationalism",
"Beginning in 1954, African nationalism centered on the [Tanganyika African National Union](/wiki/Tanganyika_African_National_Union \"Tanganyika African National Union\") (TANU), which was a political organization formed by [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere \"Julius Nyerere\") in that year{{rp\\|page 16}} as the successor to the TAA.{{rp\\|page 17}} The TANU won the Legislative Council elections in 1958, 1959, and 1960, with Nyerere becoming chief minister after the 1960 election. Internal self\\-government started on 1 May 1961 followed by independence on 9 December 1961\\.{{rp\\|page 16}}",
""
] |
Recent history
--------------
To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union, [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere "Julius Nyerere") merged [TANU](/wiki/TANU "TANU") with the Zanzibar ruling party, the [Afro\-Shirazi Party](/wiki/Afro-Shirazi_Party "Afro-Shirazi Party") (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the [CCM](/wiki/Chama_Cha_Mapinduzi "Chama Cha Mapinduzi") (Chama cha Mapinduzi\-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977\. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984\.
Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a country with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a [one party system](/wiki/One-party_state "One-party state").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/julius\-kambarage\-nyerere\-43589\|title\=Biography of Julius Kambarage Nyerere, Father of Tanzania\|last\=Boddy\-Evans\|first\=Alistair\|date\=2019\-05\-23\|publisher\=ThoughtCo.}} In a post\-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics'.{{cite book\|title\=African Cities: Competing Claims on Urban Spaces\|series\=Africa\-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies\|volume\=3\|editor\-last1\=Locatelli\|editor\-first1\=Francesca\|editor\-last2\=Nugent\|editor\-first2\=Paul\|year\=2009\|url\=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/13489?language\=en\|page\=252\|publisher\=Brill \|isbn\=9789047442486 }}{{cite book\|chapter\=The urban melting pot in east Africa: Ethnicity and urban growth in Kampala and dar es Salaam\|first\=Deborah Fahy\|last\=Bryceson\|date\=20 May 2009\|title\=African Cities\|pages\=241–260\|doi\=10\.1163/ej.9789004162648\.i\-308\.67\|isbn \= 9789004162648}} To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established [Kiswahili](/wiki/Swahili_language "Swahili language") as the national language.{{cite web\|url\=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio\-Nyerere.htm\|title\=Who Was the Father of Tanzania?\|website\=about.com\|access\-date\=5 April 2018\|archive\-date\=17 October 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017110027/http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio\-Nyerere.htm\|url\-status\=dead}}
Nyerere introduced [African socialism](/wiki/African_socialism "African socialism"), or *[Ujamaa](/wiki/Ujamaa "Ujamaa")*, literal meaning 'family\-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de\-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994\). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de\-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy.{{cite book\|last\=Myers\|first\=Garth A.\|title\=African Cities: Alternative Visions of Urban Theory and Practice\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3xAWTwEACAAJ\|year\=2011\|publisher\=Zed Books\|isbn\=978\-1\-84813\-508\-6}}{{rp\|page 44}}
Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved in everything from retailing to import\-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption. Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy. Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use. Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable. A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali. A foundation for [systemic corruption](/wiki/Systemic_corruption "Systemic corruption") had been laid. Officials became widely known as [Wabenzi](/wiki/Wabenzi "Wabenzi") ("people of the [Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz")"). By mid\-1979, corruption had reached epidemic proportions as the economy collapsed.{{Cite book \| last1 \= Stapenhurst \| first1 \= Rick \| last2 \= Kpundeh \| first2 \= Sahr John \| title \= Curbing corruption: toward a model for building national integrity \| publisher \= \[\[World Bank Publications]] \| year \= 1999 \| pages \= 153–156 \| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=eLh72ZUQcssC\&pg\=PA153 \| isbn \=978\-0\-8213\-4257\-2}}
Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/China "China"),{{cite book\|title\=Maoism: A Global History\|last\=Lovell\|first\=Julia\|year\=2019\|pages\=192–216}} the United Kingdom and Germany. In 1979 Tanzania declared [war on Uganda](/wiki/Uganda-Tanzania_War "Uganda-Tanzania War") after the Soviet\-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of [Kagera](/wiki/Kagera_Region "Kagera Region"). Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, 1979, the Ugandan president [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin "Idi Amin") was forced to leave the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda\-Tanzania War.{{Cite book \| last \= Mwakikagile \| first \= Godfrey \| title \= Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria \| publisher \= \[\[Nova Publishers]] \| year \= 2001 \| page \= 221 \| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=gqTjUjdvTQwC\&pg\=PA221 \| isbn \=978\-1\-56072\-967\-9}} The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/597725\.stm\|title\=BBC NEWS \- Africa \- Obituary: The buffoon tyrant\|website\=news.bbc.co.uk\|access\-date\=5 April 2018}}
In October 1985, Nyerere handed over power to [Ali Hassan Mwinyi](/wiki/Ali_Hassan_Mwinyi "Ali Hassan Mwinyi"), but retained control of the ruling party, [Chama cha Mapinduzi](/wiki/Chama_cha_Mapinduzi "Chama cha Mapinduzi") (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi.
In 1990, a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage.{{cite book\|title\=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S\-Z\|last\=Minahan\|first\=James\|pages\=2088–2089}} Their demands were neglected.
However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities and its candidate [Benjamin William Mkapa](/wiki/Benjamin_William_Mkapa "Benjamin William Mkapa") was subsequently sworn in as the new president of Tanzania in the country's ever multi\-party election on 23 November 1995\.{{Citation \| title \= Polling Problems Mar Election in Tanzania \| newspaper \= \[\[The New York Times]] \| page \= A4 \| date \= 30 October 1995 \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/30/world/world\-news\-briefs\-polling\-problems\-mar\-election\-in\-tanzania.html?pagewanted\=1 \| access\-date \=11 March 2010}}{{Citation \| title \= Tanzania swears in Mkapa as president \| newspaper \= \[\[The Blade (Toledo)\|The Blade]] \| publisher \= \[\[Block Communications]] \| page \= 2 \| date \= 24 November 1995 \| url \= https://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id\=ZeE0AAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=bgMEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4324,7043753\&dq\=mkapa\&hl\=en \| access\-date \=11 March 2010}} Contested elections in late 2000 led to a massacre in Zanzibar in January 2001, with the government shooting into crowds of protesters, killing 35 and injuring 600\.{{Citation \| title \= Tanzania: Zanzibar Election Massacres Documented \| newspaper \= \[\[Human Rights Watch]] \| date \= 9 April 2002 \| url \= http://hrw.org/english/docs/2002/04/10/tanzan3838\.htm \| access\-date \=22 March 2010}} In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho [Kikwete](/wiki/Kikwete "Kikwete") was elected the fourth president for a five\-year term.
One of the deadly [1998 U.S. embassy bombings](/wiki/1998_U.S._embassy_bombings "1998 U.S. embassy bombings") occurred in [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam "Dar Es Salaam"); the other was in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"). In 2004, the [undersea earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake") on the other side of the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") caused [tsunamis](/wiki/Tsunami "Tsunami") along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An [oil tanker](/wiki/Oil_tanker "Oil tanker") also temporarily ran aground in the [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam "Dar Es Salaam") harbour, damaging an [oil pipeline](/wiki/Oil_pipeline "Oil pipeline").
In 2008, a power surge cut off power to Zanzibar, resulting in the [2008 Zanzibar Power blackout](/wiki/2008_Zanzibar_Power_blackout "2008 Zanzibar Power blackout").
In 2015, after the ten\-year term of president [Jakaya Kikwete](/wiki/Jakaya_Kikwete "Jakaya Kikwete"), the presidential [election](/wiki/2015_Tanzanian_general_election "2015 Tanzanian general election") was won by [John Magufuli](/wiki/John_Magufuli "John Magufuli").{{Cite news\|date\=2015\-10\-29\|title\=Tanzania poll: John Magufuli of CCM defeats Edward Lowassa\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-34669468\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-01}} In October 2020, president Magufoli was re\-elected in an [election](/wiki/2020_Tanzanian_general_election "2020 Tanzanian general election") contested by the opposition.{{Cite news\|date\=2020\-10\-31\|title\=Tanzania elections: Main opposition parties demand fresh vote\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-54759865\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-01}}
The [Chama cha Mapinduzi](/wiki/Chama_Cha_Mapinduzi "Chama Cha Mapinduzi") (CCM) party has held power since independence in 1961\. It is the longest\-serving ruling party in Africa. Every president of Tanzania has represented the party.{{Cite web\|title\=Magufuli is Transforming Tanzania's Ruling Party From a "Benign Hegemon" Into a Malevolent One\|url\=https://www.cfr.org/blog/magufuli\-transforming\-tanzanias\-ruling\-party\-benign\-hegemon\-malevolent\-one\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-01\|website\=Council on Foreign Relations\|language\=en}} According to [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), since the election of Magufuli in December 2015 Tanzania has witnessed a marked decline in respect for free expression, association and assembly.{{Cite book\|date\=2019\-01\-17\|title\=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Tanzania\|chapter\=Tanzania: Events of 2018\|chapter\-url\=https://www.hrw.org/world\-report/2019/country\-chapters/tanzania\-and\-zanzibar\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-01\|publisher\=Human Rights Watch \|language\=en}}
On 19 March 2021, Vice President [Samia Suluhu Hassan](/wiki/Samia_Suluhu_Hassan "Samia Suluhu Hassan") became the new president after the sudden death of Magufuli. She is the first female president of Tanzania.{{Cite web\|title\=Samia Hassan sworn in as Tanzania's first female president\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/19/tanzania\-to\-swear\-in\-new\-president\-on\-friday\-after\-death\-of\-maguf\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-01\|website\=www.aljazeera.com\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Recent history\n--------------",
"To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union, [Julius Nyerere](/wiki/Julius_Nyerere \"Julius Nyerere\") merged [TANU](/wiki/TANU \"TANU\") with the Zanzibar ruling party, the [Afro\\-Shirazi Party](/wiki/Afro-Shirazi_Party \"Afro-Shirazi Party\") (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the [CCM](/wiki/Chama_Cha_Mapinduzi \"Chama Cha Mapinduzi\") (Chama cha Mapinduzi\\-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977\\. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984\\.",
"Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a country with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a [one party system](/wiki/One-party_state \"One-party state\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/julius\\-kambarage\\-nyerere\\-43589\\|title\\=Biography of Julius Kambarage Nyerere, Father of Tanzania\\|last\\=Boddy\\-Evans\\|first\\=Alistair\\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-23\\|publisher\\=ThoughtCo.}} In a post\\-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics'.{{cite book\\|title\\=African Cities: Competing Claims on Urban Spaces\\|series\\=Africa\\-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies\\|volume\\=3\\|editor\\-last1\\=Locatelli\\|editor\\-first1\\=Francesca\\|editor\\-last2\\=Nugent\\|editor\\-first2\\=Paul\\|year\\=2009\\|url\\=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/13489?language\\=en\\|page\\=252\\|publisher\\=Brill \\|isbn\\=9789047442486 }}{{cite book\\|chapter\\=The urban melting pot in east Africa: Ethnicity and urban growth in Kampala and dar es Salaam\\|first\\=Deborah Fahy\\|last\\=Bryceson\\|date\\=20 May 2009\\|title\\=African Cities\\|pages\\=241–260\\|doi\\=10\\.1163/ej.9789004162648\\.i\\-308\\.67\\|isbn \\= 9789004162648}} To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established [Kiswahili](/wiki/Swahili_language \"Swahili language\") as the national language.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio\\-Nyerere.htm\\|title\\=Who Was the Father of Tanzania?\\|website\\=about.com\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017110027/http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio\\-Nyerere.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Nyerere introduced [African socialism](/wiki/African_socialism \"African socialism\"), or *[Ujamaa](/wiki/Ujamaa \"Ujamaa\")*, literal meaning 'family\\-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de\\-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994\\). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de\\-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy.{{cite book\\|last\\=Myers\\|first\\=Garth A.\\|title\\=African Cities: Alternative Visions of Urban Theory and Practice\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3xAWTwEACAAJ\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Zed Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84813\\-508\\-6}}{{rp\\|page 44}}",
"Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved in everything from retailing to import\\-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption. Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy. Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use. Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable. A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali. A foundation for [systemic corruption](/wiki/Systemic_corruption \"Systemic corruption\") had been laid. Officials became widely known as [Wabenzi](/wiki/Wabenzi \"Wabenzi\") (\"people of the [Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\")\"). By mid\\-1979, corruption had reached epidemic proportions as the economy collapsed.{{Cite book \\| last1 \\= Stapenhurst \\| first1 \\= Rick \\| last2 \\= Kpundeh \\| first2 \\= Sahr John \\| title \\= Curbing corruption: toward a model for building national integrity \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[World Bank Publications]] \\| year \\= 1999 \\| pages \\= 153–156 \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eLh72ZUQcssC\\&pg\\=PA153 \\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-8213\\-4257\\-2}}",
"Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/China \"China\"),{{cite book\\|title\\=Maoism: A Global History\\|last\\=Lovell\\|first\\=Julia\\|year\\=2019\\|pages\\=192–216}} the United Kingdom and Germany. In 1979 Tanzania declared [war on Uganda](/wiki/Uganda-Tanzania_War \"Uganda-Tanzania War\") after the Soviet\\-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of [Kagera](/wiki/Kagera_Region \"Kagera Region\"). Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, 1979, the Ugandan president [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin \"Idi Amin\") was forced to leave the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda\\-Tanzania War.{{Cite book \\| last \\= Mwakikagile \\| first \\= Godfrey \\| title \\= Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Nova Publishers]] \\| year \\= 2001 \\| page \\= 221 \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gqTjUjdvTQwC\\&pg\\=PA221 \\| isbn \\=978\\-1\\-56072\\-967\\-9}} The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/597725\\.stm\\|title\\=BBC NEWS \\- Africa \\- Obituary: The buffoon tyrant\\|website\\=news.bbc.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2018}}",
"In October 1985, Nyerere handed over power to [Ali Hassan Mwinyi](/wiki/Ali_Hassan_Mwinyi \"Ali Hassan Mwinyi\"), but retained control of the ruling party, [Chama cha Mapinduzi](/wiki/Chama_cha_Mapinduzi \"Chama cha Mapinduzi\") (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi.",
"In 1990, a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage.{{cite book\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S\\-Z\\|last\\=Minahan\\|first\\=James\\|pages\\=2088–2089}} Their demands were neglected.",
"However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities and its candidate [Benjamin William Mkapa](/wiki/Benjamin_William_Mkapa \"Benjamin William Mkapa\") was subsequently sworn in as the new president of Tanzania in the country's ever multi\\-party election on 23 November 1995\\.{{Citation \\| title \\= Polling Problems Mar Election in Tanzania \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| page \\= A4 \\| date \\= 30 October 1995 \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/30/world/world\\-news\\-briefs\\-polling\\-problems\\-mar\\-election\\-in\\-tanzania.html?pagewanted\\=1 \\| access\\-date \\=11 March 2010}}{{Citation \\| title \\= Tanzania swears in Mkapa as president \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[The Blade (Toledo)\\|The Blade]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Block Communications]] \\| page \\= 2 \\| date \\= 24 November 1995 \\| url \\= https://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id\\=ZeE0AAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=bgMEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4324,7043753\\&dq\\=mkapa\\&hl\\=en \\| access\\-date \\=11 March 2010}} Contested elections in late 2000 led to a massacre in Zanzibar in January 2001, with the government shooting into crowds of protesters, killing 35 and injuring 600\\.{{Citation \\| title \\= Tanzania: Zanzibar Election Massacres Documented \\| newspaper \\= \\[\\[Human Rights Watch]] \\| date \\= 9 April 2002 \\| url \\= http://hrw.org/english/docs/2002/04/10/tanzan3838\\.htm \\| access\\-date \\=22 March 2010}} In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho [Kikwete](/wiki/Kikwete \"Kikwete\") was elected the fourth president for a five\\-year term.",
"One of the deadly [1998 U.S. embassy bombings](/wiki/1998_U.S._embassy_bombings \"1998 U.S. embassy bombings\") occurred in [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam \"Dar Es Salaam\"); the other was in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"). In 2004, the [undersea earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake \"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake\") on the other side of the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") caused [tsunamis](/wiki/Tsunami \"Tsunami\") along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An [oil tanker](/wiki/Oil_tanker \"Oil tanker\") also temporarily ran aground in the [Dar Es Salaam](/wiki/Dar_Es_Salaam \"Dar Es Salaam\") harbour, damaging an [oil pipeline](/wiki/Oil_pipeline \"Oil pipeline\").",
"In 2008, a power surge cut off power to Zanzibar, resulting in the [2008 Zanzibar Power blackout](/wiki/2008_Zanzibar_Power_blackout \"2008 Zanzibar Power blackout\").",
"In 2015, after the ten\\-year term of president [Jakaya Kikwete](/wiki/Jakaya_Kikwete \"Jakaya Kikwete\"), the presidential [election](/wiki/2015_Tanzanian_general_election \"2015 Tanzanian general election\") was won by [John Magufuli](/wiki/John_Magufuli \"John Magufuli\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-29\\|title\\=Tanzania poll: John Magufuli of CCM defeats Edward Lowassa\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-34669468\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-01}} In October 2020, president Magufoli was re\\-elected in an [election](/wiki/2020_Tanzanian_general_election \"2020 Tanzanian general election\") contested by the opposition.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-31\\|title\\=Tanzania elections: Main opposition parties demand fresh vote\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-54759865\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-01}}",
"The [Chama cha Mapinduzi](/wiki/Chama_Cha_Mapinduzi \"Chama Cha Mapinduzi\") (CCM) party has held power since independence in 1961\\. It is the longest\\-serving ruling party in Africa. Every president of Tanzania has represented the party.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Magufuli is Transforming Tanzania's Ruling Party From a \"Benign Hegemon\" Into a Malevolent One\\|url\\=https://www.cfr.org/blog/magufuli\\-transforming\\-tanzanias\\-ruling\\-party\\-benign\\-hegemon\\-malevolent\\-one\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-01\\|website\\=Council on Foreign Relations\\|language\\=en}} According to [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"), since the election of Magufuli in December 2015 Tanzania has witnessed a marked decline in respect for free expression, association and assembly.{{Cite book\\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-17\\|title\\=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Tanzania\\|chapter\\=Tanzania: Events of 2018\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.hrw.org/world\\-report/2019/country\\-chapters/tanzania\\-and\\-zanzibar\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-01\\|publisher\\=Human Rights Watch \\|language\\=en}}",
"On 19 March 2021, Vice President [Samia Suluhu Hassan](/wiki/Samia_Suluhu_Hassan \"Samia Suluhu Hassan\") became the new president after the sudden death of Magufuli. She is the first female president of Tanzania.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Samia Hassan sworn in as Tanzania's first female president\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/19/tanzania\\-to\\-swear\\-in\\-new\\-president\\-on\\-friday\\-after\\-death\\-of\\-maguf\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-01\\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Release
-------
Dick Randall took the amalgamated footage and employed actors to dub it into English, titling it *Master with Cracked Fingers*. Randall later sold the rights to [21st Century Distribution](/wiki/21st_Century_Film_Corporation "21st Century Film Corporation"), who gave the film a limited release in American cinemas in 1981 under the alternative title *Snake Fist Fighter*.{{cite web \| title \= Hong Kong Digital \| work \= Master with Cracked Fingers \| url\=http://www.dighkmovies.com/v1/15/15\.html \| accessdate \= 2009\-02\-05 }}
As Chan became more popular in the West, particularly after the US release of *[Rumble in the Bronx](/wiki/Rumble_in_the_Bronx "Rumble in the Bronx")* (1996\), the rights to release the film on VHS were passed or shared between a number of different [film distributors](/wiki/Film_distributor "Film distributor").
### VHS
In the US, it was released as *Master with Cracked Fingers* by [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_Entertainment_Group "Xenon Entertainment Group") (1996\), and Woodhaven Entertainment (1999\). [Madacy](/wiki/Madacy_Entertainment "Madacy Entertainment") released the film with the slightly different title *Master with Cracked Finger* (singular) in 1996, and later in a twin video pack along with *[Fantasy Mission Force](/wiki/Fantasy_Mission_Force "Fantasy Mission Force")* (2000\). As *Snake Fist Fighter*, the film was given two releases through [Simitar Entertainment](/wiki/Simitar_Entertainment "Simitar Entertainment") (1997\), one in a twin video pack with *[New Fist of Fury](/wiki/New_Fist_of_Fury "New Fist of Fury")*. In the UK, it was released as *Master with Cracked Fingers* by Mia Video Entertainment (1998\). It was also sold by Imperial Entertainment UK, in a triple video pack, along with *[City Hunter](/wiki/City_Hunter_%28film%29 "City Hunter (film)")* and *[Island of Fire](/wiki/Island_of_Fire "Island of Fire")*.
### DVD
All US DVD releases to date have had the title *Master with Cracked Fingers*. These began with a release from Woodhaven Entertainment in 2000\. Others include [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_Entertainment_Group "Xenon Entertainment Group") (2002\), Beverly Wilshire (2002\), Unicorn Video (2003\) and Miracle Pictures (2005\). [Madacy](/wiki/Madacy_Entertainment "Madacy Entertainment") gave the film several releases (now as *...Fingers* plural) including a twin DVD pack along with *Fantasy Mission Force*, and a triple pack DVD, which including both plus *[Rumble in Hong Kong](/wiki/Police_Woman_%28film%29 "Police Woman (film)")* (2000\). They re\-released it on its own in 2001\. East West Entertainment released it in a twin DVD pack, along with *[The Young Master](/wiki/The_Young_Master "The Young Master")*. Good Times Video released it in a twin DVD pack, along with the [documentary film](/wiki/Documentary_film "Documentary film") *[Fist of Fear, Touch of Death](/wiki/Fist_of_Fear%2C_Touch_of_Death "Fist of Fear, Touch of Death")* (2002\). Unlike the other releases, Videoasia's 2004 DVD was a double\-sided disc, with the US dubbed copy on one side, and the original Cantonese audio copy on the other. In the UK, it was released by Prism Leisure, alone (2002\) and in at least two different four\-film boxsets (2004\). In 2007, the UK company Film 2000 released the film with the title *Snake Fist Fighter*.
Further companies also held the rights long enough to produce limited releases of the film on VHS and DVD and, as with those noted above, all were the English\-dubbed 80 minute assembled version of the film.
### Little Tiger of Canton
{{main\|Little Tiger of Canton}}
The original film, *Little Tiger of Canton* was finally given a DVD release in the west in 2007, under the title *The Cub Tiger from Kwang Tung*. It was released in the UK (region 2\) on Showbox Home Entertainment's Rarescope label. This 85 minute film is in its un\-tampered form, contains the original language and English subtitles. Due to the poor quality of the print, some of the subtitles are chopped from the foot of the screen, so the DVD contains an additional set of subtitles which appear whenever the originals are cropped or missing.
|
[
"Release\n-------",
"Dick Randall took the amalgamated footage and employed actors to dub it into English, titling it *Master with Cracked Fingers*. Randall later sold the rights to [21st Century Distribution](/wiki/21st_Century_Film_Corporation \"21st Century Film Corporation\"), who gave the film a limited release in American cinemas in 1981 under the alternative title *Snake Fist Fighter*.{{cite web \\| title \\= Hong Kong Digital \\| work \\= Master with Cracked Fingers \\| url\\=http://www.dighkmovies.com/v1/15/15\\.html \\| accessdate \\= 2009\\-02\\-05 }}",
"As Chan became more popular in the West, particularly after the US release of *[Rumble in the Bronx](/wiki/Rumble_in_the_Bronx \"Rumble in the Bronx\")* (1996\\), the rights to release the film on VHS were passed or shared between a number of different [film distributors](/wiki/Film_distributor \"Film distributor\").",
"### VHS",
"In the US, it was released as *Master with Cracked Fingers* by [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_Entertainment_Group \"Xenon Entertainment Group\") (1996\\), and Woodhaven Entertainment (1999\\). [Madacy](/wiki/Madacy_Entertainment \"Madacy Entertainment\") released the film with the slightly different title *Master with Cracked Finger* (singular) in 1996, and later in a twin video pack along with *[Fantasy Mission Force](/wiki/Fantasy_Mission_Force \"Fantasy Mission Force\")* (2000\\). As *Snake Fist Fighter*, the film was given two releases through [Simitar Entertainment](/wiki/Simitar_Entertainment \"Simitar Entertainment\") (1997\\), one in a twin video pack with *[New Fist of Fury](/wiki/New_Fist_of_Fury \"New Fist of Fury\")*. In the UK, it was released as *Master with Cracked Fingers* by Mia Video Entertainment (1998\\). It was also sold by Imperial Entertainment UK, in a triple video pack, along with *[City Hunter](/wiki/City_Hunter_%28film%29 \"City Hunter (film)\")* and *[Island of Fire](/wiki/Island_of_Fire \"Island of Fire\")*.",
"### DVD",
"All US DVD releases to date have had the title *Master with Cracked Fingers*. These began with a release from Woodhaven Entertainment in 2000\\. Others include [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_Entertainment_Group \"Xenon Entertainment Group\") (2002\\), Beverly Wilshire (2002\\), Unicorn Video (2003\\) and Miracle Pictures (2005\\). [Madacy](/wiki/Madacy_Entertainment \"Madacy Entertainment\") gave the film several releases (now as *...Fingers* plural) including a twin DVD pack along with *Fantasy Mission Force*, and a triple pack DVD, which including both plus *[Rumble in Hong Kong](/wiki/Police_Woman_%28film%29 \"Police Woman (film)\")* (2000\\). They re\\-released it on its own in 2001\\. East West Entertainment released it in a twin DVD pack, along with *[The Young Master](/wiki/The_Young_Master \"The Young Master\")*. Good Times Video released it in a twin DVD pack, along with the [documentary film](/wiki/Documentary_film \"Documentary film\") *[Fist of Fear, Touch of Death](/wiki/Fist_of_Fear%2C_Touch_of_Death \"Fist of Fear, Touch of Death\")* (2002\\). Unlike the other releases, Videoasia's 2004 DVD was a double\\-sided disc, with the US dubbed copy on one side, and the original Cantonese audio copy on the other. In the UK, it was released by Prism Leisure, alone (2002\\) and in at least two different four\\-film boxsets (2004\\). In 2007, the UK company Film 2000 released the film with the title *Snake Fist Fighter*.",
"Further companies also held the rights long enough to produce limited releases of the film on VHS and DVD and, as with those noted above, all were the English\\-dubbed 80 minute assembled version of the film.",
"### Little Tiger of Canton",
"{{main\\|Little Tiger of Canton}}",
"The original film, *Little Tiger of Canton* was finally given a DVD release in the west in 2007, under the title *The Cub Tiger from Kwang Tung*. It was released in the UK (region 2\\) on Showbox Home Entertainment's Rarescope label. This 85 minute film is in its un\\-tampered form, contains the original language and English subtitles. Due to the poor quality of the print, some of the subtitles are chopped from the foot of the screen, so the DVD contains an additional set of subtitles which appear whenever the originals are cropped or missing.",
""
] |
Regional championships
----------------------
The team competes in the IBSA Europe goalball region. Groups A and C are held one year, and Group B the following year. Strong teams move towards Group A.
### 2005 Neerpelt
The team competed in the 2015 IBSA European Regional Championships, from 15 to 23 October 2005, in [Neerpelt](/wiki/Neerpelt "Neerpelt") and [Overpelt](/wiki/Overpelt "Overpelt"), Belgium. Organised by the Vlaamse Liga Gehandicaptensport vzw (Flemish Sport Federation for Persons with a Disability), it hosted the men's Groups A and B (Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Ukraine), and the women division (Belarus, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Ukraine). Games were held in the [Provinciaal Domein Dommelhof Sport](/wiki/Provinciaal_Domein_Dommelhof "Provinciaal Domein Dommelhof") in Neerpelt, and Sportcentrum De Bemvoort in Overpelt. With ten teams competing, the team finished ninth.
### 2007 Antalya
The team competed at the 2007 IBSA Goalball European Championships, hosted by the [Turkish Blind Sports Federation](/wiki/Turkish_Blind_Sports_Federation "Turkish Blind Sports Federation"), in [Antalya](/wiki/Antalya "Antalya"), Turkey with 11 teams contesting the women's competition. The team finished ninth.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/175\-Results\-European\-Championships\-Men\-A\-%26\-C\-and\-Women\-Turkey\-2007\-Results.pdf\|title\=2007 IBSA Goalball European Championships\|publisher\=International Blind Sports Association\|location\=Madrid, Spain\|access\-date\=14 February 2014\|archive\-date\=26 August 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826211755/http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/175\-Results\-European\-Championships\-Men\-A\-%26\-C\-and\-Women\-Turkey\-2007\-Results.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2009 Munich (Group A)
The team competed at the 2009 European Championships, in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"), Germany, with eleven teams taking part. The team finished the event in first place.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/73\-Results\-Results\-2009\-IBSA\-European\-Championships\-Goalball\-Men\-A\-and\-Women\-Munich.pdf\|title\=2009 IBSA Goalball European Championships\|publisher\=International Blind Sports Association\|location\=Madrid, Spain\|access\-date\=17 February 2014\|archive\-date\=2 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402062856/http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/73\-Results\-Results\-2009\-IBSA\-European\-Championships\-Goalball\-Men\-A\-and\-Women\-Munich.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2013 Konya (Group A)
The team competed in the 2013 IBSA Goalball European Championships, Group A, from 1 to 11 November 2013, at [Konya](/wiki/Konya "Konya"), Turkey. They finished eighth.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ibsagoalballeacturkey.com/results.html \|title\=Goalball Europan Championship \|publisher\=International Blind Sports Association Goalball Turkey \|location\=Turkey \|access\-date\=13 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223235626/http://www.ibsagoalballeacturkey.com/results.html \|archive\-date\=23 February 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all }}
### 2017 Pajulahti (Group A)
The team competed in the 2017 IBSA Goalball European A Championships from 15 to 23 September 2017, at [Pajulahti](/wiki/Pajulahti_Sports_Institute "Pajulahti Sports Institute"), [Nastola](/wiki/Nastola "Nastola"), Finland. Coming third in Pool X, they lost to [Greece](/wiki/Greece_women%27s_national_goalball_team "Greece women's national goalball team") in the quarter\-finals, 0:1\. They beat [Germany](/wiki/Germany_women%27s_national_goalball_team "Germany women's national goalball team") 5:3 for placement, and finished sixth overall.
Athletes included Georgina Bullen, Laura Perry, and [Anna Tipton](/wiki/Anna_Sharkey "Anna Sharkey").
### 2019 Rostock (Group A)
The team competed in the 2019 IBSA Goalball European A Championships from 5 to 14 October 2019, in [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock "Rostock"), Germany. They placed second in the final standings. They placed fourth, behind Germany, Israel and winners [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey_women%27s_national_goalball_team "Turkey women's national goalball team").
Athletes were Georgina Bullen, Antonia Bunyan, Sarah Leiter, Kali Holder, Meme Robertson, and Lois Turner. Coaches were Aaron Ford and Becky Ashworth, and staff Jim Wallis.{{cite web \|title\=GB Women: Women's Squad \|url\=http://goalballuk.com/gb\-squads\-4/gb\-squads\-3/ \|website\=Goalball UK \|access\-date\=22 May 2021 \|date\=September 2019}}
|
[
"Regional championships\n----------------------",
"The team competes in the IBSA Europe goalball region. Groups A and C are held one year, and Group B the following year. Strong teams move towards Group A.",
"### 2005 Neerpelt",
"",
"The team competed in the 2015 IBSA European Regional Championships, from 15 to 23 October 2005, in [Neerpelt](/wiki/Neerpelt \"Neerpelt\") and [Overpelt](/wiki/Overpelt \"Overpelt\"), Belgium. Organised by the Vlaamse Liga Gehandicaptensport vzw (Flemish Sport Federation for Persons with a Disability), it hosted the men's Groups A and B (Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Ukraine), and the women division (Belarus, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Ukraine). Games were held in the [Provinciaal Domein Dommelhof Sport](/wiki/Provinciaal_Domein_Dommelhof \"Provinciaal Domein Dommelhof\") in Neerpelt, and Sportcentrum De Bemvoort in Overpelt. With ten teams competing, the team finished ninth.",
"### 2007 Antalya",
"",
"The team competed at the 2007 IBSA Goalball European Championships, hosted by the [Turkish Blind Sports Federation](/wiki/Turkish_Blind_Sports_Federation \"Turkish Blind Sports Federation\"), in [Antalya](/wiki/Antalya \"Antalya\"), Turkey with 11 teams contesting the women's competition. The team finished ninth.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/175\\-Results\\-European\\-Championships\\-Men\\-A\\-%26\\-C\\-and\\-Women\\-Turkey\\-2007\\-Results.pdf\\|title\\=2007 IBSA Goalball European Championships\\|publisher\\=International Blind Sports Association\\|location\\=Madrid, Spain\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826211755/http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/175\\-Results\\-European\\-Championships\\-Men\\-A\\-%26\\-C\\-and\\-Women\\-Turkey\\-2007\\-Results.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2009 Munich (Group A)",
"The team competed at the 2009 European Championships, in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"), Germany, with eleven teams taking part. The team finished the event in first place.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/73\\-Results\\-Results\\-2009\\-IBSA\\-European\\-Championships\\-Goalball\\-Men\\-A\\-and\\-Women\\-Munich.pdf\\|title\\=2009 IBSA Goalball European Championships\\|publisher\\=International Blind Sports Association\\|location\\=Madrid, Spain\\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402062856/http://www.ibsasport.org/sports/files/73\\-Results\\-Results\\-2009\\-IBSA\\-European\\-Championships\\-Goalball\\-Men\\-A\\-and\\-Women\\-Munich.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2013 Konya (Group A)",
"",
"The team competed in the 2013 IBSA Goalball European Championships, Group A, from 1 to 11 November 2013, at [Konya](/wiki/Konya \"Konya\"), Turkey. They finished eighth.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ibsagoalballeacturkey.com/results.html \\|title\\=Goalball Europan Championship \\|publisher\\=International Blind Sports Association Goalball Turkey \\|location\\=Turkey \\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223235626/http://www.ibsagoalballeacturkey.com/results.html \\|archive\\-date\\=23 February 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"### 2017 Pajulahti (Group A)",
"The team competed in the 2017 IBSA Goalball European A Championships from 15 to 23 September 2017, at [Pajulahti](/wiki/Pajulahti_Sports_Institute \"Pajulahti Sports Institute\"), [Nastola](/wiki/Nastola \"Nastola\"), Finland. Coming third in Pool X, they lost to [Greece](/wiki/Greece_women%27s_national_goalball_team \"Greece women's national goalball team\") in the quarter\\-finals, 0:1\\. They beat [Germany](/wiki/Germany_women%27s_national_goalball_team \"Germany women's national goalball team\") 5:3 for placement, and finished sixth overall.",
"Athletes included Georgina Bullen, Laura Perry, and [Anna Tipton](/wiki/Anna_Sharkey \"Anna Sharkey\").",
"### 2019 Rostock (Group A)",
"The team competed in the 2019 IBSA Goalball European A Championships from 5 to 14 October 2019, in [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock \"Rostock\"), Germany. They placed second in the final standings. They placed fourth, behind Germany, Israel and winners [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey_women%27s_national_goalball_team \"Turkey women's national goalball team\").",
"Athletes were Georgina Bullen, Antonia Bunyan, Sarah Leiter, Kali Holder, Meme Robertson, and Lois Turner. Coaches were Aaron Ford and Becky Ashworth, and staff Jim Wallis.{{cite web \\|title\\=GB Women: Women's Squad \\|url\\=http://goalballuk.com/gb\\-squads\\-4/gb\\-squads\\-3/ \\|website\\=Goalball UK \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2021 \\|date\\=September 2019}}",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Lady Tressilian is now confined to her bed, but still invites guests to her seaside home at Gull's Point during the summer. Tennis star Nevile Strange, former ward of Lady Tressilian's deceased husband, incurs her displeasure when he proposes to bring both his new wife, Kay, and his former wife, Audrey, to visit at the same time – a change from past years. Lady Tressilian grudgingly agrees to this set of incompatible guests. A long time family friend, Thomas Royde, home after a long stretch working overseas and still faithfully waiting on the sidelines for Audrey, is also a guest. Staying in hotels nearby are Kay's friend, Ted Latimer, and Mr Treves, an elderly former solicitor and long time friend of the Tressilians.
The house party feels uncomfortable, as Lady Tressilian had predicted. Invited to a dinner party, Mr Treves relates a story of an old case, where a child killed another with an arrow, which was ruled an accident, although a local man reported seeing the child practising with a bow and arrow. The child was given a new name and a fresh start. Mr Treves remembers the case and the child because of a distinctive physical feature which he does not reveal. The next morning, Treves is found dead in his hotel room and his death is attributed to heart failure from climbing up the stairs to his room the previous night, greatly upsetting Lady Tressilian. Thomas and Ted are mystified, as they saw a note stating that the lift was out of order when they walked Treves back. They learn from hotel staff that the lift was in working order that night. His death is ruled to be from natural causes.
When Lady Tressilian is found brutally murdered in her bed, and her maid drugged a few days later, evidence points to Nevile Strange as the murderer as one of his golf clubs is found at the scene with his fingerprints on it. Her heirs are Nevile and Audrey. Nevile's quarrel with Lady Tressilian was also overheard. However, when the maid wakes up, she tells Superintendent Battle that she saw Lady Tressilian alive after Nevile's visit to her room, before he left for Easterhead Bay to find Ted. The evidence then points to Audrey: a bloodied glove belonging to her is found in the ivy below her window together with the real murder weapon, fashioned from the handle of a tennis racket and the metal ball from the fireplace fender in Audrey's room. Mary Aldin relates the story told by Mr Treves, and his claim that he could recognise that child with certainty; Battle is certain that the lift sign was placed in order to silence Mr Treves.
Angus MacWhirter is standing at the cliff where, a year earlier, he had attempted suicide, when Audrey attempts to run off the same cliff. He grabs her before she can jump. She confesses her fear, and he promises that she will be safe. The local drycleaners inadvertently give MacWhirter an uncleaned jacket belonging to someone else. Though he is not one of the party at Gull's House, he is aware of the progress of the investigation, well reported in the local newspapers. He realises why the jacket has stains in a certain odd pattern. He visits Gull's Point, and requests Mary Aldin's help to find a rope in the house. They find a large damp rope in an otherwise dusty attic, and she locks the door until the police come.
Battle arrests Audrey on the evidence and her ready admission of guilt. However, he suspects that Audrey is in a similar situation to that of his daughter when she had previously confessed under pressure to a theft she did not commit. MacWhirter meets Battle and tells him what he has learned about this case, including his observation of a man swimming across the creek on the night of the brutal murder, and climbing into the house on a rope. Then, Thomas reveals that Audrey had ended their marriage, not Nevile, as she had grown afraid of him. She had left Nevile and was about to marry Adrian Royde, Thomas's brother, when Adrian was killed in a road accident. With the parties on a motor launch, Battle uses this information to force a confession from Nevile Strange. He was the mastermind behind all the events and circumstances that should have converged into "zero" – the hanging of his first wife for the murder of Lady Tressilian.
Nevile may have been behind two other deaths (Mr Treves and Adrian Royde) but there is insufficient evidence to prosecute. With his confession, the rope, and the ruse with the bell pull explained, Battle charges him with the murder of Lady Tressilian. Audrey seeks out MacWhirter to thank him, and they decide to marry. They will travel to Chile where he begins his new job. Audrey expects that Thomas will come to realize that he really wants to marry Mary Aldin instead.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Lady Tressilian is now confined to her bed, but still invites guests to her seaside home at Gull's Point during the summer. Tennis star Nevile Strange, former ward of Lady Tressilian's deceased husband, incurs her displeasure when he proposes to bring both his new wife, Kay, and his former wife, Audrey, to visit at the same time – a change from past years. Lady Tressilian grudgingly agrees to this set of incompatible guests. A long time family friend, Thomas Royde, home after a long stretch working overseas and still faithfully waiting on the sidelines for Audrey, is also a guest. Staying in hotels nearby are Kay's friend, Ted Latimer, and Mr Treves, an elderly former solicitor and long time friend of the Tressilians.",
"The house party feels uncomfortable, as Lady Tressilian had predicted. Invited to a dinner party, Mr Treves relates a story of an old case, where a child killed another with an arrow, which was ruled an accident, although a local man reported seeing the child practising with a bow and arrow. The child was given a new name and a fresh start. Mr Treves remembers the case and the child because of a distinctive physical feature which he does not reveal. The next morning, Treves is found dead in his hotel room and his death is attributed to heart failure from climbing up the stairs to his room the previous night, greatly upsetting Lady Tressilian. Thomas and Ted are mystified, as they saw a note stating that the lift was out of order when they walked Treves back. They learn from hotel staff that the lift was in working order that night. His death is ruled to be from natural causes.",
"When Lady Tressilian is found brutally murdered in her bed, and her maid drugged a few days later, evidence points to Nevile Strange as the murderer as one of his golf clubs is found at the scene with his fingerprints on it. Her heirs are Nevile and Audrey. Nevile's quarrel with Lady Tressilian was also overheard. However, when the maid wakes up, she tells Superintendent Battle that she saw Lady Tressilian alive after Nevile's visit to her room, before he left for Easterhead Bay to find Ted. The evidence then points to Audrey: a bloodied glove belonging to her is found in the ivy below her window together with the real murder weapon, fashioned from the handle of a tennis racket and the metal ball from the fireplace fender in Audrey's room. Mary Aldin relates the story told by Mr Treves, and his claim that he could recognise that child with certainty; Battle is certain that the lift sign was placed in order to silence Mr Treves.",
"Angus MacWhirter is standing at the cliff where, a year earlier, he had attempted suicide, when Audrey attempts to run off the same cliff. He grabs her before she can jump. She confesses her fear, and he promises that she will be safe. The local drycleaners inadvertently give MacWhirter an uncleaned jacket belonging to someone else. Though he is not one of the party at Gull's House, he is aware of the progress of the investigation, well reported in the local newspapers. He realises why the jacket has stains in a certain odd pattern. He visits Gull's Point, and requests Mary Aldin's help to find a rope in the house. They find a large damp rope in an otherwise dusty attic, and she locks the door until the police come.",
"Battle arrests Audrey on the evidence and her ready admission of guilt. However, he suspects that Audrey is in a similar situation to that of his daughter when she had previously confessed under pressure to a theft she did not commit. MacWhirter meets Battle and tells him what he has learned about this case, including his observation of a man swimming across the creek on the night of the brutal murder, and climbing into the house on a rope. Then, Thomas reveals that Audrey had ended their marriage, not Nevile, as she had grown afraid of him. She had left Nevile and was about to marry Adrian Royde, Thomas's brother, when Adrian was killed in a road accident. With the parties on a motor launch, Battle uses this information to force a confession from Nevile Strange. He was the mastermind behind all the events and circumstances that should have converged into \"zero\" – the hanging of his first wife for the murder of Lady Tressilian.",
"Nevile may have been behind two other deaths (Mr Treves and Adrian Royde) but there is insufficient evidence to prosecute. With his confession, the rope, and the ruse with the bell pull explained, Battle charges him with the murder of Lady Tressilian. Audrey seeks out MacWhirter to thank him, and they decide to marry. They will travel to Chile where he begins his new job. Audrey expects that Thomas will come to realize that he really wants to marry Mary Aldin instead.",
""
] |
Plot
----
### Part one
*Smiley reflects on the end of the Cold War, and makes a rueful joke that, in one way, the world has changed, but in another, it has always been the same and the secret services are gradually waking up from their own deluded perceptions of it, and themselves.*
After a couple of years of training at the Sarratt Nursery, in the glens of [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll "Argyll") and battle camps of [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire "Wiltshire"), Ned is looking forward to his first overseas posting and is disappointed to be kept in [London](/wiki/London "London"), as part of a team of [watchers](/wiki/Surveillance "Surveillance") keeping an eye on a [Middle Eastern](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") [royal family](/wiki/Royal_family "Royal family"). In a famous [Knightsbridge](/wiki/Knightsbridge "Knightsbridge") store, Ned becomes alarmed when he sees a suspicious [Arab](/wiki/Arabs "Arabs") closely following the prince's wife at a distance. Ned prepares to incapacitate him with a [martial arts](/wiki/Martial_arts "Martial arts") blow, but his supervisor Monty grabs Ned and holds him back. Ned learns that the wife is a compulsive [shoplifter](/wiki/Shoplifter "Shoplifter") and the man is not a fanatic assassin, but instead assigned by the prince to pay compensation and [hush money](/wiki/Hush_money "Hush money") to the stores she steals from. Monty comments, *"That's the trouble in our job, Ned. Life's looking one way, we're looking the other."*
### Part two
*Smiley informs Ned's students that no one on Earth is more adept at hiding his true feelings than the [privately educated](/wiki/Independent_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Independent school (United Kingdom)") Englishman – "which is why some of our best officers turn out to be our worst, and our worst, our best, and why the most difficult agent you'll ever have to run is yourself."*
Ned returns to his flat in humiliation after the episode in Knightsbridge, and finds Smiley and the Circus's head of Personnel going through his belongings. Smiley informs him that Ned's best friend from [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt "Sarratt"), Benjamin Arno Cavendish, disappeared just after starting his assignment in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), and the [East German](/wiki/East_German "East German") network he was supposed to be running has collapsed. In Ben's flat, the Circus found a [love letter](/wiki/Love_letter "Love letter") written to Ned. Ned is shocked, as he had no idea that Ben was homosexual, much less so passionately attached to him.
After Smiley leaves, Ned tracks down Ben, hiding with his German cousin, Stephanie, in the [Western Isles](/wiki/Western_Isles "Western Isles") of Scotland. Ben confesses that, beneath his confident, derring\-do exterior, he is always terrified of failure, especially when he feels he has to live up to the example of his father, who had an illustrious career during the Second World War as a mathematician, devising the [Double\-Cross System](/wiki/Double-Cross_System "Double-Cross System"). While in Berlin, Ben was constantly harassed and patronised by his immediate superior, Haggerty, who despised Ben for replacing him due to his clean reputation. Before his first meeting with the lead agent in East Germany, Ben wrote a [crib sheet](/wiki/Crib_sheet "Crib sheet") with the agents' names and contact procedures, and took it with him when he crossed into East Berlin. As it turned out, he didn't need it, and his meeting with the agent went perfectly, but after he crossed back into [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"), he realised he'd lost the crib sheet somewhere. Unable to warn the network before it collapsed, Ben secretly fled Germany and sought shelter with Stephanie. It takes a moment for Ned to absorb the *"appalling banality"* of Ben's story; *"that you could lose a network in the same way you might lose a set of keys or a pocket handkerchief."*
Smiley has had Ned followed, and Circus agents arrive to take Ben in for questioning, shortly after he finishes his story. Ned later hears that he has been dismissed from the Circus.
### Part three
*While one of Ned's students is quizzing Smiley about the 'secret' of conducting an [interrogation](/wiki/Interrogation "Interrogation"), Smiley frowns and says that recognising the truth is far more difficult than spotting a lie. After all, spies are naturally suspicious people, and nothing is more suspicious to them than a completely innocent man who has nothing to hide.*
After his unwitting exposure of his friend Benjamin Cavendish, Ned is posted to [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg") in Western Germany to run a network of Baltic sailors, led by a passionate [Latvian](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") smuggler named Brandt. Though surprisingly efficient, Ned is wary of his position due to his predecessor's hushed up departure after [embezzling](/wiki/Embezzlement "Embezzlement") massive amounts of Circus funds and settling to Southern [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") with his boyfriend.
In the course of their operations, Brandt reveals his new girlfriend, Bella, who is said to be the daughter of a friend of Brandt's. Head of London Station, [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon "Bill Haydon") orders Ned to inquire about Bella's credentials due to the fact that her sudden appearance in the network's inner circle appears suspicious. Ned eventually seduces (or rather, is seduced by) Bella and they begin an affair during Brandt's absence.
Later, Brandt's men walk into a trap at the coast of [Narva](/wiki/Narva "Narva") in [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia "Estonia") and the crew are taken by the Soviets. Brandt is taken to [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt "Sarratt") for interrogation while Ned is summoned to London for debriefing. He is interviewed by Haydon, who was accompanied by his lieutenants, Roy Bland and [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase "Toby Esterhase") along with George Smiley. Ned is interrogated about Bella's background and her story about being the daughter of a German soldier who had raped her mother when her "father" was fighting in the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War").
Though Ned answers reasonably, Haydon counters him with a photograph, depicting Bella as a language student in a Moscow Centre linguistics school that trains prospective undercover agents. Haydon's coterie, barring Smiley, take the photograph as genuine, as its source is London Station's Witchcraft Project. Ultimately, it's decided that Bella must have been the mole and Ned is ordered to bring her in to be interrogated in Sarratt. Eventually, the inquiry stagnates and both Bella and Brandt are released to settle in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and to resume [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling "Smuggling"), respectively.
Brandt refuses to take Bella back for then\-unknown reasons, which gives Ned the impression that Haydon informed Brandt of Bella's infidelity, out of mischief. In 1989, during a lunch with Toby Esterhase, Ned learns that Esterhase and [Peter Guillam](/wiki/Peter_Guillam "Peter Guillam") were in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") as a part of an intelligence delegation. During their guided tour in Moscow Centre headquarters, they run into a familiar figure who is none other than Captain Brandt. It was Brandt who had betrayed the previous network, as well as the new one.
### Part four
Ned reflects that every employee of the Circus of a certain generation can recall where he or she was at the time of "The Fall" – [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon "Bill Haydon")'s exposure as a [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") [mole](/wiki/Mole_%28espionage%29 "Mole (espionage)"). Ned himself was in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"), in the middle of a celebratory dinner after installing a [wiretap](/wiki/Wiretap "Wiretap") against a [Roman Catholic cardinal](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Cardinal (Catholic Church)") suspected of involvement with [arms dealers](/wiki/Arms_dealer "Arms dealer"), when he received the [telex](/wiki/Telex "Telex") from [London](/wiki/London "London") with the shocking news.
With Haydon's exposure, every Circus officer's identity must be considered compromised, and Ned is told that he cannot be posted anywhere outside of [Western Bloc](/wiki/Western_Bloc "Western Bloc") countries.
### Part five
*Smiley muses that the most vulgar thing about the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") was that the Western societies learned to "gobble up \[their] own [propaganda](/wiki/Propaganda "Propaganda")." The West became so convinced of the righteousness of its own cause, and the evil of the Soviets', that it never stopped to examine the ethics of its actions. In the name of expediency, the Circus opened its arms – and its purse – to every petty thug and two\-bit [con man](/wiki/Confidence_trick "Confidence trick") who called himself an [anti\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism").*
Ned's first post\-Haydon posting is to [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"), as the Circus's liaison with various Eastern Bloc exile communities, quietly discouraging their crackpot schemes to foment anarchy in the Soviet Union, or encouraging whatever legitimate intelligence sources they have in their home countries. According to [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase "Toby Esterhase"), the "star" of the Circus's Munich arm is Professor Teodor, a fugitive [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarians "Hungarians") academic. At first, Ned is dazzled by Teodor's passionate lectures on the [evils wreaked on Hungary](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon "Treaty of Trianon") by the [Allied Powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I") after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), but finds his opinions shallow when the Professor is quizzed on more current events. Giving Teodor the benefit of the doubt, Ned corresponds to his associates in the American intelligence fraternity, only to learn that they had come to realise that Teodor's intelligence work is completely worthless. Ned begins to see that the Circus has good reason for denying Teodor's repeated requests to be issued a [British passport](/wiki/British_passport "British passport").
In the middle of the night, Ned is called to Teodor's home and introduced to a Hungarian man named Latzi, who says he has been sent by the [Hungarian secret service](/wiki/State_Protection_Authority "State Protection Authority") to assassinate Teodor, but has refused out of admiration for the Professor and wants to defect. Before long, Esterhase and the American [CIA](/wiki/C.I.A. "C.I.A.") are lauding the two Hungarians for their courage and arranging for Teodor's honourable retirement from intelligence work, including issuing passports. Ned's protests that "the whole thing's a con" are ignored.
Aside, Teodor's long\-suffering wife confesses that Latzi is a "*bad actor*" and an old friend of Teodor, whom Teodor used as a go\-between when he wanted to inform on his students to the Hungarian authorities. When Ned vents his outrage to Smiley back in London, Smiley regards the incident as an amusing farce, initially only remarking, "*Oh, Toby*." As Smiley later explains, "*all churches need their [saints](/wiki/Saint "Saint")... and saints, when you get right down to it, are a pretty bogus lot*." Later, Teodor and Latzi are the "stars" of a highly publicized book tour throughout the United States, detailing Teodor's courageous work against communism and his harrowing escape from death.
### Part six
*After delighting Ned's students with a lighthearted story about how the Circus recruited a [South American](/wiki/South_America "South America") diplomat with a secret passion for British [model trains](/wiki/Rail_transport_modelling "Rail transport modelling"), Smiley sobers and reflects that intelligence officers usually remain aloof from the harsher realities of their work, but sometimes they are forced to confront it, and become a little more humble about the risks they ask their agents to take.*
The Circus receives a surprise message from a [Polish](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic "Polish People's Republic") agent who was thought to have been killed in the aftermath of Haydon's exposure. Despite the risks, Ned is sent to re\-establish contact, posing as a [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") businessman. Once he arrives, he finds that the whole thing is a trap; the agent is long dead, and Ned is arrested and brutally tortured by the Poles' ruthless [counterintelligence](/wiki/Counterintelligence "Counterintelligence") chief, Colonel Jerzy. Despite this, he refuses to abandon his cover story or reveal any information. Then Jerzy takes Ned to the countryside and tells him that he wishes to spy for the Circus, but will work only through Ned – Ned's interrogation was a test, to make sure Jerzy had the right man as his handler. Over the next five years, Ned runs Jerzy, who provides copious amounts of information about the [Polish intelligence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_%28Poland%29 "Ministry of Public Security (Poland)"). Throughout their correspondence, Ned tries to uncover Jerzy's motive for helping the British, eliminating many known motives such as money, disillusionment, and change of heart, but Jerzy remains opaque to Ned's prying. Ultimately, Jerzy reveals that his "motive" was simply the element of danger it introduced to his profoundly cynical and nihilistic outlook to life.
Years later, several weeks before the graduation dinner, Ned sees Jerzy on the television while watching the evening news about a Polish cardinal blessing his flock. Ned observes Jerzy, who seems physically drained and haggard after the [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union "Dissolution of the Soviet Union"), is then summoned to the cardinal. To Ned's surprise, Jerzy kneels before the cardinal, who had wavered through an instinctive fear, and receives his blessing. Ned realises that the cardinal must have been one of Jerzy's many torture victims.
### Part seven
*Smiley warns Ned's students that spies can encounter a [mid\-life crisis](/wiki/Mid-life_crisis "Mid-life crisis") the same as any others do, and sometimes the effects are more severe, given the nature of their work and their inclination to keep their true feelings concealed from everyone, including themselves.*
Ned remembers his own middle\-age crisis, in which his marriage had grown stale and he began to feel that he had reached his forties without any clear idea of what he had accomplished in his career. After gaining a reasonable amount of seniority and prestige, thanks to the kudos accruing from his productive running of Colonel Jerzy, Ned is appointed as a sort of roving troubleshooter, hopping around the globe to investigate random leads or smother minor crises.
One of his assignments takes him to [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut "Beirut"), where the chaos of the latest fighting seems to mirror his own inner turmoil. While tracking a German militant named Britta, who had been involved with an Irish terrorist called Seamus, his first stop is a brief research post with a well\-mannered officer named Giles Latimer. Despite his good nature and popularity, it is revealed that Giles had suffered a nervous breakdown and hid dozens of confidential files out of shame and guilt he felt towards a young girl he had fallen in love with.
Following this episode, Ned flies to Beirut in search of an informer and checks into a hotel, where he receives a phone call from an American woman who flirts with him but remains unknown despite Ned's inquiries to the hotel clerk. Ned's Lebanon trip ends with his encounter with a young American student, who was the sole survivor of a [car bombing](/wiki/Car_bomb "Car bomb") on a downtown restaurant in Beirut. The student, Saul, in his [shell\-shocked](/wiki/Shell_shock "Shell shock") state of [delirium](/wiki/Delirium "Delirium"), had written a call for peace. Ned sees whether he could find something sensible, but in his own state of personal crisis, scribbles his own thoughts as well and ends up burning the whole thing.
### Part eight
*One of Ned's students argues to Smiley that [professional journalists](/wiki/Journalist "Journalist") do the same job as spies do, and may even do it better, so why bother with intelligence services at all? Instead of disagreeing, Smiley says she has an excellent point – the trouble is, no government will ever trust advice from a journalist, no matter how sound. Smiley assures these future agents that their jobs will always be necessary, and always in demand.*
Ned is ordered to travel to [Saigon](/wiki/Saigon "Saigon") to track down a Circus agent who has gone missing, a lapsed [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") named Hansen. Also half\-Dutch, Hansen was born to an English mother who had provided him with [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") education. An accomplished [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot "Polyglot") from an early age, he had received religious training and was sent to the East. Along with his many accomplishments in the fields of [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology"), [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics") and various branches of [humanities](/wiki/Humanities "Humanities"), Hansen also harboured an open secret about his sexuality, bedding young girls and boys alike.
Having been recalled to Rome for indoctrination and subsequently sent back to a harsh master of his Order, Hansen later went berserk on his colleagues due to his confinement and disappeared in [Southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"). After a certain period, he presented himself to the British authorities, offering his vast knowledge of the Orient for espionage. Due to the unconventional and unmotorised [guerrilla tactics](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") of locals, Hansen's services were invaluable to the British, who had no material presence in the region, and sold his intelligence to the Americans who were knee\-deep in conflict against the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong").
However, at some point Hansen disappears without notice and is later given up for dead, in view of the total eradication of hill villages in the region. Later, local residency catches sight of Hansen through one of their informants who had been working closely with the local head of station, Rumbelow. Despite his distaste for Rumbelow, whom he views as sleazy and thoroughly perfidious, Ned tracks down Hansen, who is working as the [bouncer](/wiki/Bouncer_%28doorman%29 "Bouncer (doorman)") in a [brothel](/wiki/Brothel "Brothel").
Hansen recounts that he learned that he had an illegitimate daughter who was captured by a revolutionary band in [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"). Hansen allowed himself to be taken prisoner as well, intending to rescue her, but was horrified when she was genuinely converted to their ideals, and denounced him as a spy and a traitor.
After a hellish journey through the Cambodian jungle, Hansen eventually escaped after his daughter went missing from the band. She is now a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitution "Prostitution") in the brothel, her psyche damaged by her experiences in the jungle. Hansen wants nothing more to do with the Circus, with England, or with any political cause – his sole purpose in life is to watch over her. Despite Ned's offer of gratuity of $50,000, Hansen turns it down and chastises Ned – and by extension, all representation of [Western imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") – for their treatment of Asia. On his way back to London, Ned fancies the idea of sending Rumbelow, and in fact the whole Circus, Smiley included, on Hansen's trail for them to witness true and unfaltering devotion, as he regarded Hansen as the champion of his ambiguous and conflicted emotions about his calling in life.
Ned returns to London, having set his own misgivings to rest, finding them insignificant next to Hansen's suffering, and his single\-minded devotion to his daughter. A few years later (during the events of *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House "The Russia House")*), when "Barley" Blair betrays the Circus to save a Russian woman he has fallen in love with, Ned is unable to muster the same outrage as his superiors.
### Part nine
*One of Ned's more amoral students is trying to get Smiley to agree that espionage gives its practitioners license to do anything, if it is necessary to get the job done. Smiley refuses to be pinned down, remarking that it is important for spies to feel conflicted about their own actions – and if any of them in the midst of an operation feel the impulse to act humanely, he hopes they will give it a fair hearing.*
After being relieved of his position as head of the Russia House, Ned is sent to the "Interrogators' Pool," a division not held in high regard within the service. In addition to supplying interrogators to debrief defectors or captured enemy agents, the Pool acts as a clearing\-house for suspicious members of the public who believe they have relevant information for the government.
While browsing through the Pool's old files, Ned is excited to find an old record from Smiley's tenure there (after being relieved of his position as Chief at the end of *[The Honourable Schoolboy](/wiki/The_Honourable_Schoolboy "The Honourable Schoolboy")*). Smiley interviewed a retired British Army sergeant who wanted to know if it was true that his recently deceased son was actually a top\-class undercover agent in Russia? The sergeant and his wife always believed their son was just a convict, but during the father's last visit, shortly before his son's death (apparently in a prison riot), the son claimed that his criminal identity was just a cover for his secret agent work.
Despite his inner scepticism, Smiley does his best to verify or disprove the boy's story. After an exhaustive search through the records of the Circus and other British government agencies, and a review of the boy's extensive criminal record, Smiley is forced to conclude that the boy was "*an irredeemable and habitual monster*," that his sordid death was no more than he deserved, and he has never had the slightest connection with the Circus or any other government service.
However, when the sergeant and his wife return for a second interview with Smiley, he tells them that, officially, the British government denies any knowledge of his son, while unofficially he gives them a set of superb gold [cufflinks](/wiki/Cufflink "Cufflink") – one of the fanciful details of the son's story was that he and other top class agents were issued with special cufflinks instead of medals. The elderly couple departs the office, swelling with pride at their son's heroism.
Ned later learns that the cufflinks were an anniversary gift from Smiley's wife, Ann. At first glance, George's motives seemed clear: sentimentality, or spitefulness towards his unfaithful wife and the Circus that was rejecting him. But Ned's private theory is that Smiley, who was ambivalent at the best of times about the usefulness of the Circus's work, wanted to carry out an "intelligence operation" that clearly succeeded in achieving something good.
### Part ten
*Smiley likens some interrogations to communions between damaged souls, referring to his debriefing of his old nemesis, [Karla](/wiki/Karla_%28fictional_character%29 "Karla (fictional character)")*.
During his tenure at the Interrogator's Pool, Ned receives an anonymous letter of denunciation against Cyril Arthur Frewin, a [Foreign Office](/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office "Foreign and Commonwealth Office") cipher clerk who had allegedly been keeping company with Sergei Modrian, a Soviet handler with whom Ned had a brush in the Russia House. After being briefed by Leonard Burr, the new Chief, Ned interviews Frewin's section head at the Foreign Office, alongside his associates from the Circus, for further information on Frewin. After learning of Frewin's annual vacations (and his constant disappearances from his hotel in [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg "Salzburg"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria")) Ned confronts Frewin.
Ned edges up Frewin's radio language courses in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language") and his Eastern Bloc contacts, attempting to verify the contents of the letter of denunciation he had received, aided by the findings of Toby Esterhase and Monty Arbuck, whom Ned had requested to make inquiries. After much deliberation, Ned has Frewin admit his collaboration with Sergei Modrian as a result of Frewin's participation in the Radio Moscow's Russian language course. After writing to the Radio Moscow programme a veiled account of his life, Sergei Modrian had shown up at Frewin's house as a "gift" for Frewin's "success" in his Russian language progress. Eventually, Modrian manipulates Frewin's solitude into betrayal as Modrian "regretfully" asked for intelligence material from Frewin's access to top secret and above.
However, shortly before Frewin's denunciation, Modrian returns to Moscow and reveals to Frewin that their relationship is over. Frewin becomes despondent and depressed, leading him to denounce himself in hopes of getting in touch with somebody who would replace Modrian in his life. Frewin reveals to Ned all his equipment provided by Moscow Centre, including a custom\-made pair of opera binoculars that doubled as a covert camera.
### Part eleven
*Smiley completes his lecture, preparing to take his leave from Sarratt, along with the secret world as well. His last advice to the new recruits is to leave the old timers – like Smiley himself – and find new people to look up to.*
A few days before his retirement from his tenure as Chief Leonard Burr's Secretary, Ned is given a last assignment. Burr orders Ned to negotiate with Sir Anthony Bradshaw, a [venture\-capitalist](/wiki/Venture_capital "Venture capital") who had been enabled by former Circus chief, Sir Percy Alleline, to expand his financial empire while helping the Circus. However, after Alleline's disgrace and demise, Bradshaw began ferrying weaponry to various regions, such as the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans "Balkans") and [Central Africa](/wiki/Central_Africa "Central Africa"), to profit from the conflicts there. Ned makes his way to Bradshaw's sumptuous [country estate](/wiki/Estate_%28land%29 "Estate (land)") and politely warns him to desist from his [war\-profiteering](/wiki/War_profiteering "War profiteering") activities. Bradshaw is unfazed, as he knows more about the workings of the government than he's supposed to know. He defends his ferocious profiteering policies and Ned regretfully realises that despite his years in the secret world, he was not prepared for this "*wrecking infant in our midst*".
Ned closes his life in the Service in a kind of retirement in the country with Mabel. "*I think a lot. I’m stepping out with my reading. I talk to people, ride on buses. I’m a newcomer to the overt world, but I’m learning*."
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"### Part one",
"*Smiley reflects on the end of the Cold War, and makes a rueful joke that, in one way, the world has changed, but in another, it has always been the same and the secret services are gradually waking up from their own deluded perceptions of it, and themselves.*",
"After a couple of years of training at the Sarratt Nursery, in the glens of [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll \"Argyll\") and battle camps of [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire \"Wiltshire\"), Ned is looking forward to his first overseas posting and is disappointed to be kept in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), as part of a team of [watchers](/wiki/Surveillance \"Surveillance\") keeping an eye on a [Middle Eastern](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") [royal family](/wiki/Royal_family \"Royal family\"). In a famous [Knightsbridge](/wiki/Knightsbridge \"Knightsbridge\") store, Ned becomes alarmed when he sees a suspicious [Arab](/wiki/Arabs \"Arabs\") closely following the prince's wife at a distance. Ned prepares to incapacitate him with a [martial arts](/wiki/Martial_arts \"Martial arts\") blow, but his supervisor Monty grabs Ned and holds him back. Ned learns that the wife is a compulsive [shoplifter](/wiki/Shoplifter \"Shoplifter\") and the man is not a fanatic assassin, but instead assigned by the prince to pay compensation and [hush money](/wiki/Hush_money \"Hush money\") to the stores she steals from. Monty comments, *\"That's the trouble in our job, Ned. Life's looking one way, we're looking the other.\"*",
"### Part two",
"*Smiley informs Ned's students that no one on Earth is more adept at hiding his true feelings than the [privately educated](/wiki/Independent_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Independent school (United Kingdom)\") Englishman – \"which is why some of our best officers turn out to be our worst, and our worst, our best, and why the most difficult agent you'll ever have to run is yourself.\"*",
"Ned returns to his flat in humiliation after the episode in Knightsbridge, and finds Smiley and the Circus's head of Personnel going through his belongings. Smiley informs him that Ned's best friend from [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt \"Sarratt\"), Benjamin Arno Cavendish, disappeared just after starting his assignment in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), and the [East German](/wiki/East_German \"East German\") network he was supposed to be running has collapsed. In Ben's flat, the Circus found a [love letter](/wiki/Love_letter \"Love letter\") written to Ned. Ned is shocked, as he had no idea that Ben was homosexual, much less so passionately attached to him.",
"After Smiley leaves, Ned tracks down Ben, hiding with his German cousin, Stephanie, in the [Western Isles](/wiki/Western_Isles \"Western Isles\") of Scotland. Ben confesses that, beneath his confident, derring\\-do exterior, he is always terrified of failure, especially when he feels he has to live up to the example of his father, who had an illustrious career during the Second World War as a mathematician, devising the [Double\\-Cross System](/wiki/Double-Cross_System \"Double-Cross System\"). While in Berlin, Ben was constantly harassed and patronised by his immediate superior, Haggerty, who despised Ben for replacing him due to his clean reputation. Before his first meeting with the lead agent in East Germany, Ben wrote a [crib sheet](/wiki/Crib_sheet \"Crib sheet\") with the agents' names and contact procedures, and took it with him when he crossed into East Berlin. As it turned out, he didn't need it, and his meeting with the agent went perfectly, but after he crossed back into [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"), he realised he'd lost the crib sheet somewhere. Unable to warn the network before it collapsed, Ben secretly fled Germany and sought shelter with Stephanie. It takes a moment for Ned to absorb the *\"appalling banality\"* of Ben's story; *\"that you could lose a network in the same way you might lose a set of keys or a pocket handkerchief.\"*",
"Smiley has had Ned followed, and Circus agents arrive to take Ben in for questioning, shortly after he finishes his story. Ned later hears that he has been dismissed from the Circus.",
"### Part three",
"*While one of Ned's students is quizzing Smiley about the 'secret' of conducting an [interrogation](/wiki/Interrogation \"Interrogation\"), Smiley frowns and says that recognising the truth is far more difficult than spotting a lie. After all, spies are naturally suspicious people, and nothing is more suspicious to them than a completely innocent man who has nothing to hide.*",
"After his unwitting exposure of his friend Benjamin Cavendish, Ned is posted to [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\") in Western Germany to run a network of Baltic sailors, led by a passionate [Latvian](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") smuggler named Brandt. Though surprisingly efficient, Ned is wary of his position due to his predecessor's hushed up departure after [embezzling](/wiki/Embezzlement \"Embezzlement\") massive amounts of Circus funds and settling to Southern [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") with his boyfriend.",
"In the course of their operations, Brandt reveals his new girlfriend, Bella, who is said to be the daughter of a friend of Brandt's. Head of London Station, [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon \"Bill Haydon\") orders Ned to inquire about Bella's credentials due to the fact that her sudden appearance in the network's inner circle appears suspicious. Ned eventually seduces (or rather, is seduced by) Bella and they begin an affair during Brandt's absence.",
"Later, Brandt's men walk into a trap at the coast of [Narva](/wiki/Narva \"Narva\") in [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\") and the crew are taken by the Soviets. Brandt is taken to [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt \"Sarratt\") for interrogation while Ned is summoned to London for debriefing. He is interviewed by Haydon, who was accompanied by his lieutenants, Roy Bland and [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase \"Toby Esterhase\") along with George Smiley. Ned is interrogated about Bella's background and her story about being the daughter of a German soldier who had raped her mother when her \"father\" was fighting in the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\").",
"Though Ned answers reasonably, Haydon counters him with a photograph, depicting Bella as a language student in a Moscow Centre linguistics school that trains prospective undercover agents. Haydon's coterie, barring Smiley, take the photograph as genuine, as its source is London Station's Witchcraft Project. Ultimately, it's decided that Bella must have been the mole and Ned is ordered to bring her in to be interrogated in Sarratt. Eventually, the inquiry stagnates and both Bella and Brandt are released to settle in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and to resume [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling \"Smuggling\"), respectively.",
"Brandt refuses to take Bella back for then\\-unknown reasons, which gives Ned the impression that Haydon informed Brandt of Bella's infidelity, out of mischief. In 1989, during a lunch with Toby Esterhase, Ned learns that Esterhase and [Peter Guillam](/wiki/Peter_Guillam \"Peter Guillam\") were in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") as a part of an intelligence delegation. During their guided tour in Moscow Centre headquarters, they run into a familiar figure who is none other than Captain Brandt. It was Brandt who had betrayed the previous network, as well as the new one.",
"### Part four",
"Ned reflects that every employee of the Circus of a certain generation can recall where he or she was at the time of \"The Fall\" – [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon \"Bill Haydon\")'s exposure as a [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") [mole](/wiki/Mole_%28espionage%29 \"Mole (espionage)\"). Ned himself was in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), in the middle of a celebratory dinner after installing a [wiretap](/wiki/Wiretap \"Wiretap\") against a [Roman Catholic cardinal](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Cardinal (Catholic Church)\") suspected of involvement with [arms dealers](/wiki/Arms_dealer \"Arms dealer\"), when he received the [telex](/wiki/Telex \"Telex\") from [London](/wiki/London \"London\") with the shocking news.",
"With Haydon's exposure, every Circus officer's identity must be considered compromised, and Ned is told that he cannot be posted anywhere outside of [Western Bloc](/wiki/Western_Bloc \"Western Bloc\") countries.",
"### Part five",
"*Smiley muses that the most vulgar thing about the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") was that the Western societies learned to \"gobble up \\[their] own [propaganda](/wiki/Propaganda \"Propaganda\").\" The West became so convinced of the righteousness of its own cause, and the evil of the Soviets', that it never stopped to examine the ethics of its actions. In the name of expediency, the Circus opened its arms – and its purse – to every petty thug and two\\-bit [con man](/wiki/Confidence_trick \"Confidence trick\") who called himself an [anti\\-Communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\").*",
"Ned's first post\\-Haydon posting is to [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"), as the Circus's liaison with various Eastern Bloc exile communities, quietly discouraging their crackpot schemes to foment anarchy in the Soviet Union, or encouraging whatever legitimate intelligence sources they have in their home countries. According to [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase \"Toby Esterhase\"), the \"star\" of the Circus's Munich arm is Professor Teodor, a fugitive [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarians \"Hungarians\") academic. At first, Ned is dazzled by Teodor's passionate lectures on the [evils wreaked on Hungary](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon \"Treaty of Trianon\") by the [Allied Powers](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), but finds his opinions shallow when the Professor is quizzed on more current events. Giving Teodor the benefit of the doubt, Ned corresponds to his associates in the American intelligence fraternity, only to learn that they had come to realise that Teodor's intelligence work is completely worthless. Ned begins to see that the Circus has good reason for denying Teodor's repeated requests to be issued a [British passport](/wiki/British_passport \"British passport\").",
"In the middle of the night, Ned is called to Teodor's home and introduced to a Hungarian man named Latzi, who says he has been sent by the [Hungarian secret service](/wiki/State_Protection_Authority \"State Protection Authority\") to assassinate Teodor, but has refused out of admiration for the Professor and wants to defect. Before long, Esterhase and the American [CIA](/wiki/C.I.A. \"C.I.A.\") are lauding the two Hungarians for their courage and arranging for Teodor's honourable retirement from intelligence work, including issuing passports. Ned's protests that \"the whole thing's a con\" are ignored.",
"Aside, Teodor's long\\-suffering wife confesses that Latzi is a \"*bad actor*\" and an old friend of Teodor, whom Teodor used as a go\\-between when he wanted to inform on his students to the Hungarian authorities. When Ned vents his outrage to Smiley back in London, Smiley regards the incident as an amusing farce, initially only remarking, \"*Oh, Toby*.\" As Smiley later explains, \"*all churches need their [saints](/wiki/Saint \"Saint\")... and saints, when you get right down to it, are a pretty bogus lot*.\" Later, Teodor and Latzi are the \"stars\" of a highly publicized book tour throughout the United States, detailing Teodor's courageous work against communism and his harrowing escape from death.",
"### Part six",
"*After delighting Ned's students with a lighthearted story about how the Circus recruited a [South American](/wiki/South_America \"South America\") diplomat with a secret passion for British [model trains](/wiki/Rail_transport_modelling \"Rail transport modelling\"), Smiley sobers and reflects that intelligence officers usually remain aloof from the harsher realities of their work, but sometimes they are forced to confront it, and become a little more humble about the risks they ask their agents to take.*",
"The Circus receives a surprise message from a [Polish](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic \"Polish People's Republic\") agent who was thought to have been killed in the aftermath of Haydon's exposure. Despite the risks, Ned is sent to re\\-establish contact, posing as a [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") businessman. Once he arrives, he finds that the whole thing is a trap; the agent is long dead, and Ned is arrested and brutally tortured by the Poles' ruthless [counterintelligence](/wiki/Counterintelligence \"Counterintelligence\") chief, Colonel Jerzy. Despite this, he refuses to abandon his cover story or reveal any information. Then Jerzy takes Ned to the countryside and tells him that he wishes to spy for the Circus, but will work only through Ned – Ned's interrogation was a test, to make sure Jerzy had the right man as his handler. Over the next five years, Ned runs Jerzy, who provides copious amounts of information about the [Polish intelligence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_%28Poland%29 \"Ministry of Public Security (Poland)\"). Throughout their correspondence, Ned tries to uncover Jerzy's motive for helping the British, eliminating many known motives such as money, disillusionment, and change of heart, but Jerzy remains opaque to Ned's prying. Ultimately, Jerzy reveals that his \"motive\" was simply the element of danger it introduced to his profoundly cynical and nihilistic outlook to life.",
"Years later, several weeks before the graduation dinner, Ned sees Jerzy on the television while watching the evening news about a Polish cardinal blessing his flock. Ned observes Jerzy, who seems physically drained and haggard after the [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Dissolution of the Soviet Union\"), is then summoned to the cardinal. To Ned's surprise, Jerzy kneels before the cardinal, who had wavered through an instinctive fear, and receives his blessing. Ned realises that the cardinal must have been one of Jerzy's many torture victims.",
"### Part seven",
"*Smiley warns Ned's students that spies can encounter a [mid\\-life crisis](/wiki/Mid-life_crisis \"Mid-life crisis\") the same as any others do, and sometimes the effects are more severe, given the nature of their work and their inclination to keep their true feelings concealed from everyone, including themselves.*",
"Ned remembers his own middle\\-age crisis, in which his marriage had grown stale and he began to feel that he had reached his forties without any clear idea of what he had accomplished in his career. After gaining a reasonable amount of seniority and prestige, thanks to the kudos accruing from his productive running of Colonel Jerzy, Ned is appointed as a sort of roving troubleshooter, hopping around the globe to investigate random leads or smother minor crises.",
"One of his assignments takes him to [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut \"Beirut\"), where the chaos of the latest fighting seems to mirror his own inner turmoil. While tracking a German militant named Britta, who had been involved with an Irish terrorist called Seamus, his first stop is a brief research post with a well\\-mannered officer named Giles Latimer. Despite his good nature and popularity, it is revealed that Giles had suffered a nervous breakdown and hid dozens of confidential files out of shame and guilt he felt towards a young girl he had fallen in love with.",
"Following this episode, Ned flies to Beirut in search of an informer and checks into a hotel, where he receives a phone call from an American woman who flirts with him but remains unknown despite Ned's inquiries to the hotel clerk. Ned's Lebanon trip ends with his encounter with a young American student, who was the sole survivor of a [car bombing](/wiki/Car_bomb \"Car bomb\") on a downtown restaurant in Beirut. The student, Saul, in his [shell\\-shocked](/wiki/Shell_shock \"Shell shock\") state of [delirium](/wiki/Delirium \"Delirium\"), had written a call for peace. Ned sees whether he could find something sensible, but in his own state of personal crisis, scribbles his own thoughts as well and ends up burning the whole thing.",
"### Part eight",
"*One of Ned's students argues to Smiley that [professional journalists](/wiki/Journalist \"Journalist\") do the same job as spies do, and may even do it better, so why bother with intelligence services at all? Instead of disagreeing, Smiley says she has an excellent point – the trouble is, no government will ever trust advice from a journalist, no matter how sound. Smiley assures these future agents that their jobs will always be necessary, and always in demand.*",
"Ned is ordered to travel to [Saigon](/wiki/Saigon \"Saigon\") to track down a Circus agent who has gone missing, a lapsed [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") named Hansen. Also half\\-Dutch, Hansen was born to an English mother who had provided him with [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") education. An accomplished [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot \"Polyglot\") from an early age, he had received religious training and was sent to the East. Along with his many accomplishments in the fields of [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\"), [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\") and various branches of [humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\"), Hansen also harboured an open secret about his sexuality, bedding young girls and boys alike.",
"Having been recalled to Rome for indoctrination and subsequently sent back to a harsh master of his Order, Hansen later went berserk on his colleagues due to his confinement and disappeared in [Southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"). After a certain period, he presented himself to the British authorities, offering his vast knowledge of the Orient for espionage. Due to the unconventional and unmotorised [guerrilla tactics](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\") of locals, Hansen's services were invaluable to the British, who had no material presence in the region, and sold his intelligence to the Americans who were knee\\-deep in conflict against the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\").",
"However, at some point Hansen disappears without notice and is later given up for dead, in view of the total eradication of hill villages in the region. Later, local residency catches sight of Hansen through one of their informants who had been working closely with the local head of station, Rumbelow. Despite his distaste for Rumbelow, whom he views as sleazy and thoroughly perfidious, Ned tracks down Hansen, who is working as the [bouncer](/wiki/Bouncer_%28doorman%29 \"Bouncer (doorman)\") in a [brothel](/wiki/Brothel \"Brothel\").",
"Hansen recounts that he learned that he had an illegitimate daughter who was captured by a revolutionary band in [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"). Hansen allowed himself to be taken prisoner as well, intending to rescue her, but was horrified when she was genuinely converted to their ideals, and denounced him as a spy and a traitor.",
"After a hellish journey through the Cambodian jungle, Hansen eventually escaped after his daughter went missing from the band. She is now a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitution \"Prostitution\") in the brothel, her psyche damaged by her experiences in the jungle. Hansen wants nothing more to do with the Circus, with England, or with any political cause – his sole purpose in life is to watch over her. Despite Ned's offer of gratuity of $50,000, Hansen turns it down and chastises Ned – and by extension, all representation of [Western imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") – for their treatment of Asia. On his way back to London, Ned fancies the idea of sending Rumbelow, and in fact the whole Circus, Smiley included, on Hansen's trail for them to witness true and unfaltering devotion, as he regarded Hansen as the champion of his ambiguous and conflicted emotions about his calling in life.",
"Ned returns to London, having set his own misgivings to rest, finding them insignificant next to Hansen's suffering, and his single\\-minded devotion to his daughter. A few years later (during the events of *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House \"The Russia House\")*), when \"Barley\" Blair betrays the Circus to save a Russian woman he has fallen in love with, Ned is unable to muster the same outrage as his superiors.",
"### Part nine",
"*One of Ned's more amoral students is trying to get Smiley to agree that espionage gives its practitioners license to do anything, if it is necessary to get the job done. Smiley refuses to be pinned down, remarking that it is important for spies to feel conflicted about their own actions – and if any of them in the midst of an operation feel the impulse to act humanely, he hopes they will give it a fair hearing.*",
"After being relieved of his position as head of the Russia House, Ned is sent to the \"Interrogators' Pool,\" a division not held in high regard within the service. In addition to supplying interrogators to debrief defectors or captured enemy agents, the Pool acts as a clearing\\-house for suspicious members of the public who believe they have relevant information for the government.",
"While browsing through the Pool's old files, Ned is excited to find an old record from Smiley's tenure there (after being relieved of his position as Chief at the end of *[The Honourable Schoolboy](/wiki/The_Honourable_Schoolboy \"The Honourable Schoolboy\")*). Smiley interviewed a retired British Army sergeant who wanted to know if it was true that his recently deceased son was actually a top\\-class undercover agent in Russia? The sergeant and his wife always believed their son was just a convict, but during the father's last visit, shortly before his son's death (apparently in a prison riot), the son claimed that his criminal identity was just a cover for his secret agent work.",
"Despite his inner scepticism, Smiley does his best to verify or disprove the boy's story. After an exhaustive search through the records of the Circus and other British government agencies, and a review of the boy's extensive criminal record, Smiley is forced to conclude that the boy was \"*an irredeemable and habitual monster*,\" that his sordid death was no more than he deserved, and he has never had the slightest connection with the Circus or any other government service.",
"However, when the sergeant and his wife return for a second interview with Smiley, he tells them that, officially, the British government denies any knowledge of his son, while unofficially he gives them a set of superb gold [cufflinks](/wiki/Cufflink \"Cufflink\") – one of the fanciful details of the son's story was that he and other top class agents were issued with special cufflinks instead of medals. The elderly couple departs the office, swelling with pride at their son's heroism.",
"Ned later learns that the cufflinks were an anniversary gift from Smiley's wife, Ann. At first glance, George's motives seemed clear: sentimentality, or spitefulness towards his unfaithful wife and the Circus that was rejecting him. But Ned's private theory is that Smiley, who was ambivalent at the best of times about the usefulness of the Circus's work, wanted to carry out an \"intelligence operation\" that clearly succeeded in achieving something good.",
"### Part ten",
"*Smiley likens some interrogations to communions between damaged souls, referring to his debriefing of his old nemesis, [Karla](/wiki/Karla_%28fictional_character%29 \"Karla (fictional character)\")*.",
"During his tenure at the Interrogator's Pool, Ned receives an anonymous letter of denunciation against Cyril Arthur Frewin, a [Foreign Office](/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office \"Foreign and Commonwealth Office\") cipher clerk who had allegedly been keeping company with Sergei Modrian, a Soviet handler with whom Ned had a brush in the Russia House. After being briefed by Leonard Burr, the new Chief, Ned interviews Frewin's section head at the Foreign Office, alongside his associates from the Circus, for further information on Frewin. After learning of Frewin's annual vacations (and his constant disappearances from his hotel in [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\")) Ned confronts Frewin.",
"Ned edges up Frewin's radio language courses in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\") and his Eastern Bloc contacts, attempting to verify the contents of the letter of denunciation he had received, aided by the findings of Toby Esterhase and Monty Arbuck, whom Ned had requested to make inquiries. After much deliberation, Ned has Frewin admit his collaboration with Sergei Modrian as a result of Frewin's participation in the Radio Moscow's Russian language course. After writing to the Radio Moscow programme a veiled account of his life, Sergei Modrian had shown up at Frewin's house as a \"gift\" for Frewin's \"success\" in his Russian language progress. Eventually, Modrian manipulates Frewin's solitude into betrayal as Modrian \"regretfully\" asked for intelligence material from Frewin's access to top secret and above.",
"However, shortly before Frewin's denunciation, Modrian returns to Moscow and reveals to Frewin that their relationship is over. Frewin becomes despondent and depressed, leading him to denounce himself in hopes of getting in touch with somebody who would replace Modrian in his life. Frewin reveals to Ned all his equipment provided by Moscow Centre, including a custom\\-made pair of opera binoculars that doubled as a covert camera.",
"### Part eleven",
"*Smiley completes his lecture, preparing to take his leave from Sarratt, along with the secret world as well. His last advice to the new recruits is to leave the old timers – like Smiley himself – and find new people to look up to.*",
"A few days before his retirement from his tenure as Chief Leonard Burr's Secretary, Ned is given a last assignment. Burr orders Ned to negotiate with Sir Anthony Bradshaw, a [venture\\-capitalist](/wiki/Venture_capital \"Venture capital\") who had been enabled by former Circus chief, Sir Percy Alleline, to expand his financial empire while helping the Circus. However, after Alleline's disgrace and demise, Bradshaw began ferrying weaponry to various regions, such as the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans \"Balkans\") and [Central Africa](/wiki/Central_Africa \"Central Africa\"), to profit from the conflicts there. Ned makes his way to Bradshaw's sumptuous [country estate](/wiki/Estate_%28land%29 \"Estate (land)\") and politely warns him to desist from his [war\\-profiteering](/wiki/War_profiteering \"War profiteering\") activities. Bradshaw is unfazed, as he knows more about the workings of the government than he's supposed to know. He defends his ferocious profiteering policies and Ned regretfully realises that despite his years in the secret world, he was not prepared for this \"*wrecking infant in our midst*\".",
"Ned closes his life in the Service in a kind of retirement in the country with Mabel. \"*I think a lot. I’m stepping out with my reading. I talk to people, ride on buses. I’m a newcomer to the overt world, but I’m learning*.\"",
""
] |
### Part three
*While one of Ned's students is quizzing Smiley about the 'secret' of conducting an [interrogation](/wiki/Interrogation "Interrogation"), Smiley frowns and says that recognising the truth is far more difficult than spotting a lie. After all, spies are naturally suspicious people, and nothing is more suspicious to them than a completely innocent man who has nothing to hide.*
After his unwitting exposure of his friend Benjamin Cavendish, Ned is posted to [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg") in Western Germany to run a network of Baltic sailors, led by a passionate [Latvian](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") smuggler named Brandt. Though surprisingly efficient, Ned is wary of his position due to his predecessor's hushed up departure after [embezzling](/wiki/Embezzlement "Embezzlement") massive amounts of Circus funds and settling to Southern [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") with his boyfriend.
In the course of their operations, Brandt reveals his new girlfriend, Bella, who is said to be the daughter of a friend of Brandt's. Head of London Station, [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon "Bill Haydon") orders Ned to inquire about Bella's credentials due to the fact that her sudden appearance in the network's inner circle appears suspicious. Ned eventually seduces (or rather, is seduced by) Bella and they begin an affair during Brandt's absence.
Later, Brandt's men walk into a trap at the coast of [Narva](/wiki/Narva "Narva") in [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia "Estonia") and the crew are taken by the Soviets. Brandt is taken to [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt "Sarratt") for interrogation while Ned is summoned to London for debriefing. He is interviewed by Haydon, who was accompanied by his lieutenants, Roy Bland and [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase "Toby Esterhase") along with George Smiley. Ned is interrogated about Bella's background and her story about being the daughter of a German soldier who had raped her mother when her "father" was fighting in the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War").
Though Ned answers reasonably, Haydon counters him with a photograph, depicting Bella as a language student in a Moscow Centre linguistics school that trains prospective undercover agents. Haydon's coterie, barring Smiley, take the photograph as genuine, as its source is London Station's Witchcraft Project. Ultimately, it's decided that Bella must have been the mole and Ned is ordered to bring her in to be interrogated in Sarratt. Eventually, the inquiry stagnates and both Bella and Brandt are released to settle in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and to resume [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling "Smuggling"), respectively.
Brandt refuses to take Bella back for then\-unknown reasons, which gives Ned the impression that Haydon informed Brandt of Bella's infidelity, out of mischief. In 1989, during a lunch with Toby Esterhase, Ned learns that Esterhase and [Peter Guillam](/wiki/Peter_Guillam "Peter Guillam") were in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") as a part of an intelligence delegation. During their guided tour in Moscow Centre headquarters, they run into a familiar figure who is none other than Captain Brandt. It was Brandt who had betrayed the previous network, as well as the new one.
|
[
"### Part three",
"*While one of Ned's students is quizzing Smiley about the 'secret' of conducting an [interrogation](/wiki/Interrogation \"Interrogation\"), Smiley frowns and says that recognising the truth is far more difficult than spotting a lie. After all, spies are naturally suspicious people, and nothing is more suspicious to them than a completely innocent man who has nothing to hide.*",
"After his unwitting exposure of his friend Benjamin Cavendish, Ned is posted to [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\") in Western Germany to run a network of Baltic sailors, led by a passionate [Latvian](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\") smuggler named Brandt. Though surprisingly efficient, Ned is wary of his position due to his predecessor's hushed up departure after [embezzling](/wiki/Embezzlement \"Embezzlement\") massive amounts of Circus funds and settling to Southern [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") with his boyfriend.",
"In the course of their operations, Brandt reveals his new girlfriend, Bella, who is said to be the daughter of a friend of Brandt's. Head of London Station, [Bill Haydon](/wiki/Bill_Haydon \"Bill Haydon\") orders Ned to inquire about Bella's credentials due to the fact that her sudden appearance in the network's inner circle appears suspicious. Ned eventually seduces (or rather, is seduced by) Bella and they begin an affair during Brandt's absence.",
"Later, Brandt's men walk into a trap at the coast of [Narva](/wiki/Narva \"Narva\") in [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\") and the crew are taken by the Soviets. Brandt is taken to [Sarratt](/wiki/Sarratt \"Sarratt\") for interrogation while Ned is summoned to London for debriefing. He is interviewed by Haydon, who was accompanied by his lieutenants, Roy Bland and [Toby Esterhase](/wiki/Toby_Esterhase \"Toby Esterhase\") along with George Smiley. Ned is interrogated about Bella's background and her story about being the daughter of a German soldier who had raped her mother when her \"father\" was fighting in the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\").",
"Though Ned answers reasonably, Haydon counters him with a photograph, depicting Bella as a language student in a Moscow Centre linguistics school that trains prospective undercover agents. Haydon's coterie, barring Smiley, take the photograph as genuine, as its source is London Station's Witchcraft Project. Ultimately, it's decided that Bella must have been the mole and Ned is ordered to bring her in to be interrogated in Sarratt. Eventually, the inquiry stagnates and both Bella and Brandt are released to settle in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and to resume [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling \"Smuggling\"), respectively.",
"Brandt refuses to take Bella back for then\\-unknown reasons, which gives Ned the impression that Haydon informed Brandt of Bella's infidelity, out of mischief. In 1989, during a lunch with Toby Esterhase, Ned learns that Esterhase and [Peter Guillam](/wiki/Peter_Guillam \"Peter Guillam\") were in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") as a part of an intelligence delegation. During their guided tour in Moscow Centre headquarters, they run into a familiar figure who is none other than Captain Brandt. It was Brandt who had betrayed the previous network, as well as the new one.",
""
] |
### Part eight
*One of Ned's students argues to Smiley that [professional journalists](/wiki/Journalist "Journalist") do the same job as spies do, and may even do it better, so why bother with intelligence services at all? Instead of disagreeing, Smiley says she has an excellent point – the trouble is, no government will ever trust advice from a journalist, no matter how sound. Smiley assures these future agents that their jobs will always be necessary, and always in demand.*
Ned is ordered to travel to [Saigon](/wiki/Saigon "Saigon") to track down a Circus agent who has gone missing, a lapsed [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") named Hansen. Also half\-Dutch, Hansen was born to an English mother who had provided him with [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") education. An accomplished [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot "Polyglot") from an early age, he had received religious training and was sent to the East. Along with his many accomplishments in the fields of [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology"), [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics") and various branches of [humanities](/wiki/Humanities "Humanities"), Hansen also harboured an open secret about his sexuality, bedding young girls and boys alike.
Having been recalled to Rome for indoctrination and subsequently sent back to a harsh master of his Order, Hansen later went berserk on his colleagues due to his confinement and disappeared in [Southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"). After a certain period, he presented himself to the British authorities, offering his vast knowledge of the Orient for espionage. Due to the unconventional and unmotorised [guerrilla tactics](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") of locals, Hansen's services were invaluable to the British, who had no material presence in the region, and sold his intelligence to the Americans who were knee\-deep in conflict against the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong").
However, at some point Hansen disappears without notice and is later given up for dead, in view of the total eradication of hill villages in the region. Later, local residency catches sight of Hansen through one of their informants who had been working closely with the local head of station, Rumbelow. Despite his distaste for Rumbelow, whom he views as sleazy and thoroughly perfidious, Ned tracks down Hansen, who is working as the [bouncer](/wiki/Bouncer_%28doorman%29 "Bouncer (doorman)") in a [brothel](/wiki/Brothel "Brothel").
Hansen recounts that he learned that he had an illegitimate daughter who was captured by a revolutionary band in [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"). Hansen allowed himself to be taken prisoner as well, intending to rescue her, but was horrified when she was genuinely converted to their ideals, and denounced him as a spy and a traitor.
After a hellish journey through the Cambodian jungle, Hansen eventually escaped after his daughter went missing from the band. She is now a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitution "Prostitution") in the brothel, her psyche damaged by her experiences in the jungle. Hansen wants nothing more to do with the Circus, with England, or with any political cause – his sole purpose in life is to watch over her. Despite Ned's offer of gratuity of $50,000, Hansen turns it down and chastises Ned – and by extension, all representation of [Western imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") – for their treatment of Asia. On his way back to London, Ned fancies the idea of sending Rumbelow, and in fact the whole Circus, Smiley included, on Hansen's trail for them to witness true and unfaltering devotion, as he regarded Hansen as the champion of his ambiguous and conflicted emotions about his calling in life.
Ned returns to London, having set his own misgivings to rest, finding them insignificant next to Hansen's suffering, and his single\-minded devotion to his daughter. A few years later (during the events of *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House "The Russia House")*), when "Barley" Blair betrays the Circus to save a Russian woman he has fallen in love with, Ned is unable to muster the same outrage as his superiors.
|
[
"### Part eight",
"*One of Ned's students argues to Smiley that [professional journalists](/wiki/Journalist \"Journalist\") do the same job as spies do, and may even do it better, so why bother with intelligence services at all? Instead of disagreeing, Smiley says she has an excellent point – the trouble is, no government will ever trust advice from a journalist, no matter how sound. Smiley assures these future agents that their jobs will always be necessary, and always in demand.*",
"Ned is ordered to travel to [Saigon](/wiki/Saigon \"Saigon\") to track down a Circus agent who has gone missing, a lapsed [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") named Hansen. Also half\\-Dutch, Hansen was born to an English mother who had provided him with [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") education. An accomplished [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot \"Polyglot\") from an early age, he had received religious training and was sent to the East. Along with his many accomplishments in the fields of [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\"), [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\") and various branches of [humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\"), Hansen also harboured an open secret about his sexuality, bedding young girls and boys alike.",
"Having been recalled to Rome for indoctrination and subsequently sent back to a harsh master of his Order, Hansen later went berserk on his colleagues due to his confinement and disappeared in [Southern Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"). After a certain period, he presented himself to the British authorities, offering his vast knowledge of the Orient for espionage. Due to the unconventional and unmotorised [guerrilla tactics](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\") of locals, Hansen's services were invaluable to the British, who had no material presence in the region, and sold his intelligence to the Americans who were knee\\-deep in conflict against the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\").",
"However, at some point Hansen disappears without notice and is later given up for dead, in view of the total eradication of hill villages in the region. Later, local residency catches sight of Hansen through one of their informants who had been working closely with the local head of station, Rumbelow. Despite his distaste for Rumbelow, whom he views as sleazy and thoroughly perfidious, Ned tracks down Hansen, who is working as the [bouncer](/wiki/Bouncer_%28doorman%29 \"Bouncer (doorman)\") in a [brothel](/wiki/Brothel \"Brothel\").",
"Hansen recounts that he learned that he had an illegitimate daughter who was captured by a revolutionary band in [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"). Hansen allowed himself to be taken prisoner as well, intending to rescue her, but was horrified when she was genuinely converted to their ideals, and denounced him as a spy and a traitor.",
"After a hellish journey through the Cambodian jungle, Hansen eventually escaped after his daughter went missing from the band. She is now a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitution \"Prostitution\") in the brothel, her psyche damaged by her experiences in the jungle. Hansen wants nothing more to do with the Circus, with England, or with any political cause – his sole purpose in life is to watch over her. Despite Ned's offer of gratuity of $50,000, Hansen turns it down and chastises Ned – and by extension, all representation of [Western imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") – for their treatment of Asia. On his way back to London, Ned fancies the idea of sending Rumbelow, and in fact the whole Circus, Smiley included, on Hansen's trail for them to witness true and unfaltering devotion, as he regarded Hansen as the champion of his ambiguous and conflicted emotions about his calling in life.",
"Ned returns to London, having set his own misgivings to rest, finding them insignificant next to Hansen's suffering, and his single\\-minded devotion to his daughter. A few years later (during the events of *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House \"The Russia House\")*), when \"Barley\" Blair betrays the Circus to save a Russian woman he has fallen in love with, Ned is unable to muster the same outrage as his superiors.",
""
] |
### Part nine
*One of Ned's more amoral students is trying to get Smiley to agree that espionage gives its practitioners license to do anything, if it is necessary to get the job done. Smiley refuses to be pinned down, remarking that it is important for spies to feel conflicted about their own actions – and if any of them in the midst of an operation feel the impulse to act humanely, he hopes they will give it a fair hearing.*
After being relieved of his position as head of the Russia House, Ned is sent to the "Interrogators' Pool," a division not held in high regard within the service. In addition to supplying interrogators to debrief defectors or captured enemy agents, the Pool acts as a clearing\-house for suspicious members of the public who believe they have relevant information for the government.
While browsing through the Pool's old files, Ned is excited to find an old record from Smiley's tenure there (after being relieved of his position as Chief at the end of *[The Honourable Schoolboy](/wiki/The_Honourable_Schoolboy "The Honourable Schoolboy")*). Smiley interviewed a retired British Army sergeant who wanted to know if it was true that his recently deceased son was actually a top\-class undercover agent in Russia? The sergeant and his wife always believed their son was just a convict, but during the father's last visit, shortly before his son's death (apparently in a prison riot), the son claimed that his criminal identity was just a cover for his secret agent work.
Despite his inner scepticism, Smiley does his best to verify or disprove the boy's story. After an exhaustive search through the records of the Circus and other British government agencies, and a review of the boy's extensive criminal record, Smiley is forced to conclude that the boy was "*an irredeemable and habitual monster*," that his sordid death was no more than he deserved, and he has never had the slightest connection with the Circus or any other government service.
However, when the sergeant and his wife return for a second interview with Smiley, he tells them that, officially, the British government denies any knowledge of his son, while unofficially he gives them a set of superb gold [cufflinks](/wiki/Cufflink "Cufflink") – one of the fanciful details of the son's story was that he and other top class agents were issued with special cufflinks instead of medals. The elderly couple departs the office, swelling with pride at their son's heroism.
Ned later learns that the cufflinks were an anniversary gift from Smiley's wife, Ann. At first glance, George's motives seemed clear: sentimentality, or spitefulness towards his unfaithful wife and the Circus that was rejecting him. But Ned's private theory is that Smiley, who was ambivalent at the best of times about the usefulness of the Circus's work, wanted to carry out an "intelligence operation" that clearly succeeded in achieving something good.
|
[
"### Part nine",
"*One of Ned's more amoral students is trying to get Smiley to agree that espionage gives its practitioners license to do anything, if it is necessary to get the job done. Smiley refuses to be pinned down, remarking that it is important for spies to feel conflicted about their own actions – and if any of them in the midst of an operation feel the impulse to act humanely, he hopes they will give it a fair hearing.*",
"After being relieved of his position as head of the Russia House, Ned is sent to the \"Interrogators' Pool,\" a division not held in high regard within the service. In addition to supplying interrogators to debrief defectors or captured enemy agents, the Pool acts as a clearing\\-house for suspicious members of the public who believe they have relevant information for the government.",
"While browsing through the Pool's old files, Ned is excited to find an old record from Smiley's tenure there (after being relieved of his position as Chief at the end of *[The Honourable Schoolboy](/wiki/The_Honourable_Schoolboy \"The Honourable Schoolboy\")*). Smiley interviewed a retired British Army sergeant who wanted to know if it was true that his recently deceased son was actually a top\\-class undercover agent in Russia? The sergeant and his wife always believed their son was just a convict, but during the father's last visit, shortly before his son's death (apparently in a prison riot), the son claimed that his criminal identity was just a cover for his secret agent work.",
"Despite his inner scepticism, Smiley does his best to verify or disprove the boy's story. After an exhaustive search through the records of the Circus and other British government agencies, and a review of the boy's extensive criminal record, Smiley is forced to conclude that the boy was \"*an irredeemable and habitual monster*,\" that his sordid death was no more than he deserved, and he has never had the slightest connection with the Circus or any other government service.",
"However, when the sergeant and his wife return for a second interview with Smiley, he tells them that, officially, the British government denies any knowledge of his son, while unofficially he gives them a set of superb gold [cufflinks](/wiki/Cufflink \"Cufflink\") – one of the fanciful details of the son's story was that he and other top class agents were issued with special cufflinks instead of medals. The elderly couple departs the office, swelling with pride at their son's heroism.",
"Ned later learns that the cufflinks were an anniversary gift from Smiley's wife, Ann. At first glance, George's motives seemed clear: sentimentality, or spitefulness towards his unfaithful wife and the Circus that was rejecting him. But Ned's private theory is that Smiley, who was ambivalent at the best of times about the usefulness of the Circus's work, wanted to carry out an \"intelligence operation\" that clearly succeeded in achieving something good.",
""
] |
Design
------
[thumb\|left\|Beneteau Oceanis 35\.1 sailing with [genoa](/wiki/Genoa_%28sail%29 "Genoa (sail)") only](/wiki/File:Beneteau_Oceanis_35.1_sailboat_5479.jpg "Beneteau Oceanis 35.1 sailboat 5479.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Beneteau Oceanis 35\.1 showing [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 "Transom (nautical)") with an optional fold down tailgate](/wiki/File:Beneteau_Oceanis_35.1_sailboat_5774.jpg "Beneteau Oceanis 35.1 sailboat 5774.jpg")
The Oceanis 35\.1 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat "Keelboat"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass") and available in [daysailer](/wiki/Daysailer "Daysailer") or cruising configurations. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig "Fractional rig") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop") rig, a [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem "Plumb stem"), a plum [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 "Transom (nautical)") with an optional fold down tailgate, dual internally mounted spade\-type [rudders](/wiki/Rudder "Rudder") controlled by a [wheel](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel "Ship's wheel") and a shallow or deep draft fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel "Keel") or a stub keel with a [centerboard](/wiki/Centerboard "Centerboard"). In cruiser configuration it displaces {{convert\|12195\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and carries {{convert\|3436\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} of ballast, with the deep draft keel.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.boattest.com/review/beneteau/3582\_oceanis\-35\-1\|title\= Beneteau Oceanis 35\.1 (2017\-) Boat History Report\|access\-date\= 5 September 2021\|work\= Boat Test\|archive\-url\= https://archive.today/20210905182653/https://www.boattest.com/review/beneteau/3582\_oceanis\-35\-1\|archive\-date\= 5 September 2021\|url\-status\= live}}
The shallow keel\-equipped version of the boat has a draft of {{convert\|4\.75\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}}, the deep keel\-equipped version of the boat has a draft of {{convert\|6\.08\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}}, while the stub keel and centerboard\-equipped version has a draft of {{convert\|7\.58\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\|3\.75\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with it retracted, allowing operation in shallow water.
The boat is fitted with an [inboard](/wiki/Inboard "Inboard") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") of {{convert\|30\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} for docking and maneuvering. The fuel tank holds {{convert\|34\|u.s.gal}} and the fresh water tank has a capacity of {{convert\|34\|u.s.gal}}, with {{convert\|53\|u.s.gal}} optional.
The design has sleeping accommodation for four to six people, depending on the interior design. All arrangements have a double "V"\-berth in the bow cabin, combined with either one or two double\-berth cabins aft. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 "Galley (kitchen)") may be located on either the port or starboard side and is equipped with a two\-burner stove and a sink. In all arrangements the [head](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 "Head (watercraft)") is located just forward of the [companionway](/wiki/Companionway "Companionway") ladder on the starboard side.
For downwind sailing the design may be equipped with an asymmetrical [spinnaker](/wiki/Spinnaker "Spinnaker") of {{convert\|898\|sqft\|m2\|abbr\=on}}.
The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed "Hull speed") of {{convert\|7\.56\|kn\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Beneteau Oceanis 35\\.1 sailing with [genoa](/wiki/Genoa_%28sail%29 \"Genoa (sail)\") only](/wiki/File:Beneteau_Oceanis_35.1_sailboat_5479.jpg \"Beneteau Oceanis 35.1 sailboat 5479.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Beneteau Oceanis 35\\.1 showing [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 \"Transom (nautical)\") with an optional fold down tailgate](/wiki/File:Beneteau_Oceanis_35.1_sailboat_5774.jpg \"Beneteau Oceanis 35.1 sailboat 5774.jpg\")\nThe Oceanis 35\\.1 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat \"Keelboat\"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\") and available in [daysailer](/wiki/Daysailer \"Daysailer\") or cruising configurations. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig \"Fractional rig\") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\") rig, a [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem \"Plumb stem\"), a plum [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 \"Transom (nautical)\") with an optional fold down tailgate, dual internally mounted spade\\-type [rudders](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") controlled by a [wheel](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel \"Ship's wheel\") and a shallow or deep draft fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel \"Keel\") or a stub keel with a [centerboard](/wiki/Centerboard \"Centerboard\"). In cruiser configuration it displaces {{convert\\|12195\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and carries {{convert\\|3436\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of ballast, with the deep draft keel.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.boattest.com/review/beneteau/3582\\_oceanis\\-35\\-1\\|title\\= Beneteau Oceanis 35\\.1 (2017\\-) Boat History Report\\|access\\-date\\= 5 September 2021\\|work\\= Boat Test\\|archive\\-url\\= https://archive.today/20210905182653/https://www.boattest.com/review/beneteau/3582\\_oceanis\\-35\\-1\\|archive\\-date\\= 5 September 2021\\|url\\-status\\= live}}",
"The shallow keel\\-equipped version of the boat has a draft of {{convert\\|4\\.75\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}}, the deep keel\\-equipped version of the boat has a draft of {{convert\\|6\\.08\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}}, while the stub keel and centerboard\\-equipped version has a draft of {{convert\\|7\\.58\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\\|3\\.75\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with it retracted, allowing operation in shallow water.",
"The boat is fitted with an [inboard](/wiki/Inboard \"Inboard\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") of {{convert\\|30\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} for docking and maneuvering. The fuel tank holds {{convert\\|34\\|u.s.gal}} and the fresh water tank has a capacity of {{convert\\|34\\|u.s.gal}}, with {{convert\\|53\\|u.s.gal}} optional.",
"The design has sleeping accommodation for four to six people, depending on the interior design. All arrangements have a double \"V\"\\-berth in the bow cabin, combined with either one or two double\\-berth cabins aft. The [galley](/wiki/Galley_%28kitchen%29 \"Galley (kitchen)\") may be located on either the port or starboard side and is equipped with a two\\-burner stove and a sink. In all arrangements the [head](/wiki/Head_%28watercraft%29 \"Head (watercraft)\") is located just forward of the [companionway](/wiki/Companionway \"Companionway\") ladder on the starboard side.",
"For downwind sailing the design may be equipped with an asymmetrical [spinnaker](/wiki/Spinnaker \"Spinnaker\") of {{convert\\|898\\|sqft\\|m2\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed \"Hull speed\") of {{convert\\|7\\.56\\|kn\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Frampton was born on 18 June 1860 in London, where his father was a woodcarver and stonemason.{{cite web\|author\=University of Glasgow History of Art / HATII\|url\=http://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id\=msib2\_1203633030\|title\=Sir George James Frampton RA, FSA, LLD\|year\=2011\|access\-date\=22 September 2020\|work\=Mapping the Practice and Profession of Sculpture in Britain \& Ireland 1851–1951\|archive\-date\=7 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207080506/https://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id\=msib2\_1203633030\|url\-status\=dead}} George Frampton began his own working life as a stone carver in 1878, working on the [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris "Hôtel de Ville, Paris") in Paris. Frampton returned to London to study under [William Silver Frith](/wiki/William_Silver_Frith "William Silver Frith") at the [South London Technical School of Art](/wiki/South_London_Technical_School_of_Art "South London Technical School of Art") during 1880 and 1881\.{{cite book\|author\=Frances Spalding\|publisher\=Antique Collectors' Club\|year\=1990\|title\=20th Century Painters and Sculptors \|author\-link\=Frances Spalding \|isbn\=1\-85149\-106\-6}} He went on to the [Royal Academy Schools](/wiki/Royal_Academy_Schools "Royal Academy Schools") where, between 1881 and 1887, he won a gold medal and travelling scholarship. While still studying at the Royal Academy, Frampton undertook a number of sculpture commissions including, in 1885, pieces for the facade of both the Constitutional Club in [Northumberland Avenue](/wiki/Northumberland_Avenue "Northumberland Avenue") and for the Chelsea Conservative Club. He also created an [altarpiece](/wiki/Reredos "Reredos") for [Manchester Cathedral](/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral "Manchester Cathedral"), some decorative pieces for the [Henry Fawcett Memorial](/wiki/Henry_Fawcett_Memorial "Henry Fawcett Memorial") in London and a pair of terracotta figures representing *Concord* and *Industry* which were exhibited in Paris and purchased for the [Municipal Building](/wiki/Our_City%2C_Christchurch "Our City, Christchurch") in [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch "Christchurch"), New Zealand.{{cite book\|author\=Susan Beattie\|publisher\=Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art / Yale University Press\|year\=1983\|title\=The New Sculpture \|isbn\= 0300033591}} From 1887 to 1890, he studied and worked at the studio of [Antonin Mercie](/wiki/Antonin_Mercie "Antonin Mercie") in Paris, where he also studied painting under [Pascal Dagnan\-Bouveret](/wiki/Pascal_Dagnan-Bouveret "Pascal Dagnan-Bouveret") and [Gustave Courtois](/wiki/Gustave_Courtois "Gustave Courtois").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/33/101033242/ \|title\=George Frampton \|work\=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|location\=Oxford \|year\=2011 \|access\-date\=26 October 2011}}
### Early works
[thumb\|*Lamia* (1899–1900\)](/wiki/File:George_Frampton%2C_Lamia%2C_1899-1900.jpg "George Frampton, Lamia, 1899-1900.jpg")
Frampton returned to England and, briefly, worked in the studio of Sir [Joseph Edgar Boehm](/wiki/Joseph_Edgar_Boehm "Joseph Edgar Boehm"). He then took up a teaching post at the [Slade School of Art](/wiki/Slade_School_of_Art "Slade School of Art") in 1893 and was also, for a year, the joint head of the [Central School of Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Central_School_of_Arts_and_Crafts "Central School of Arts and Crafts").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade/slade09/introduction/history.php \|title\=A Brief History of the Slade School of Fine Art \|access\-date\=26 October 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125013251/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade/slade09/introduction/history.php \|archive\-date\=25 January 2008 }}
In 1893, Frampton married the artist [Christabel Cockerell](/wiki/Christabel_Cockerell "Christabel Cockerell") and the couple set up home together at [St John's Wood](/wiki/St_John%27s_Wood "St John's Wood") in London. Together they designed a decorative frieze for the interior of the house and Frampton began to design household fittings, jewellery in enamel and precious metals and also medals, most notably for [Glasgow University](/wiki/Glasgow_University "Glasgow University") and [Winchester College](/wiki/Winchester_College "Winchester College"). By this time, Frampton was, according to the critic [M.H. Spielmann](/wiki/Marion_Harry_Spielmann "Marion Harry Spielmann") "in open rebellion against white sculpture". In 1893, he showed *Mysteriarch*, a polychromatic plaster bust with [Symbolism](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 "Symbolism (arts)") motifs at the Royal Academy and, two years later he showed another polychromatic work, *Mother and Child* at the same venue. *Mother and Child* has bronze figures, of Frampton's wife and son, set against a copper plaque, and a white enamel disc behind the mother's head.{{cite web\|url\=http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O71795/mother\-and\-child\-figure\-frampton\-george\-james/\|title\=Search the Collection: ''Mother and Child''\|website\=\[\[Victoria \& Albert Museum]]\|year\=1895 \|access\-date\=15 October 2020}}
In his statue of *Dame Alice Owen* (1897\) Frampton combined bronze, alabaster, gilding and marble, and, later, with the bust *Lamia* (1899\-1900\) he contrasted an ivory head and neck with bronze clothing inlaid with opals.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art\-artists/work\-of\-art/lamia\|title\=''Lamia'', 1899–1900\|website\=The Royal Academy of Arts\|access\-date\=11 October 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tate.org.uk/tate\-etc/issue\-33\-spring\-2015/material\-wonders\-victorian\-age\|title\=Material wonders of the Victorian age, Sculpture Victorious\|author\=Greg Sullivan\|website\=Tate etc\|date\=28 March 2015\|access\-date\=13 October 2020}} The statue of [Dame Alice Owen](/wiki/Dame_Alice_Owen "Dame Alice Owen") was originally shown at the Royal Academy as a free\-standing statue but when it was installed in the entry hall of Owen's School Frampton made it the centre of a larger installation that he designed. In panels and niches around the statue, which he placed on a pink marble pedestal, Frampton included 16th\-century carvings of Owen's ancestors and fragments of her 17th\-century tomb.
In 1896, Frampton exhibited, with the architect [Charles Harrison Townsend](/wiki/Charles_Harrison_Townsend "Charles Harrison Townsend"), a large fireplace in American walnut at the [Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Exhibition_Society "Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society"). The fireplace was decorated with an innovative tree and foliage design by Frampton that was subsequently much imitated by [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") and [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement "Arts and Crafts movement") designers and became known as the "Frampton tree". Frampton used a similar design in his 1897 memorial to [Charles Mitchell](/wiki/Charles_Mitchell_%28shipbuilder%29 "Charles Mitchell (shipbuilder)") for St George's Church in [Jesmond](/wiki/Jesmond "Jesmond") in Newcastle upon Tyne.
### Recognition
[thumb\|*St Mungo as the Patron of Art and Music*, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum](/wiki/File:Kelvingrove_Art_Gallery_and_Museum_statue.jpg "Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum statue.jpg")
Frampton's body of work in the 1880s brought him considerable recognition. The [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews "University of St Andrews") awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1894\. In 1897, examples of Frampton's work featured at the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale "Venice Biennale") and at the [Vienna Secession](/wiki/Vienna_Secession "Vienna Secession") the following year.{{cite book\|author\=Martina Droth, Jason Edwards \& Michael Hatt\|publisher\=Yale Center for British Art, Yale University Press\|year\=2014\|title\= Sculpture Victorious: Art in the Age of Invention, 1837\-1901 \|isbn\=9780300208030}} He regularly exhibited at the [La Libre Esthétique](/wiki/La_Libre_Esth%C3%A9tique "La Libre Esthétique") in Brussels, a city he considered an important market for his work. For the four pieces he showed at the Paris International Exhibition in 1900, Frampton was awarded the Grand Prix. Those works included *My Thoughts Are My Children*, 1894, a large polychromic relief in bronze in a wooden frame depicting a woman holding a lily surrounded by drapery under a second female figure holding an infant and two children in front of a symbol of a rising sun. The work appears to have had a special significance to Frampton as he frequently chose it to represent his work at other major international exhibitions and kept the piece in his possession throughout his life. The work passed to his son, [Meredith Frampton](/wiki/Meredith_Frampton "Meredith Frampton"), who eventually donated it to the [Walker Art Gallery](/wiki/Walker_Art_Gallery "Walker Art Gallery") in Liverpool.
Recognition also brought Frampton two significant public commissions at this time. The architect [John William Simpson](/wiki/John_William_Simpson "John William Simpson") appointed Frampton as master sculptor for the decoration of the facade of the [Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum](/wiki/Kelvingrove_Art_Gallery_and_Museum "Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum") in Glasgow. As well as overseeing the work of several other sculptors, Frampton created a bronze sculpture group and three sets of stone [spandrels](/wiki/Spandrels "Spandrels") for the north porch of the new building.{{Historic Environment Scotland\|num\=LB33071\|desc\= Kelvingrove Park, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum\|cat\=A\|access\-date\=12 October 2020}} The sculpture group, of St Mungo attended by the muses of Art and Music, in the central arch of the porch contains Symbolism style motifs featuring trees, bells and fishes similar to those Frampron had used in some of his earlier smaller pieces. Frampton's other commission was for a frieze on the facade of the [Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register "Lloyd's Register") building in [Fenchurch Street](/wiki/Fenchurch_Street "Fenchurch Street") in London. There, Frampton created, at first floor level, a frieze in Portland stone of female figures representing Trade, Commerce and Shipping with four bronze statuettes at key points.{{NHLE \|num\=1192466 \|desc\=Lloyd's Registry\|access\-date\=12 October 2020}} Both commissions, but especially the Fenchurch Street frieze, were widely praised at the time.
### Later career
In April 1897, a public meeting in Calcutta (now [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata")) agreed to raise funds to mark the [Diamond Jubilee](/wiki/Diamond_Jubilee "Diamond Jubilee") of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") and, eventually, commissioned Frampton to create a statue of the monarch.{{cite book\|author\=M.H. Spielmann\|title\=British Sculpture and Sculptors of Today\|url\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030669364\|publisher\=Cassell\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/cu31924030669364/page/n100 89]–95\|year\=1901}} Photographs of Frampton's model for the statue were published in the July 1898 edition of *[The Studio](/wiki/The_Studio_%28magazine%29 "The Studio (magazine)")*. The accompanying text described a figure over twice life\-size, seated under a canopy, wearing the robe of the [Order of the Star of India](/wiki/Order_of_the_Star_of_India "Order of the Star of India"), decorated in gold, ivory and [lapis lazuli](/wiki/Lapis_lazuli "Lapis lazuli"). A polychrome plaster version was displayed at the Glasgow Exhibition of 1901 and was greatly praised for its depiction of the elderly queen. The completed statue was shipped to India early in 1901 and erected on a temporary site in March 1902\. Although the statue sent to India was considerably less ornate and lacked the canopy of the original proposal, Frampton's completed work included two putti in a New Sculpture style above the back of the throne plus two miniature infantrymen on the pedestal and a small figure of St George held by the Queen.{{cite book\|author\=Mary Ann Steggles \& Richard Barnes\|publisher\= Frontier Publishing\|year\=2011\|title\=British Sculpture in India: New Views \& Old Memories \|isbn\= 9781872914411}} The statue was subsequently moved to a location in front of the [Victoria Memorial](/wiki/Victoria_Memorial%2C_Kolkata "Victoria Memorial, Kolkata"), where it was sited on a large architectural podium. [Lord Curzon](/wiki/George_Curzon%2C_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston "George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston"), the driving force behind the Memorial project, came to dislike Frampton's depiction of an elderly and vulnerable Victoria and commissioned [Thomas Brock](/wiki/Thomas_Brock "Thomas Brock") to create a second statue, in marble, of a younger Queen to be placed in the central hall of the completed building.
The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 led to Frampton receiving several commissions for memorials to the Queen. Frampton based several of these on his design of a seated figure he used for the Kolkata statue but with some variations. He used the same cast for the statues in [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds") and [St Helens](/wiki/St_Helens%2C_Merseyside "St Helens, Merseyside") but changed the style of the decorative details and pedestals between them.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pmsa.org.uk/pmsa\-database/5118/\|title\=National Recording Project: Queen Victoria Monument\|website\=Public Monuments \& Sculpture Association\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219175552/http://www.pmsa.org.uk/pmsa\-database/5118/\|access\-date\=13 October 2020\|archive\-date\=19 February 2014}}{{cite web\|url\=https://interactive.britishart.yale.edu/victoria\-monuments/222/statue\-of\-queen\-victoria\|title\=Statue of Queen Victoria 1906\|website\= Yale Center for British Art\|access\-date\=13 October 2020}} A further version was created for the grounds of the [Manitoba Legislative Building](/wiki/Manitoba_Legislative_Building "Manitoba Legislative Building") in Winnipeg in 1904\.{{cite book\|author\=M. Baker\|year\= 1986\|title\= Symbol in Stone: The Art and Politics of a Public Building\|publisher\= Winnipeg: Hyperion Press\|page\= 119}} A different design of a much younger, standing Victoria was created for the [Royal Victoria Infirmary](/wiki/Royal_Victoria_Infirmary "Royal Victoria Infirmary") in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1906 and was unveiled by her son King [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII "Edward VII") in the same year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.northumbria.info/Pages/VictoriaRVI.html\|title\=Queen Victoria (1906\) Sculptor: George Frampton\|website\=northumbria.info\|access\-date\=13 October 2020}}
[thumb\|Peter Pan statue in Kensington Gardens, London](/wiki/File:Peter_Pan_statue_in_Kensington_Gardens_in_the_City_of_Westminster_in_London%2C_spring_2013_%2814%29.JPG "Peter Pan statue in Kensington Gardens in the City of Westminster in London, spring 2013 (14).JPG")
Among Frampton's other notable public sculptures are the figures of [Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan "Peter Pan") playing a set of pipes, the lions at the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum") and the [Edith Cavell Memorial](/wiki/Edith_Cavell_Memorial "Edith Cavell Memorial") that stands outside the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28London%29 "National Portrait Gallery (London)"), London.
Frampton's original [statue of Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan_statue "Peter Pan statue") in [Kensington Gardens](/wiki/Kensington_Gardens "Kensington Gardens"), London, was commissioned by [J.M. Barrie](/wiki/J.M._Barrie "J.M. Barrie") in 1912\. Barrie was said to be disappointed at Frampton's depiction of Peter Pan, in particular at his choice of model for the figure of the boy.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art\-artists/name/george\-frampton\-ra\|title\=Sir George Frampton RA (1860–1928\)\|website\=The Royal Academy of Arts\|access\-date\=15 October 2020}} However such was the popularity of the statue, six more casts were made which are now situated in:
* [Perth](/wiki/Perth "Perth"), Western Australia, Australia
* Parc d'Egmont, Brussels, Belgium
* [Bowring Park, St. John's](/wiki/Bowring_Park%2C_St._John%27s "Bowring Park, St. John's"), Newfoundland, Canada
* [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto"), Canada
* [Sefton Park](/wiki/Sefton_Park "Sefton Park"), Liverpool, England
* [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey "Camden, New Jersey"), United States.
By March 1905, [Aston Webb](/wiki/Aston_Webb "Aston Webb"), the architect of the [Cromwell Road](/wiki/Cromwell_Road "Cromwell Road") extension to the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum "Victoria and Albert Museum") had commissioned over twenty sculptors to provide statues, carvings and decorations for the facade of the building. Webb allocated what he considered the two most important areas to Frampton and [Alfred Drury](/wiki/Alfred_Drury "Alfred Drury"). The area over the main entrance arch was allocated to Frampton who created [spandrel](/wiki/Spandrel "Spandrel") figures of *Truth* and *Beauty* for the space while the remainder of the main entrance was assigned to Drury.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/a\-grand\-entrance\-on\-cromwell\-road\|title\=A grand entrance on Cromwell Road\|website\=Victoria \& Albert Museum\|access\-date\=25 December 2020}}
A number of Frampton's works can be seen at the restored [St James' Church, Warter](/wiki/St_James%27_Church%2C_Warter "St James' Church, Warter") in East Yorkshire. Frampton created [Dr Barnardo's Memorial](/wiki/Dr_Barnardo%27s_Memorial "Dr Barnardo's Memorial"), in [Barkingside](/wiki/Barkingside "Barkingside"), London, in 1908, a work he undertook without claiming a fee.{{NHLE\|num\=1081001\|desc\=Dr Barnardo's Memorial at Barnardo's\|access\-date\=8 October 2020}}
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") Frampton used his position in various art societies and institutions to expel any German members he considered potential "enemy aliens". When the [Art Workers Guild](/wiki/Art_Workers_Guild "Art Workers Guild") refused to expel Karl Krall, a British citizen born in Germany, Frampton resigned from the Guild. In 1915, Frampton was commissioned to create a public memorial to [Edith Cavell](/wiki/Edith_Cavell "Edith Cavell"). Having waived his fee for the work, Frampton's modernist style monument in marble and granite was unveiled to huge crowds near [Trafalgar Square](/wiki/Trafalgar_Square "Trafalgar Square") in central London during 1920\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.artuk.org/discover/stories/edith\-cavell\-commemorating\-the\-nurse\-who\-became\-a\-first\-world\-war\-heroine\|title\=Edith Cavell: commemorating the nurse who became a First World War heroine\|author\=Lydia Figes\|date\=17 March 2020\|website\= Art UK\|access\-date\=23 October 2020}} The severe, modern appearance of the memorial is distinct from Frampton's earlier, more heroic style of Boer War memorials and was criticised as such.{{cite book\|author\=Alan Borg\|title\= War memorials: From Antiquity to the Present\| publisher\=Leo Cooper\|year\=1991\|author\-link\=Alan Borg\|isbn\=085052363X}} Several contemporary sculptors also criticised the design and the engineering of the monument.
[thumb\|Sir George James Frampton in 1915](/wiki/File:Sir_George_James_Frampton%2C_RA_%2818_June_1860_%E2%80%93_21_May_1928%29_in_1915_%28cropped%29.jpg "Sir George James Frampton, RA (18 June 1860 – 21 May 1928) in 1915 (cropped).jpg")
Frampton subsequently worked with [Sir Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens "Edwin Lutyens") on two of the architect's war memorials in the aftermath of the First World War, the [Hove War Memorial](/wiki/Hove_War_Memorial "Hove War Memorial") in East Sussex and the [Fordham War Memorial](/wiki/Fordham_War_Memorial "Fordham War Memorial") in Cambridgeshire, unveiled in February and August 1921 respectively. Both feature a bronze statue of Saint George, sculpted by Frampton atop a column designed by Lutyens.{{NHLE\|num\=1187556\|desc\= Hove War Memorial\|access\-date\=9 October 2020}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Frampton was born on 18 June 1860 in London, where his father was a woodcarver and stonemason.{{cite web\\|author\\=University of Glasgow History of Art / HATII\\|url\\=http://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id\\=msib2\\_1203633030\\|title\\=Sir George James Frampton RA, FSA, LLD\\|year\\=2011\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2020\\|work\\=Mapping the Practice and Profession of Sculpture in Britain \\& Ireland 1851–1951\\|archive\\-date\\=7 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207080506/https://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id\\=msib2\\_1203633030\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} George Frampton began his own working life as a stone carver in 1878, working on the [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris \"Hôtel de Ville, Paris\") in Paris. Frampton returned to London to study under [William Silver Frith](/wiki/William_Silver_Frith \"William Silver Frith\") at the [South London Technical School of Art](/wiki/South_London_Technical_School_of_Art \"South London Technical School of Art\") during 1880 and 1881\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=Frances Spalding\\|publisher\\=Antique Collectors' Club\\|year\\=1990\\|title\\=20th Century Painters and Sculptors \\|author\\-link\\=Frances Spalding \\|isbn\\=1\\-85149\\-106\\-6}} He went on to the [Royal Academy Schools](/wiki/Royal_Academy_Schools \"Royal Academy Schools\") where, between 1881 and 1887, he won a gold medal and travelling scholarship. While still studying at the Royal Academy, Frampton undertook a number of sculpture commissions including, in 1885, pieces for the facade of both the Constitutional Club in [Northumberland Avenue](/wiki/Northumberland_Avenue \"Northumberland Avenue\") and for the Chelsea Conservative Club. He also created an [altarpiece](/wiki/Reredos \"Reredos\") for [Manchester Cathedral](/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral \"Manchester Cathedral\"), some decorative pieces for the [Henry Fawcett Memorial](/wiki/Henry_Fawcett_Memorial \"Henry Fawcett Memorial\") in London and a pair of terracotta figures representing *Concord* and *Industry* which were exhibited in Paris and purchased for the [Municipal Building](/wiki/Our_City%2C_Christchurch \"Our City, Christchurch\") in [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch \"Christchurch\"), New Zealand.{{cite book\\|author\\=Susan Beattie\\|publisher\\=Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art / Yale University Press\\|year\\=1983\\|title\\=The New Sculpture \\|isbn\\= 0300033591}} From 1887 to 1890, he studied and worked at the studio of [Antonin Mercie](/wiki/Antonin_Mercie \"Antonin Mercie\") in Paris, where he also studied painting under [Pascal Dagnan\\-Bouveret](/wiki/Pascal_Dagnan-Bouveret \"Pascal Dagnan-Bouveret\") and [Gustave Courtois](/wiki/Gustave_Courtois \"Gustave Courtois\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/33/101033242/ \\|title\\=George Frampton \\|work\\=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|location\\=Oxford \\|year\\=2011 \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2011}}",
"### Early works",
"[thumb\\|*Lamia* (1899–1900\\)](/wiki/File:George_Frampton%2C_Lamia%2C_1899-1900.jpg \"George Frampton, Lamia, 1899-1900.jpg\")\nFrampton returned to England and, briefly, worked in the studio of Sir [Joseph Edgar Boehm](/wiki/Joseph_Edgar_Boehm \"Joseph Edgar Boehm\"). He then took up a teaching post at the [Slade School of Art](/wiki/Slade_School_of_Art \"Slade School of Art\") in 1893 and was also, for a year, the joint head of the [Central School of Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Central_School_of_Arts_and_Crafts \"Central School of Arts and Crafts\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade/slade09/introduction/history.php \\|title\\=A Brief History of the Slade School of Fine Art \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125013251/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade/slade09/introduction/history.php \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2008 }}",
"In 1893, Frampton married the artist [Christabel Cockerell](/wiki/Christabel_Cockerell \"Christabel Cockerell\") and the couple set up home together at [St John's Wood](/wiki/St_John%27s_Wood \"St John's Wood\") in London. Together they designed a decorative frieze for the interior of the house and Frampton began to design household fittings, jewellery in enamel and precious metals and also medals, most notably for [Glasgow University](/wiki/Glasgow_University \"Glasgow University\") and [Winchester College](/wiki/Winchester_College \"Winchester College\"). By this time, Frampton was, according to the critic [M.H. Spielmann](/wiki/Marion_Harry_Spielmann \"Marion Harry Spielmann\") \"in open rebellion against white sculpture\". In 1893, he showed *Mysteriarch*, a polychromatic plaster bust with [Symbolism](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 \"Symbolism (arts)\") motifs at the Royal Academy and, two years later he showed another polychromatic work, *Mother and Child* at the same venue. *Mother and Child* has bronze figures, of Frampton's wife and son, set against a copper plaque, and a white enamel disc behind the mother's head.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O71795/mother\\-and\\-child\\-figure\\-frampton\\-george\\-james/\\|title\\=Search the Collection: ''Mother and Child''\\|website\\=\\[\\[Victoria \\& Albert Museum]]\\|year\\=1895 \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2020}}",
"In his statue of *Dame Alice Owen* (1897\\) Frampton combined bronze, alabaster, gilding and marble, and, later, with the bust *Lamia* (1899\\-1900\\) he contrasted an ivory head and neck with bronze clothing inlaid with opals.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art\\-artists/work\\-of\\-art/lamia\\|title\\=''Lamia'', 1899–1900\\|website\\=The Royal Academy of Arts\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tate.org.uk/tate\\-etc/issue\\-33\\-spring\\-2015/material\\-wonders\\-victorian\\-age\\|title\\=Material wonders of the Victorian age, Sculpture Victorious\\|author\\=Greg Sullivan\\|website\\=Tate etc\\|date\\=28 March 2015\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020}} The statue of [Dame Alice Owen](/wiki/Dame_Alice_Owen \"Dame Alice Owen\") was originally shown at the Royal Academy as a free\\-standing statue but when it was installed in the entry hall of Owen's School Frampton made it the centre of a larger installation that he designed. In panels and niches around the statue, which he placed on a pink marble pedestal, Frampton included 16th\\-century carvings of Owen's ancestors and fragments of her 17th\\-century tomb.",
"In 1896, Frampton exhibited, with the architect [Charles Harrison Townsend](/wiki/Charles_Harrison_Townsend \"Charles Harrison Townsend\"), a large fireplace in American walnut at the [Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Exhibition_Society \"Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society\"). The fireplace was decorated with an innovative tree and foliage design by Frampton that was subsequently much imitated by [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") and [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement \"Arts and Crafts movement\") designers and became known as the \"Frampton tree\". Frampton used a similar design in his 1897 memorial to [Charles Mitchell](/wiki/Charles_Mitchell_%28shipbuilder%29 \"Charles Mitchell (shipbuilder)\") for St George's Church in [Jesmond](/wiki/Jesmond \"Jesmond\") in Newcastle upon Tyne.",
"### Recognition",
"[thumb\\|*St Mungo as the Patron of Art and Music*, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum](/wiki/File:Kelvingrove_Art_Gallery_and_Museum_statue.jpg \"Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum statue.jpg\")\nFrampton's body of work in the 1880s brought him considerable recognition. The [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews \"University of St Andrews\") awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1894\\. In 1897, examples of Frampton's work featured at the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\") and at the [Vienna Secession](/wiki/Vienna_Secession \"Vienna Secession\") the following year.{{cite book\\|author\\=Martina Droth, Jason Edwards \\& Michael Hatt\\|publisher\\=Yale Center for British Art, Yale University Press\\|year\\=2014\\|title\\= Sculpture Victorious: Art in the Age of Invention, 1837\\-1901 \\|isbn\\=9780300208030}} He regularly exhibited at the [La Libre Esthétique](/wiki/La_Libre_Esth%C3%A9tique \"La Libre Esthétique\") in Brussels, a city he considered an important market for his work. For the four pieces he showed at the Paris International Exhibition in 1900, Frampton was awarded the Grand Prix. Those works included *My Thoughts Are My Children*, 1894, a large polychromic relief in bronze in a wooden frame depicting a woman holding a lily surrounded by drapery under a second female figure holding an infant and two children in front of a symbol of a rising sun. The work appears to have had a special significance to Frampton as he frequently chose it to represent his work at other major international exhibitions and kept the piece in his possession throughout his life. The work passed to his son, [Meredith Frampton](/wiki/Meredith_Frampton \"Meredith Frampton\"), who eventually donated it to the [Walker Art Gallery](/wiki/Walker_Art_Gallery \"Walker Art Gallery\") in Liverpool.",
"Recognition also brought Frampton two significant public commissions at this time. The architect [John William Simpson](/wiki/John_William_Simpson \"John William Simpson\") appointed Frampton as master sculptor for the decoration of the facade of the [Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum](/wiki/Kelvingrove_Art_Gallery_and_Museum \"Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum\") in Glasgow. As well as overseeing the work of several other sculptors, Frampton created a bronze sculpture group and three sets of stone [spandrels](/wiki/Spandrels \"Spandrels\") for the north porch of the new building.{{Historic Environment Scotland\\|num\\=LB33071\\|desc\\= Kelvingrove Park, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum\\|cat\\=A\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2020}} The sculpture group, of St Mungo attended by the muses of Art and Music, in the central arch of the porch contains Symbolism style motifs featuring trees, bells and fishes similar to those Frampron had used in some of his earlier smaller pieces. Frampton's other commission was for a frieze on the facade of the [Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register \"Lloyd's Register\") building in [Fenchurch Street](/wiki/Fenchurch_Street \"Fenchurch Street\") in London. There, Frampton created, at first floor level, a frieze in Portland stone of female figures representing Trade, Commerce and Shipping with four bronze statuettes at key points.{{NHLE \\|num\\=1192466 \\|desc\\=Lloyd's Registry\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2020}} Both commissions, but especially the Fenchurch Street frieze, were widely praised at the time.",
"### Later career",
"In April 1897, a public meeting in Calcutta (now [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata \"Kolkata\")) agreed to raise funds to mark the [Diamond Jubilee](/wiki/Diamond_Jubilee \"Diamond Jubilee\") of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") and, eventually, commissioned Frampton to create a statue of the monarch.{{cite book\\|author\\=M.H. Spielmann\\|title\\=British Sculpture and Sculptors of Today\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030669364\\|publisher\\=Cassell\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/cu31924030669364/page/n100 89]–95\\|year\\=1901}} Photographs of Frampton's model for the statue were published in the July 1898 edition of *[The Studio](/wiki/The_Studio_%28magazine%29 \"The Studio (magazine)\")*. The accompanying text described a figure over twice life\\-size, seated under a canopy, wearing the robe of the [Order of the Star of India](/wiki/Order_of_the_Star_of_India \"Order of the Star of India\"), decorated in gold, ivory and [lapis lazuli](/wiki/Lapis_lazuli \"Lapis lazuli\"). A polychrome plaster version was displayed at the Glasgow Exhibition of 1901 and was greatly praised for its depiction of the elderly queen. The completed statue was shipped to India early in 1901 and erected on a temporary site in March 1902\\. Although the statue sent to India was considerably less ornate and lacked the canopy of the original proposal, Frampton's completed work included two putti in a New Sculpture style above the back of the throne plus two miniature infantrymen on the pedestal and a small figure of St George held by the Queen.{{cite book\\|author\\=Mary Ann Steggles \\& Richard Barnes\\|publisher\\= Frontier Publishing\\|year\\=2011\\|title\\=British Sculpture in India: New Views \\& Old Memories \\|isbn\\= 9781872914411}} The statue was subsequently moved to a location in front of the [Victoria Memorial](/wiki/Victoria_Memorial%2C_Kolkata \"Victoria Memorial, Kolkata\"), where it was sited on a large architectural podium. [Lord Curzon](/wiki/George_Curzon%2C_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston \"George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston\"), the driving force behind the Memorial project, came to dislike Frampton's depiction of an elderly and vulnerable Victoria and commissioned [Thomas Brock](/wiki/Thomas_Brock \"Thomas Brock\") to create a second statue, in marble, of a younger Queen to be placed in the central hall of the completed building.",
"The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 led to Frampton receiving several commissions for memorials to the Queen. Frampton based several of these on his design of a seated figure he used for the Kolkata statue but with some variations. He used the same cast for the statues in [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") and [St Helens](/wiki/St_Helens%2C_Merseyside \"St Helens, Merseyside\") but changed the style of the decorative details and pedestals between them.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pmsa.org.uk/pmsa\\-database/5118/\\|title\\=National Recording Project: Queen Victoria Monument\\|website\\=Public Monuments \\& Sculpture Association\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219175552/http://www.pmsa.org.uk/pmsa\\-database/5118/\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2014}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://interactive.britishart.yale.edu/victoria\\-monuments/222/statue\\-of\\-queen\\-victoria\\|title\\=Statue of Queen Victoria 1906\\|website\\= Yale Center for British Art\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020}} A further version was created for the grounds of the [Manitoba Legislative Building](/wiki/Manitoba_Legislative_Building \"Manitoba Legislative Building\") in Winnipeg in 1904\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=M. Baker\\|year\\= 1986\\|title\\= Symbol in Stone: The Art and Politics of a Public Building\\|publisher\\= Winnipeg: Hyperion Press\\|page\\= 119}} A different design of a much younger, standing Victoria was created for the [Royal Victoria Infirmary](/wiki/Royal_Victoria_Infirmary \"Royal Victoria Infirmary\") in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1906 and was unveiled by her son King [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII \"Edward VII\") in the same year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.northumbria.info/Pages/VictoriaRVI.html\\|title\\=Queen Victoria (1906\\) Sculptor: George Frampton\\|website\\=northumbria.info\\|access\\-date\\=13 October 2020}}\n[thumb\\|Peter Pan statue in Kensington Gardens, London](/wiki/File:Peter_Pan_statue_in_Kensington_Gardens_in_the_City_of_Westminster_in_London%2C_spring_2013_%2814%29.JPG \"Peter Pan statue in Kensington Gardens in the City of Westminster in London, spring 2013 (14).JPG\")\nAmong Frampton's other notable public sculptures are the figures of [Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan \"Peter Pan\") playing a set of pipes, the lions at the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\") and the [Edith Cavell Memorial](/wiki/Edith_Cavell_Memorial \"Edith Cavell Memorial\") that stands outside the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28London%29 \"National Portrait Gallery (London)\"), London.",
"Frampton's original [statue of Peter Pan](/wiki/Peter_Pan_statue \"Peter Pan statue\") in [Kensington Gardens](/wiki/Kensington_Gardens \"Kensington Gardens\"), London, was commissioned by [J.M. Barrie](/wiki/J.M._Barrie \"J.M. Barrie\") in 1912\\. Barrie was said to be disappointed at Frampton's depiction of Peter Pan, in particular at his choice of model for the figure of the boy.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art\\-artists/name/george\\-frampton\\-ra\\|title\\=Sir George Frampton RA (1860–1928\\)\\|website\\=The Royal Academy of Arts\\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2020}} However such was the popularity of the statue, six more casts were made which are now situated in:\n* [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), Western Australia, Australia\n* Parc d'Egmont, Brussels, Belgium\n* [Bowring Park, St. John's](/wiki/Bowring_Park%2C_St._John%27s \"Bowring Park, St. John's\"), Newfoundland, Canada\n* [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), Canada\n* [Sefton Park](/wiki/Sefton_Park \"Sefton Park\"), Liverpool, England\n* [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey \"Camden, New Jersey\"), United States.",
"By March 1905, [Aston Webb](/wiki/Aston_Webb \"Aston Webb\"), the architect of the [Cromwell Road](/wiki/Cromwell_Road \"Cromwell Road\") extension to the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum \"Victoria and Albert Museum\") had commissioned over twenty sculptors to provide statues, carvings and decorations for the facade of the building. Webb allocated what he considered the two most important areas to Frampton and [Alfred Drury](/wiki/Alfred_Drury \"Alfred Drury\"). The area over the main entrance arch was allocated to Frampton who created [spandrel](/wiki/Spandrel \"Spandrel\") figures of *Truth* and *Beauty* for the space while the remainder of the main entrance was assigned to Drury.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/a\\-grand\\-entrance\\-on\\-cromwell\\-road\\|title\\=A grand entrance on Cromwell Road\\|website\\=Victoria \\& Albert Museum\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2020}}",
"A number of Frampton's works can be seen at the restored [St James' Church, Warter](/wiki/St_James%27_Church%2C_Warter \"St James' Church, Warter\") in East Yorkshire. Frampton created [Dr Barnardo's Memorial](/wiki/Dr_Barnardo%27s_Memorial \"Dr Barnardo's Memorial\"), in [Barkingside](/wiki/Barkingside \"Barkingside\"), London, in 1908, a work he undertook without claiming a fee.{{NHLE\\|num\\=1081001\\|desc\\=Dr Barnardo's Memorial at Barnardo's\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2020}}",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") Frampton used his position in various art societies and institutions to expel any German members he considered potential \"enemy aliens\". When the [Art Workers Guild](/wiki/Art_Workers_Guild \"Art Workers Guild\") refused to expel Karl Krall, a British citizen born in Germany, Frampton resigned from the Guild. In 1915, Frampton was commissioned to create a public memorial to [Edith Cavell](/wiki/Edith_Cavell \"Edith Cavell\"). Having waived his fee for the work, Frampton's modernist style monument in marble and granite was unveiled to huge crowds near [Trafalgar Square](/wiki/Trafalgar_Square \"Trafalgar Square\") in central London during 1920\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.artuk.org/discover/stories/edith\\-cavell\\-commemorating\\-the\\-nurse\\-who\\-became\\-a\\-first\\-world\\-war\\-heroine\\|title\\=Edith Cavell: commemorating the nurse who became a First World War heroine\\|author\\=Lydia Figes\\|date\\=17 March 2020\\|website\\= Art UK\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2020}} The severe, modern appearance of the memorial is distinct from Frampton's earlier, more heroic style of Boer War memorials and was criticised as such.{{cite book\\|author\\=Alan Borg\\|title\\= War memorials: From Antiquity to the Present\\| publisher\\=Leo Cooper\\|year\\=1991\\|author\\-link\\=Alan Borg\\|isbn\\=085052363X}} Several contemporary sculptors also criticised the design and the engineering of the monument.\n[thumb\\|Sir George James Frampton in 1915](/wiki/File:Sir_George_James_Frampton%2C_RA_%2818_June_1860_%E2%80%93_21_May_1928%29_in_1915_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Sir George James Frampton, RA (18 June 1860 – 21 May 1928) in 1915 (cropped).jpg\")\nFrampton subsequently worked with [Sir Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens \"Edwin Lutyens\") on two of the architect's war memorials in the aftermath of the First World War, the [Hove War Memorial](/wiki/Hove_War_Memorial \"Hove War Memorial\") in East Sussex and the [Fordham War Memorial](/wiki/Fordham_War_Memorial \"Fordham War Memorial\") in Cambridgeshire, unveiled in February and August 1921 respectively. Both feature a bronze statue of Saint George, sculpted by Frampton atop a column designed by Lutyens.{{NHLE\\|num\\=1187556\\|desc\\= Hove War Memorial\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2020}}",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Don Harvey's scientist parents withdraw him from his [high school](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school") in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico") in the middle of the term so that he can join them on [Mars](/wiki/Mars "Mars"). The headmaster suggests that they want him out of a potential war zone, where he might be viewed suspiciously because of doubts about his loyalties. At his parents' behest, he visits an old family friend who asks him to deliver a ring to his father; security forces later arrest both of them. Harvey is released and given his ring back, after it has been examined; he is told that his friend has died of "heart failure". Only later does he realize that *all* deaths can be described that way.
Harvey boards a shuttle to a [space station](/wiki/Space_station "Space station") orbiting Earth. The station doubles as a [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment "Transshipment") terminus and a military base, armed with missiles to keep restive nations in check. On the trip up, he befriends another passenger, a [Venerian](/wiki/Venus "Venus") "dragon" calling himself "Sir Isaac Newton". Sir Isaac, a renowned physicist, can vocalize English using a portable device.
Harvey gets caught up in the Venerian war of independence when colonial forces capture the station in a surprise raid. Most of the other travelers are sent back to Earth, while a few decide to join the rebels. Harvey is in a quandary. The spaceship to Mars has been confiscated, but he remains determined to get there, by way of Venus if necessary. Because he was born in space, with one parent from Venus and the other from Earth, he claims Venerian citizenship; more importantly, Sir Isaac vouches for him. He is allowed to tag along, which turns out to be very fortunate for Harvey. The rebels blow up the station to stir up trouble for the Earth government. When the shuttle returns to Earth with its radios disabled, the military assumes it has been booby\-trapped and destroys it, killing all aboard.
On his arrival on Venus, Harvey finds that his Earth\-backed money is now worthless. A banker lends him money, telling him to [pay it forward](/wiki/Pay_it_forward "Pay it forward"). He gets a job washing dishes for his keep for Charlie, a Chinese immigrant who runs a small restaurant. He befriends a young woman, Isobel, when he tries to send a message to his parents. However, communication with Mars has been cut due to the hostilities. Harvey settles in to wait out the war, but the war comes to him.
Earth sends a force to put down the rebellion on Venus. The Venerian ships are destroyed in orbit and the ground forces are routed. Charlie is killed resisting the occupying soldiers. Harvey is rounded up and questioned by a senior security officer, who is very eager to get his hands on Harvey's ring. Luckily, Harvey had given it to Isobel for safekeeping; he does not know where she is or whether she is even alive. Before he can be interrogated with drugs, he escapes and joins the Venerian guerrilla forces.
Harvey joins the army of the Republic and becomes an effective commando. In time, he is tracked down by the leaders of the resistance, who are also looking for the ring. Isobel and her father (an important member of the rebels) are safe at the very base where Harvey is taken.
The seemingly valueless ring turns out to contain the secret of scientific breakthroughs resulting from archaeological studies of an extinct alien civilization on Mars. With Sir Isaac's assistance, the rebels use the information to build an advanced spaceship that is much faster than any other vessel in existence, with revolutionary weapons and defenses also derived from the new technology. As a combat veteran, Harvey is recruited for the maiden voyage of *Little David*, manning a [dead man's switch](/wiki/Dead_man%27s_switch "Dead man's switch") with strict orders to blow up the ship if it is in danger of capture. *Little David* intercepts and defeats a task force of warships on their way to Mars to crush the revolt there.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Don Harvey's scientist parents withdraw him from his [high school](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\") in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\") in the middle of the term so that he can join them on [Mars](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\"). The headmaster suggests that they want him out of a potential war zone, where he might be viewed suspiciously because of doubts about his loyalties. At his parents' behest, he visits an old family friend who asks him to deliver a ring to his father; security forces later arrest both of them. Harvey is released and given his ring back, after it has been examined; he is told that his friend has died of \"heart failure\". Only later does he realize that *all* deaths can be described that way.",
"Harvey boards a shuttle to a [space station](/wiki/Space_station \"Space station\") orbiting Earth. The station doubles as a [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment \"Transshipment\") terminus and a military base, armed with missiles to keep restive nations in check. On the trip up, he befriends another passenger, a [Venerian](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") \"dragon\" calling himself \"Sir Isaac Newton\". Sir Isaac, a renowned physicist, can vocalize English using a portable device.",
"Harvey gets caught up in the Venerian war of independence when colonial forces capture the station in a surprise raid. Most of the other travelers are sent back to Earth, while a few decide to join the rebels. Harvey is in a quandary. The spaceship to Mars has been confiscated, but he remains determined to get there, by way of Venus if necessary. Because he was born in space, with one parent from Venus and the other from Earth, he claims Venerian citizenship; more importantly, Sir Isaac vouches for him. He is allowed to tag along, which turns out to be very fortunate for Harvey. The rebels blow up the station to stir up trouble for the Earth government. When the shuttle returns to Earth with its radios disabled, the military assumes it has been booby\\-trapped and destroys it, killing all aboard.",
"On his arrival on Venus, Harvey finds that his Earth\\-backed money is now worthless. A banker lends him money, telling him to [pay it forward](/wiki/Pay_it_forward \"Pay it forward\"). He gets a job washing dishes for his keep for Charlie, a Chinese immigrant who runs a small restaurant. He befriends a young woman, Isobel, when he tries to send a message to his parents. However, communication with Mars has been cut due to the hostilities. Harvey settles in to wait out the war, but the war comes to him.",
"Earth sends a force to put down the rebellion on Venus. The Venerian ships are destroyed in orbit and the ground forces are routed. Charlie is killed resisting the occupying soldiers. Harvey is rounded up and questioned by a senior security officer, who is very eager to get his hands on Harvey's ring. Luckily, Harvey had given it to Isobel for safekeeping; he does not know where she is or whether she is even alive. Before he can be interrogated with drugs, he escapes and joins the Venerian guerrilla forces.",
"Harvey joins the army of the Republic and becomes an effective commando. In time, he is tracked down by the leaders of the resistance, who are also looking for the ring. Isobel and her father (an important member of the rebels) are safe at the very base where Harvey is taken.",
"The seemingly valueless ring turns out to contain the secret of scientific breakthroughs resulting from archaeological studies of an extinct alien civilization on Mars. With Sir Isaac's assistance, the rebels use the information to build an advanced spaceship that is much faster than any other vessel in existence, with revolutionary weapons and defenses also derived from the new technology. As a combat veteran, Harvey is recruited for the maiden voyage of *Little David*, manning a [dead man's switch](/wiki/Dead_man%27s_switch \"Dead man's switch\") with strict orders to blow up the ship if it is in danger of capture. *Little David* intercepts and defeats a task force of warships on their way to Mars to crush the revolt there.",
""
] |
Theory and instrumentation
--------------------------
### Raman\-NSOM
There are two modes for the operation of NSOM technique,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.481382\|title\=Scanning near\-field optical microscopy with aperture probes: Fundamentals and applications\|date\=2000\|last1\=Hecht\|first1\=Bert\|last2\=Sick\|first2\=Beate\|last3\=Wild\|first3\=Urs P.\|last4\=Deckert\|first4\=Volker\|last5\=Zenobi\|first5\=Renato\|last6\=Martin\|first6\=Olivier J. F.\|last7\=Pohl\|first7\=Dieter W.\|journal\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\|volume\=112\|issue\=18\|pages\=7761\|bibcode \= 2000JChPh.112\.7761H \|url\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164875}} with and without an aperture. These two mode have also been combined with the near\-field Raman spectroscopy.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1002/jrs.909 \|title\=Development of a combined confocal and scanning near\-field Raman microscope for deep UV laser excitation \|date\=2002 \|display\-authors\=8 \|last1\=Sands \|first1\=H. S. \|last2\=Demangeot \|first2\=F. \|last3\=Bonera \|first3\=E.\|last4\=Webster \|first4\=S. \|last5\=Bennett \|first5\=R. \|last6\=Hayward \|first6\=I. P. \|last7\=Marchi \|first7\=F. \|last8\=Smith \|first8\=D. A. \|last9\=Batchelder \|first9\=D. N. \|journal\=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy\|volume\=33 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=730–739 \|bibcode\=2002JRSp...33\..730S}}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevB.73\.045416\|title\=Near\-field Raman scattering investigation of tip effects on C60 molecules \|date\=2006 \|last1\=Verma \|first1\=Prabhat \|last2\=Yamada \|first2\=Kohei \|last3\=Watanabe \|first3\=Hiroyuki \|last4\=Inouye \|first4\=Yasushi \|last5\=Kawata \|first5\=Satoshi \|journal\=Physical Review B \|volume\=73 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=045416 \|bibcode\=2006PhRvB..73d5416V}} The near\-field aperture must be nanosized that complicates the probe manufacturing process.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1364/OL.20\.000970\|title\=Scanning near\-field optical probe with ultrasmall spot size \|date\=1995 \|last1\=Novotny \|first1\=L. \|last2\=Pohl \|first2\=D. W. \|last3\=Hecht \|first3\=B. \|journal\=Optics Letters \|volume\=20 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=970 \|pmid\=19859393 \|bibcode\=1995OptL...20\..970N}} Also, the aperture method usually has a very weak signal due to weak excitation and Raman scattering signal. Overall, these factors lower the signal\-to\-noise ratio in aperature based NSOM/Raman technique. Apertureless probes are based on a metal\-coated tip and provide a stronger signal.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1039/B708839F \|title\=Single\-molecule and single\-nanoparticle SERS: From fundamental mechanisms to biomedical applications\|date\=2008\|last1\=Qian\|first1\=X.\-M.\|last2\=Nie\|first2\=S. M.\|journal\=Chemical Society Reviews\|volume\=37\|issue\=5\|pages\=912–20\|pmid\=18443676 }}
#### Aperture\-based detection
Although the apertureless mode is more promising than the aperture mode, the latter is more widely used because of easier instrumental setup and operation. To obtain a high resolution Raman micrograph/spectrum, the following conditions should be met: (1\) the size of the aperture must be on the order of the wavelength of the excitation light. (2\) The distance from the tip of the probe to the sample must be smaller than excitation wavelength. (3\) The instrument must remain stable over a long time. An important AFM feature is the ability to accurately control the distance between the sample and probe tip, which is the reason why the AFM\-Raman combination is preferred for realizing Raman\-NSOM.
#### Apertureless mode
The main drawback of the aperture mode is that the small aperture size reduces the signal intensity and is difficult to fabricate. Recently, researchers have focused on the apertureless mode, which utilizes SPR theory to produce stronger signals. There are two techniques supporting this mode: SERS and TERS.
##### TERS technique
[right\|animation for TERS](/wiki/File:KLSBAnimation.gif "KLSBAnimation.gif")
Theory and instrumentation of Raman/AFM and IR/AFM combine the theory of SPR (AFM and NSOM) and Raman scattering, and this combination is based on TERS. In TERS, the electric field of excitation source induces an SPR in the tip of the probe. If the electric field vector of the incidence light is perpendicular ([s\-polarized](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 "Polarization (waves)")) to the metal tip axis, the free electrons are driven to the sides lateral of the tip. If it is parallel (p\-polarized) to the tip axis, the free electrons on the surface of the metal are confined to the end of the apex of tip. As a consequence, there is a very large electric\-field enhancement which is sensed by the molecules close to it leading to a stronger signal.
A typical approach in a TERS experiment is to focus the laser beam on a metal tip with the light polarized along the tip axis, followed by collection of the surface\-enhanced Raman scattered light from the sample in the enhancement zone of the tip using optics.
Depending on the sample and experiment, different illumination geometries have been applied in TERS experiments, as shown in figure 4\. With p\-polarized (parallel to the surface normal) incidence light, the plasmon excitation at the tip is most efficient. If the focusing [objective lens](/wiki/Objective_%28optics%29 "Objective (optics)") is also used for collecting the scattered photons (backscattering geometry), the optimum angle is around 55° with respect to the surface normal. This is because the scattering lobe is maximum with this configuration and it provides a much enhanced signal.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevB.24\.3276\|title\=Surface plasmons confined by microstructures on tunnel junctions\|date\=1981\|last1\=Rendell\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Scalapino\|first2\=D.\|journal\=Physical Review B\|volume\=24\|issue\=6\|pages\=3276–3294\|bibcode \= 1981PhRvB..24\.3276R }} The setup of figure 4(A) is usually used for the large thick samples. Setup (B) handles semi\-transparent or transparent samples, such as single cells, tissue samples and biopolymers. The setup of figure 4(C) is preferred for opaque samples because all the light would be focused by the [parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector").
| [center\|240px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_2.jpg "KLSBFig 2.jpg") | [center\|250px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_3.jpg "KLSBFig 3.jpg") | [center\|260px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_4.jpg "KLSBFig 4.jpg") |
| Figure 2\. [S\- and p\-polarization](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 "Polarization (waves)") with laser excitation.AFM\-microRaman and nanoRamanTM | Figure 3\. TERS setup using the back\-excitation mode. | Figure 4\. TERS setup: (A) side illumination (p polarized); (B) in\-line illumination (objective, s\-polarized); (C) in\-line illumination ([parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector")). |
##### Comparison of TERS and SERS
Both TERS and SERS rely on a localized surface plasmon for increasing the ought\-to\-be weak Raman signal.\[What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot] Satoshi Kawata Department of Applied Physics, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka and RIKEN, Wako, Saitama, Japan The only difference between them is that the sample in SERS has a rough surface that hinders application of a sharp AFM\-like tip. TERS, on the other hand, uses a metal\-coated tip having some roughness at nanoscale.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1038/nphoton.2009\.111\|title\=Plasmonics for near\-field nano\-imaging and superlensing\|date\=2009\|last1\=Kawata\|first1\=Satoshi\|last2\=Inouye\|first2\=Yasushi\|last3\=Verma\|first3\=Prabhat\|journal\=Nature Photonics\|volume\=3\|issue\=7\|pages\=388–394\|bibcode\=2009NaPho...3\..388K}}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1038/nphoton.2009\.74\|title\=Pressure\-assisted tip\-enhanced Raman imaging at a resolution of a few nanometres\|date\=2009\|last1\=Yano\|first1\=Taka\-aki\|last2\=Verma\|first2\=Prabhat\|last3\=Saito\|first3\=Yuika\|last4\=Ichimura\|first4\=Taro\|last5\=Kawata\|first5\=Satoshi\|journal\=Nature Photonics\|volume\=3\|issue\=8\|pages\=473–477\|bibcode \= 2009NaPho...3\..473Y \|s2cid\=54837097}} The “hot spot” theory{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.92\.220801\|title\=Tip\-Enhanced Coherent Anti\-Stokes Raman Scattering for Vibrational Nanoimaging\|date\=2004\|last1\=Ichimura\|first1\=Taro\|last2\=Hayazawa\|first2\=Norihiko\|last3\=Hashimoto\|first3\=Mamoru\|last4\=Inouye\|first4\=Yasushi\|last5\=Kawata\|first5\=Satoshi\|journal\=Physical Review Letters\|volume\=92\|issue\=22\|bibcode\=2004PhRvL..92v0801I\|pmid\=15245207\|page\=220801\|s2cid\=29726570}} is very popular in explaining the large enhancement in the signal. That is, the signal from “hot spots” on the surface of the sample dominates the total signal from the sample.Pettinger B．*Topics Appl. Phys.*, **103**, 217–240 (2006\) This is also reinforced by the fact that the distance between nanoparticles and sample is an important factor in obtaining high Raman signal.
#### Raman/AFM instrumentation
[thumb\|Figure 5\. TERS system combining AFM and Raman scattering.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_5.jpg "KLSBFig 5.jpg")
The Raman/AFM technique has two approaches: aperture and apertureless, and the apertureless mode is realized with SERS and TERS. Figure 5 is the example of an integrated TERS system. It shows that there are five main components for a whole integrated TERS (apertureless) system. These components are: microscope, one objective lens, one integrated AFM head, a Raman spectrometer and a CCD. The laser is focused on the sample, on piezo\-stage and the AFM tip by the moving the laser beam along the tip. The movement of the laser beam is achieved by the mirror in the top left corner. The XYZ piezo\-stage in the left bottom holds the sample. In this design, the laser beam is focused on the sample through an objective lens, and the scattered light is collected by the same lens.
This setup utilizes a low contact\-pressure to reduce the damage to the AFM tip and sample. The laser power is typically below 1 mW. The notch filter can filter [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering "Rayleigh scattering") from the excitation laser light from the back of the cantilever. The laser beam is focused on the apex of the gold\-coated AFM tip and the sample. The laser scanning is completed by the moving the mirror across the approaching tip. A small enhance in background occurs when the laser spot focuses on the tip area. The movement of the XYZ piezo\-stage finishes the sample scanning. The wide red signal is Raman signal which is collected through the objective lens. The same lens is also used for excitation of the sample and collecting the Raman signal.
### NSOM/FTIR, AFM/FTIR and AFM\-IR
Because of the diffraction limit in the resolution of conventional lens\-based microscopes, namely D \= 0\.61*λ*/nsinθ,L. Rayleigh, *Phil. Mag.*. **8**, 261–274 (1879\) the maximum resolution obtainable with an optical microscope is \~200 nm. A new type of lens using multiple scattering of light allowed to improve the resolution to about 100 nm.{{cite journal\|author\=E.G. van Putten\|author2\=D. Akbulut\|author3\=J. Bertolotti\|author4\= W.L. Vos\|author5\=A. Lagendijk\|author6\=A.P. Mosk\|name\-list\-style\=amp\|arxiv\=1103\.3643\|date\=2011\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\.193905\|title\=Scattering Lens Resolves Sub\-100 nm Structures with Visible Light\|journal\=Physical Review Letters\|volume\=106\|issue\=19\|bibcode\=2011PhRvL.106s3905V\|pmid\=21668161\|page\=193905\|s2cid\=15793849}} Several new microscopy techniques with a sub\-nanometer resolution have been developed in the last several decades, such as electron microscopy ([SEM](/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope "Scanning electron microscope") and [TEM](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy "Transmission electron microscopy")) and scanning probe microscopy (NSOM, STM and AFM). SPM differs from other techniques in that the excitation and signal collection are very close (less than diffraction limit distance) to the sample. Instead of using a conventional lens to obtain magnified images of samples, an SPM scans across the sample with a very sharp probe. Whereas SEM and TEM usually require vacuum and an extensive sample preparation, SPM measurements can be performed in atmospheric or liquid conditions.
Despite the achievable resolution of atomic scale for AFM and NSOM techniques, it does not provide chemical information of the sample. The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers molecular vibrations which can characterize chemical bonding within the sample.R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler, T. C. Morill, *Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, 5th edition*, Wiley, New York (1991\) {{ISBN\|0\-471\-39362\-2}}
By combining SPM and vibrational spectroscopy, AFM/IR\-NSOM and [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") have emerged as useful characterization tools that integrate the high spatial resolution abilities of AFM with IR spectroscopy.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1366/0003702991947379\|title\=Photothermal FT\-IR Spectroscopy: A Step Towards FT\-IR Microscopy at a Resolution Better Than the Diffraction Limit \|date\=1999 \|last1\=Hammiche \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Pollock \|first2\=H. M. \|last3\=Reading\|first3\=M. \|last4\=Claybourn \|first4\=M. \|last5\=Turner \|first5\=P. H.\|last6\=Jewkes \|first6\=K. \|journal\=Applied Spectroscopy \|volume\=53 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=810–815 \|bibcode\=1999ApSpe..53\..810H\|s2cid\=93359289 }}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1116/1\.591381 \|title\=Highly localized thermal, mechanical, and spectroscopic characterization of polymers using miniaturized thermal probes\|date\=2000 \|display\-authors\=8 \|last1\=Hammiche \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Bozec \|first2\=L. \|last3\=Conroy\|first3\=M. \|last4\=Pollock \|first4\=H. M. \|last5\=Mills \|first5\=G. \|last6\=Weaver \|first6\=J. M. R. \|last7\=Price \|first7\=D. M. \|last8\=Reading \|first8\=M. \|last9\=Hourston \|first9\=D. J. \|journal\=Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B\|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=1322 \|bibcode\=2000JVSTB..18\.1322H\|s2cid\=55856483}}{{cite journal\|author\=Julien Houel \|display\-authors\=etal \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.99\.217404 \|title\=Ultraweak\-Absorption Microscopy of a Single Semiconductor Quantum Dot in the Midinfrared Range\|date\=2007\|journal\=Physical Review Letters \|volume\=99 \|issue\=21 \|bibcode\=2007PhRvL..99u7404H \|pmid\=18233255 \|pages\=217404\|s2cid\=13225150 }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/OE.17\.010887 \|title\=Midinfrared absorption measured at a λ/400 resolution with an atomic force microscope\|date\=2009\|last1\=Houel \|first1\=Julien \|last2\=Homeyer \|first2\=Estelle\|last3\=Sauvage \|first3\=SéBastien\|last4\=Boucaud \|first4\=Philippe \|last5\=Dazzi \|first5\=Alexandre \|last6\=Prazeres \|first6\=Rui \|last7\=Ortéga \|first7\=Jean\-Michel \|journal\=Optics Express\|volume\=17\|issue\=13\|pages\=10887–94\|pmid\=19550489\|bibcode\=2009OExpr..1710887H\|s2cid\=120639500\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/j.bpj.2009\.06\.013\|title\=Tracking Molecular Interactions in Membranes by Simultaneous ATR\-FTIR\-AFM\|date\=2009\|last1\=Verity\|first1\=Jocelyne E.\|last2\=Chhabra\|first2\=Neetu \|last3\=Sinnathamby\|first3\=Koneswaran\|last4\=Yip\|first4\=Christopher M.\|journal\=Biophysical Journal\|volume\=97\|issue\=4\|pages\=1225–1231 \|pmid\=19686671\|pmc\=2726332\|bibcode \= 2009BpJ....97\.1225V }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1088/0957\-4484/21/18/185705 \|title\=High\-sensitivity nanometer\-scale infrared spectroscopy using a contact mode microcantilever with an internal resonator paddle \|date\=2010\|last1\=Kjoller\|first1\=K\|last2\=Felts\|first2\=J R\|last3\=Cook\|first3\=D\|last4\=Prater\|first4\=C B\|last5\=King \|first5\=W P \|journal\=Nanotechnology \|volume\=21 \|issue\=18 \|pages\=185705 \|pmid\=20388971 \|bibcode\=2010Nanot..21r5705K\|s2cid\=27042137 }}Craig Prater, Kevin Kjoller, Debra Cook, Roshan Shetty, Gregory Meyers, Carl Reinhardt, Jonathan Felts, William King, Konstantin Vodopyanov and Alexandre Dazzi, [Nanoscale Infrared Spectroscopy of Materials by Atomic Force Microscopy](http://www.microscopy-analysis.com/files/jwiley_microscopy/2010_April_Prater.pdf){{dead link\|date\=July 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} *Microscopy and Analysis*, **24**, 5–8 (2010\){{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/BOE.2\.000037\|title\=Sub\-wavelength infrared imaging of lipids\|date\=2010\|last1\=Yarrow\|first1\=Fiona\|last2\=Kennedy\|first2\=Eamonn\|last3\=Salaun\|first3\=Frederic\|last4\=Rice\|first4\=James H.\|journal\=Biomedical Optics Express\|volume\=2\|pages\=37–43\|pmid\=21326633\|issue\=1\|pmc\=3028496}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ruggeri\|first1\=Francesco Simone\|last2\=Mannini\|first2\=Benedetta\|last3\=Schmid\|first3\=Roman\|last4\=Vendruscolo\|first4\=Michele\|last5\=Knowles\|first5\=Tuomas P. J.\|date\=2020\-06\-10\|title\=Single molecule secondary structure determination of proteins through infrared absorption nanospectroscopy\|journal\=Nature Communications\|language\=en\|volume\=11\|issue\=1\|pages\=2945\|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-020\-16728\-1 \|pmid\=32522983 \| pmc\=7287102 \|bibcode\=2020NatCo..11\.2945R \|issn\=2041\-1723}} This new technique can be referred to as AFM\-FTIR, AFM\-IR and NSOM/FTIR. AFM and NSOM can be used to detect the response when a modulated infrared radiation generated by an FTIR spectrometer is absorbed by a material. In the [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") technique the absorption of the radiation by sample will cause a rapid thermal expansion wave which will be transferred to the vibrational modes of the AFM cantilever. Specifically, thermal expansion wave induces a vertical displacement of the ATM tip (Figure 6\).{{cite journal\|title\=Nanoscale optical imaging by atomic force infrared microscopy\|doi\=10\.1039/b9nr00279k\|date\=2010\|last1\=Rice\|first1\=James H.\|journal\=Nanoscale\|volume\=2\|issue\=5\|pages\=660–7\|pmid\=20648306\|bibcode \= 2010Nanos...2\..660R \|url\=http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/4463/1/nanoscale2010\_rev.pdf\|hdl\=10197/4463}} A local IR absorption spectrum then can be obtained through the measurement of the amplitude of the cantilever, which is a function of the IR source wavelength. For example, when the radiation laser wavelength is tuned at the resonance frequency with the vibrational absorption frequency of the sample, the displacement intensity of the cantilever will increase until the laser wavelength reaches the maximum of sample absorption. The displacement of the cantilever will then be reduced as the laser wavelength is tuned past the absorption maximum. This approach can map chemical composition beyond the diffraction\-limit resolution and can also provide three\-dimensional topographic, thermal and mechanical information at the nanoscale. Overall, it overcomes the resolution limit of traditional IR spectroscopy and adds chemical and mechanical mapping to the AFM and NSOM.
[thumb\|Figure 6\. Schematic diagram of surface deformation effects creating displacement of cantilever](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_6.jpg "KLSBFig 6.jpg")
#### Infrared light source
The ideal IR source should be monochromatic and tunable within a wide range of wavelength. According to *T* ∝*d*4/*λ*4, where *T* is the transmission coefficient, *d* the aperture diameter and *λ* is wavelength, the aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR transmission is even more limited due to the long infrared wavelength;{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.66\.163\|title\=Theory of Diffraction by Small Holes\|date\=1944\|last1\=Bethe\|first1\=H.\|journal\=Physical Review\|volume\=66\|issue\=7–8\|pages\=163–182\|bibcode \= 1944PhRv...66\..163B }}C. J. Bouwkamp, *Philips Res. Rep.*, **5**, 321–332 (1950\) therefore, an intense IR source is needed to offset the low transmission through the optical fiber. The common bright IR light sources are the [free\-electron laser](/wiki/Free-electron_laser "Free-electron laser") (FEL), color\-center lasers, [CO2 lasers](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_laser "Carbon dioxide laser") and [laser diodes](/wiki/Laser_diode "Laser diode"). FEL is an excellent IR source, with 2–20 μm spectral range,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.121739\|title\=Free\-electron\-laser near\-field nanospectroscopy\|date\=1998\|last1\=Cricenti\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Generosi\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Perfetti\|first3\=P.\|last4\=Gilligan\|first4\=J. M.\|last5\=Tolk\|first5\=N. H.\|last6\=Coluzza\|first6\=C.\|last7\=Margaritondo\|first7\=G.\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=73\|issue\=2\|pages\=151\|bibcode \= 1998ApPhL..73\..151C }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/S0168\-583X(98\)00293\-6\|title\=Activities of the CLIO infrared facility\|date\=1998\|last1\=Glotin\|first1\=F\|journal\=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms\|volume\=144\|issue\=1–4\|pages\=8–17\|bibcode \= 1998NIMPB.144\....8G }} short pulses (picosecond) and high average power (0\.1\-1 W). Alternately, a tabletop picosecond [optical parametric oscillator](/wiki/Optical_parametric_oscillator "Optical parametric oscillator") (OPO) can be used which is less expensive, but has a limited tunability and a lower power\-output.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/OL.31\.002344\|title\=Generation of a squeezed vacuum resonant on a rubidium D1 line with periodically poled KTiOPO4\|date\=2006\|last1\=Tanimura\|first1\=Takahito\|last2\=Akamatsu\|first2\=Daisuke\|last3\=Yokoi\|first3\=Yoshihiko\|last4\=Furusawa\|first4\=Akira\|last5\=Kozuma\|first5\=Mikio\|journal\=Optics Letters\|volume\=31\|issue\=15\|pages\=2344–6\|pmid\=16832480\|arxiv \= quant\-ph/0603214 \|bibcode \= 2006OptL...31\.2344T \|s2cid\=18700111}}
#### NSOM/FTIR experimental setup
The essence of NSOM/FTIR is that it allows the detection of non\-propagating evanescent waves in the near\-field (less than one wavelength from the sample), thus yielding high spatial resolution. Depending on the detection modes of these non\-propagating evanescent waves, two NSOM/FTIR instrumentations are available: apertureless NSOM/FTIR and aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR.
Aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR
In aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR, the probe is a waveguide with a tapered tip with a very small, sub\-wavelength size aperture. When the aperture is brought into the near\-field, it collects the non\-propagating light and guides it to the detector. In general, there are two modes when the aperture is scanned over the sample: illumination mode and collection mode (Figure 7\).
[thumb\|Figure 7\. Schematic diagram of (1\) collection mode and (2\) illumination mode](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_7.jpg "KLSBFig 7.jpg")
The high\-quality infrared fiber tip is very important in realizing NSOM/FTIR technique. There are several types of fibers, such as [sapphire](/wiki/Sapphire "Sapphire"), [chalcogenide glass](/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass "Chalcogenide glass"), [fluoride glass](/wiki/Fluoride_glass "Fluoride glass") and hollow silica guides.Sanghera, J. S., and Aggarwal, I. D., *Infrared Fiber Optics* (Boca Raton; Florida: CRC) 1998 Chalcogenide glasses are widely used because of their high transmittance in the broad IR range of 2–12 μm.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1109/50\.661012\|title\=Fabrication of single\-mode chalcogenide optical fiber\|date\=1998\|last1\=Mossadegh\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Sanghera\|first2\=J.S.\|last3\=Schaafsma\|first3\=D.\|last4\=Cole\|first4\=B.J.\|last5\=Nguyen\|first5\=V.Q.\|last6\=Miklos\|first6\=R.E.\|last7\=Aggarwal\|first7\=I.D.\|journal\=Journal of Lightwave Technology\|volume\=16\|issue\=2\|pages\=214–217 \|bibcode \= 1998JLwT...16\..214M }} The fluoride fibers also exhibit low transmitting losses beyond 3\.0 μm.
Apertureless NSOM/FTIR
The probe is a sharp metal tip ending with a single or a few atoms. The sample is illuminated from [far\-field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field "Near and far field") and the radiation is focused at the contact area between probe and sample. When this tip approaches the sample, usually within 10 nm, the incident electromagnetic field is enhanced due to the resonant surface plasma excitation as well as due to hot\-spots in the sharp tip. The dipole interaction between the tip and sample change the non\-propagating waves into propagating waves by scattering, and a detector collects the signal in the far\-field. An apertureless NSOM/FTIR usually has better resolution (\~5–30 nm) compared with aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR (\~50–150 nm). One main challenge in apertureless NSOM/FTIR is a strong background signal because the scattering is obtained from both near\-field and remote area of the probe. Thus, the small near\-field contribution to the signal has to be extracted from the background. One solution is to use a very flat sample with only optical spatial fluctuation.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.119798\|title\=Infrared near\-field imaging of implanted semiconductors: Evidence of a pure dielectric contrast\|date\=1997\|last1\=Lahrech\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Bachelot\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Gleyzes\|first3\=P.\|last4\=Boccara\|first4\=A. C.\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=71\|issue\=5\|pages\=575\|bibcode \= 1997ApPhL..71\..575L \|s2cid\=11004387\|doi\-access\=free}} Another solution is to apply constant\-height mode scanning or pseudo\-constant\-height mode scanning.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.371126\|title\=Removing optical artifacts in near\-field scanning optical microscopy by using a three\-dimensional scanning mode\|date\=1999\|last1\=Jordan\|first1\=Claire E.\|last2\=Stranick\|first2\=Stephan J.\|last3\=Richter\|first3\=Lee J.\|last4\=Cavanagh\|first4\=Richard R.\|journal\=Journal of Applied Physics\|volume\=86\|issue\=5\|pages\=2785\|bibcode \= 1999JAP....86\.2785J \|url\=https://zenodo.org/record/1232053}}
Experimental scheme of aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR
Figure 8 shows the experimental setup used in NSOM/FTIR in the external reflection mode. FEL source is focused on the sample from the far\-field using a mirror. The distance between the probe and a sample is kept at a few nanometers during scanning.
[thumb\|Figure 8: General NSOM/FTIR setup.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_8.jpg "KLSBFig 8.jpg")
Figure 9 is the cross\-section of a NSOM/FTIR instrument. As shown below, sample is placed on a piezo\-electric tube scanner, in which the x\-y tube has four parts, namely x\+, x\-, y\+ and y\-. Lateral (x\-y plane) oscillation of the fiber tip is induced by applying an AC voltage to a [dither](/wiki/Dither "Dither") piezo\-scanner. Also, the fiber tip is fixed to a bimorph piezo\-scanner so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the tip can be monitored through the scanner.
[thumb\|Figure 9: Cross\-section of NSOM/FTIR{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.1149089\|title\=A multipurpose scanning near\-field optical microscope: Reflectivity and photocurrent on semiconductor and biological samples\|date\=1998\|last1\=Cricenti\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Generosi\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Barchesi\|first3\=C.\|last4\=Luce\|first4\=M.\|last5\=Rinaldi\|first5\=M.\|journal\=Review of Scientific Instruments\|volume\=69\|issue\=9\|pages\=3240\|bibcode \= 1998RScI...69\.3240C }}](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_9.jpg "KLSBFig 9.jpg")
#### AFM\-IR setup
Spatial resolution
The spatial resolution of an [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") instrument is related to the contact area between the probe and sample.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1088/0031\-8949/1987/T19A/010\|title\=Tip Surface Interactions in STM and AFM\|date\=1987\|last1\=Pethica\|first1\=J B\|last2\=Oliver\|first2\=W C\|journal\=Physica Scripta\|volume\=T19A\|pages\=61–66\|bibcode \= 1987PhST...19\...61P \|s2cid\=250806412 }} The contact area is given by *a*3 \= 3*PR*/4*E*\* and 1/*E*\* \= (1\-*n*12)/ *E*1\+ (1\-*n*22)/ *E*2, where *P* is the force employed to the probe, *n*1 and *n*2 represent the Poisson ratios of the sample and probe, respectively, and *E*1 and *E*2 are the elastic moduli of the sample and probe materials respectively.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/0040\-6090(93\)90724\-4\|title\=Step\-scan FT\-IR photothermal spectral depth profiling of polymer films\|date\=1993\|last1\=Palmer\|first1\=R\|last2\=Dittmar\|first2\=R\|journal\=Thin Solid Films\|volume\=223\|issue\=1\|pages\=31–38\|bibcode \= 1993TSF...223\...31P }} Typically, an AFM\-IR has a lateral spatial resolution of 10–400 nm, for example, 100 nm, *λ*/150, and *λ*/400\. Recently, Ruggeri et al. have demonstrated the acquisition of infrared absorption spectra and chemical maps at the single molecule level in the case of protein molecules with ca. 10 nm diameter and a molecular weight of 400 kDa.
Instrumentation
In AFM\-IR, an AFM probe is used to measure the absorption response of the sample to infrared radiation. The general approach for AFM/FTIR is shown in Figure 10\.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1366/0003702001949618\|title\=Infrared Spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope\|date\=2000\|last1\=Anderson\|first1\=Mark S.\|journal\=Applied Spectroscopy\|volume\=54\|issue\=3\|pages\=349–352\|bibcode \= 2000ApSpe..54\..349A \|s2cid\=95187852}}
[thumb\|Figure 10\. General approach used for AFM\-FTIR. The output from the probe resembles an interferogram and is Fourier\-transformed to obtain the infrared absorption spectrum of the sample.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_10.jpg "KLSBFig 10.jpg")
There are a few different experimental setups when the infrared radiation is projected onto the sample as shown below: top, side, and bottom illumination setups (Figure 11\).
[thumb\|Figure 11\. Illumination setups used in AFM/FTIR spectroscopy.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_11.jpg "KLSBFig 11.jpg")
In the first developed setup of [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR%23External_links "AFM-IR#External links"), a sample is mounted onto an infrared\-transparent [zinc selenide](/wiki/Zinc_selenide "Zinc selenide") prism for excitation purposes (Figure 12\), then an optical parametric oscillator (OPO)\-based tunable IR lased is radiated on the molecules to be probed by the instrument. Similar to conventional ATR spectroscopy, IR beam illuminates the sample through total internal reflection mechanism (Figure 12\). The sample will heat up while absorbing radiation which causes a rapid thermal expansion of the sample surface. This expansion will increase the resonant oscillations of the AFM cantilever in a characteristic ringdown pattern (ringdown patterns means the decay of cantilever oscillation exponential in nature). Through Fourier transformation analysis, the signal could be isolated to obtain the amplitudes and frequencies of the oscillations. The amplitudes of the cantilever provide information of local absorption spectra, whereas the oscillation frequencies depend on the mechanical stiffness of the sample (Figure 12\).
[thumb\|Figure 12\. The [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") technique combines AFM with an IR spectrometer as shown in this schematic.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_12.jpg "KLSBFig 12.jpg")
|
[
"Theory and instrumentation\n--------------------------",
"### Raman\\-NSOM",
"There are two modes for the operation of NSOM technique,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.481382\\|title\\=Scanning near\\-field optical microscopy with aperture probes: Fundamentals and applications\\|date\\=2000\\|last1\\=Hecht\\|first1\\=Bert\\|last2\\=Sick\\|first2\\=Beate\\|last3\\=Wild\\|first3\\=Urs P.\\|last4\\=Deckert\\|first4\\=Volker\\|last5\\=Zenobi\\|first5\\=Renato\\|last6\\=Martin\\|first6\\=Olivier J. F.\\|last7\\=Pohl\\|first7\\=Dieter W.\\|journal\\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\\|volume\\=112\\|issue\\=18\\|pages\\=7761\\|bibcode \\= 2000JChPh.112\\.7761H \\|url\\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164875}} with and without an aperture. These two mode have also been combined with the near\\-field Raman spectroscopy.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/jrs.909 \\|title\\=Development of a combined confocal and scanning near\\-field Raman microscope for deep UV laser excitation \\|date\\=2002 \\|display\\-authors\\=8 \\|last1\\=Sands \\|first1\\=H. S. \\|last2\\=Demangeot \\|first2\\=F. \\|last3\\=Bonera \\|first3\\=E.\\|last4\\=Webster \\|first4\\=S. \\|last5\\=Bennett \\|first5\\=R. \\|last6\\=Hayward \\|first6\\=I. P. \\|last7\\=Marchi \\|first7\\=F. \\|last8\\=Smith \\|first8\\=D. A. \\|last9\\=Batchelder \\|first9\\=D. N. \\|journal\\=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy\\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=730–739 \\|bibcode\\=2002JRSp...33\\..730S}}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevB.73\\.045416\\|title\\=Near\\-field Raman scattering investigation of tip effects on C60 molecules \\|date\\=2006 \\|last1\\=Verma \\|first1\\=Prabhat \\|last2\\=Yamada \\|first2\\=Kohei \\|last3\\=Watanabe \\|first3\\=Hiroyuki \\|last4\\=Inouye \\|first4\\=Yasushi \\|last5\\=Kawata \\|first5\\=Satoshi \\|journal\\=Physical Review B \\|volume\\=73 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=045416 \\|bibcode\\=2006PhRvB..73d5416V}} The near\\-field aperture must be nanosized that complicates the probe manufacturing process.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OL.20\\.000970\\|title\\=Scanning near\\-field optical probe with ultrasmall spot size \\|date\\=1995 \\|last1\\=Novotny \\|first1\\=L. \\|last2\\=Pohl \\|first2\\=D. W. \\|last3\\=Hecht \\|first3\\=B. \\|journal\\=Optics Letters \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=970 \\|pmid\\=19859393 \\|bibcode\\=1995OptL...20\\..970N}} Also, the aperture method usually has a very weak signal due to weak excitation and Raman scattering signal. Overall, these factors lower the signal\\-to\\-noise ratio in aperature based NSOM/Raman technique. Apertureless probes are based on a metal\\-coated tip and provide a stronger signal.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1039/B708839F \\|title\\=Single\\-molecule and single\\-nanoparticle SERS: From fundamental mechanisms to biomedical applications\\|date\\=2008\\|last1\\=Qian\\|first1\\=X.\\-M.\\|last2\\=Nie\\|first2\\=S. M.\\|journal\\=Chemical Society Reviews\\|volume\\=37\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=912–20\\|pmid\\=18443676 }}",
"#### Aperture\\-based detection",
"Although the apertureless mode is more promising than the aperture mode, the latter is more widely used because of easier instrumental setup and operation. To obtain a high resolution Raman micrograph/spectrum, the following conditions should be met: (1\\) the size of the aperture must be on the order of the wavelength of the excitation light. (2\\) The distance from the tip of the probe to the sample must be smaller than excitation wavelength. (3\\) The instrument must remain stable over a long time. An important AFM feature is the ability to accurately control the distance between the sample and probe tip, which is the reason why the AFM\\-Raman combination is preferred for realizing Raman\\-NSOM.",
"#### Apertureless mode",
"The main drawback of the aperture mode is that the small aperture size reduces the signal intensity and is difficult to fabricate. Recently, researchers have focused on the apertureless mode, which utilizes SPR theory to produce stronger signals. There are two techniques supporting this mode: SERS and TERS.",
"##### TERS technique",
"[right\\|animation for TERS](/wiki/File:KLSBAnimation.gif \"KLSBAnimation.gif\")\nTheory and instrumentation of Raman/AFM and IR/AFM combine the theory of SPR (AFM and NSOM) and Raman scattering, and this combination is based on TERS. In TERS, the electric field of excitation source induces an SPR in the tip of the probe. If the electric field vector of the incidence light is perpendicular ([s\\-polarized](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 \"Polarization (waves)\")) to the metal tip axis, the free electrons are driven to the sides lateral of the tip. If it is parallel (p\\-polarized) to the tip axis, the free electrons on the surface of the metal are confined to the end of the apex of tip. As a consequence, there is a very large electric\\-field enhancement which is sensed by the molecules close to it leading to a stronger signal.",
"A typical approach in a TERS experiment is to focus the laser beam on a metal tip with the light polarized along the tip axis, followed by collection of the surface\\-enhanced Raman scattered light from the sample in the enhancement zone of the tip using optics.",
"Depending on the sample and experiment, different illumination geometries have been applied in TERS experiments, as shown in figure 4\\. With p\\-polarized (parallel to the surface normal) incidence light, the plasmon excitation at the tip is most efficient. If the focusing [objective lens](/wiki/Objective_%28optics%29 \"Objective (optics)\") is also used for collecting the scattered photons (backscattering geometry), the optimum angle is around 55° with respect to the surface normal. This is because the scattering lobe is maximum with this configuration and it provides a much enhanced signal.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevB.24\\.3276\\|title\\=Surface plasmons confined by microstructures on tunnel junctions\\|date\\=1981\\|last1\\=Rendell\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Scalapino\\|first2\\=D.\\|journal\\=Physical Review B\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=3276–3294\\|bibcode \\= 1981PhRvB..24\\.3276R }} The setup of figure 4(A) is usually used for the large thick samples. Setup (B) handles semi\\-transparent or transparent samples, such as single cells, tissue samples and biopolymers. The setup of figure 4(C) is preferred for opaque samples because all the light would be focused by the [parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\").",
"",
"| [center\\|240px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_2.jpg \"KLSBFig 2.jpg\") | [center\\|250px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_3.jpg \"KLSBFig 3.jpg\") | [center\\|260px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_4.jpg \"KLSBFig 4.jpg\") |",
"| Figure 2\\. [S\\- and p\\-polarization](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 \"Polarization (waves)\") with laser excitation.AFM\\-microRaman and nanoRamanTM | Figure 3\\. TERS setup using the back\\-excitation mode. | Figure 4\\. TERS setup: (A) side illumination (p polarized); (B) in\\-line illumination (objective, s\\-polarized); (C) in\\-line illumination ([parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\")). |",
"##### Comparison of TERS and SERS",
"Both TERS and SERS rely on a localized surface plasmon for increasing the ought\\-to\\-be weak Raman signal.\\[What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot] Satoshi Kawata Department of Applied Physics, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka and RIKEN, Wako, Saitama, Japan The only difference between them is that the sample in SERS has a rough surface that hinders application of a sharp AFM\\-like tip. TERS, on the other hand, uses a metal\\-coated tip having some roughness at nanoscale.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nphoton.2009\\.111\\|title\\=Plasmonics for near\\-field nano\\-imaging and superlensing\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Kawata\\|first1\\=Satoshi\\|last2\\=Inouye\\|first2\\=Yasushi\\|last3\\=Verma\\|first3\\=Prabhat\\|journal\\=Nature Photonics\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=388–394\\|bibcode\\=2009NaPho...3\\..388K}}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nphoton.2009\\.74\\|title\\=Pressure\\-assisted tip\\-enhanced Raman imaging at a resolution of a few nanometres\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Yano\\|first1\\=Taka\\-aki\\|last2\\=Verma\\|first2\\=Prabhat\\|last3\\=Saito\\|first3\\=Yuika\\|last4\\=Ichimura\\|first4\\=Taro\\|last5\\=Kawata\\|first5\\=Satoshi\\|journal\\=Nature Photonics\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=473–477\\|bibcode \\= 2009NaPho...3\\..473Y \\|s2cid\\=54837097}} The “hot spot” theory{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.92\\.220801\\|title\\=Tip\\-Enhanced Coherent Anti\\-Stokes Raman Scattering for Vibrational Nanoimaging\\|date\\=2004\\|last1\\=Ichimura\\|first1\\=Taro\\|last2\\=Hayazawa\\|first2\\=Norihiko\\|last3\\=Hashimoto\\|first3\\=Mamoru\\|last4\\=Inouye\\|first4\\=Yasushi\\|last5\\=Kawata\\|first5\\=Satoshi\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters\\|volume\\=92\\|issue\\=22\\|bibcode\\=2004PhRvL..92v0801I\\|pmid\\=15245207\\|page\\=220801\\|s2cid\\=29726570}} is very popular in explaining the large enhancement in the signal. That is, the signal from “hot spots” on the surface of the sample dominates the total signal from the sample.Pettinger B．*Topics Appl. Phys.*, **103**, 217–240 (2006\\) This is also reinforced by the fact that the distance between nanoparticles and sample is an important factor in obtaining high Raman signal.",
"#### Raman/AFM instrumentation",
"[thumb\\|Figure 5\\. TERS system combining AFM and Raman scattering.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_5.jpg \"KLSBFig 5.jpg\")",
"The Raman/AFM technique has two approaches: aperture and apertureless, and the apertureless mode is realized with SERS and TERS. Figure 5 is the example of an integrated TERS system. It shows that there are five main components for a whole integrated TERS (apertureless) system. These components are: microscope, one objective lens, one integrated AFM head, a Raman spectrometer and a CCD. The laser is focused on the sample, on piezo\\-stage and the AFM tip by the moving the laser beam along the tip. The movement of the laser beam is achieved by the mirror in the top left corner. The XYZ piezo\\-stage in the left bottom holds the sample. In this design, the laser beam is focused on the sample through an objective lens, and the scattered light is collected by the same lens.",
"This setup utilizes a low contact\\-pressure to reduce the damage to the AFM tip and sample. The laser power is typically below 1 mW. The notch filter can filter [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering \"Rayleigh scattering\") from the excitation laser light from the back of the cantilever. The laser beam is focused on the apex of the gold\\-coated AFM tip and the sample. The laser scanning is completed by the moving the mirror across the approaching tip. A small enhance in background occurs when the laser spot focuses on the tip area. The movement of the XYZ piezo\\-stage finishes the sample scanning. The wide red signal is Raman signal which is collected through the objective lens. The same lens is also used for excitation of the sample and collecting the Raman signal.",
"### NSOM/FTIR, AFM/FTIR and AFM\\-IR",
"Because of the diffraction limit in the resolution of conventional lens\\-based microscopes, namely D \\= 0\\.61*λ*/nsinθ,L. Rayleigh, *Phil. Mag.*. **8**, 261–274 (1879\\) the maximum resolution obtainable with an optical microscope is \\~200 nm. A new type of lens using multiple scattering of light allowed to improve the resolution to about 100 nm.{{cite journal\\|author\\=E.G. van Putten\\|author2\\=D. Akbulut\\|author3\\=J. Bertolotti\\|author4\\= W.L. Vos\\|author5\\=A. Lagendijk\\|author6\\=A.P. Mosk\\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp\\|arxiv\\=1103\\.3643\\|date\\=2011\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\\.193905\\|title\\=Scattering Lens Resolves Sub\\-100 nm Structures with Visible Light\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=19\\|bibcode\\=2011PhRvL.106s3905V\\|pmid\\=21668161\\|page\\=193905\\|s2cid\\=15793849}} Several new microscopy techniques with a sub\\-nanometer resolution have been developed in the last several decades, such as electron microscopy ([SEM](/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope \"Scanning electron microscope\") and [TEM](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy \"Transmission electron microscopy\")) and scanning probe microscopy (NSOM, STM and AFM). SPM differs from other techniques in that the excitation and signal collection are very close (less than diffraction limit distance) to the sample. Instead of using a conventional lens to obtain magnified images of samples, an SPM scans across the sample with a very sharp probe. Whereas SEM and TEM usually require vacuum and an extensive sample preparation, SPM measurements can be performed in atmospheric or liquid conditions.",
"Despite the achievable resolution of atomic scale for AFM and NSOM techniques, it does not provide chemical information of the sample. The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers molecular vibrations which can characterize chemical bonding within the sample.R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler, T. C. Morill, *Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, 5th edition*, Wiley, New York (1991\\) {{ISBN\\|0\\-471\\-39362\\-2}}",
"By combining SPM and vibrational spectroscopy, AFM/IR\\-NSOM and [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") have emerged as useful characterization tools that integrate the high spatial resolution abilities of AFM with IR spectroscopy.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1366/0003702991947379\\|title\\=Photothermal FT\\-IR Spectroscopy: A Step Towards FT\\-IR Microscopy at a Resolution Better Than the Diffraction Limit \\|date\\=1999 \\|last1\\=Hammiche \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Pollock \\|first2\\=H. M. \\|last3\\=Reading\\|first3\\=M. \\|last4\\=Claybourn \\|first4\\=M. \\|last5\\=Turner \\|first5\\=P. H.\\|last6\\=Jewkes \\|first6\\=K. \\|journal\\=Applied Spectroscopy \\|volume\\=53 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=810–815 \\|bibcode\\=1999ApSpe..53\\..810H\\|s2cid\\=93359289 }}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1116/1\\.591381 \\|title\\=Highly localized thermal, mechanical, and spectroscopic characterization of polymers using miniaturized thermal probes\\|date\\=2000 \\|display\\-authors\\=8 \\|last1\\=Hammiche \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Bozec \\|first2\\=L. \\|last3\\=Conroy\\|first3\\=M. \\|last4\\=Pollock \\|first4\\=H. M. \\|last5\\=Mills \\|first5\\=G. \\|last6\\=Weaver \\|first6\\=J. M. R. \\|last7\\=Price \\|first7\\=D. M. \\|last8\\=Reading \\|first8\\=M. \\|last9\\=Hourston \\|first9\\=D. J. \\|journal\\=Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B\\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=1322 \\|bibcode\\=2000JVSTB..18\\.1322H\\|s2cid\\=55856483}}{{cite journal\\|author\\=Julien Houel \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.99\\.217404 \\|title\\=Ultraweak\\-Absorption Microscopy of a Single Semiconductor Quantum Dot in the Midinfrared Range\\|date\\=2007\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters \\|volume\\=99 \\|issue\\=21 \\|bibcode\\=2007PhRvL..99u7404H \\|pmid\\=18233255 \\|pages\\=217404\\|s2cid\\=13225150 }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OE.17\\.010887 \\|title\\=Midinfrared absorption measured at a λ/400 resolution with an atomic force microscope\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Houel \\|first1\\=Julien \\|last2\\=Homeyer \\|first2\\=Estelle\\|last3\\=Sauvage \\|first3\\=SéBastien\\|last4\\=Boucaud \\|first4\\=Philippe \\|last5\\=Dazzi \\|first5\\=Alexandre \\|last6\\=Prazeres \\|first6\\=Rui \\|last7\\=Ortéga \\|first7\\=Jean\\-Michel \\|journal\\=Optics Express\\|volume\\=17\\|issue\\=13\\|pages\\=10887–94\\|pmid\\=19550489\\|bibcode\\=2009OExpr..1710887H\\|s2cid\\=120639500\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.bpj.2009\\.06\\.013\\|title\\=Tracking Molecular Interactions in Membranes by Simultaneous ATR\\-FTIR\\-AFM\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Verity\\|first1\\=Jocelyne E.\\|last2\\=Chhabra\\|first2\\=Neetu \\|last3\\=Sinnathamby\\|first3\\=Koneswaran\\|last4\\=Yip\\|first4\\=Christopher M.\\|journal\\=Biophysical Journal\\|volume\\=97\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1225–1231 \\|pmid\\=19686671\\|pmc\\=2726332\\|bibcode \\= 2009BpJ....97\\.1225V }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0957\\-4484/21/18/185705 \\|title\\=High\\-sensitivity nanometer\\-scale infrared spectroscopy using a contact mode microcantilever with an internal resonator paddle \\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Kjoller\\|first1\\=K\\|last2\\=Felts\\|first2\\=J R\\|last3\\=Cook\\|first3\\=D\\|last4\\=Prater\\|first4\\=C B\\|last5\\=King \\|first5\\=W P \\|journal\\=Nanotechnology \\|volume\\=21 \\|issue\\=18 \\|pages\\=185705 \\|pmid\\=20388971 \\|bibcode\\=2010Nanot..21r5705K\\|s2cid\\=27042137 }}Craig Prater, Kevin Kjoller, Debra Cook, Roshan Shetty, Gregory Meyers, Carl Reinhardt, Jonathan Felts, William King, Konstantin Vodopyanov and Alexandre Dazzi, [Nanoscale Infrared Spectroscopy of Materials by Atomic Force Microscopy](http://www.microscopy-analysis.com/files/jwiley_microscopy/2010_April_Prater.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=July 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} *Microscopy and Analysis*, **24**, 5–8 (2010\\){{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/BOE.2\\.000037\\|title\\=Sub\\-wavelength infrared imaging of lipids\\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Yarrow\\|first1\\=Fiona\\|last2\\=Kennedy\\|first2\\=Eamonn\\|last3\\=Salaun\\|first3\\=Frederic\\|last4\\=Rice\\|first4\\=James H.\\|journal\\=Biomedical Optics Express\\|volume\\=2\\|pages\\=37–43\\|pmid\\=21326633\\|issue\\=1\\|pmc\\=3028496}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ruggeri\\|first1\\=Francesco Simone\\|last2\\=Mannini\\|first2\\=Benedetta\\|last3\\=Schmid\\|first3\\=Roman\\|last4\\=Vendruscolo\\|first4\\=Michele\\|last5\\=Knowles\\|first5\\=Tuomas P. J.\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-10\\|title\\=Single molecule secondary structure determination of proteins through infrared absorption nanospectroscopy\\|journal\\=Nature Communications\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=2945\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-020\\-16728\\-1 \\|pmid\\=32522983 \\| pmc\\=7287102 \\|bibcode\\=2020NatCo..11\\.2945R \\|issn\\=2041\\-1723}} This new technique can be referred to as AFM\\-FTIR, AFM\\-IR and NSOM/FTIR. AFM and NSOM can be used to detect the response when a modulated infrared radiation generated by an FTIR spectrometer is absorbed by a material. In the [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") technique the absorption of the radiation by sample will cause a rapid thermal expansion wave which will be transferred to the vibrational modes of the AFM cantilever. Specifically, thermal expansion wave induces a vertical displacement of the ATM tip (Figure 6\\).{{cite journal\\|title\\=Nanoscale optical imaging by atomic force infrared microscopy\\|doi\\=10\\.1039/b9nr00279k\\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Rice\\|first1\\=James H.\\|journal\\=Nanoscale\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=660–7\\|pmid\\=20648306\\|bibcode \\= 2010Nanos...2\\..660R \\|url\\=http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/4463/1/nanoscale2010\\_rev.pdf\\|hdl\\=10197/4463}} A local IR absorption spectrum then can be obtained through the measurement of the amplitude of the cantilever, which is a function of the IR source wavelength. For example, when the radiation laser wavelength is tuned at the resonance frequency with the vibrational absorption frequency of the sample, the displacement intensity of the cantilever will increase until the laser wavelength reaches the maximum of sample absorption. The displacement of the cantilever will then be reduced as the laser wavelength is tuned past the absorption maximum. This approach can map chemical composition beyond the diffraction\\-limit resolution and can also provide three\\-dimensional topographic, thermal and mechanical information at the nanoscale. Overall, it overcomes the resolution limit of traditional IR spectroscopy and adds chemical and mechanical mapping to the AFM and NSOM.",
"[thumb\\|Figure 6\\. Schematic diagram of surface deformation effects creating displacement of cantilever](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_6.jpg \"KLSBFig 6.jpg\")",
"#### Infrared light source",
"The ideal IR source should be monochromatic and tunable within a wide range of wavelength. According to *T* ∝*d*4/*λ*4, where *T* is the transmission coefficient, *d* the aperture diameter and *λ* is wavelength, the aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR transmission is even more limited due to the long infrared wavelength;{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.66\\.163\\|title\\=Theory of Diffraction by Small Holes\\|date\\=1944\\|last1\\=Bethe\\|first1\\=H.\\|journal\\=Physical Review\\|volume\\=66\\|issue\\=7–8\\|pages\\=163–182\\|bibcode \\= 1944PhRv...66\\..163B }}C. J. Bouwkamp, *Philips Res. Rep.*, **5**, 321–332 (1950\\) therefore, an intense IR source is needed to offset the low transmission through the optical fiber. The common bright IR light sources are the [free\\-electron laser](/wiki/Free-electron_laser \"Free-electron laser\") (FEL), color\\-center lasers, [CO2 lasers](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_laser \"Carbon dioxide laser\") and [laser diodes](/wiki/Laser_diode \"Laser diode\"). FEL is an excellent IR source, with 2–20 μm spectral range,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.121739\\|title\\=Free\\-electron\\-laser near\\-field nanospectroscopy\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Cricenti\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Generosi\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Perfetti\\|first3\\=P.\\|last4\\=Gilligan\\|first4\\=J. M.\\|last5\\=Tolk\\|first5\\=N. H.\\|last6\\=Coluzza\\|first6\\=C.\\|last7\\=Margaritondo\\|first7\\=G.\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=73\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=151\\|bibcode \\= 1998ApPhL..73\\..151C }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0168\\-583X(98\\)00293\\-6\\|title\\=Activities of the CLIO infrared facility\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Glotin\\|first1\\=F\\|journal\\=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms\\|volume\\=144\\|issue\\=1–4\\|pages\\=8–17\\|bibcode \\= 1998NIMPB.144\\....8G }} short pulses (picosecond) and high average power (0\\.1\\-1 W). Alternately, a tabletop picosecond [optical parametric oscillator](/wiki/Optical_parametric_oscillator \"Optical parametric oscillator\") (OPO) can be used which is less expensive, but has a limited tunability and a lower power\\-output.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OL.31\\.002344\\|title\\=Generation of a squeezed vacuum resonant on a rubidium D1 line with periodically poled KTiOPO4\\|date\\=2006\\|last1\\=Tanimura\\|first1\\=Takahito\\|last2\\=Akamatsu\\|first2\\=Daisuke\\|last3\\=Yokoi\\|first3\\=Yoshihiko\\|last4\\=Furusawa\\|first4\\=Akira\\|last5\\=Kozuma\\|first5\\=Mikio\\|journal\\=Optics Letters\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=15\\|pages\\=2344–6\\|pmid\\=16832480\\|arxiv \\= quant\\-ph/0603214 \\|bibcode \\= 2006OptL...31\\.2344T \\|s2cid\\=18700111}}",
"#### NSOM/FTIR experimental setup",
"The essence of NSOM/FTIR is that it allows the detection of non\\-propagating evanescent waves in the near\\-field (less than one wavelength from the sample), thus yielding high spatial resolution. Depending on the detection modes of these non\\-propagating evanescent waves, two NSOM/FTIR instrumentations are available: apertureless NSOM/FTIR and aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR.",
"Aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR\nIn aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR, the probe is a waveguide with a tapered tip with a very small, sub\\-wavelength size aperture. When the aperture is brought into the near\\-field, it collects the non\\-propagating light and guides it to the detector. In general, there are two modes when the aperture is scanned over the sample: illumination mode and collection mode (Figure 7\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 7\\. Schematic diagram of (1\\) collection mode and (2\\) illumination mode](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_7.jpg \"KLSBFig 7.jpg\")",
"The high\\-quality infrared fiber tip is very important in realizing NSOM/FTIR technique. There are several types of fibers, such as [sapphire](/wiki/Sapphire \"Sapphire\"), [chalcogenide glass](/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass \"Chalcogenide glass\"), [fluoride glass](/wiki/Fluoride_glass \"Fluoride glass\") and hollow silica guides.Sanghera, J. S., and Aggarwal, I. D., *Infrared Fiber Optics* (Boca Raton; Florida: CRC) 1998 Chalcogenide glasses are widely used because of their high transmittance in the broad IR range of 2–12 μm.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/50\\.661012\\|title\\=Fabrication of single\\-mode chalcogenide optical fiber\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Mossadegh\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Sanghera\\|first2\\=J.S.\\|last3\\=Schaafsma\\|first3\\=D.\\|last4\\=Cole\\|first4\\=B.J.\\|last5\\=Nguyen\\|first5\\=V.Q.\\|last6\\=Miklos\\|first6\\=R.E.\\|last7\\=Aggarwal\\|first7\\=I.D.\\|journal\\=Journal of Lightwave Technology\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=214–217 \\|bibcode \\= 1998JLwT...16\\..214M }} The fluoride fibers also exhibit low transmitting losses beyond 3\\.0 μm.",
"Apertureless NSOM/FTIR\nThe probe is a sharp metal tip ending with a single or a few atoms. The sample is illuminated from [far\\-field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field \"Near and far field\") and the radiation is focused at the contact area between probe and sample. When this tip approaches the sample, usually within 10 nm, the incident electromagnetic field is enhanced due to the resonant surface plasma excitation as well as due to hot\\-spots in the sharp tip. The dipole interaction between the tip and sample change the non\\-propagating waves into propagating waves by scattering, and a detector collects the signal in the far\\-field. An apertureless NSOM/FTIR usually has better resolution (\\~5–30 nm) compared with aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR (\\~50–150 nm). One main challenge in apertureless NSOM/FTIR is a strong background signal because the scattering is obtained from both near\\-field and remote area of the probe. Thus, the small near\\-field contribution to the signal has to be extracted from the background. One solution is to use a very flat sample with only optical spatial fluctuation.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.119798\\|title\\=Infrared near\\-field imaging of implanted semiconductors: Evidence of a pure dielectric contrast\\|date\\=1997\\|last1\\=Lahrech\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Bachelot\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Gleyzes\\|first3\\=P.\\|last4\\=Boccara\\|first4\\=A. C.\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=575\\|bibcode \\= 1997ApPhL..71\\..575L \\|s2cid\\=11004387\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Another solution is to apply constant\\-height mode scanning or pseudo\\-constant\\-height mode scanning.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.371126\\|title\\=Removing optical artifacts in near\\-field scanning optical microscopy by using a three\\-dimensional scanning mode\\|date\\=1999\\|last1\\=Jordan\\|first1\\=Claire E.\\|last2\\=Stranick\\|first2\\=Stephan J.\\|last3\\=Richter\\|first3\\=Lee J.\\|last4\\=Cavanagh\\|first4\\=Richard R.\\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Physics\\|volume\\=86\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=2785\\|bibcode \\= 1999JAP....86\\.2785J \\|url\\=https://zenodo.org/record/1232053}}",
"Experimental scheme of aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR\nFigure 8 shows the experimental setup used in NSOM/FTIR in the external reflection mode. FEL source is focused on the sample from the far\\-field using a mirror. The distance between the probe and a sample is kept at a few nanometers during scanning.",
"[thumb\\|Figure 8: General NSOM/FTIR setup.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_8.jpg \"KLSBFig 8.jpg\")",
"Figure 9 is the cross\\-section of a NSOM/FTIR instrument. As shown below, sample is placed on a piezo\\-electric tube scanner, in which the x\\-y tube has four parts, namely x\\+, x\\-, y\\+ and y\\-. Lateral (x\\-y plane) oscillation of the fiber tip is induced by applying an AC voltage to a [dither](/wiki/Dither \"Dither\") piezo\\-scanner. Also, the fiber tip is fixed to a bimorph piezo\\-scanner so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the tip can be monitored through the scanner.\n \n[thumb\\|Figure 9: Cross\\-section of NSOM/FTIR{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.1149089\\|title\\=A multipurpose scanning near\\-field optical microscope: Reflectivity and photocurrent on semiconductor and biological samples\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Cricenti\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Generosi\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Barchesi\\|first3\\=C.\\|last4\\=Luce\\|first4\\=M.\\|last5\\=Rinaldi\\|first5\\=M.\\|journal\\=Review of Scientific Instruments\\|volume\\=69\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=3240\\|bibcode \\= 1998RScI...69\\.3240C }}](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_9.jpg \"KLSBFig 9.jpg\")",
"#### AFM\\-IR setup",
"Spatial resolution\nThe spatial resolution of an [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") instrument is related to the contact area between the probe and sample.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0031\\-8949/1987/T19A/010\\|title\\=Tip Surface Interactions in STM and AFM\\|date\\=1987\\|last1\\=Pethica\\|first1\\=J B\\|last2\\=Oliver\\|first2\\=W C\\|journal\\=Physica Scripta\\|volume\\=T19A\\|pages\\=61–66\\|bibcode \\= 1987PhST...19\\...61P \\|s2cid\\=250806412 }} The contact area is given by *a*3 \\= 3*PR*/4*E*\\* and 1/*E*\\* \\= (1\\-*n*12)/ *E*1\\+ (1\\-*n*22)/ *E*2, where *P* is the force employed to the probe, *n*1 and *n*2 represent the Poisson ratios of the sample and probe, respectively, and *E*1 and *E*2 are the elastic moduli of the sample and probe materials respectively.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0040\\-6090(93\\)90724\\-4\\|title\\=Step\\-scan FT\\-IR photothermal spectral depth profiling of polymer films\\|date\\=1993\\|last1\\=Palmer\\|first1\\=R\\|last2\\=Dittmar\\|first2\\=R\\|journal\\=Thin Solid Films\\|volume\\=223\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=31–38\\|bibcode \\= 1993TSF...223\\...31P }} Typically, an AFM\\-IR has a lateral spatial resolution of 10–400 nm, for example, 100 nm, *λ*/150, and *λ*/400\\. Recently, Ruggeri et al. have demonstrated the acquisition of infrared absorption spectra and chemical maps at the single molecule level in the case of protein molecules with ca. 10 nm diameter and a molecular weight of 400 kDa.",
"Instrumentation\nIn AFM\\-IR, an AFM probe is used to measure the absorption response of the sample to infrared radiation. The general approach for AFM/FTIR is shown in Figure 10\\.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1366/0003702001949618\\|title\\=Infrared Spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope\\|date\\=2000\\|last1\\=Anderson\\|first1\\=Mark S.\\|journal\\=Applied Spectroscopy\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=349–352\\|bibcode \\= 2000ApSpe..54\\..349A \\|s2cid\\=95187852}}",
"[thumb\\|Figure 10\\. General approach used for AFM\\-FTIR. The output from the probe resembles an interferogram and is Fourier\\-transformed to obtain the infrared absorption spectrum of the sample.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_10.jpg \"KLSBFig 10.jpg\")",
"There are a few different experimental setups when the infrared radiation is projected onto the sample as shown below: top, side, and bottom illumination setups (Figure 11\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 11\\. Illumination setups used in AFM/FTIR spectroscopy.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_11.jpg \"KLSBFig 11.jpg\")",
"In the first developed setup of [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR%23External_links \"AFM-IR#External links\"), a sample is mounted onto an infrared\\-transparent [zinc selenide](/wiki/Zinc_selenide \"Zinc selenide\") prism for excitation purposes (Figure 12\\), then an optical parametric oscillator (OPO)\\-based tunable IR lased is radiated on the molecules to be probed by the instrument. Similar to conventional ATR spectroscopy, IR beam illuminates the sample through total internal reflection mechanism (Figure 12\\). The sample will heat up while absorbing radiation which causes a rapid thermal expansion of the sample surface. This expansion will increase the resonant oscillations of the AFM cantilever in a characteristic ringdown pattern (ringdown patterns means the decay of cantilever oscillation exponential in nature). Through Fourier transformation analysis, the signal could be isolated to obtain the amplitudes and frequencies of the oscillations. The amplitudes of the cantilever provide information of local absorption spectra, whereas the oscillation frequencies depend on the mechanical stiffness of the sample (Figure 12\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 12\\. The [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") technique combines AFM with an IR spectrometer as shown in this schematic.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_12.jpg \"KLSBFig 12.jpg\")",
""
] |
### Raman\-NSOM
There are two modes for the operation of NSOM technique,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.481382\|title\=Scanning near\-field optical microscopy with aperture probes: Fundamentals and applications\|date\=2000\|last1\=Hecht\|first1\=Bert\|last2\=Sick\|first2\=Beate\|last3\=Wild\|first3\=Urs P.\|last4\=Deckert\|first4\=Volker\|last5\=Zenobi\|first5\=Renato\|last6\=Martin\|first6\=Olivier J. F.\|last7\=Pohl\|first7\=Dieter W.\|journal\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\|volume\=112\|issue\=18\|pages\=7761\|bibcode \= 2000JChPh.112\.7761H \|url\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164875}} with and without an aperture. These two mode have also been combined with the near\-field Raman spectroscopy.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1002/jrs.909 \|title\=Development of a combined confocal and scanning near\-field Raman microscope for deep UV laser excitation \|date\=2002 \|display\-authors\=8 \|last1\=Sands \|first1\=H. S. \|last2\=Demangeot \|first2\=F. \|last3\=Bonera \|first3\=E.\|last4\=Webster \|first4\=S. \|last5\=Bennett \|first5\=R. \|last6\=Hayward \|first6\=I. P. \|last7\=Marchi \|first7\=F. \|last8\=Smith \|first8\=D. A. \|last9\=Batchelder \|first9\=D. N. \|journal\=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy\|volume\=33 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=730–739 \|bibcode\=2002JRSp...33\..730S}}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevB.73\.045416\|title\=Near\-field Raman scattering investigation of tip effects on C60 molecules \|date\=2006 \|last1\=Verma \|first1\=Prabhat \|last2\=Yamada \|first2\=Kohei \|last3\=Watanabe \|first3\=Hiroyuki \|last4\=Inouye \|first4\=Yasushi \|last5\=Kawata \|first5\=Satoshi \|journal\=Physical Review B \|volume\=73 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=045416 \|bibcode\=2006PhRvB..73d5416V}} The near\-field aperture must be nanosized that complicates the probe manufacturing process.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1364/OL.20\.000970\|title\=Scanning near\-field optical probe with ultrasmall spot size \|date\=1995 \|last1\=Novotny \|first1\=L. \|last2\=Pohl \|first2\=D. W. \|last3\=Hecht \|first3\=B. \|journal\=Optics Letters \|volume\=20 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=970 \|pmid\=19859393 \|bibcode\=1995OptL...20\..970N}} Also, the aperture method usually has a very weak signal due to weak excitation and Raman scattering signal. Overall, these factors lower the signal\-to\-noise ratio in aperature based NSOM/Raman technique. Apertureless probes are based on a metal\-coated tip and provide a stronger signal.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1039/B708839F \|title\=Single\-molecule and single\-nanoparticle SERS: From fundamental mechanisms to biomedical applications\|date\=2008\|last1\=Qian\|first1\=X.\-M.\|last2\=Nie\|first2\=S. M.\|journal\=Chemical Society Reviews\|volume\=37\|issue\=5\|pages\=912–20\|pmid\=18443676 }}
#### Aperture\-based detection
Although the apertureless mode is more promising than the aperture mode, the latter is more widely used because of easier instrumental setup and operation. To obtain a high resolution Raman micrograph/spectrum, the following conditions should be met: (1\) the size of the aperture must be on the order of the wavelength of the excitation light. (2\) The distance from the tip of the probe to the sample must be smaller than excitation wavelength. (3\) The instrument must remain stable over a long time. An important AFM feature is the ability to accurately control the distance between the sample and probe tip, which is the reason why the AFM\-Raman combination is preferred for realizing Raman\-NSOM.
#### Apertureless mode
The main drawback of the aperture mode is that the small aperture size reduces the signal intensity and is difficult to fabricate. Recently, researchers have focused on the apertureless mode, which utilizes SPR theory to produce stronger signals. There are two techniques supporting this mode: SERS and TERS.
##### TERS technique
[right\|animation for TERS](/wiki/File:KLSBAnimation.gif "KLSBAnimation.gif")
Theory and instrumentation of Raman/AFM and IR/AFM combine the theory of SPR (AFM and NSOM) and Raman scattering, and this combination is based on TERS. In TERS, the electric field of excitation source induces an SPR in the tip of the probe. If the electric field vector of the incidence light is perpendicular ([s\-polarized](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 "Polarization (waves)")) to the metal tip axis, the free electrons are driven to the sides lateral of the tip. If it is parallel (p\-polarized) to the tip axis, the free electrons on the surface of the metal are confined to the end of the apex of tip. As a consequence, there is a very large electric\-field enhancement which is sensed by the molecules close to it leading to a stronger signal.
A typical approach in a TERS experiment is to focus the laser beam on a metal tip with the light polarized along the tip axis, followed by collection of the surface\-enhanced Raman scattered light from the sample in the enhancement zone of the tip using optics.
Depending on the sample and experiment, different illumination geometries have been applied in TERS experiments, as shown in figure 4\. With p\-polarized (parallel to the surface normal) incidence light, the plasmon excitation at the tip is most efficient. If the focusing [objective lens](/wiki/Objective_%28optics%29 "Objective (optics)") is also used for collecting the scattered photons (backscattering geometry), the optimum angle is around 55° with respect to the surface normal. This is because the scattering lobe is maximum with this configuration and it provides a much enhanced signal.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevB.24\.3276\|title\=Surface plasmons confined by microstructures on tunnel junctions\|date\=1981\|last1\=Rendell\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Scalapino\|first2\=D.\|journal\=Physical Review B\|volume\=24\|issue\=6\|pages\=3276–3294\|bibcode \= 1981PhRvB..24\.3276R }} The setup of figure 4(A) is usually used for the large thick samples. Setup (B) handles semi\-transparent or transparent samples, such as single cells, tissue samples and biopolymers. The setup of figure 4(C) is preferred for opaque samples because all the light would be focused by the [parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector").
| [center\|240px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_2.jpg "KLSBFig 2.jpg") | [center\|250px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_3.jpg "KLSBFig 3.jpg") | [center\|260px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_4.jpg "KLSBFig 4.jpg") |
| Figure 2\. [S\- and p\-polarization](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 "Polarization (waves)") with laser excitation.AFM\-microRaman and nanoRamanTM | Figure 3\. TERS setup using the back\-excitation mode. | Figure 4\. TERS setup: (A) side illumination (p polarized); (B) in\-line illumination (objective, s\-polarized); (C) in\-line illumination ([parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector "Parabolic reflector")). |
##### Comparison of TERS and SERS
Both TERS and SERS rely on a localized surface plasmon for increasing the ought\-to\-be weak Raman signal.\[What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot] Satoshi Kawata Department of Applied Physics, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka and RIKEN, Wako, Saitama, Japan The only difference between them is that the sample in SERS has a rough surface that hinders application of a sharp AFM\-like tip. TERS, on the other hand, uses a metal\-coated tip having some roughness at nanoscale.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1038/nphoton.2009\.111\|title\=Plasmonics for near\-field nano\-imaging and superlensing\|date\=2009\|last1\=Kawata\|first1\=Satoshi\|last2\=Inouye\|first2\=Yasushi\|last3\=Verma\|first3\=Prabhat\|journal\=Nature Photonics\|volume\=3\|issue\=7\|pages\=388–394\|bibcode\=2009NaPho...3\..388K}}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1038/nphoton.2009\.74\|title\=Pressure\-assisted tip\-enhanced Raman imaging at a resolution of a few nanometres\|date\=2009\|last1\=Yano\|first1\=Taka\-aki\|last2\=Verma\|first2\=Prabhat\|last3\=Saito\|first3\=Yuika\|last4\=Ichimura\|first4\=Taro\|last5\=Kawata\|first5\=Satoshi\|journal\=Nature Photonics\|volume\=3\|issue\=8\|pages\=473–477\|bibcode \= 2009NaPho...3\..473Y \|s2cid\=54837097}} The “hot spot” theory{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.92\.220801\|title\=Tip\-Enhanced Coherent Anti\-Stokes Raman Scattering for Vibrational Nanoimaging\|date\=2004\|last1\=Ichimura\|first1\=Taro\|last2\=Hayazawa\|first2\=Norihiko\|last3\=Hashimoto\|first3\=Mamoru\|last4\=Inouye\|first4\=Yasushi\|last5\=Kawata\|first5\=Satoshi\|journal\=Physical Review Letters\|volume\=92\|issue\=22\|bibcode\=2004PhRvL..92v0801I\|pmid\=15245207\|page\=220801\|s2cid\=29726570}} is very popular in explaining the large enhancement in the signal. That is, the signal from “hot spots” on the surface of the sample dominates the total signal from the sample.Pettinger B．*Topics Appl. Phys.*, **103**, 217–240 (2006\) This is also reinforced by the fact that the distance between nanoparticles and sample is an important factor in obtaining high Raman signal.
#### Raman/AFM instrumentation
[thumb\|Figure 5\. TERS system combining AFM and Raman scattering.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_5.jpg "KLSBFig 5.jpg")
The Raman/AFM technique has two approaches: aperture and apertureless, and the apertureless mode is realized with SERS and TERS. Figure 5 is the example of an integrated TERS system. It shows that there are five main components for a whole integrated TERS (apertureless) system. These components are: microscope, one objective lens, one integrated AFM head, a Raman spectrometer and a CCD. The laser is focused on the sample, on piezo\-stage and the AFM tip by the moving the laser beam along the tip. The movement of the laser beam is achieved by the mirror in the top left corner. The XYZ piezo\-stage in the left bottom holds the sample. In this design, the laser beam is focused on the sample through an objective lens, and the scattered light is collected by the same lens.
This setup utilizes a low contact\-pressure to reduce the damage to the AFM tip and sample. The laser power is typically below 1 mW. The notch filter can filter [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering "Rayleigh scattering") from the excitation laser light from the back of the cantilever. The laser beam is focused on the apex of the gold\-coated AFM tip and the sample. The laser scanning is completed by the moving the mirror across the approaching tip. A small enhance in background occurs when the laser spot focuses on the tip area. The movement of the XYZ piezo\-stage finishes the sample scanning. The wide red signal is Raman signal which is collected through the objective lens. The same lens is also used for excitation of the sample and collecting the Raman signal.
|
[
"### Raman\\-NSOM",
"There are two modes for the operation of NSOM technique,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.481382\\|title\\=Scanning near\\-field optical microscopy with aperture probes: Fundamentals and applications\\|date\\=2000\\|last1\\=Hecht\\|first1\\=Bert\\|last2\\=Sick\\|first2\\=Beate\\|last3\\=Wild\\|first3\\=Urs P.\\|last4\\=Deckert\\|first4\\=Volker\\|last5\\=Zenobi\\|first5\\=Renato\\|last6\\=Martin\\|first6\\=Olivier J. F.\\|last7\\=Pohl\\|first7\\=Dieter W.\\|journal\\=The Journal of Chemical Physics\\|volume\\=112\\|issue\\=18\\|pages\\=7761\\|bibcode \\= 2000JChPh.112\\.7761H \\|url\\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164875}} with and without an aperture. These two mode have also been combined with the near\\-field Raman spectroscopy.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/jrs.909 \\|title\\=Development of a combined confocal and scanning near\\-field Raman microscope for deep UV laser excitation \\|date\\=2002 \\|display\\-authors\\=8 \\|last1\\=Sands \\|first1\\=H. S. \\|last2\\=Demangeot \\|first2\\=F. \\|last3\\=Bonera \\|first3\\=E.\\|last4\\=Webster \\|first4\\=S. \\|last5\\=Bennett \\|first5\\=R. \\|last6\\=Hayward \\|first6\\=I. P. \\|last7\\=Marchi \\|first7\\=F. \\|last8\\=Smith \\|first8\\=D. A. \\|last9\\=Batchelder \\|first9\\=D. N. \\|journal\\=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy\\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=730–739 \\|bibcode\\=2002JRSp...33\\..730S}}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevB.73\\.045416\\|title\\=Near\\-field Raman scattering investigation of tip effects on C60 molecules \\|date\\=2006 \\|last1\\=Verma \\|first1\\=Prabhat \\|last2\\=Yamada \\|first2\\=Kohei \\|last3\\=Watanabe \\|first3\\=Hiroyuki \\|last4\\=Inouye \\|first4\\=Yasushi \\|last5\\=Kawata \\|first5\\=Satoshi \\|journal\\=Physical Review B \\|volume\\=73 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=045416 \\|bibcode\\=2006PhRvB..73d5416V}} The near\\-field aperture must be nanosized that complicates the probe manufacturing process.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OL.20\\.000970\\|title\\=Scanning near\\-field optical probe with ultrasmall spot size \\|date\\=1995 \\|last1\\=Novotny \\|first1\\=L. \\|last2\\=Pohl \\|first2\\=D. W. \\|last3\\=Hecht \\|first3\\=B. \\|journal\\=Optics Letters \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=970 \\|pmid\\=19859393 \\|bibcode\\=1995OptL...20\\..970N}} Also, the aperture method usually has a very weak signal due to weak excitation and Raman scattering signal. Overall, these factors lower the signal\\-to\\-noise ratio in aperature based NSOM/Raman technique. Apertureless probes are based on a metal\\-coated tip and provide a stronger signal.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1039/B708839F \\|title\\=Single\\-molecule and single\\-nanoparticle SERS: From fundamental mechanisms to biomedical applications\\|date\\=2008\\|last1\\=Qian\\|first1\\=X.\\-M.\\|last2\\=Nie\\|first2\\=S. M.\\|journal\\=Chemical Society Reviews\\|volume\\=37\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=912–20\\|pmid\\=18443676 }}",
"#### Aperture\\-based detection",
"Although the apertureless mode is more promising than the aperture mode, the latter is more widely used because of easier instrumental setup and operation. To obtain a high resolution Raman micrograph/spectrum, the following conditions should be met: (1\\) the size of the aperture must be on the order of the wavelength of the excitation light. (2\\) The distance from the tip of the probe to the sample must be smaller than excitation wavelength. (3\\) The instrument must remain stable over a long time. An important AFM feature is the ability to accurately control the distance between the sample and probe tip, which is the reason why the AFM\\-Raman combination is preferred for realizing Raman\\-NSOM.",
"#### Apertureless mode",
"The main drawback of the aperture mode is that the small aperture size reduces the signal intensity and is difficult to fabricate. Recently, researchers have focused on the apertureless mode, which utilizes SPR theory to produce stronger signals. There are two techniques supporting this mode: SERS and TERS.",
"##### TERS technique",
"[right\\|animation for TERS](/wiki/File:KLSBAnimation.gif \"KLSBAnimation.gif\")\nTheory and instrumentation of Raman/AFM and IR/AFM combine the theory of SPR (AFM and NSOM) and Raman scattering, and this combination is based on TERS. In TERS, the electric field of excitation source induces an SPR in the tip of the probe. If the electric field vector of the incidence light is perpendicular ([s\\-polarized](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 \"Polarization (waves)\")) to the metal tip axis, the free electrons are driven to the sides lateral of the tip. If it is parallel (p\\-polarized) to the tip axis, the free electrons on the surface of the metal are confined to the end of the apex of tip. As a consequence, there is a very large electric\\-field enhancement which is sensed by the molecules close to it leading to a stronger signal.",
"A typical approach in a TERS experiment is to focus the laser beam on a metal tip with the light polarized along the tip axis, followed by collection of the surface\\-enhanced Raman scattered light from the sample in the enhancement zone of the tip using optics.",
"Depending on the sample and experiment, different illumination geometries have been applied in TERS experiments, as shown in figure 4\\. With p\\-polarized (parallel to the surface normal) incidence light, the plasmon excitation at the tip is most efficient. If the focusing [objective lens](/wiki/Objective_%28optics%29 \"Objective (optics)\") is also used for collecting the scattered photons (backscattering geometry), the optimum angle is around 55° with respect to the surface normal. This is because the scattering lobe is maximum with this configuration and it provides a much enhanced signal.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevB.24\\.3276\\|title\\=Surface plasmons confined by microstructures on tunnel junctions\\|date\\=1981\\|last1\\=Rendell\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Scalapino\\|first2\\=D.\\|journal\\=Physical Review B\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=3276–3294\\|bibcode \\= 1981PhRvB..24\\.3276R }} The setup of figure 4(A) is usually used for the large thick samples. Setup (B) handles semi\\-transparent or transparent samples, such as single cells, tissue samples and biopolymers. The setup of figure 4(C) is preferred for opaque samples because all the light would be focused by the [parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\").",
"",
"| [center\\|240px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_2.jpg \"KLSBFig 2.jpg\") | [center\\|250px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_3.jpg \"KLSBFig 3.jpg\") | [center\\|260px](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_4.jpg \"KLSBFig 4.jpg\") |",
"| Figure 2\\. [S\\- and p\\-polarization](/wiki/Polarization_%28waves%29 \"Polarization (waves)\") with laser excitation.AFM\\-microRaman and nanoRamanTM | Figure 3\\. TERS setup using the back\\-excitation mode. | Figure 4\\. TERS setup: (A) side illumination (p polarized); (B) in\\-line illumination (objective, s\\-polarized); (C) in\\-line illumination ([parabolic mirror](/wiki/Parabolic_reflector \"Parabolic reflector\")). |",
"##### Comparison of TERS and SERS",
"Both TERS and SERS rely on a localized surface plasmon for increasing the ought\\-to\\-be weak Raman signal.\\[What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot What TERS microscopy can do, SERS cannot] Satoshi Kawata Department of Applied Physics, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka and RIKEN, Wako, Saitama, Japan The only difference between them is that the sample in SERS has a rough surface that hinders application of a sharp AFM\\-like tip. TERS, on the other hand, uses a metal\\-coated tip having some roughness at nanoscale.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nphoton.2009\\.111\\|title\\=Plasmonics for near\\-field nano\\-imaging and superlensing\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Kawata\\|first1\\=Satoshi\\|last2\\=Inouye\\|first2\\=Yasushi\\|last3\\=Verma\\|first3\\=Prabhat\\|journal\\=Nature Photonics\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=388–394\\|bibcode\\=2009NaPho...3\\..388K}}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nphoton.2009\\.74\\|title\\=Pressure\\-assisted tip\\-enhanced Raman imaging at a resolution of a few nanometres\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Yano\\|first1\\=Taka\\-aki\\|last2\\=Verma\\|first2\\=Prabhat\\|last3\\=Saito\\|first3\\=Yuika\\|last4\\=Ichimura\\|first4\\=Taro\\|last5\\=Kawata\\|first5\\=Satoshi\\|journal\\=Nature Photonics\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=473–477\\|bibcode \\= 2009NaPho...3\\..473Y \\|s2cid\\=54837097}} The “hot spot” theory{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.92\\.220801\\|title\\=Tip\\-Enhanced Coherent Anti\\-Stokes Raman Scattering for Vibrational Nanoimaging\\|date\\=2004\\|last1\\=Ichimura\\|first1\\=Taro\\|last2\\=Hayazawa\\|first2\\=Norihiko\\|last3\\=Hashimoto\\|first3\\=Mamoru\\|last4\\=Inouye\\|first4\\=Yasushi\\|last5\\=Kawata\\|first5\\=Satoshi\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters\\|volume\\=92\\|issue\\=22\\|bibcode\\=2004PhRvL..92v0801I\\|pmid\\=15245207\\|page\\=220801\\|s2cid\\=29726570}} is very popular in explaining the large enhancement in the signal. That is, the signal from “hot spots” on the surface of the sample dominates the total signal from the sample.Pettinger B．*Topics Appl. Phys.*, **103**, 217–240 (2006\\) This is also reinforced by the fact that the distance between nanoparticles and sample is an important factor in obtaining high Raman signal.",
"#### Raman/AFM instrumentation",
"[thumb\\|Figure 5\\. TERS system combining AFM and Raman scattering.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_5.jpg \"KLSBFig 5.jpg\")",
"The Raman/AFM technique has two approaches: aperture and apertureless, and the apertureless mode is realized with SERS and TERS. Figure 5 is the example of an integrated TERS system. It shows that there are five main components for a whole integrated TERS (apertureless) system. These components are: microscope, one objective lens, one integrated AFM head, a Raman spectrometer and a CCD. The laser is focused on the sample, on piezo\\-stage and the AFM tip by the moving the laser beam along the tip. The movement of the laser beam is achieved by the mirror in the top left corner. The XYZ piezo\\-stage in the left bottom holds the sample. In this design, the laser beam is focused on the sample through an objective lens, and the scattered light is collected by the same lens.",
"This setup utilizes a low contact\\-pressure to reduce the damage to the AFM tip and sample. The laser power is typically below 1 mW. The notch filter can filter [Rayleigh scattering](/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering \"Rayleigh scattering\") from the excitation laser light from the back of the cantilever. The laser beam is focused on the apex of the gold\\-coated AFM tip and the sample. The laser scanning is completed by the moving the mirror across the approaching tip. A small enhance in background occurs when the laser spot focuses on the tip area. The movement of the XYZ piezo\\-stage finishes the sample scanning. The wide red signal is Raman signal which is collected through the objective lens. The same lens is also used for excitation of the sample and collecting the Raman signal.",
""
] |
### NSOM/FTIR, AFM/FTIR and AFM\-IR
Because of the diffraction limit in the resolution of conventional lens\-based microscopes, namely D \= 0\.61*λ*/nsinθ,L. Rayleigh, *Phil. Mag.*. **8**, 261–274 (1879\) the maximum resolution obtainable with an optical microscope is \~200 nm. A new type of lens using multiple scattering of light allowed to improve the resolution to about 100 nm.{{cite journal\|author\=E.G. van Putten\|author2\=D. Akbulut\|author3\=J. Bertolotti\|author4\= W.L. Vos\|author5\=A. Lagendijk\|author6\=A.P. Mosk\|name\-list\-style\=amp\|arxiv\=1103\.3643\|date\=2011\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\.193905\|title\=Scattering Lens Resolves Sub\-100 nm Structures with Visible Light\|journal\=Physical Review Letters\|volume\=106\|issue\=19\|bibcode\=2011PhRvL.106s3905V\|pmid\=21668161\|page\=193905\|s2cid\=15793849}} Several new microscopy techniques with a sub\-nanometer resolution have been developed in the last several decades, such as electron microscopy ([SEM](/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope "Scanning electron microscope") and [TEM](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy "Transmission electron microscopy")) and scanning probe microscopy (NSOM, STM and AFM). SPM differs from other techniques in that the excitation and signal collection are very close (less than diffraction limit distance) to the sample. Instead of using a conventional lens to obtain magnified images of samples, an SPM scans across the sample with a very sharp probe. Whereas SEM and TEM usually require vacuum and an extensive sample preparation, SPM measurements can be performed in atmospheric or liquid conditions.
Despite the achievable resolution of atomic scale for AFM and NSOM techniques, it does not provide chemical information of the sample. The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers molecular vibrations which can characterize chemical bonding within the sample.R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler, T. C. Morill, *Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, 5th edition*, Wiley, New York (1991\) {{ISBN\|0\-471\-39362\-2}}
By combining SPM and vibrational spectroscopy, AFM/IR\-NSOM and [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") have emerged as useful characterization tools that integrate the high spatial resolution abilities of AFM with IR spectroscopy.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1366/0003702991947379\|title\=Photothermal FT\-IR Spectroscopy: A Step Towards FT\-IR Microscopy at a Resolution Better Than the Diffraction Limit \|date\=1999 \|last1\=Hammiche \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Pollock \|first2\=H. M. \|last3\=Reading\|first3\=M. \|last4\=Claybourn \|first4\=M. \|last5\=Turner \|first5\=P. H.\|last6\=Jewkes \|first6\=K. \|journal\=Applied Spectroscopy \|volume\=53 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=810–815 \|bibcode\=1999ApSpe..53\..810H\|s2cid\=93359289 }}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1116/1\.591381 \|title\=Highly localized thermal, mechanical, and spectroscopic characterization of polymers using miniaturized thermal probes\|date\=2000 \|display\-authors\=8 \|last1\=Hammiche \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Bozec \|first2\=L. \|last3\=Conroy\|first3\=M. \|last4\=Pollock \|first4\=H. M. \|last5\=Mills \|first5\=G. \|last6\=Weaver \|first6\=J. M. R. \|last7\=Price \|first7\=D. M. \|last8\=Reading \|first8\=M. \|last9\=Hourston \|first9\=D. J. \|journal\=Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B\|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=1322 \|bibcode\=2000JVSTB..18\.1322H\|s2cid\=55856483}}{{cite journal\|author\=Julien Houel \|display\-authors\=etal \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.99\.217404 \|title\=Ultraweak\-Absorption Microscopy of a Single Semiconductor Quantum Dot in the Midinfrared Range\|date\=2007\|journal\=Physical Review Letters \|volume\=99 \|issue\=21 \|bibcode\=2007PhRvL..99u7404H \|pmid\=18233255 \|pages\=217404\|s2cid\=13225150 }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/OE.17\.010887 \|title\=Midinfrared absorption measured at a λ/400 resolution with an atomic force microscope\|date\=2009\|last1\=Houel \|first1\=Julien \|last2\=Homeyer \|first2\=Estelle\|last3\=Sauvage \|first3\=SéBastien\|last4\=Boucaud \|first4\=Philippe \|last5\=Dazzi \|first5\=Alexandre \|last6\=Prazeres \|first6\=Rui \|last7\=Ortéga \|first7\=Jean\-Michel \|journal\=Optics Express\|volume\=17\|issue\=13\|pages\=10887–94\|pmid\=19550489\|bibcode\=2009OExpr..1710887H\|s2cid\=120639500\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/j.bpj.2009\.06\.013\|title\=Tracking Molecular Interactions in Membranes by Simultaneous ATR\-FTIR\-AFM\|date\=2009\|last1\=Verity\|first1\=Jocelyne E.\|last2\=Chhabra\|first2\=Neetu \|last3\=Sinnathamby\|first3\=Koneswaran\|last4\=Yip\|first4\=Christopher M.\|journal\=Biophysical Journal\|volume\=97\|issue\=4\|pages\=1225–1231 \|pmid\=19686671\|pmc\=2726332\|bibcode \= 2009BpJ....97\.1225V }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1088/0957\-4484/21/18/185705 \|title\=High\-sensitivity nanometer\-scale infrared spectroscopy using a contact mode microcantilever with an internal resonator paddle \|date\=2010\|last1\=Kjoller\|first1\=K\|last2\=Felts\|first2\=J R\|last3\=Cook\|first3\=D\|last4\=Prater\|first4\=C B\|last5\=King \|first5\=W P \|journal\=Nanotechnology \|volume\=21 \|issue\=18 \|pages\=185705 \|pmid\=20388971 \|bibcode\=2010Nanot..21r5705K\|s2cid\=27042137 }}Craig Prater, Kevin Kjoller, Debra Cook, Roshan Shetty, Gregory Meyers, Carl Reinhardt, Jonathan Felts, William King, Konstantin Vodopyanov and Alexandre Dazzi, [Nanoscale Infrared Spectroscopy of Materials by Atomic Force Microscopy](http://www.microscopy-analysis.com/files/jwiley_microscopy/2010_April_Prater.pdf){{dead link\|date\=July 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} *Microscopy and Analysis*, **24**, 5–8 (2010\){{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/BOE.2\.000037\|title\=Sub\-wavelength infrared imaging of lipids\|date\=2010\|last1\=Yarrow\|first1\=Fiona\|last2\=Kennedy\|first2\=Eamonn\|last3\=Salaun\|first3\=Frederic\|last4\=Rice\|first4\=James H.\|journal\=Biomedical Optics Express\|volume\=2\|pages\=37–43\|pmid\=21326633\|issue\=1\|pmc\=3028496}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ruggeri\|first1\=Francesco Simone\|last2\=Mannini\|first2\=Benedetta\|last3\=Schmid\|first3\=Roman\|last4\=Vendruscolo\|first4\=Michele\|last5\=Knowles\|first5\=Tuomas P. J.\|date\=2020\-06\-10\|title\=Single molecule secondary structure determination of proteins through infrared absorption nanospectroscopy\|journal\=Nature Communications\|language\=en\|volume\=11\|issue\=1\|pages\=2945\|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-020\-16728\-1 \|pmid\=32522983 \| pmc\=7287102 \|bibcode\=2020NatCo..11\.2945R \|issn\=2041\-1723}} This new technique can be referred to as AFM\-FTIR, AFM\-IR and NSOM/FTIR. AFM and NSOM can be used to detect the response when a modulated infrared radiation generated by an FTIR spectrometer is absorbed by a material. In the [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") technique the absorption of the radiation by sample will cause a rapid thermal expansion wave which will be transferred to the vibrational modes of the AFM cantilever. Specifically, thermal expansion wave induces a vertical displacement of the ATM tip (Figure 6\).{{cite journal\|title\=Nanoscale optical imaging by atomic force infrared microscopy\|doi\=10\.1039/b9nr00279k\|date\=2010\|last1\=Rice\|first1\=James H.\|journal\=Nanoscale\|volume\=2\|issue\=5\|pages\=660–7\|pmid\=20648306\|bibcode \= 2010Nanos...2\..660R \|url\=http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/4463/1/nanoscale2010\_rev.pdf\|hdl\=10197/4463}} A local IR absorption spectrum then can be obtained through the measurement of the amplitude of the cantilever, which is a function of the IR source wavelength. For example, when the radiation laser wavelength is tuned at the resonance frequency with the vibrational absorption frequency of the sample, the displacement intensity of the cantilever will increase until the laser wavelength reaches the maximum of sample absorption. The displacement of the cantilever will then be reduced as the laser wavelength is tuned past the absorption maximum. This approach can map chemical composition beyond the diffraction\-limit resolution and can also provide three\-dimensional topographic, thermal and mechanical information at the nanoscale. Overall, it overcomes the resolution limit of traditional IR spectroscopy and adds chemical and mechanical mapping to the AFM and NSOM.
[thumb\|Figure 6\. Schematic diagram of surface deformation effects creating displacement of cantilever](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_6.jpg "KLSBFig 6.jpg")
#### Infrared light source
The ideal IR source should be monochromatic and tunable within a wide range of wavelength. According to *T* ∝*d*4/*λ*4, where *T* is the transmission coefficient, *d* the aperture diameter and *λ* is wavelength, the aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR transmission is even more limited due to the long infrared wavelength;{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.66\.163\|title\=Theory of Diffraction by Small Holes\|date\=1944\|last1\=Bethe\|first1\=H.\|journal\=Physical Review\|volume\=66\|issue\=7–8\|pages\=163–182\|bibcode \= 1944PhRv...66\..163B }}C. J. Bouwkamp, *Philips Res. Rep.*, **5**, 321–332 (1950\) therefore, an intense IR source is needed to offset the low transmission through the optical fiber. The common bright IR light sources are the [free\-electron laser](/wiki/Free-electron_laser "Free-electron laser") (FEL), color\-center lasers, [CO2 lasers](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_laser "Carbon dioxide laser") and [laser diodes](/wiki/Laser_diode "Laser diode"). FEL is an excellent IR source, with 2–20 μm spectral range,{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.121739\|title\=Free\-electron\-laser near\-field nanospectroscopy\|date\=1998\|last1\=Cricenti\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Generosi\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Perfetti\|first3\=P.\|last4\=Gilligan\|first4\=J. M.\|last5\=Tolk\|first5\=N. H.\|last6\=Coluzza\|first6\=C.\|last7\=Margaritondo\|first7\=G.\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=73\|issue\=2\|pages\=151\|bibcode \= 1998ApPhL..73\..151C }}{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/S0168\-583X(98\)00293\-6\|title\=Activities of the CLIO infrared facility\|date\=1998\|last1\=Glotin\|first1\=F\|journal\=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms\|volume\=144\|issue\=1–4\|pages\=8–17\|bibcode \= 1998NIMPB.144\....8G }} short pulses (picosecond) and high average power (0\.1\-1 W). Alternately, a tabletop picosecond [optical parametric oscillator](/wiki/Optical_parametric_oscillator "Optical parametric oscillator") (OPO) can be used which is less expensive, but has a limited tunability and a lower power\-output.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1364/OL.31\.002344\|title\=Generation of a squeezed vacuum resonant on a rubidium D1 line with periodically poled KTiOPO4\|date\=2006\|last1\=Tanimura\|first1\=Takahito\|last2\=Akamatsu\|first2\=Daisuke\|last3\=Yokoi\|first3\=Yoshihiko\|last4\=Furusawa\|first4\=Akira\|last5\=Kozuma\|first5\=Mikio\|journal\=Optics Letters\|volume\=31\|issue\=15\|pages\=2344–6\|pmid\=16832480\|arxiv \= quant\-ph/0603214 \|bibcode \= 2006OptL...31\.2344T \|s2cid\=18700111}}
#### NSOM/FTIR experimental setup
The essence of NSOM/FTIR is that it allows the detection of non\-propagating evanescent waves in the near\-field (less than one wavelength from the sample), thus yielding high spatial resolution. Depending on the detection modes of these non\-propagating evanescent waves, two NSOM/FTIR instrumentations are available: apertureless NSOM/FTIR and aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR.
Aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR
In aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR, the probe is a waveguide with a tapered tip with a very small, sub\-wavelength size aperture. When the aperture is brought into the near\-field, it collects the non\-propagating light and guides it to the detector. In general, there are two modes when the aperture is scanned over the sample: illumination mode and collection mode (Figure 7\).
[thumb\|Figure 7\. Schematic diagram of (1\) collection mode and (2\) illumination mode](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_7.jpg "KLSBFig 7.jpg")
The high\-quality infrared fiber tip is very important in realizing NSOM/FTIR technique. There are several types of fibers, such as [sapphire](/wiki/Sapphire "Sapphire"), [chalcogenide glass](/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass "Chalcogenide glass"), [fluoride glass](/wiki/Fluoride_glass "Fluoride glass") and hollow silica guides.Sanghera, J. S., and Aggarwal, I. D., *Infrared Fiber Optics* (Boca Raton; Florida: CRC) 1998 Chalcogenide glasses are widely used because of their high transmittance in the broad IR range of 2–12 μm.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1109/50\.661012\|title\=Fabrication of single\-mode chalcogenide optical fiber\|date\=1998\|last1\=Mossadegh\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Sanghera\|first2\=J.S.\|last3\=Schaafsma\|first3\=D.\|last4\=Cole\|first4\=B.J.\|last5\=Nguyen\|first5\=V.Q.\|last6\=Miklos\|first6\=R.E.\|last7\=Aggarwal\|first7\=I.D.\|journal\=Journal of Lightwave Technology\|volume\=16\|issue\=2\|pages\=214–217 \|bibcode \= 1998JLwT...16\..214M }} The fluoride fibers also exhibit low transmitting losses beyond 3\.0 μm.
Apertureless NSOM/FTIR
The probe is a sharp metal tip ending with a single or a few atoms. The sample is illuminated from [far\-field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field "Near and far field") and the radiation is focused at the contact area between probe and sample. When this tip approaches the sample, usually within 10 nm, the incident electromagnetic field is enhanced due to the resonant surface plasma excitation as well as due to hot\-spots in the sharp tip. The dipole interaction between the tip and sample change the non\-propagating waves into propagating waves by scattering, and a detector collects the signal in the far\-field. An apertureless NSOM/FTIR usually has better resolution (\~5–30 nm) compared with aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR (\~50–150 nm). One main challenge in apertureless NSOM/FTIR is a strong background signal because the scattering is obtained from both near\-field and remote area of the probe. Thus, the small near\-field contribution to the signal has to be extracted from the background. One solution is to use a very flat sample with only optical spatial fluctuation.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.119798\|title\=Infrared near\-field imaging of implanted semiconductors: Evidence of a pure dielectric contrast\|date\=1997\|last1\=Lahrech\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Bachelot\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Gleyzes\|first3\=P.\|last4\=Boccara\|first4\=A. C.\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=71\|issue\=5\|pages\=575\|bibcode \= 1997ApPhL..71\..575L \|s2cid\=11004387\|doi\-access\=free}} Another solution is to apply constant\-height mode scanning or pseudo\-constant\-height mode scanning.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.371126\|title\=Removing optical artifacts in near\-field scanning optical microscopy by using a three\-dimensional scanning mode\|date\=1999\|last1\=Jordan\|first1\=Claire E.\|last2\=Stranick\|first2\=Stephan J.\|last3\=Richter\|first3\=Lee J.\|last4\=Cavanagh\|first4\=Richard R.\|journal\=Journal of Applied Physics\|volume\=86\|issue\=5\|pages\=2785\|bibcode \= 1999JAP....86\.2785J \|url\=https://zenodo.org/record/1232053}}
Experimental scheme of aperture\-based NSOM/FTIR
Figure 8 shows the experimental setup used in NSOM/FTIR in the external reflection mode. FEL source is focused on the sample from the far\-field using a mirror. The distance between the probe and a sample is kept at a few nanometers during scanning.
[thumb\|Figure 8: General NSOM/FTIR setup.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_8.jpg "KLSBFig 8.jpg")
Figure 9 is the cross\-section of a NSOM/FTIR instrument. As shown below, sample is placed on a piezo\-electric tube scanner, in which the x\-y tube has four parts, namely x\+, x\-, y\+ and y\-. Lateral (x\-y plane) oscillation of the fiber tip is induced by applying an AC voltage to a [dither](/wiki/Dither "Dither") piezo\-scanner. Also, the fiber tip is fixed to a bimorph piezo\-scanner so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the tip can be monitored through the scanner.
[thumb\|Figure 9: Cross\-section of NSOM/FTIR{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.1149089\|title\=A multipurpose scanning near\-field optical microscope: Reflectivity and photocurrent on semiconductor and biological samples\|date\=1998\|last1\=Cricenti\|first1\=A.\|last2\=Generosi\|first2\=R.\|last3\=Barchesi\|first3\=C.\|last4\=Luce\|first4\=M.\|last5\=Rinaldi\|first5\=M.\|journal\=Review of Scientific Instruments\|volume\=69\|issue\=9\|pages\=3240\|bibcode \= 1998RScI...69\.3240C }}](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_9.jpg "KLSBFig 9.jpg")
#### AFM\-IR setup
Spatial resolution
The spatial resolution of an [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") instrument is related to the contact area between the probe and sample.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1088/0031\-8949/1987/T19A/010\|title\=Tip Surface Interactions in STM and AFM\|date\=1987\|last1\=Pethica\|first1\=J B\|last2\=Oliver\|first2\=W C\|journal\=Physica Scripta\|volume\=T19A\|pages\=61–66\|bibcode \= 1987PhST...19\...61P \|s2cid\=250806412 }} The contact area is given by *a*3 \= 3*PR*/4*E*\* and 1/*E*\* \= (1\-*n*12)/ *E*1\+ (1\-*n*22)/ *E*2, where *P* is the force employed to the probe, *n*1 and *n*2 represent the Poisson ratios of the sample and probe, respectively, and *E*1 and *E*2 are the elastic moduli of the sample and probe materials respectively.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/0040\-6090(93\)90724\-4\|title\=Step\-scan FT\-IR photothermal spectral depth profiling of polymer films\|date\=1993\|last1\=Palmer\|first1\=R\|last2\=Dittmar\|first2\=R\|journal\=Thin Solid Films\|volume\=223\|issue\=1\|pages\=31–38\|bibcode \= 1993TSF...223\...31P }} Typically, an AFM\-IR has a lateral spatial resolution of 10–400 nm, for example, 100 nm, *λ*/150, and *λ*/400\. Recently, Ruggeri et al. have demonstrated the acquisition of infrared absorption spectra and chemical maps at the single molecule level in the case of protein molecules with ca. 10 nm diameter and a molecular weight of 400 kDa.
Instrumentation
In AFM\-IR, an AFM probe is used to measure the absorption response of the sample to infrared radiation. The general approach for AFM/FTIR is shown in Figure 10\.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1366/0003702001949618\|title\=Infrared Spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope\|date\=2000\|last1\=Anderson\|first1\=Mark S.\|journal\=Applied Spectroscopy\|volume\=54\|issue\=3\|pages\=349–352\|bibcode \= 2000ApSpe..54\..349A \|s2cid\=95187852}}
[thumb\|Figure 10\. General approach used for AFM\-FTIR. The output from the probe resembles an interferogram and is Fourier\-transformed to obtain the infrared absorption spectrum of the sample.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_10.jpg "KLSBFig 10.jpg")
There are a few different experimental setups when the infrared radiation is projected onto the sample as shown below: top, side, and bottom illumination setups (Figure 11\).
[thumb\|Figure 11\. Illumination setups used in AFM/FTIR spectroscopy.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_11.jpg "KLSBFig 11.jpg")
In the first developed setup of [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR%23External_links "AFM-IR#External links"), a sample is mounted onto an infrared\-transparent [zinc selenide](/wiki/Zinc_selenide "Zinc selenide") prism for excitation purposes (Figure 12\), then an optical parametric oscillator (OPO)\-based tunable IR lased is radiated on the molecules to be probed by the instrument. Similar to conventional ATR spectroscopy, IR beam illuminates the sample through total internal reflection mechanism (Figure 12\). The sample will heat up while absorbing radiation which causes a rapid thermal expansion of the sample surface. This expansion will increase the resonant oscillations of the AFM cantilever in a characteristic ringdown pattern (ringdown patterns means the decay of cantilever oscillation exponential in nature). Through Fourier transformation analysis, the signal could be isolated to obtain the amplitudes and frequencies of the oscillations. The amplitudes of the cantilever provide information of local absorption spectra, whereas the oscillation frequencies depend on the mechanical stiffness of the sample (Figure 12\).
[thumb\|Figure 12\. The [AFM\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR "AFM-IR") technique combines AFM with an IR spectrometer as shown in this schematic.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_12.jpg "KLSBFig 12.jpg")
|
[
"### NSOM/FTIR, AFM/FTIR and AFM\\-IR",
"Because of the diffraction limit in the resolution of conventional lens\\-based microscopes, namely D \\= 0\\.61*λ*/nsinθ,L. Rayleigh, *Phil. Mag.*. **8**, 261–274 (1879\\) the maximum resolution obtainable with an optical microscope is \\~200 nm. A new type of lens using multiple scattering of light allowed to improve the resolution to about 100 nm.{{cite journal\\|author\\=E.G. van Putten\\|author2\\=D. Akbulut\\|author3\\=J. Bertolotti\\|author4\\= W.L. Vos\\|author5\\=A. Lagendijk\\|author6\\=A.P. Mosk\\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp\\|arxiv\\=1103\\.3643\\|date\\=2011\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.106\\.193905\\|title\\=Scattering Lens Resolves Sub\\-100 nm Structures with Visible Light\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=19\\|bibcode\\=2011PhRvL.106s3905V\\|pmid\\=21668161\\|page\\=193905\\|s2cid\\=15793849}} Several new microscopy techniques with a sub\\-nanometer resolution have been developed in the last several decades, such as electron microscopy ([SEM](/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope \"Scanning electron microscope\") and [TEM](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy \"Transmission electron microscopy\")) and scanning probe microscopy (NSOM, STM and AFM). SPM differs from other techniques in that the excitation and signal collection are very close (less than diffraction limit distance) to the sample. Instead of using a conventional lens to obtain magnified images of samples, an SPM scans across the sample with a very sharp probe. Whereas SEM and TEM usually require vacuum and an extensive sample preparation, SPM measurements can be performed in atmospheric or liquid conditions.",
"Despite the achievable resolution of atomic scale for AFM and NSOM techniques, it does not provide chemical information of the sample. The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers molecular vibrations which can characterize chemical bonding within the sample.R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler, T. C. Morill, *Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, 5th edition*, Wiley, New York (1991\\) {{ISBN\\|0\\-471\\-39362\\-2}}",
"By combining SPM and vibrational spectroscopy, AFM/IR\\-NSOM and [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") have emerged as useful characterization tools that integrate the high spatial resolution abilities of AFM with IR spectroscopy.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1366/0003702991947379\\|title\\=Photothermal FT\\-IR Spectroscopy: A Step Towards FT\\-IR Microscopy at a Resolution Better Than the Diffraction Limit \\|date\\=1999 \\|last1\\=Hammiche \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Pollock \\|first2\\=H. M. \\|last3\\=Reading\\|first3\\=M. \\|last4\\=Claybourn \\|first4\\=M. \\|last5\\=Turner \\|first5\\=P. H.\\|last6\\=Jewkes \\|first6\\=K. \\|journal\\=Applied Spectroscopy \\|volume\\=53 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=810–815 \\|bibcode\\=1999ApSpe..53\\..810H\\|s2cid\\=93359289 }}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1116/1\\.591381 \\|title\\=Highly localized thermal, mechanical, and spectroscopic characterization of polymers using miniaturized thermal probes\\|date\\=2000 \\|display\\-authors\\=8 \\|last1\\=Hammiche \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Bozec \\|first2\\=L. \\|last3\\=Conroy\\|first3\\=M. \\|last4\\=Pollock \\|first4\\=H. M. \\|last5\\=Mills \\|first5\\=G. \\|last6\\=Weaver \\|first6\\=J. M. R. \\|last7\\=Price \\|first7\\=D. M. \\|last8\\=Reading \\|first8\\=M. \\|last9\\=Hourston \\|first9\\=D. J. \\|journal\\=Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B\\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=1322 \\|bibcode\\=2000JVSTB..18\\.1322H\\|s2cid\\=55856483}}{{cite journal\\|author\\=Julien Houel \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.99\\.217404 \\|title\\=Ultraweak\\-Absorption Microscopy of a Single Semiconductor Quantum Dot in the Midinfrared Range\\|date\\=2007\\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters \\|volume\\=99 \\|issue\\=21 \\|bibcode\\=2007PhRvL..99u7404H \\|pmid\\=18233255 \\|pages\\=217404\\|s2cid\\=13225150 }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OE.17\\.010887 \\|title\\=Midinfrared absorption measured at a λ/400 resolution with an atomic force microscope\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Houel \\|first1\\=Julien \\|last2\\=Homeyer \\|first2\\=Estelle\\|last3\\=Sauvage \\|first3\\=SéBastien\\|last4\\=Boucaud \\|first4\\=Philippe \\|last5\\=Dazzi \\|first5\\=Alexandre \\|last6\\=Prazeres \\|first6\\=Rui \\|last7\\=Ortéga \\|first7\\=Jean\\-Michel \\|journal\\=Optics Express\\|volume\\=17\\|issue\\=13\\|pages\\=10887–94\\|pmid\\=19550489\\|bibcode\\=2009OExpr..1710887H\\|s2cid\\=120639500\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.bpj.2009\\.06\\.013\\|title\\=Tracking Molecular Interactions in Membranes by Simultaneous ATR\\-FTIR\\-AFM\\|date\\=2009\\|last1\\=Verity\\|first1\\=Jocelyne E.\\|last2\\=Chhabra\\|first2\\=Neetu \\|last3\\=Sinnathamby\\|first3\\=Koneswaran\\|last4\\=Yip\\|first4\\=Christopher M.\\|journal\\=Biophysical Journal\\|volume\\=97\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1225–1231 \\|pmid\\=19686671\\|pmc\\=2726332\\|bibcode \\= 2009BpJ....97\\.1225V }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0957\\-4484/21/18/185705 \\|title\\=High\\-sensitivity nanometer\\-scale infrared spectroscopy using a contact mode microcantilever with an internal resonator paddle \\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Kjoller\\|first1\\=K\\|last2\\=Felts\\|first2\\=J R\\|last3\\=Cook\\|first3\\=D\\|last4\\=Prater\\|first4\\=C B\\|last5\\=King \\|first5\\=W P \\|journal\\=Nanotechnology \\|volume\\=21 \\|issue\\=18 \\|pages\\=185705 \\|pmid\\=20388971 \\|bibcode\\=2010Nanot..21r5705K\\|s2cid\\=27042137 }}Craig Prater, Kevin Kjoller, Debra Cook, Roshan Shetty, Gregory Meyers, Carl Reinhardt, Jonathan Felts, William King, Konstantin Vodopyanov and Alexandre Dazzi, [Nanoscale Infrared Spectroscopy of Materials by Atomic Force Microscopy](http://www.microscopy-analysis.com/files/jwiley_microscopy/2010_April_Prater.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=July 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} *Microscopy and Analysis*, **24**, 5–8 (2010\\){{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/BOE.2\\.000037\\|title\\=Sub\\-wavelength infrared imaging of lipids\\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Yarrow\\|first1\\=Fiona\\|last2\\=Kennedy\\|first2\\=Eamonn\\|last3\\=Salaun\\|first3\\=Frederic\\|last4\\=Rice\\|first4\\=James H.\\|journal\\=Biomedical Optics Express\\|volume\\=2\\|pages\\=37–43\\|pmid\\=21326633\\|issue\\=1\\|pmc\\=3028496}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ruggeri\\|first1\\=Francesco Simone\\|last2\\=Mannini\\|first2\\=Benedetta\\|last3\\=Schmid\\|first3\\=Roman\\|last4\\=Vendruscolo\\|first4\\=Michele\\|last5\\=Knowles\\|first5\\=Tuomas P. J.\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-10\\|title\\=Single molecule secondary structure determination of proteins through infrared absorption nanospectroscopy\\|journal\\=Nature Communications\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=2945\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-020\\-16728\\-1 \\|pmid\\=32522983 \\| pmc\\=7287102 \\|bibcode\\=2020NatCo..11\\.2945R \\|issn\\=2041\\-1723}} This new technique can be referred to as AFM\\-FTIR, AFM\\-IR and NSOM/FTIR. AFM and NSOM can be used to detect the response when a modulated infrared radiation generated by an FTIR spectrometer is absorbed by a material. In the [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") technique the absorption of the radiation by sample will cause a rapid thermal expansion wave which will be transferred to the vibrational modes of the AFM cantilever. Specifically, thermal expansion wave induces a vertical displacement of the ATM tip (Figure 6\\).{{cite journal\\|title\\=Nanoscale optical imaging by atomic force infrared microscopy\\|doi\\=10\\.1039/b9nr00279k\\|date\\=2010\\|last1\\=Rice\\|first1\\=James H.\\|journal\\=Nanoscale\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=660–7\\|pmid\\=20648306\\|bibcode \\= 2010Nanos...2\\..660R \\|url\\=http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/4463/1/nanoscale2010\\_rev.pdf\\|hdl\\=10197/4463}} A local IR absorption spectrum then can be obtained through the measurement of the amplitude of the cantilever, which is a function of the IR source wavelength. For example, when the radiation laser wavelength is tuned at the resonance frequency with the vibrational absorption frequency of the sample, the displacement intensity of the cantilever will increase until the laser wavelength reaches the maximum of sample absorption. The displacement of the cantilever will then be reduced as the laser wavelength is tuned past the absorption maximum. This approach can map chemical composition beyond the diffraction\\-limit resolution and can also provide three\\-dimensional topographic, thermal and mechanical information at the nanoscale. Overall, it overcomes the resolution limit of traditional IR spectroscopy and adds chemical and mechanical mapping to the AFM and NSOM.",
"[thumb\\|Figure 6\\. Schematic diagram of surface deformation effects creating displacement of cantilever](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_6.jpg \"KLSBFig 6.jpg\")",
"#### Infrared light source",
"The ideal IR source should be monochromatic and tunable within a wide range of wavelength. According to *T* ∝*d*4/*λ*4, where *T* is the transmission coefficient, *d* the aperture diameter and *λ* is wavelength, the aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR transmission is even more limited due to the long infrared wavelength;{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.66\\.163\\|title\\=Theory of Diffraction by Small Holes\\|date\\=1944\\|last1\\=Bethe\\|first1\\=H.\\|journal\\=Physical Review\\|volume\\=66\\|issue\\=7–8\\|pages\\=163–182\\|bibcode \\= 1944PhRv...66\\..163B }}C. J. Bouwkamp, *Philips Res. Rep.*, **5**, 321–332 (1950\\) therefore, an intense IR source is needed to offset the low transmission through the optical fiber. The common bright IR light sources are the [free\\-electron laser](/wiki/Free-electron_laser \"Free-electron laser\") (FEL), color\\-center lasers, [CO2 lasers](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_laser \"Carbon dioxide laser\") and [laser diodes](/wiki/Laser_diode \"Laser diode\"). FEL is an excellent IR source, with 2–20 μm spectral range,{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.121739\\|title\\=Free\\-electron\\-laser near\\-field nanospectroscopy\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Cricenti\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Generosi\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Perfetti\\|first3\\=P.\\|last4\\=Gilligan\\|first4\\=J. M.\\|last5\\=Tolk\\|first5\\=N. H.\\|last6\\=Coluzza\\|first6\\=C.\\|last7\\=Margaritondo\\|first7\\=G.\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=73\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=151\\|bibcode \\= 1998ApPhL..73\\..151C }}{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0168\\-583X(98\\)00293\\-6\\|title\\=Activities of the CLIO infrared facility\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Glotin\\|first1\\=F\\|journal\\=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms\\|volume\\=144\\|issue\\=1–4\\|pages\\=8–17\\|bibcode \\= 1998NIMPB.144\\....8G }} short pulses (picosecond) and high average power (0\\.1\\-1 W). Alternately, a tabletop picosecond [optical parametric oscillator](/wiki/Optical_parametric_oscillator \"Optical parametric oscillator\") (OPO) can be used which is less expensive, but has a limited tunability and a lower power\\-output.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/OL.31\\.002344\\|title\\=Generation of a squeezed vacuum resonant on a rubidium D1 line with periodically poled KTiOPO4\\|date\\=2006\\|last1\\=Tanimura\\|first1\\=Takahito\\|last2\\=Akamatsu\\|first2\\=Daisuke\\|last3\\=Yokoi\\|first3\\=Yoshihiko\\|last4\\=Furusawa\\|first4\\=Akira\\|last5\\=Kozuma\\|first5\\=Mikio\\|journal\\=Optics Letters\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=15\\|pages\\=2344–6\\|pmid\\=16832480\\|arxiv \\= quant\\-ph/0603214 \\|bibcode \\= 2006OptL...31\\.2344T \\|s2cid\\=18700111}}",
"#### NSOM/FTIR experimental setup",
"The essence of NSOM/FTIR is that it allows the detection of non\\-propagating evanescent waves in the near\\-field (less than one wavelength from the sample), thus yielding high spatial resolution. Depending on the detection modes of these non\\-propagating evanescent waves, two NSOM/FTIR instrumentations are available: apertureless NSOM/FTIR and aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR.",
"Aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR\nIn aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR, the probe is a waveguide with a tapered tip with a very small, sub\\-wavelength size aperture. When the aperture is brought into the near\\-field, it collects the non\\-propagating light and guides it to the detector. In general, there are two modes when the aperture is scanned over the sample: illumination mode and collection mode (Figure 7\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 7\\. Schematic diagram of (1\\) collection mode and (2\\) illumination mode](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_7.jpg \"KLSBFig 7.jpg\")",
"The high\\-quality infrared fiber tip is very important in realizing NSOM/FTIR technique. There are several types of fibers, such as [sapphire](/wiki/Sapphire \"Sapphire\"), [chalcogenide glass](/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass \"Chalcogenide glass\"), [fluoride glass](/wiki/Fluoride_glass \"Fluoride glass\") and hollow silica guides.Sanghera, J. S., and Aggarwal, I. D., *Infrared Fiber Optics* (Boca Raton; Florida: CRC) 1998 Chalcogenide glasses are widely used because of their high transmittance in the broad IR range of 2–12 μm.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/50\\.661012\\|title\\=Fabrication of single\\-mode chalcogenide optical fiber\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Mossadegh\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Sanghera\\|first2\\=J.S.\\|last3\\=Schaafsma\\|first3\\=D.\\|last4\\=Cole\\|first4\\=B.J.\\|last5\\=Nguyen\\|first5\\=V.Q.\\|last6\\=Miklos\\|first6\\=R.E.\\|last7\\=Aggarwal\\|first7\\=I.D.\\|journal\\=Journal of Lightwave Technology\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=214–217 \\|bibcode \\= 1998JLwT...16\\..214M }} The fluoride fibers also exhibit low transmitting losses beyond 3\\.0 μm.",
"Apertureless NSOM/FTIR\nThe probe is a sharp metal tip ending with a single or a few atoms. The sample is illuminated from [far\\-field](/wiki/Near_and_far_field \"Near and far field\") and the radiation is focused at the contact area between probe and sample. When this tip approaches the sample, usually within 10 nm, the incident electromagnetic field is enhanced due to the resonant surface plasma excitation as well as due to hot\\-spots in the sharp tip. The dipole interaction between the tip and sample change the non\\-propagating waves into propagating waves by scattering, and a detector collects the signal in the far\\-field. An apertureless NSOM/FTIR usually has better resolution (\\~5–30 nm) compared with aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR (\\~50–150 nm). One main challenge in apertureless NSOM/FTIR is a strong background signal because the scattering is obtained from both near\\-field and remote area of the probe. Thus, the small near\\-field contribution to the signal has to be extracted from the background. One solution is to use a very flat sample with only optical spatial fluctuation.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.119798\\|title\\=Infrared near\\-field imaging of implanted semiconductors: Evidence of a pure dielectric contrast\\|date\\=1997\\|last1\\=Lahrech\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Bachelot\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Gleyzes\\|first3\\=P.\\|last4\\=Boccara\\|first4\\=A. C.\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=575\\|bibcode \\= 1997ApPhL..71\\..575L \\|s2cid\\=11004387\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Another solution is to apply constant\\-height mode scanning or pseudo\\-constant\\-height mode scanning.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.371126\\|title\\=Removing optical artifacts in near\\-field scanning optical microscopy by using a three\\-dimensional scanning mode\\|date\\=1999\\|last1\\=Jordan\\|first1\\=Claire E.\\|last2\\=Stranick\\|first2\\=Stephan J.\\|last3\\=Richter\\|first3\\=Lee J.\\|last4\\=Cavanagh\\|first4\\=Richard R.\\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Physics\\|volume\\=86\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=2785\\|bibcode \\= 1999JAP....86\\.2785J \\|url\\=https://zenodo.org/record/1232053}}",
"Experimental scheme of aperture\\-based NSOM/FTIR\nFigure 8 shows the experimental setup used in NSOM/FTIR in the external reflection mode. FEL source is focused on the sample from the far\\-field using a mirror. The distance between the probe and a sample is kept at a few nanometers during scanning.",
"[thumb\\|Figure 8: General NSOM/FTIR setup.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_8.jpg \"KLSBFig 8.jpg\")",
"Figure 9 is the cross\\-section of a NSOM/FTIR instrument. As shown below, sample is placed on a piezo\\-electric tube scanner, in which the x\\-y tube has four parts, namely x\\+, x\\-, y\\+ and y\\-. Lateral (x\\-y plane) oscillation of the fiber tip is induced by applying an AC voltage to a [dither](/wiki/Dither \"Dither\") piezo\\-scanner. Also, the fiber tip is fixed to a bimorph piezo\\-scanner so that the amplitude of the oscillation of the tip can be monitored through the scanner.\n \n[thumb\\|Figure 9: Cross\\-section of NSOM/FTIR{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.1149089\\|title\\=A multipurpose scanning near\\-field optical microscope: Reflectivity and photocurrent on semiconductor and biological samples\\|date\\=1998\\|last1\\=Cricenti\\|first1\\=A.\\|last2\\=Generosi\\|first2\\=R.\\|last3\\=Barchesi\\|first3\\=C.\\|last4\\=Luce\\|first4\\=M.\\|last5\\=Rinaldi\\|first5\\=M.\\|journal\\=Review of Scientific Instruments\\|volume\\=69\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=3240\\|bibcode \\= 1998RScI...69\\.3240C }}](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_9.jpg \"KLSBFig 9.jpg\")",
"#### AFM\\-IR setup",
"Spatial resolution\nThe spatial resolution of an [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") instrument is related to the contact area between the probe and sample.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0031\\-8949/1987/T19A/010\\|title\\=Tip Surface Interactions in STM and AFM\\|date\\=1987\\|last1\\=Pethica\\|first1\\=J B\\|last2\\=Oliver\\|first2\\=W C\\|journal\\=Physica Scripta\\|volume\\=T19A\\|pages\\=61–66\\|bibcode \\= 1987PhST...19\\...61P \\|s2cid\\=250806412 }} The contact area is given by *a*3 \\= 3*PR*/4*E*\\* and 1/*E*\\* \\= (1\\-*n*12)/ *E*1\\+ (1\\-*n*22)/ *E*2, where *P* is the force employed to the probe, *n*1 and *n*2 represent the Poisson ratios of the sample and probe, respectively, and *E*1 and *E*2 are the elastic moduli of the sample and probe materials respectively.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0040\\-6090(93\\)90724\\-4\\|title\\=Step\\-scan FT\\-IR photothermal spectral depth profiling of polymer films\\|date\\=1993\\|last1\\=Palmer\\|first1\\=R\\|last2\\=Dittmar\\|first2\\=R\\|journal\\=Thin Solid Films\\|volume\\=223\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=31–38\\|bibcode \\= 1993TSF...223\\...31P }} Typically, an AFM\\-IR has a lateral spatial resolution of 10–400 nm, for example, 100 nm, *λ*/150, and *λ*/400\\. Recently, Ruggeri et al. have demonstrated the acquisition of infrared absorption spectra and chemical maps at the single molecule level in the case of protein molecules with ca. 10 nm diameter and a molecular weight of 400 kDa.",
"Instrumentation\nIn AFM\\-IR, an AFM probe is used to measure the absorption response of the sample to infrared radiation. The general approach for AFM/FTIR is shown in Figure 10\\.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1366/0003702001949618\\|title\\=Infrared Spectroscopy with an Atomic Force Microscope\\|date\\=2000\\|last1\\=Anderson\\|first1\\=Mark S.\\|journal\\=Applied Spectroscopy\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=349–352\\|bibcode \\= 2000ApSpe..54\\..349A \\|s2cid\\=95187852}}",
"[thumb\\|Figure 10\\. General approach used for AFM\\-FTIR. The output from the probe resembles an interferogram and is Fourier\\-transformed to obtain the infrared absorption spectrum of the sample.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_10.jpg \"KLSBFig 10.jpg\")",
"There are a few different experimental setups when the infrared radiation is projected onto the sample as shown below: top, side, and bottom illumination setups (Figure 11\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 11\\. Illumination setups used in AFM/FTIR spectroscopy.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_11.jpg \"KLSBFig 11.jpg\")",
"In the first developed setup of [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR%23External_links \"AFM-IR#External links\"), a sample is mounted onto an infrared\\-transparent [zinc selenide](/wiki/Zinc_selenide \"Zinc selenide\") prism for excitation purposes (Figure 12\\), then an optical parametric oscillator (OPO)\\-based tunable IR lased is radiated on the molecules to be probed by the instrument. Similar to conventional ATR spectroscopy, IR beam illuminates the sample through total internal reflection mechanism (Figure 12\\). The sample will heat up while absorbing radiation which causes a rapid thermal expansion of the sample surface. This expansion will increase the resonant oscillations of the AFM cantilever in a characteristic ringdown pattern (ringdown patterns means the decay of cantilever oscillation exponential in nature). Through Fourier transformation analysis, the signal could be isolated to obtain the amplitudes and frequencies of the oscillations. The amplitudes of the cantilever provide information of local absorption spectra, whereas the oscillation frequencies depend on the mechanical stiffness of the sample (Figure 12\\).",
"[thumb\\|Figure 12\\. The [AFM\\-IR](/wiki/AFM-IR \"AFM-IR\") technique combines AFM with an IR spectrometer as shown in this schematic.](/wiki/File:KLSBFig_12.jpg \"KLSBFig 12.jpg\")",
""
] |
Plot
----
Subhash is a [Col](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") in the [Indian Army](/wiki/Indian_Army "Indian Army"), whose father is the retired [CM](/wiki/Chief_minister "Chief minister") of [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"), and is now succeeded by his elder son Saravanan. Subhash calls his whole family along with his lover, Meera for a short trip. During a campaign involving the [Prime Ministerial](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") candidate Guptaji, Saravanan finds out that his friend Deepak has fled after extracting ₹40 crore on loan. Saravanan calls Deepak, who tells him to leave the ceremony.
On the other hand, Subhash tries to converse with Meera during the campaign and sends her a message. Realizing that she left her phone in the car, Meera goes to the parking lot, where her phone gets exchanged with that of a killer. After noting the killer duo's vehicle number, Meera tries to escape but gets attacked and brutally stomped to death by a woman disguised as a cop. Retrieving the phone, the woman gives a call to the cell bomb placed in a cooler at the stage. The bomb goes off, killing Guptaji and knocking down Saravanan and his family.
Subhash gets shattered to find Meera's corpse, while Saravanan gets framed for the assassination with the help of Deepak. Having recorded a conversation with Deepak, Saravanan calls for a press conference at his house amidst violent protests, but is found hanging in his room thus making the media believe that he was involved. Subhash finds out about the killer woman through the vehicle number Meera noted on her palm. Looking at the tattoo on her neck in the CCTV footage at the vehicle store and her phone's screen, Subhash manages to track her and finds that she is Kiara, a [London](/wiki/London "London")\-based assassin.
Subhash, with the help of a [hacker](/wiki/Hacker "Hacker") Jack, manages to trace Kaira and fights off her henchmen and kill her by hanging her in the same way she hanged Saravanan to death. Later, Subhash arrives in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") and is joined by his brother\-in\-law Maya Kannan and friend [Lt](/wiki/Lieutenant "Lieutenant") Diya. Targeting Deepak's account, they plan to extract the money. The mission goes as planned and Subhash retrieves the money from Deepak's account. However, the trio traces Deepak's location and finds him in *Algornia*, where they find him dead and a chase ensues, resulting in a heroic escape.
Subhash realises a person, posing as a blind man, has killed Deepak and framed him. They find that the person is the police commissioner of [Turkish Police Service](/wiki/General_Directorate_of_Security_%28Turkey%29 "General Directorate of Security (Turkey)"). Using Diya as a bait, Subhash lures the commissioner and his henchmen into a trap and fights them off, where he threatens to kill the commissioner, who then reveals that Syed Ibrahim Malik, a [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan")\-based terrorist is the real conspirator behind the explosion.
With the help of his [Lt Gen.](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28India%29 "Lieutenant general (India)") Rehman, Subhash decides to bring Malik to India on his own, where Diya accompanies him. They reach [Lahore](/wiki/Lahore "Lahore") illegally, where a covert operative Imran Khaleel introduces him to Malik's location and armed forces. Learning of Malik's daughter's wedding, Diya enters the house with a fake ID card during the celebrations and secretly drops flammable balls, which led to a fire accident during the sunrise. Malik is ordered by the [Pakistan Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army "Pakistan Army") [Gen.](/wiki/Army_general "Army general") Tahir Iqbal to accompany his officers to a safe house. Using the opportunity, Subhash chases after the vehicle and successfully takes Malik hostage.
Following a car chase, Subhash manages to escape, while Diya and Imran wait for him at the airport, but Malik is left in the car. Tahir admits Malik to a hospital, where he realises it is Malik's body double, who was ordered by Malik to accompany Tahir's army due to being held on gunpoint by Subhash. The two engage in hand\-to\-hand combat, following which Subash captured him. Disguised, Subhash and his gang board the plane before Tahir orders to stop it after the airport authorities identify Subhash.
The flight to India is stopped and Tahir rushes inside, only to realise that Subhash and his team took off in a flight to [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal"). Landing in Nepal, Subhash hands over Malik to the Indian Army. During the posthumous honouring of Saravanan, more conspirators including Saravanan's senior and ex\-PM candidate Varma are arrested and it is also revealed that Subhash killed Malik during a staged escape.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Subhash is a [Col](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") in the [Indian Army](/wiki/Indian_Army \"Indian Army\"), whose father is the retired [CM](/wiki/Chief_minister \"Chief minister\") of [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\"), and is now succeeded by his elder son Saravanan. Subhash calls his whole family along with his lover, Meera for a short trip. During a campaign involving the [Prime Ministerial](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India \"Prime Minister of India\") candidate Guptaji, Saravanan finds out that his friend Deepak has fled after extracting ₹40 crore on loan. Saravanan calls Deepak, who tells him to leave the ceremony.",
"On the other hand, Subhash tries to converse with Meera during the campaign and sends her a message. Realizing that she left her phone in the car, Meera goes to the parking lot, where her phone gets exchanged with that of a killer. After noting the killer duo's vehicle number, Meera tries to escape but gets attacked and brutally stomped to death by a woman disguised as a cop. Retrieving the phone, the woman gives a call to the cell bomb placed in a cooler at the stage. The bomb goes off, killing Guptaji and knocking down Saravanan and his family.",
"Subhash gets shattered to find Meera's corpse, while Saravanan gets framed for the assassination with the help of Deepak. Having recorded a conversation with Deepak, Saravanan calls for a press conference at his house amidst violent protests, but is found hanging in his room thus making the media believe that he was involved. Subhash finds out about the killer woman through the vehicle number Meera noted on her palm. Looking at the tattoo on her neck in the CCTV footage at the vehicle store and her phone's screen, Subhash manages to track her and finds that she is Kiara, a [London](/wiki/London \"London\")\\-based assassin.",
"Subhash, with the help of a [hacker](/wiki/Hacker \"Hacker\") Jack, manages to trace Kaira and fights off her henchmen and kill her by hanging her in the same way she hanged Saravanan to death. Later, Subhash arrives in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") and is joined by his brother\\-in\\-law Maya Kannan and friend [Lt](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") Diya. Targeting Deepak's account, they plan to extract the money. The mission goes as planned and Subhash retrieves the money from Deepak's account. However, the trio traces Deepak's location and finds him in *Algornia*, where they find him dead and a chase ensues, resulting in a heroic escape.",
"Subhash realises a person, posing as a blind man, has killed Deepak and framed him. They find that the person is the police commissioner of [Turkish Police Service](/wiki/General_Directorate_of_Security_%28Turkey%29 \"General Directorate of Security (Turkey)\"). Using Diya as a bait, Subhash lures the commissioner and his henchmen into a trap and fights them off, where he threatens to kill the commissioner, who then reveals that Syed Ibrahim Malik, a [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\")\\-based terrorist is the real conspirator behind the explosion.",
"With the help of his [Lt Gen.](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28India%29 \"Lieutenant general (India)\") Rehman, Subhash decides to bring Malik to India on his own, where Diya accompanies him. They reach [Lahore](/wiki/Lahore \"Lahore\") illegally, where a covert operative Imran Khaleel introduces him to Malik's location and armed forces. Learning of Malik's daughter's wedding, Diya enters the house with a fake ID card during the celebrations and secretly drops flammable balls, which led to a fire accident during the sunrise. Malik is ordered by the [Pakistan Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army \"Pakistan Army\") [Gen.](/wiki/Army_general \"Army general\") Tahir Iqbal to accompany his officers to a safe house. Using the opportunity, Subhash chases after the vehicle and successfully takes Malik hostage.",
"Following a car chase, Subhash manages to escape, while Diya and Imran wait for him at the airport, but Malik is left in the car. Tahir admits Malik to a hospital, where he realises it is Malik's body double, who was ordered by Malik to accompany Tahir's army due to being held on gunpoint by Subhash. The two engage in hand\\-to\\-hand combat, following which Subash captured him. Disguised, Subhash and his gang board the plane before Tahir orders to stop it after the airport authorities identify Subhash.",
"The flight to India is stopped and Tahir rushes inside, only to realise that Subhash and his team took off in a flight to [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\"). Landing in Nepal, Subhash hands over Malik to the Indian Army. During the posthumous honouring of Saravanan, more conspirators including Saravanan's senior and ex\\-PM candidate Varma are arrested and it is also revealed that Subhash killed Malik during a staged escape.",
""
] |
Recording
---------
Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li\-Mon decided early on that they would like to attempt to record basic tracks for the album at their own home studio, The Mapletree Ranch. To accomplish this, they hoped to bring in an outside engineer/producer with the mobile equipment necessary. Early candidates were [Ron](/wiki/Ron_Mael "Ron Mael") and [Russell Mael](/wiki/Russell_Mael "Russell Mael"), collectively known as [Sparks](/wiki/Sparks_%28band%29 "Sparks (band)"), who were keen to produce but had problems with scheduling.The Making Of It's Not Unusual By Jah Paul Jo
Greg Edward was a staff engineer and producer at Virgin Studios and also had the recording gear necessary. He became a valuable member of the production team and also served as cheerleader when the going got tough due to personnel changes within the band.
Sessions for the album began in early 1992\. Within weeks it became obvious that Tortelvis had personal problems and would not be able to continue. Some early recordings of songs from "It's Not Unusual" exist with Tortelvis vocals. Basic tracks continued to be recorded despite the fact that Dread Zeppelin no longer had a lead vocalist.
After an exhaustive search for a replacement, it was decided that band bassist, Put\-Mon, would take on the vocal duties. Inexplicably taking on the name of Gary B.I.B.B., Put\-Mon cut a more trim, youthful, pre\-Army era Elvis\-like figure.
[thumb\|left\|300px\|"It's Not Unusual Live!"With](/wiki/Image:Dztv_unusuallive_72.jpg "Dztv unusuallive 72.jpg") the departure of Tortelvis, as well as Ed Zeppelin and drummer Fresh Cheese 'n' Cheese, the production team decided a new approach was necessary. Rasta Li\-Mon introduced "Velveeta," a computer\-driven drum machine and samples box that included a lot of the sound effects that the live Dread Zeppelin had become famous for. Augmenting "Velveeta" was new percussionist, Spice.
Overdubs were recorded at Virgin Studios in Los Angeles with Greg Edward engineering. The band were honored to have [Randy Bachman](/wiki/Randy_Bachman "Randy Bachman") of [Bachman\-Turner Overdrive](/wiki/Bachman-Turner_Overdrive "Bachman-Turner Overdrive") and [The Guess Who](/wiki/The_Guess_Who "The Guess Who") contribute a guest vocal and guitar solo on his composition, "[Takin' Care of Business](/wiki/Takin%27_Care_of_Business_%28song%29 "Takin' Care of Business (song)")."
Also adding several amazing vocal performances was the legendary [Screamin' Jay Hawkins](/wiki/Screamin%27_Jay_Hawkins "Screamin' Jay Hawkins") who had become a regular at Dread Zeppelin gigs in the Los Angeles area. In the true Dread Zeppelin spirit, Screamin' Jay insisted on being credited on the album as "Dr. Paradox." "Jungle Boogie" became a vocal tour\-de\-force for Screamin' Jay as he both sings and performs his trademark vocal effects.
The album's final mix was recorded at Scream Studio in Studio City, CA by Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li\-Mon.
|
[
"Recording\n---------",
"Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li\\-Mon decided early on that they would like to attempt to record basic tracks for the album at their own home studio, The Mapletree Ranch. To accomplish this, they hoped to bring in an outside engineer/producer with the mobile equipment necessary. Early candidates were [Ron](/wiki/Ron_Mael \"Ron Mael\") and [Russell Mael](/wiki/Russell_Mael \"Russell Mael\"), collectively known as [Sparks](/wiki/Sparks_%28band%29 \"Sparks (band)\"), who were keen to produce but had problems with scheduling.The Making Of It's Not Unusual By Jah Paul Jo",
"Greg Edward was a staff engineer and producer at Virgin Studios and also had the recording gear necessary. He became a valuable member of the production team and also served as cheerleader when the going got tough due to personnel changes within the band.",
"Sessions for the album began in early 1992\\. Within weeks it became obvious that Tortelvis had personal problems and would not be able to continue. Some early recordings of songs from \"It's Not Unusual\" exist with Tortelvis vocals. Basic tracks continued to be recorded despite the fact that Dread Zeppelin no longer had a lead vocalist.",
"After an exhaustive search for a replacement, it was decided that band bassist, Put\\-Mon, would take on the vocal duties. Inexplicably taking on the name of Gary B.I.B.B., Put\\-Mon cut a more trim, youthful, pre\\-Army era Elvis\\-like figure.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|\"It's Not Unusual Live!\"With](/wiki/Image:Dztv_unusuallive_72.jpg \"Dztv unusuallive 72.jpg\") the departure of Tortelvis, as well as Ed Zeppelin and drummer Fresh Cheese 'n' Cheese, the production team decided a new approach was necessary. Rasta Li\\-Mon introduced \"Velveeta,\" a computer\\-driven drum machine and samples box that included a lot of the sound effects that the live Dread Zeppelin had become famous for. Augmenting \"Velveeta\" was new percussionist, Spice.",
"Overdubs were recorded at Virgin Studios in Los Angeles with Greg Edward engineering. The band were honored to have [Randy Bachman](/wiki/Randy_Bachman \"Randy Bachman\") of [Bachman\\-Turner Overdrive](/wiki/Bachman-Turner_Overdrive \"Bachman-Turner Overdrive\") and [The Guess Who](/wiki/The_Guess_Who \"The Guess Who\") contribute a guest vocal and guitar solo on his composition, \"[Takin' Care of Business](/wiki/Takin%27_Care_of_Business_%28song%29 \"Takin' Care of Business (song)\").\"",
"Also adding several amazing vocal performances was the legendary [Screamin' Jay Hawkins](/wiki/Screamin%27_Jay_Hawkins \"Screamin' Jay Hawkins\") who had become a regular at Dread Zeppelin gigs in the Los Angeles area. In the true Dread Zeppelin spirit, Screamin' Jay insisted on being credited on the album as \"Dr. Paradox.\" \"Jungle Boogie\" became a vocal tour\\-de\\-force for Screamin' Jay as he both sings and performs his trademark vocal effects.",
"The album's final mix was recorded at Scream Studio in Studio City, CA by Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li\\-Mon.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Watford
Born in [Falmouth, Jamaica](/wiki/Falmouth%2C_Jamaica "Falmouth, Jamaica"), Blissett began his career with Watford as an apprentice on leaving school in the summer of 1974\. He turned professional for the [1975–76 season](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_in_English_football "1975–76 in English football"), making three appearances in the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division "Football League Fourth Division") and scoring one goal. Four goalless appearances came in the [1976–77 season](/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_in_English_football "1976–77 in English football"), before he broke into the first team under new manager [Graham Taylor](/wiki/Graham_Taylor_%28footballer%29 "Graham Taylor (footballer)") in [1977–78](/wiki/1977%E2%80%9378_Watford_F.C._season "1977–78 Watford F.C. season"), when his six goals in 33 games helped Watford win promotion to the [Football League Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division"). 21 goals the following campaign played a big part in a second successive promotion which took them into the [Football League Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division"). He remained among the club's top goalscorers over the next three seasons as Watford consolidated in the Second Division and finally reached the [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division") for the first time in their history in 1982, at the end of a season in which Blissett scored 19 league goals.
Blissett and his teammates made the headlines in the [1982–83 season](/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Watford_F.C._season "1982–83 Watford F.C. season") as they surprised many by proving successful in the First Division. Watford briefly led the league in the autumn, before finishing second to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") and qualified for the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup "UEFA Cup"). In Watford's first ever First Division season, Blissett was the division's top goalscorer that season with 27 goals.
### A.C. Milan
He subsequently moved to [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan "A.C. Milan") for £1 million in June 1983, but he was not as successful as he had been in England, scoring only five goals in 30 appearances. It has since been rumoured that A.C. Milan confused him with his Watford teammate [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 "John Barnes (footballer)"). However Italian football journalist [Gabriele Marcotti](/wiki/Gabriele_Marcotti "Gabriele Marcotti") believes this story is untrue. "There are two main reason for which I think it's not true," he says. "First, even the most ignorant and provincial person could see that Blissett and Barnes looked absolutely nothing alike. Second, the fact is that at that time Milan were looking for an out\-and\-out goalscorer and Barnes just wasn't that type of player."{{cite news\| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/jan/05/theknowledge.sport \| location\=London \| work\=The Guardian \| first1\=Georgina \| last1\=Turner \| first2\=Paul \| last2\=Doyle \| title\=Did AC Milan sign Luther Blissett by mistake? \| date\=6 January 2005}} "No matter how much money you have here", Blissett famously complained about Italy, "you can't seem to get [Rice Krispies](/wiki/Rice_Krispies "Rice Krispies"),"{{cite book \|title\=Soccernomics: Why England Loses, Why Germany and Brazil Win, and Why the U.S., Japan, Australia, Turkey—And Even Iraq—Are Destined to Become the Kings of the World's Most Popular Sport \|last\=Kuper \|first\=Simon \|author\-link\=Simon Kuper \|author2\=Szymanski, Stefan \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=\[\[Nation Books]] \|location\=New York, NY \|isbn\=978\-1\-56858\-425\-6 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/soccernomicswhye00kupe\_0/page/47 47] \|url\-access\=registration \|url\=https://archive.org/details/soccernomicswhye00kupe\_0/page/47 }} though he later claimed this was a joking response to what he considered a stupid question from a journalist.[FourFourTwo magazine \- October 2015](https://archive.org/details/FourFourTwo_October_2015_UK/page/n57/mode/2up), page 58\.
### Return to Watford
Blissett was sold back to Watford for £550,000 after one season with AC Milan. In his absence, Watford had reached their first [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final, but lost to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. "Everton F.C."), while new signing [Mo Johnston](/wiki/Mo_Johnston "Mo Johnston") was top scorer with 20 goals in the First Division.
On Blissett's return, Watford failed to achieve their successes of the previous two seasons, but survived another four seasons in the First Division. Blissett scored 21 goals in his first season back in the First Division, though the Hornets could only manage a mid table finish. He also helped them reach the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") semi finals in [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_in_English_football "1986–87 in English football"), but a year later they were relegated with Blissett scoring just four times in the league. He remained with the club until November 1988, when he signed for [AFC Bournemouth](/wiki/AFC_Bournemouth "AFC Bournemouth").
### Bournemouth
Blissett was successful at [Dean Court](/wiki/Dean_Court "Dean Court"), scoring 19 times from 30 league games in [1988–89](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football "1988–89 in English football") as the Cherries finished 10th in the Second Division, after emerging as surprise promotion contenders in only their second season at that level. He scored 18 goals in [1989–90](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football "1989–90 in English football"), though a slump in the second half of the season dragged the Cherries down the table and on the last day of the season they were beaten at home by [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C.") in a result which gave the visitor's promotion as Second Division champions and relegated the Cherries to the Third Division. Undeterred, Blissett continued his fine form for [Harry Redknapp](/wiki/Harry_Redknapp "Harry Redknapp")'s team, scoring 19 goals, though it wasn't enough to earn promotion at the end of the [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football "1990–91 in English football") campaign.
### Third spell at Watford
Blissett returned to Watford for a third spell at the start of the [1991–92](/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_in_English_football "1991–92 in English football") season. They were still in the Second Division, and his 10 goals in the league that season were not enough for Watford to look like promotion contenders, meaning that they would be founder members of the rebranded Division One – rather than the new [FA Premier League](/wiki/FA_Premier_League "FA Premier League") – for the [1992–93](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_in_English_football "1992–93 in English football") season. Blissett never played a first team game for Watford again, his only action in 1992–93 coming in shape of a three\-match loan spell at West Bromwich Albion, which resulted in one Division Two goal.
### Lower leagues
He ended his English league career in late 1993 with a five\-match spell with Division Three club [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. "Mansfield Town F.C.") (where he scored once) that had followed 10 games club [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. "Bury F.C."). After that came a five\-match spell in the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference "Football Conference") at [Southport](/wiki/Southport_F.C. "Southport F.C."), producing two goals, and four games and a goal for [Derry City](/wiki/Derry_City_F.C. "Derry City F.C.") in the [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland "League of Ireland"), before he finally retired from playing in 1995 after a season playing for [Fakenham Town](/wiki/Fakenham_Town_F.C. "Fakenham Town F.C.") in the [Eastern Counties Football League](/wiki/Eastern_Counties_Football_League "Eastern Counties Football League").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sporting\-heroes.net/football\-heroes/displayhero\_club.asp?HeroID\=38448 \|title\=Luther Blissett — Watford FC — Football\-Heroes.net \|publisher\=Sporting\-heroes.net \|access\-date\=8 February 2010}}
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Watford",
"Born in [Falmouth, Jamaica](/wiki/Falmouth%2C_Jamaica \"Falmouth, Jamaica\"), Blissett began his career with Watford as an apprentice on leaving school in the summer of 1974\\. He turned professional for the [1975–76 season](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_in_English_football \"1975–76 in English football\"), making three appearances in the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division \"Football League Fourth Division\") and scoring one goal. Four goalless appearances came in the [1976–77 season](/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_in_English_football \"1976–77 in English football\"), before he broke into the first team under new manager [Graham Taylor](/wiki/Graham_Taylor_%28footballer%29 \"Graham Taylor (footballer)\") in [1977–78](/wiki/1977%E2%80%9378_Watford_F.C._season \"1977–78 Watford F.C. season\"), when his six goals in 33 games helped Watford win promotion to the [Football League Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\"). 21 goals the following campaign played a big part in a second successive promotion which took them into the [Football League Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\"). He remained among the club's top goalscorers over the next three seasons as Watford consolidated in the Second Division and finally reached the [First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\") for the first time in their history in 1982, at the end of a season in which Blissett scored 19 league goals.",
"Blissett and his teammates made the headlines in the [1982–83 season](/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Watford_F.C._season \"1982–83 Watford F.C. season\") as they surprised many by proving successful in the First Division. Watford briefly led the league in the autumn, before finishing second to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") and qualified for the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup \"UEFA Cup\"). In Watford's first ever First Division season, Blissett was the division's top goalscorer that season with 27 goals.",
"### A.C. Milan",
"He subsequently moved to [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan \"A.C. Milan\") for £1 million in June 1983, but he was not as successful as he had been in England, scoring only five goals in 30 appearances. It has since been rumoured that A.C. Milan confused him with his Watford teammate [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 \"John Barnes (footballer)\"). However Italian football journalist [Gabriele Marcotti](/wiki/Gabriele_Marcotti \"Gabriele Marcotti\") believes this story is untrue. \"There are two main reason for which I think it's not true,\" he says. \"First, even the most ignorant and provincial person could see that Blissett and Barnes looked absolutely nothing alike. Second, the fact is that at that time Milan were looking for an out\\-and\\-out goalscorer and Barnes just wasn't that type of player.\"{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/jan/05/theknowledge.sport \\| location\\=London \\| work\\=The Guardian \\| first1\\=Georgina \\| last1\\=Turner \\| first2\\=Paul \\| last2\\=Doyle \\| title\\=Did AC Milan sign Luther Blissett by mistake? \\| date\\=6 January 2005}} \"No matter how much money you have here\", Blissett famously complained about Italy, \"you can't seem to get [Rice Krispies](/wiki/Rice_Krispies \"Rice Krispies\"),\"{{cite book \\|title\\=Soccernomics: Why England Loses, Why Germany and Brazil Win, and Why the U.S., Japan, Australia, Turkey—And Even Iraq—Are Destined to Become the Kings of the World's Most Popular Sport \\|last\\=Kuper \\|first\\=Simon \\|author\\-link\\=Simon Kuper \\|author2\\=Szymanski, Stefan \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Nation Books]] \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-56858\\-425\\-6 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/soccernomicswhye00kupe\\_0/page/47 47] \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/soccernomicswhye00kupe\\_0/page/47 }} though he later claimed this was a joking response to what he considered a stupid question from a journalist.[FourFourTwo magazine \\- October 2015](https://archive.org/details/FourFourTwo_October_2015_UK/page/n57/mode/2up), page 58\\.",
"### Return to Watford",
"Blissett was sold back to Watford for £550,000 after one season with AC Milan. In his absence, Watford had reached their first [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final, but lost to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. \"Everton F.C.\"), while new signing [Mo Johnston](/wiki/Mo_Johnston \"Mo Johnston\") was top scorer with 20 goals in the First Division.",
"On Blissett's return, Watford failed to achieve their successes of the previous two seasons, but survived another four seasons in the First Division. Blissett scored 21 goals in his first season back in the First Division, though the Hornets could only manage a mid table finish. He also helped them reach the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") semi finals in [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_in_English_football \"1986–87 in English football\"), but a year later they were relegated with Blissett scoring just four times in the league. He remained with the club until November 1988, when he signed for [AFC Bournemouth](/wiki/AFC_Bournemouth \"AFC Bournemouth\").",
"### Bournemouth",
"Blissett was successful at [Dean Court](/wiki/Dean_Court \"Dean Court\"), scoring 19 times from 30 league games in [1988–89](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football \"1988–89 in English football\") as the Cherries finished 10th in the Second Division, after emerging as surprise promotion contenders in only their second season at that level. He scored 18 goals in [1989–90](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football \"1989–90 in English football\"), though a slump in the second half of the season dragged the Cherries down the table and on the last day of the season they were beaten at home by [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\") in a result which gave the visitor's promotion as Second Division champions and relegated the Cherries to the Third Division. Undeterred, Blissett continued his fine form for [Harry Redknapp](/wiki/Harry_Redknapp \"Harry Redknapp\")'s team, scoring 19 goals, though it wasn't enough to earn promotion at the end of the [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football \"1990–91 in English football\") campaign.",
"### Third spell at Watford",
"Blissett returned to Watford for a third spell at the start of the [1991–92](/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_in_English_football \"1991–92 in English football\") season. They were still in the Second Division, and his 10 goals in the league that season were not enough for Watford to look like promotion contenders, meaning that they would be founder members of the rebranded Division One – rather than the new [FA Premier League](/wiki/FA_Premier_League \"FA Premier League\") – for the [1992–93](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_in_English_football \"1992–93 in English football\") season. Blissett never played a first team game for Watford again, his only action in 1992–93 coming in shape of a three\\-match loan spell at West Bromwich Albion, which resulted in one Division Two goal.",
"### Lower leagues",
"He ended his English league career in late 1993 with a five\\-match spell with Division Three club [Mansfield Town](/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C. \"Mansfield Town F.C.\") (where he scored once) that had followed 10 games club [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. \"Bury F.C.\"). After that came a five\\-match spell in the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference \"Football Conference\") at [Southport](/wiki/Southport_F.C. \"Southport F.C.\"), producing two goals, and four games and a goal for [Derry City](/wiki/Derry_City_F.C. \"Derry City F.C.\") in the [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland \"League of Ireland\"), before he finally retired from playing in 1995 after a season playing for [Fakenham Town](/wiki/Fakenham_Town_F.C. \"Fakenham Town F.C.\") in the [Eastern Counties Football League](/wiki/Eastern_Counties_Football_League \"Eastern Counties Football League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sporting\\-heroes.net/football\\-heroes/displayhero\\_club.asp?HeroID\\=38448 \\|title\\=Luther Blissett — Watford FC — Football\\-Heroes.net \\|publisher\\=Sporting\\-heroes.net \\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2010}}",
""
] |
Recent Seasons
--------------
The 2001 fall season marked Georgetown's last year in Division I. The 2001 season was a building year for the team.
The spring and fall 2002 seasons marked a new start for Georgetown that began with a last minute victory over [Catholic University](/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_America "The Catholic University of America") in the Capitol Cup tournament.
During the fall of 2002, Georgetown moved from Division I to Division II. They subsequently won the Potomac Rugby Union's Division II championship.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}}
Since 2004, the Club has been a sponsor of the annual Run For Rigby to raise money for off\-campus housing safety awareness.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.runforrigby.org/Run\_for\_Rigby/Sponsors.html \|title\=Sponsors \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-14 \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016131614/http://www.runforrigby.org/Run\_for\_Rigby/Sponsors.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
That same season, Georgetown shut out [Salisbury University](/wiki/Salisbury_University "Salisbury University") in the PRU championship,{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}} avenging their last minute loss to Salisbury in 2003\.
The spring 2005 season marked Georgetown's championship run into Final Four of the USA Rugby National Tournament.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}}
During the Spring 2009 season, Georgetown did not participate in the annual Capitol Cup tournament due to a scheduling conflict with the National D2 Playoffs.
Georgetown in 2009 defeated \#1 seed Cal Maritime, 20\-17, in the quarterfinals to advance to the National D2 semifinals.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}} This marks the second time in school history that the Hoya Ruggers have reached the Final Four of the USA Rugby National Tournament.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}}
In 2013, the club formally organized a competitive Rugby Sevens side which placed 11th out of 24 teams in the Las Vegas Invitational. In 2014, 2016 and 2017 the sevens team won the James River Christmas Sevens tournament in Richmond, VA, held annually in December.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}} In February 2015, the side went on to win the Bowl Championship at the Las Vegas Invitational with a record of four wins and two losses.
In the fall of 2016, the club moved up to Division 1AA Chesapeake Collegiate Rugby Conference.
In 2019, the club won its first Cherry Blossom Tournament Championship since 2014, beating D1 conference rivals Towson and Maryland in the process.
In 2020, the club dropped down to the Division II Mid\-Atlantic Rugby Conference in National Collegiate Rugby.
In the 2021/22 season, the year after the COVID\-19 pandemic, the club won five trophies. In the fall of 2021, the 15s team won the Mid\-Atlantic Regional Conference (MARC) and lost in the Elite Eight of the National Championship. In the spring of 2022, the club won the Cherry Blossom Tournament, Capitol Cup, and the MARC 7s Championship. The 7s team lost in the Elite Eight of the National Championship 7s tournament, too.
In the spring 2023 season, the team achieved a string of four consecutive conference championships by defeating Scranton in the MARC 7s championship. This victory sent GURFC to the nationals tournament in Boyds, Maryland, where the team achieved a joint 3/4 place with Norwich following a close semi\-final defeat to NC State. This came after victories over UNCW, University of Chicago, and Memphis.
|
[
"Recent Seasons\n--------------",
"The 2001 fall season marked Georgetown's last year in Division I. The 2001 season was a building year for the team.\nThe spring and fall 2002 seasons marked a new start for Georgetown that began with a last minute victory over [Catholic University](/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_America \"The Catholic University of America\") in the Capitol Cup tournament.",
"During the fall of 2002, Georgetown moved from Division I to Division II. They subsequently won the Potomac Rugby Union's Division II championship.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}}",
"Since 2004, the Club has been a sponsor of the annual Run For Rigby to raise money for off\\-campus housing safety awareness.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.runforrigby.org/Run\\_for\\_Rigby/Sponsors.html \\|title\\=Sponsors \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016131614/http://www.runforrigby.org/Run\\_for\\_Rigby/Sponsors.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"That same season, Georgetown shut out [Salisbury University](/wiki/Salisbury_University \"Salisbury University\") in the PRU championship,{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}} avenging their last minute loss to Salisbury in 2003\\.",
"The spring 2005 season marked Georgetown's championship run into Final Four of the USA Rugby National Tournament.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}}",
"During the Spring 2009 season, Georgetown did not participate in the annual Capitol Cup tournament due to a scheduling conflict with the National D2 Playoffs.",
"Georgetown in 2009 defeated \\#1 seed Cal Maritime, 20\\-17, in the quarterfinals to advance to the National D2 semifinals.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}} This marks the second time in school history that the Hoya Ruggers have reached the Final Four of the USA Rugby National Tournament.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}}",
"In 2013, the club formally organized a competitive Rugby Sevens side which placed 11th out of 24 teams in the Las Vegas Invitational. In 2014, 2016 and 2017 the sevens team won the James River Christmas Sevens tournament in Richmond, VA, held annually in December.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}} In February 2015, the side went on to win the Bowl Championship at the Las Vegas Invitational with a record of four wins and two losses.",
"In the fall of 2016, the club moved up to Division 1AA Chesapeake Collegiate Rugby Conference.",
"In 2019, the club won its first Cherry Blossom Tournament Championship since 2014, beating D1 conference rivals Towson and Maryland in the process.",
"In 2020, the club dropped down to the Division II Mid\\-Atlantic Rugby Conference in National Collegiate Rugby.",
"In the 2021/22 season, the year after the COVID\\-19 pandemic, the club won five trophies. In the fall of 2021, the 15s team won the Mid\\-Atlantic Regional Conference (MARC) and lost in the Elite Eight of the National Championship. In the spring of 2022, the club won the Cherry Blossom Tournament, Capitol Cup, and the MARC 7s Championship. The 7s team lost in the Elite Eight of the National Championship 7s tournament, too.",
"In the spring 2023 season, the team achieved a string of four consecutive conference championships by defeating Scranton in the MARC 7s championship. This victory sent GURFC to the nationals tournament in Boyds, Maryland, where the team achieved a joint 3/4 place with Norwich following a close semi\\-final defeat to NC State. This came after victories over UNCW, University of Chicago, and Memphis.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|Bilingual welcome stone in [English](/wiki/English_language "English language") and [Irish](/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language")](/wiki/Image:SeanchillRock.jpeg "SeanchillRock.jpeg")
### Early history
Shankill features a number of antiquities, including [ráths](/wiki/Ringfort "Ringfort") and [cromlechs](/wiki/Dolmen "Dolmen").
Around 1230, there were forests that were cleared under the orders of the then\-owner of Shankill, Archbishop Luke. Courts for serious crimes in the style of [assizes](/wiki/Assizes "Assizes") were conducted at Shankill during this period. To keep the native Gaelic Irish out, barriers and fortified gates protected parts of the townland. The manor of Shankill was overrun by the native Irish and completely destroyed a century later. In response to these incursions, a large garrison was re\-instated. The Irish were restrained from entering and the land was eventually re\-let as grazing land.
### Middle Ages
The Lawless family features prominently in the history of Shankill.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}} In 1408, family members took control of the seigniory of Shanganagh and, by 1480, several branches of the family were residents of Shankill.
Between 1400 and 1600, a number of fortified structures \- whose remains can still be seen to this day in Shankill and Rathmichael \- were built: Shankill Castle, Shanganagh Castle and a strong house known locally as Puck's Castle. The Walsh family, which came to prominence in the 16th century, built several further defensive structures in Shankill.
From 1640 onwards, the native Irish were subdued in a series of confrontations, leading to greater agricultural use of the lands. Around this time, Shankill was absorbed into the parish of Rathmichael.
The Walshes quit the lands of Shankill primarily due to the [Act of Commonwealth](/wiki/Act_of_Commonwealth "Act of Commonwealth"){{clarify\|date\=August 2014}} which redistributed landowners and tenancies. After this, the Lawless families regained possession for the third time of lands around Shankill. The last Lawless died in 1795, whereupon the lands became the possession of the third Sir William Domvile, resident of nearby Loughlinstown House. The Domvile family had been granted the lands surrounding Loughlinstown under [the Restoration](/wiki/Restoration_%28Ireland%29 "Restoration (Ireland)").
### 19th century
#### The Domviles
Shankill and Rathmichael were the property of Sir Charles Compton William Domvile (1822–1884\). Domvile was known as an uncompromising and ruthless landlord and sought to change the usage of land from the smallholdings that existed at the time of his inheritance of the estate. At this time Shankill was a rural village, but Domvile intended to build grand [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_architecture "Georgian architecture")\-style housing developments, squares and streets to gentrify the area, thereby making it attractive for wealthy Dublin city\-based professionals to live in. During Domvile's time, new roads and streets were laid out, as well as water mains which feed a relief tank from [Vartry Reservoir](/wiki/Vartry_Reservoir "Vartry Reservoir"), continuing on to [Stillorgan](/wiki/Stillorgan "Stillorgan") reservoir. However, Domvile was an impetuous man and acted unreasonably with his tenants and prospective buyers of estates on his holdings. His personal debts mounted as a result of his financing two large estates at Shankill and [Santry](/wiki/Santry "Santry"), ultimately resulting in his bankruptcy.
The net outcome of Domvile's actions was to halve the population of Shankill and Rathmichael during the 1860s. He evicted over 100 tenants, during a period of grinding poverty, and many were forced to re\-negotiate their tenancies at usurious rates. Many of the evicted ended up in the local workhouse, the Rathdown Work Union, which is now the site of Loughlinstown Hospital.
#### The new Shankill
A landowner with holdings adjacent to the Shankill townland, Benjamin Tilly, granted quarter\-acre holdings to some of the evicted tenants. Tilly's land straddled the townland border into Shanganagh, and thus the new holdings along the Shanganagh Road became known as 'Tillystown'. In 1871, there were over 60 houses, and around the start of the 20th century, this village became known as Shankill proper.
In 1911, a tract of land to the west of Shankill, known as 'New Vale', was developed as labourers' cottages.
### 20th and 21st centuries
Shankill initially comprised large agricultural tracts broken into smallholdings for tenant farmers, and larger, grander estates with fine country houses, many of which still exist today. Large housing estates have been built on many of these estates.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}} Additional tracts of land were also sold to developers who have built higher\-density housing than the larger\-plot housing estates constructed in the 1970s.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Bilingual welcome stone in [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") and [Irish](/wiki/Irish_language \"Irish language\")](/wiki/Image:SeanchillRock.jpeg \"SeanchillRock.jpeg\")",
"### Early history",
"Shankill features a number of antiquities, including [ráths](/wiki/Ringfort \"Ringfort\") and [cromlechs](/wiki/Dolmen \"Dolmen\").",
"Around 1230, there were forests that were cleared under the orders of the then\\-owner of Shankill, Archbishop Luke. Courts for serious crimes in the style of [assizes](/wiki/Assizes \"Assizes\") were conducted at Shankill during this period. To keep the native Gaelic Irish out, barriers and fortified gates protected parts of the townland. The manor of Shankill was overrun by the native Irish and completely destroyed a century later. In response to these incursions, a large garrison was re\\-instated. The Irish were restrained from entering and the land was eventually re\\-let as grazing land.",
"### Middle Ages",
"The Lawless family features prominently in the history of Shankill.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}} In 1408, family members took control of the seigniory of Shanganagh and, by 1480, several branches of the family were residents of Shankill.",
"Between 1400 and 1600, a number of fortified structures \\- whose remains can still be seen to this day in Shankill and Rathmichael \\- were built: Shankill Castle, Shanganagh Castle and a strong house known locally as Puck's Castle. The Walsh family, which came to prominence in the 16th century, built several further defensive structures in Shankill.",
"From 1640 onwards, the native Irish were subdued in a series of confrontations, leading to greater agricultural use of the lands. Around this time, Shankill was absorbed into the parish of Rathmichael.",
"The Walshes quit the lands of Shankill primarily due to the [Act of Commonwealth](/wiki/Act_of_Commonwealth \"Act of Commonwealth\"){{clarify\\|date\\=August 2014}} which redistributed landowners and tenancies. After this, the Lawless families regained possession for the third time of lands around Shankill. The last Lawless died in 1795, whereupon the lands became the possession of the third Sir William Domvile, resident of nearby Loughlinstown House. The Domvile family had been granted the lands surrounding Loughlinstown under [the Restoration](/wiki/Restoration_%28Ireland%29 \"Restoration (Ireland)\").",
"### 19th century",
"#### The Domviles",
"Shankill and Rathmichael were the property of Sir Charles Compton William Domvile (1822–1884\\). Domvile was known as an uncompromising and ruthless landlord and sought to change the usage of land from the smallholdings that existed at the time of his inheritance of the estate. At this time Shankill was a rural village, but Domvile intended to build grand [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_architecture \"Georgian architecture\")\\-style housing developments, squares and streets to gentrify the area, thereby making it attractive for wealthy Dublin city\\-based professionals to live in. During Domvile's time, new roads and streets were laid out, as well as water mains which feed a relief tank from [Vartry Reservoir](/wiki/Vartry_Reservoir \"Vartry Reservoir\"), continuing on to [Stillorgan](/wiki/Stillorgan \"Stillorgan\") reservoir. However, Domvile was an impetuous man and acted unreasonably with his tenants and prospective buyers of estates on his holdings. His personal debts mounted as a result of his financing two large estates at Shankill and [Santry](/wiki/Santry \"Santry\"), ultimately resulting in his bankruptcy.",
"The net outcome of Domvile's actions was to halve the population of Shankill and Rathmichael during the 1860s. He evicted over 100 tenants, during a period of grinding poverty, and many were forced to re\\-negotiate their tenancies at usurious rates. Many of the evicted ended up in the local workhouse, the Rathdown Work Union, which is now the site of Loughlinstown Hospital.",
"#### The new Shankill",
"A landowner with holdings adjacent to the Shankill townland, Benjamin Tilly, granted quarter\\-acre holdings to some of the evicted tenants. Tilly's land straddled the townland border into Shanganagh, and thus the new holdings along the Shanganagh Road became known as 'Tillystown'. In 1871, there were over 60 houses, and around the start of the 20th century, this village became known as Shankill proper.",
"In 1911, a tract of land to the west of Shankill, known as 'New Vale', was developed as labourers' cottages.",
"### 20th and 21st centuries",
"Shankill initially comprised large agricultural tracts broken into smallholdings for tenant farmers, and larger, grander estates with fine country houses, many of which still exist today. Large housing estates have been built on many of these estates.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}} Additional tracts of land were also sold to developers who have built higher\\-density housing than the larger\\-plot housing estates constructed in the 1970s.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
""
] |
Local antiquities and features
------------------------------
[thumb\|Puck's Castle](/wiki/Image:Puck%27s_Castle%2C_Co._Dublin%2C_Ireland.JPG "Puck's Castle, Co. Dublin, Ireland.JPG")
[thumb\|upright\|Ballycorus Chimney](/wiki/Image:Ballycorus_Lead_Mines_Chimney.jpeg "Ballycorus Lead Mines Chimney.jpeg")
[thumb\|Shanganagh Castle (18th century)](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_Castle.JPG "Shanganagh Castle.JPG")
[thumb\|upright\|St. James's Church, Crinken (1840\)](/wiki/File:Crinken_Church%2C_Shankill%2C_Co_Dublin.jpg "Crinken Church, Shankill, Co Dublin.jpg")
There are several antiquities in the area, including ruined churches and standing stones. The ruins of several castles and defensive\-type structures remain, including [Puck's Castle](/wiki/Puck%27s_Castle "Puck's Castle"), [Shankill Castle](/wiki/Shankill_Castle "Shankill Castle"), [Shanganagh Castle](/wiki/Shanganagh_Castle "Shanganagh Castle") and a [Martello Tower](/wiki/Martello_Tower "Martello Tower").
Some houses of architectural note include:{{fact\|date\=November 2023}} *Clontra*, a coastal [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_revival "Gothic revival") mansion near Corbawn Wood and Quinn's Road; Crinken Castle House, Crinken, and Shanganagh House, a large mansion now surrounded by local authority housing estates. Clontra was built for Dublin barrister James Anthony Lawson QC (later Attorney General of Ireland, Judge of the High Court and Privy Councillor) and designed by the 19th\-century architects [Sir Thomas Newenham Deane](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Newenham_Deane "Sir Thomas Newenham Deane") and [Benjamin Woodward](/wiki/Benjamin_Woodward "Benjamin Woodward") in their trademark Italian medieval style.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
The local library was formerly a courthouse built in the [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") style of granite and [mock Tudor](/wiki/Mock_Tudor "Mock Tudor") features. There are also some [follies](/wiki/Folly "Folly") such as a mock round tower built of red brick in the Castle Farm Farmyard.
Evidence of local industrial activity include the lead\-mine chimney at Ballycorus. Other features include the 'upside down' houses by the [Harcourt Street railway line](/wiki/Harcourt_Street_railway_line "Harcourt Street railway line") bridge, which was the site of the original post office, and has its guest rooms downstairs, and its kitchen and living room upstairs. Shankill was accessible via the original Kingstown\-Bray train line, which is now five metres from the sea in some places. A coastal wall was built from Killiney to Bray to try to stop the erosion, traces of which can still be seen along the beach. The medieval village of Longnon was sited some {{convert\|200\|yd\|m}} east of Quinn's Road beach but was obliterated by [coastal erosion](/wiki/Coastal_erosion "Coastal erosion").{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
### Buildings
#### Ballycorus Leadmines
{{main\|Ballycorus Leadmines}}
Site of a lead ore smelter, a mile\-long stone flue and a granite chimney on Carrickgollogan hill, which is visible from much of southeast Dublin.[The Mining Company of Ireland Ltd., short history of mining operations at Ballycorus](http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815190639/http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm \|date\=15 August 2007 }}
#### Carnegie Library
Tudor\-style library, architect R. M. Butler, 1912\.[An Taisce catalogue of photographs of Irish Carnegie Libraries](http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726213327/http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3\.pdf \|date\=26 July 2011 }}
#### Clonasleigh
Clonasleigh, a house replaced by Shankill Shopping Centre (since upgraded and re\-opened) was lived in by Frederick W. Meredith, once President of the Law Society, in the early 1900s. The name has been retained locally in Clonasleigh, a road with 16 houses, off Corbawn Lane, located close to the original house.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
#### Clontra
Gothic mansion designed by Deane and Woodward, 1860, interior murals by [John Hungerford Pollen](/wiki/John_Hungerford_Pollen_%28senior%29 "John Hungerford Pollen (senior)"). On {{convert\|15\|acre\|m2}} of parkland by the coast, adjacent to Corbawn Wood estate.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2560 \|title\=Clontra, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013}}
#### Dorney Court
Originally called Clare Mount, built c. 1832, this fine Victorian house was demolished in 1984\. Its site is now that of Shankill Garda Station. The grounds still contain a few [Sequoia](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens "Sequoia sempervirens") and [Scots Pine](/wiki/Scots_Pine "Scots Pine") trees following the felling of many of them in 1984\.
#### Ferndale House
Large estate on several acres, the seat of [David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore](/wiki/David_Plunket%2C_1st_Baron_Rathmore "David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore").
#### Mullinastill House
The former mill house is a listed structure and the [set](/wiki/Set_%28film_and_TV_scenery%29 "Set (film and TV scenery)") for several film scenes.
#### Puck's Castle
{{Main\|Puck's Castle}}
The 'castle', actually a fortified house, was built in the late 16th century. It provided a refuge in 1690 for [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") and his army fleeing the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne "Battle of the Boyne"). One explanation for its name is that a ghost or *puca* inhabited the castle.[Pucks Castle, brief history \& photos](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3990) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514160445/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3990 \|date\=14 May 2006}} In June 1867 the daughter of a local Englishman disappeared near the castle. Jane Eleanor Sherrard, daughter of Henry and Margaret Sherrard left her nearby home to pick flowers for the dinner table. When she failed to return home that evening the police were notified and a widespread search was conducted. The last confirmed sighting of Jane was by the local postman, who reported to have seen her picking flowers at the foot of the castle's northern wall. To this day the circumstances surrounding her disappearance remain unknown.
#### Rathmichael Church
{{main\|Rathmichael}}
Commissioned by Charles Domvile in 1860, and designed by Benjamin Woodward, in the Hiberno\-Romanesque style. The Domviles had their own high\-backed chairs, behind red velvet curtains.
#### Shanganagh Bridge (1829\)
[alt\=The names mentioned on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill\|thumb\|Inscription on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill](/wiki/File:Shanganagh_Bridge_inscription.jpg "Shanganagh Bridge inscription.jpg")
Located at the junction of Commons Road and Shanganagh Road this bridge bears the worn inscription: "Built 1829 \- Robert Day Thomas Bourchier Esq's \- Overseers Myles Bready \- Mason".
[Robert Day](/wiki/Robert_Day_%28Irish_politician%2C_born_1746%29 "Robert Day (Irish politician, born 1746)"), judge and MP, lived in Loughlinstown House. Day had a long career from the 1780s through to the 1830s. He was a member of [King's Inns](/wiki/King%27s_Inns "King's Inns"), and also of the [Royal Dublin Society](/wiki/Royal_Dublin_Society "Royal Dublin Society"). Thomas Bourchier, Deputy Clerk of the Crown in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons "Irish House of Commons"), lived in Killiney Castle, now the Fitzpatrick Castle Hotel, which is on the same road as Shanganagh Bridge. Bourchier died in 1832\.{{Cite book \|last1\=Burke \|first1\=Bernard \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=diHHDwAAQBAJ\&dq\=killiney\+castle\+thomas\+bourchier\+deputy\+clerk\&pg\=PA63 \|title\=A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed gentry of Ireland \|last2\=Fox\-Davies \|first2\=Arthur Charles \|date\=1912\-01\-01 \|publisher\=Dalcassian Publishing Company \|language\=en}}
#### Shanganagh Castle (1408\)
Located near Mill Lane, at the northern margins of the area, built in 1408 by the Lawless family and inhabited by their descendants until 1763, the castle was left in ruins by a fire in 1783\. Only limited elements remain within the grounds of a later house.
#### Shanganagh Castle (18th century)
Several kilometres from the first Shanganagh Castle, during the late 18th century, a mansion was built on extensive lands running to the border of Shankill with County Wicklow. It was later used as an [open prison](/wiki/Open_prison "Open prison") for juveniles between 1969 and 2002\.[Shanganagh Castle (18th century), brief history, old drawing \& photo](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3992 \|date\=27 September 2007 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2556 \|title\=Shanganagh Castle (18th century), National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013}} The site is now being developed by the local authority and Land Development Agency, with over 500 housing units planned, and the castle will be restored and reopened.
#### Shanganagh House
[thumb\|Shanganagh House](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_House_Shankill.jpg "Shanganagh House Shankill.jpg")
Later called Shanganagh Park, this Georgian\-era mansion was built c. 1823 for William Hopper. Later residents included the Darcy brewing family and racehorse breeder Frank Field. It was compulsorily purchased by [Dublin County Council](/wiki/Dublin_County_Council "Dublin County Council") in 1970; it now serves as a [community centre](/wiki/Community_centre "Community centre") and is surrounded by late 1970s council houses.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2557 \|title\=Shanganagh House, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118040357/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2557 \|url\-status\=dead }}
#### Shankill Castle
Built by Archbishop [Henry de Loundres](/wiki/Henry_de_Loundres "Henry de Loundres") in 1229; site of the ancient Shankill church. It is one of the oldest surviving structures in the area.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2541 \|title\=Shankill Castle, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=14 February 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214023509/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2541 \|url\-status\=dead }}[Shankill Castle, brief history](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3992 \|date\=27 September 2007 }}
### Infrastructure
#### Old Dublin \& South East railway line
The [Dublin and South Eastern Railway](/wiki/Dublin_and_South_Eastern_Railway "Dublin and South Eastern Railway") ran along the coast, seaward from the modern DART and railway line, connecting Killiney and Bray.
#### Old Harcourt Street line
The former railroad running from Dublin to Bray on an inland route; closed in 1958\. The D\&SER and [Harcourt Street railway line](/wiki/Harcourt_Street_railway_line "Harcourt Street railway line") met at Shanganagh Junction.
#### Defunct link line
The Harcourt Street line continued seawards to meet the original D\&SER line at Tyrell's land; this link closed in 1915 when the Shanganagh Diversion came into service.
#### The new D\&SER line (modern line)
The coastal line was moved inland, from Ballybrack to Wood Glen, due to coastal erosion, the new line, the "Shanganagh Diversion", opened on 1 October 1915\. A new connection to the Harcourt Street line was made at a new Shanganagh Junction, and stations were reworked.
#### Sanitation
[thumb\|Inscription on sanitation pole in Shankill Village 'R.No.1 R.D.C. 1911'](/wiki/File:PXL_20231119_125212521.MP.jpg "PXL 20231119 125212521.MP.jpg")
A sanitation pole in Shankill Village bears the cast lettering 'R.No.1 R.D.C. 1911'. [Rural Districts](/wiki/Urban_and_rural_districts_%28Ireland%29 "Urban and rural districts (Ireland)") were administrative divisions created in 1899\. This inscription refers to the then Rathdown No.1 administrative district (as distinct from Rathdown No.2 district south of Bray). The two Rathdown districts were [abolished in 1930 and 1925](/wiki/D%C3%BAn_Laoghaire%E2%80%93Rathdown%23Naming "Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown#Naming") respectively.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
|
[
"Local antiquities and features\n------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Puck's Castle](/wiki/Image:Puck%27s_Castle%2C_Co._Dublin%2C_Ireland.JPG \"Puck's Castle, Co. Dublin, Ireland.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Ballycorus Chimney](/wiki/Image:Ballycorus_Lead_Mines_Chimney.jpeg \"Ballycorus Lead Mines Chimney.jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|Shanganagh Castle (18th century)](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_Castle.JPG \"Shanganagh Castle.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|St. James's Church, Crinken (1840\\)](/wiki/File:Crinken_Church%2C_Shankill%2C_Co_Dublin.jpg \"Crinken Church, Shankill, Co Dublin.jpg\")",
"There are several antiquities in the area, including ruined churches and standing stones. The ruins of several castles and defensive\\-type structures remain, including [Puck's Castle](/wiki/Puck%27s_Castle \"Puck's Castle\"), [Shankill Castle](/wiki/Shankill_Castle \"Shankill Castle\"), [Shanganagh Castle](/wiki/Shanganagh_Castle \"Shanganagh Castle\") and a [Martello Tower](/wiki/Martello_Tower \"Martello Tower\").",
"Some houses of architectural note include:{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}} *Clontra*, a coastal [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_revival \"Gothic revival\") mansion near Corbawn Wood and Quinn's Road; Crinken Castle House, Crinken, and Shanganagh House, a large mansion now surrounded by local authority housing estates. Clontra was built for Dublin barrister James Anthony Lawson QC (later Attorney General of Ireland, Judge of the High Court and Privy Councillor) and designed by the 19th\\-century architects [Sir Thomas Newenham Deane](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Newenham_Deane \"Sir Thomas Newenham Deane\") and [Benjamin Woodward](/wiki/Benjamin_Woodward \"Benjamin Woodward\") in their trademark Italian medieval style.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"The local library was formerly a courthouse built in the [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") style of granite and [mock Tudor](/wiki/Mock_Tudor \"Mock Tudor\") features. There are also some [follies](/wiki/Folly \"Folly\") such as a mock round tower built of red brick in the Castle Farm Farmyard.",
"Evidence of local industrial activity include the lead\\-mine chimney at Ballycorus. Other features include the 'upside down' houses by the [Harcourt Street railway line](/wiki/Harcourt_Street_railway_line \"Harcourt Street railway line\") bridge, which was the site of the original post office, and has its guest rooms downstairs, and its kitchen and living room upstairs. Shankill was accessible via the original Kingstown\\-Bray train line, which is now five metres from the sea in some places. A coastal wall was built from Killiney to Bray to try to stop the erosion, traces of which can still be seen along the beach. The medieval village of Longnon was sited some {{convert\\|200\\|yd\\|m}} east of Quinn's Road beach but was obliterated by [coastal erosion](/wiki/Coastal_erosion \"Coastal erosion\").{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"### Buildings",
"#### Ballycorus Leadmines",
"{{main\\|Ballycorus Leadmines}}\nSite of a lead ore smelter, a mile\\-long stone flue and a granite chimney on Carrickgollogan hill, which is visible from much of southeast Dublin.[The Mining Company of Ireland Ltd., short history of mining operations at Ballycorus](http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815190639/http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm \\|date\\=15 August 2007 }}",
"#### Carnegie Library",
"Tudor\\-style library, architect R. M. Butler, 1912\\.[An Taisce catalogue of photographs of Irish Carnegie Libraries](http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726213327/http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3\\.pdf \\|date\\=26 July 2011 }}",
"#### Clonasleigh",
"Clonasleigh, a house replaced by Shankill Shopping Centre (since upgraded and re\\-opened) was lived in by Frederick W. Meredith, once President of the Law Society, in the early 1900s. The name has been retained locally in Clonasleigh, a road with 16 houses, off Corbawn Lane, located close to the original house.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"#### Clontra",
"Gothic mansion designed by Deane and Woodward, 1860, interior murals by [John Hungerford Pollen](/wiki/John_Hungerford_Pollen_%28senior%29 \"John Hungerford Pollen (senior)\"). On {{convert\\|15\\|acre\\|m2}} of parkland by the coast, adjacent to Corbawn Wood estate.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2560 \\|title\\=Clontra, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013}}",
"#### Dorney Court",
"Originally called Clare Mount, built c. 1832, this fine Victorian house was demolished in 1984\\. Its site is now that of Shankill Garda Station. The grounds still contain a few [Sequoia](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens \"Sequoia sempervirens\") and [Scots Pine](/wiki/Scots_Pine \"Scots Pine\") trees following the felling of many of them in 1984\\.",
"#### Ferndale House",
"Large estate on several acres, the seat of [David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore](/wiki/David_Plunket%2C_1st_Baron_Rathmore \"David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore\").",
"#### Mullinastill House",
"The former mill house is a listed structure and the [set](/wiki/Set_%28film_and_TV_scenery%29 \"Set (film and TV scenery)\") for several film scenes.",
"#### Puck's Castle",
"{{Main\\|Puck's Castle}}\nThe 'castle', actually a fortified house, was built in the late 16th century. It provided a refuge in 1690 for [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") and his army fleeing the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne \"Battle of the Boyne\"). One explanation for its name is that a ghost or *puca* inhabited the castle.[Pucks Castle, brief history \\& photos](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3990) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514160445/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3990 \\|date\\=14 May 2006}} In June 1867 the daughter of a local Englishman disappeared near the castle. Jane Eleanor Sherrard, daughter of Henry and Margaret Sherrard left her nearby home to pick flowers for the dinner table. When she failed to return home that evening the police were notified and a widespread search was conducted. The last confirmed sighting of Jane was by the local postman, who reported to have seen her picking flowers at the foot of the castle's northern wall. To this day the circumstances surrounding her disappearance remain unknown.",
"#### Rathmichael Church",
"{{main\\|Rathmichael}}\nCommissioned by Charles Domvile in 1860, and designed by Benjamin Woodward, in the Hiberno\\-Romanesque style. The Domviles had their own high\\-backed chairs, behind red velvet curtains.",
"#### Shanganagh Bridge (1829\\)",
"[alt\\=The names mentioned on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill\\|thumb\\|Inscription on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill](/wiki/File:Shanganagh_Bridge_inscription.jpg \"Shanganagh Bridge inscription.jpg\")\nLocated at the junction of Commons Road and Shanganagh Road this bridge bears the worn inscription: \"Built 1829 \\- Robert Day Thomas Bourchier Esq's \\- Overseers Myles Bready \\- Mason\".",
"[Robert Day](/wiki/Robert_Day_%28Irish_politician%2C_born_1746%29 \"Robert Day (Irish politician, born 1746)\"), judge and MP, lived in Loughlinstown House. Day had a long career from the 1780s through to the 1830s. He was a member of [King's Inns](/wiki/King%27s_Inns \"King's Inns\"), and also of the [Royal Dublin Society](/wiki/Royal_Dublin_Society \"Royal Dublin Society\"). Thomas Bourchier, Deputy Clerk of the Crown in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons \"Irish House of Commons\"), lived in Killiney Castle, now the Fitzpatrick Castle Hotel, which is on the same road as Shanganagh Bridge. Bourchier died in 1832\\.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Burke \\|first1\\=Bernard \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=diHHDwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=killiney\\+castle\\+thomas\\+bourchier\\+deputy\\+clerk\\&pg\\=PA63 \\|title\\=A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed gentry of Ireland \\|last2\\=Fox\\-Davies \\|first2\\=Arthur Charles \\|date\\=1912\\-01\\-01 \\|publisher\\=Dalcassian Publishing Company \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Shanganagh Castle (1408\\)",
"Located near Mill Lane, at the northern margins of the area, built in 1408 by the Lawless family and inhabited by their descendants until 1763, the castle was left in ruins by a fire in 1783\\. Only limited elements remain within the grounds of a later house.",
"#### Shanganagh Castle (18th century)",
"Several kilometres from the first Shanganagh Castle, during the late 18th century, a mansion was built on extensive lands running to the border of Shankill with County Wicklow. It was later used as an [open prison](/wiki/Open_prison \"Open prison\") for juveniles between 1969 and 2002\\.[Shanganagh Castle (18th century), brief history, old drawing \\& photo](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3992 \\|date\\=27 September 2007 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2556 \\|title\\=Shanganagh Castle (18th century), National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013}} The site is now being developed by the local authority and Land Development Agency, with over 500 housing units planned, and the castle will be restored and reopened.",
"#### Shanganagh House",
"[thumb\\|Shanganagh House](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_House_Shankill.jpg \"Shanganagh House Shankill.jpg\")\nLater called Shanganagh Park, this Georgian\\-era mansion was built c. 1823 for William Hopper. Later residents included the Darcy brewing family and racehorse breeder Frank Field. It was compulsorily purchased by [Dublin County Council](/wiki/Dublin_County_Council \"Dublin County Council\") in 1970; it now serves as a [community centre](/wiki/Community_centre \"Community centre\") and is surrounded by late 1970s council houses.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2557 \\|title\\=Shanganagh House, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118040357/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2557 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"#### Shankill Castle",
"Built by Archbishop [Henry de Loundres](/wiki/Henry_de_Loundres \"Henry de Loundres\") in 1229; site of the ancient Shankill church. It is one of the oldest surviving structures in the area.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2541 \\|title\\=Shankill Castle, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214023509/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2541 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Shankill Castle, brief history](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3992 \\|date\\=27 September 2007 }}",
"### Infrastructure",
"#### Old Dublin \\& South East railway line",
"The [Dublin and South Eastern Railway](/wiki/Dublin_and_South_Eastern_Railway \"Dublin and South Eastern Railway\") ran along the coast, seaward from the modern DART and railway line, connecting Killiney and Bray.",
"#### Old Harcourt Street line",
"The former railroad running from Dublin to Bray on an inland route; closed in 1958\\. The D\\&SER and [Harcourt Street railway line](/wiki/Harcourt_Street_railway_line \"Harcourt Street railway line\") met at Shanganagh Junction.",
"#### Defunct link line",
"The Harcourt Street line continued seawards to meet the original D\\&SER line at Tyrell's land; this link closed in 1915 when the Shanganagh Diversion came into service.",
"#### The new D\\&SER line (modern line)",
"The coastal line was moved inland, from Ballybrack to Wood Glen, due to coastal erosion, the new line, the \"Shanganagh Diversion\", opened on 1 October 1915\\. A new connection to the Harcourt Street line was made at a new Shanganagh Junction, and stations were reworked.",
"#### Sanitation",
"[thumb\\|Inscription on sanitation pole in Shankill Village 'R.No.1 R.D.C. 1911'](/wiki/File:PXL_20231119_125212521.MP.jpg \"PXL 20231119 125212521.MP.jpg\")\nA sanitation pole in Shankill Village bears the cast lettering 'R.No.1 R.D.C. 1911'. [Rural Districts](/wiki/Urban_and_rural_districts_%28Ireland%29 \"Urban and rural districts (Ireland)\") were administrative divisions created in 1899\\. This inscription refers to the then Rathdown No.1 administrative district (as distinct from Rathdown No.2 district south of Bray). The two Rathdown districts were [abolished in 1930 and 1925](/wiki/D%C3%BAn_Laoghaire%E2%80%93Rathdown%23Naming \"Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown#Naming\") respectively.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
""
] |
### Buildings
#### Ballycorus Leadmines
{{main\|Ballycorus Leadmines}}
Site of a lead ore smelter, a mile\-long stone flue and a granite chimney on Carrickgollogan hill, which is visible from much of southeast Dublin.[The Mining Company of Ireland Ltd., short history of mining operations at Ballycorus](http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815190639/http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm \|date\=15 August 2007 }}
#### Carnegie Library
Tudor\-style library, architect R. M. Butler, 1912\.[An Taisce catalogue of photographs of Irish Carnegie Libraries](http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726213327/http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3\.pdf \|date\=26 July 2011 }}
#### Clonasleigh
Clonasleigh, a house replaced by Shankill Shopping Centre (since upgraded and re\-opened) was lived in by Frederick W. Meredith, once President of the Law Society, in the early 1900s. The name has been retained locally in Clonasleigh, a road with 16 houses, off Corbawn Lane, located close to the original house.{{fact\|date\=November 2023}}
#### Clontra
Gothic mansion designed by Deane and Woodward, 1860, interior murals by [John Hungerford Pollen](/wiki/John_Hungerford_Pollen_%28senior%29 "John Hungerford Pollen (senior)"). On {{convert\|15\|acre\|m2}} of parkland by the coast, adjacent to Corbawn Wood estate.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2560 \|title\=Clontra, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013}}
#### Dorney Court
Originally called Clare Mount, built c. 1832, this fine Victorian house was demolished in 1984\. Its site is now that of Shankill Garda Station. The grounds still contain a few [Sequoia](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens "Sequoia sempervirens") and [Scots Pine](/wiki/Scots_Pine "Scots Pine") trees following the felling of many of them in 1984\.
#### Ferndale House
Large estate on several acres, the seat of [David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore](/wiki/David_Plunket%2C_1st_Baron_Rathmore "David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore").
#### Mullinastill House
The former mill house is a listed structure and the [set](/wiki/Set_%28film_and_TV_scenery%29 "Set (film and TV scenery)") for several film scenes.
#### Puck's Castle
{{Main\|Puck's Castle}}
The 'castle', actually a fortified house, was built in the late 16th century. It provided a refuge in 1690 for [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") and his army fleeing the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne "Battle of the Boyne"). One explanation for its name is that a ghost or *puca* inhabited the castle.[Pucks Castle, brief history \& photos](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3990) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514160445/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3990 \|date\=14 May 2006}} In June 1867 the daughter of a local Englishman disappeared near the castle. Jane Eleanor Sherrard, daughter of Henry and Margaret Sherrard left her nearby home to pick flowers for the dinner table. When she failed to return home that evening the police were notified and a widespread search was conducted. The last confirmed sighting of Jane was by the local postman, who reported to have seen her picking flowers at the foot of the castle's northern wall. To this day the circumstances surrounding her disappearance remain unknown.
#### Rathmichael Church
{{main\|Rathmichael}}
Commissioned by Charles Domvile in 1860, and designed by Benjamin Woodward, in the Hiberno\-Romanesque style. The Domviles had their own high\-backed chairs, behind red velvet curtains.
#### Shanganagh Bridge (1829\)
[alt\=The names mentioned on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill\|thumb\|Inscription on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill](/wiki/File:Shanganagh_Bridge_inscription.jpg "Shanganagh Bridge inscription.jpg")
Located at the junction of Commons Road and Shanganagh Road this bridge bears the worn inscription: "Built 1829 \- Robert Day Thomas Bourchier Esq's \- Overseers Myles Bready \- Mason".
[Robert Day](/wiki/Robert_Day_%28Irish_politician%2C_born_1746%29 "Robert Day (Irish politician, born 1746)"), judge and MP, lived in Loughlinstown House. Day had a long career from the 1780s through to the 1830s. He was a member of [King's Inns](/wiki/King%27s_Inns "King's Inns"), and also of the [Royal Dublin Society](/wiki/Royal_Dublin_Society "Royal Dublin Society"). Thomas Bourchier, Deputy Clerk of the Crown in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons "Irish House of Commons"), lived in Killiney Castle, now the Fitzpatrick Castle Hotel, which is on the same road as Shanganagh Bridge. Bourchier died in 1832\.{{Cite book \|last1\=Burke \|first1\=Bernard \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=diHHDwAAQBAJ\&dq\=killiney\+castle\+thomas\+bourchier\+deputy\+clerk\&pg\=PA63 \|title\=A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed gentry of Ireland \|last2\=Fox\-Davies \|first2\=Arthur Charles \|date\=1912\-01\-01 \|publisher\=Dalcassian Publishing Company \|language\=en}}
#### Shanganagh Castle (1408\)
Located near Mill Lane, at the northern margins of the area, built in 1408 by the Lawless family and inhabited by their descendants until 1763, the castle was left in ruins by a fire in 1783\. Only limited elements remain within the grounds of a later house.
#### Shanganagh Castle (18th century)
Several kilometres from the first Shanganagh Castle, during the late 18th century, a mansion was built on extensive lands running to the border of Shankill with County Wicklow. It was later used as an [open prison](/wiki/Open_prison "Open prison") for juveniles between 1969 and 2002\.[Shanganagh Castle (18th century), brief history, old drawing \& photo](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3992 \|date\=27 September 2007 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2556 \|title\=Shanganagh Castle (18th century), National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013}} The site is now being developed by the local authority and Land Development Agency, with over 500 housing units planned, and the castle will be restored and reopened.
#### Shanganagh House
[thumb\|Shanganagh House](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_House_Shankill.jpg "Shanganagh House Shankill.jpg")
Later called Shanganagh Park, this Georgian\-era mansion was built c. 1823 for William Hopper. Later residents included the Darcy brewing family and racehorse breeder Frank Field. It was compulsorily purchased by [Dublin County Council](/wiki/Dublin_County_Council "Dublin County Council") in 1970; it now serves as a [community centre](/wiki/Community_centre "Community centre") and is surrounded by late 1970s council houses.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2557 \|title\=Shanganagh House, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118040357/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2557 \|url\-status\=dead }}
#### Shankill Castle
Built by Archbishop [Henry de Loundres](/wiki/Henry_de_Loundres "Henry de Loundres") in 1229; site of the ancient Shankill church. It is one of the oldest surviving structures in the area.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2541 \|title\=Shankill Castle, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \|publisher\=Buildingsofireland.ie \|access\-date\=24 August 2013 \|archive\-date\=14 February 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214023509/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\=2541 \|url\-status\=dead }}[Shankill Castle, brief history](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\_narrative\_page.do?page\_id\=3992 \|date\=27 September 2007 }}
|
[
"### Buildings",
"#### Ballycorus Leadmines",
"{{main\\|Ballycorus Leadmines}}\nSite of a lead ore smelter, a mile\\-long stone flue and a granite chimney on Carrickgollogan hill, which is visible from much of southeast Dublin.[The Mining Company of Ireland Ltd., short history of mining operations at Ballycorus](http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815190639/http://www.metalprocessors.ie/mci/index.htm \\|date\\=15 August 2007 }}",
"#### Carnegie Library",
"Tudor\\-style library, architect R. M. Butler, 1912\\.[An Taisce catalogue of photographs of Irish Carnegie Libraries](http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726213327/http://www.librarycouncil.ie/documents/AnTaisceCatalogue3\\.pdf \\|date\\=26 July 2011 }}",
"#### Clonasleigh",
"Clonasleigh, a house replaced by Shankill Shopping Centre (since upgraded and re\\-opened) was lived in by Frederick W. Meredith, once President of the Law Society, in the early 1900s. The name has been retained locally in Clonasleigh, a road with 16 houses, off Corbawn Lane, located close to the original house.{{fact\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"#### Clontra",
"Gothic mansion designed by Deane and Woodward, 1860, interior murals by [John Hungerford Pollen](/wiki/John_Hungerford_Pollen_%28senior%29 \"John Hungerford Pollen (senior)\"). On {{convert\\|15\\|acre\\|m2}} of parkland by the coast, adjacent to Corbawn Wood estate.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2560 \\|title\\=Clontra, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013}}",
"#### Dorney Court",
"Originally called Clare Mount, built c. 1832, this fine Victorian house was demolished in 1984\\. Its site is now that of Shankill Garda Station. The grounds still contain a few [Sequoia](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens \"Sequoia sempervirens\") and [Scots Pine](/wiki/Scots_Pine \"Scots Pine\") trees following the felling of many of them in 1984\\.",
"#### Ferndale House",
"Large estate on several acres, the seat of [David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore](/wiki/David_Plunket%2C_1st_Baron_Rathmore \"David Plunket, 1st Baron Rathmore\").",
"#### Mullinastill House",
"The former mill house is a listed structure and the [set](/wiki/Set_%28film_and_TV_scenery%29 \"Set (film and TV scenery)\") for several film scenes.",
"#### Puck's Castle",
"{{Main\\|Puck's Castle}}\nThe 'castle', actually a fortified house, was built in the late 16th century. It provided a refuge in 1690 for [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") and his army fleeing the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne \"Battle of the Boyne\"). One explanation for its name is that a ghost or *puca* inhabited the castle.[Pucks Castle, brief history \\& photos](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3990) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514160445/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3990 \\|date\\=14 May 2006}} In June 1867 the daughter of a local Englishman disappeared near the castle. Jane Eleanor Sherrard, daughter of Henry and Margaret Sherrard left her nearby home to pick flowers for the dinner table. When she failed to return home that evening the police were notified and a widespread search was conducted. The last confirmed sighting of Jane was by the local postman, who reported to have seen her picking flowers at the foot of the castle's northern wall. To this day the circumstances surrounding her disappearance remain unknown.",
"#### Rathmichael Church",
"{{main\\|Rathmichael}}\nCommissioned by Charles Domvile in 1860, and designed by Benjamin Woodward, in the Hiberno\\-Romanesque style. The Domviles had their own high\\-backed chairs, behind red velvet curtains.",
"#### Shanganagh Bridge (1829\\)",
"[alt\\=The names mentioned on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill\\|thumb\\|Inscription on Shanganagh Bridge, Shankill](/wiki/File:Shanganagh_Bridge_inscription.jpg \"Shanganagh Bridge inscription.jpg\")\nLocated at the junction of Commons Road and Shanganagh Road this bridge bears the worn inscription: \"Built 1829 \\- Robert Day Thomas Bourchier Esq's \\- Overseers Myles Bready \\- Mason\".",
"[Robert Day](/wiki/Robert_Day_%28Irish_politician%2C_born_1746%29 \"Robert Day (Irish politician, born 1746)\"), judge and MP, lived in Loughlinstown House. Day had a long career from the 1780s through to the 1830s. He was a member of [King's Inns](/wiki/King%27s_Inns \"King's Inns\"), and also of the [Royal Dublin Society](/wiki/Royal_Dublin_Society \"Royal Dublin Society\"). Thomas Bourchier, Deputy Clerk of the Crown in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons \"Irish House of Commons\"), lived in Killiney Castle, now the Fitzpatrick Castle Hotel, which is on the same road as Shanganagh Bridge. Bourchier died in 1832\\.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Burke \\|first1\\=Bernard \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=diHHDwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=killiney\\+castle\\+thomas\\+bourchier\\+deputy\\+clerk\\&pg\\=PA63 \\|title\\=A genealogical and heraldic history of the landed gentry of Ireland \\|last2\\=Fox\\-Davies \\|first2\\=Arthur Charles \\|date\\=1912\\-01\\-01 \\|publisher\\=Dalcassian Publishing Company \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Shanganagh Castle (1408\\)",
"Located near Mill Lane, at the northern margins of the area, built in 1408 by the Lawless family and inhabited by their descendants until 1763, the castle was left in ruins by a fire in 1783\\. Only limited elements remain within the grounds of a later house.",
"#### Shanganagh Castle (18th century)",
"Several kilometres from the first Shanganagh Castle, during the late 18th century, a mansion was built on extensive lands running to the border of Shankill with County Wicklow. It was later used as an [open prison](/wiki/Open_prison \"Open prison\") for juveniles between 1969 and 2002\\.[Shanganagh Castle (18th century), brief history, old drawing \\& photo](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3992 \\|date\\=27 September 2007 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2556 \\|title\\=Shanganagh Castle (18th century), National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013}} The site is now being developed by the local authority and Land Development Agency, with over 500 housing units planned, and the castle will be restored and reopened.",
"#### Shanganagh House",
"[thumb\\|Shanganagh House](/wiki/Image:Shanganagh_House_Shankill.jpg \"Shanganagh House Shankill.jpg\")\nLater called Shanganagh Park, this Georgian\\-era mansion was built c. 1823 for William Hopper. Later residents included the Darcy brewing family and racehorse breeder Frank Field. It was compulsorily purchased by [Dublin County Council](/wiki/Dublin_County_Council \"Dublin County Council\") in 1970; it now serves as a [community centre](/wiki/Community_centre \"Community centre\") and is surrounded by late 1970s council houses.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2557 \\|title\\=Shanganagh House, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118040357/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2557 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"#### Shankill Castle",
"Built by Archbishop [Henry de Loundres](/wiki/Henry_de_Loundres \"Henry de Loundres\") in 1229; site of the ancient Shankill church. It is one of the oldest surviving structures in the area.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2541 \\|title\\=Shankill Castle, National Inventory of Architectural Heritage \\|publisher\\=Buildingsofireland.ie \\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214023509/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/cgi\\-bin/viewsurveyresults.cgi?siteid\\=2541 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Shankill Castle, brief history](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=3992) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220002/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show\\_narrative\\_page.do?page\\_id\\=3992 \\|date\\=27 September 2007 }}",
""
] |
Plot
----
An all\-American family inherits a deceased uncle's house. John and Mary Hyatt, together with daughter Debbie and son Billy move in, but Waldemar, a [vampire](/wiki/Vampire "Vampire"), and Yolanda, his wife, want desperately to get into the rundown house because it contains a book of evil.
Billy finds the mysterious book. He reads of a curse hanging over the date of Saturday the 14th. As he turns the page, a [monster](/wiki/Monster "Monster") is unleashed and with each turn, another disappears from the page and is materialized within or outside the home. The house is soon swarming with monsters.
Strange things start happening: eyes appear in John's coffee, sandwiches are mysteriously eaten, the television tunes into *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone_%281959_TV_series%29 "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)")* only, dirt is found in Mary's bed, dishes get done by themselves, neighbors disappear. As this is happening, neither John or Mary suspect anything, completely oblivious to the spooky occurrences around them.
Waldemar gets into the house by turning into a [bat](/wiki/Bat "Bat"). Mary keeps hearing noises at night, which she thinks are made by [owls](/wiki/Owl "Owl"), but are actually the sounds of Waldemar in bat form. John hires an exterminator to get rid of the bats. The exterminator turns out to be [Van Helsing](/wiki/Abraham_Van_Helsing "Abraham Van Helsing"), who is also after the book of evil.
John and Mary begin planning a housewarming party for Saturday the 14th. Guests arrive, but they cannot leave. When they try, a thunderstorm appears outside the door. As the night unfolds, the monsters begin to kill the guests one by one.
Eventually a duel between Van Helsing and Waldemar and Yolanda erupts, where it is discovered that Van Helsing wants the book in order to rule the world and Waldemar and Yolanda were only trying to stop him from getting his hands on it. Good triumphs over evil, as Van Helsing and the monsters are defeated.
The Hyatts end up in an upscale new home, while Waldemar and Yolanda keep the original house as their own.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"An all\\-American family inherits a deceased uncle's house. John and Mary Hyatt, together with daughter Debbie and son Billy move in, but Waldemar, a [vampire](/wiki/Vampire \"Vampire\"), and Yolanda, his wife, want desperately to get into the rundown house because it contains a book of evil.",
"Billy finds the mysterious book. He reads of a curse hanging over the date of Saturday the 14th. As he turns the page, a [monster](/wiki/Monster \"Monster\") is unleashed and with each turn, another disappears from the page and is materialized within or outside the home. The house is soon swarming with monsters.",
"Strange things start happening: eyes appear in John's coffee, sandwiches are mysteriously eaten, the television tunes into *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone_%281959_TV_series%29 \"The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)\")* only, dirt is found in Mary's bed, dishes get done by themselves, neighbors disappear. As this is happening, neither John or Mary suspect anything, completely oblivious to the spooky occurrences around them.",
"Waldemar gets into the house by turning into a [bat](/wiki/Bat \"Bat\"). Mary keeps hearing noises at night, which she thinks are made by [owls](/wiki/Owl \"Owl\"), but are actually the sounds of Waldemar in bat form. John hires an exterminator to get rid of the bats. The exterminator turns out to be [Van Helsing](/wiki/Abraham_Van_Helsing \"Abraham Van Helsing\"), who is also after the book of evil.",
"John and Mary begin planning a housewarming party for Saturday the 14th. Guests arrive, but they cannot leave. When they try, a thunderstorm appears outside the door. As the night unfolds, the monsters begin to kill the guests one by one.",
"Eventually a duel between Van Helsing and Waldemar and Yolanda erupts, where it is discovered that Van Helsing wants the book in order to rule the world and Waldemar and Yolanda were only trying to stop him from getting his hands on it. Good triumphs over evil, as Van Helsing and the monsters are defeated.",
"The Hyatts end up in an upscale new home, while Waldemar and Yolanda keep the original house as their own.",
""
] |
History
-------
The [Brisbane City Council](/wiki/Brisbane_City_Council "Brisbane City Council") built the concrete shelter at the southern end of [Albert Park](/wiki/Albert_Park%2C_Brisbane "Albert Park, Brisbane") as an air raid shelter in 1942\.
On 7 December 1941, the United States of America entered [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") following the [bombing of the American fleet at Pearl Harbour](/wiki/Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbour "Bombing of Pearl Harbour") in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") by Japanese carrier\-borne aircraft. England and its Commonwealth had been at war with Germany since September 1939, but now the war was truly global. The Japanese first bombed [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory "Darwin, Northern Territory") on 19 February 1942 and 14,000 Australians were taken prisoner following the [fall of Singapore](/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore "Fall of Singapore"). Plans to defend Australia from an anticipated Japanese invasion and to use Queensland as a support base for the conduct of the Pacific war were implemented quickly. Australian and American personnel poured into Queensland and urgently required a wide range of new buildings and facilities.
The population of [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") swelled dramatically. As it was the major city in Queensland, and the most northerly major population centre in Australia, military planning headquarters were set up in Brisbane, as were a number of important maintenance, communication, and supply facilities. General [Douglas MacArthur](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur "Douglas MacArthur"), Commander in Chief of the Allied Forces, Southwest Pacific, was based in the [AMP building](/wiki/MacArthur_Central "MacArthur Central") at the corner of [Queen Street](/wiki/Queen_Street%2C_Brisbane "Queen Street, Brisbane") and [Edward Street](/wiki/Edward_Street%2C_Brisbane "Edward Street, Brisbane") in Brisbane, and General Sir [Thomas Blamey](/wiki/Thomas_Blamey "Thomas Blamey"), Commander in Chief of the Australian Forces, used the recently constructed [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland "University of Queensland") buildings at [St Lucia](/wiki/St_Lucia%2C_Queensland "St Lucia, Queensland"). Brisbane was obviously a strategic target for bombing, and rapid action had to be taken to protect the population in the event of air raids.
The demand on materials, services and labour was enormous and military projects took precedence in their allocation. Heavy Anti\-Aircraft batteries were built at [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park%2C_Brisbane "Victoria Park, Brisbane"), [Hendra](/wiki/Hendra%2C_Queensland "Hendra, Queensland"), [Pinkenba](/wiki/Pinkenba%2C_Queensland "Pinkenba, Queensland"), [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton "Fort Lytton"), [Hemmant](/wiki/Hemmant%2C_Queensland "Hemmant, Queensland") and [Balmoral](/wiki/Balmoral%2C_Queensland "Balmoral, Queensland"), and coastal artillery batteries were established on [Bribie](/wiki/Bribie_Island "Bribie Island") and [Moreton](/wiki/Moreton_Island "Moreton Island") Islands. Before the war, Queensland had a small population and no heavy manufacturing industries. To help overcome these problems, some buildings were prefabricated and standard designs for many structures were used. Designs took into account the scarcity of skilled labour and of some materials.
The Brisbane City Council took responsibility for Air Raid Precautions activities, including establishing an Air Raid Warden system, firefighting systems and constructing air raid shelters. Aboveground salt water pipes were laid along city streets to aid in firefighting. On Christmas Eve, 1941, each Australian State's Emergency Committee issued instructions for government, private employers and private households to immediately start building shelters. Slit trenches were built in parks and schoolyards, windows were taped, and brownouts were applied to buildings.
In the Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1, gazetted 23 December 1941, Premier [William Forgan Smith](/wiki/William_Forgan_Smith "William Forgan Smith"), with powers conferred by Regulation 35a, National Security (General) Regulations, ordered the Brisbane City Council to construct 200 public surface shelters in the city area. Work had already started on 15 December, and later another 75 shelters were ordered. However, only 235 air raid shelters were constructed, the building programme being 90% complete by June 1942\. In addition, around three kilometres of covered trenches were constructed in public parks, in 13 projects, including {{convert\|315\|m}} of concrete\-pipe covered trench in the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens "City Botanic Gardens"), and {{convert\|150\|m}} of the same in Victoria Park. It was believed that one person could be accommodated by each foot of trench. In addition to the public shelters, the Brisbane City Council also constructed shelters for leased wharves and council properties, including at the Stanley Wharf, Circular Quay Wharves 2,3 and 4, Norman Wharf, and Musgrave Wharf. Shelters were built under the [Story Bridge](/wiki/Story_Bridge "Story Bridge"), for [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland "Kangaroo Point, Queensland") shipbuilding workers, and five shelters were constructed on behalf of the Bureau of Industry at the [Howard Smith Wharves](/wiki/Howard_Smith_Wharves "Howard Smith Wharves").
The Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1 was applied statewide, and outside Brisbane another 24 Local Authorities in Queensland's coastal areas were ordered to produce surface or trench shelters for the public, to be built according to the Air Raid Shelter Code laid down in the Second Schedule of Order No.1\. Initially, 20 of the Local Authorities were expected to construct a minimum total of 133 surface shelters, which were supposed to be able to withstand the blast of a 500\-pound bomb bursting {{convert\|50\|ft}} away. Four other Local Authorities would only build trenches. However, after plans were amended, 23 Local Authorities outside Brisbane, excluding [Thursday Island](/wiki/Thursday_Island%2C_Queensland "Thursday Island, Queensland"), ended up possessing a total of 129 public shelters: 123 surface and six underground. This effort had cost {{A£\|56,596}}. Where Local Authorities were unwilling or unable to build the required number of code\-compliant shelters, in some cases because they had already begun erecting other shelters, the Department of Public Works became responsible for the shelters' construction. However, this led to problems when the department tried to recoup half of the cost from the Local Authorities in question. [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville"), [Toowoomba](/wiki/Toowoomba "Toowoomba"), [Gladstone](/wiki/Gladstone%2C_Queensland "Gladstone, Queensland"), and [Ayr](/wiki/Ayr%2C_Queensland "Ayr, Queensland") denied any liability for costs, and a Bill had to be passed in December 1942 to force their compliance. The [Ayr Shire Council](/wiki/Shire_of_Ayr "Shire of Ayr") had claimed that the shelters would be death traps during an air raid.
Of the 235 surface shelters built in Brisbane for the public, 21 survive and are still owned by the Brisbane City Council. One of the shelters, on Queens Wharf Road, is a site\-specific "special" variation of the standard pillbox design. It is listed in the Queensland Heritage Register as part of the entry for the porphyry retaining wall on William Street. The other 20 public shelters owned by the Brisbane City Council can be divided into three types of pillbox intended for conversion after the war: "park", "bus", and "bus (stone)". They were designed to serve as structures such as bus waiting shelters or shade structures for parks, with some or all of the perimeter blast walls to be removed, leaving the concrete slab roof, floor slab and piers. The reusable pillboxes were designed to hold 70 people, as were the non\-reusable standard pillboxes.
Frank Gibson Costello, Brisbane City Council City Architect between 1941 and 1952, was responsible for the design of the surface air raid shelters, and his variants of the standard pillbox were designed to provide a post\-war utility for at least part of the council's shelter building programme. In an address delivered to the Constitutional Club in Brisbane in February 1942, Costello noted that *"if the emergency for their use does not arise ...(unused shelters)... remain in brick and concrete, in many cases having no further value and being a possible source of nuisance"*. He added that *"I can assure you that wherever it is possible, without sacrificing the primary requirements of shelter from air attack, I have endeavoured in our Council buildings to so plan the shelters that they will fit into schemes of improvement which we hope will proceed immediately after the war"*.
Costello's work was characterised by the use of an architectural language inspired by the modern movement in architecture. This movement pursued the rational use of modern materials and principles of functionalist planning and established a visual aesthetic largely inspired by the machine. It was part of an architecture employing the language of vertical and horizontal volumes and planes, floating flat roofs, masses set against voids and monumentality. Though modest in scale and form, the design of the shelters is characteristic of work in this idiom. The reusable shelters were often sited under [fig trees](/wiki/Fig_trees "Fig trees"), to aid in camouflage.
The first of Costello's reusable designs is the pillbox with double\- cantilevered roof slab, or "park" type shelter. In an original list of all the shelters constructed by the Brisbane City Council, these were simply labelled as "cantilever". They had four central piers supporting the roof slab, which allowed for the removal of the four blast walls after the war. There was an entrance at each end of the front wall, where an internal wall extended into the shelter. If the walls were made of brick, the shelter's dimension was {{convert\|40\|ft\|9\|in}} by {{convert\|13\|ft\|3\|in}} by {{convert\|8\|ft\|6\|in}} high, and if concrete was used the dimensions were {{convert\|40\|ft}} by {{convert\|12\|ft\|6\|in}} by {{convert\|8\|ft\|6\|in}} high. The difference was due to the fact that the brick walls finished in line with the top of the roof slab, covering the fascia, whereas the concrete walls finished at the soffit of the roof slab, flush with the fascia. The minimum wall thickness for brick was set at 13\.5", and 12" for concrete. The roof slab was intended to have at least four inches of concrete.
Of the 37 reusable shelters listed as being of the park type only 17 survive: one at Hefferan Park in [Annerley](/wiki/Annerley%2C_Queensland "Annerley, Queensland"); two at Albert Park (on the north and side souths); two at [Wickham Park](/wiki/Wickham_Park_%28Brisbane%29 "Wickham Park (Brisbane)"); one in [Buranda](/wiki/Buranda%2C_Queensland "Buranda, Queensland") Playground in [Woolloongabba](/wiki/Woolloongabba "Woolloongabba"); two in [Raymond Park](/wiki/Raymond_Park%2C_Brisbane "Raymond Park, Brisbane") (on the east and west sides) in [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland "Kangaroo Point, Queensland"); and one each at [Kelvin Grove](/wiki/Kelvin_Grove%2C_Queensland "Kelvin Grove, Queensland"), [Morningside](/wiki/Morningside%2C_Queensland "Morningside, Queensland"), [Nundah](/wiki/Nundah%2C_Queensland "Nundah, Queensland"), [Stones Corner](/wiki/Stones_Corner%2C_Queensland "Stones Corner, Queensland"), and [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Queensland "Windsor, Queensland"). Four other shelters stand on East Street and Wickham Street in [Fortitude Valley](/wiki/Fortitude_Valley%2C_Queensland "Fortitude Valley, Queensland"). Most are used as simple park shelters, as intended, but the shelter at Nundah has been modified as a toilet block, and the shelter at Kelvin Grove is used as a bus shelter (as distinct from those shelters in the next category, which were specifically designed as "bus" type shelters). About half of the surviving park shelters had concrete blast walls, while half used brick.
The second design was the pillbox with single\-cantilevered roof slab, or "bus" type shelter, as it was called in the original Brisbane City Council list. These were designed so that the three brick blast walls could be removed after the war, leaving a concrete back wall and five brick piers at the front. Again, entrances were at each end of the front wall. Of the 19 "bus" types listed only two survive, at [Newmarket](/wiki/Newmarket%2C_Queensland "Newmarket, Queensland") and [Newstead](/wiki/Newstead%2C_Queensland "Newstead, Queensland").
The third design was also a "bus" type shelter, but it was built with a stone rear wall, instead of concrete, and six stone piers were later added, instead of five brick piers. The three brick blast walls could be removed as normal. Two of these "colonnade" types were built — referred to in the Brisbane City Council list as "bus (stone)" — and only one survives, at [King Edward Park](/wiki/King_Edward_Park%2C_Brisbane "King Edward Park, Brisbane").
Most of the Brisbane structures built for the war were removed at the end of World War II. The saltwater mains, slit trenches, and sirens disappeared, as did the many standard pillboxes that had stood in the middle of the streets of the Central Business District. 156 standard pillboxes were built, but none of the surviving public shelters in Brisbane City Council ownership are of that design. Of the 21 special shelters, only the one on Queens Wharf Road survives. However, of Costello's 58 reusable public surface shelters, 20 have survived; the removal of their blast walls, as planned, had given them a renewed purpose. The worker's shelters at the Story Bridge Hotel and Howard Smith Wharves also still exist.
The blast walls of the air raid shelter at Albert Park (South) were removed according to plan after World War II, although evidence of the location of the walls is still visible. Seating has been introduced and a mosaic decoration has been applied to the south face of the north pier.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The [Brisbane City Council](/wiki/Brisbane_City_Council \"Brisbane City Council\") built the concrete shelter at the southern end of [Albert Park](/wiki/Albert_Park%2C_Brisbane \"Albert Park, Brisbane\") as an air raid shelter in 1942\\.",
"On 7 December 1941, the United States of America entered [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") following the [bombing of the American fleet at Pearl Harbour](/wiki/Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbour \"Bombing of Pearl Harbour\") in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") by Japanese carrier\\-borne aircraft. England and its Commonwealth had been at war with Germany since September 1939, but now the war was truly global. The Japanese first bombed [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory \"Darwin, Northern Territory\") on 19 February 1942 and 14,000 Australians were taken prisoner following the [fall of Singapore](/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore \"Fall of Singapore\"). Plans to defend Australia from an anticipated Japanese invasion and to use Queensland as a support base for the conduct of the Pacific war were implemented quickly. Australian and American personnel poured into Queensland and urgently required a wide range of new buildings and facilities.",
"The population of [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") swelled dramatically. As it was the major city in Queensland, and the most northerly major population centre in Australia, military planning headquarters were set up in Brisbane, as were a number of important maintenance, communication, and supply facilities. General [Douglas MacArthur](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur \"Douglas MacArthur\"), Commander in Chief of the Allied Forces, Southwest Pacific, was based in the [AMP building](/wiki/MacArthur_Central \"MacArthur Central\") at the corner of [Queen Street](/wiki/Queen_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Queen Street, Brisbane\") and [Edward Street](/wiki/Edward_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Edward Street, Brisbane\") in Brisbane, and General Sir [Thomas Blamey](/wiki/Thomas_Blamey \"Thomas Blamey\"), Commander in Chief of the Australian Forces, used the recently constructed [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland \"University of Queensland\") buildings at [St Lucia](/wiki/St_Lucia%2C_Queensland \"St Lucia, Queensland\"). Brisbane was obviously a strategic target for bombing, and rapid action had to be taken to protect the population in the event of air raids.",
"The demand on materials, services and labour was enormous and military projects took precedence in their allocation. Heavy Anti\\-Aircraft batteries were built at [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park%2C_Brisbane \"Victoria Park, Brisbane\"), [Hendra](/wiki/Hendra%2C_Queensland \"Hendra, Queensland\"), [Pinkenba](/wiki/Pinkenba%2C_Queensland \"Pinkenba, Queensland\"), [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton \"Fort Lytton\"), [Hemmant](/wiki/Hemmant%2C_Queensland \"Hemmant, Queensland\") and [Balmoral](/wiki/Balmoral%2C_Queensland \"Balmoral, Queensland\"), and coastal artillery batteries were established on [Bribie](/wiki/Bribie_Island \"Bribie Island\") and [Moreton](/wiki/Moreton_Island \"Moreton Island\") Islands. Before the war, Queensland had a small population and no heavy manufacturing industries. To help overcome these problems, some buildings were prefabricated and standard designs for many structures were used. Designs took into account the scarcity of skilled labour and of some materials.",
"The Brisbane City Council took responsibility for Air Raid Precautions activities, including establishing an Air Raid Warden system, firefighting systems and constructing air raid shelters. Aboveground salt water pipes were laid along city streets to aid in firefighting. On Christmas Eve, 1941, each Australian State's Emergency Committee issued instructions for government, private employers and private households to immediately start building shelters. Slit trenches were built in parks and schoolyards, windows were taped, and brownouts were applied to buildings.",
"In the Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1, gazetted 23 December 1941, Premier [William Forgan Smith](/wiki/William_Forgan_Smith \"William Forgan Smith\"), with powers conferred by Regulation 35a, National Security (General) Regulations, ordered the Brisbane City Council to construct 200 public surface shelters in the city area. Work had already started on 15 December, and later another 75 shelters were ordered. However, only 235 air raid shelters were constructed, the building programme being 90% complete by June 1942\\. In addition, around three kilometres of covered trenches were constructed in public parks, in 13 projects, including {{convert\\|315\\|m}} of concrete\\-pipe covered trench in the [City Botanic Gardens](/wiki/City_Botanic_Gardens \"City Botanic Gardens\"), and {{convert\\|150\\|m}} of the same in Victoria Park. It was believed that one person could be accommodated by each foot of trench. In addition to the public shelters, the Brisbane City Council also constructed shelters for leased wharves and council properties, including at the Stanley Wharf, Circular Quay Wharves 2,3 and 4, Norman Wharf, and Musgrave Wharf. Shelters were built under the [Story Bridge](/wiki/Story_Bridge \"Story Bridge\"), for [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland \"Kangaroo Point, Queensland\") shipbuilding workers, and five shelters were constructed on behalf of the Bureau of Industry at the [Howard Smith Wharves](/wiki/Howard_Smith_Wharves \"Howard Smith Wharves\").",
"The Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1 was applied statewide, and outside Brisbane another 24 Local Authorities in Queensland's coastal areas were ordered to produce surface or trench shelters for the public, to be built according to the Air Raid Shelter Code laid down in the Second Schedule of Order No.1\\. Initially, 20 of the Local Authorities were expected to construct a minimum total of 133 surface shelters, which were supposed to be able to withstand the blast of a 500\\-pound bomb bursting {{convert\\|50\\|ft}} away. Four other Local Authorities would only build trenches. However, after plans were amended, 23 Local Authorities outside Brisbane, excluding [Thursday Island](/wiki/Thursday_Island%2C_Queensland \"Thursday Island, Queensland\"), ended up possessing a total of 129 public shelters: 123 surface and six underground. This effort had cost {{A£\\|56,596}}. Where Local Authorities were unwilling or unable to build the required number of code\\-compliant shelters, in some cases because they had already begun erecting other shelters, the Department of Public Works became responsible for the shelters' construction. However, this led to problems when the department tried to recoup half of the cost from the Local Authorities in question. [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\"), [Toowoomba](/wiki/Toowoomba \"Toowoomba\"), [Gladstone](/wiki/Gladstone%2C_Queensland \"Gladstone, Queensland\"), and [Ayr](/wiki/Ayr%2C_Queensland \"Ayr, Queensland\") denied any liability for costs, and a Bill had to be passed in December 1942 to force their compliance. The [Ayr Shire Council](/wiki/Shire_of_Ayr \"Shire of Ayr\") had claimed that the shelters would be death traps during an air raid.",
"Of the 235 surface shelters built in Brisbane for the public, 21 survive and are still owned by the Brisbane City Council. One of the shelters, on Queens Wharf Road, is a site\\-specific \"special\" variation of the standard pillbox design. It is listed in the Queensland Heritage Register as part of the entry for the porphyry retaining wall on William Street. The other 20 public shelters owned by the Brisbane City Council can be divided into three types of pillbox intended for conversion after the war: \"park\", \"bus\", and \"bus (stone)\". They were designed to serve as structures such as bus waiting shelters or shade structures for parks, with some or all of the perimeter blast walls to be removed, leaving the concrete slab roof, floor slab and piers. The reusable pillboxes were designed to hold 70 people, as were the non\\-reusable standard pillboxes.",
"Frank Gibson Costello, Brisbane City Council City Architect between 1941 and 1952, was responsible for the design of the surface air raid shelters, and his variants of the standard pillbox were designed to provide a post\\-war utility for at least part of the council's shelter building programme. In an address delivered to the Constitutional Club in Brisbane in February 1942, Costello noted that *\"if the emergency for their use does not arise ...(unused shelters)... remain in brick and concrete, in many cases having no further value and being a possible source of nuisance\"*. He added that *\"I can assure you that wherever it is possible, without sacrificing the primary requirements of shelter from air attack, I have endeavoured in our Council buildings to so plan the shelters that they will fit into schemes of improvement which we hope will proceed immediately after the war\"*.",
"Costello's work was characterised by the use of an architectural language inspired by the modern movement in architecture. This movement pursued the rational use of modern materials and principles of functionalist planning and established a visual aesthetic largely inspired by the machine. It was part of an architecture employing the language of vertical and horizontal volumes and planes, floating flat roofs, masses set against voids and monumentality. Though modest in scale and form, the design of the shelters is characteristic of work in this idiom. The reusable shelters were often sited under [fig trees](/wiki/Fig_trees \"Fig trees\"), to aid in camouflage.",
"The first of Costello's reusable designs is the pillbox with double\\- cantilevered roof slab, or \"park\" type shelter. In an original list of all the shelters constructed by the Brisbane City Council, these were simply labelled as \"cantilever\". They had four central piers supporting the roof slab, which allowed for the removal of the four blast walls after the war. There was an entrance at each end of the front wall, where an internal wall extended into the shelter. If the walls were made of brick, the shelter's dimension was {{convert\\|40\\|ft\\|9\\|in}} by {{convert\\|13\\|ft\\|3\\|in}} by {{convert\\|8\\|ft\\|6\\|in}} high, and if concrete was used the dimensions were {{convert\\|40\\|ft}} by {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|6\\|in}} by {{convert\\|8\\|ft\\|6\\|in}} high. The difference was due to the fact that the brick walls finished in line with the top of the roof slab, covering the fascia, whereas the concrete walls finished at the soffit of the roof slab, flush with the fascia. The minimum wall thickness for brick was set at 13\\.5\", and 12\" for concrete. The roof slab was intended to have at least four inches of concrete.",
"Of the 37 reusable shelters listed as being of the park type only 17 survive: one at Hefferan Park in [Annerley](/wiki/Annerley%2C_Queensland \"Annerley, Queensland\"); two at Albert Park (on the north and side souths); two at [Wickham Park](/wiki/Wickham_Park_%28Brisbane%29 \"Wickham Park (Brisbane)\"); one in [Buranda](/wiki/Buranda%2C_Queensland \"Buranda, Queensland\") Playground in [Woolloongabba](/wiki/Woolloongabba \"Woolloongabba\"); two in [Raymond Park](/wiki/Raymond_Park%2C_Brisbane \"Raymond Park, Brisbane\") (on the east and west sides) in [Kangaroo Point](/wiki/Kangaroo_Point%2C_Queensland \"Kangaroo Point, Queensland\"); and one each at [Kelvin Grove](/wiki/Kelvin_Grove%2C_Queensland \"Kelvin Grove, Queensland\"), [Morningside](/wiki/Morningside%2C_Queensland \"Morningside, Queensland\"), [Nundah](/wiki/Nundah%2C_Queensland \"Nundah, Queensland\"), [Stones Corner](/wiki/Stones_Corner%2C_Queensland \"Stones Corner, Queensland\"), and [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Queensland \"Windsor, Queensland\"). Four other shelters stand on East Street and Wickham Street in [Fortitude Valley](/wiki/Fortitude_Valley%2C_Queensland \"Fortitude Valley, Queensland\"). Most are used as simple park shelters, as intended, but the shelter at Nundah has been modified as a toilet block, and the shelter at Kelvin Grove is used as a bus shelter (as distinct from those shelters in the next category, which were specifically designed as \"bus\" type shelters). About half of the surviving park shelters had concrete blast walls, while half used brick.",
"The second design was the pillbox with single\\-cantilevered roof slab, or \"bus\" type shelter, as it was called in the original Brisbane City Council list. These were designed so that the three brick blast walls could be removed after the war, leaving a concrete back wall and five brick piers at the front. Again, entrances were at each end of the front wall. Of the 19 \"bus\" types listed only two survive, at [Newmarket](/wiki/Newmarket%2C_Queensland \"Newmarket, Queensland\") and [Newstead](/wiki/Newstead%2C_Queensland \"Newstead, Queensland\").",
"The third design was also a \"bus\" type shelter, but it was built with a stone rear wall, instead of concrete, and six stone piers were later added, instead of five brick piers. The three brick blast walls could be removed as normal. Two of these \"colonnade\" types were built — referred to in the Brisbane City Council list as \"bus (stone)\" — and only one survives, at [King Edward Park](/wiki/King_Edward_Park%2C_Brisbane \"King Edward Park, Brisbane\").",
"Most of the Brisbane structures built for the war were removed at the end of World War II. The saltwater mains, slit trenches, and sirens disappeared, as did the many standard pillboxes that had stood in the middle of the streets of the Central Business District. 156 standard pillboxes were built, but none of the surviving public shelters in Brisbane City Council ownership are of that design. Of the 21 special shelters, only the one on Queens Wharf Road survives. However, of Costello's 58 reusable public surface shelters, 20 have survived; the removal of their blast walls, as planned, had given them a renewed purpose. The worker's shelters at the Story Bridge Hotel and Howard Smith Wharves also still exist.",
"The blast walls of the air raid shelter at Albert Park (South) were removed according to plan after World War II, although evidence of the location of the walls is still visible. Seating has been introduced and a mosaic decoration has been applied to the south face of the north pier.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
Albert Park (South) Air Raid Shelter was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register "Queensland Heritage Register") on 31 May 2005 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**
The Albert Park (South) air raid shelter is important as a part of the Air Raid Precaution activities that were implemented for the defence of Brisbane during World War II. Designed to afford protection to the civilian population of Brisbane in the event of air raid attacks or other emergencies, the air raid shelter located on the footpath to the south corner of Albert Park is important in demonstrating the impact of World War II on the civilian population of Brisbane.
**The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.**
Although many air raid shelters were constructed during World War II in Queensland, comparatively few survive. Also, there are not many types of structures built by the Brisbane City Council during World War II, for wartime purposes, which survive.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**
The shelter's solid construction, rectangular shape, and its siting near a population concentration, demonstrate the principal characteristics of a World War II Brisbane public air raid shelter.
**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**
The Albert Park (South) air raid shelter, now used as a shade shelter, demonstrates the secondary uses that were part of the original design intention. The shelter is a durable example of innovative design and use of concrete technology during World War II.
**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**
The air raid shelter is important as an example of the wartime work of the City Architect's Office and particularly the work of City Architect F.G. Costello.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"Albert Park (South) Air Raid Shelter was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register \"Queensland Heritage Register\") on 31 May 2005 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**",
"The Albert Park (South) air raid shelter is important as a part of the Air Raid Precaution activities that were implemented for the defence of Brisbane during World War II. Designed to afford protection to the civilian population of Brisbane in the event of air raid attacks or other emergencies, the air raid shelter located on the footpath to the south corner of Albert Park is important in demonstrating the impact of World War II on the civilian population of Brisbane.",
"**The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.**",
"Although many air raid shelters were constructed during World War II in Queensland, comparatively few survive. Also, there are not many types of structures built by the Brisbane City Council during World War II, for wartime purposes, which survive.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**",
"The shelter's solid construction, rectangular shape, and its siting near a population concentration, demonstrate the principal characteristics of a World War II Brisbane public air raid shelter.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**",
"The Albert Park (South) air raid shelter, now used as a shade shelter, demonstrates the secondary uses that were part of the original design intention. The shelter is a durable example of innovative design and use of concrete technology during World War II.",
"**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**",
"The air raid shelter is important as an example of the wartime work of the City Architect's Office and particularly the work of City Architect F.G. Costello.",
""
] |
Rolling\-element bearing
------------------------
A [rolling\-element bearing](/wiki/Rolling-element_bearing "Rolling-element bearing") is generally composed of a sleeve\-like outer ring and several rows of balls retained by cages. The cages were originally machined from solid metal and were quickly replaced by [stampings](/wiki/Stamping_%28metalworking%29 "Stamping (metalworking)"). It features smooth motion, low friction, high rigidity and long life. They are economical, and easy to maintain and replace. Thomson Industries[thomsonlinear.com](https://www.thomsonlinear.com/en/products/linear-bearings) (currently owned by Altra Industrial Motion[altramotion.com](https://www.altramotion.com/) ) is generally given credit for first producing \[what is now known as] a linear [ball bearing](/wiki/Ball_bearing "Ball bearing").
* Rolling\-element bearings are generally designed to work well on [hardened steel](/wiki/Hardened_steel "Hardened steel") or stainless steel shafting (raceways).
* Rolling\-element bearings are more rigid than [plain bearings](/wiki/Plain_bearing "Plain bearing").
* Rolling\-element bearings do not handle contamination well and require seals.
* Rolling\-element bearings require lubrication.
Rolling\-element bearings are manufactured in two forms: ball bearing slides and roller slides.
### Ball bearing slides
Also called "ball slides," ball bearing slides are the most common type of linear slide. Ball bearing slides offer smooth precision motion along a single\-axis linear design, aided by ball bearings housed in the linear base, with self\-lubrication properties that increase reliability. Ball bearing slide applications include delicate instrumentation, robotic assembly, cabinetry, high\-end appliances and clean room environments, which primarily serve the manufacturing industry but also the furniture, electronics and construction industries. For example, a widely used ball bearing slide in the furniture industry is a ball bearing drawer slide.
Commonly constructed from materials such as aluminum, hardened cold rolled steel and [galvanized steel](/wiki/Galvanized_steel "Galvanized steel"), ball bearing slides consist of two linear rows of ball bearings contained by four rods and located on differing sides of the base, which support the carriage for smooth linear movement along the ball bearings. This low\-friction linear movement can be powered by either a drive mechanism, inertia or by hand. Ball bearing slides tend to have a lower load capacity for their size compared to other linear slides because the balls are less resistant to wear and abrasions. In addition, ball bearing slides are limited by the need to fit into housing or drive systems.
The travelling distance of linear recirculating ball bearings is only limited by the length of their rail, as the balls recirculate inside the bearing's housing. Linear non\-recirculating ball bearings have balls installed on a bracket and only move in one axis without recirculation. Since the balls do not recirculate, this type of bearings can provide extremely smooth motion. However, the travelling distance of linear non\-recirculating ball bearings is limited by the length of the bracket.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.linearmotiontips.com/faq\-what\-are\-recirculating\-linear\-bearings/\|title\=What are recirculating linear bearings?\|date\=March 2, 2017\|website\=Linear Motion Tips}}
### Roller slides
Also known as crossed roller slides, roller slides are non\-motorized linear slides that provide low\-friction linear movement for equipment powered by inertia or by hand. Roller slides are based on linear roller bearings, which are frequently criss\-crossed to provide heavier load capabilities and better movement control. Serving industries such as manufacturing, photonics, medical and telecommunications, roller slides are versatile and can be adjusted to meet numerous applications which typically include clean rooms, vacuum environments, material handling and automation machinery.
Roller slides work similarly to ball bearing slides, except that the bearings housed within the carriage are cylinder\-shaped instead of ball shaped. The rollers crisscross each other at a 90° angle and move between the four semi\-flat and parallel rods that surround the rollers. The rollers are between "V" grooved bearing races, one being on the top carriage and the other on the base. Typically, bearing housings are constructed from aluminum while the rollers are constructed from steel.
Although roller slides are not self\-cleaning, they are suitable for environments with low levels of airborne contaminants such as dirt and dust. As one of the more expensive types of linear slides, roller slides are capable of providing linear motion on more than one axis through stackable slides and double carriages. Roller slides offers line contact versus point contact as with ball bearings, creating a broader contact surface due to the consistency of contact between the carriage and the base and resulting in less erosion.
|
[
"Rolling\\-element bearing\n------------------------",
"A [rolling\\-element bearing](/wiki/Rolling-element_bearing \"Rolling-element bearing\") is generally composed of a sleeve\\-like outer ring and several rows of balls retained by cages. The cages were originally machined from solid metal and were quickly replaced by [stampings](/wiki/Stamping_%28metalworking%29 \"Stamping (metalworking)\"). It features smooth motion, low friction, high rigidity and long life. They are economical, and easy to maintain and replace. Thomson Industries[thomsonlinear.com](https://www.thomsonlinear.com/en/products/linear-bearings) (currently owned by Altra Industrial Motion[altramotion.com](https://www.altramotion.com/) ) is generally given credit for first producing \\[what is now known as] a linear [ball bearing](/wiki/Ball_bearing \"Ball bearing\").",
"* Rolling\\-element bearings are generally designed to work well on [hardened steel](/wiki/Hardened_steel \"Hardened steel\") or stainless steel shafting (raceways).\n* Rolling\\-element bearings are more rigid than [plain bearings](/wiki/Plain_bearing \"Plain bearing\").\n* Rolling\\-element bearings do not handle contamination well and require seals.\n* Rolling\\-element bearings require lubrication.",
"Rolling\\-element bearings are manufactured in two forms: ball bearing slides and roller slides.",
"### Ball bearing slides",
"Also called \"ball slides,\" ball bearing slides are the most common type of linear slide. Ball bearing slides offer smooth precision motion along a single\\-axis linear design, aided by ball bearings housed in the linear base, with self\\-lubrication properties that increase reliability. Ball bearing slide applications include delicate instrumentation, robotic assembly, cabinetry, high\\-end appliances and clean room environments, which primarily serve the manufacturing industry but also the furniture, electronics and construction industries. For example, a widely used ball bearing slide in the furniture industry is a ball bearing drawer slide.",
"Commonly constructed from materials such as aluminum, hardened cold rolled steel and [galvanized steel](/wiki/Galvanized_steel \"Galvanized steel\"), ball bearing slides consist of two linear rows of ball bearings contained by four rods and located on differing sides of the base, which support the carriage for smooth linear movement along the ball bearings. This low\\-friction linear movement can be powered by either a drive mechanism, inertia or by hand. Ball bearing slides tend to have a lower load capacity for their size compared to other linear slides because the balls are less resistant to wear and abrasions. In addition, ball bearing slides are limited by the need to fit into housing or drive systems.",
"The travelling distance of linear recirculating ball bearings is only limited by the length of their rail, as the balls recirculate inside the bearing's housing. Linear non\\-recirculating ball bearings have balls installed on a bracket and only move in one axis without recirculation. Since the balls do not recirculate, this type of bearings can provide extremely smooth motion. However, the travelling distance of linear non\\-recirculating ball bearings is limited by the length of the bracket.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linearmotiontips.com/faq\\-what\\-are\\-recirculating\\-linear\\-bearings/\\|title\\=What are recirculating linear bearings?\\|date\\=March 2, 2017\\|website\\=Linear Motion Tips}}",
"### Roller slides",
"Also known as crossed roller slides, roller slides are non\\-motorized linear slides that provide low\\-friction linear movement for equipment powered by inertia or by hand. Roller slides are based on linear roller bearings, which are frequently criss\\-crossed to provide heavier load capabilities and better movement control. Serving industries such as manufacturing, photonics, medical and telecommunications, roller slides are versatile and can be adjusted to meet numerous applications which typically include clean rooms, vacuum environments, material handling and automation machinery.",
"Roller slides work similarly to ball bearing slides, except that the bearings housed within the carriage are cylinder\\-shaped instead of ball shaped. The rollers crisscross each other at a 90° angle and move between the four semi\\-flat and parallel rods that surround the rollers. The rollers are between \"V\" grooved bearing races, one being on the top carriage and the other on the base. Typically, bearing housings are constructed from aluminum while the rollers are constructed from steel.",
"Although roller slides are not self\\-cleaning, they are suitable for environments with low levels of airborne contaminants such as dirt and dust. As one of the more expensive types of linear slides, roller slides are capable of providing linear motion on more than one axis through stackable slides and double carriages. Roller slides offers line contact versus point contact as with ball bearings, creating a broader contact surface due to the consistency of contact between the carriage and the base and resulting in less erosion.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Following a camping trip in the nearby [Cascade mountains](/wiki/Cascade_mountains "Cascade mountains"), George Henderson drives home to suburban [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") with his family when he hits a [Bigfoot](/wiki/Bigfoot "Bigfoot") with his [station wagon](/wiki/Ford_Country_Squire "Ford Country Squire"). Believing it to be dead and the key to fame and fortune, the family straps the creature to the roof of their car. A hunter tracking the creature discovers the Hendersons' damaged license plate.
That night, George goes to examine the Bigfoot and discovers it was alive and has escaped. He finds the creature in the kitchen, having knocked over the refrigerator while looking for food. The family realizes that he is intelligent and friendly, and George decides to return him to the wilderness. Naming the Bigfoot "Harry", George tries to lure him into the station wagon, but Harry becomes upset and runs off.
Saddened, the family attempt to resume their normal lives, but sightings of Harry become more frequent as media fervor heightens. George tries to find Harry and visits the "North American Museum of Anthropology" to speak with Dr. Wallace Wrightwood, a supposed expert on Bigfoot. Giving his phone number to the museum clerk, George resumes his search. The legendary French\-Canadian hunter\-turned\-Bigfoot\-tracker, Jacques LaFleur, finds the Henderson household. George follows a Bigfoot sighting into the city while Harry evades hunters and the police as he attempts to find safety. George saves Harry from LaFleur, who is arrested, and reunites him with the Henderson family.
George invites Dr. Wrightwood to dinner. He urges the Hendersons to give up on Bigfoot as it has destroyed his life but then meets Harry, restoring his enthusiasm. Bailed out of jail, LaFleur travels to the Henderson house. Harry and the Hendersons escape with Dr. Wrightwood in his truck, and LaFleur gives chase. Fleeing to the mountains, George tries to force Harry to leave. Confused and upset, Harry departs, but LaFleur tracks and attempts to shoot him. Harry subdues LaFleur, and George intervenes when LaFleur attempts to escape. LaFleur gives up the hunt when he realizes that Harry is more than a simple beast.
As the family says goodbye, George tells Harry to take care of himself, to which he replies, "Okay" – revealing he has the ability to learn language. As Harry leaves, three other hiding Bigfoots and one adolescent emerge and disappear into the wilderness with Harry as the Henderson family watches.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Following a camping trip in the nearby [Cascade mountains](/wiki/Cascade_mountains \"Cascade mountains\"), George Henderson drives home to suburban [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") with his family when he hits a [Bigfoot](/wiki/Bigfoot \"Bigfoot\") with his [station wagon](/wiki/Ford_Country_Squire \"Ford Country Squire\"). Believing it to be dead and the key to fame and fortune, the family straps the creature to the roof of their car. A hunter tracking the creature discovers the Hendersons' damaged license plate.",
"That night, George goes to examine the Bigfoot and discovers it was alive and has escaped. He finds the creature in the kitchen, having knocked over the refrigerator while looking for food. The family realizes that he is intelligent and friendly, and George decides to return him to the wilderness. Naming the Bigfoot \"Harry\", George tries to lure him into the station wagon, but Harry becomes upset and runs off.",
"Saddened, the family attempt to resume their normal lives, but sightings of Harry become more frequent as media fervor heightens. George tries to find Harry and visits the \"North American Museum of Anthropology\" to speak with Dr. Wallace Wrightwood, a supposed expert on Bigfoot. Giving his phone number to the museum clerk, George resumes his search. The legendary French\\-Canadian hunter\\-turned\\-Bigfoot\\-tracker, Jacques LaFleur, finds the Henderson household. George follows a Bigfoot sighting into the city while Harry evades hunters and the police as he attempts to find safety. George saves Harry from LaFleur, who is arrested, and reunites him with the Henderson family.",
"George invites Dr. Wrightwood to dinner. He urges the Hendersons to give up on Bigfoot as it has destroyed his life but then meets Harry, restoring his enthusiasm. Bailed out of jail, LaFleur travels to the Henderson house. Harry and the Hendersons escape with Dr. Wrightwood in his truck, and LaFleur gives chase. Fleeing to the mountains, George tries to force Harry to leave. Confused and upset, Harry departs, but LaFleur tracks and attempts to shoot him. Harry subdues LaFleur, and George intervenes when LaFleur attempts to escape. LaFleur gives up the hunt when he realizes that Harry is more than a simple beast.",
"As the family says goodbye, George tells Harry to take care of himself, to which he replies, \"Okay\" – revealing he has the ability to learn language. As Harry leaves, three other hiding Bigfoots and one adolescent emerge and disappear into the wilderness with Harry as the Henderson family watches.",
""
] |
Life
----
Huang was born in [Yangzhou](/wiki/Yangzhou "Yangzhou"), [Jiangsu Province](/wiki/Jiangsu_Province "Jiangsu Province") on 3 July 1898, during the late [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty"). In 1917, Huang graduated from Yangzhou Middle School. In 1918, Huang graduated from the [Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine](/wiki/Zhejiang_Provincial_College_of_Medicine "Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine") (current [Zhejiang University](/wiki/Zhejiang_University "Zhejiang University") School of Medicine).[Huang Minlon's CV](http://www.sioc.ac.cn/yszc/wangml.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915202918/http://www.sioc.ac.cn/yszc/wangml.htm \|date\=2008\-09\-15 }}
In 1924, Huang obtained [PhD](/wiki/PhD "PhD") from the [University of Berlin](/wiki/University_of_Berlin "University of Berlin"), Germany. In 1925, Huang went back to China and became a [professor](/wiki/Professor "Professor") and later department head at Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine. From 1934 to 1940, Huang worked in research in Germany and the UK.
Huang returned to China in 1940 and became a senior researcher at [Academia Sinica](/wiki/Academia_Sinica "Academia Sinica"). Huang was also a professor at the renowned wartime [National Southwestern Associated University](/wiki/National_Southwestern_Associated_University "National Southwestern Associated University") during the Japanese occupation.
Subsequently, during 1945\-1952, Huang was a [visiting professor](/wiki/Visiting_professor "Visiting professor") at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") in the US. Huang was also a visitor at [Merck](/wiki/Merck_%26_Co. "Merck & Co.") during this time.
In 1952, Huang returned to China. He served as the Chair of Department of Chemistry, [Academy of Military Medical Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Military_Medical_Sciences "Academy of Military Medical Sciences") of [PLA](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army "People's Liberation Army"). Huang was also a senior researcher at the Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry (SIOC) of the [Chinese Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences "Chinese Academy of Sciences").
Huang is regarded as one of pioneers and founders of modern pharmaceutical industries in China. Huang was a senior academician at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1955 election). Huang was the Vice\-president and later became the Honorary\-president of the Chinese Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences (a.k.a. Chinese Pharmaceutical Association).
Huang published more than 100 papers, in both English and Chinese.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Huang was born in [Yangzhou](/wiki/Yangzhou \"Yangzhou\"), [Jiangsu Province](/wiki/Jiangsu_Province \"Jiangsu Province\") on 3 July 1898, during the late [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). In 1917, Huang graduated from Yangzhou Middle School. In 1918, Huang graduated from the [Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine](/wiki/Zhejiang_Provincial_College_of_Medicine \"Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine\") (current [Zhejiang University](/wiki/Zhejiang_University \"Zhejiang University\") School of Medicine).[Huang Minlon's CV](http://www.sioc.ac.cn/yszc/wangml.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915202918/http://www.sioc.ac.cn/yszc/wangml.htm \\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-15 }}",
"In 1924, Huang obtained [PhD](/wiki/PhD \"PhD\") from the [University of Berlin](/wiki/University_of_Berlin \"University of Berlin\"), Germany. In 1925, Huang went back to China and became a [professor](/wiki/Professor \"Professor\") and later department head at Zhejiang Provincial College of Medicine. From 1934 to 1940, Huang worked in research in Germany and the UK.",
"Huang returned to China in 1940 and became a senior researcher at [Academia Sinica](/wiki/Academia_Sinica \"Academia Sinica\"). Huang was also a professor at the renowned wartime [National Southwestern Associated University](/wiki/National_Southwestern_Associated_University \"National Southwestern Associated University\") during the Japanese occupation.",
"Subsequently, during 1945\\-1952, Huang was a [visiting professor](/wiki/Visiting_professor \"Visiting professor\") at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") in the US. Huang was also a visitor at [Merck](/wiki/Merck_%26_Co. \"Merck & Co.\") during this time.",
"In 1952, Huang returned to China. He served as the Chair of Department of Chemistry, [Academy of Military Medical Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Military_Medical_Sciences \"Academy of Military Medical Sciences\") of [PLA](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army \"People's Liberation Army\"). Huang was also a senior researcher at the Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry (SIOC) of the [Chinese Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences \"Chinese Academy of Sciences\").",
"Huang is regarded as one of pioneers and founders of modern pharmaceutical industries in China. Huang was a senior academician at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1955 election). Huang was the Vice\\-president and later became the Honorary\\-president of the Chinese Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences (a.k.a. Chinese Pharmaceutical Association).",
"Huang published more than 100 papers, in both English and Chinese.",
""
] |
By country
----------
### Australia
During the years following the [federation of Australia](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia "Federation of Australia") in 1901, several locations were considered for the national capital. One of the criteria used to assess sites was that they needed to be inland so that they could not be attacked from the sea. It was also believed that locations away from the coast would have a lower incidence of disease.{{cite web \|last1\=Headon \|first1\=David \|title\=Wanted: Treasure House of a Nation's Heart: The Search for an Australian Capital City, 1891–1908 \|url\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\_Parliament/Senate/Powers\_practice\_n\_procedures/pops/pop50/wantedtreasurehouseofanationsheart \|website\=Papers on parliament No. 50 \|publisher\=Parliament of Australia \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|language\=en\-AU \|date\=March 2009}} During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") the [Office of National Assessments](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments "Office of National Assessments") believed that it was unlikely that Australian cities would be attacked by the Soviet Union during a nuclear war.{{cite news \|last1\=Dorling \|first1\=Philip \|title\=Secret's out: Soviets did not target cities \|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/secrets\-out\-soviets\-did\-not\-target\-cities\-20120805\-23ny1\.html \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald \|date\=5 August 2012 \|language\=en}}
The modern Australian Government has plans to enable the continuity of government. As of 2008, these formed part of 'Plan Mercator', which the government has described as aiming "to minimise the impact of a national security emergency on critical government operations and provide for the rapid resumption of 'near normal' government business under alternate arrangements until normal operations can be resumed".
Under the Australian system of government, there is not necessarily a requirement to maintain the [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia "Cabinet of Australia") in a crisis. If the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia "Prime Minister of Australia") was killed in a disaster, the [Governor\-General](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia "Governor-General of Australia") would need to appoint their successor. A [national unity government](/wiki/National_unity_government "National unity government") could also be formed in a major crisis.{{cite news \|last1\=Dalzell \|first1\=Stephanie \|last2\=Pianegonda \|first2\=Elise \|title\=If Canberra is attacked or cut off by natural disaster, where does the seat of government move to? \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/specials/curious\-canberra/2018\-03\-05/canberra\-parliament\-house\-emergency\-plan/9499384 \|access\-date\=3 February 2024 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=4 March 2018 \|language\=en\-AU}}
A range of legislation, including the *[Defence Act 1903](/wiki/Defence_Act_1903 "Defence Act 1903")* and several health bills, include provisions that can be activated in response to emergencies. There are also plans for the [Parliament of Australia](/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia "Parliament of Australia") to operate from another location if it is unable to sit at [Parliament House](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Canberra "Parliament House, Canberra") in Canberra. These plans are classified.
*[The Canberra Times](/wiki/The_Canberra_Times "The Canberra Times")* has reported that an Australian Government building in the Canberra suburb of [Symonston](/wiki/Symonston%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory "Symonston, Australian Capital Territory") houses communications systems that would be used to support the continuity of government if Plan Mercator was activated. The building was completed in 2007, and its secret function was disclosed as part of a job advertisement in 2008\.{{cite news \|last1\=Dingwall \|first1\=Doug \|title\=Building 'central to Canberra terror attack response' up for sale \|url\=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6016906/building\-central\-to\-canberra\-terror\-attack\-response\-up\-for\-sale/ \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|work\=The Canberra Times \|date\=31 May 2018 \|language\=en\-AU}}
In response to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia"), the federal and most of the state and territory parliaments cancelled scheduled sittings from March 2020\.{{cite web \|last1\=Horne \|first1\=Nicholas \|title\=COVID\-19 and parliamentary sittings \|url\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\_Parliament/Parliamentary\_Departments/Parliamentary\_Library/FlagPost/2020/April/COVID\-19\_and\_parliamentary\_sittings \|website\=FlagPost \|publisher\=Parliament of Australia \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|language\=en\-AU \|date\=2 April 2020}} Federal parliamentary committees continued to operate virtually. The federal parliament met with only the number of members necessary to form a [quorum](/wiki/Quorum "Quorum") present on several occasions between March and June 2020, and resumed full sittings from August that year. The arrangements in place from August allowed members of parliament who were unable to travel to Canberra to participate virtually, but these members were unable to vote in proceedings.{{cite news \|last1\=Moulds \|first1\=Sarah \|title\=As the first 'remote' sitting starts in Canberra, virtual parliaments should be the new norm \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\-08\-24/australia\-virtual\-parliament\-sitting\-new\-norm\-covid\-bandaid/12588432 \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=24 August 2020 \|language\=en\-AU}}{{cite web \|title\=The Parliaments response to the COVID\-19 pandemic \|url\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\_Parliament/House\_of\_Representatives/About\_the\_House\_News/News/The\_Parliaments\_response\_to\_the\_COVID\-19\_pandemic \|publisher\=Parliament of Australia \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|language\=en\-AU \|date\=28 July 2020}}
Prime Minister [Scott Morrison](/wiki/Scott_Morrison "Scott Morrison") arranged to be secretly appointed to hold [several ministerial positions](/wiki/Scott_Morrison_ministerial_positions_controversy "Scott Morrison ministerial positions controversy") during 2020 and 2021, justifying his appointment as the Minister for Finance and Minister for Health as being necessary in case the ministers for portfolios were affected by COVID\-19 and unable to perform their duties.{{cite news \|last1\=McElroy \|first1\=Nicholas \|title\=Former prime minister Scott Morrison's secret ministries were unnecessary, Virginia Bell's inquiry finds \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\-11\-25/key\-takeaways\-from\-scott\-morrison\-secret\-ministries\-report/101699078 \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=25 November 2022 \|language\=en\-AU}} Morrison's appointment as Minister for Health was approved in March 2020 by the [National Security Committee of Cabinet](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Australia%29 "National Security Committee (Australia)") as part of measures taken in response to the pandemic, but was not publicly announced. His subsequent appointment to the other ministries was not known to other members of the government.{{cite news \|last1\=Probyn \|first1\=Andrew \|title\=Scott Morrison's power grab was set up by a handful of senior Coalition MPs — but none of them knew what would come next \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\-08\-23/behind\-the\-scenes\-of\-scott\-morrisons\-power\-grab/101358232 \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|work\=ABC News \|date\=22 August 2022 \|language\=en\-AU}} An inquiry held into the matter during 2022 that was headed by Former High Court justice [Virginia Bell](/wiki/Virginia_Bell_%28judge%29 "Virginia Bell (judge)") found that Morrison had not needed to hold these ministries, as he could have been appointed "in a matter of minutes" if the ministers had been incapacitated. Morrison did not use the powers available to him as Finance or Health minister.
### Canada
[Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") built numerous nuclear bunkers across the country, nicknamed "[Diefenbunkers](/wiki/Emergency_Government_Headquarters "Emergency Government Headquarters")" in a play on the last name of then\-Prime Minister [John Diefenbaker](/wiki/John_Diefenbaker "John Diefenbaker"). In 2016, the [Privy Council Office](/wiki/Privy_Council_Office_%28Canada%29 "Privy Council Office (Canada)") made an agreement with the [Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 "Department of National Defence (Canada)") to open two bunkers for government officials amid the ongoing [North Korean nuclear crisis](/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction "North Korea and weapons of mass destruction").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/north\-korea\-canada\-cold\-war\-plan\-1\.4424523 \|title\=Canada sets aside two bunkers at military bases amid global uncertainty, North Korean threat \- Politics \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-30 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114083044/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/north\-korea\-canada\-cold\-war\-plan\-1\.4424523 \|archive\-date\=January 14, 2018 \|publisher\=\[\[CBC News]]}}
### China
{{see also\|816 Nuclear Military Plant}}
{{expand section\|date\=June 2014}}
[thumb\|In a tunnel of Project 131](/wiki/Image:Project-131-tunnel-9756.jpg "Project-131-tunnel-9756.jpg")
The [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China") (PRC) once operated [Underground Project 131](/wiki/Underground_Project_131 "Underground Project 131"), intended to be the [PLA](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army "People's Liberation Army") headquarters in [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei") during a nuclear conflict. Built due to the [Sino\-Soviet split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split "Sino-Soviet split") during that portion of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), in 1981, the Project 131 site was turned over to the civilian authorities of the prefecture\-level city of [Xianning](/wiki/Xianning "Xianning"), where it is located.
### Czech Republic
The K\-116 facility under Zlíchov hill in western [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") was designated to house the [Czechoslovak](/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic") government in case of nuclear attack (together with the K\-9 facility in [Jihlava](/wiki/Jihlava "Jihlava")) and might still be used as the emergency headquarters of the Czech government and [military](/wiki/Military_of_the_Czech_Republic "Military of the Czech Republic").{{cite web \| url \= http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/exkluzivne\-na\-ct24/203322\-kam\-by\-se\-ukryli\-komunisticti\-funkcionari\-pred\-treti\-svetovou\-valkou/ \| title \= Kam by se ukryli komunističtí funkcionáři před třetí světovou válkou?\|language\=cs\|trans\-title\=Where would communist functionaries hide in case of world war III?}}
### Denmark
During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") built two bunker complexes, named [REGAN Vest](/wiki/Rold_Skov%23History "Rold Skov#History") and [REGAN Øst](/wiki/Helleb%C3%A6k%23Landmarks "Hellebæk#Landmarks") (Danish: "REGeringsANlæg", translated: "Government Complex West and Government Complex East"), in [Jutland](/wiki/Jutland "Jutland") and [Zealand](/wiki/Zealand "Zealand") respectively. The idea was to have half of the government and the [royal family](/wiki/Danish_royal_family "Danish royal family") in one bunker, and the other half in the other, allowing continuity of government, even if one of the bunkers were destroyed or cut off.
### France
The [*Centre d'opération des forces aériennes stratégiques*](/wiki/Taverny_Air_Base "Taverny Air Base") (COFAS) is a [hardened command centre](/wiki/Hardened_command_centre "Hardened command centre") for [French nuclear forces](/wiki/French_nuclear_forces "French nuclear forces") at Taverny Air Base in [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny "Taverny"), [Val d'Oise](/wiki/Val_d%27Oise "Val d'Oise").{{update inline\|date\=September 2023}} The alternate national command center is located at [Mont Verdun](/wiki/Mont_Verdun "Mont Verdun") near [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon").
The hardened headquarters of *[Force océanique stratégique](/wiki/Force_oc%C3%A9anique_strat%C3%A9gique "Force océanique stratégique")* (FOST), France's nuclear [SSBN](/wiki/SSBN "SSBN") fleet, is at [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France"), [Finistère](/wiki/Finist%C3%A8re "Finistère").
### Germany
[Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") operated a government bunker ([Regierungsbunker](/wiki/Government_bunker_%28Germany%29 "Government bunker (Germany)")) to house the German government, parliament and all federal personnel needed to keep the government working in the event of war or severe crisis. It was decommissioned in 1997\.
### Republic of Ireland
In [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"), the [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Ireland%29 "National Security Committee (Ireland)") (NSC) is the conduit for officials to communicate with the [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach") (Prime Minister) and/or cabinet members if the normal channel of communication with their minister became unavailable. Drafts of emergency powers legislation have been drawn up in secret, including legislation to deal with circumstances such as an attack on cabinet involving numerous deaths.{{cite book \|last\=Mulqueen \|first\=Michael \|date\=2009 \|title\=Re\-Evaluating Irish National Security Policy: Affordable Threats? \|publisher\=Manchester University Press \|location\=Manchester\|isbn\=978\-0\-7190\-8027\-2}}
During the period of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), it was envisaged that cabinet ministers, senior civil servants and military advisers would use an underground nuclear bunker at [Custume Barracks](/wiki/Custume_Barracks "Custume Barracks") in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone "Athlone") in the event of a nuclear exchange. The bunker was equipped with a command and control centre with communications equipment – which had a hotline to the [British government](/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom "Government of the United Kingdom") in [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall "Whitehall") – a map room pointing out important areas for protection, kitchen, bedroom and bathroom facilities.{{cite news\|title\=Waking up to a nuclear nightmare...\|url\=http://www.independent.ie/unsorted/features/waking\-up\-to\-a\-nuclear\-nightmare\-25908547\.html\|access\-date\=29 October 2016\|publisher\=\[\[Irish Independent]]\|date\=31 July 2004}}{{cite news\|last1\=De Breadun\|first1\=Deaglan\|title\=Memo reveals plans for nuclear bunker\|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/memo\-reveals\-plans\-for\-nuclear\-bunker\-1\.344168\|publisher\=The Irish Times\|date\=3 January 2003}}
### Israel
As of December 2003 an underground national crisis management center was being constructed at an undisclosed location in the [Judaean Mountains](/wiki/Judaean_Mountains "Judaean Mountains") under [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem").{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\-2833926,00\.html \|title\=הבור בירושלים: מכאן תנוהל המדינה בשעת חירום \|last\=ynet \|date\=2003\-07\-12 \|work\=Ynet \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|language\=he}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1\.1220548 \|title\=זה לא סוף העולם \|last\=אילני \|first\=עפרי \|date\=2010\-09\-07 \|work\=הארץ \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|language\=he}} Another command and control bunker is being built as part of the new Prime Minister's Office complex in [Givat Ram](/wiki/Givat_Ram "Givat Ram").{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.10\.tv/news/62142 \|title\=תיעוד בלעדי: כך נראה מהאוויר המקום ממנו ינהל רה"מ את המלחמה הבאה \|website\=ערוץ 10 \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|language\=he \|archive\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103210447/https://www.10\.tv/news/62142 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Poland
According to [Constitution of Poland](/wiki/Constitution_of_Poland "Constitution of Poland") in case of death or inability to discharging duties of the President, his duties are discharged by Marshal of the Sejm (or if they are unable, the Marshal of the Senate).
After [Smolensk air disaster](/wiki/Smolensk_air_disaster "Smolensk air disaster") in 2010 a lot of the highest state and army offices were emptied. Their duties were automatically taken over by respective deputies.
### New Zealand
The New Zealand government believes the most likely disaster scenario to affect the government is a large earthquake in [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"). The government has plans to move Parliament and essential staff to [Devonport Naval Base](/wiki/Devonport_Naval_Base "Devonport Naval Base") in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") if such an event occurs.{{cite news\|last\=Davison\|first\=Isaac\|title\=Parliament would relocate to Auckland if quake knocked out capital\|url\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/politics/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=280\&objectid\=11251869\|access\-date\=8 May 2014\|newspaper\=NZ Herald\|date\=8 May 2014}}
The website of the [Governor\-General of New Zealand](/wiki/Governor-General_of_New_Zealand "Governor-General of New Zealand") notes that their constitutional role is to "maintain the legitimacy and continuity of government by ensuring there is always a government in office with a democratic mandate to govern".{{cite web \|title\=Constitutional role \|url\=https://gg.govt.nz/office\-governor\-general/roles\-and\-functions\-governor\-general/constitutional\-role \|publisher\=Governor\-General of New Zealand \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|language\=en \|date\=27 February 2017}}
The New Zealand [National Crisis Management Centre](/wiki/National_Crisis_Management_Centre "National Crisis Management Centre") is located under the ["Beehive"](/wiki/Beehive_%28New_Zealand%29 "Beehive (New Zealand)") building in Wellington. An Alternate National Crisis Management Centre is in Auckland, and would be activated if the facility in Wellington was damaged, if multiple crises were occurring or if the government is required to relocate to Auckland.{{cite web \|title\=National Crisis Management Centre \|url\=https://www.civildefence.govt.nz/about/national\-crisis\-management\-centre \|publisher\=National Emergency Management Agency \|access\-date\=4 February 2024 \|language\=en}}
### Norway
The [Norwegian government](/wiki/Norwegian_government "Norwegian government") operates a nuclear bunker called [Sentralanlegget](/wiki/Sentralanlegget "Sentralanlegget") in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud "Buskerud") County. The bunker is meant to accommodate the [Norwegian royal family](/wiki/Norwegian_royal_family "Norwegian royal family") and the government in case of a nuclear/military attack on the nation, and also function as a wartime headquarters. There is also a bunker beneath [Høyblokka](/wiki/Regjeringskvartalet "Regjeringskvartalet") in downtown [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo").
### Soviet Union and Russia
[thumb\|250px\|Map of the [Metro\-2](/wiki/Metro-2 "Metro-2") system as supposed by the United States military intelligence in 1991\.{{cite book \|title\=Military forces in transition\|last\=United States Department of Defense\|author\-link\=United States Department of Defense\|year\=1991\|publisher\=United States Department of Defense\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|isbn\=0\-16\-035973\-2\|issn\=1062\-6557\|page\=40\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UH7NSFIMgnkC\&q\=underground\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-13}}](/wiki/File:Mapmetro2.jpg "Mapmetro2.jpg")
In the public domain very little is known about [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")'s COG plans. One sprawling underground facility residing in tunnels cut into [Mount Yamantau](/wiki/Mount_Yamantau "Mount Yamantau") is likely to be related to the survival of Russia's government, given its size and decades long construction history, with a construction start during the rule of [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev "Leonid Brezhnev") (1964–82\).{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/16/world/despite\-cold\-war\-s\-end\-russia\-keeps\-building\-a\-secret\-complex.html\|title\=Despite Cold War's End, Russia Keeps Building a Secret Complex\|first\=Michael R.\|last\=Gordon\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=April 16, 1996}} [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") defector Colonel [Oleg Gordievsky](/wiki/Oleg_Gordievsky "Oleg Gordievsky") states that an organization, known as Directorate 15, was (or is) tasked with building and maintaining a network of hundreds of underground command bunkers for the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet "Soviet") leadership; this includes the vast site beneath Yamantau Mountain, which is often called [Mezhgorye / Межго́рье](/wiki/Beloretsk-16 "Beloretsk-16") after the [closed city](/wiki/Closed_city "Closed city") that is located nearby. However, there is speculation, due to its proximity to [Chelyabinsk\-70](/wiki/Chelyabinsk-70 "Chelyabinsk-70"), that Yamantau is a 400\-square\-mile underground complex which houses nuclear warheads, missiles, launch controls, and several nuclear weapons factories designed to continue production after a hypothetical nuclear war begins.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias\-top\-secret\-bases.html \|title\=WINDOW ON HEARTLAND Geopolitical notes on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424050959/http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias\-top\-secret\-bases.html \|archive\-date\=April 24, 2013 }}
The second command and control center in the [Urals](/wiki/Urals "Urals"), after Yamantau, is similarly speculated to be underground and located near, or under, [Kosvinsky Kamen](/wiki/Kosvinsky_Kamen "Kosvinsky Kamen"). The site is believed to host the Russian [Strategic Rocket Forces](/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces "Strategic Rocket Forces") alternate command post, a post for the general staff built to compensate for the vulnerability of older Soviet era command posts in the Moscow region. In spite of this, the primary command posts for the [Strategic Rocket Forces](/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces "Strategic Rocket Forces") remains [Kuntsevo](/wiki/Kuntsevo "Kuntsevo") in Moscow and the secondary is the Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals.Globalsecurity.org, [Strategic C3I Facilities](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/c3i_fac.htm), accessed October 2007 The facility at Kosvinsky, finished in early 1996, was designed to resist US [earth\-penetrating warheads](/wiki/Nuclear_bunker_buster "Nuclear bunker buster") and serves a similar role as the American [Cheyenne Mountain Complex](/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex "Cheyenne Mountain Complex").
Further command centers, according to globalsecurity.org, include one near [Chekhov](/wiki/Chekhov%2C_Moscow_Oblast "Chekhov, Moscow Oblast"), which is the [Russian General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Russian_Federation "General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation") wartime command post, buried deep underground,Globalsecurity.org. [Chekhov](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/chekhov.htm). and [Sharapovo](/wiki/Sharapovo_%28Chekhov_district%29 "Sharapovo (Chekhov district)")([ru](/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%28%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29 "Шарапово (село, Чеховский район)")) about {{convert\|80\|km\|\-1}} south of Moscow, built in the 1950s, Sharapovo is believed to have been the primary backup command center for the Soviet era leadership. Both Chekhov and Sharapovo are each suggested to have the capability to accommodate about 30,000 individuals, As an alternative to Sharapovo, a secondary political leadership base is located at [Chaadayevka](/wiki/Chaadayevka "Chaadayevka"), some 650 kilometers southeast of Moscow near the city of [Penza](/wiki/Penza "Penza").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/chaadayevka.htm\|title\=Chaadayevka\|website\=www.globalsecurity.org}}
There is also said to be as many as 12 underground levels beneath the Russian capital of [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") to protect the government in the [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin "Kremlin"), known as the Main Directorate of special programs of the President (Glavnoye Upravlenie Specialnih Program: GUSP) ([ru](/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8 "Главное управление специальных программ Президента Российской Федерации")) the direct successor of the 15th Directorate of the KGB, which was established in 1977, GUSP is said to oversee, amongst other sites, a parallel track line alongside the [Moscow metro](/wiki/Moscow_metro "Moscow metro"), known as the 'Kremlin line' [Metro\-2 or D\-6](/wiki/Moscow_Metro-2 "Moscow Metro-2") to be used in an emergency.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.agentura.ru/english/dosie/gusp/\|title\=The Main Directorate of special programs of the President, the GUSP Chief \- Alexander Tsarenko\|access\-date\=2014\-05\-10\|archive\-date\=2014\-06\-20\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620020252/http://www.agentura.ru/english/dosie/gusp/\|url\-status\=dead}} Two destinations of this system are suggested to be the old [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB") headquarters, now the [FSB](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service "Federal Security Service") headquarters, at [Lubyanka Square](/wiki/Lubyanka_Square "Lubyanka Square"), and the second being regarded as an enormous underground leadership bunker adjacent to [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University "Moscow State University"). Another alleged subterranean destination, apart from the aforementioned underground town at [Ramenki](/wiki/Ramenki_District "Ramenki District")/Moscow State University is *[Vnukovo](/wiki/Vnukovo_International_Airport "Vnukovo International Airport")\-2* airport.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/russia/1997/fbuma04301997000507\.htm\|title\=Secrets 'Metro'\-Style\|website\=www.globalsecurity.org}} Despite official Russian state ambiguity, it is speculated that many of the Moscow bunkers are linked by an underground railway line.
### Sweden
In case of war, the [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag "Riksdag") can convene somewhere else than in the capital, and if necessary, a War Delegation will replace the Riksdag. The War Delegation consists of the Speaker and 50 members of the Riksdag. The government can put a number of [enabling acts](/wiki/Enabling_act "Enabling act") in force to regulate for example rationing, export and seizing of property.{{Cite web\|last\=Riksdagsförvaltningen\|title\=The War Delegation\|url\=https://www.riksdagen.se/en/how\-the\-riksdag\-works/authorities\-and\-boards\-under\-the\-riksdag/the\-war\-delegation/\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-30\|website\=www.riksdagen.se\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|last\=Riksdagsförvaltningen\|title\=Riksdagens roll vid krig och krigsfara\|url\=https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/sa\-funkar\-riksdagen/arbetet\-i\-riksdagen/riksdagens\-roll\-vid\-krig\-och\-krigsfara/\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-30\|website\=www.riksdagen.se\|language\=sv}} If the government is unable to carry out its duties the Riksdag may decide on the formation of a new government. Likewise, if the Riksdag and the War Delegation are unable to carry out its duties, the government can assume the powers of the Riksdag, but with some limitations.{{Cite web \|title\=Regeringsformen (The Instrument of Government), chapter 15 \|url\=https://www.riksdagen.se/globalassets/07\.\-dokument\-\-lagar/regeringsformen\-eng\-2021\.pdf \|access\-date\=2022\-01\-31 \|website\=Riksdagen.se}}
During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), the [Klara skyddsrum](/wiki/Klara_shelter "Klara shelter") ("Klara shelter" or "Klara bunker") was built underneath [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"). The bunker is designed to accommodate two thirds of the government and between 8,000 and 12,000 civilians in the case of a military attack on Stockholm. It is designed as a very large, two\-story oval, with multiple entrances. During peacetime, parts of it are used as a parking garage. Sweden built over 65,000 fallout shelters{{cite web\| url \= https://www.thelocal.se/20171101/why\-sweden\-is\-home\-to\-65000\-fallout\-shelters\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20171101172549/https://www.thelocal.se/20171101/why\-sweden\-is\-home\-to\-65000\-fallout\-shelters\| archive\-date \= 2017\-11\-01\| title \= Why Sweden is home to 65,000 fallout shelters \- The Local}} in regular houses, and every county had at least one large hard\-rock underground bunker that controlled a number of smaller bunkers that were located in the municipalities.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/halland/hemlig\-bunker\-i\-halmstad\-oppnades\|title\=Hemlig bunker i Halmstad öppnades\|first\=Anders\|last\=Fall\|newspaper\=SVT Nyheter\|date\=January 31, 2017\|via\=www.svt.se}}
### Turkey
There is little public knowledge about continuity of government in Turkey. The cabinet and presidential offices, based in the capital of [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara "Ankara"), have secondary sites in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") and [İzmir](/wiki/%C4%B0zmir "İzmir").
### United Kingdom
{{see also\|Letters of last resort}}
The primary British COG headquarters is at the Ministry of Defence in [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall "Whitehall"). The [Central Government War Headquarters](/wiki/Central_Government_War_Headquarters "Central Government War Headquarters") was previously maintained in a quarry complex near [Corsham, Wiltshire](/wiki/Corsham%2C_Wiltshire "Corsham, Wiltshire"). The above\-ground support facility was [RAF Rudloe Manor](/wiki/RAF_Rudloe_Manor "RAF Rudloe Manor").
Service command centres are [Northwood](/wiki/Northwood_Headquarters "Northwood Headquarters") for the [Royal Navy Trident SSBN force](/wiki/Royal_Navy_Trident_SSBN_force "Royal Navy Trident SSBN force"), and [RAF High Wycombe](/wiki/RAF_High_Wycombe "RAF High Wycombe") for the Royal Air Force.
### United States
{{Main\|Continuity of Operations Plan}}
Continuity of the national government was first threatened in late 1776, when British forces advanced toward the Continental capital at [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"). On December 9, the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress "Continental Congress") passed a resolution in anticipation of a British capture:
> *Resolved*: That in case this Congress shall be under the necessity of removing from Philadelphia, it shall be adjourned to [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore").
The Congress was adjourned as planned three days later.Journals of the Continental Congress Other relocations followed during the course of the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War").
For most of its existence, the United States operated without a standing continuity plan. When British forces [burned Washington](/wiki/Burning_of_Washington "Burning of Washington") in 1814, Secretary of State [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe "James Monroe") received only a few hours' notice to remove the government records. Although his staff saved many valuable records, much was nonetheless destroyed, and the next administration encountered a great deal of confusion.{{cite web\|url\=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short\-history/staffing\|title\=Staffing and Administration \- Short History \- Department History \- Office of the Historian\|website\=history.state.gov}}
In 1952, President [Truman](/wiki/Harry_Truman "Harry Truman") ordered all federal offices to develop their own continuity plans for the event of a [civil defense](/wiki/Civil_defense "Civil defense") emergency. Plans have been maintained and adapted since then, at times requiring the construction of secret facilities such as the [emergency Congress facility](/wiki/Project_Greek_Island "Project Greek Island") in [Greenbrier County, West Virginia](/wiki/Greenbrier_County%2C_West_Virginia "Greenbrier County, West Virginia"). The current continuity policy is defined in National Security Policy Directive 51{{Cite web\|url\=https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd\-51\.htm\|title\=NSPD\-51: National Continuity Policy\|website\=fas.org}} and its implementation plan.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fema.gov/media\-library\-data/1384886826028\-729844d3fd23ff85d94d52186c85748f/NCPIP.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-07 \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120083339/https://www.fema.gov/media\-library\-data/1384886826028\-729844d3fd23ff85d94d52186c85748f/NCPIP.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} The continuity plan was activated for the first time during the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks") and then again during the [January 6 United States Capitol attack](/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack "January 6 United States Capitol attack").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2006/06/09/AR2006060900891\.html\|title\=Shadow Government Is at Work in Secret\|first1\=Barton\|last1\=Gellman\|first2\=Susan\|last2\=Schmidt\|date\=1 March 2002\|via\=washingtonpost.com}}{{Cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=GCKS8JYrStI \|title\=Inside the historic White House Situation Room \|date\=2024\-05\-13 \|last\=ABC News \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-15 \|via\=YouTube}} [Presidential Emergency Action Documents](/wiki/Presidential_Emergency_Action_Documents "Presidential Emergency Action Documents") (PEADs) are draft classified executive orders, proclamations, and messages to Congress that are prepared for the President of the United States to exercise or expand powers in anticipation of a range of emergency hypothetical worst\-case scenarios, so that they are ready to sign and put into effect the moment one of those scenarios comes to pass.
The [United States presidential line of succession](/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession "United States presidential line of succession") is the order in which officials of the United States federal government assume the powers and duties of the office of president of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office. It was adopted in 1947, and last revised in 2006\. The [designated survivor](/wiki/Designated_survivor "Designated survivor") is an individual in the line of succession, chosen to stay away from events such as State of the Union addresses and presidential inaugurations.
|
[
"By country\n----------",
"### Australia",
"During the years following the [federation of Australia](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia \"Federation of Australia\") in 1901, several locations were considered for the national capital. One of the criteria used to assess sites was that they needed to be inland so that they could not be attacked from the sea. It was also believed that locations away from the coast would have a lower incidence of disease.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Headon \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=Wanted: Treasure House of a Nation's Heart: The Search for an Australian Capital City, 1891–1908 \\|url\\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\\_Parliament/Senate/Powers\\_practice\\_n\\_procedures/pops/pop50/wantedtreasurehouseofanationsheart \\|website\\=Papers on parliament No. 50 \\|publisher\\=Parliament of Australia \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|date\\=March 2009}} During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") the [Office of National Assessments](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments \"Office of National Assessments\") believed that it was unlikely that Australian cities would be attacked by the Soviet Union during a nuclear war.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dorling \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=Secret's out: Soviets did not target cities \\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/secrets\\-out\\-soviets\\-did\\-not\\-target\\-cities\\-20120805\\-23ny1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\\=5 August 2012 \\|language\\=en}}",
"The modern Australian Government has plans to enable the continuity of government. As of 2008, these formed part of 'Plan Mercator', which the government has described as aiming \"to minimise the impact of a national security emergency on critical government operations and provide for the rapid resumption of 'near normal' government business under alternate arrangements until normal operations can be resumed\".",
"Under the Australian system of government, there is not necessarily a requirement to maintain the [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia \"Cabinet of Australia\") in a crisis. If the [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia \"Prime Minister of Australia\") was killed in a disaster, the [Governor\\-General](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia \"Governor-General of Australia\") would need to appoint their successor. A [national unity government](/wiki/National_unity_government \"National unity government\") could also be formed in a major crisis.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dalzell \\|first1\\=Stephanie \\|last2\\=Pianegonda \\|first2\\=Elise \\|title\\=If Canberra is attacked or cut off by natural disaster, where does the seat of government move to? \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/specials/curious\\-canberra/2018\\-03\\-05/canberra\\-parliament\\-house\\-emergency\\-plan/9499384 \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2024 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=4 March 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-AU}}",
"A range of legislation, including the *[Defence Act 1903](/wiki/Defence_Act_1903 \"Defence Act 1903\")* and several health bills, include provisions that can be activated in response to emergencies. There are also plans for the [Parliament of Australia](/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia \"Parliament of Australia\") to operate from another location if it is unable to sit at [Parliament House](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Canberra \"Parliament House, Canberra\") in Canberra. These plans are classified.",
"*[The Canberra Times](/wiki/The_Canberra_Times \"The Canberra Times\")* has reported that an Australian Government building in the Canberra suburb of [Symonston](/wiki/Symonston%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Symonston, Australian Capital Territory\") houses communications systems that would be used to support the continuity of government if Plan Mercator was activated. The building was completed in 2007, and its secret function was disclosed as part of a job advertisement in 2008\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Dingwall \\|first1\\=Doug \\|title\\=Building 'central to Canberra terror attack response' up for sale \\|url\\=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6016906/building\\-central\\-to\\-canberra\\-terror\\-attack\\-response\\-up\\-for\\-sale/ \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|work\\=The Canberra Times \\|date\\=31 May 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-AU}}",
"In response to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia \"COVID-19 pandemic in Australia\"), the federal and most of the state and territory parliaments cancelled scheduled sittings from March 2020\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Horne \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=COVID\\-19 and parliamentary sittings \\|url\\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\\_Parliament/Parliamentary\\_Departments/Parliamentary\\_Library/FlagPost/2020/April/COVID\\-19\\_and\\_parliamentary\\_sittings \\|website\\=FlagPost \\|publisher\\=Parliament of Australia \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|date\\=2 April 2020}} Federal parliamentary committees continued to operate virtually. The federal parliament met with only the number of members necessary to form a [quorum](/wiki/Quorum \"Quorum\") present on several occasions between March and June 2020, and resumed full sittings from August that year. The arrangements in place from August allowed members of parliament who were unable to travel to Canberra to participate virtually, but these members were unable to vote in proceedings.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Moulds \\|first1\\=Sarah \\|title\\=As the first 'remote' sitting starts in Canberra, virtual parliaments should be the new norm \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\\-08\\-24/australia\\-virtual\\-parliament\\-sitting\\-new\\-norm\\-covid\\-bandaid/12588432 \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=24 August 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-AU}}{{cite web \\|title\\=The Parliaments response to the COVID\\-19 pandemic \\|url\\=https://www.aph.gov.au/About\\_Parliament/House\\_of\\_Representatives/About\\_the\\_House\\_News/News/The\\_Parliaments\\_response\\_to\\_the\\_COVID\\-19\\_pandemic \\|publisher\\=Parliament of Australia \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|date\\=28 July 2020}}",
"Prime Minister [Scott Morrison](/wiki/Scott_Morrison \"Scott Morrison\") arranged to be secretly appointed to hold [several ministerial positions](/wiki/Scott_Morrison_ministerial_positions_controversy \"Scott Morrison ministerial positions controversy\") during 2020 and 2021, justifying his appointment as the Minister for Finance and Minister for Health as being necessary in case the ministers for portfolios were affected by COVID\\-19 and unable to perform their duties.{{cite news \\|last1\\=McElroy \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=Former prime minister Scott Morrison's secret ministries were unnecessary, Virginia Bell's inquiry finds \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\\-11\\-25/key\\-takeaways\\-from\\-scott\\-morrison\\-secret\\-ministries\\-report/101699078 \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=25 November 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-AU}} Morrison's appointment as Minister for Health was approved in March 2020 by the [National Security Committee of Cabinet](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Australia%29 \"National Security Committee (Australia)\") as part of measures taken in response to the pandemic, but was not publicly announced. His subsequent appointment to the other ministries was not known to other members of the government.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Probyn \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\=Scott Morrison's power grab was set up by a handful of senior Coalition MPs — but none of them knew what would come next \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\\-08\\-23/behind\\-the\\-scenes\\-of\\-scott\\-morrisons\\-power\\-grab/101358232 \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|work\\=ABC News \\|date\\=22 August 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-AU}} An inquiry held into the matter during 2022 that was headed by Former High Court justice [Virginia Bell](/wiki/Virginia_Bell_%28judge%29 \"Virginia Bell (judge)\") found that Morrison had not needed to hold these ministries, as he could have been appointed \"in a matter of minutes\" if the ministers had been incapacitated. Morrison did not use the powers available to him as Finance or Health minister.",
"### Canada",
"[Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") built numerous nuclear bunkers across the country, nicknamed \"[Diefenbunkers](/wiki/Emergency_Government_Headquarters \"Emergency Government Headquarters\")\" in a play on the last name of then\\-Prime Minister [John Diefenbaker](/wiki/John_Diefenbaker \"John Diefenbaker\"). In 2016, the [Privy Council Office](/wiki/Privy_Council_Office_%28Canada%29 \"Privy Council Office (Canada)\") made an agreement with the [Department of National Defence](/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_%28Canada%29 \"Department of National Defence (Canada)\") to open two bunkers for government officials amid the ongoing [North Korean nuclear crisis](/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction \"North Korea and weapons of mass destruction\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/north\\-korea\\-canada\\-cold\\-war\\-plan\\-1\\.4424523 \\|title\\=Canada sets aside two bunkers at military bases amid global uncertainty, North Korean threat \\- Politics \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114083044/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/north\\-korea\\-canada\\-cold\\-war\\-plan\\-1\\.4424523 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 14, 2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]}}",
"### China",
"{{see also\\|816 Nuclear Military Plant}}\n{{expand section\\|date\\=June 2014}}\n[thumb\\|In a tunnel of Project 131](/wiki/Image:Project-131-tunnel-9756.jpg \"Project-131-tunnel-9756.jpg\")",
"The [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") (PRC) once operated [Underground Project 131](/wiki/Underground_Project_131 \"Underground Project 131\"), intended to be the [PLA](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army \"People's Liberation Army\") headquarters in [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\") during a nuclear conflict. Built due to the [Sino\\-Soviet split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split \"Sino-Soviet split\") during that portion of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), in 1981, the Project 131 site was turned over to the civilian authorities of the prefecture\\-level city of [Xianning](/wiki/Xianning \"Xianning\"), where it is located.",
"### Czech Republic",
"The K\\-116 facility under Zlíchov hill in western [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") was designated to house the [Czechoslovak](/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic \"Czechoslovak Socialist Republic\") government in case of nuclear attack (together with the K\\-9 facility in [Jihlava](/wiki/Jihlava \"Jihlava\")) and might still be used as the emergency headquarters of the Czech government and [military](/wiki/Military_of_the_Czech_Republic \"Military of the Czech Republic\").{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/exkluzivne\\-na\\-ct24/203322\\-kam\\-by\\-se\\-ukryli\\-komunisticti\\-funkcionari\\-pred\\-treti\\-svetovou\\-valkou/ \\| title \\= Kam by se ukryli komunističtí funkcionáři před třetí světovou válkou?\\|language\\=cs\\|trans\\-title\\=Where would communist functionaries hide in case of world war III?}}",
"### Denmark",
"During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") built two bunker complexes, named [REGAN Vest](/wiki/Rold_Skov%23History \"Rold Skov#History\") and [REGAN Øst](/wiki/Helleb%C3%A6k%23Landmarks \"Hellebæk#Landmarks\") (Danish: \"REGeringsANlæg\", translated: \"Government Complex West and Government Complex East\"), in [Jutland](/wiki/Jutland \"Jutland\") and [Zealand](/wiki/Zealand \"Zealand\") respectively. The idea was to have half of the government and the [royal family](/wiki/Danish_royal_family \"Danish royal family\") in one bunker, and the other half in the other, allowing continuity of government, even if one of the bunkers were destroyed or cut off.",
"### France",
"The [*Centre d'opération des forces aériennes stratégiques*](/wiki/Taverny_Air_Base \"Taverny Air Base\") (COFAS) is a [hardened command centre](/wiki/Hardened_command_centre \"Hardened command centre\") for [French nuclear forces](/wiki/French_nuclear_forces \"French nuclear forces\") at Taverny Air Base in [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny \"Taverny\"), [Val d'Oise](/wiki/Val_d%27Oise \"Val d'Oise\").{{update inline\\|date\\=September 2023}} The alternate national command center is located at [Mont Verdun](/wiki/Mont_Verdun \"Mont Verdun\") near [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\").",
"The hardened headquarters of *[Force océanique stratégique](/wiki/Force_oc%C3%A9anique_strat%C3%A9gique \"Force océanique stratégique\")* (FOST), France's nuclear [SSBN](/wiki/SSBN \"SSBN\") fleet, is at [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\"), [Finistère](/wiki/Finist%C3%A8re \"Finistère\").",
"### Germany",
"[Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") operated a government bunker ([Regierungsbunker](/wiki/Government_bunker_%28Germany%29 \"Government bunker (Germany)\")) to house the German government, parliament and all federal personnel needed to keep the government working in the event of war or severe crisis. It was decommissioned in 1997\\.",
"### Republic of Ireland",
"In [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\"), the [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Ireland%29 \"National Security Committee (Ireland)\") (NSC) is the conduit for officials to communicate with the [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach \"Taoiseach\") (Prime Minister) and/or cabinet members if the normal channel of communication with their minister became unavailable. Drafts of emergency powers legislation have been drawn up in secret, including legislation to deal with circumstances such as an attack on cabinet involving numerous deaths.{{cite book \\|last\\=Mulqueen \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2009 \\|title\\=Re\\-Evaluating Irish National Security Policy: Affordable Threats? \\|publisher\\=Manchester University Press \\|location\\=Manchester\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7190\\-8027\\-2}}",
"During the period of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), it was envisaged that cabinet ministers, senior civil servants and military advisers would use an underground nuclear bunker at [Custume Barracks](/wiki/Custume_Barracks \"Custume Barracks\") in [Athlone](/wiki/Athlone \"Athlone\") in the event of a nuclear exchange. The bunker was equipped with a command and control centre with communications equipment – which had a hotline to the [British government](/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Government of the United Kingdom\") in [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall \"Whitehall\") – a map room pointing out important areas for protection, kitchen, bedroom and bathroom facilities.{{cite news\\|title\\=Waking up to a nuclear nightmare...\\|url\\=http://www.independent.ie/unsorted/features/waking\\-up\\-to\\-a\\-nuclear\\-nightmare\\-25908547\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2016\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Irish Independent]]\\|date\\=31 July 2004}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=De Breadun\\|first1\\=Deaglan\\|title\\=Memo reveals plans for nuclear bunker\\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/memo\\-reveals\\-plans\\-for\\-nuclear\\-bunker\\-1\\.344168\\|publisher\\=The Irish Times\\|date\\=3 January 2003}}",
"### Israel",
"As of December 2003 an underground national crisis management center was being constructed at an undisclosed location in the [Judaean Mountains](/wiki/Judaean_Mountains \"Judaean Mountains\") under [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\").{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\\-2833926,00\\.html \\|title\\=הבור בירושלים: מכאן תנוהל המדינה בשעת חירום \\|last\\=ynet \\|date\\=2003\\-07\\-12 \\|work\\=Ynet \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|language\\=he}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1\\.1220548 \\|title\\=זה לא סוף העולם \\|last\\=אילני \\|first\\=עפרי \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-07 \\|work\\=הארץ \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|language\\=he}} Another command and control bunker is being built as part of the new Prime Minister's Office complex in [Givat Ram](/wiki/Givat_Ram \"Givat Ram\").{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.10\\.tv/news/62142 \\|title\\=תיעוד בלעדי: כך נראה מהאוויר המקום ממנו ינהל רה\"מ את המלחמה הבאה \\|website\\=ערוץ 10 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|language\\=he \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103210447/https://www.10\\.tv/news/62142 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Poland",
"According to [Constitution of Poland](/wiki/Constitution_of_Poland \"Constitution of Poland\") in case of death or inability to discharging duties of the President, his duties are discharged by Marshal of the Sejm (or if they are unable, the Marshal of the Senate).",
"After [Smolensk air disaster](/wiki/Smolensk_air_disaster \"Smolensk air disaster\") in 2010 a lot of the highest state and army offices were emptied. Their duties were automatically taken over by respective deputies.",
"### New Zealand",
"The New Zealand government believes the most likely disaster scenario to affect the government is a large earthquake in [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"). The government has plans to move Parliament and essential staff to [Devonport Naval Base](/wiki/Devonport_Naval_Base \"Devonport Naval Base\") in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") if such an event occurs.{{cite news\\|last\\=Davison\\|first\\=Isaac\\|title\\=Parliament would relocate to Auckland if quake knocked out capital\\|url\\=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/politics/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=280\\&objectid\\=11251869\\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2014\\|newspaper\\=NZ Herald\\|date\\=8 May 2014}}",
"The website of the [Governor\\-General of New Zealand](/wiki/Governor-General_of_New_Zealand \"Governor-General of New Zealand\") notes that their constitutional role is to \"maintain the legitimacy and continuity of government by ensuring there is always a government in office with a democratic mandate to govern\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Constitutional role \\|url\\=https://gg.govt.nz/office\\-governor\\-general/roles\\-and\\-functions\\-governor\\-general/constitutional\\-role \\|publisher\\=Governor\\-General of New Zealand \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=27 February 2017}}",
"The New Zealand [National Crisis Management Centre](/wiki/National_Crisis_Management_Centre \"National Crisis Management Centre\") is located under the [\"Beehive\"](/wiki/Beehive_%28New_Zealand%29 \"Beehive (New Zealand)\") building in Wellington. An Alternate National Crisis Management Centre is in Auckland, and would be activated if the facility in Wellington was damaged, if multiple crises were occurring or if the government is required to relocate to Auckland.{{cite web \\|title\\=National Crisis Management Centre \\|url\\=https://www.civildefence.govt.nz/about/national\\-crisis\\-management\\-centre \\|publisher\\=National Emergency Management Agency \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2024 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Norway",
"The [Norwegian government](/wiki/Norwegian_government \"Norwegian government\") operates a nuclear bunker called [Sentralanlegget](/wiki/Sentralanlegget \"Sentralanlegget\") in [Buskerud](/wiki/Buskerud \"Buskerud\") County. The bunker is meant to accommodate the [Norwegian royal family](/wiki/Norwegian_royal_family \"Norwegian royal family\") and the government in case of a nuclear/military attack on the nation, and also function as a wartime headquarters. There is also a bunker beneath [Høyblokka](/wiki/Regjeringskvartalet \"Regjeringskvartalet\") in downtown [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\").",
"### Soviet Union and Russia",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Map of the [Metro\\-2](/wiki/Metro-2 \"Metro-2\") system as supposed by the United States military intelligence in 1991\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Military forces in transition\\|last\\=United States Department of Defense\\|author\\-link\\=United States Department of Defense\\|year\\=1991\\|publisher\\=United States Department of Defense\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|isbn\\=0\\-16\\-035973\\-2\\|issn\\=1062\\-6557\\|page\\=40\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UH7NSFIMgnkC\\&q\\=underground\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-13}}](/wiki/File:Mapmetro2.jpg \"Mapmetro2.jpg\")\nIn the public domain very little is known about [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\")'s COG plans. One sprawling underground facility residing in tunnels cut into [Mount Yamantau](/wiki/Mount_Yamantau \"Mount Yamantau\") is likely to be related to the survival of Russia's government, given its size and decades long construction history, with a construction start during the rule of [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev \"Leonid Brezhnev\") (1964–82\\).{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/16/world/despite\\-cold\\-war\\-s\\-end\\-russia\\-keeps\\-building\\-a\\-secret\\-complex.html\\|title\\=Despite Cold War's End, Russia Keeps Building a Secret Complex\\|first\\=Michael R.\\|last\\=Gordon\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=April 16, 1996}} [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") defector Colonel [Oleg Gordievsky](/wiki/Oleg_Gordievsky \"Oleg Gordievsky\") states that an organization, known as Directorate 15, was (or is) tasked with building and maintaining a network of hundreds of underground command bunkers for the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet \"Soviet\") leadership; this includes the vast site beneath Yamantau Mountain, which is often called [Mezhgorye / Межго́рье](/wiki/Beloretsk-16 \"Beloretsk-16\") after the [closed city](/wiki/Closed_city \"Closed city\") that is located nearby. However, there is speculation, due to its proximity to [Chelyabinsk\\-70](/wiki/Chelyabinsk-70 \"Chelyabinsk-70\"), that Yamantau is a 400\\-square\\-mile underground complex which houses nuclear warheads, missiles, launch controls, and several nuclear weapons factories designed to continue production after a hypothetical nuclear war begins.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias\\-top\\-secret\\-bases.html \\|title\\=WINDOW ON HEARTLAND Geopolitical notes on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424050959/http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias\\-top\\-secret\\-bases.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 24, 2013 }}",
"The second command and control center in the [Urals](/wiki/Urals \"Urals\"), after Yamantau, is similarly speculated to be underground and located near, or under, [Kosvinsky Kamen](/wiki/Kosvinsky_Kamen \"Kosvinsky Kamen\"). The site is believed to host the Russian [Strategic Rocket Forces](/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces \"Strategic Rocket Forces\") alternate command post, a post for the general staff built to compensate for the vulnerability of older Soviet era command posts in the Moscow region. In spite of this, the primary command posts for the [Strategic Rocket Forces](/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces \"Strategic Rocket Forces\") remains [Kuntsevo](/wiki/Kuntsevo \"Kuntsevo\") in Moscow and the secondary is the Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals.Globalsecurity.org, [Strategic C3I Facilities](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/c3i_fac.htm), accessed October 2007 The facility at Kosvinsky, finished in early 1996, was designed to resist US [earth\\-penetrating warheads](/wiki/Nuclear_bunker_buster \"Nuclear bunker buster\") and serves a similar role as the American [Cheyenne Mountain Complex](/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex \"Cheyenne Mountain Complex\").",
"Further command centers, according to globalsecurity.org, include one near [Chekhov](/wiki/Chekhov%2C_Moscow_Oblast \"Chekhov, Moscow Oblast\"), which is the [Russian General Staff](/wiki/General_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Russian_Federation \"General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation\") wartime command post, buried deep underground,Globalsecurity.org. [Chekhov](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/chekhov.htm). and [Sharapovo](/wiki/Sharapovo_%28Chekhov_district%29 \"Sharapovo (Chekhov district)\")([ru](/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%28%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29 \"Шарапово (село, Чеховский район)\")) about {{convert\\|80\\|km\\|\\-1}} south of Moscow, built in the 1950s, Sharapovo is believed to have been the primary backup command center for the Soviet era leadership. Both Chekhov and Sharapovo are each suggested to have the capability to accommodate about 30,000 individuals, As an alternative to Sharapovo, a secondary political leadership base is located at [Chaadayevka](/wiki/Chaadayevka \"Chaadayevka\"), some 650 kilometers southeast of Moscow near the city of [Penza](/wiki/Penza \"Penza\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/chaadayevka.htm\\|title\\=Chaadayevka\\|website\\=www.globalsecurity.org}}",
"There is also said to be as many as 12 underground levels beneath the Russian capital of [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") to protect the government in the [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin \"Kremlin\"), known as the Main Directorate of special programs of the President (Glavnoye Upravlenie Specialnih Program: GUSP) ([ru](/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8 \"Главное управление специальных программ Президента Российской Федерации\")) the direct successor of the 15th Directorate of the KGB, which was established in 1977, GUSP is said to oversee, amongst other sites, a parallel track line alongside the [Moscow metro](/wiki/Moscow_metro \"Moscow metro\"), known as the 'Kremlin line' [Metro\\-2 or D\\-6](/wiki/Moscow_Metro-2 \"Moscow Metro-2\") to be used in an emergency.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.agentura.ru/english/dosie/gusp/\\|title\\=The Main Directorate of special programs of the President, the GUSP Chief \\- Alexander Tsarenko\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-20\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620020252/http://www.agentura.ru/english/dosie/gusp/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Two destinations of this system are suggested to be the old [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\") headquarters, now the [FSB](/wiki/Federal_Security_Service \"Federal Security Service\") headquarters, at [Lubyanka Square](/wiki/Lubyanka_Square \"Lubyanka Square\"), and the second being regarded as an enormous underground leadership bunker adjacent to [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University \"Moscow State University\"). Another alleged subterranean destination, apart from the aforementioned underground town at [Ramenki](/wiki/Ramenki_District \"Ramenki District\")/Moscow State University is *[Vnukovo](/wiki/Vnukovo_International_Airport \"Vnukovo International Airport\")\\-2* airport.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/russia/1997/fbuma04301997000507\\.htm\\|title\\=Secrets 'Metro'\\-Style\\|website\\=www.globalsecurity.org}} Despite official Russian state ambiguity, it is speculated that many of the Moscow bunkers are linked by an underground railway line.",
"### Sweden",
"In case of war, the [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag \"Riksdag\") can convene somewhere else than in the capital, and if necessary, a War Delegation will replace the Riksdag. The War Delegation consists of the Speaker and 50 members of the Riksdag. The government can put a number of [enabling acts](/wiki/Enabling_act \"Enabling act\") in force to regulate for example rationing, export and seizing of property.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Riksdagsförvaltningen\\|title\\=The War Delegation\\|url\\=https://www.riksdagen.se/en/how\\-the\\-riksdag\\-works/authorities\\-and\\-boards\\-under\\-the\\-riksdag/the\\-war\\-delegation/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-30\\|website\\=www.riksdagen.se\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Riksdagsförvaltningen\\|title\\=Riksdagens roll vid krig och krigsfara\\|url\\=https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/sa\\-funkar\\-riksdagen/arbetet\\-i\\-riksdagen/riksdagens\\-roll\\-vid\\-krig\\-och\\-krigsfara/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-30\\|website\\=www.riksdagen.se\\|language\\=sv}} If the government is unable to carry out its duties the Riksdag may decide on the formation of a new government. Likewise, if the Riksdag and the War Delegation are unable to carry out its duties, the government can assume the powers of the Riksdag, but with some limitations.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Regeringsformen (The Instrument of Government), chapter 15 \\|url\\=https://www.riksdagen.se/globalassets/07\\.\\-dokument\\-\\-lagar/regeringsformen\\-eng\\-2021\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-31 \\|website\\=Riksdagen.se}}",
"During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), the [Klara skyddsrum](/wiki/Klara_shelter \"Klara shelter\") (\"Klara shelter\" or \"Klara bunker\") was built underneath [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"). The bunker is designed to accommodate two thirds of the government and between 8,000 and 12,000 civilians in the case of a military attack on Stockholm. It is designed as a very large, two\\-story oval, with multiple entrances. During peacetime, parts of it are used as a parking garage. Sweden built over 65,000 fallout shelters{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.thelocal.se/20171101/why\\-sweden\\-is\\-home\\-to\\-65000\\-fallout\\-shelters\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171101172549/https://www.thelocal.se/20171101/why\\-sweden\\-is\\-home\\-to\\-65000\\-fallout\\-shelters\\| archive\\-date \\= 2017\\-11\\-01\\| title \\= Why Sweden is home to 65,000 fallout shelters \\- The Local}} in regular houses, and every county had at least one large hard\\-rock underground bunker that controlled a number of smaller bunkers that were located in the municipalities.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/halland/hemlig\\-bunker\\-i\\-halmstad\\-oppnades\\|title\\=Hemlig bunker i Halmstad öppnades\\|first\\=Anders\\|last\\=Fall\\|newspaper\\=SVT Nyheter\\|date\\=January 31, 2017\\|via\\=www.svt.se}}",
"### Turkey",
"There is little public knowledge about continuity of government in Turkey. The cabinet and presidential offices, based in the capital of [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara \"Ankara\"), have secondary sites in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") and [İzmir](/wiki/%C4%B0zmir \"İzmir\").",
"### United Kingdom",
"{{see also\\|Letters of last resort}}\nThe primary British COG headquarters is at the Ministry of Defence in [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall \"Whitehall\"). The [Central Government War Headquarters](/wiki/Central_Government_War_Headquarters \"Central Government War Headquarters\") was previously maintained in a quarry complex near [Corsham, Wiltshire](/wiki/Corsham%2C_Wiltshire \"Corsham, Wiltshire\"). The above\\-ground support facility was [RAF Rudloe Manor](/wiki/RAF_Rudloe_Manor \"RAF Rudloe Manor\").",
"Service command centres are [Northwood](/wiki/Northwood_Headquarters \"Northwood Headquarters\") for the [Royal Navy Trident SSBN force](/wiki/Royal_Navy_Trident_SSBN_force \"Royal Navy Trident SSBN force\"), and [RAF High Wycombe](/wiki/RAF_High_Wycombe \"RAF High Wycombe\") for the Royal Air Force.",
"### United States",
"{{Main\\|Continuity of Operations Plan}}\nContinuity of the national government was first threatened in late 1776, when British forces advanced toward the Continental capital at [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"). On December 9, the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress \"Continental Congress\") passed a resolution in anticipation of a British capture:",
"",
"> *Resolved*: That in case this Congress shall be under the necessity of removing from Philadelphia, it shall be adjourned to [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\").",
"The Congress was adjourned as planned three days later.Journals of the Continental Congress Other relocations followed during the course of the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\").",
"For most of its existence, the United States operated without a standing continuity plan. When British forces [burned Washington](/wiki/Burning_of_Washington \"Burning of Washington\") in 1814, Secretary of State [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe \"James Monroe\") received only a few hours' notice to remove the government records. Although his staff saved many valuable records, much was nonetheless destroyed, and the next administration encountered a great deal of confusion.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short\\-history/staffing\\|title\\=Staffing and Administration \\- Short History \\- Department History \\- Office of the Historian\\|website\\=history.state.gov}}",
"In 1952, President [Truman](/wiki/Harry_Truman \"Harry Truman\") ordered all federal offices to develop their own continuity plans for the event of a [civil defense](/wiki/Civil_defense \"Civil defense\") emergency. Plans have been maintained and adapted since then, at times requiring the construction of secret facilities such as the [emergency Congress facility](/wiki/Project_Greek_Island \"Project Greek Island\") in [Greenbrier County, West Virginia](/wiki/Greenbrier_County%2C_West_Virginia \"Greenbrier County, West Virginia\"). The current continuity policy is defined in National Security Policy Directive 51{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd\\-51\\.htm\\|title\\=NSPD\\-51: National Continuity Policy\\|website\\=fas.org}} and its implementation plan.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fema.gov/media\\-library\\-data/1384886826028\\-729844d3fd23ff85d94d52186c85748f/NCPIP.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120083339/https://www.fema.gov/media\\-library\\-data/1384886826028\\-729844d3fd23ff85d94d52186c85748f/NCPIP.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The continuity plan was activated for the first time during the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\") and then again during the [January 6 United States Capitol attack](/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack \"January 6 United States Capitol attack\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2006/06/09/AR2006060900891\\.html\\|title\\=Shadow Government Is at Work in Secret\\|first1\\=Barton\\|last1\\=Gellman\\|first2\\=Susan\\|last2\\=Schmidt\\|date\\=1 March 2002\\|via\\=washingtonpost.com}}{{Cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=GCKS8JYrStI \\|title\\=Inside the historic White House Situation Room \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-13 \\|last\\=ABC News \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-15 \\|via\\=YouTube}} [Presidential Emergency Action Documents](/wiki/Presidential_Emergency_Action_Documents \"Presidential Emergency Action Documents\") (PEADs) are draft classified executive orders, proclamations, and messages to Congress that are prepared for the President of the United States to exercise or expand powers in anticipation of a range of emergency hypothetical worst\\-case scenarios, so that they are ready to sign and put into effect the moment one of those scenarios comes to pass.",
"The [United States presidential line of succession](/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession \"United States presidential line of succession\") is the order in which officials of the United States federal government assume the powers and duties of the office of president of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office. It was adopted in 1947, and last revised in 2006\\. The [designated survivor](/wiki/Designated_survivor \"Designated survivor\") is an individual in the line of succession, chosen to stay away from events such as State of the Union addresses and presidential inaugurations.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Apple project and spinoff (1989\)
The original project started in 1989 within [Apple Computer](/wiki/Apple_Computer "Apple Computer"), when Marc Porat convinced Apple's CEO at the time [John Sculley](/wiki/John_Sculley "John Sculley") that the next generation of computing would require a partnership of computer, communications and consumer electronics companies to cooperate. Known as the Paradigm project, the project ran for some time within Apple, but management remained generally uninterested and the team struggled for resources. Eventually they approached Sculley with the idea of spinning off the group as a separate company, which occurred in May 1990\.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelkanellos/2011/09/18/general\-magic\-the\-most\-important\-dead\-company\-in\-silicon\-valley/ \|magazine\=\[\[Forbes]] \|title\=General Magic: The Most Important Dead Company in Silicon Valley? \|author\=Kanellos, Michael \|date\=2011\-09\-18 \|access\-date\=2015\-02\-10}} In 1990 [Marc Porat](/wiki/Marc_Porat "Marc Porat"), [Andy Hertzfeld](/wiki/Andy_Hertzfeld "Andy Hertzfeld"), and [Bill Atkinson](/wiki/Bill_Atkinson "Bill Atkinson"){{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.fastcompany.com/90206157/general\-magic\-captures\-the\-legendary\-apple\-offshoot\-that\-foresaw\-the\-mobile\-revolution \|title\="General Magic" captures the legendary Apple offshoot that foresaw the mobile revolution \|author\=Mark Sullivan \|date\=2018 \|magazine\=\[\[Fast Company (magazine)\|Fast Company]] }} in [Mountain View, California](/wiki/Mountain_View%2C_California "Mountain View, California") founded it. Apple took a minority stake in the company, with John Sculley joining the General Magic board.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/12/business/business\-people\-apple\-technologists\-forming\-new\-venture.html \|title\=BUSINESS PEOPLE; Apple Technologists Forming New Venture \|author\=Andrew Pollack \|date\=July 12, 1990 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}}
Porat, Hertzfeld and Atkinson were soon joined at General Magic by [Susan Kare](/wiki/Susan_Kare "Susan Kare"),{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.ozy.com/flashback/the\-magical\-apple\-spinoff\-that\-almost\-invented\-the\-iphone\-in\-1993/40708\|title\=In 1993, This Company Almost Invented the iPhone — and It Wasn't Apple\|last\=Braswell\|first\=Sean\|work\=OZY\|access\-date\=2018\-02\-23\|language\=en}} [Joanna Hoffman](/wiki/Joanna_Hoffman "Joanna Hoffman") (vice president of marketing),{{cite book \|last\=Hertzfeld \|first\=Andy\|title\=Revolution in the Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was Made \|publisher\=Oreilly \|page\=xxii \|date\=2005 }} hardware pioneer Wendell Sander, Walt Broedner and [Megan Smith](/wiki/Megan_Smith "Megan Smith") who joined from Apple Japan, and most of Apple's [System 7](/wiki/System_7 "System 7") team, including [Phil Goldman](/wiki/Phil_Goldman "Phil Goldman") and soon after [Bruce Leak](/wiki/Bruce_Leak "Bruce Leak") and [Darin Adler](/wiki/Darin_Adler "Darin Adler").
In 1990, Porat wrote the following note to Sculley: "A tiny computer, a phone, a very personal object . . . It must be beautiful. It must offer the kind of personal satisfaction that a fine piece of jewelry brings. It will have a perceived value even when it's not being used... Once you use it you won't be able to live without it."
### Early years (1992–1994\)
The company initially operated in near\-complete secrecy. By 1992, some of the world's largest electronics corporations, including [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"), [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola "Motorola"), [Matsushita](/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation "Panasonic Corporation"), [Philips](/wiki/Philips "Philips") and [AT\&T Corporation](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation "AT&T Corporation") were partners and investors in General Magic, creating significant buzz in the industry.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelkanellos/2011/09/18/general\-magic\-the\-most\-important\-dead\-company\-in\-silicon\-valley/\#1c31f3644d8c \|title\=General Magic: The Most Important Dead Company in Silicon Valley? \|author\=Michael Kanellos \|date\=September 18, 2011 \|magazine\=\[\[Forbes]] }} Sculley, Motorola CEO [George Fisher](/wiki/George_M._C._Fisher "George M. C. Fisher"), Sony president Norio Ogha, and AT\&T division chairman Victor Pelsen became board members. As the operations expanded, the company reportedly let rabbits roam the offices to inspire creativity.
In 1992–1993, while Sculley was still a director of General Magic, Apple entered the consumer electronics market with a poorly\-received "personal digital assistant" that became the [Apple Newton](/wiki/Apple_Newton "Apple Newton"). By early 1993, Newton (originally designed as a tablet with no communications capabilities) started to attract market interest away from General Magic.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/15/business/company\-news\-general\-magic\-to\-disclose\-its\-strategy\-and\-sponsors.html \|title\=COMPANY NEWS; General Magic to Disclose Its Strategy and Sponsors \|author\=John Markoff \|date\=January 15, 1993 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}}
In February 1993, the company had 100 employees. On February 8, *The New York Times* referred to General Magic as "Silicon Valley's most closely watched start\-up company." It reported that the company was introducing software technology called [Telescript](/wiki/Telescript_%28programming_language%29 "Telescript (programming language)") with the intent of creating a "standard for transmitting messages among any machines that compute, regardless of who makes them." The company also announced the software [Magic Cap](/wiki/Magic_Cap "Magic Cap"), an operating system catering to communications.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/08/business/spreading\-the\-word\-on\-mobile\-messaging.html \|title\=Spreading the Word on Mobile Messaging \|author\=John Markoff \|date\=February 8, 1993 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} Telescript would eventually come out in 1996 at the start of the [internet](/wiki/Internet "Internet") boom.
In an article titled "Here's Where Woodstock Meets Silicon Valley," on February 27, 1993, *The New York Times* reported that General Magic had backing from "American Telephone and Telegraph, Sony, Motorola, Philips Electronics and Matsushita Electric Industrial." Marc Porat remained the chief executive of the company.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/27/business/here\-s\-where\-woodstock\-meets\-silicon\-valley.html\|title\=Here's Where Woodstock Meets Silicon Valley \|author\=Steve Lohr \|date\=February 27, 1993 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}}
By 1994, the "General Magic Alliance" of cross\-industry partners had expanded to 16 global telecommunications and consumer electronics companies, including [Cable \& Wireless](/wiki/Cable_%26_Wireless_plc "Cable & Wireless plc"), [France Telecom](/wiki/France_Telecom "France Telecom"), [NTT](/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone "Nippon Telegraph and Telephone"), [Northern Telecom](/wiki/Northern_Telecom "Northern Telecom"), [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba "Toshiba"), [Oki](/wiki/OKI_%28company%29 "OKI (company)"), [Sanyo](/wiki/Sanyo "Sanyo"), [Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi "Mitsubishi"), and [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu "Fujitsu"). Each of the so\-called "Founding Partners" invested up to $6 million in the company and named a senior executive to the company's "Founding Partner's Council".
The first "General Magic Alliance" hardware products, using the Magic Cap software, were two [personal digital assistants](/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant "Personal digital assistant") (PDAs) that came out in the summer of 1994, with Motorola producing the [Motorola Envoy](/wiki/Motorola_Envoy "Motorola Envoy") Personal Wireless Communicator["Motorola's Envoy First to Run Magic Cap." Byte.com fetched 21 July 2008](http://www.byte.com/art/9405/sec3/art9.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108022551/http://www.byte.com/art/9405/sec3/art9\.htm \|date\=8 November 2008 }} and Sony producing the {{US$\|800\|1994\|round\=\-1}} wireline Sony [Magic Link](/wiki/Magic_Link "Magic Link"). Alliance partner [AT\&T](/wiki/AT%26T "AT&T") launched its PersonaLink network to host the devices, a closed network that did not connect to the emerging internet. AT\&T eventually shut down the PersonaLink network in 1996\.
### IPO (1995\)
The company launched an [IPO](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering") on NASDAQ in February 1995\.{{cite web \|url\=http://news.cnet.com/2100\-1040\-958465\.html \|website\=\[\[CNET]] \|date\=2002\-09\-18 \|author\=Kanellos, Michael \|title\=General Magic calls its quits \|access\-date\=2015\-02\-10}} General Magic raised $96 million in the IPO, and a total of $200 million from 16 different investors.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.barrons.com/articles/before\-apples\-iphone\-there\-was\-general\-magic\-1531488737 \|title\=Before Apple's iPhone There Was General Magic \|date\=July 13, 2018 \|newspaper\=\[\[Barron's (newspaper)\|Barron's]] }} The company's stock value doubled after its IPO.
### Portico service (1996\)
Steve Markman was hired to run General Magic in 1996, and he hired [Kevin Surace](/wiki/Kevin_Surace "Kevin Surace") to head a new telephony group. This new team of 60–70 people set out to create a voice recognition\-based personal assistant service that would be as close to human interaction as possible. The first service delivered was Portico (code named Serengeti during development), and the interface was called Mary, named after Mary McDonald\-Lewis, who voiced Portico, Serengeti and GM's later version, OnStar. Portico synchronized to devices such as the [Palm Connected Organizer](/wiki/Palm_Connected_Organizer "Palm Connected Organizer") and [Microsoft Outlook](/wiki/Microsoft_Outlook "Microsoft Outlook") and handled voicemail, call forwarding, email, calendar etc., all through the user's own personal [800 number](/wiki/800_number "800 number"). General Magic was the first company to employ a large number of linguists to make their software seem real and responses varied, with General Magic investors receiving several key patents relating to voice recognition and artificial personality.
The Portico system was also scaled back and sold through many partners including [Quest](/wiki/Quest_%28American_TV_network%29 "Quest (American TV network)") and [Excite](/wiki/Excite_%28web_portal%29 "Excite (web portal)"). At its peak, the system supported approximately 2\.5 million users. In 1997 Steve Markman hired Linda Hayes as Chief Marketing Officer, who in turn hired a new marketing team, which launched Portico. The Portico launch is attributed with lifting General Magic's stock price from $1 in 1997 to $18 in 2000\.
According to *[Fast Company](/wiki/Fast_Company_%28magazine%29 "Fast Company (magazine)")*, the company's original \[device] idea was "practically, dead," with people not buying General Magic devices in quantity.
### Spinoffs and myTalk (1998–2000\)
While Portico ran its voice portal business, the original handheld group was spun off in 1998 as *Icras*. The new company sold the Magic Cap OS as hardware named *DataRover* and focused on vertical market systems.
General Magic announced a major licensing deal and investments from [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft") in March 1998\. The deal gave Microsoft access to certain intellectual property, and helped General Magic move toward integrating Portico with Microsoft products.
The [OnStar](/wiki/OnStar "OnStar") Virtual Advisor was developed at this time as well for [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors").
In 1999 the Marketing Team developed a separate consumer product called MyTalk. Created by Kevin Wray, the MyTalk product was a success and went on to win the [Computerworld Smithsonian Award](/wiki/Computerworld_Smithsonian_Award "Computerworld Smithsonian Award") for the first commercially successful voice recognition consumer product. Today MyTalk was also listed in the permanent Smithsonian Museum collection.[permanent Smithsonian Museum collection](http://collections.si.edu/search/detail/ead_component:sova-nmah-ac-0425-ref4675?q=%22general+magic%22&record=2&hlterm=%26quot%3Bgeneral%2Bmagic%26quot%3B) Because of the product's momentum, the intent was to spin off Hayes’ group with Wray leading the product management. However, because of failure to agree on technology licensing terms, the spin\-off stalled.
### Shutdown (1999–2004\)
By 1999, the company's stock had plunged significantly, with *Forbes* attributing the drop to "losses, layoffs and missed projections." Most of the management that was involved in bringing Portico to market left by early 2000 to pursue other interests with Internet startups. A new team was brought in led by Kathleen Layton. The new team took the company in the direction of turning its voice services into enterprise software offerings. The company announced it would cease operations on September 18, 2002\. The company was liquidated in 2004\. The OnStar assets were turned over to [EDS](/wiki/Electronic_Data_Systems "Electronic Data Systems") to run for General Motors. The patents were auctioned by the court.
Most of the patents the company had developed were purchased by [Paul Allen](/wiki/Paul_Allen "Paul Allen").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.electronicsweekly.com/blogs/mannerisms/fable/fable\-the\-hubristic\-huddle\-2016\-06/ \|title\= Fable: The Hubristic Huddle\|author\=David Manners \|date\=June 9, 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[Electronics Weekly]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Apple project and spinoff (1989\\)",
"The original project started in 1989 within [Apple Computer](/wiki/Apple_Computer \"Apple Computer\"), when Marc Porat convinced Apple's CEO at the time [John Sculley](/wiki/John_Sculley \"John Sculley\") that the next generation of computing would require a partnership of computer, communications and consumer electronics companies to cooperate. Known as the Paradigm project, the project ran for some time within Apple, but management remained generally uninterested and the team struggled for resources. Eventually they approached Sculley with the idea of spinning off the group as a separate company, which occurred in May 1990\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelkanellos/2011/09/18/general\\-magic\\-the\\-most\\-important\\-dead\\-company\\-in\\-silicon\\-valley/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Forbes]] \\|title\\=General Magic: The Most Important Dead Company in Silicon Valley? \\|author\\=Kanellos, Michael \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-02\\-10}} In 1990 [Marc Porat](/wiki/Marc_Porat \"Marc Porat\"), [Andy Hertzfeld](/wiki/Andy_Hertzfeld \"Andy Hertzfeld\"), and [Bill Atkinson](/wiki/Bill_Atkinson \"Bill Atkinson\"){{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.fastcompany.com/90206157/general\\-magic\\-captures\\-the\\-legendary\\-apple\\-offshoot\\-that\\-foresaw\\-the\\-mobile\\-revolution \\|title\\=\"General Magic\" captures the legendary Apple offshoot that foresaw the mobile revolution \\|author\\=Mark Sullivan \\|date\\=2018 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Fast Company (magazine)\\|Fast Company]] }} in [Mountain View, California](/wiki/Mountain_View%2C_California \"Mountain View, California\") founded it. Apple took a minority stake in the company, with John Sculley joining the General Magic board.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/12/business/business\\-people\\-apple\\-technologists\\-forming\\-new\\-venture.html \\|title\\=BUSINESS PEOPLE; Apple Technologists Forming New Venture \\|author\\=Andrew Pollack \\|date\\=July 12, 1990 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}}",
"Porat, Hertzfeld and Atkinson were soon joined at General Magic by [Susan Kare](/wiki/Susan_Kare \"Susan Kare\"),{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ozy.com/flashback/the\\-magical\\-apple\\-spinoff\\-that\\-almost\\-invented\\-the\\-iphone\\-in\\-1993/40708\\|title\\=In 1993, This Company Almost Invented the iPhone — and It Wasn't Apple\\|last\\=Braswell\\|first\\=Sean\\|work\\=OZY\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-23\\|language\\=en}} [Joanna Hoffman](/wiki/Joanna_Hoffman \"Joanna Hoffman\") (vice president of marketing),{{cite book \\|last\\=Hertzfeld \\|first\\=Andy\\|title\\=Revolution in the Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was Made \\|publisher\\=Oreilly \\|page\\=xxii \\|date\\=2005 }} hardware pioneer Wendell Sander, Walt Broedner and [Megan Smith](/wiki/Megan_Smith \"Megan Smith\") who joined from Apple Japan, and most of Apple's [System 7](/wiki/System_7 \"System 7\") team, including [Phil Goldman](/wiki/Phil_Goldman \"Phil Goldman\") and soon after [Bruce Leak](/wiki/Bruce_Leak \"Bruce Leak\") and [Darin Adler](/wiki/Darin_Adler \"Darin Adler\").",
"In 1990, Porat wrote the following note to Sculley: \"A tiny computer, a phone, a very personal object . . . It must be beautiful. It must offer the kind of personal satisfaction that a fine piece of jewelry brings. It will have a perceived value even when it's not being used... Once you use it you won't be able to live without it.\"",
"### Early years (1992–1994\\)",
"The company initially operated in near\\-complete secrecy. By 1992, some of the world's largest electronics corporations, including [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"), [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\"), [Matsushita](/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation \"Panasonic Corporation\"), [Philips](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\") and [AT\\&T Corporation](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation \"AT&T Corporation\") were partners and investors in General Magic, creating significant buzz in the industry.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelkanellos/2011/09/18/general\\-magic\\-the\\-most\\-important\\-dead\\-company\\-in\\-silicon\\-valley/\\#1c31f3644d8c \\|title\\=General Magic: The Most Important Dead Company in Silicon Valley? \\|author\\=Michael Kanellos \\|date\\=September 18, 2011 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Forbes]] }} Sculley, Motorola CEO [George Fisher](/wiki/George_M._C._Fisher \"George M. C. Fisher\"), Sony president Norio Ogha, and AT\\&T division chairman Victor Pelsen became board members. As the operations expanded, the company reportedly let rabbits roam the offices to inspire creativity.",
"In 1992–1993, while Sculley was still a director of General Magic, Apple entered the consumer electronics market with a poorly\\-received \"personal digital assistant\" that became the [Apple Newton](/wiki/Apple_Newton \"Apple Newton\"). By early 1993, Newton (originally designed as a tablet with no communications capabilities) started to attract market interest away from General Magic.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/15/business/company\\-news\\-general\\-magic\\-to\\-disclose\\-its\\-strategy\\-and\\-sponsors.html \\|title\\=COMPANY NEWS; General Magic to Disclose Its Strategy and Sponsors \\|author\\=John Markoff \\|date\\=January 15, 1993 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}}",
"In February 1993, the company had 100 employees. On February 8, *The New York Times* referred to General Magic as \"Silicon Valley's most closely watched start\\-up company.\" It reported that the company was introducing software technology called [Telescript](/wiki/Telescript_%28programming_language%29 \"Telescript (programming language)\") with the intent of creating a \"standard for transmitting messages among any machines that compute, regardless of who makes them.\" The company also announced the software [Magic Cap](/wiki/Magic_Cap \"Magic Cap\"), an operating system catering to communications.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/08/business/spreading\\-the\\-word\\-on\\-mobile\\-messaging.html \\|title\\=Spreading the Word on Mobile Messaging \\|author\\=John Markoff \\|date\\=February 8, 1993 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}} Telescript would eventually come out in 1996 at the start of the [internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\") boom.",
"In an article titled \"Here's Where Woodstock Meets Silicon Valley,\" on February 27, 1993, *The New York Times* reported that General Magic had backing from \"American Telephone and Telegraph, Sony, Motorola, Philips Electronics and Matsushita Electric Industrial.\" Marc Porat remained the chief executive of the company.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/27/business/here\\-s\\-where\\-woodstock\\-meets\\-silicon\\-valley.html\\|title\\=Here's Where Woodstock Meets Silicon Valley \\|author\\=Steve Lohr \\|date\\=February 27, 1993 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}}",
"By 1994, the \"General Magic Alliance\" of cross\\-industry partners had expanded to 16 global telecommunications and consumer electronics companies, including [Cable \\& Wireless](/wiki/Cable_%26_Wireless_plc \"Cable & Wireless plc\"), [France Telecom](/wiki/France_Telecom \"France Telecom\"), [NTT](/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone \"Nippon Telegraph and Telephone\"), [Northern Telecom](/wiki/Northern_Telecom \"Northern Telecom\"), [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba \"Toshiba\"), [Oki](/wiki/OKI_%28company%29 \"OKI (company)\"), [Sanyo](/wiki/Sanyo \"Sanyo\"), [Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi \"Mitsubishi\"), and [Fujitsu](/wiki/Fujitsu \"Fujitsu\"). Each of the so\\-called \"Founding Partners\" invested up to $6 million in the company and named a senior executive to the company's \"Founding Partner's Council\".",
"The first \"General Magic Alliance\" hardware products, using the Magic Cap software, were two [personal digital assistants](/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant \"Personal digital assistant\") (PDAs) that came out in the summer of 1994, with Motorola producing the [Motorola Envoy](/wiki/Motorola_Envoy \"Motorola Envoy\") Personal Wireless Communicator[\"Motorola's Envoy First to Run Magic Cap.\" Byte.com fetched 21 July 2008](http://www.byte.com/art/9405/sec3/art9.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108022551/http://www.byte.com/art/9405/sec3/art9\\.htm \\|date\\=8 November 2008 }} and Sony producing the {{US$\\|800\\|1994\\|round\\=\\-1}} wireline Sony [Magic Link](/wiki/Magic_Link \"Magic Link\"). Alliance partner [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T \"AT&T\") launched its PersonaLink network to host the devices, a closed network that did not connect to the emerging internet. AT\\&T eventually shut down the PersonaLink network in 1996\\.",
"### IPO (1995\\)",
"The company launched an [IPO](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\") on NASDAQ in February 1995\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.cnet.com/2100\\-1040\\-958465\\.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[CNET]] \\|date\\=2002\\-09\\-18 \\|author\\=Kanellos, Michael \\|title\\=General Magic calls its quits \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-02\\-10}} General Magic raised $96 million in the IPO, and a total of $200 million from 16 different investors.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.barrons.com/articles/before\\-apples\\-iphone\\-there\\-was\\-general\\-magic\\-1531488737 \\|title\\=Before Apple's iPhone There Was General Magic \\|date\\=July 13, 2018 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Barron's (newspaper)\\|Barron's]] }} The company's stock value doubled after its IPO.",
"### Portico service (1996\\)",
"Steve Markman was hired to run General Magic in 1996, and he hired [Kevin Surace](/wiki/Kevin_Surace \"Kevin Surace\") to head a new telephony group. This new team of 60–70 people set out to create a voice recognition\\-based personal assistant service that would be as close to human interaction as possible. The first service delivered was Portico (code named Serengeti during development), and the interface was called Mary, named after Mary McDonald\\-Lewis, who voiced Portico, Serengeti and GM's later version, OnStar. Portico synchronized to devices such as the [Palm Connected Organizer](/wiki/Palm_Connected_Organizer \"Palm Connected Organizer\") and [Microsoft Outlook](/wiki/Microsoft_Outlook \"Microsoft Outlook\") and handled voicemail, call forwarding, email, calendar etc., all through the user's own personal [800 number](/wiki/800_number \"800 number\"). General Magic was the first company to employ a large number of linguists to make their software seem real and responses varied, with General Magic investors receiving several key patents relating to voice recognition and artificial personality.",
"The Portico system was also scaled back and sold through many partners including [Quest](/wiki/Quest_%28American_TV_network%29 \"Quest (American TV network)\") and [Excite](/wiki/Excite_%28web_portal%29 \"Excite (web portal)\"). At its peak, the system supported approximately 2\\.5 million users. In 1997 Steve Markman hired Linda Hayes as Chief Marketing Officer, who in turn hired a new marketing team, which launched Portico. The Portico launch is attributed with lifting General Magic's stock price from $1 in 1997 to $18 in 2000\\.",
"According to *[Fast Company](/wiki/Fast_Company_%28magazine%29 \"Fast Company (magazine)\")*, the company's original \\[device] idea was \"practically, dead,\" with people not buying General Magic devices in quantity.",
"### Spinoffs and myTalk (1998–2000\\)",
"While Portico ran its voice portal business, the original handheld group was spun off in 1998 as *Icras*. The new company sold the Magic Cap OS as hardware named *DataRover* and focused on vertical market systems.",
"General Magic announced a major licensing deal and investments from [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") in March 1998\\. The deal gave Microsoft access to certain intellectual property, and helped General Magic move toward integrating Portico with Microsoft products.",
"The [OnStar](/wiki/OnStar \"OnStar\") Virtual Advisor was developed at this time as well for [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\").",
"In 1999 the Marketing Team developed a separate consumer product called MyTalk. Created by Kevin Wray, the MyTalk product was a success and went on to win the [Computerworld Smithsonian Award](/wiki/Computerworld_Smithsonian_Award \"Computerworld Smithsonian Award\") for the first commercially successful voice recognition consumer product. Today MyTalk was also listed in the permanent Smithsonian Museum collection.[permanent Smithsonian Museum collection](http://collections.si.edu/search/detail/ead_component:sova-nmah-ac-0425-ref4675?q=%22general+magic%22&record=2&hlterm=%26quot%3Bgeneral%2Bmagic%26quot%3B) Because of the product's momentum, the intent was to spin off Hayes’ group with Wray leading the product management. However, because of failure to agree on technology licensing terms, the spin\\-off stalled.",
"### Shutdown (1999–2004\\)",
"By 1999, the company's stock had plunged significantly, with *Forbes* attributing the drop to \"losses, layoffs and missed projections.\" Most of the management that was involved in bringing Portico to market left by early 2000 to pursue other interests with Internet startups. A new team was brought in led by Kathleen Layton. The new team took the company in the direction of turning its voice services into enterprise software offerings. The company announced it would cease operations on September 18, 2002\\. The company was liquidated in 2004\\. The OnStar assets were turned over to [EDS](/wiki/Electronic_Data_Systems \"Electronic Data Systems\") to run for General Motors. The patents were auctioned by the court.",
"Most of the patents the company had developed were purchased by [Paul Allen](/wiki/Paul_Allen \"Paul Allen\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.electronicsweekly.com/blogs/mannerisms/fable/fable\\-the\\-hubristic\\-huddle\\-2016\\-06/ \\|title\\= Fable: The Hubristic Huddle\\|author\\=David Manners \\|date\\=June 9, 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Electronics Weekly]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}}",
""
] |
Music career
------------
### 1986\-97: Founding Pink Lincolns
{{Main\|Pink Lincolns}}
Chris Barrows was born in [Wichita, Kansas](/wiki/Wichita%2C_Kansas "Wichita, Kansas"), and later moved to [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida "Tampa, Florida"). He first started his music career as vocalist of the local punk group [Pink Lincolns](/wiki/Pink_Lincolns "Pink Lincolns"), which he co\-founded with guitarist Dorsey Martin. Barrows had first met Dorsey while hanging out with the local punk band Not Much; Barrows was friends with their guitarist, and Dorsey was in the band as well. The rest of the Pink Lincoln's lineup has frequently changed and currently includes bassist Kevin Coss and drummer Jeff Fox, who joined in 2005\.
|"The Pink Lincolns quickly established themselves as funny, no\-holds\-barred purveyors of [Ramones](/wiki/Ramones "Ramones")\-influenced punk rock... the combo of Dorsey Martin and Chris Barrows in the Pink Lincolns has, for 20\-plus\-years, yielded some of the most exciting and humorous takes on what sometimes is the all\-too serious world of punk rock."
|— *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times "Miami New Times")*
Their first album was "Back From The Pink Room", released in 1987\. The band has since released four more studio albums, one live album and six EP's as well as [splits](/wiki/Split_albums "Split albums") with [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel "Screeching Weasel") and [The Queers](/wiki/The_Queers "The Queers"). The band's track have appeared on over 20 compilations from labels like Lookout, Stiff Pole and Choking Hazard.
About their later EP *Sumo Fumes,* released in 1993, *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times "Miami New Times")* wrote "opening the slab of wax is a raucous rendition of Wire's "Ex\-Lion Tamer" that is somehow better and completely owned in the hands of this band... This is followed by the pure rock and roll snot of "Tarzan \#2" where they assert themselves with an original take on Edgar Rice Burrough's canon. The band closes out the B\-side with another cover, this time of the Psychedelic Furs; 'Pretty in Pink.'"
The cover for the band's 1994 album *Suck and Bloat* was drawn by [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop "Iggy Pop"), and their 1997 album *Pure Swank* was produced by [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 "Bill Stevenson (musician)") of [The Descendents](/wiki/The_Descendents "The Descendents"). Notable songs include "Velvet Elvis", a story about a squabble over a [velvet painting](/wiki/Velvet_painting "Velvet painting") of [Elvis Presley](/wiki/Elvis_Presley "Elvis Presley").
### 1998: The Jackie Papers
Around 1998 Barrows took a break from Pink Lincolns and founded the band The Jackie Papers in Florida. Beyond Barrows on vocals and guitar, there was Jenny Page on guitar, Heidi Flanigan on bass and vocals, and Heather Now on drums. About The Jackie Papers, *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times "Miami New Times")* wrote that "while it can be argued that the music is similar to The Pink Lincolns, there is without a doubt a stronger hardcore edge...chockfull of Barrows' trademark snotty humor."
In September 1998 the band recorded their only album at Morrisound Studios along with producer Steve Heritage. Mixing was handled by [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 "Bill Stevenson (musician)") and [Stephen Egerton](/wiki/Stephen_Egerton_%28guitarist%29 "Stephen Egerton (guitarist)"). About their album *Uckfay Ooyay*, released that year on Stiff Pole Records, *Miami New Times* wrote, "The midsection of the album is an instrumental piece titled 'Coolio Iglesias' that is pretty cool and sloppy garage rock with metal tinges. Their cover of [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel "Screeching Weasel")'s 'Hey Suburbia' is amped\-up in a slightly more hardcore vein. 'Addiction' does a good job of Heidi's vocals and it comes off as a creepy intersection of [L7](/wiki/L7_%28band%29 "L7 (band)") and [The Breeders](/wiki/The_Breeders "The Breeders")."
### 2005\-09: Pink Lincolns albums
After an eight\-year hiatus from studio recording, the Pink Lincolns got together and recorded the original album *No Lo Siento* in 2004\. It was their last studio recording, and released in 2005 on Hazzard Records. [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 "Bill Stevenson (musician)") produced. Afterwards several of their albums were remastered and released by Jailhouse, starting with *Back From The Pink Room* in 2008 and *Suck And Bloat* in 2009, both released on vinyl and CD.
About when they release album, and their habit of not syncing tours with album releases, Barrows has stated, "We got back together and had new stuff so we were going to do an album. When we have an album's worth of shit, we'll do it. We're on our own schedule. We don't have to put out an album every year whether it sucks or not, ya know. We just.... when we have shit we wanna do, we do it."
### 2007\-09: The Spears
On September 15, 2009, he released the album *Shove* as part of the punk group The Spears, which he co\-founded around 2007 Signed to Jailhouse Records, The Spears lineup consisted of Barrows on vocals, Sam Williams ([Down By Law](/wiki/Down_by_Law_%28band%29 "Down by Law (band)")) on guitar, Gary Strickland (vocalist of Hated Youth) on bass, and Rob Rampy ([D.R.I.](/wiki/D.R.I._%28band%29 "D.R.I. (band)")) on drums. A remastered version of *Shove* was released in 2013\.
### 2012\-14: *Yinz* and *Human Being*
In 2012 the Pink Lincolns released their first live album on [24 Hour Service Station](/wiki/24_Hour_Service_Station "24 Hour Service Station"). Recorded live at Pittsburgh's 31st Street Pub on April 21, 2005, *Yinz: The Live Album* has a lineup featuring bassist Kevin Coss and drummer Jeff Fox. Among many of their original tracks, the album includes a cover of [Flipper](/wiki/Flipper_%28band%29 "Flipper (band)")'s "Sex Bomb."
Barrows' first solo album, *Human Being*, is due out September 9, 2014 on [24 Hour Service Station](/wiki/24_Hour_Service_Station "24 Hour Service Station"). The album features guest vocals by [Ben Weasel](/wiki/Ben_Weasel "Ben Weasel") of [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel "Screeching Weasel") on the track "Not It," while [The Dwarves](/wiki/The_Dwarves "The Dwarves")' [He Who Cannot Be Named](/wiki/He_Who_Cannot_Be_Named "He Who Cannot Be Named") contributes [Farfisa organ](/wiki/Farfisa_organ "Farfisa organ") to the track "Be My Girl" and "Human Being." Among the tracks are "Champs," are cover of the [Wire](/wiki/Wire_%28band%29 "Wire (band)") song from the *[Pink Flag](/wiki/Pink_Flag "Pink Flag")* album, with Lianna Hoffman contributing cello.
|
[
"Music career\n------------",
"### 1986\\-97: Founding Pink Lincolns",
"{{Main\\|Pink Lincolns}}\nChris Barrows was born in [Wichita, Kansas](/wiki/Wichita%2C_Kansas \"Wichita, Kansas\"), and later moved to [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida \"Tampa, Florida\"). He first started his music career as vocalist of the local punk group [Pink Lincolns](/wiki/Pink_Lincolns \"Pink Lincolns\"), which he co\\-founded with guitarist Dorsey Martin. Barrows had first met Dorsey while hanging out with the local punk band Not Much; Barrows was friends with their guitarist, and Dorsey was in the band as well. The rest of the Pink Lincoln's lineup has frequently changed and currently includes bassist Kevin Coss and drummer Jeff Fox, who joined in 2005\\.",
"",
"|\"The Pink Lincolns quickly established themselves as funny, no\\-holds\\-barred purveyors of [Ramones](/wiki/Ramones \"Ramones\")\\-influenced punk rock... the combo of Dorsey Martin and Chris Barrows in the Pink Lincolns has, for 20\\-plus\\-years, yielded some of the most exciting and humorous takes on what sometimes is the all\\-too serious world of punk rock.\"",
"|— *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times \"Miami New Times\")*",
"Their first album was \"Back From The Pink Room\", released in 1987\\. The band has since released four more studio albums, one live album and six EP's as well as [splits](/wiki/Split_albums \"Split albums\") with [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel \"Screeching Weasel\") and [The Queers](/wiki/The_Queers \"The Queers\"). The band's track have appeared on over 20 compilations from labels like Lookout, Stiff Pole and Choking Hazard.",
"About their later EP *Sumo Fumes,* released in 1993, *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times \"Miami New Times\")* wrote \"opening the slab of wax is a raucous rendition of Wire's \"Ex\\-Lion Tamer\" that is somehow better and completely owned in the hands of this band... This is followed by the pure rock and roll snot of \"Tarzan \\#2\" where they assert themselves with an original take on Edgar Rice Burrough's canon. The band closes out the B\\-side with another cover, this time of the Psychedelic Furs; 'Pretty in Pink.'\"",
"The cover for the band's 1994 album *Suck and Bloat* was drawn by [Iggy Pop](/wiki/Iggy_Pop \"Iggy Pop\"), and their 1997 album *Pure Swank* was produced by [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 \"Bill Stevenson (musician)\") of [The Descendents](/wiki/The_Descendents \"The Descendents\"). Notable songs include \"Velvet Elvis\", a story about a squabble over a [velvet painting](/wiki/Velvet_painting \"Velvet painting\") of [Elvis Presley](/wiki/Elvis_Presley \"Elvis Presley\").",
"### 1998: The Jackie Papers",
"Around 1998 Barrows took a break from Pink Lincolns and founded the band The Jackie Papers in Florida. Beyond Barrows on vocals and guitar, there was Jenny Page on guitar, Heidi Flanigan on bass and vocals, and Heather Now on drums. About The Jackie Papers, *[Miami New Times](/wiki/Miami_New_Times \"Miami New Times\")* wrote that \"while it can be argued that the music is similar to The Pink Lincolns, there is without a doubt a stronger hardcore edge...chockfull of Barrows' trademark snotty humor.\"",
"In September 1998 the band recorded their only album at Morrisound Studios along with producer Steve Heritage. Mixing was handled by [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 \"Bill Stevenson (musician)\") and [Stephen Egerton](/wiki/Stephen_Egerton_%28guitarist%29 \"Stephen Egerton (guitarist)\"). About their album *Uckfay Ooyay*, released that year on Stiff Pole Records, *Miami New Times* wrote, \"The midsection of the album is an instrumental piece titled 'Coolio Iglesias' that is pretty cool and sloppy garage rock with metal tinges. Their cover of [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel \"Screeching Weasel\")'s 'Hey Suburbia' is amped\\-up in a slightly more hardcore vein. 'Addiction' does a good job of Heidi's vocals and it comes off as a creepy intersection of [L7](/wiki/L7_%28band%29 \"L7 (band)\") and [The Breeders](/wiki/The_Breeders \"The Breeders\").\"",
"### 2005\\-09: Pink Lincolns albums",
"After an eight\\-year hiatus from studio recording, the Pink Lincolns got together and recorded the original album *No Lo Siento* in 2004\\. It was their last studio recording, and released in 2005 on Hazzard Records. [Bill Stevenson](/wiki/Bill_Stevenson_%28musician%29 \"Bill Stevenson (musician)\") produced. Afterwards several of their albums were remastered and released by Jailhouse, starting with *Back From The Pink Room* in 2008 and *Suck And Bloat* in 2009, both released on vinyl and CD.",
"About when they release album, and their habit of not syncing tours with album releases, Barrows has stated, \"We got back together and had new stuff so we were going to do an album. When we have an album's worth of shit, we'll do it. We're on our own schedule. We don't have to put out an album every year whether it sucks or not, ya know. We just.... when we have shit we wanna do, we do it.\"",
"### 2007\\-09: The Spears",
"On September 15, 2009, he released the album *Shove* as part of the punk group The Spears, which he co\\-founded around 2007 Signed to Jailhouse Records, The Spears lineup consisted of Barrows on vocals, Sam Williams ([Down By Law](/wiki/Down_by_Law_%28band%29 \"Down by Law (band)\")) on guitar, Gary Strickland (vocalist of Hated Youth) on bass, and Rob Rampy ([D.R.I.](/wiki/D.R.I._%28band%29 \"D.R.I. (band)\")) on drums. A remastered version of *Shove* was released in 2013\\.",
"### 2012\\-14: *Yinz* and *Human Being*",
"In 2012 the Pink Lincolns released their first live album on [24 Hour Service Station](/wiki/24_Hour_Service_Station \"24 Hour Service Station\"). Recorded live at Pittsburgh's 31st Street Pub on April 21, 2005, *Yinz: The Live Album* has a lineup featuring bassist Kevin Coss and drummer Jeff Fox. Among many of their original tracks, the album includes a cover of [Flipper](/wiki/Flipper_%28band%29 \"Flipper (band)\")'s \"Sex Bomb.\"",
"Barrows' first solo album, *Human Being*, is due out September 9, 2014 on [24 Hour Service Station](/wiki/24_Hour_Service_Station \"24 Hour Service Station\"). The album features guest vocals by [Ben Weasel](/wiki/Ben_Weasel \"Ben Weasel\") of [Screeching Weasel](/wiki/Screeching_Weasel \"Screeching Weasel\") on the track \"Not It,\" while [The Dwarves](/wiki/The_Dwarves \"The Dwarves\")' [He Who Cannot Be Named](/wiki/He_Who_Cannot_Be_Named \"He Who Cannot Be Named\") contributes [Farfisa organ](/wiki/Farfisa_organ \"Farfisa organ\") to the track \"Be My Girl\" and \"Human Being.\" Among the tracks are \"Champs,\" are cover of the [Wire](/wiki/Wire_%28band%29 \"Wire (band)\") song from the *[Pink Flag](/wiki/Pink_Flag \"Pink Flag\")* album, with Lianna Hoffman contributing cello.",
""
] |
Route
-----
The TRAX Green Line is designated as UTA Route **704**.
### West Valley Central to Central Pointe Station
The Green Line begins with the West Valley Central Station at the West Valley Intermodal Center, which is located at 2750 West 3590 South in West Valley City. Just after leaving that station, it immediately passes between the [West Valley City Police Department](/wiki/West_Valley_City_Police_Department "West Valley City Police Department") and the West Valley City Hall, before heading north down the middle of Constitution Boulevard (South 2700 West). After passing by the northern end of [Valley Fair Mall](/wiki/Valley_Fair_Mall_%28West_Valley_City%2C_Utah%29 "Valley Fair Mall (West Valley City, Utah)"), it crosses West 3500 South ([SR\-171](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_171 "Utah State Route 171")) and continues north in the median of Constitution Boulevard to West 3100 South. It then heads east along the south side of West 3100 South (with a sidewalk between the tracks and the roadway) and crosses over [I\-215](/wiki/Interstate_215_in_Utah "Interstate 215 in Utah") and past the north side of the [Maverik Center](/wiki/Maverik_Center "Maverik Center"). Just after the Maverik Center it turns north, resuming a course in the median of the street, and immediately reaches the next station, [Decker Lake](/wiki/Decker_Lake_%28UTA_station%29 "Decker Lake (UTA station)"), at 3070 South 2200 West. After Decker Lake it heads northeast in the median of Decker Lake Drive until that street heads due north at Research Way (West 2770 South). At Research Way the Green Line turns east again and heads down the median of that street. Just before South Redwood Road (South 1700 West/[SR\-68](/wiki/State_Route_68 "State Route 68")) is [Redwood Junction](/wiki/Redwood_Junction_%28UTA_station%29 "Redwood Junction (UTA station)").
Leaving the roadway [right\-of\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28transportation%29 "Right-of-way (transportation)"), after an at\-grade crossing on South Redwood Road, the Green Line continues east, crossing Lester Street (South 1595 West), until it reaches the [Jordan River](/wiki/Jordan_River_%28Utah%29 "Jordan River (Utah)"). The tracks head north until they cross West Parkway Avenue (West 2455 South) and then runs down the middle of Winston Street (South 1070 West) to [River Trail](/wiki/River_Trail_%28UTA_station%29 "River Trail (UTA station)") at 2340 South. After that station it continues north for about a half a block before leaving the street via an at\-grade crossing and heading east. It immediately crosses the Jordan River (passing from West Valley City into South Salt Lake), and then follows along the south side of the 21st South Freeway ([SR\-201](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_201 "Utah State Route 201")). After passing the Jordan River Service Center (one of UTA's two TRAX maintenance facilities) on the south, the track use a series of viaducts to cross South 900 West, South 700 West, the north end of [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific "Union Pacific")'s Roper Rail Yard, the UTA *[FrontRunner](/wiki/FrontRunner "FrontRunner")* tracks, and South 600 West before reaching the "[Spaghetti Bowl](/wiki/Spaghetti_Bowl_%28Utah%29 "Spaghetti Bowl (Utah)")" (the junction of [I\-15](/wiki/Interstate_15_in_Utah "Interstate 15 in Utah"), [I\-80](/wiki/Interstate_80_in_Utah "Interstate 80 in Utah") and SR\-201\).
From South 600 West the Green Line briefly follows the route of the old [Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad "Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad") (D\&RGW) Sugar House Branch, which goes under I\-15/I\-80 and then briefly runs along the south side of West Andy Avenue to South 300 West. After crossing South 300 West it continues east until about 220 West where it reaches the Union Pacific right\-of\-way and takes a sharp turn north as it merges with the [Blue](/wiki/Blue_Line_%28TRAX%29 "Blue Line (TRAX)") and [Red](/wiki/Red_Line_%28TRAX%29 "Red Line (TRAX)") lines), before entering [Central Pointe](/wiki/Central_Pointe_%28UTA_station%29 "Central Pointe (UTA station)"), which is just south of West 2100 South ([SR\-201](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_201 "Utah State Route 201")).
### Central Pointe to Gallivan Plaza
Central Pointe is the only TRAX station served by the [S Line](/wiki/S_Line_%28UTA%29 "S Line (UTA)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865585869/New\-streetcar\-S\-line\-set\-to\-open\-Dec\-8\-in\-Sugar\-House.html?pg\=all\|title\=New streetcar S\-line set to open Dec. 8 in Sugar House\|last\=Vo\-Duc\|first\=Viviane\|newspaper\=\[\[Deseret News]]\|publisher\=\[\[Deseret Digital Media]]\|location\=Salt Lake City\|date\=September 5, 2013\|access\-date\=September 17, 2013}} The S Line platform is situated just southeast of the TRAX platform. (The S Line provides [streetcar](/wiki/Tram "Tram") service east to the [Fairmont stop](/wiki/S_Line_%28UTA%29%23Fairmont "S Line (UTA)#Fairmont") in the [Sugar House](/wiki/Sugar_House%2C_Salt_Lake_City "Sugar House, Salt Lake City") neighborhood of Salt Lake City.)
Upon crossing West 2100 South the three TRAX lines leave South Salt Lake and enter Salt Lake City and continue north as they cross West 1700 South and West 1300 South. Just north of West 1300 South is [Ballpark](/wiki/Ballpark_%28UTA_station%29 "Ballpark (UTA station)"), which provides service to [Smith's Ballpark](/wiki/Smith%27s_Ballpark "Smith's Ballpark"). (Immediately north of this station is a [non\-revenue track](/wiki/Non-revenue_track "Non-revenue track") that extends northwest to South 400 West at West 900 South and then north to West 600 South.) After Ballpark the three lines continue north in the center median of South 200 West, crossing under the 900 South/I\-15 on and off ramps, until they reach the next station, [900 South](/wiki/900_South_%28UTA_station%29 "900 South (UTA station)"). This station, which is just north of West 900 South, is an infill station{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ksl.com/index.php?nid\=148\&sid\=85381\|title\=Two New Stops Planned for TRAX\|last\=Daley\|first\=John\|date\=April 14, 2004\|work\=\[\[KSL\-TV\|ksl.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Deseret Digital Media]]\|location\=Salt Lake City\|access\-date\=July 25, 2009}} and the last stop before the TRAX lines reach [Downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City "Downtown Salt Lake City").
The three lines continue north in the median of South 200 West, crossing West 800 South, until they reach West 700 South. At West 700 South they turn east and proceed down the middle of that street for two blocks, crossing South West Temple Street ([SR\-270](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_270 "Utah State Route 270")). At [South Main Street](/wiki/Main_Street_%28Greater_Salt_Lake_City%29 "Main Street (Greater Salt Lake City)"), the lines turn north and continue down the center median of that street and cross West 600 South (Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard/[SR\-269](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_269 "Utah State Route 269") eastbound), pass between the [Grand America Hotel](/wiki/Grand_America_Hotel "Grand America Hotel") and the Little America Hotel, and then cross West 500 South (Cesar E Chavez Boulevard/SR\-269 westbound). Just north of West 500 South and slightly west of the [Scott Matheson Courthouse](/wiki/Scott_Matheson_Courthouse "Scott Matheson Courthouse"), is the first station within the [Free Fare Zone](/wiki/Utah_Transit_Authority%23Free_Fare_Zone "Utah Transit Authority#Free Fare Zone"), [Courthouse](/wiki/Courthouse_%28UTA_station%29 "Courthouse (UTA station)"). At West 400 South (University Boulevard/[US Highway 89](/wiki/U.S._Route_89_in_Utah "U.S. Route 89 in Utah")) the Red Line turns east and heads toward [Library](/wiki/Library_%28UTA_station%29 "Library (UTA station)") and eventually the [University of Utah](/wiki/University_of_Utah "University of Utah") while the Green and Blue lines continue north. After crossing West 300 South (West Broadway) the two lines reach [Gallivan Plaza](/wiki/Gallivan_Plaza_%28UTA_station%29 "Gallivan Plaza (UTA station)"), which is just west of the [Wells Fargo Center](/wiki/Wells_Fargo_Center_%28Salt_Lake_City%29 "Wells Fargo Center (Salt Lake City)") and the [Gallivan Center](/wiki/Gallivan_Center "Gallivan Center").
### Gallivan Plaza to Arena Station
Continuing in the median of South Main Street, the Green and Blue lines continue north crossing West 200 South and West 100 South before reaching [City Center](/wiki/City_Center_%28UTA_station%29 "City Center (UTA station)"). This station is in the middle of the new [City Creek Center](/wiki/City_Creek_Center "City Creek Center") commercial and residential development. At the north end of South Main Street the two lines turn west down the middle of West South Temple Street for a little more than a block before reaching the next station, [Temple Square](/wiki/Temple_Square_%28UTA_station%29 "Temple Square (UTA station)"). This station is just southwest of [Temple Square](/wiki/Temple_Square "Temple Square") (home to the [Salt Lake Temple](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Temple "Salt Lake Temple"), [Salt Lake Tabernacle](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tabernacle "Salt Lake Tabernacle"), and other notable buildings of [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints")). It is also just south of the [Family History Library](/wiki/Family_History_Library "Family History Library"), about two blocks south of the [LDS Conference Center](/wiki/LDS_Conference_Center "LDS Conference Center"), and immediately north of [Abravanel Hall](/wiki/Abravanel_Hall "Abravanel Hall") and the [Salt Palace](/wiki/Salt_Palace "Salt Palace").
Continuing down the median of West South Temple Street the lines reach [Arena](/wiki/Arena_%28UTA_station%29 "Arena (UTA station)") (formerly Delta Center). This station is immediately north of [Delta Center](/wiki/Delta_Center "Delta Center"), east of the [Union Pacific Depot](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_Union_Pacific_Depot "Salt Lake City Union Pacific Depot"), and south of [LDS Business College](/wiki/LDS_Business_College "LDS Business College"). Arena was formerly the terminus of both the Sandy/Salt Lake and the old [University Line](/wiki/University_Line_%28TRAX%29 "University Line (TRAX)"). However, an extension opened on April 16, 2008, which provided access to the [Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_Intermodal_Hub "Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub") and the new *FrontRunner* commuter rail train. Eventually, the Sandy/Salt Lake Line was renamed the Blue Line and the University Line was shut down. About this same time the Green Line was created and its route continued, along with the Blue Line, on to Salt Lake Central (Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub). However, with the rerouting of the Green Line to accommodate the Airport Extension, Arena became the temporary terminus of the Green Line from December 9, 2012, to April 13, 2013\. Arena is the last station on the Green Line within the Free Fare Zone, along with the Blue Line.
### Arena Station to Airport Station
Following Arena, the two lines continue on to 400 West where they divide paths. The Blue Line turns south down the middle of South 400 West towards [Planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium_%28UTA_station%29 "Planetarium (UTA station)") and eventually ending at the Salt Lake Intermodal Hub, while the Green Line turns north. After about a block down the middle of North 400 West, the Green Line turns west to run on the north side of West North Temple Street (West 100 North) and ascends the North Temple Viaduct to the TRAX platform of the next station, [North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe](/wiki/North_Temple_Bridge/Guadalupe_%28UTA_station%29 "North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe (UTA station)"). This station is often referred to as simply North Temple and is the only bi\-level station operated by UTA. It is also flying junction since Green Line tracks cross over the *FrontRunner* and Union Pacific tracks. The TRAX platform is on the viaduct and the *FrontRunner* platform is at ground level (at grade) just north of the viaduct, with escalators and stairs to transfer passengers between. This station is also an [infill station](/wiki/Infill_station "Infill station") on the *FrontRunner* line and was built for the express purpose of creating a common station between the Green Line and the *FrontRunner*.
Leaving North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe the Green Line crosses back over the Union Pacific right\-of\-way and descends to North 600 West. Just after crossing North 600 West the tracks jog from the north side of North Temple Street to the median and then cross back under I\-15\. Just after crossing North 800 West it reaches [Jackson/Euclid](/wiki/Jackson/Euclid_%28UTA_station%29 "Jackson/Euclid (UTA station)"). Continuing west down the median of West North Temple Street, it crosses North 900 West and North 1000 West before reaching [Fairpark](/wiki/Fairpark_%28UTA_station%29 "Fairpark (UTA station)") at 1150 West. This station is located immediately south of the Utah State Fairpark (home of the annual [Utah State Fair](/wiki/Utah_State_Fair "Utah State Fair") and other events). Just after Fairpark, the Green Line crosses back over the Jordan River and passes the [Rocky Mountain Power](/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Power "Rocky Mountain Power") facility on the south before reaching [Power](/wiki/Power_%28UTA_station%29 "Power (UTA station)") at 1500 West.
From Power, the Green Line continues west down the median of West North Temple Street, crossing North Redwood Road, until it reaches the next to the last station on the line, [1940 W North Temple](/wiki/1940_W_North_Temple_%28UTA_station%29 "1940 W North Temple (UTA station)"). From this station it crosses under [I\-215](/wiki/Interstate_215_in_Utah "Interstate 215 in Utah") and then continues down the median of Old Highway 186 as that road splits from West North Temple Street and heads southwest towards I\-80\. Just after crossing South 2400 West, the Green Line crosses to the north side of the road as Old Highway 186 continues southwest to I\-80\. The tracks continue on the north side of the I\-80 right\-of\-way, crossing over the Surplus Canal, until Old Highway 186 curves north again just east of the I\-80/Bangerter Highway ([SR\-154](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_154 "Utah State Route 154")) interchange and then merges with Terminal Drive as that road heads northeast and then north to the [Salt Lake City International Airport](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_International_Airport "Salt Lake City International Airport"). The tracks parallel the east side of Terminal Drive until it reaches the [Airport Station](/wiki/Airport_%28UTA_station%29 "Airport (UTA station)"), which is located immediately south of Terminal One. There is direct access to the terminal from the north end of the platform.
### Park and Ride
Many TRAX stations include free [Park and Ride](/wiki/Utah_Transit_Authority%23Park-%26-Ride "Utah Transit Authority#Park-&-Ride") lots, with some lots having as few as six parking spaces and others having nearly 1200\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rideuta.com/mc/?page\=TRAX\-TRAXParkingandStops\|title\=TRAX Parking and Stops\|website\=rideuta.com\|publisher\=\[\[Utah Transit Authority]]\|access\-date\=December 14, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223120602/http://www.rideuta.com/mc/?page\=TRAX\-TRAXParkingandStops\|archive\-date\=December 23, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} However, there are certain restrictions for all lots (for example, no 24\-hour parking).
### Free Fare Zone
UTA currently has a [Free Fare Zone](/wiki/Zero-fare_public_transport "Zero-fare public transport") in [Downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City "Downtown Salt Lake City") for transportation patrons that both enter *and* exit bus or TRAX service within the Zone. The Zone covers an area of approximately thirty\-six city blocks and the boundaries are roughly North Temple, 200 East, 500 South, and 400 West. TRAX stations within the Zone include Arena, City Center, Courthouse, Gallivan Plaza (mistakenly identified as "Gallivan Center Station" on the Free Fare Zone map), Planetarium, and Temple Square. In addition, the Free Fare Zone also includes the area of the [State Capitol](/wiki/Utah_State_Capitol "Utah State Capitol") (north to 500 North), the bus stops on 400 South between 200 East and 300 East, and three additional TRAX stations: [Library](/wiki/Library_%28UTA_station%29 "Library (UTA station)"), Old GreekTown, and Salt Lake Central.{{cite map\|url\=http://www.rideuta.com/uploads/FreeFareZone\_April2012\_large.jpg \|title\=Free Fare Zone \|publisher\=\[\[Utah Transit Authority]] \|format\=JPG \|date\=Apr 2012 \|access\-date\=December 14, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109154404/http://www.rideuta.com/uploads/FreeFareZone\_April2012\_large.jpg \|archive\-date\=January 9, 2013 }} In June 2012 UTA revealed plans to eliminate the Free Fare Zone, but by September 2012 it announced that it would continue the Zone, but with some minor adjustments, including when and how fares are collected.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rideuta.com/news/tag/free\-fare\-zone/\|title\=UTA Announces Changes to Free Fare Zone for Bus\|website\=rideuta.com\|publisher\=\[\[Utah Transit Authority]]\|date\=September 26, 2012\|access\-date\=April 2, 2012}}
|
[
"Route\n-----",
"The TRAX Green Line is designated as UTA Route **704**.",
"### West Valley Central to Central Pointe Station",
"The Green Line begins with the West Valley Central Station at the West Valley Intermodal Center, which is located at 2750 West 3590 South in West Valley City. Just after leaving that station, it immediately passes between the [West Valley City Police Department](/wiki/West_Valley_City_Police_Department \"West Valley City Police Department\") and the West Valley City Hall, before heading north down the middle of Constitution Boulevard (South 2700 West). After passing by the northern end of [Valley Fair Mall](/wiki/Valley_Fair_Mall_%28West_Valley_City%2C_Utah%29 \"Valley Fair Mall (West Valley City, Utah)\"), it crosses West 3500 South ([SR\\-171](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_171 \"Utah State Route 171\")) and continues north in the median of Constitution Boulevard to West 3100 South. It then heads east along the south side of West 3100 South (with a sidewalk between the tracks and the roadway) and crosses over [I\\-215](/wiki/Interstate_215_in_Utah \"Interstate 215 in Utah\") and past the north side of the [Maverik Center](/wiki/Maverik_Center \"Maverik Center\"). Just after the Maverik Center it turns north, resuming a course in the median of the street, and immediately reaches the next station, [Decker Lake](/wiki/Decker_Lake_%28UTA_station%29 \"Decker Lake (UTA station)\"), at 3070 South 2200 West. After Decker Lake it heads northeast in the median of Decker Lake Drive until that street heads due north at Research Way (West 2770 South). At Research Way the Green Line turns east again and heads down the median of that street. Just before South Redwood Road (South 1700 West/[SR\\-68](/wiki/State_Route_68 \"State Route 68\")) is [Redwood Junction](/wiki/Redwood_Junction_%28UTA_station%29 \"Redwood Junction (UTA station)\").",
"Leaving the roadway [right\\-of\\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28transportation%29 \"Right-of-way (transportation)\"), after an at\\-grade crossing on South Redwood Road, the Green Line continues east, crossing Lester Street (South 1595 West), until it reaches the [Jordan River](/wiki/Jordan_River_%28Utah%29 \"Jordan River (Utah)\"). The tracks head north until they cross West Parkway Avenue (West 2455 South) and then runs down the middle of Winston Street (South 1070 West) to [River Trail](/wiki/River_Trail_%28UTA_station%29 \"River Trail (UTA station)\") at 2340 South. After that station it continues north for about a half a block before leaving the street via an at\\-grade crossing and heading east. It immediately crosses the Jordan River (passing from West Valley City into South Salt Lake), and then follows along the south side of the 21st South Freeway ([SR\\-201](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_201 \"Utah State Route 201\")). After passing the Jordan River Service Center (one of UTA's two TRAX maintenance facilities) on the south, the track use a series of viaducts to cross South 900 West, South 700 West, the north end of [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific \"Union Pacific\")'s Roper Rail Yard, the UTA *[FrontRunner](/wiki/FrontRunner \"FrontRunner\")* tracks, and South 600 West before reaching the \"[Spaghetti Bowl](/wiki/Spaghetti_Bowl_%28Utah%29 \"Spaghetti Bowl (Utah)\")\" (the junction of [I\\-15](/wiki/Interstate_15_in_Utah \"Interstate 15 in Utah\"), [I\\-80](/wiki/Interstate_80_in_Utah \"Interstate 80 in Utah\") and SR\\-201\\).",
"From South 600 West the Green Line briefly follows the route of the old [Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad \"Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad\") (D\\&RGW) Sugar House Branch, which goes under I\\-15/I\\-80 and then briefly runs along the south side of West Andy Avenue to South 300 West. After crossing South 300 West it continues east until about 220 West where it reaches the Union Pacific right\\-of\\-way and takes a sharp turn north as it merges with the [Blue](/wiki/Blue_Line_%28TRAX%29 \"Blue Line (TRAX)\") and [Red](/wiki/Red_Line_%28TRAX%29 \"Red Line (TRAX)\") lines), before entering [Central Pointe](/wiki/Central_Pointe_%28UTA_station%29 \"Central Pointe (UTA station)\"), which is just south of West 2100 South ([SR\\-201](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_201 \"Utah State Route 201\")).",
"### Central Pointe to Gallivan Plaza",
"Central Pointe is the only TRAX station served by the [S Line](/wiki/S_Line_%28UTA%29 \"S Line (UTA)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865585869/New\\-streetcar\\-S\\-line\\-set\\-to\\-open\\-Dec\\-8\\-in\\-Sugar\\-House.html?pg\\=all\\|title\\=New streetcar S\\-line set to open Dec. 8 in Sugar House\\|last\\=Vo\\-Duc\\|first\\=Viviane\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Deseret News]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Deseret Digital Media]]\\|location\\=Salt Lake City\\|date\\=September 5, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2013}} The S Line platform is situated just southeast of the TRAX platform. (The S Line provides [streetcar](/wiki/Tram \"Tram\") service east to the [Fairmont stop](/wiki/S_Line_%28UTA%29%23Fairmont \"S Line (UTA)#Fairmont\") in the [Sugar House](/wiki/Sugar_House%2C_Salt_Lake_City \"Sugar House, Salt Lake City\") neighborhood of Salt Lake City.)",
"Upon crossing West 2100 South the three TRAX lines leave South Salt Lake and enter Salt Lake City and continue north as they cross West 1700 South and West 1300 South. Just north of West 1300 South is [Ballpark](/wiki/Ballpark_%28UTA_station%29 \"Ballpark (UTA station)\"), which provides service to [Smith's Ballpark](/wiki/Smith%27s_Ballpark \"Smith's Ballpark\"). (Immediately north of this station is a [non\\-revenue track](/wiki/Non-revenue_track \"Non-revenue track\") that extends northwest to South 400 West at West 900 South and then north to West 600 South.) After Ballpark the three lines continue north in the center median of South 200 West, crossing under the 900 South/I\\-15 on and off ramps, until they reach the next station, [900 South](/wiki/900_South_%28UTA_station%29 \"900 South (UTA station)\"). This station, which is just north of West 900 South, is an infill station{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ksl.com/index.php?nid\\=148\\&sid\\=85381\\|title\\=Two New Stops Planned for TRAX\\|last\\=Daley\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=April 14, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[KSL\\-TV\\|ksl.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Deseret Digital Media]]\\|location\\=Salt Lake City\\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2009}} and the last stop before the TRAX lines reach [Downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City \"Downtown Salt Lake City\").",
"The three lines continue north in the median of South 200 West, crossing West 800 South, until they reach West 700 South. At West 700 South they turn east and proceed down the middle of that street for two blocks, crossing South West Temple Street ([SR\\-270](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_270 \"Utah State Route 270\")). At [South Main Street](/wiki/Main_Street_%28Greater_Salt_Lake_City%29 \"Main Street (Greater Salt Lake City)\"), the lines turn north and continue down the center median of that street and cross West 600 South (Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard/[SR\\-269](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_269 \"Utah State Route 269\") eastbound), pass between the [Grand America Hotel](/wiki/Grand_America_Hotel \"Grand America Hotel\") and the Little America Hotel, and then cross West 500 South (Cesar E Chavez Boulevard/SR\\-269 westbound). Just north of West 500 South and slightly west of the [Scott Matheson Courthouse](/wiki/Scott_Matheson_Courthouse \"Scott Matheson Courthouse\"), is the first station within the [Free Fare Zone](/wiki/Utah_Transit_Authority%23Free_Fare_Zone \"Utah Transit Authority#Free Fare Zone\"), [Courthouse](/wiki/Courthouse_%28UTA_station%29 \"Courthouse (UTA station)\"). At West 400 South (University Boulevard/[US Highway 89](/wiki/U.S._Route_89_in_Utah \"U.S. Route 89 in Utah\")) the Red Line turns east and heads toward [Library](/wiki/Library_%28UTA_station%29 \"Library (UTA station)\") and eventually the [University of Utah](/wiki/University_of_Utah \"University of Utah\") while the Green and Blue lines continue north. After crossing West 300 South (West Broadway) the two lines reach [Gallivan Plaza](/wiki/Gallivan_Plaza_%28UTA_station%29 \"Gallivan Plaza (UTA station)\"), which is just west of the [Wells Fargo Center](/wiki/Wells_Fargo_Center_%28Salt_Lake_City%29 \"Wells Fargo Center (Salt Lake City)\") and the [Gallivan Center](/wiki/Gallivan_Center \"Gallivan Center\").",
"### Gallivan Plaza to Arena Station",
"Continuing in the median of South Main Street, the Green and Blue lines continue north crossing West 200 South and West 100 South before reaching [City Center](/wiki/City_Center_%28UTA_station%29 \"City Center (UTA station)\"). This station is in the middle of the new [City Creek Center](/wiki/City_Creek_Center \"City Creek Center\") commercial and residential development. At the north end of South Main Street the two lines turn west down the middle of West South Temple Street for a little more than a block before reaching the next station, [Temple Square](/wiki/Temple_Square_%28UTA_station%29 \"Temple Square (UTA station)\"). This station is just southwest of [Temple Square](/wiki/Temple_Square \"Temple Square\") (home to the [Salt Lake Temple](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Temple \"Salt Lake Temple\"), [Salt Lake Tabernacle](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tabernacle \"Salt Lake Tabernacle\"), and other notable buildings of [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\")). It is also just south of the [Family History Library](/wiki/Family_History_Library \"Family History Library\"), about two blocks south of the [LDS Conference Center](/wiki/LDS_Conference_Center \"LDS Conference Center\"), and immediately north of [Abravanel Hall](/wiki/Abravanel_Hall \"Abravanel Hall\") and the [Salt Palace](/wiki/Salt_Palace \"Salt Palace\").",
"Continuing down the median of West South Temple Street the lines reach [Arena](/wiki/Arena_%28UTA_station%29 \"Arena (UTA station)\") (formerly Delta Center). This station is immediately north of [Delta Center](/wiki/Delta_Center \"Delta Center\"), east of the [Union Pacific Depot](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_Union_Pacific_Depot \"Salt Lake City Union Pacific Depot\"), and south of [LDS Business College](/wiki/LDS_Business_College \"LDS Business College\"). Arena was formerly the terminus of both the Sandy/Salt Lake and the old [University Line](/wiki/University_Line_%28TRAX%29 \"University Line (TRAX)\"). However, an extension opened on April 16, 2008, which provided access to the [Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_Intermodal_Hub \"Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub\") and the new *FrontRunner* commuter rail train. Eventually, the Sandy/Salt Lake Line was renamed the Blue Line and the University Line was shut down. About this same time the Green Line was created and its route continued, along with the Blue Line, on to Salt Lake Central (Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub). However, with the rerouting of the Green Line to accommodate the Airport Extension, Arena became the temporary terminus of the Green Line from December 9, 2012, to April 13, 2013\\. Arena is the last station on the Green Line within the Free Fare Zone, along with the Blue Line.",
"### Arena Station to Airport Station",
"Following Arena, the two lines continue on to 400 West where they divide paths. The Blue Line turns south down the middle of South 400 West towards [Planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium_%28UTA_station%29 \"Planetarium (UTA station)\") and eventually ending at the Salt Lake Intermodal Hub, while the Green Line turns north. After about a block down the middle of North 400 West, the Green Line turns west to run on the north side of West North Temple Street (West 100 North) and ascends the North Temple Viaduct to the TRAX platform of the next station, [North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe](/wiki/North_Temple_Bridge/Guadalupe_%28UTA_station%29 \"North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe (UTA station)\"). This station is often referred to as simply North Temple and is the only bi\\-level station operated by UTA. It is also flying junction since Green Line tracks cross over the *FrontRunner* and Union Pacific tracks. The TRAX platform is on the viaduct and the *FrontRunner* platform is at ground level (at grade) just north of the viaduct, with escalators and stairs to transfer passengers between. This station is also an [infill station](/wiki/Infill_station \"Infill station\") on the *FrontRunner* line and was built for the express purpose of creating a common station between the Green Line and the *FrontRunner*.",
"Leaving North Temple Bridge/Guadalupe the Green Line crosses back over the Union Pacific right\\-of\\-way and descends to North 600 West. Just after crossing North 600 West the tracks jog from the north side of North Temple Street to the median and then cross back under I\\-15\\. Just after crossing North 800 West it reaches [Jackson/Euclid](/wiki/Jackson/Euclid_%28UTA_station%29 \"Jackson/Euclid (UTA station)\"). Continuing west down the median of West North Temple Street, it crosses North 900 West and North 1000 West before reaching [Fairpark](/wiki/Fairpark_%28UTA_station%29 \"Fairpark (UTA station)\") at 1150 West. This station is located immediately south of the Utah State Fairpark (home of the annual [Utah State Fair](/wiki/Utah_State_Fair \"Utah State Fair\") and other events). Just after Fairpark, the Green Line crosses back over the Jordan River and passes the [Rocky Mountain Power](/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Power \"Rocky Mountain Power\") facility on the south before reaching [Power](/wiki/Power_%28UTA_station%29 \"Power (UTA station)\") at 1500 West.",
"From Power, the Green Line continues west down the median of West North Temple Street, crossing North Redwood Road, until it reaches the next to the last station on the line, [1940 W North Temple](/wiki/1940_W_North_Temple_%28UTA_station%29 \"1940 W North Temple (UTA station)\"). From this station it crosses under [I\\-215](/wiki/Interstate_215_in_Utah \"Interstate 215 in Utah\") and then continues down the median of Old Highway 186 as that road splits from West North Temple Street and heads southwest towards I\\-80\\. Just after crossing South 2400 West, the Green Line crosses to the north side of the road as Old Highway 186 continues southwest to I\\-80\\. The tracks continue on the north side of the I\\-80 right\\-of\\-way, crossing over the Surplus Canal, until Old Highway 186 curves north again just east of the I\\-80/Bangerter Highway ([SR\\-154](/wiki/Utah_State_Route_154 \"Utah State Route 154\")) interchange and then merges with Terminal Drive as that road heads northeast and then north to the [Salt Lake City International Airport](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_International_Airport \"Salt Lake City International Airport\"). The tracks parallel the east side of Terminal Drive until it reaches the [Airport Station](/wiki/Airport_%28UTA_station%29 \"Airport (UTA station)\"), which is located immediately south of Terminal One. There is direct access to the terminal from the north end of the platform.",
"### Park and Ride",
"Many TRAX stations include free [Park and Ride](/wiki/Utah_Transit_Authority%23Park-%26-Ride \"Utah Transit Authority#Park-&-Ride\") lots, with some lots having as few as six parking spaces and others having nearly 1200\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rideuta.com/mc/?page\\=TRAX\\-TRAXParkingandStops\\|title\\=TRAX Parking and Stops\\|website\\=rideuta.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Utah Transit Authority]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 14, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223120602/http://www.rideuta.com/mc/?page\\=TRAX\\-TRAXParkingandStops\\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, there are certain restrictions for all lots (for example, no 24\\-hour parking).",
"### Free Fare Zone",
"UTA currently has a [Free Fare Zone](/wiki/Zero-fare_public_transport \"Zero-fare public transport\") in [Downtown Salt Lake City](/wiki/Downtown_Salt_Lake_City \"Downtown Salt Lake City\") for transportation patrons that both enter *and* exit bus or TRAX service within the Zone. The Zone covers an area of approximately thirty\\-six city blocks and the boundaries are roughly North Temple, 200 East, 500 South, and 400 West. TRAX stations within the Zone include Arena, City Center, Courthouse, Gallivan Plaza (mistakenly identified as \"Gallivan Center Station\" on the Free Fare Zone map), Planetarium, and Temple Square. In addition, the Free Fare Zone also includes the area of the [State Capitol](/wiki/Utah_State_Capitol \"Utah State Capitol\") (north to 500 North), the bus stops on 400 South between 200 East and 300 East, and three additional TRAX stations: [Library](/wiki/Library_%28UTA_station%29 \"Library (UTA station)\"), Old GreekTown, and Salt Lake Central.{{cite map\\|url\\=http://www.rideuta.com/uploads/FreeFareZone\\_April2012\\_large.jpg \\|title\\=Free Fare Zone \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Utah Transit Authority]] \\|format\\=JPG \\|date\\=Apr 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=December 14, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109154404/http://www.rideuta.com/uploads/FreeFareZone\\_April2012\\_large.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=January 9, 2013 }} In June 2012 UTA revealed plans to eliminate the Free Fare Zone, but by September 2012 it announced that it would continue the Zone, but with some minor adjustments, including when and how fares are collected.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rideuta.com/news/tag/free\\-fare\\-zone/\\|title\\=UTA Announces Changes to Free Fare Zone for Bus\\|website\\=rideuta.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Utah Transit Authority]]\\|date\\=September 26, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2012}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### World War II
Following her Caribbean shakedown from 25 May to 23 June, *Walter C. Wann* underwent availability at [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") from 24 June to 5 July and got underway on 6 July in company with the destroyer escort {{USS\|Abercrombie\|DE\-343\|2}}, bound for [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads "Hampton Roads"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"). Arriving at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") on 7 July, *Walter C. Wann* and *Abercrombie* got underway the next day for the [Dutch West Indies](/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies "Dutch West Indies"). She escorted four [gasoline tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)") to [St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Bay%2C_Aruba "St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba"), where they loaded petroleum cargoes from 13 to 15 July. The task unit proceeded thence to [Cristóbal](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Col%C3%B3n "Cristóbal, Colón"), [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone "Panama Canal Zone"), and arrived on 17 July, whereupon the unit was dissolved, and the escorts were assigned to duty with the Panama Sea Frontier.
*Walter C. Wann* soon joined *Abercrombie* and {{USS\|McCoy Reynolds\|DE\-440\|2}} in antisubmarine patrols on the Aruba\-Canal Zone tanker route as TU 05\.3\.2 as a result of increased [U\-boat](/wiki/U-boat "U-boat") activity in the vicinity. The destroyer escort departed for [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay "Guantánamo Bay"), Cuba, on 21 July, in company with *McCoy Reynolds*. On the afternoon of 22 July, the two ships received orders to assist a downed [Martin PBM Mariner](/wiki/Martin_PBM_Mariner "Martin PBM Mariner") approximately {{convert\|200\|mi}} away. *Walter C. Wann* and her [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") picked up all 40 survivors; and *McCoy Reynolds* prepared to tow the plane to port, but the arrival of *SC\-1281* on the scene obviated her undertaking that task. *Walter C. Wann* then proceeded to [Kingston, Jamaica](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica "Kingston, Jamaica"), to disembark the survivors. She proceeded back to sea escorting two merchantmen to the Canal Zone, and arrived at Cristóbal with her charges on the evening of 25 July. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") the next day and reported for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 27 July.
*Walter C. Wann*, in company with {{USS\|LeRay Wilson\|DE\-414\|2}} and *McCoy Reynolds*, departed [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama "Balboa, Panama") on 29 July; proceeded to the [California](/wiki/California "California") coast, and arrived at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") on 6 August. From 7 August to 4 September, the ship underwent major engineering repairs and received a new high\-pressure turbine, conducting sea trials for the new turbine. She then got underway for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") on 5 September, proceeding independently, and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") six days later.
*Walter C. Wann* sortied in the screen of Task Group 77\.4— the [escort carrier](/wiki/Escort_carrier "Escort carrier") group commanded by Rear Admiral [Thomas L. Sprague](/wiki/Thomas_L._Sprague "Thomas L. Sprague")—and nicknamed "Taffy Two"— on 12 October, to support American landings at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") in the Philippine Islands. While en route to the launching areas off [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf "Leyte Gulf"), a tropical disturbance of near\-[typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon "Typhoon") intensity struck the task group on 17 October.
Local combat air patrols (CAP) protected the carriers as they launched their air strikes against Japanese positions on Leyte; and, as a result, *Walter C. Wann* and her fellow escorts did not initially see any enemy air activity. Operating off [Samar](/wiki/Samar "Samar") during the daytime, the group retired each evening to the eastward.
Arriving back off Samar on 25 October to commence the day's air strikes, TG 77\.4 received reconnaissance reports indicating the closing presence of a large Japanese surface force; and, by 0700, the northern carrier group, TU 77\.4\.3, was under attack. *Walter C. Wann*, with the southern carrier group, screened her charges as they launched all available aircraft while retiring to the southeast. By 0900, the enemy forces— reported as consisting of three [battleships](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship"), eight [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser"), and numerous [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer")—closed the southern group. On the horizon to the northward could be seen pillars of smoke from the death struggle of the northern group—four groups of shell splashes suddenly erupted astern of *Walter C. Wann* as the enemy dropped in their heavy shells and groped for the range. While the destroyers of the southern group prepared to make smoke and dash in, in a suicidal torpedo attack, *Walter C. Wann* and her sister ships formed a circular screen around the highly vulnerable escort carriers. Air strikes and torpedo attacks had by 1100 diverted the Japanese from the carriers, and the range opened to {{convert\|40\|mi}}, thus ending the immediate threat to the southern group.
After retiring to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands "Admiralty Islands"), *Walter C. Wann* anchored at Seeadler Harbor on 3 November. *Walter C. Wann* again came close to being damaged at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island") on 10 November when the [auxiliary vessel](/wiki/Auxiliary_vessel "Auxiliary vessel") {{USS\|Mount Hood\|AE\-11\|2}} blew up in a cataclysmic blast which atomized the [ammunition ship](/wiki/Ammunition_ship "Ammunition ship") and damaged many other ships in the immediate area. *Walter C. Wann*, {{convert\|2000\|yd}} off the doomed ship's port quarter, found herself showered by debris from the exploding ammunition ship but fortunately sustained only minimal damage, and none of her crew were hurt.
Back on escort duty on 27 November, the destroyer escort screened Transport Division 10 on its voyage to [Cape Gloucester, New Britain](/wiki/Cape_Gloucester_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 "Cape Gloucester (Papua New Guinea)"), arriving at Borgen Bay on 28 November. She conducted antisubmarine screening off the entrance to the bay until proceeding independently to Manus on 30 November—anchoring at Seeadler Harbor in December. While at Manus, the ship received additional radio equipment, thus outfitting herself for her new duty of landing craft control ship during the [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf "Lingayen Gulf") landings on the Philippine island of Luzon. A round\-trip voyage to and from New Britain preceded her linking up with TG 79\.6; and, on 15 December, Capt. E. A. Seay (Commander, TG 79\.6, and Commander, LST Flotilla 14\) embarked with his staff; *Walter C. Wann* then departed for training exercises and acted as flag and control ship. Capt. Seay then disembarked on 22 December and transferred to *LST\-610*.
On 27 December 1944, *Walter C. Wann* got underway as part of TU 79\.11\.3, screening TG 79\.5 and 79\.6\. On 2 January, she fell in astern of TG 78\.5 and proceeded through [Surigao Strait](/wiki/Surigao_Strait "Surigao Strait") and into the [Mindanao Sea](/wiki/Mindanao_Sea "Mindanao Sea") on 5 January and into the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea "Sulu Sea") the next day. On 7 January, while the American force was in the [Mindoro Strait](/wiki/Mindoro_Strait "Mindoro Strait"), two [Nakajima Ki\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 "Nakajima Ki-43") "Oscars" attacked the disposition astern of *Walter C. Wann* at 1822\. One dropped a bomb and was shot down by an [LST](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank "Landing Ship, Tank"), and the second attacked *Walter C. Wann*, only to be driven off by antiaircraft fire.
The destroyer escort reached Lingayen Gulf on 9 January and took station ahead of TG 79\.6—Tractor Group Baker—as control ship, anchoring off Lingayen beach at 0737\. Capt. Seay returned to *Walter C. Wann* and established his temporary headquarters on board. While she lay anchored off Lingayen, *Walter C. Wann* provided antiaircraft fire in attempts to repel Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze") attacks. However, despite the intense antiaircraft fire, one plane succeeded in crashing into the cruiser {{USS\|Columbia\|CL\-56\|6}} some {{convert\|1500\|yd}} ahead of the destroyer escort. Another kamikaze attempted to attack the battleship {{USS\|Pennsylvania\|BB\-38\|2}}—located off the destroyer escort's starboard beam—but was driven off, heavily damaged.
At 1530 on 9 January, *Walter C. Wann* got underway and moved in a further {{convert\|1800\|yd}} toward Lingayen and dropped anchor off the town. CTG 79\.6 shifted to *LST\-610* soon thereafter, and the destroyer escort, thus relieved of her control\-ship duties, got underway again to proceed through a heavy smoke screen and rendezvous as part of the screen for TU 79\.14\.1 which was proceeding to Leyte Gulf.
This task unit—consisting of kamikaze\-damaged *Columbia*, {{USS\|Louisville\|CA\-28\|2}}, and Australian heavy cruiser {{HMAS\|Australia\|D84\|2}}, as well as transports, [LSDs](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship "Dock landing ship"), [LSVs](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship "Amphibious assault ship")— was attacked by a single plane on 10 January but drove off the attacker with gunfire. Two days later, the destroyer escort and the destroyer {{USS\|Jenkins\|DD\-447\|2}} escorted the escort carrier {{USS\|Kadashan Bay\|CVE\-76\|2}} to the inner harbor of [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), Leyte, and anchored there at 1957 on 12 January. She spent 14 January on antisubmarine patrol before returning to her anchorage on 15 January for provisioning.
*Walter C. Wann* conducted local operations and convoy escort missions between [Dutch New Guinea](/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea "Dutch New Guinea") and Philippine waters into the late winter of 1944 and 1945\. She got underway on 27 March in the screen for Transport Group "Easy," bound for Nansei Shoto in the [Ryukyus](/wiki/Ryukyus "Ryukyus"). Approaching Okinawa Shima with the invasion force on the morning of D day, 1 April, her task unit was deployed to their respective screening stations—*Walter C. Wann* taking station A\-29\. At 0603 on 1 April, the destroyer escort took an "Oscar" under fire, but the pilot commenced evasive maneuvers and banked away from the ship. That evening, Transport Division 40, one of Transport Group "Easy," conducted night retirement, with *Walter C. Wann* among the escorts.
Upon conclusion of the night retirement evolutions, *Walter C. Wann* screened the transports at various stations and participated in a hunter/killer group operation. For the remainder of her first week off Okinawa and into the second, the ship observed considerable air raids—some taking heavy tolls on American light forces engaged in supporting the invasion of Okinawa.
At 1309 on 12 April, the Japanese launched a determined series of air strikes which lasted until 1720\. During this time, at 1418, an [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A "Aichi D3A") "Val" began a suicide dive on *Walter C. Wann* from the starboard side. At about {{convert\|500\|yd}} away, the [dive bomber](/wiki/Dive_bomber "Dive bomber") faltered, pulled up slightly, and crossed the ship in a steep vertical bank before crashing {{convert\|20\|ft}} off the port bow. At 1500, a second attack occurred, another "Val" streaking in for *Walter C. Wann*. The destroyer escort's gunners set it afire; and, as it faltered, the "Val" was shot out of the sky by two American fighters.
*Walter C. Wann* remained on patrol off Okinawa until 14 April, when she sailed for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") in company with the battleships {{USS\|Nevada\|BB\-36\|2}} and {{USS\|Maryland\|BB\-46\|2}}, and the cruiser {{USS\|Pensacola\|CA\-24\|2}}, as TU 51\.29\.14, escorting a convoy of transports. Arriving at Apra Harbor, Guam, on 19 April, *Walter C. Wann* effected battle damage repairs until 6 May, when she sailed for [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") in the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas "Marianas").
She next escorted TU 94\.19\.18—[attack transports](/wiki/Attack_transport "Attack transport"), LSTs, [LCIs](/wiki/Landing_ship%2C_Infantry "Landing ship, Infantry") and [LSMs](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium "Landing Ship Medium")—in company with {{USS\|Hemminger\|DE\-746\|2}} and three [submarine chasers](/wiki/Submarine_chaser "Submarine chaser"), arriving at Okinawa on 14 May. For the next several days following her arrival, *Walter C. Wann* was assigned to various patrol stations and, although frequent enemy air attacks sent the ship to an anxious succession of alerts at general quarters, she did not encounter any enemy aircraft herself. The destroyer escort remained on screening duty, supporting the Okinawa strike through June, escorting everything from landing ship docks (LSDs) to light cruisers. On 4 July, *Walter C. Wann* joined Vice Admiral [Jesse B. Oldendorf](/wiki/Jesse_B._Oldendorf "Jesse B. Oldendorf")'s Task Force 32\. TF 32 provided cover for the operations in the Ryukyus and for the [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping "Minesweeping") operations underway in the East China Sea (conducted by TG 39\.11\).
*Walter C. Wann* remained engaged in screening operations for the remainder of the war and was at anchor in Buckner Bay when word of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan") first came through. The ship conducted training exercises and tactical drills into September, subsequently riding out four typhoons between July and October. During this time, the ship steamed to Waka\-yama, [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu "Honshu"), Japan, standing in readiness to render support for the landings there should it be needed. The [6th Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army "Sixth United States Army") landed without incident to occupy the key Osaka\-Kyoto\-Kobe area, and *Walter C. Wann* later rendered plane\-guard duties for {{USS\|Suwannee\|CVE\-27\|2}} off the Hiroshima\-Kure occupation zone.
*Walter C. Wann* continued her support duties for the American occupation of Japan through the late fall of 1945\. On 4 November, in company with CortDiv 69, the destroyer escort got underway from Yokosuka, bound, via Pearl Harbor, for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California.
Assigned to the 19th Fleet (Pacific Reserve Fleet), *Walter C. Wann* was placed out of commission, in reserve, at San Diego, Calif., on 31 May 1946\.
### Fate
Her post\-1946 records are sketchy. Some documents suggest that in November 1951 the ship may have joined reserve training exercises, although she is officially listed as being "in reserve, out of commission." Movement reports indicate that the ship was at San Diego from 8 November 1951 to 5 June 1956; at Long Beach from 5 to 22 June 1956; and at San Diego from 23 June 1956 to 10 June 1958\. Further indications show the ship attached to the San Diego Reserve Group into 1960 and berthed at the Stockton Reserve Facility near Mare Island, Vallejo, California. In any event, *Walter C. Wann* was struck from the Navy list on 30 June 1968; acquired by the National Metal and Steel Co., of Terminal Island, California, in June 1969; and scrapped soon thereafter.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### World War II",
"Following her Caribbean shakedown from 25 May to 23 June, *Walter C. Wann* underwent availability at [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") from 24 June to 5 July and got underway on 6 July in company with the destroyer escort {{USS\\|Abercrombie\\|DE\\-343\\|2}}, bound for [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads \"Hampton Roads\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"). Arriving at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") on 7 July, *Walter C. Wann* and *Abercrombie* got underway the next day for the [Dutch West Indies](/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies \"Dutch West Indies\"). She escorted four [gasoline tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\") to [St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Bay%2C_Aruba \"St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba\"), where they loaded petroleum cargoes from 13 to 15 July. The task unit proceeded thence to [Cristóbal](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Col%C3%B3n \"Cristóbal, Colón\"), [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone \"Panama Canal Zone\"), and arrived on 17 July, whereupon the unit was dissolved, and the escorts were assigned to duty with the Panama Sea Frontier.",
"*Walter C. Wann* soon joined *Abercrombie* and {{USS\\|McCoy Reynolds\\|DE\\-440\\|2}} in antisubmarine patrols on the Aruba\\-Canal Zone tanker route as TU 05\\.3\\.2 as a result of increased [U\\-boat](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") activity in the vicinity. The destroyer escort departed for [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay \"Guantánamo Bay\"), Cuba, on 21 July, in company with *McCoy Reynolds*. On the afternoon of 22 July, the two ships received orders to assist a downed [Martin PBM Mariner](/wiki/Martin_PBM_Mariner \"Martin PBM Mariner\") approximately {{convert\\|200\\|mi}} away. *Walter C. Wann* and her [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") picked up all 40 survivors; and *McCoy Reynolds* prepared to tow the plane to port, but the arrival of *SC\\-1281* on the scene obviated her undertaking that task. *Walter C. Wann* then proceeded to [Kingston, Jamaica](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica \"Kingston, Jamaica\"), to disembark the survivors. She proceeded back to sea escorting two merchantmen to the Canal Zone, and arrived at Cristóbal with her charges on the evening of 25 July. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") the next day and reported for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 27 July.",
"*Walter C. Wann*, in company with {{USS\\|LeRay Wilson\\|DE\\-414\\|2}} and *McCoy Reynolds*, departed [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama \"Balboa, Panama\") on 29 July; proceeded to the [California](/wiki/California \"California\") coast, and arrived at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") on 6 August. From 7 August to 4 September, the ship underwent major engineering repairs and received a new high\\-pressure turbine, conducting sea trials for the new turbine. She then got underway for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") on 5 September, proceeding independently, and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") six days later.",
"*Walter C. Wann* sortied in the screen of Task Group 77\\.4— the [escort carrier](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\") group commanded by Rear Admiral [Thomas L. Sprague](/wiki/Thomas_L._Sprague \"Thomas L. Sprague\")—and nicknamed \"Taffy Two\"— on 12 October, to support American landings at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") in the Philippine Islands. While en route to the launching areas off [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\"), a tropical disturbance of near\\-[typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon \"Typhoon\") intensity struck the task group on 17 October.",
"Local combat air patrols (CAP) protected the carriers as they launched their air strikes against Japanese positions on Leyte; and, as a result, *Walter C. Wann* and her fellow escorts did not initially see any enemy air activity. Operating off [Samar](/wiki/Samar \"Samar\") during the daytime, the group retired each evening to the eastward.",
"Arriving back off Samar on 25 October to commence the day's air strikes, TG 77\\.4 received reconnaissance reports indicating the closing presence of a large Japanese surface force; and, by 0700, the northern carrier group, TU 77\\.4\\.3, was under attack. *Walter C. Wann*, with the southern carrier group, screened her charges as they launched all available aircraft while retiring to the southeast. By 0900, the enemy forces— reported as consisting of three [battleships](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\"), eight [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\"), and numerous [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\")—closed the southern group. On the horizon to the northward could be seen pillars of smoke from the death struggle of the northern group—four groups of shell splashes suddenly erupted astern of *Walter C. Wann* as the enemy dropped in their heavy shells and groped for the range. While the destroyers of the southern group prepared to make smoke and dash in, in a suicidal torpedo attack, *Walter C. Wann* and her sister ships formed a circular screen around the highly vulnerable escort carriers. Air strikes and torpedo attacks had by 1100 diverted the Japanese from the carriers, and the range opened to {{convert\\|40\\|mi}}, thus ending the immediate threat to the southern group.",
"After retiring to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\"), *Walter C. Wann* anchored at Seeadler Harbor on 3 November. *Walter C. Wann* again came close to being damaged at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\") on 10 November when the [auxiliary vessel](/wiki/Auxiliary_vessel \"Auxiliary vessel\") {{USS\\|Mount Hood\\|AE\\-11\\|2}} blew up in a cataclysmic blast which atomized the [ammunition ship](/wiki/Ammunition_ship \"Ammunition ship\") and damaged many other ships in the immediate area. *Walter C. Wann*, {{convert\\|2000\\|yd}} off the doomed ship's port quarter, found herself showered by debris from the exploding ammunition ship but fortunately sustained only minimal damage, and none of her crew were hurt.",
"Back on escort duty on 27 November, the destroyer escort screened Transport Division 10 on its voyage to [Cape Gloucester, New Britain](/wiki/Cape_Gloucester_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 \"Cape Gloucester (Papua New Guinea)\"), arriving at Borgen Bay on 28 November. She conducted antisubmarine screening off the entrance to the bay until proceeding independently to Manus on 30 November—anchoring at Seeadler Harbor in December. While at Manus, the ship received additional radio equipment, thus outfitting herself for her new duty of landing craft control ship during the [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf \"Lingayen Gulf\") landings on the Philippine island of Luzon. A round\\-trip voyage to and from New Britain preceded her linking up with TG 79\\.6; and, on 15 December, Capt. E. A. Seay (Commander, TG 79\\.6, and Commander, LST Flotilla 14\\) embarked with his staff; *Walter C. Wann* then departed for training exercises and acted as flag and control ship. Capt. Seay then disembarked on 22 December and transferred to *LST\\-610*.",
"On 27 December 1944, *Walter C. Wann* got underway as part of TU 79\\.11\\.3, screening TG 79\\.5 and 79\\.6\\. On 2 January, she fell in astern of TG 78\\.5 and proceeded through [Surigao Strait](/wiki/Surigao_Strait \"Surigao Strait\") and into the [Mindanao Sea](/wiki/Mindanao_Sea \"Mindanao Sea\") on 5 January and into the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea \"Sulu Sea\") the next day. On 7 January, while the American force was in the [Mindoro Strait](/wiki/Mindoro_Strait \"Mindoro Strait\"), two [Nakajima Ki\\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 \"Nakajima Ki-43\") \"Oscars\" attacked the disposition astern of *Walter C. Wann* at 1822\\. One dropped a bomb and was shot down by an [LST](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank \"Landing Ship, Tank\"), and the second attacked *Walter C. Wann*, only to be driven off by antiaircraft fire.",
"The destroyer escort reached Lingayen Gulf on 9 January and took station ahead of TG 79\\.6—Tractor Group Baker—as control ship, anchoring off Lingayen beach at 0737\\. Capt. Seay returned to *Walter C. Wann* and established his temporary headquarters on board. While she lay anchored off Lingayen, *Walter C. Wann* provided antiaircraft fire in attempts to repel Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") attacks. However, despite the intense antiaircraft fire, one plane succeeded in crashing into the cruiser {{USS\\|Columbia\\|CL\\-56\\|6}} some {{convert\\|1500\\|yd}} ahead of the destroyer escort. Another kamikaze attempted to attack the battleship {{USS\\|Pennsylvania\\|BB\\-38\\|2}}—located off the destroyer escort's starboard beam—but was driven off, heavily damaged.",
"At 1530 on 9 January, *Walter C. Wann* got underway and moved in a further {{convert\\|1800\\|yd}} toward Lingayen and dropped anchor off the town. CTG 79\\.6 shifted to *LST\\-610* soon thereafter, and the destroyer escort, thus relieved of her control\\-ship duties, got underway again to proceed through a heavy smoke screen and rendezvous as part of the screen for TU 79\\.14\\.1 which was proceeding to Leyte Gulf.",
"This task unit—consisting of kamikaze\\-damaged *Columbia*, {{USS\\|Louisville\\|CA\\-28\\|2}}, and Australian heavy cruiser {{HMAS\\|Australia\\|D84\\|2}}, as well as transports, [LSDs](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship \"Dock landing ship\"), [LSVs](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship \"Amphibious assault ship\")— was attacked by a single plane on 10 January but drove off the attacker with gunfire. Two days later, the destroyer escort and the destroyer {{USS\\|Jenkins\\|DD\\-447\\|2}} escorted the escort carrier {{USS\\|Kadashan Bay\\|CVE\\-76\\|2}} to the inner harbor of [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Leyte, and anchored there at 1957 on 12 January. She spent 14 January on antisubmarine patrol before returning to her anchorage on 15 January for provisioning.",
"*Walter C. Wann* conducted local operations and convoy escort missions between [Dutch New Guinea](/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea \"Dutch New Guinea\") and Philippine waters into the late winter of 1944 and 1945\\. She got underway on 27 March in the screen for Transport Group \"Easy,\" bound for Nansei Shoto in the [Ryukyus](/wiki/Ryukyus \"Ryukyus\"). Approaching Okinawa Shima with the invasion force on the morning of D day, 1 April, her task unit was deployed to their respective screening stations—*Walter C. Wann* taking station A\\-29\\. At 0603 on 1 April, the destroyer escort took an \"Oscar\" under fire, but the pilot commenced evasive maneuvers and banked away from the ship. That evening, Transport Division 40, one of Transport Group \"Easy,\" conducted night retirement, with *Walter C. Wann* among the escorts.",
"Upon conclusion of the night retirement evolutions, *Walter C. Wann* screened the transports at various stations and participated in a hunter/killer group operation. For the remainder of her first week off Okinawa and into the second, the ship observed considerable air raids—some taking heavy tolls on American light forces engaged in supporting the invasion of Okinawa.",
"At 1309 on 12 April, the Japanese launched a determined series of air strikes which lasted until 1720\\. During this time, at 1418, an [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A \"Aichi D3A\") \"Val\" began a suicide dive on *Walter C. Wann* from the starboard side. At about {{convert\\|500\\|yd}} away, the [dive bomber](/wiki/Dive_bomber \"Dive bomber\") faltered, pulled up slightly, and crossed the ship in a steep vertical bank before crashing {{convert\\|20\\|ft}} off the port bow. At 1500, a second attack occurred, another \"Val\" streaking in for *Walter C. Wann*. The destroyer escort's gunners set it afire; and, as it faltered, the \"Val\" was shot out of the sky by two American fighters.",
"*Walter C. Wann* remained on patrol off Okinawa until 14 April, when she sailed for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") in company with the battleships {{USS\\|Nevada\\|BB\\-36\\|2}} and {{USS\\|Maryland\\|BB\\-46\\|2}}, and the cruiser {{USS\\|Pensacola\\|CA\\-24\\|2}}, as TU 51\\.29\\.14, escorting a convoy of transports. Arriving at Apra Harbor, Guam, on 19 April, *Walter C. Wann* effected battle damage repairs until 6 May, when she sailed for [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") in the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas \"Marianas\").",
"She next escorted TU 94\\.19\\.18—[attack transports](/wiki/Attack_transport \"Attack transport\"), LSTs, [LCIs](/wiki/Landing_ship%2C_Infantry \"Landing ship, Infantry\") and [LSMs](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium \"Landing Ship Medium\")—in company with {{USS\\|Hemminger\\|DE\\-746\\|2}} and three [submarine chasers](/wiki/Submarine_chaser \"Submarine chaser\"), arriving at Okinawa on 14 May. For the next several days following her arrival, *Walter C. Wann* was assigned to various patrol stations and, although frequent enemy air attacks sent the ship to an anxious succession of alerts at general quarters, she did not encounter any enemy aircraft herself. The destroyer escort remained on screening duty, supporting the Okinawa strike through June, escorting everything from landing ship docks (LSDs) to light cruisers. On 4 July, *Walter C. Wann* joined Vice Admiral [Jesse B. Oldendorf](/wiki/Jesse_B._Oldendorf \"Jesse B. Oldendorf\")'s Task Force 32\\. TF 32 provided cover for the operations in the Ryukyus and for the [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping \"Minesweeping\") operations underway in the East China Sea (conducted by TG 39\\.11\\).",
"*Walter C. Wann* remained engaged in screening operations for the remainder of the war and was at anchor in Buckner Bay when word of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\") first came through. The ship conducted training exercises and tactical drills into September, subsequently riding out four typhoons between July and October. During this time, the ship steamed to Waka\\-yama, [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\"), Japan, standing in readiness to render support for the landings there should it be needed. The [6th Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army \"Sixth United States Army\") landed without incident to occupy the key Osaka\\-Kyoto\\-Kobe area, and *Walter C. Wann* later rendered plane\\-guard duties for {{USS\\|Suwannee\\|CVE\\-27\\|2}} off the Hiroshima\\-Kure occupation zone.",
"*Walter C. Wann* continued her support duties for the American occupation of Japan through the late fall of 1945\\. On 4 November, in company with CortDiv 69, the destroyer escort got underway from Yokosuka, bound, via Pearl Harbor, for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California.",
"Assigned to the 19th Fleet (Pacific Reserve Fleet), *Walter C. Wann* was placed out of commission, in reserve, at San Diego, Calif., on 31 May 1946\\.",
"### Fate",
"Her post\\-1946 records are sketchy. Some documents suggest that in November 1951 the ship may have joined reserve training exercises, although she is officially listed as being \"in reserve, out of commission.\" Movement reports indicate that the ship was at San Diego from 8 November 1951 to 5 June 1956; at Long Beach from 5 to 22 June 1956; and at San Diego from 23 June 1956 to 10 June 1958\\. Further indications show the ship attached to the San Diego Reserve Group into 1960 and berthed at the Stockton Reserve Facility near Mare Island, Vallejo, California. In any event, *Walter C. Wann* was struck from the Navy list on 30 June 1968; acquired by the National Metal and Steel Co., of Terminal Island, California, in June 1969; and scrapped soon thereafter.",
""
] |
### World War II
Following her Caribbean shakedown from 25 May to 23 June, *Walter C. Wann* underwent availability at [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") from 24 June to 5 July and got underway on 6 July in company with the destroyer escort {{USS\|Abercrombie\|DE\-343\|2}}, bound for [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads "Hampton Roads"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"). Arriving at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") on 7 July, *Walter C. Wann* and *Abercrombie* got underway the next day for the [Dutch West Indies](/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies "Dutch West Indies"). She escorted four [gasoline tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)") to [St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Bay%2C_Aruba "St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba"), where they loaded petroleum cargoes from 13 to 15 July. The task unit proceeded thence to [Cristóbal](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Col%C3%B3n "Cristóbal, Colón"), [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone "Panama Canal Zone"), and arrived on 17 July, whereupon the unit was dissolved, and the escorts were assigned to duty with the Panama Sea Frontier.
*Walter C. Wann* soon joined *Abercrombie* and {{USS\|McCoy Reynolds\|DE\-440\|2}} in antisubmarine patrols on the Aruba\-Canal Zone tanker route as TU 05\.3\.2 as a result of increased [U\-boat](/wiki/U-boat "U-boat") activity in the vicinity. The destroyer escort departed for [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay "Guantánamo Bay"), Cuba, on 21 July, in company with *McCoy Reynolds*. On the afternoon of 22 July, the two ships received orders to assist a downed [Martin PBM Mariner](/wiki/Martin_PBM_Mariner "Martin PBM Mariner") approximately {{convert\|200\|mi}} away. *Walter C. Wann* and her [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") picked up all 40 survivors; and *McCoy Reynolds* prepared to tow the plane to port, but the arrival of *SC\-1281* on the scene obviated her undertaking that task. *Walter C. Wann* then proceeded to [Kingston, Jamaica](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica "Kingston, Jamaica"), to disembark the survivors. She proceeded back to sea escorting two merchantmen to the Canal Zone, and arrived at Cristóbal with her charges on the evening of 25 July. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") the next day and reported for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 27 July.
*Walter C. Wann*, in company with {{USS\|LeRay Wilson\|DE\-414\|2}} and *McCoy Reynolds*, departed [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama "Balboa, Panama") on 29 July; proceeded to the [California](/wiki/California "California") coast, and arrived at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") on 6 August. From 7 August to 4 September, the ship underwent major engineering repairs and received a new high\-pressure turbine, conducting sea trials for the new turbine. She then got underway for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") on 5 September, proceeding independently, and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") six days later.
*Walter C. Wann* sortied in the screen of Task Group 77\.4— the [escort carrier](/wiki/Escort_carrier "Escort carrier") group commanded by Rear Admiral [Thomas L. Sprague](/wiki/Thomas_L._Sprague "Thomas L. Sprague")—and nicknamed "Taffy Two"— on 12 October, to support American landings at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") in the Philippine Islands. While en route to the launching areas off [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf "Leyte Gulf"), a tropical disturbance of near\-[typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon "Typhoon") intensity struck the task group on 17 October.
Local combat air patrols (CAP) protected the carriers as they launched their air strikes against Japanese positions on Leyte; and, as a result, *Walter C. Wann* and her fellow escorts did not initially see any enemy air activity. Operating off [Samar](/wiki/Samar "Samar") during the daytime, the group retired each evening to the eastward.
Arriving back off Samar on 25 October to commence the day's air strikes, TG 77\.4 received reconnaissance reports indicating the closing presence of a large Japanese surface force; and, by 0700, the northern carrier group, TU 77\.4\.3, was under attack. *Walter C. Wann*, with the southern carrier group, screened her charges as they launched all available aircraft while retiring to the southeast. By 0900, the enemy forces— reported as consisting of three [battleships](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship"), eight [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser"), and numerous [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer")—closed the southern group. On the horizon to the northward could be seen pillars of smoke from the death struggle of the northern group—four groups of shell splashes suddenly erupted astern of *Walter C. Wann* as the enemy dropped in their heavy shells and groped for the range. While the destroyers of the southern group prepared to make smoke and dash in, in a suicidal torpedo attack, *Walter C. Wann* and her sister ships formed a circular screen around the highly vulnerable escort carriers. Air strikes and torpedo attacks had by 1100 diverted the Japanese from the carriers, and the range opened to {{convert\|40\|mi}}, thus ending the immediate threat to the southern group.
After retiring to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands "Admiralty Islands"), *Walter C. Wann* anchored at Seeadler Harbor on 3 November. *Walter C. Wann* again came close to being damaged at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island") on 10 November when the [auxiliary vessel](/wiki/Auxiliary_vessel "Auxiliary vessel") {{USS\|Mount Hood\|AE\-11\|2}} blew up in a cataclysmic blast which atomized the [ammunition ship](/wiki/Ammunition_ship "Ammunition ship") and damaged many other ships in the immediate area. *Walter C. Wann*, {{convert\|2000\|yd}} off the doomed ship's port quarter, found herself showered by debris from the exploding ammunition ship but fortunately sustained only minimal damage, and none of her crew were hurt.
Back on escort duty on 27 November, the destroyer escort screened Transport Division 10 on its voyage to [Cape Gloucester, New Britain](/wiki/Cape_Gloucester_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 "Cape Gloucester (Papua New Guinea)"), arriving at Borgen Bay on 28 November. She conducted antisubmarine screening off the entrance to the bay until proceeding independently to Manus on 30 November—anchoring at Seeadler Harbor in December. While at Manus, the ship received additional radio equipment, thus outfitting herself for her new duty of landing craft control ship during the [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf "Lingayen Gulf") landings on the Philippine island of Luzon. A round\-trip voyage to and from New Britain preceded her linking up with TG 79\.6; and, on 15 December, Capt. E. A. Seay (Commander, TG 79\.6, and Commander, LST Flotilla 14\) embarked with his staff; *Walter C. Wann* then departed for training exercises and acted as flag and control ship. Capt. Seay then disembarked on 22 December and transferred to *LST\-610*.
On 27 December 1944, *Walter C. Wann* got underway as part of TU 79\.11\.3, screening TG 79\.5 and 79\.6\. On 2 January, she fell in astern of TG 78\.5 and proceeded through [Surigao Strait](/wiki/Surigao_Strait "Surigao Strait") and into the [Mindanao Sea](/wiki/Mindanao_Sea "Mindanao Sea") on 5 January and into the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea "Sulu Sea") the next day. On 7 January, while the American force was in the [Mindoro Strait](/wiki/Mindoro_Strait "Mindoro Strait"), two [Nakajima Ki\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 "Nakajima Ki-43") "Oscars" attacked the disposition astern of *Walter C. Wann* at 1822\. One dropped a bomb and was shot down by an [LST](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank "Landing Ship, Tank"), and the second attacked *Walter C. Wann*, only to be driven off by antiaircraft fire.
The destroyer escort reached Lingayen Gulf on 9 January and took station ahead of TG 79\.6—Tractor Group Baker—as control ship, anchoring off Lingayen beach at 0737\. Capt. Seay returned to *Walter C. Wann* and established his temporary headquarters on board. While she lay anchored off Lingayen, *Walter C. Wann* provided antiaircraft fire in attempts to repel Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze") attacks. However, despite the intense antiaircraft fire, one plane succeeded in crashing into the cruiser {{USS\|Columbia\|CL\-56\|6}} some {{convert\|1500\|yd}} ahead of the destroyer escort. Another kamikaze attempted to attack the battleship {{USS\|Pennsylvania\|BB\-38\|2}}—located off the destroyer escort's starboard beam—but was driven off, heavily damaged.
At 1530 on 9 January, *Walter C. Wann* got underway and moved in a further {{convert\|1800\|yd}} toward Lingayen and dropped anchor off the town. CTG 79\.6 shifted to *LST\-610* soon thereafter, and the destroyer escort, thus relieved of her control\-ship duties, got underway again to proceed through a heavy smoke screen and rendezvous as part of the screen for TU 79\.14\.1 which was proceeding to Leyte Gulf.
This task unit—consisting of kamikaze\-damaged *Columbia*, {{USS\|Louisville\|CA\-28\|2}}, and Australian heavy cruiser {{HMAS\|Australia\|D84\|2}}, as well as transports, [LSDs](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship "Dock landing ship"), [LSVs](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship "Amphibious assault ship")— was attacked by a single plane on 10 January but drove off the attacker with gunfire. Two days later, the destroyer escort and the destroyer {{USS\|Jenkins\|DD\-447\|2}} escorted the escort carrier {{USS\|Kadashan Bay\|CVE\-76\|2}} to the inner harbor of [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), Leyte, and anchored there at 1957 on 12 January. She spent 14 January on antisubmarine patrol before returning to her anchorage on 15 January for provisioning.
*Walter C. Wann* conducted local operations and convoy escort missions between [Dutch New Guinea](/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea "Dutch New Guinea") and Philippine waters into the late winter of 1944 and 1945\. She got underway on 27 March in the screen for Transport Group "Easy," bound for Nansei Shoto in the [Ryukyus](/wiki/Ryukyus "Ryukyus"). Approaching Okinawa Shima with the invasion force on the morning of D day, 1 April, her task unit was deployed to their respective screening stations—*Walter C. Wann* taking station A\-29\. At 0603 on 1 April, the destroyer escort took an "Oscar" under fire, but the pilot commenced evasive maneuvers and banked away from the ship. That evening, Transport Division 40, one of Transport Group "Easy," conducted night retirement, with *Walter C. Wann* among the escorts.
Upon conclusion of the night retirement evolutions, *Walter C. Wann* screened the transports at various stations and participated in a hunter/killer group operation. For the remainder of her first week off Okinawa and into the second, the ship observed considerable air raids—some taking heavy tolls on American light forces engaged in supporting the invasion of Okinawa.
At 1309 on 12 April, the Japanese launched a determined series of air strikes which lasted until 1720\. During this time, at 1418, an [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A "Aichi D3A") "Val" began a suicide dive on *Walter C. Wann* from the starboard side. At about {{convert\|500\|yd}} away, the [dive bomber](/wiki/Dive_bomber "Dive bomber") faltered, pulled up slightly, and crossed the ship in a steep vertical bank before crashing {{convert\|20\|ft}} off the port bow. At 1500, a second attack occurred, another "Val" streaking in for *Walter C. Wann*. The destroyer escort's gunners set it afire; and, as it faltered, the "Val" was shot out of the sky by two American fighters.
*Walter C. Wann* remained on patrol off Okinawa until 14 April, when she sailed for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") in company with the battleships {{USS\|Nevada\|BB\-36\|2}} and {{USS\|Maryland\|BB\-46\|2}}, and the cruiser {{USS\|Pensacola\|CA\-24\|2}}, as TU 51\.29\.14, escorting a convoy of transports. Arriving at Apra Harbor, Guam, on 19 April, *Walter C. Wann* effected battle damage repairs until 6 May, when she sailed for [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") in the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas "Marianas").
She next escorted TU 94\.19\.18—[attack transports](/wiki/Attack_transport "Attack transport"), LSTs, [LCIs](/wiki/Landing_ship%2C_Infantry "Landing ship, Infantry") and [LSMs](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium "Landing Ship Medium")—in company with {{USS\|Hemminger\|DE\-746\|2}} and three [submarine chasers](/wiki/Submarine_chaser "Submarine chaser"), arriving at Okinawa on 14 May. For the next several days following her arrival, *Walter C. Wann* was assigned to various patrol stations and, although frequent enemy air attacks sent the ship to an anxious succession of alerts at general quarters, she did not encounter any enemy aircraft herself. The destroyer escort remained on screening duty, supporting the Okinawa strike through June, escorting everything from landing ship docks (LSDs) to light cruisers. On 4 July, *Walter C. Wann* joined Vice Admiral [Jesse B. Oldendorf](/wiki/Jesse_B._Oldendorf "Jesse B. Oldendorf")'s Task Force 32\. TF 32 provided cover for the operations in the Ryukyus and for the [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping "Minesweeping") operations underway in the East China Sea (conducted by TG 39\.11\).
*Walter C. Wann* remained engaged in screening operations for the remainder of the war and was at anchor in Buckner Bay when word of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan") first came through. The ship conducted training exercises and tactical drills into September, subsequently riding out four typhoons between July and October. During this time, the ship steamed to Waka\-yama, [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu "Honshu"), Japan, standing in readiness to render support for the landings there should it be needed. The [6th Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army "Sixth United States Army") landed without incident to occupy the key Osaka\-Kyoto\-Kobe area, and *Walter C. Wann* later rendered plane\-guard duties for {{USS\|Suwannee\|CVE\-27\|2}} off the Hiroshima\-Kure occupation zone.
*Walter C. Wann* continued her support duties for the American occupation of Japan through the late fall of 1945\. On 4 November, in company with CortDiv 69, the destroyer escort got underway from Yokosuka, bound, via Pearl Harbor, for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California.
Assigned to the 19th Fleet (Pacific Reserve Fleet), *Walter C. Wann* was placed out of commission, in reserve, at San Diego, Calif., on 31 May 1946\.
|
[
"### World War II",
"Following her Caribbean shakedown from 25 May to 23 June, *Walter C. Wann* underwent availability at [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") from 24 June to 5 July and got underway on 6 July in company with the destroyer escort {{USS\\|Abercrombie\\|DE\\-343\\|2}}, bound for [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads \"Hampton Roads\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"). Arriving at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") on 7 July, *Walter C. Wann* and *Abercrombie* got underway the next day for the [Dutch West Indies](/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies \"Dutch West Indies\"). She escorted four [gasoline tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\") to [St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Bay%2C_Aruba \"St. Nicholas Bay, Aruba\"), where they loaded petroleum cargoes from 13 to 15 July. The task unit proceeded thence to [Cristóbal](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_Col%C3%B3n \"Cristóbal, Colón\"), [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone \"Panama Canal Zone\"), and arrived on 17 July, whereupon the unit was dissolved, and the escorts were assigned to duty with the Panama Sea Frontier.",
"*Walter C. Wann* soon joined *Abercrombie* and {{USS\\|McCoy Reynolds\\|DE\\-440\\|2}} in antisubmarine patrols on the Aruba\\-Canal Zone tanker route as TU 05\\.3\\.2 as a result of increased [U\\-boat](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") activity in the vicinity. The destroyer escort departed for [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay \"Guantánamo Bay\"), Cuba, on 21 July, in company with *McCoy Reynolds*. On the afternoon of 22 July, the two ships received orders to assist a downed [Martin PBM Mariner](/wiki/Martin_PBM_Mariner \"Martin PBM Mariner\") approximately {{convert\\|200\\|mi}} away. *Walter C. Wann* and her [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") picked up all 40 survivors; and *McCoy Reynolds* prepared to tow the plane to port, but the arrival of *SC\\-1281* on the scene obviated her undertaking that task. *Walter C. Wann* then proceeded to [Kingston, Jamaica](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica \"Kingston, Jamaica\"), to disembark the survivors. She proceeded back to sea escorting two merchantmen to the Canal Zone, and arrived at Cristóbal with her charges on the evening of 25 July. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") the next day and reported for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 27 July.",
"*Walter C. Wann*, in company with {{USS\\|LeRay Wilson\\|DE\\-414\\|2}} and *McCoy Reynolds*, departed [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama \"Balboa, Panama\") on 29 July; proceeded to the [California](/wiki/California \"California\") coast, and arrived at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") on 6 August. From 7 August to 4 September, the ship underwent major engineering repairs and received a new high\\-pressure turbine, conducting sea trials for the new turbine. She then got underway for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") on 5 September, proceeding independently, and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") six days later.",
"*Walter C. Wann* sortied in the screen of Task Group 77\\.4— the [escort carrier](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\") group commanded by Rear Admiral [Thomas L. Sprague](/wiki/Thomas_L._Sprague \"Thomas L. Sprague\")—and nicknamed \"Taffy Two\"— on 12 October, to support American landings at [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") in the Philippine Islands. While en route to the launching areas off [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\"), a tropical disturbance of near\\-[typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon \"Typhoon\") intensity struck the task group on 17 October.",
"Local combat air patrols (CAP) protected the carriers as they launched their air strikes against Japanese positions on Leyte; and, as a result, *Walter C. Wann* and her fellow escorts did not initially see any enemy air activity. Operating off [Samar](/wiki/Samar \"Samar\") during the daytime, the group retired each evening to the eastward.",
"Arriving back off Samar on 25 October to commence the day's air strikes, TG 77\\.4 received reconnaissance reports indicating the closing presence of a large Japanese surface force; and, by 0700, the northern carrier group, TU 77\\.4\\.3, was under attack. *Walter C. Wann*, with the southern carrier group, screened her charges as they launched all available aircraft while retiring to the southeast. By 0900, the enemy forces— reported as consisting of three [battleships](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\"), eight [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\"), and numerous [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\")—closed the southern group. On the horizon to the northward could be seen pillars of smoke from the death struggle of the northern group—four groups of shell splashes suddenly erupted astern of *Walter C. Wann* as the enemy dropped in their heavy shells and groped for the range. While the destroyers of the southern group prepared to make smoke and dash in, in a suicidal torpedo attack, *Walter C. Wann* and her sister ships formed a circular screen around the highly vulnerable escort carriers. Air strikes and torpedo attacks had by 1100 diverted the Japanese from the carriers, and the range opened to {{convert\\|40\\|mi}}, thus ending the immediate threat to the southern group.",
"After retiring to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\"), *Walter C. Wann* anchored at Seeadler Harbor on 3 November. *Walter C. Wann* again came close to being damaged at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\") on 10 November when the [auxiliary vessel](/wiki/Auxiliary_vessel \"Auxiliary vessel\") {{USS\\|Mount Hood\\|AE\\-11\\|2}} blew up in a cataclysmic blast which atomized the [ammunition ship](/wiki/Ammunition_ship \"Ammunition ship\") and damaged many other ships in the immediate area. *Walter C. Wann*, {{convert\\|2000\\|yd}} off the doomed ship's port quarter, found herself showered by debris from the exploding ammunition ship but fortunately sustained only minimal damage, and none of her crew were hurt.",
"Back on escort duty on 27 November, the destroyer escort screened Transport Division 10 on its voyage to [Cape Gloucester, New Britain](/wiki/Cape_Gloucester_%28Papua_New_Guinea%29 \"Cape Gloucester (Papua New Guinea)\"), arriving at Borgen Bay on 28 November. She conducted antisubmarine screening off the entrance to the bay until proceeding independently to Manus on 30 November—anchoring at Seeadler Harbor in December. While at Manus, the ship received additional radio equipment, thus outfitting herself for her new duty of landing craft control ship during the [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf \"Lingayen Gulf\") landings on the Philippine island of Luzon. A round\\-trip voyage to and from New Britain preceded her linking up with TG 79\\.6; and, on 15 December, Capt. E. A. Seay (Commander, TG 79\\.6, and Commander, LST Flotilla 14\\) embarked with his staff; *Walter C. Wann* then departed for training exercises and acted as flag and control ship. Capt. Seay then disembarked on 22 December and transferred to *LST\\-610*.",
"On 27 December 1944, *Walter C. Wann* got underway as part of TU 79\\.11\\.3, screening TG 79\\.5 and 79\\.6\\. On 2 January, she fell in astern of TG 78\\.5 and proceeded through [Surigao Strait](/wiki/Surigao_Strait \"Surigao Strait\") and into the [Mindanao Sea](/wiki/Mindanao_Sea \"Mindanao Sea\") on 5 January and into the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea \"Sulu Sea\") the next day. On 7 January, while the American force was in the [Mindoro Strait](/wiki/Mindoro_Strait \"Mindoro Strait\"), two [Nakajima Ki\\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 \"Nakajima Ki-43\") \"Oscars\" attacked the disposition astern of *Walter C. Wann* at 1822\\. One dropped a bomb and was shot down by an [LST](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank \"Landing Ship, Tank\"), and the second attacked *Walter C. Wann*, only to be driven off by antiaircraft fire.",
"The destroyer escort reached Lingayen Gulf on 9 January and took station ahead of TG 79\\.6—Tractor Group Baker—as control ship, anchoring off Lingayen beach at 0737\\. Capt. Seay returned to *Walter C. Wann* and established his temporary headquarters on board. While she lay anchored off Lingayen, *Walter C. Wann* provided antiaircraft fire in attempts to repel Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") attacks. However, despite the intense antiaircraft fire, one plane succeeded in crashing into the cruiser {{USS\\|Columbia\\|CL\\-56\\|6}} some {{convert\\|1500\\|yd}} ahead of the destroyer escort. Another kamikaze attempted to attack the battleship {{USS\\|Pennsylvania\\|BB\\-38\\|2}}—located off the destroyer escort's starboard beam—but was driven off, heavily damaged.",
"At 1530 on 9 January, *Walter C. Wann* got underway and moved in a further {{convert\\|1800\\|yd}} toward Lingayen and dropped anchor off the town. CTG 79\\.6 shifted to *LST\\-610* soon thereafter, and the destroyer escort, thus relieved of her control\\-ship duties, got underway again to proceed through a heavy smoke screen and rendezvous as part of the screen for TU 79\\.14\\.1 which was proceeding to Leyte Gulf.",
"This task unit—consisting of kamikaze\\-damaged *Columbia*, {{USS\\|Louisville\\|CA\\-28\\|2}}, and Australian heavy cruiser {{HMAS\\|Australia\\|D84\\|2}}, as well as transports, [LSDs](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship \"Dock landing ship\"), [LSVs](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship \"Amphibious assault ship\")— was attacked by a single plane on 10 January but drove off the attacker with gunfire. Two days later, the destroyer escort and the destroyer {{USS\\|Jenkins\\|DD\\-447\\|2}} escorted the escort carrier {{USS\\|Kadashan Bay\\|CVE\\-76\\|2}} to the inner harbor of [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Leyte, and anchored there at 1957 on 12 January. She spent 14 January on antisubmarine patrol before returning to her anchorage on 15 January for provisioning.",
"*Walter C. Wann* conducted local operations and convoy escort missions between [Dutch New Guinea](/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea \"Dutch New Guinea\") and Philippine waters into the late winter of 1944 and 1945\\. She got underway on 27 March in the screen for Transport Group \"Easy,\" bound for Nansei Shoto in the [Ryukyus](/wiki/Ryukyus \"Ryukyus\"). Approaching Okinawa Shima with the invasion force on the morning of D day, 1 April, her task unit was deployed to their respective screening stations—*Walter C. Wann* taking station A\\-29\\. At 0603 on 1 April, the destroyer escort took an \"Oscar\" under fire, but the pilot commenced evasive maneuvers and banked away from the ship. That evening, Transport Division 40, one of Transport Group \"Easy,\" conducted night retirement, with *Walter C. Wann* among the escorts.",
"Upon conclusion of the night retirement evolutions, *Walter C. Wann* screened the transports at various stations and participated in a hunter/killer group operation. For the remainder of her first week off Okinawa and into the second, the ship observed considerable air raids—some taking heavy tolls on American light forces engaged in supporting the invasion of Okinawa.",
"At 1309 on 12 April, the Japanese launched a determined series of air strikes which lasted until 1720\\. During this time, at 1418, an [Aichi D3A](/wiki/Aichi_D3A \"Aichi D3A\") \"Val\" began a suicide dive on *Walter C. Wann* from the starboard side. At about {{convert\\|500\\|yd}} away, the [dive bomber](/wiki/Dive_bomber \"Dive bomber\") faltered, pulled up slightly, and crossed the ship in a steep vertical bank before crashing {{convert\\|20\\|ft}} off the port bow. At 1500, a second attack occurred, another \"Val\" streaking in for *Walter C. Wann*. The destroyer escort's gunners set it afire; and, as it faltered, the \"Val\" was shot out of the sky by two American fighters.",
"*Walter C. Wann* remained on patrol off Okinawa until 14 April, when she sailed for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") in company with the battleships {{USS\\|Nevada\\|BB\\-36\\|2}} and {{USS\\|Maryland\\|BB\\-46\\|2}}, and the cruiser {{USS\\|Pensacola\\|CA\\-24\\|2}}, as TU 51\\.29\\.14, escorting a convoy of transports. Arriving at Apra Harbor, Guam, on 19 April, *Walter C. Wann* effected battle damage repairs until 6 May, when she sailed for [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") in the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas \"Marianas\").",
"She next escorted TU 94\\.19\\.18—[attack transports](/wiki/Attack_transport \"Attack transport\"), LSTs, [LCIs](/wiki/Landing_ship%2C_Infantry \"Landing ship, Infantry\") and [LSMs](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium \"Landing Ship Medium\")—in company with {{USS\\|Hemminger\\|DE\\-746\\|2}} and three [submarine chasers](/wiki/Submarine_chaser \"Submarine chaser\"), arriving at Okinawa on 14 May. For the next several days following her arrival, *Walter C. Wann* was assigned to various patrol stations and, although frequent enemy air attacks sent the ship to an anxious succession of alerts at general quarters, she did not encounter any enemy aircraft herself. The destroyer escort remained on screening duty, supporting the Okinawa strike through June, escorting everything from landing ship docks (LSDs) to light cruisers. On 4 July, *Walter C. Wann* joined Vice Admiral [Jesse B. Oldendorf](/wiki/Jesse_B._Oldendorf \"Jesse B. Oldendorf\")'s Task Force 32\\. TF 32 provided cover for the operations in the Ryukyus and for the [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping \"Minesweeping\") operations underway in the East China Sea (conducted by TG 39\\.11\\).",
"*Walter C. Wann* remained engaged in screening operations for the remainder of the war and was at anchor in Buckner Bay when word of the [Japanese surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\") first came through. The ship conducted training exercises and tactical drills into September, subsequently riding out four typhoons between July and October. During this time, the ship steamed to Waka\\-yama, [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\"), Japan, standing in readiness to render support for the landings there should it be needed. The [6th Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army \"Sixth United States Army\") landed without incident to occupy the key Osaka\\-Kyoto\\-Kobe area, and *Walter C. Wann* later rendered plane\\-guard duties for {{USS\\|Suwannee\\|CVE\\-27\\|2}} off the Hiroshima\\-Kure occupation zone.",
"*Walter C. Wann* continued her support duties for the American occupation of Japan through the late fall of 1945\\. On 4 November, in company with CortDiv 69, the destroyer escort got underway from Yokosuka, bound, via Pearl Harbor, for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California.",
"Assigned to the 19th Fleet (Pacific Reserve Fleet), *Walter C. Wann* was placed out of commission, in reserve, at San Diego, Calif., on 31 May 1946\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
The first local government acts were implemented on 1 January 1863\. There were two acts, one for the [cities](/wiki/Cities_in_Sweden "Cities in Sweden") and one for the countryside. The total number of municipalities was about 2,500\.
The [rural municipalities](/wiki/Rural_municipality "Rural municipality") were based on the country\-side [civil parishes](/wiki/Socken "Socken") or [administrative parishes](/wiki/Administrative_parish "Administrative parish") (*socknar*), often formed in the Middle Ages around a church. The municipality acts of 1862 formally separated the civil municipalities from the parishes, establishing the municipality assembly as the decision\-making body of rural municipalities and the church assembly as the decision\-making body of parishes.{{Cite book \|url\=https://weburn.kb.se/metadata/578/EOD\_3004578\.htm \|title\=Kommunal\-författningar af Kongl. Maj:t gillade och antagne den 21 mars 1862\. \|year\=1863}}
The then 89 cities/towns (*städer*) (the same word is used for both city and town in Swedish) were based on the old [chartered](/wiki/Charter "Charter") cities. There was also a third type, *[köping](/wiki/K%C3%B6ping "Köping")* or market town. The status of these was somewhere between the rural municipalities and the cities. There were only eight of them in 1863, rising to a peak of 96 in 1959\.
Up until 1930, when the total number of municipalities reached its peak (2,532 entities), there were more partitions than amalgamations.
In 1943 more than 500 of Sweden's municipalities had fewer than 500 inhabitants, and the *1943 års kommunindelningskommitté* ("Municipal subdivision commission of 1943") proposed that the number of rural municipalities should be drastically reduced.
After years of preparations the first of the two nationwide municipal reforms of the 20th century was implemented in 1952\. The number of rural municipalities was reduced from 2,281 to 816\. The cities (by then 133\) were not affected.
Rather soon it was established that the reform of 1952 was not radical enough. A new commission, *1959 års indelningssakkunniga* ("Subdivision experts of 1959") concluded that the next municipal reform should create new larger mixed rural/urban municipalities.
The [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag "Riksdag") decided in 1962 that the new reform should be implemented on a voluntary basis. The process started in January 1964, when all municipalities were grouped in 282 *kommunblock*("municipal blocks"). The co\-operation within the blocks should ultimately lead to amalgamations. The target year was 1971, when all municipalities should be of uniform type and all the remaining formal differences in government and privileges between cities and rural municipalities should be abolished.{{cite web\|title\=Indelning i kommuner och landsting\|url\=http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1906/a/152463\|publisher\=Regeringen.se\|language\=sv\|access\-date\=2014\-07\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729010640/http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1906/a/152463\|archive\-date\=2014\-07\-29\|url\-status\=dead}}
The amalgamations within the "blocks" started in 1965 and more were accomplished in 1967 and 1969, when the number of municipalities dropped from 1006 to 848\. The Riksdag, however, found the amalgamation process too slow, and decided to speed it up by ending the voluntary aspect. In 1971 the unitary municipality (*kommun*) was introduced and the number of entities went down to 464; three years later it was 278\. In one case ([Svedala Municipality](/wiki/Svedala_Municipality "Svedala Municipality")) the process was not accomplished until 1977\.
Most of the municipalities were soon consolidated, but in some cases the antagonism within the new unities was so strong that it led to "divorces". The total number of municipalities has today risen to 290\.
The question of whether a new municipality will be created is at the discretion of the central [Swedish government](/wiki/Government_of_Sweden "Government of Sweden"). It is recommended that the lower limit of a new municipality shall be 5,000 inhabitants.
Some municipalities still use the term "City" (Swedish: *[stad](/wiki/Stad_%28Sweden%29 "Stad (Sweden)")*) when referring to themselves, a practice adopted by the largest and most urban municipalities [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm_Municipality "Stockholm Municipality"), [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg_Municipality "Gothenburg Municipality") and [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6_Municipality "Malmö Municipality"). Thirteen municipalities altogether, some of them including considerable rural areas, have made this choice, which is unofficial and has no effect on the administrative status of the municipality. The practice can, however, create some confusion as the term *stad* nowadays normally refers to a larger built\-up area and not to an administrative entity.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The first local government acts were implemented on 1 January 1863\\. There were two acts, one for the [cities](/wiki/Cities_in_Sweden \"Cities in Sweden\") and one for the countryside. The total number of municipalities was about 2,500\\.",
"The [rural municipalities](/wiki/Rural_municipality \"Rural municipality\") were based on the country\\-side [civil parishes](/wiki/Socken \"Socken\") or [administrative parishes](/wiki/Administrative_parish \"Administrative parish\") (*socknar*), often formed in the Middle Ages around a church. The municipality acts of 1862 formally separated the civil municipalities from the parishes, establishing the municipality assembly as the decision\\-making body of rural municipalities and the church assembly as the decision\\-making body of parishes.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://weburn.kb.se/metadata/578/EOD\\_3004578\\.htm \\|title\\=Kommunal\\-författningar af Kongl. Maj:t gillade och antagne den 21 mars 1862\\. \\|year\\=1863}}",
"The then 89 cities/towns (*städer*) (the same word is used for both city and town in Swedish) were based on the old [chartered](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\") cities. There was also a third type, *[köping](/wiki/K%C3%B6ping \"Köping\")* or market town. The status of these was somewhere between the rural municipalities and the cities. There were only eight of them in 1863, rising to a peak of 96 in 1959\\.",
"Up until 1930, when the total number of municipalities reached its peak (2,532 entities), there were more partitions than amalgamations.",
"In 1943 more than 500 of Sweden's municipalities had fewer than 500 inhabitants, and the *1943 års kommunindelningskommitté* (\"Municipal subdivision commission of 1943\") proposed that the number of rural municipalities should be drastically reduced.",
"After years of preparations the first of the two nationwide municipal reforms of the 20th century was implemented in 1952\\. The number of rural municipalities was reduced from 2,281 to 816\\. The cities (by then 133\\) were not affected.",
"Rather soon it was established that the reform of 1952 was not radical enough. A new commission, *1959 års indelningssakkunniga* (\"Subdivision experts of 1959\") concluded that the next municipal reform should create new larger mixed rural/urban municipalities.",
"The [Riksdag](/wiki/Riksdag \"Riksdag\") decided in 1962 that the new reform should be implemented on a voluntary basis. The process started in January 1964, when all municipalities were grouped in 282 *kommunblock*(\"municipal blocks\"). The co\\-operation within the blocks should ultimately lead to amalgamations. The target year was 1971, when all municipalities should be of uniform type and all the remaining formal differences in government and privileges between cities and rural municipalities should be abolished.{{cite web\\|title\\=Indelning i kommuner och landsting\\|url\\=http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1906/a/152463\\|publisher\\=Regeringen.se\\|language\\=sv\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729010640/http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1906/a/152463\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-29\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The amalgamations within the \"blocks\" started in 1965 and more were accomplished in 1967 and 1969, when the number of municipalities dropped from 1006 to 848\\. The Riksdag, however, found the amalgamation process too slow, and decided to speed it up by ending the voluntary aspect. In 1971 the unitary municipality (*kommun*) was introduced and the number of entities went down to 464; three years later it was 278\\. In one case ([Svedala Municipality](/wiki/Svedala_Municipality \"Svedala Municipality\")) the process was not accomplished until 1977\\.",
"Most of the municipalities were soon consolidated, but in some cases the antagonism within the new unities was so strong that it led to \"divorces\". The total number of municipalities has today risen to 290\\.",
"The question of whether a new municipality will be created is at the discretion of the central [Swedish government](/wiki/Government_of_Sweden \"Government of Sweden\"). It is recommended that the lower limit of a new municipality shall be 5,000 inhabitants.",
"Some municipalities still use the term \"City\" (Swedish: *[stad](/wiki/Stad_%28Sweden%29 \"Stad (Sweden)\")*) when referring to themselves, a practice adopted by the largest and most urban municipalities [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm_Municipality \"Stockholm Municipality\"), [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg_Municipality \"Gothenburg Municipality\") and [Malmö](/wiki/Malm%C3%B6_Municipality \"Malmö Municipality\"). Thirteen municipalities altogether, some of them including considerable rural areas, have made this choice, which is unofficial and has no effect on the administrative status of the municipality. The practice can, however, create some confusion as the term *stad* nowadays normally refers to a larger built\\-up area and not to an administrative entity.",
""
] |
History
-------
The 392d Training Squadron traces its lineage through two different units, the 592nd Bombardment Squadron (Heavy) and the 392nd Missile Training Squadron.
### World War II bomber crew training
The **592d Bombardment Squadron** was first activated at [Mountain Home Army Air Field](/wiki/Mountain_Home_Army_Air_Field "Mountain Home Army Air Field"), Idaho on 16 February 1943 as one of the four original [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") of the [396th Bombardment Group](/wiki/396th_Bombardment_Group "396th Bombardment Group").Maurer, *Combat Units*, p. 283 After initial organization and equipping with [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") heavy bombers, the squadron moved to [Moses Lake Army Air Base](/wiki/Moses_Lake_Army_Air_Base "Moses Lake Army Air Base"), Washington. There the squadron acted as an [Operational Training Unit](/wiki/Operational_-_Replacement_Training_Units%23Operational_Training_Units "Operational - Replacement Training Units#Operational Training Units") (OTU) for B\-17 units. The OTU program was patterned after the unit training system of the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"). It involved the use of an oversized parent unit to provide [cadres](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 "Cadre (military)") to "satellite groups". It assumed responsibility for their training and oversaw their expansion with graduates of [Army Air Forces Training Command](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces_Training_Command "Army Air Forces Training Command") schools to become effective combat units.Craven \& Cate, Introduction, p. xxxviGoss, p. 74Greer, p. 601 Phase I training concentrated on individual training in [crewmember](/wiki/Aircrew "Aircrew") specialties. Phase II training emphasized the coordination for the crew to act as a team. The final phase concentrated on operation as a unit.Greer, p. 606
In August 1943, the unit's mission changed to being a [Replacement Training Unit](/wiki/Operational_-_Replacement_Training_Units%23Replacement_Training_Units "Operational - Replacement Training Units#Replacement Training Units") (RTU). By this time most combat units had been activated and many of them had deployed overseas. With the exception of special programs, like forming [Boeing B\-29 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress "Boeing B-29 Superfortress") units, training "fillers" for existing units became more important than unit training.Goss, pp. 74\-75 Like OTUs, RTUs were an oversized units. Their mission, however was to train individual [pilots](/wiki/Aviators "Aviators") or aircrews.
In November 1943, the 592d moved to [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field "Drew Field"), Florida, where it would remain for the duration of its active service. However, the [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces "Army Air Forces") was finding that standard military units, based on relatively inflexible [tables of organization](/wiki/Tables_of_organization "Tables of organization") were not well adapted to the training mission. Accordingly it adopted a more functional system in which each base was organized into a separate numbered unit.Goss, p. 75 The 592d was inactivated on 1 May 1944 at Drew Field, Florida. Its personnel and equipment became part of the 326th AAF Base Unit.*See* Mueller, p. 351 (simultaneous inactivation of 396th Bombardment Group units and organization of 326th Base Unit).
### Thor missile training
The **392d Missile Training Squadron** was activated at [Cooke Air Force Base](/wiki/Cooke_Air_Force_Base "Cooke Air Force Base"), California on 15 September 1957\. The unit conducted training on [SM\-75 Thor](/wiki/SM-75_Thor "SM-75 Thor") intermediate range ballistic missiles. Although developed and manufactured in the United States, the only operator of the Thor [missile](/wiki/Intermediate_range_ballistic_missile "Intermediate range ballistic missile") was the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") (RAF) and training for Thor operations and maintenance was primarily provided for RAF personnel. The squadron was inactivated on 1 February 1963, as the RAF wound down its Thor program.
In September 1985, the 592d Bombardment Squadron and the 392d Missile Training Squadron were consolidated as the **392d Tactical Missile Squadron**, but the consolidated unit was never active under that designation.
### 392d Training Squadron
On 19 September 1985, the 592d Bombardment Squadron was consolidated with the 392d Missile Training Squadron ([IRBM](/wiki/Intermediate-range_ballistic_missile "Intermediate-range ballistic missile")). This new unit, the 92d Tactical Missile Squadron, was not activated. Instead, it remained inactive until 1 July 1993, when it was redesignated the 392d Space and Missile Training Squadron and activated at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. On 1 April 1994, the unit was redesignated the 392d Training Squadron. Since its activation, the 392d has been responsible for initial qualification training, specialty code\-awarding courses for [Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman "LGM-30 Minuteman") and [Peacekeeper](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper "LGM-118 Peacekeeper") ICBM crews, as well as basic mission orientation and refresher training for [Air Force Space Command](/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command "Air Force Space Command") commanders and staff.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf/392trs.htm \|title\=392nd Training Squadron (392nd TRS)\|date\=May 7, 2011\|website\=Global Security \|access\-date\=June 18, 2018}} Due to restructuring as a result of the creation of Global Strike Command, the 392d shifted its training responsibilities to only training Missile Operators.
On 13 July 2012 the 392nd was inactivated. Its mission was absorbed by the 532nd Training Squadron to streamline operations and effectiveness.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.vandenberg.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/338629/historic\-training\-squadrons\-merge\-missions\-continue\-at\-vandenberg/ \|last1\=Picariello\|first1\=Erica\|title\=Historic training squadrons merge, missions continue at Vandenberg\|date\=July 13, 2012\|publisher\=30th Space Wing Public Affairs\|access\-date\=January 17, 2019}}
### 392d Combat Training Squadron
After the [United States Space Force](/wiki/United_States_Space_Force "United States Space Force") was formed, it established STAR Delta (Provisional), Operating Location A. On 23 August 2021, The **392d Combat Training Squadron** was activated at [Schriever Space Force Base](/wiki/Schriever_Space_Force_Base "Schriever Space Force Base") under [Space Delta 1](/wiki/Space_Delta_1 "Space Delta 1") to replace it. The squadron joined the [705th Combat Training Squadron](/wiki/705th_Combat_Training_Squadron "705th Combat Training Squadron") to conduct Exercise Virtual Flag 22\-1 at the squadron's Distributed Mission Operations Center – Space in November 2021\.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.starcom.spaceforce.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/2850814/392nd\-cts\-provides\-training\-during\-coalition\-virtual\-flag\-22\-1/ \|last1\=Klinkenborg\|first1\=Emily\|title\=392nd CTS provides training during Coalition VIRTUAL FLAG 22\-1\|date\=22 November 2021\|publisher\=Space Training and Readiness Command Public Affairs\|access\-date\=December 1, 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The 392d Training Squadron traces its lineage through two different units, the 592nd Bombardment Squadron (Heavy) and the 392nd Missile Training Squadron.",
"### World War II bomber crew training",
"The **592d Bombardment Squadron** was first activated at [Mountain Home Army Air Field](/wiki/Mountain_Home_Army_Air_Field \"Mountain Home Army Air Field\"), Idaho on 16 February 1943 as one of the four original [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") of the [396th Bombardment Group](/wiki/396th_Bombardment_Group \"396th Bombardment Group\").Maurer, *Combat Units*, p. 283 After initial organization and equipping with [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") heavy bombers, the squadron moved to [Moses Lake Army Air Base](/wiki/Moses_Lake_Army_Air_Base \"Moses Lake Army Air Base\"), Washington. There the squadron acted as an [Operational Training Unit](/wiki/Operational_-_Replacement_Training_Units%23Operational_Training_Units \"Operational - Replacement Training Units#Operational Training Units\") (OTU) for B\\-17 units. The OTU program was patterned after the unit training system of the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"). It involved the use of an oversized parent unit to provide [cadres](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 \"Cadre (military)\") to \"satellite groups\". It assumed responsibility for their training and oversaw their expansion with graduates of [Army Air Forces Training Command](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces_Training_Command \"Army Air Forces Training Command\") schools to become effective combat units.Craven \\& Cate, Introduction, p. xxxviGoss, p. 74Greer, p. 601 Phase I training concentrated on individual training in [crewmember](/wiki/Aircrew \"Aircrew\") specialties. Phase II training emphasized the coordination for the crew to act as a team. The final phase concentrated on operation as a unit.Greer, p. 606",
"In August 1943, the unit's mission changed to being a [Replacement Training Unit](/wiki/Operational_-_Replacement_Training_Units%23Replacement_Training_Units \"Operational - Replacement Training Units#Replacement Training Units\") (RTU). By this time most combat units had been activated and many of them had deployed overseas. With the exception of special programs, like forming [Boeing B\\-29 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress \"Boeing B-29 Superfortress\") units, training \"fillers\" for existing units became more important than unit training.Goss, pp. 74\\-75 Like OTUs, RTUs were an oversized units. Their mission, however was to train individual [pilots](/wiki/Aviators \"Aviators\") or aircrews.",
"In November 1943, the 592d moved to [Drew Field](/wiki/Drew_Field \"Drew Field\"), Florida, where it would remain for the duration of its active service. However, the [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces \"Army Air Forces\") was finding that standard military units, based on relatively inflexible [tables of organization](/wiki/Tables_of_organization \"Tables of organization\") were not well adapted to the training mission. Accordingly it adopted a more functional system in which each base was organized into a separate numbered unit.Goss, p. 75 The 592d was inactivated on 1 May 1944 at Drew Field, Florida. Its personnel and equipment became part of the 326th AAF Base Unit.*See* Mueller, p. 351 (simultaneous inactivation of 396th Bombardment Group units and organization of 326th Base Unit).",
"### Thor missile training",
"The **392d Missile Training Squadron** was activated at [Cooke Air Force Base](/wiki/Cooke_Air_Force_Base \"Cooke Air Force Base\"), California on 15 September 1957\\. The unit conducted training on [SM\\-75 Thor](/wiki/SM-75_Thor \"SM-75 Thor\") intermediate range ballistic missiles. Although developed and manufactured in the United States, the only operator of the Thor [missile](/wiki/Intermediate_range_ballistic_missile \"Intermediate range ballistic missile\") was the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") (RAF) and training for Thor operations and maintenance was primarily provided for RAF personnel. The squadron was inactivated on 1 February 1963, as the RAF wound down its Thor program.",
"In September 1985, the 592d Bombardment Squadron and the 392d Missile Training Squadron were consolidated as the **392d Tactical Missile Squadron**, but the consolidated unit was never active under that designation.",
"### 392d Training Squadron",
"On 19 September 1985, the 592d Bombardment Squadron was consolidated with the 392d Missile Training Squadron ([IRBM](/wiki/Intermediate-range_ballistic_missile \"Intermediate-range ballistic missile\")). This new unit, the 92d Tactical Missile Squadron, was not activated. Instead, it remained inactive until 1 July 1993, when it was redesignated the 392d Space and Missile Training Squadron and activated at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. On 1 April 1994, the unit was redesignated the 392d Training Squadron. Since its activation, the 392d has been responsible for initial qualification training, specialty code\\-awarding courses for [Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman \"LGM-30 Minuteman\") and [Peacekeeper](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper \"LGM-118 Peacekeeper\") ICBM crews, as well as basic mission orientation and refresher training for [Air Force Space Command](/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command \"Air Force Space Command\") commanders and staff.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf/392trs.htm \\|title\\=392nd Training Squadron (392nd TRS)\\|date\\=May 7, 2011\\|website\\=Global Security \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2018}} Due to restructuring as a result of the creation of Global Strike Command, the 392d shifted its training responsibilities to only training Missile Operators.",
"On 13 July 2012 the 392nd was inactivated. Its mission was absorbed by the 532nd Training Squadron to streamline operations and effectiveness.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.vandenberg.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/338629/historic\\-training\\-squadrons\\-merge\\-missions\\-continue\\-at\\-vandenberg/ \\|last1\\=Picariello\\|first1\\=Erica\\|title\\=Historic training squadrons merge, missions continue at Vandenberg\\|date\\=July 13, 2012\\|publisher\\=30th Space Wing Public Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2019}}",
"### 392d Combat Training Squadron",
"After the [United States Space Force](/wiki/United_States_Space_Force \"United States Space Force\") was formed, it established STAR Delta (Provisional), Operating Location A. On 23 August 2021, The **392d Combat Training Squadron** was activated at [Schriever Space Force Base](/wiki/Schriever_Space_Force_Base \"Schriever Space Force Base\") under [Space Delta 1](/wiki/Space_Delta_1 \"Space Delta 1\") to replace it. The squadron joined the [705th Combat Training Squadron](/wiki/705th_Combat_Training_Squadron \"705th Combat Training Squadron\") to conduct Exercise Virtual Flag 22\\-1 at the squadron's Distributed Mission Operations Center – Space in November 2021\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.starcom.spaceforce.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/2850814/392nd\\-cts\\-provides\\-training\\-during\\-coalition\\-virtual\\-flag\\-22\\-1/ \\|last1\\=Klinkenborg\\|first1\\=Emily\\|title\\=392nd CTS provides training during Coalition VIRTUAL FLAG 22\\-1\\|date\\=22 November 2021\\|publisher\\=Space Training and Readiness Command Public Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2021}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Though the lake was created by Julian C. "Bull" Headley (of Kentucky) in the early to mid\-1950s, as part of [Bull Run Plantation](/wiki/Bull_Run_Plantation "Bull Run Plantation"), the land which Lake Monkey Business is on was originally part of [Frances C. Griscom](/wiki/Frances_C._Griscom "Frances C. Griscom")'s [Water Oak Plantation](/wiki/Water_Oak_Plantation "Water Oak Plantation"). The lake is within the Killearn Lakes Plantation development, north of Tallahassee, Florida. The present\-day Bull Headley Road frames the western boundary of Killearn Lakes Plantation; the northern terminus of the road ends at a public boat ramp for the nearby [Lake Iamonia](/wiki/Lake_Iamonia "Lake Iamonia").
Water Oak's purchase in 1951 the name change occurred with Headley making several enhancements to the property, including a [dam](/wiki/Dam "Dam"), a new brick [mansion](/wiki/Mansion "Mansion"), bathhouse, [swimming pool](/wiki/Swimming_pool "Swimming pool"), and Headley's own [duck](/wiki/Duck "Duck") lake, which he called Lake Monkey Business. This was the last of Headley's land alteration projects "to monkey around with" – hence the name – which sought to attract waterfowl.
There are three other lakes which he created by damming the feeder stream further up the drainage system. These consist (in order of drainage) of [Lake Petty Gulf](/wiki/Lake_Petty_Gulf "Lake Petty Gulf"), [Lake Dianne](/wiki/Lake_Dianne "Lake Dianne"), and [Lake Blue Heron](/wiki/Lake_Blue_Heron "Lake Blue Heron"), which then drains into Monkey Business. Lake Monkey Business is fed through the prominent sweeping estuary arm to the south west. The lakes were drawn down during spring and summer months and refilled by the autumn rains and attract many migrating waterfowl. This practice is no longer employed on these lakes, but remains common on nearby hunting plantations.
A small, natural island, approximately 200 feet in diameter, within Lake Monkey Business provides a natural retreat for water fowl. The island is located about halfway between the isthmus and the western end of the lake. The island contains many large hardwood and pine trees and relatively dense underbrush.
In 1964, Headley sold Bull Run Plantation to a financial [syndicate](/wiki/Syndicate "Syndicate") of sportsmen interested in a recreational preserve. [Kinhega Lodge](/wiki/Kinhega_Lodge "Kinhega Lodge") was established and Lake Monkey Business remained. Kinhega Lodge would eventually become Kinhega Lodge Estates, Limited. In the early 1970s the property was sold again to investors, who developed the property into Killearn Lakes Plantation, a development of over 4500 homes.Paisley, Clifton; From Cotton To Quail, University of Florida Press, c1968, pp. 83\-84\.
Located approximately 11 miles north of [Tallahassee, Florida](/wiki/Tallahassee%2C_Florida "Tallahassee, Florida")'s center, Killearn Lakes Plantation is a planned, heavily forested [suburban](/wiki/Suburban "Suburban") development which fully surrounds the lake. The lands on the southern and eastern perimeter of the lake form a part of the private Golden Eagle development. The western and northern perimeter is rural property in Leon County within Killearn Lakes Plantation.
Use of the lake is exclusive to residents of Killearn Lakes Plantation. Access to the lake and its boat ramp is provided by a gated access road.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Though the lake was created by Julian C. \"Bull\" Headley (of Kentucky) in the early to mid\\-1950s, as part of [Bull Run Plantation](/wiki/Bull_Run_Plantation \"Bull Run Plantation\"), the land which Lake Monkey Business is on was originally part of [Frances C. Griscom](/wiki/Frances_C._Griscom \"Frances C. Griscom\")'s [Water Oak Plantation](/wiki/Water_Oak_Plantation \"Water Oak Plantation\"). The lake is within the Killearn Lakes Plantation development, north of Tallahassee, Florida. The present\\-day Bull Headley Road frames the western boundary of Killearn Lakes Plantation; the northern terminus of the road ends at a public boat ramp for the nearby [Lake Iamonia](/wiki/Lake_Iamonia \"Lake Iamonia\").",
"Water Oak's purchase in 1951 the name change occurred with Headley making several enhancements to the property, including a [dam](/wiki/Dam \"Dam\"), a new brick [mansion](/wiki/Mansion \"Mansion\"), bathhouse, [swimming pool](/wiki/Swimming_pool \"Swimming pool\"), and Headley's own [duck](/wiki/Duck \"Duck\") lake, which he called Lake Monkey Business. This was the last of Headley's land alteration projects \"to monkey around with\" – hence the name – which sought to attract waterfowl.",
"There are three other lakes which he created by damming the feeder stream further up the drainage system. These consist (in order of drainage) of [Lake Petty Gulf](/wiki/Lake_Petty_Gulf \"Lake Petty Gulf\"), [Lake Dianne](/wiki/Lake_Dianne \"Lake Dianne\"), and [Lake Blue Heron](/wiki/Lake_Blue_Heron \"Lake Blue Heron\"), which then drains into Monkey Business. Lake Monkey Business is fed through the prominent sweeping estuary arm to the south west. The lakes were drawn down during spring and summer months and refilled by the autumn rains and attract many migrating waterfowl. This practice is no longer employed on these lakes, but remains common on nearby hunting plantations.",
"A small, natural island, approximately 200 feet in diameter, within Lake Monkey Business provides a natural retreat for water fowl. The island is located about halfway between the isthmus and the western end of the lake. The island contains many large hardwood and pine trees and relatively dense underbrush.",
"In 1964, Headley sold Bull Run Plantation to a financial [syndicate](/wiki/Syndicate \"Syndicate\") of sportsmen interested in a recreational preserve. [Kinhega Lodge](/wiki/Kinhega_Lodge \"Kinhega Lodge\") was established and Lake Monkey Business remained. Kinhega Lodge would eventually become Kinhega Lodge Estates, Limited. In the early 1970s the property was sold again to investors, who developed the property into Killearn Lakes Plantation, a development of over 4500 homes.Paisley, Clifton; From Cotton To Quail, University of Florida Press, c1968, pp. 83\\-84\\.",
"Located approximately 11 miles north of [Tallahassee, Florida](/wiki/Tallahassee%2C_Florida \"Tallahassee, Florida\")'s center, Killearn Lakes Plantation is a planned, heavily forested [suburban](/wiki/Suburban \"Suburban\") development which fully surrounds the lake. The lands on the southern and eastern perimeter of the lake form a part of the private Golden Eagle development. The western and northern perimeter is rural property in Leon County within Killearn Lakes Plantation.",
"Use of the lake is exclusive to residents of Killearn Lakes Plantation. Access to the lake and its boat ramp is provided by a gated access road.",
""
] |
Plot
----
### Opening sequence
Charming's sheepdog Wilby walks through the forest.
### Event chronology
The Enchanted Forest events take place after "[The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter](/wiki/The_Heart_Is_a_Lonely_Hunter_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (Once Upon a Time)")" and "[White Out](/wiki/White_Out_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 "White Out (Once Upon a Time)")" and before "[Red Handed](/wiki/Red_Handed_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 "Red Handed (Once Upon a Time)")" and "[The Shepherd](/wiki/The_Shepherd_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 "The Shepherd (Once Upon a Time)")". The Storybrooke events take place after "Dark Waters".
### In the Characters' Past
In the Enchanted Forest before the first curse, Snow White, hunted by the Evil Queen but not yet a bandit, sells her last heirloom to a nobleman for a pittance, only for him to betray her to the Woodcutter, a bounty hunter whom she fights off with help from the Blue Fairy. Having saved enough money to buy passage on a ship, Snow plans to head for the port city of Longborn. At the same time, Ruth sends David to Longborn to sell their farm, as they lack the resources to maintain it. Disguised as a peddler, the Woodcutter drugs David in order to use his [sheep dog](/wiki/Sheep_dog "Sheep dog"), Wilby, to track and capture Snow. When David comes to, Wilby leads him to the Woodcutter's wagon; Snow, locked inside, advises David to run. He instead tries to break the lock with a rock, but is interrupted by the Woodcutter's return. They fight, and the Woodcutter bashes a hole in the wagon, enabling Snow to hold back the Woodcutter's arm so David can kill him. Snow tells David that it would be safest for him to never see her face, so he hands the key through the hole. David's faith in Snow's resourcefulness convinces her that she can live by her wits and stay in her own kingdom; hearing that David is in need of money, she gives him her savings as a reward. As their hands touch, a magical spark of true love gives birth to a sapling at David's feet.
### In Storybrooke
In the present day, Snow is waking up in the middle of the night, and finds herself in the middle of the woods when The Evil Queen emerges from behind a tree, reminding her of how lucky she has been, only to remind Snow that she still desires her heart, and with David having the other half, the Evil Queen tells Snow that she'll acquire it too for a “little bit more.” She gives Snow a mysterious potion and disappears, Snow then shows Regina the potion, and identifies it as water from the River of Lost Souls. Regina believes the Evil Queen obtained it from Gold as a part of a plan to destroy the whole town. Mother Superior believes that a magical sapling could be powerful enough to entrap the Evil Queen, and Regina hatches a plan by sending a note to Zelena demanding that she meets her other half at Gold's Pawn Shop.
Earlier, the Evil Queen promised Zelena that there was nothing going on between her and Gold, but when Zelena stops by the Pawn Shop, she catches the Evil Queen and Gold snogging, just as Regina planned. Around the same time, Mother Superior enacts a spell that should help Snow, David, and Regina get to the sapling. It leads them to a trapdoor in the ground, and they hop right in. As Snow and David find the sapling, they both touch it and the history of their love flashbacks right before their eyes, only to have The Evil Queen appear to steal the sapling, snaps it in half, and vows to destroy Storybrooke if they don't surrender their hearts. At the vault, Hook calms Emma down when her hands start to tremor \& uses Henry's storybook to make Emma feel better and to remind her that her parents’ love can overcome any obstacle. They "always found each other." As she grows worried about her parents' fate and (possibly her visions); and how Emma inherited the strength of that love. “You can overcome these visions. You can overcome anything,” he assures her: "Remember who you are, the product of true love” — at which moment her hand stabilized.
Later on at the cemetery, the Evil Queen gathers the town to tell them her plan to kill them all if Snow and David don’t appear in the next few minutes. Just as Emma is ready to fight, the couple arrives and asks Regina to lift her protection spell from them, allowing The Evil Queen to rip out their hearts and hold them in her hands. She declares that killing them would be too easy and that she wants them to feel the pain of her loneliness. She thrusts their hearts back in, and Snow quickly passes out. The Evil Queen calls it a sleeping curse with “a little twist,” and she makes Snow’s body disappear and taunts David to go find her. He doesn't find her at the loft, so he quickly heads towards the woods, evoking the first time the couple were in this situation. David finds Snow asleep in the same fallen tree coffin as the [first time](/wiki/Pilot_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 "Pilot (Once Upon a Time)"). Snow is awoken by true love’s kiss, but David immediately passes out and falls to the ground. Regina deciphers that The Evil Queen has placed a sleeping curse on their shared heart, meaning the couple now share the curse, meaning that one will always be asleep while the other is awake, thus never allowing them to be together.
Finally, after Zelena told Belle at the cemetery about the Evil Queen and Gold having a kiss, Belle visits Gold at the Pawn Shop. Although she isn't concerned about him being involved with the Evil Queen, she is furious over the fact that Gold would acquire the Fates' Shears with The Evil Queen's involvement. Belle warns Gold that she forbids him to change their unborn child for his own selfish reasons. After she leaves, Gold becomes furious with Zelena.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"### Opening sequence",
"Charming's sheepdog Wilby walks through the forest.",
"### Event chronology",
"The Enchanted Forest events take place after \"[The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter](/wiki/The_Heart_Is_a_Lonely_Hunter_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 \"The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (Once Upon a Time)\")\" and \"[White Out](/wiki/White_Out_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 \"White Out (Once Upon a Time)\")\" and before \"[Red Handed](/wiki/Red_Handed_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 \"Red Handed (Once Upon a Time)\")\" and \"[The Shepherd](/wiki/The_Shepherd_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 \"The Shepherd (Once Upon a Time)\")\". The Storybrooke events take place after \"Dark Waters\".",
"### In the Characters' Past",
"In the Enchanted Forest before the first curse, Snow White, hunted by the Evil Queen but not yet a bandit, sells her last heirloom to a nobleman for a pittance, only for him to betray her to the Woodcutter, a bounty hunter whom she fights off with help from the Blue Fairy. Having saved enough money to buy passage on a ship, Snow plans to head for the port city of Longborn. At the same time, Ruth sends David to Longborn to sell their farm, as they lack the resources to maintain it. Disguised as a peddler, the Woodcutter drugs David in order to use his [sheep dog](/wiki/Sheep_dog \"Sheep dog\"), Wilby, to track and capture Snow. When David comes to, Wilby leads him to the Woodcutter's wagon; Snow, locked inside, advises David to run. He instead tries to break the lock with a rock, but is interrupted by the Woodcutter's return. They fight, and the Woodcutter bashes a hole in the wagon, enabling Snow to hold back the Woodcutter's arm so David can kill him. Snow tells David that it would be safest for him to never see her face, so he hands the key through the hole. David's faith in Snow's resourcefulness convinces her that she can live by her wits and stay in her own kingdom; hearing that David is in need of money, she gives him her savings as a reward. As their hands touch, a magical spark of true love gives birth to a sapling at David's feet.",
"### In Storybrooke",
"In the present day, Snow is waking up in the middle of the night, and finds herself in the middle of the woods when The Evil Queen emerges from behind a tree, reminding her of how lucky she has been, only to remind Snow that she still desires her heart, and with David having the other half, the Evil Queen tells Snow that she'll acquire it too for a “little bit more.” She gives Snow a mysterious potion and disappears, Snow then shows Regina the potion, and identifies it as water from the River of Lost Souls. Regina believes the Evil Queen obtained it from Gold as a part of a plan to destroy the whole town. Mother Superior believes that a magical sapling could be powerful enough to entrap the Evil Queen, and Regina hatches a plan by sending a note to Zelena demanding that she meets her other half at Gold's Pawn Shop.",
"Earlier, the Evil Queen promised Zelena that there was nothing going on between her and Gold, but when Zelena stops by the Pawn Shop, she catches the Evil Queen and Gold snogging, just as Regina planned. Around the same time, Mother Superior enacts a spell that should help Snow, David, and Regina get to the sapling. It leads them to a trapdoor in the ground, and they hop right in. As Snow and David find the sapling, they both touch it and the history of their love flashbacks right before their eyes, only to have The Evil Queen appear to steal the sapling, snaps it in half, and vows to destroy Storybrooke if they don't surrender their hearts. At the vault, Hook calms Emma down when her hands start to tremor \\& uses Henry's storybook to make Emma feel better and to remind her that her parents’ love can overcome any obstacle. They \"always found each other.\" As she grows worried about her parents' fate and (possibly her visions); and how Emma inherited the strength of that love. “You can overcome these visions. You can overcome anything,” he assures her: \"Remember who you are, the product of true love” — at which moment her hand stabilized.",
"Later on at the cemetery, the Evil Queen gathers the town to tell them her plan to kill them all if Snow and David don’t appear in the next few minutes. Just as Emma is ready to fight, the couple arrives and asks Regina to lift her protection spell from them, allowing The Evil Queen to rip out their hearts and hold them in her hands. She declares that killing them would be too easy and that she wants them to feel the pain of her loneliness. She thrusts their hearts back in, and Snow quickly passes out. The Evil Queen calls it a sleeping curse with “a little twist,” and she makes Snow’s body disappear and taunts David to go find her. He doesn't find her at the loft, so he quickly heads towards the woods, evoking the first time the couple were in this situation. David finds Snow asleep in the same fallen tree coffin as the [first time](/wiki/Pilot_%28Once_Upon_a_Time%29 \"Pilot (Once Upon a Time)\"). Snow is awoken by true love’s kiss, but David immediately passes out and falls to the ground. Regina deciphers that The Evil Queen has placed a sleeping curse on their shared heart, meaning the couple now share the curse, meaning that one will always be asleep while the other is awake, thus never allowing them to be together.",
"Finally, after Zelena told Belle at the cemetery about the Evil Queen and Gold having a kiss, Belle visits Gold at the Pawn Shop. Although she isn't concerned about him being involved with the Evil Queen, she is furious over the fact that Gold would acquire the Fates' Shears with The Evil Queen's involvement. Belle warns Gold that she forbids him to change their unborn child for his own selfish reasons. After she leaves, Gold becomes furious with Zelena.",
""
] |
Cause
-----
There has been a great deal of speculation on the nature of the incident. Hypotheses can be divided on several axes.
Things that could cause the physical phenomena observed:
* A large [chemical explosive](/wiki/Chemical_explosive "Chemical explosive") blast.
* A [forest fire](/wiki/Forest_fire "Forest fire"). The [United States National Security Advisor](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Advisor "United States National Security Advisor"), [Condoleezza Rice](/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice "Condoleezza Rice"), said "maybe it was ... some kind of forest fire". The [Yonhap News Agency](/wiki/Yonhap_News_Agency "Yonhap News Agency") also quoted a source suggesting a forest fire.
* A natural [cumulonimbus cloud](/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud "Cumulonimbus cloud") formation.
If there was an explosion, the main possible causes:
* Explosive remnants of war. Unexploded ordnance from the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") become increasingly unstable as they deteriorate. The United States dropped 635,000 tons of bombs in Korea between 1950 and 1953\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/22/books/22book.html?\_r\=0 \|title\=Carpet\-Bombing Falsehoods About a War That's Little Understood \|author\=Dwight Garner \|work\=New York Times \|date\=July 21, 2010 \|accessdate\=June 20, 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030064253/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/22/books/22book.html?\_r\=0 \|archivedate\=October 30, 2015 }}
* North Korea's official explanation of controlled demolition for a hydroelectric project.{{cite web\|url\=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2004/09/14/2004091461016\.html \|title\=Satellite Photos Should Reveal Causes of Ryanggang Explosion \|publisher\=\[\[The Chosun Ilbo]] \|date\=Oct 14, 2004 \|accessdate\=June 20, 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305055728/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2004/09/14/2004091461016\.html \|archivedate\=March 5, 2015 }}
* A [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") test or demonstration. Recent intelligence reported that North Korea might have been planning its first nuclear bomb test, and the significant date lends credence to this hypothesis. However, it would be unusual for North Korea to then deny it, and international officials have stated that it does not appear to have been a nuclear explosion. (Later updates in intelligence suggested that the test planning may have not been what it appeared to be.)
* A nuclear accident. Likewise, it has been denied that the explosion was nuclear.
* A large [chemical explosive](/wiki/Chemical_explosive "Chemical explosive") blast, to calibrate for a later nuclear test.
* Explosion of a munitions dump, or of explosives in a munitions factory.
Finally, another way to divide up explosion hypotheses is by how intentional it was:
* Intended by North Korea.
* Accidental. North Korea's failing economy has made its industry accident\-prone, as seen in the [Ryongchon disaster](/wiki/Ryongchon_disaster "Ryongchon disaster") earlier in 2004\.
* [Covert operation](/wiki/Covert_operation "Covert operation") by a foreign state.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nknews.org/2013/06/the\-odd\-tale\-of\-a\-lone\-israeli\-spy\-and\-north\-korea/ \|title\=The odd tale of a lone Israeli spy and North Korea \|author\=Nate Thayer \|publisher\=\[\[NK News]] \|date\=June 20, 2013 \|accessdate\=June 20, 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627030745/http://www.nknews.org/2013/06/the\-odd\-tale\-of\-a\-lone\-israeli\-spy\-and\-north\-korea/ \|archivedate\=June 27, 2013 }}
* Military or terrorist action connected with an internal power struggle.
North Korea's claim to possess nuclear weapons on 10 February 2005 gives the nuclear testing or accident hypotheses some credibility. However, no neighboring nations have claimed any detection of radioactive isotopes which would be characteristic of either. North Korea claimed to have tested its first [nuclear weapon on 9 October 2006](/wiki/2006_North_Korean_nuclear_test "2006 North Korean nuclear test"). There have since been [multiple nuclear tests by North Korea](/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea "List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea").
|
[
"Cause\n-----",
"There has been a great deal of speculation on the nature of the incident. Hypotheses can be divided on several axes.",
"Things that could cause the physical phenomena observed:\n* A large [chemical explosive](/wiki/Chemical_explosive \"Chemical explosive\") blast.\n* A [forest fire](/wiki/Forest_fire \"Forest fire\"). The [United States National Security Advisor](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Advisor \"United States National Security Advisor\"), [Condoleezza Rice](/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice \"Condoleezza Rice\"), said \"maybe it was ... some kind of forest fire\". The [Yonhap News Agency](/wiki/Yonhap_News_Agency \"Yonhap News Agency\") also quoted a source suggesting a forest fire.\n* A natural [cumulonimbus cloud](/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud \"Cumulonimbus cloud\") formation.",
"If there was an explosion, the main possible causes:\n* Explosive remnants of war. Unexploded ordnance from the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") become increasingly unstable as they deteriorate. The United States dropped 635,000 tons of bombs in Korea between 1950 and 1953\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/22/books/22book.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|title\\=Carpet\\-Bombing Falsehoods About a War That's Little Understood \\|author\\=Dwight Garner \\|work\\=New York Times \\|date\\=July 21, 2010 \\|accessdate\\=June 20, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030064253/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/22/books/22book.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=October 30, 2015 }}\n* North Korea's official explanation of controlled demolition for a hydroelectric project.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2004/09/14/2004091461016\\.html \\|title\\=Satellite Photos Should Reveal Causes of Ryanggang Explosion \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Chosun Ilbo]] \\|date\\=Oct 14, 2004 \\|accessdate\\=June 20, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305055728/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2004/09/14/2004091461016\\.html \\|archivedate\\=March 5, 2015 }}\n* A [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") test or demonstration. Recent intelligence reported that North Korea might have been planning its first nuclear bomb test, and the significant date lends credence to this hypothesis. However, it would be unusual for North Korea to then deny it, and international officials have stated that it does not appear to have been a nuclear explosion. (Later updates in intelligence suggested that the test planning may have not been what it appeared to be.)\n* A nuclear accident. Likewise, it has been denied that the explosion was nuclear.\n* A large [chemical explosive](/wiki/Chemical_explosive \"Chemical explosive\") blast, to calibrate for a later nuclear test.\n* Explosion of a munitions dump, or of explosives in a munitions factory.",
"Finally, another way to divide up explosion hypotheses is by how intentional it was:\n* Intended by North Korea.\n* Accidental. North Korea's failing economy has made its industry accident\\-prone, as seen in the [Ryongchon disaster](/wiki/Ryongchon_disaster \"Ryongchon disaster\") earlier in 2004\\.\n* [Covert operation](/wiki/Covert_operation \"Covert operation\") by a foreign state.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nknews.org/2013/06/the\\-odd\\-tale\\-of\\-a\\-lone\\-israeli\\-spy\\-and\\-north\\-korea/ \\|title\\=The odd tale of a lone Israeli spy and North Korea \\|author\\=Nate Thayer \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NK News]] \\|date\\=June 20, 2013 \\|accessdate\\=June 20, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627030745/http://www.nknews.org/2013/06/the\\-odd\\-tale\\-of\\-a\\-lone\\-israeli\\-spy\\-and\\-north\\-korea/ \\|archivedate\\=June 27, 2013 }}\n* Military or terrorist action connected with an internal power struggle.",
"North Korea's claim to possess nuclear weapons on 10 February 2005 gives the nuclear testing or accident hypotheses some credibility. However, no neighboring nations have claimed any detection of radioactive isotopes which would be characteristic of either. North Korea claimed to have tested its first [nuclear weapon on 9 October 2006](/wiki/2006_North_Korean_nuclear_test \"2006 North Korean nuclear test\"). There have since been [multiple nuclear tests by North Korea](/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea \"List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea\").",
""
] |
Pre\-history
------------
Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation are located at the head of tide of the Miramichi River. For thousands of years Mi’kmaq communities along New Brunswick’s northeastern shore lived near tidal estuaries where tidal saltwater flows inland and creates an ecosystem for "anadromous fish species such as salmon, sturgeon, gaspereau or alewife, striped bass, and eel, that seasonally move up the estuaries in large numbers." Some of these species spawned above the ‘head of tide’ and up the freshwater streams.{{cite book\|author\=Leavitt, R. M.\|year\=1995\|title\=Maliseet \& Micmac: First Nations of the Maritimes\|publisher\=Tribune Printing\|location\=Sackville, New Brunswick}}
Although officially recognised in 1783, Metepenagiag has been home to a Mi'kmaq community for over 3000 years,{{cite journal\|author\=Allen, Patricia Marlene\|title\=Metepenagiag: New Brunswick's Oldest Village\|location\=Fredericton and Red Bank\|publisher\=Goose Lane Editions and Red Bank First Nation\|year\=1994\|url\=http://www.metepenagiagpark.com\|access\-date\=2007\-09\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103235329/http://metepenagiagpark.com/\|archive\-date\=2008\-01\-03\|url\-status\=dead}} making it the oldest continuously settled community in New Brunswick.
### Augustine Mound
Evidence for the age of the community was revealed in 1972 by [Joseph Mike Augustine](/wiki/Joe_Mike_Augustine "Joe Mike Augustine"). After reading a 1972 National Geographic article about an ancient burial mound in Arizona, Augustine recalled the mound where his father had taken him near his home.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ammsa.com/content/joe\-augustine\-footprints\|title\=Joe Augustine \- Footprints\|author\=Cheryl Petten\|year\=1995\|publisher\=AMMSA\|access\-date\=30 August 2013}} The mound was on the [caribou](/wiki/Caribou "Caribou") hunting trail that he and his father used regularly and they stopped to rest there.
{{blockquote\|"They'd make a fire and have some tea or a bit of something to eat, and Augustine's father would tell him of the history of this place. In times past, his father would say, Indians would celebrate here, building a fire in the centre of the mound and dancing around it. It was those Indians, his father said, who built the mound."\|Petten\|1995}}
The artifacts found at the site (the Augustine Mound), and a second nearby site (the Oxbow site) demonstrated that Metepenagiag had been continuously inhabited for over 3000 years, and that the community enjoyed trading relationships with other First Nations communities, stretching as far west as the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River") Valley.
There has been some disagreement among residents concerning naming this important cultural and spiritual site, The Augustine Mound. While it was Joe Mike Augustine who first brought attention to the ancient burial site, most residents were aware of its existence. The name also falsely suggests that it is only the resting place of members of the Augustine family. While this is likely true, the mound was likely a community burial site, meaning that many of the oldest families of Metepenagiag have ancestors interred therein. Some feel the much more inclusive "Metepenagiag Mound" would better describe and honor those whose remains lie beneath the mound.
In 1975 the Augustine Mound was designated as a [National Historic Site of Canada](/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada "National Historic Sites of Canada"). The Augustine Mound has similarities to the elaborate burial rites of the Adena culture of the Ohio Valley and contained materials that were not local including copper from Lake Superior area. Turnbull argues that the Red Bank people were part of a broad Northeastern pre\-contact trade network. He also suggested that some Maritime people adopted aspects of the Adena culture and religion.{{cite journal\|author\=Turnbull, C. J.\|year\=1976\|title\=The Augustine Site: a Mound from the Maritimes\|journal\=Archaeology of Eastern North America\|volume\=4\|pages\=50–62}} Keenlyside claims that Adena culture peoples moved to Atlantic Canada.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.civilization.ca/research\-and\-collections/research/resources\-for\-scholars/essays\-1/archaeology\-1/david\-keenlyside/glimpses\-of\-atlantic\-canadas\-past3/\|publisher\=Canadian Museum of Civilization\|location\=Gatineau, Quebec\|author\=David Keenlyside\|access\-date\=30 August 2013\|title\=Burial Mounds and Trade Networks\|series\=Glimpses of Atlantic Canada’s Past\|year\=1999}}originally published in Revista de Arqueología Americana, no. 16, 1999\. Ceramic fragments also found at Red Bank are illustrative of the ceramic technology in use by Maritime First Nations 2,500 to 3,000 years ago.
### Oxbow
In 1982, the nearby Oxbow archaeological site, located within the reserve land of the Metepenagiag Mi’kmaq Nation on an oxbow bend of the Southwest Miramichi River,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep\-reg/place\-lieu.aspx?id\=4299\|title\=Oxbow National Historic Site of Canada, Red Bank Indian Reserve\|access\-date\=30 August 2013\|publisher\=Parks Canada\|author\=PC}} was also designated a National Historic Site of Canada for its role as "witness and record of 3000 years of continuous Mi’kmaq use of the site".{{blockquote\|The Oxbow "contains evidence of 3,000 years of Mi’kmaq history (from 1,000 BC to the present) on the north bank of the Little Southwest Miramichi River at the head of tide. Annual flooding of the river bank has created a well\-stratified site in which the cultural development through time is preserved in multiple layers of sediment. This deep stratigraphic development is virtually unique in Maritime Canada.\|Parks Canada}} Over 100 additional archaeological sites have been discovered in the area since 1975\. Metepenagiaq First Nations now has their Metepenagiag Heritage Park.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metepenagiagpark.com\|title\=Metepenagiag Heritage Park\|access\-date\=August 8, 2008\|publisher\=Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704064135/http://www.metepenagiagpark.com/\|archive\-date\=July 4, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metepenagiag.com\|title\=Metepenagiag Website\|access\-date\=August 8, 2008\|publisher\=Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705202930/http://www.metepenagiag.com/\|archive\-date\=July 5, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}}
|
[
"Pre\\-history\n------------",
"Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation are located at the head of tide of the Miramichi River. For thousands of years Mi’kmaq communities along New Brunswick’s northeastern shore lived near tidal estuaries where tidal saltwater flows inland and creates an ecosystem for \"anadromous fish species such as salmon, sturgeon, gaspereau or alewife, striped bass, and eel, that seasonally move up the estuaries in large numbers.\" Some of these species spawned above the ‘head of tide’ and up the freshwater streams.{{cite book\\|author\\=Leavitt, R. M.\\|year\\=1995\\|title\\=Maliseet \\& Micmac: First Nations of the Maritimes\\|publisher\\=Tribune Printing\\|location\\=Sackville, New Brunswick}}",
"Although officially recognised in 1783, Metepenagiag has been home to a Mi'kmaq community for over 3000 years,{{cite journal\\|author\\=Allen, Patricia Marlene\\|title\\=Metepenagiag: New Brunswick's Oldest Village\\|location\\=Fredericton and Red Bank\\|publisher\\=Goose Lane Editions and Red Bank First Nation\\|year\\=1994\\|url\\=http://www.metepenagiagpark.com\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103235329/http://metepenagiagpark.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} making it the oldest continuously settled community in New Brunswick.",
"### Augustine Mound",
"Evidence for the age of the community was revealed in 1972 by [Joseph Mike Augustine](/wiki/Joe_Mike_Augustine \"Joe Mike Augustine\"). After reading a 1972 National Geographic article about an ancient burial mound in Arizona, Augustine recalled the mound where his father had taken him near his home.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ammsa.com/content/joe\\-augustine\\-footprints\\|title\\=Joe Augustine \\- Footprints\\|author\\=Cheryl Petten\\|year\\=1995\\|publisher\\=AMMSA\\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2013}} The mound was on the [caribou](/wiki/Caribou \"Caribou\") hunting trail that he and his father used regularly and they stopped to rest there.",
"{{blockquote\\|\"They'd make a fire and have some tea or a bit of something to eat, and Augustine's father would tell him of the history of this place. In times past, his father would say, Indians would celebrate here, building a fire in the centre of the mound and dancing around it. It was those Indians, his father said, who built the mound.\"\\|Petten\\|1995}}",
"The artifacts found at the site (the Augustine Mound), and a second nearby site (the Oxbow site) demonstrated that Metepenagiag had been continuously inhabited for over 3000 years, and that the community enjoyed trading relationships with other First Nations communities, stretching as far west as the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") Valley.",
"There has been some disagreement among residents concerning naming this important cultural and spiritual site, The Augustine Mound. While it was Joe Mike Augustine who first brought attention to the ancient burial site, most residents were aware of its existence. The name also falsely suggests that it is only the resting place of members of the Augustine family. While this is likely true, the mound was likely a community burial site, meaning that many of the oldest families of Metepenagiag have ancestors interred therein. Some feel the much more inclusive \"Metepenagiag Mound\" would better describe and honor those whose remains lie beneath the mound.",
"In 1975 the Augustine Mound was designated as a [National Historic Site of Canada](/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada \"National Historic Sites of Canada\"). The Augustine Mound has similarities to the elaborate burial rites of the Adena culture of the Ohio Valley and contained materials that were not local including copper from Lake Superior area. Turnbull argues that the Red Bank people were part of a broad Northeastern pre\\-contact trade network. He also suggested that some Maritime people adopted aspects of the Adena culture and religion.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Turnbull, C. J.\\|year\\=1976\\|title\\=The Augustine Site: a Mound from the Maritimes\\|journal\\=Archaeology of Eastern North America\\|volume\\=4\\|pages\\=50–62}} Keenlyside claims that Adena culture peoples moved to Atlantic Canada.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.civilization.ca/research\\-and\\-collections/research/resources\\-for\\-scholars/essays\\-1/archaeology\\-1/david\\-keenlyside/glimpses\\-of\\-atlantic\\-canadas\\-past3/\\|publisher\\=Canadian Museum of Civilization\\|location\\=Gatineau, Quebec\\|author\\=David Keenlyside\\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2013\\|title\\=Burial Mounds and Trade Networks\\|series\\=Glimpses of Atlantic Canada’s Past\\|year\\=1999}}originally published in Revista de Arqueología Americana, no. 16, 1999\\. Ceramic fragments also found at Red Bank are illustrative of the ceramic technology in use by Maritime First Nations 2,500 to 3,000 years ago.",
"### Oxbow",
"In 1982, the nearby Oxbow archaeological site, located within the reserve land of the Metepenagiag Mi’kmaq Nation on an oxbow bend of the Southwest Miramichi River,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep\\-reg/place\\-lieu.aspx?id\\=4299\\|title\\=Oxbow National Historic Site of Canada, Red Bank Indian Reserve\\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2013\\|publisher\\=Parks Canada\\|author\\=PC}} was also designated a National Historic Site of Canada for its role as \"witness and record of 3000 years of continuous Mi’kmaq use of the site\".{{blockquote\\|The Oxbow \"contains evidence of 3,000 years of Mi’kmaq history (from 1,000 BC to the present) on the north bank of the Little Southwest Miramichi River at the head of tide. Annual flooding of the river bank has created a well\\-stratified site in which the cultural development through time is preserved in multiple layers of sediment. This deep stratigraphic development is virtually unique in Maritime Canada.\\|Parks Canada}} Over 100 additional archaeological sites have been discovered in the area since 1975\\. Metepenagiaq First Nations now has their Metepenagiag Heritage Park.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metepenagiagpark.com\\|title\\=Metepenagiag Heritage Park\\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2008\\|publisher\\=Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704064135/http://www.metepenagiagpark.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=July 4, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metepenagiag.com\\|title\\=Metepenagiag Website\\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2008\\|publisher\\=Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705202930/http://www.metepenagiag.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=July 5, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Mustafa was the son of Osman Pasha Bajalan. He never succeeded his father as hereditary governor of Zohab because the Persians conquered the Pashlik annexed it to [Kermanshah](/wiki/Kermanshah_Province "Kermanshah Province").{{cite book\|last1\=Ateş\|first1\=Sabri\|title\=Ottoman\-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|location\=UK\|isbn\=9781107245082\|page\=106}}
Mustafa's father Osman Pasha Bajalan after being overthrown in Zohab moved to Constantinople and then Mosul where Mustafa was born where after his education he entered the Ottoman civil service and took up the post of kaymakam of Al 'Aziziyah then Badrah and finally Khanaqin where his tribe still enjoyed influence because of its proximity to his ancestors former Pashlik and the number of Bajalan tribesmen who had followed their chief and settled in the town from across the Persian frontier.
Mustafa was still head of the Bajalan tribe at turn of the 20th century but the family and tribe had been in decline with the loss of hereditary rule.
Mustafa was described by civil administration of [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia") as one of the most important political factors in the region.{{cite book\|last1\=Soane\|first1\=Ely Banister\|title\=Notes on the Tribes of Southern Kurdistan\|date\=1918\|publisher\=Government Press\|location\=University of California, Berkeley\|page\=3}}
[Ely Banister Soane](/wiki/Ely_Bannister_Soane "Ely Bannister Soane") a British political officer describes him a man with a harsh and determined character, he also notes that Mustafa was a Kurd to the backbone and was of pure descent, Soane also comments that 'Mustafa has a great reputation for dashing bravery in tribal fighting' and that he would be 'an energetic and enthusiastic instrument in any scheme for the autonomy of Kurdistan. It is also documented that Mustafa Pasha Bajlan was always anti\-Turk and was at various times been in rebellion.{{cite book\|last1\=Soane\|first1\=Ely Banister\|title\=Notes on the Tribes of Southern Kurdistan\|date\=1918\|publisher\=Government Press\|location\=University of California, Berkeley\|page\=4}}
The Ottoman government and Mustafa had been in constant friction with each other and as a result he had spent many years in exile in Constantinople.{{cite book\|last1\=Civil Commissioner\|first1\=Iraq\|title\=Review of the Civil Administration of the Occupied Territories of Al ʹIraq 1914\-1918\|date\=1918\|publisher\=Government Press\|location\=University of Chicago\|page\=19}} In total he was kept practically a prisoner by Abdul Hamed for 13 years, first in Constantinople and then in Baghdad.
His contact and relationships with British officials alarmed the Turks and Arabs to the extent that he was called to Baghdad and placed under house arrest in 1912\.{{Cite book\|title \= The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Volume 31\|last \= Chisholm\|first \= Hugh\|publisher \= University Press\|year \= 1922\|isbn \= \|location \= University of Michigan\|pages \= 688}}
[Gertrude Bell](/wiki/Gertrude_Bell "Gertrude Bell") describes Mustafa as being a Kurdish chief of high repute and notes "Did I ever tell you that Mustapha Pasha Bajlan (to whom you gave a silver pencil) died while I was in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") a heart attack. It's a great loss; he was a staunch supporter at Khaniqin \[Khanaqin] and a very old friend of mine. I had a great affection for him. His wife has written me several letters \- she is a delightful woman. Some time I must get up to Khaniqin to see her."{{cite web\|last1\=Bell\|first1\=Gertrude\|title\=Letters 2/5/1921\|url\=http://www.gerty.ncl.ac.uk/letter\_details.php?letter\_id\=471\|website\=Newcastle University, Gertrude Bell Archive\|accessdate\=16 February 2016}}
His tribe the Bajlan note the British, are half on the Turkish side and half Persian side of the frontier, he must be taken into account, the Turkish sections being under the influence of Mustafa Pasha, of Khaniqin, who is the most important political factor in that district.{{cite book\|last1\=Civil Commissioner\|first1\=Iraq\|title\=Review of the Civil Administration of the Occupied Territories of Al ʹIraq 1914\-1918\|date\=1918\|publisher\=Government Press\|location\=University of Chicago\|page\=19}}
The autumn of 1917 allowed, finally, the installation of a British Political Officer at [Khaniqin](/wiki/Khanaqin "Khanaqin"), after nine months of heart\-rending petitions from Mustafa Pasha Bajlan and every class in the ruined countryside.
Mustafa had a harem in which his two wives lived, one of which was Asma Khanum, the daughter of the last [Baban](/wiki/Baban "Baban") prince Ahmed Pasha.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Mustafa was the son of Osman Pasha Bajalan. He never succeeded his father as hereditary governor of Zohab because the Persians conquered the Pashlik annexed it to [Kermanshah](/wiki/Kermanshah_Province \"Kermanshah Province\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Ateş\\|first1\\=Sabri\\|title\\=Ottoman\\-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843–1914\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|location\\=UK\\|isbn\\=9781107245082\\|page\\=106}}",
"Mustafa's father Osman Pasha Bajalan after being overthrown in Zohab moved to Constantinople and then Mosul where Mustafa was born where after his education he entered the Ottoman civil service and took up the post of kaymakam of Al 'Aziziyah then Badrah and finally Khanaqin where his tribe still enjoyed influence because of its proximity to his ancestors former Pashlik and the number of Bajalan tribesmen who had followed their chief and settled in the town from across the Persian frontier.",
"Mustafa was still head of the Bajalan tribe at turn of the 20th century but the family and tribe had been in decline with the loss of hereditary rule.",
"Mustafa was described by civil administration of [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") as one of the most important political factors in the region.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Soane\\|first1\\=Ely Banister\\|title\\=Notes on the Tribes of Southern Kurdistan\\|date\\=1918\\|publisher\\=Government Press\\|location\\=University of California, Berkeley\\|page\\=3}}",
"[Ely Banister Soane](/wiki/Ely_Bannister_Soane \"Ely Bannister Soane\") a British political officer describes him a man with a harsh and determined character, he also notes that Mustafa was a Kurd to the backbone and was of pure descent, Soane also comments that 'Mustafa has a great reputation for dashing bravery in tribal fighting' and that he would be 'an energetic and enthusiastic instrument in any scheme for the autonomy of Kurdistan. It is also documented that Mustafa Pasha Bajlan was always anti\\-Turk and was at various times been in rebellion.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Soane\\|first1\\=Ely Banister\\|title\\=Notes on the Tribes of Southern Kurdistan\\|date\\=1918\\|publisher\\=Government Press\\|location\\=University of California, Berkeley\\|page\\=4}}",
"The Ottoman government and Mustafa had been in constant friction with each other and as a result he had spent many years in exile in Constantinople.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Civil Commissioner\\|first1\\=Iraq\\|title\\=Review of the Civil Administration of the Occupied Territories of Al ʹIraq 1914\\-1918\\|date\\=1918\\|publisher\\=Government Press\\|location\\=University of Chicago\\|page\\=19}} In total he was kept practically a prisoner by Abdul Hamed for 13 years, first in Constantinople and then in Baghdad.",
"His contact and relationships with British officials alarmed the Turks and Arabs to the extent that he was called to Baghdad and placed under house arrest in 1912\\.{{Cite book\\|title \\= The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Volume 31\\|last \\= Chisholm\\|first \\= Hugh\\|publisher \\= University Press\\|year \\= 1922\\|isbn \\= \\|location \\= University of Michigan\\|pages \\= 688}}",
"[Gertrude Bell](/wiki/Gertrude_Bell \"Gertrude Bell\") describes Mustafa as being a Kurdish chief of high repute and notes \"Did I ever tell you that Mustapha Pasha Bajlan (to whom you gave a silver pencil) died while I was in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") a heart attack. It's a great loss; he was a staunch supporter at Khaniqin \\[Khanaqin] and a very old friend of mine. I had a great affection for him. His wife has written me several letters \\- she is a delightful woman. Some time I must get up to Khaniqin to see her.\"{{cite web\\|last1\\=Bell\\|first1\\=Gertrude\\|title\\=Letters 2/5/1921\\|url\\=http://www.gerty.ncl.ac.uk/letter\\_details.php?letter\\_id\\=471\\|website\\=Newcastle University, Gertrude Bell Archive\\|accessdate\\=16 February 2016}}",
"His tribe the Bajlan note the British, are half on the Turkish side and half Persian side of the frontier, he must be taken into account, the Turkish sections being under the influence of Mustafa Pasha, of Khaniqin, who is the most important political factor in that district.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Civil Commissioner\\|first1\\=Iraq\\|title\\=Review of the Civil Administration of the Occupied Territories of Al ʹIraq 1914\\-1918\\|date\\=1918\\|publisher\\=Government Press\\|location\\=University of Chicago\\|page\\=19}}",
"The autumn of 1917 allowed, finally, the installation of a British Political Officer at [Khaniqin](/wiki/Khanaqin \"Khanaqin\"), after nine months of heart\\-rending petitions from Mustafa Pasha Bajlan and every class in the ruined countryside.",
"Mustafa had a harem in which his two wives lived, one of which was Asma Khanum, the daughter of the last [Baban](/wiki/Baban \"Baban\") prince Ahmed Pasha.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early career
Lafon\-Blaniac enlisted as a second lieutenant in the 5th Regiment of *chasseurs à cheval* (French [light cavalry](/wiki/Light_cavalry "Light cavalry")), in 1792\.
After seeing action in Italy, he saw further action in Napoleon's [Egypt](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria "French campaign in Egypt and Syria"), and was [equerry](/wiki/Equerry "Equerry") to [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte "Joseph Bonaparte") in Austria, Prusia and Naples.{{in lang\|fr}}. [Hoefer, Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand_Hoefer "Ferdinand Hoefer") (1855\). [*Nouvelle biographie générale depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours: Koch\-Lal*, p. 556\. Firmin\-Didot et Cie.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ug4PAAAAYAAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA755) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
He was promoted to brigadier general in 1806\.Napoleon; Bruno Colson, ed. (2015\). [*Napoleon on War*, p. 455\. Oxford University Press.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IfezBgAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA455) {{ISBN\|9780199685561}}, *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
### Peninsular War
{{main\|Peninsular War}}
When [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte "Joseph Bonaparte") became King of Spain in 1808 Lafon\-Blaniac entered Spanish service as his aide\-de\-camp, with the rank of major general. In 1810 he was appointed governor of Madrid.{{in lang\|fr}}. Liévyns, A. (1844\). [*Fastes de la Légion\-d'honneur*, p. 302\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=w-ILi6zGgeoC&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA302) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
In March 1812, Lafon\-Blaniac was named governor of La Mancha and given command of the vanguard for the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 "Army of the Centre (France)").
Appointed Captain\-General of New Castille, he was left in command of the garrison when King Joseph marched from Madrid on 21 July, too late to help [Marmont](/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont "Auguste de Marmont")'s [Army of Portugal](/wiki/Army_of_Portugal_%28France%29 "Army of Portugal (France)") at [Salamanca](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca "Battle of Salamanca") (22 July).[Oman, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Oman "Charles Oman") (1914\). [*A History of the Peninsular War*, Vol. V, pp. 484–488, 507–508, 516–517\.](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/62291/pg62291-images.html#FNanchor_62) *Project Gutenberg*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
At the beginning of August, with Wellington's vanguard rapidly approaching, Lafon\-Blaniac was given the order to defend the [citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid "Citadel of Madrid") —contrary to Jourdan's advice— rather than withdrawing from the capital.The garrison was also responsible for the 500 non\-transportable sick of the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 "Army of the Centre (France)"), who were not in the [Retiro citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid "Citadel of Madrid"), but at the military hospital in the Prado, outside the fortifications. (Oman, 1914: p. 508\.) His garrison at Madrid consisted of some 2,000 men, mainly drafts belonging to the [Army of Andalusia](/wiki/Army_of_Andalusia_%28France%29 "Army of Andalusia (France)"). Although they belonged to several different regiments, they were all French troops of the line; there were no [*juramentados*](/wiki/Juramentado_%28Peninsular_War%29 "Juramentado (Peninsular War)") among them.
Although the double [enceinte](/wiki/Enceinte "Enceinte") and the [star fort](/wiki/Bastion_fort "Bastion fort") in the interior would have been effective against guerrilleros or insurgents, the place could not hold out against siege\-guns, and following the [Battle of Majadahonda](/wiki/Battle_of_Majadahonda "Battle of Majadahonda") (11 August), fought on the outskirts of the city, on 14 August 1812 Lafon\-Blaniac surrendered. Wellington himself had entered the city two days previously;Lipscombe, Nick (2013\). [*Wellington's Guns*, p. 246\. Bloomsbury Publishing.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq-dCwAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA246) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\. an initial attack on the citadel had forced its defenders into the inner enceinte which, although formidably palisaded, with a ditch twelve feet deep and twenty\-four wide, had only one well left. An additional danger was that the huge arsenal was vulnerable to shell\-fire.
In June 1813 Lafon\-Blaniac was wounded at [Vitoria](/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria "Battle of Vitoria").
### Later career
Afterwards he re\-entered French service, with the rank of general de division. In January 1814 he was given command of the Cavalry of the Reserve of the [Army of Italy](/wiki/Army_of_Italy_%28France%29 "Army of Italy (France)"), and fought in all the battles until Napoleon abdicated. While being retained in the army and given the [Order of St. Louis](/wiki/Order_of_St._Louis "Order of St. Louis"), he returned to the Emperors side during the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days").
After the [Bourbons](/wiki/Bourbon_Dynasty "Bourbon Dynasty") had returned to power once more, Lafon\-Blaniac eventually was listed in the army again from 1818 until his retirement in 1825\. After the [July Revolution](/wiki/July_Revolution "July Revolution") of 1830 he was reactivated, named a grand officer of the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour "Legion of Honour") and later given command of a division on [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica "Corsica"). He died there in [Vico](/wiki/Vico%2C_Corse-du-Sud "Vico, Corse-du-Sud"). His name is inscribed on the southern pillar of the [Arc de Triomphe](/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe "Arc de Triomphe").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early career",
"Lafon\\-Blaniac enlisted as a second lieutenant in the 5th Regiment of *chasseurs à cheval* (French [light cavalry](/wiki/Light_cavalry \"Light cavalry\")), in 1792\\.",
"After seeing action in Italy, he saw further action in Napoleon's [Egypt](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria \"French campaign in Egypt and Syria\"), and was [equerry](/wiki/Equerry \"Equerry\") to [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte \"Joseph Bonaparte\") in Austria, Prusia and Naples.{{in lang\\|fr}}. [Hoefer, Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand_Hoefer \"Ferdinand Hoefer\") (1855\\). [*Nouvelle biographie générale depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours: Koch\\-Lal*, p. 556\\. Firmin\\-Didot et Cie.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ug4PAAAAYAAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA755) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"He was promoted to brigadier general in 1806\\.Napoleon; Bruno Colson, ed. (2015\\). [*Napoleon on War*, p. 455\\. Oxford University Press.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IfezBgAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA455) {{ISBN\\|9780199685561}}, *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"### Peninsular War",
"{{main\\|Peninsular War}}",
"When [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte \"Joseph Bonaparte\") became King of Spain in 1808 Lafon\\-Blaniac entered Spanish service as his aide\\-de\\-camp, with the rank of major general. In 1810 he was appointed governor of Madrid.{{in lang\\|fr}}. Liévyns, A. (1844\\). [*Fastes de la Légion\\-d'honneur*, p. 302\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=w-ILi6zGgeoC&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA302) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"In March 1812, Lafon\\-Blaniac was named governor of La Mancha and given command of the vanguard for the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 \"Army of the Centre (France)\").",
"Appointed Captain\\-General of New Castille, he was left in command of the garrison when King Joseph marched from Madrid on 21 July, too late to help [Marmont](/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont \"Auguste de Marmont\")'s [Army of Portugal](/wiki/Army_of_Portugal_%28France%29 \"Army of Portugal (France)\") at [Salamanca](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca \"Battle of Salamanca\") (22 July).[Oman, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Oman \"Charles Oman\") (1914\\). [*A History of the Peninsular War*, Vol. V, pp. 484–488, 507–508, 516–517\\.](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/62291/pg62291-images.html#FNanchor_62) *Project Gutenberg*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"At the beginning of August, with Wellington's vanguard rapidly approaching, Lafon\\-Blaniac was given the order to defend the [citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid \"Citadel of Madrid\") —contrary to Jourdan's advice— rather than withdrawing from the capital.The garrison was also responsible for the 500 non\\-transportable sick of the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 \"Army of the Centre (France)\"), who were not in the [Retiro citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid \"Citadel of Madrid\"), but at the military hospital in the Prado, outside the fortifications. (Oman, 1914: p. 508\\.) His garrison at Madrid consisted of some 2,000 men, mainly drafts belonging to the [Army of Andalusia](/wiki/Army_of_Andalusia_%28France%29 \"Army of Andalusia (France)\"). Although they belonged to several different regiments, they were all French troops of the line; there were no [*juramentados*](/wiki/Juramentado_%28Peninsular_War%29 \"Juramentado (Peninsular War)\") among them.",
"Although the double [enceinte](/wiki/Enceinte \"Enceinte\") and the [star fort](/wiki/Bastion_fort \"Bastion fort\") in the interior would have been effective against guerrilleros or insurgents, the place could not hold out against siege\\-guns, and following the [Battle of Majadahonda](/wiki/Battle_of_Majadahonda \"Battle of Majadahonda\") (11 August), fought on the outskirts of the city, on 14 August 1812 Lafon\\-Blaniac surrendered. Wellington himself had entered the city two days previously;Lipscombe, Nick (2013\\). [*Wellington's Guns*, p. 246\\. Bloomsbury Publishing.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq-dCwAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA246) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\. an initial attack on the citadel had forced its defenders into the inner enceinte which, although formidably palisaded, with a ditch twelve feet deep and twenty\\-four wide, had only one well left. An additional danger was that the huge arsenal was vulnerable to shell\\-fire.",
"In June 1813 Lafon\\-Blaniac was wounded at [Vitoria](/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria \"Battle of Vitoria\").",
"### Later career",
"Afterwards he re\\-entered French service, with the rank of general de division. In January 1814 he was given command of the Cavalry of the Reserve of the [Army of Italy](/wiki/Army_of_Italy_%28France%29 \"Army of Italy (France)\"), and fought in all the battles until Napoleon abdicated. While being retained in the army and given the [Order of St. Louis](/wiki/Order_of_St._Louis \"Order of St. Louis\"), he returned to the Emperors side during the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\").",
"After the [Bourbons](/wiki/Bourbon_Dynasty \"Bourbon Dynasty\") had returned to power once more, Lafon\\-Blaniac eventually was listed in the army again from 1818 until his retirement in 1825\\. After the [July Revolution](/wiki/July_Revolution \"July Revolution\") of 1830 he was reactivated, named a grand officer of the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour \"Legion of Honour\") and later given command of a division on [Corsica](/wiki/Corsica \"Corsica\"). He died there in [Vico](/wiki/Vico%2C_Corse-du-Sud \"Vico, Corse-du-Sud\"). His name is inscribed on the southern pillar of the [Arc de Triomphe](/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe \"Arc de Triomphe\").",
""
] |
### Peninsular War
{{main\|Peninsular War}}
When [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte "Joseph Bonaparte") became King of Spain in 1808 Lafon\-Blaniac entered Spanish service as his aide\-de\-camp, with the rank of major general. In 1810 he was appointed governor of Madrid.{{in lang\|fr}}. Liévyns, A. (1844\). [*Fastes de la Légion\-d'honneur*, p. 302\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=w-ILi6zGgeoC&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA302) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
In March 1812, Lafon\-Blaniac was named governor of La Mancha and given command of the vanguard for the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 "Army of the Centre (France)").
Appointed Captain\-General of New Castille, he was left in command of the garrison when King Joseph marched from Madrid on 21 July, too late to help [Marmont](/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont "Auguste de Marmont")'s [Army of Portugal](/wiki/Army_of_Portugal_%28France%29 "Army of Portugal (France)") at [Salamanca](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca "Battle of Salamanca") (22 July).[Oman, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Oman "Charles Oman") (1914\). [*A History of the Peninsular War*, Vol. V, pp. 484–488, 507–508, 516–517\.](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/62291/pg62291-images.html#FNanchor_62) *Project Gutenberg*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\.
At the beginning of August, with Wellington's vanguard rapidly approaching, Lafon\-Blaniac was given the order to defend the [citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid "Citadel of Madrid") —contrary to Jourdan's advice— rather than withdrawing from the capital.The garrison was also responsible for the 500 non\-transportable sick of the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 "Army of the Centre (France)"), who were not in the [Retiro citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid "Citadel of Madrid"), but at the military hospital in the Prado, outside the fortifications. (Oman, 1914: p. 508\.) His garrison at Madrid consisted of some 2,000 men, mainly drafts belonging to the [Army of Andalusia](/wiki/Army_of_Andalusia_%28France%29 "Army of Andalusia (France)"). Although they belonged to several different regiments, they were all French troops of the line; there were no [*juramentados*](/wiki/Juramentado_%28Peninsular_War%29 "Juramentado (Peninsular War)") among them.
Although the double [enceinte](/wiki/Enceinte "Enceinte") and the [star fort](/wiki/Bastion_fort "Bastion fort") in the interior would have been effective against guerrilleros or insurgents, the place could not hold out against siege\-guns, and following the [Battle of Majadahonda](/wiki/Battle_of_Majadahonda "Battle of Majadahonda") (11 August), fought on the outskirts of the city, on 14 August 1812 Lafon\-Blaniac surrendered. Wellington himself had entered the city two days previously;Lipscombe, Nick (2013\). [*Wellington's Guns*, p. 246\. Bloomsbury Publishing.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq-dCwAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA246) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\. an initial attack on the citadel had forced its defenders into the inner enceinte which, although formidably palisaded, with a ditch twelve feet deep and twenty\-four wide, had only one well left. An additional danger was that the huge arsenal was vulnerable to shell\-fire.
In June 1813 Lafon\-Blaniac was wounded at [Vitoria](/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria "Battle of Vitoria").
|
[
"### Peninsular War",
"{{main\\|Peninsular War}}",
"When [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte \"Joseph Bonaparte\") became King of Spain in 1808 Lafon\\-Blaniac entered Spanish service as his aide\\-de\\-camp, with the rank of major general. In 1810 he was appointed governor of Madrid.{{in lang\\|fr}}. Liévyns, A. (1844\\). [*Fastes de la Légion\\-d'honneur*, p. 302\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=w-ILi6zGgeoC&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA302) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"In March 1812, Lafon\\-Blaniac was named governor of La Mancha and given command of the vanguard for the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 \"Army of the Centre (France)\").",
"Appointed Captain\\-General of New Castille, he was left in command of the garrison when King Joseph marched from Madrid on 21 July, too late to help [Marmont](/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont \"Auguste de Marmont\")'s [Army of Portugal](/wiki/Army_of_Portugal_%28France%29 \"Army of Portugal (France)\") at [Salamanca](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamanca \"Battle of Salamanca\") (22 July).[Oman, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Oman \"Charles Oman\") (1914\\). [*A History of the Peninsular War*, Vol. V, pp. 484–488, 507–508, 516–517\\.](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/62291/pg62291-images.html#FNanchor_62) *Project Gutenberg*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\.",
"At the beginning of August, with Wellington's vanguard rapidly approaching, Lafon\\-Blaniac was given the order to defend the [citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid \"Citadel of Madrid\") —contrary to Jourdan's advice— rather than withdrawing from the capital.The garrison was also responsible for the 500 non\\-transportable sick of the [Army of the Centre](/wiki/Army_of_the_Centre_%28France%29 \"Army of the Centre (France)\"), who were not in the [Retiro citadel](/wiki/Citadel_of_Madrid \"Citadel of Madrid\"), but at the military hospital in the Prado, outside the fortifications. (Oman, 1914: p. 508\\.) His garrison at Madrid consisted of some 2,000 men, mainly drafts belonging to the [Army of Andalusia](/wiki/Army_of_Andalusia_%28France%29 \"Army of Andalusia (France)\"). Although they belonged to several different regiments, they were all French troops of the line; there were no [*juramentados*](/wiki/Juramentado_%28Peninsular_War%29 \"Juramentado (Peninsular War)\") among them.",
"Although the double [enceinte](/wiki/Enceinte \"Enceinte\") and the [star fort](/wiki/Bastion_fort \"Bastion fort\") in the interior would have been effective against guerrilleros or insurgents, the place could not hold out against siege\\-guns, and following the [Battle of Majadahonda](/wiki/Battle_of_Majadahonda \"Battle of Majadahonda\") (11 August), fought on the outskirts of the city, on 14 August 1812 Lafon\\-Blaniac surrendered. Wellington himself had entered the city two days previously;Lipscombe, Nick (2013\\). [*Wellington's Guns*, p. 246\\. Bloomsbury Publishing.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq-dCwAAQBAJ&dq=lafon+blaniac&pg=PA246) *Google Books*. Retrieved 27 April 2023\\. an initial attack on the citadel had forced its defenders into the inner enceinte which, although formidably palisaded, with a ditch twelve feet deep and twenty\\-four wide, had only one well left. An additional danger was that the huge arsenal was vulnerable to shell\\-fire.",
"In June 1813 Lafon\\-Blaniac was wounded at [Vitoria](/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria \"Battle of Vitoria\").",
""
] |
Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice
---------------------------------------------
Launched to recognize the center's 20th anniversary, the Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice (formerly the Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics) is a biennial prize honoring an artist or group of artists who has taken great risks to advance social justice. International in scope, it is awarded for a project's long\-term impact, boldness, and artistic excellence.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
The prize initiative unfolds across various platforms and over an extended period of time. An exhibition of the winning project, a conference, integration into classes, and a publication featuring select nominated projects complement a cash award and short\-term New York City residency for the honoree.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}}
Beginning with the 2018\-2020 biennial prize cycle, the prize was renamed the Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice after art dealer Jane Lombard gifted $5 million to the center. The prize is worth $25,000\.{{cite web \|last1\=Greenberger \|first1\=Alex \|title\=Dealer Jane Lombard Gives $5 M. to Vera List Center for Art and Politics \|url\=http://www.artnews.com/2018/09/20/dealer\-jane\-lombard\-gives\-5\-m\-vera\-list\-center\-art\-politics/ \|website\=ARTNEWS \|date\=20 September 2018 \|accessdate\=11 January 2019}}
### Prize winners
**2022–2024 Prize Winner: ProppaNOW**
The collective won the prize for the show *OCCURRENT AFFAIR*. The jury's choice voted unanimous for the artist collective. Quote from the justification for the decision: "We are honored to bestow the 2022–2024 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice on [proppaNOW](/wiki/ProppaNOW "ProppaNOW"), the First Nations artist collective from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), Australia. Founded in 2003 to combat the invisibility of urban [Aboriginal contemporary art](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_contemporary_art "Indigenous Australian contemporary art") that addresses the issues of our time, it has broken with expectations of what is proper (‘proppa’) in Aboriginal art; created a new sovereign space for First Nations artists internationally outside colonial stereotypes, desires for authenticity, and capitalist capitulations; and opened new political imaginaries."{{cite web \|url\=https://aboriginalartdirectory.com/proppa\-prize\-winners \|title\=Proppa Prize Winners \|website\=Aboriginal Art Directory \|date\=2022\-10\-27 \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-28}}
**2020\-2022 Prize Winner: Avni Sethi**
The 2020\-2022 Prize was won by [Avni Sethi](/wiki/Avni_Sethi "Avni Sethi") for her project, 'Conflictorium' \- a museum of conflict established in Mirzapur, Ahmedabad, in India.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-12\|title\=Gujarat: Avni Sethi wins Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice\|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gujarat\-avni\-sethi\-wins\-jane\-lombard\-prize\-for\-art\-and\-social\-justice\-6721257/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-01\|website\=The Indian Express}}
**2018\-2020 Prize Winner: Chimurenga**
The 2018\-2020 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice was awarded to [Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga_%28collective%29 "Chimurenga (collective)"), the Pan African collective who have boldly and unapologetically reclaimed the African imaginary.[Chimurenga](http://www.veralistcenter.org/lead/1/biennial-prize/#20182020-prize-winner-chimurenga)
Chimurenga invests in deep research on history, representation and culture through a methodology of collective remobilization of knowledge. The artistic process is a forward reimagining of the global polity, through a multiplicity of forms, eschewing the separation of various art forms from one another and from wider social and political practices. This includes the Pan African Space Station,[Pan African Space Station](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) the roaming Chimurenga library,[Chimurenga library](https://www.theshowroom.org/exhibitions/the-chimurenga-library) and the periodical *Chronic*, which incorporate the sonic, performative and written experiences in digital and physical spaces through which the project decenters and recreates new centers of knowledge. It reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the pan African community that is world\-making.
Founded by [Ntone Edjabe](/wiki/Ntone_Edjabe "Ntone Edjabe") in 2002, Chimurenga performs as a pan\-African platform that promotes voices of culture, arts and politics from Africa. As one of Chimurenga's outputs, Pan African Space Station (PASS) is an online radio station and pop\-up studio,[Pan African Space Station (PASS)](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) simultaneously, "a performance and exhibition space; a research platform and living archive." Developed by Chimurenga in collaboration with musician and composer Neo Muyanga in 2008, PASS is a virtual and material space that reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the Pan\-African community. With its slogan "There are other worlds out there they never told you about," the interdisciplinary station intersects sound, music and words, further engages in conversations including art and technology, community and borders, utopia and oppression.
As an internet based radio station, PASS explores the possibilities of creating new knowledge across distributed networks of time and space. Through live performance, stories about music in Africa and archival exhibitions, PASS plays a significant role in challenging existing ideas about Africa and bringing unique aspects of the interconnection between music and history. At the same time, PASS also expands its projects to physical spaces such as cities of Johannesburg, Amsterdam, Helsinki and Cairo. Chimurenga uses a metaphorical term "landing" to emphasize the ways in which the virtual "space station" enters into physical spaces. Upon landing each city, Chimurenga collaborates with local cultural producers to organize conferences, festivals and exhibitions. As such PASS is a catalyst for idea\-sharing and innovation of African art and culture. As noted on its website, PASS investigates "how we locate ourselves and how we mediate our human and historic commonality."
Press:
[Art Forum](https://www.artforum.com/news/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-center-s-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-77019)
[Dallas Art Dealers Association](http://dallasartdealers.org/news-chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-2/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/news/221020/chimurenga-receives-the-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)
[Brittle Paper](https://brittlepaper.com/2018/10/chimurenga-collective-awarded-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
[ART COLLECTION](http://scheryn.com/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/SCHERYN)
[ArtNews](http://www.artnews.com/2018/10/04/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-social-justice/)
[Contemporary And](https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/chimurenga-named-winner-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
[Art News](http://www.artnews.com/2015/11/30/for-performa-15-chimurenga-hosted-a-radio-station-a-book-market-a-hair-salon-and-quite-a-bit-more/)
[Philanthropy New York](https://philanthropynewyork.org/news/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-and-social-justice)
[HRMS.NEWS](https://hrms.news/news/106432/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)
[Emily Carr News](https://www.ecuad.ca/news/2018/jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-awarded-in-new-york)
[APOLLO](https://www.apollo-magazine.com/guggenheim-to-return-kirchner-painting-to-heirs-of-original-owner/)
[Roberto Bunini](http://robertobunini.com/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
**2016\-2018 Prize Winner: Maria Thereza Alves**
Brazilian artist [Maria Thereza Alves](/wiki/Maria_Thereza_Alves "Maria Thereza Alves")[Maria Thereza Alves](http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018-prize-winner-maria-thereza-alves-and-iseeds-of-changei/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525025401/http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018\-prize\-winner\-maria\-thereza\-alves\-and\-iseeds\-of\-changei/ \|date\=2019\-05\-25 }} research\-based practice, literally and metaphorically holds open a space at the intersection of art and science to challenge and think expansively about the social history and possible futures that germinating seeds hold within themselves. Though her project Seeds of Change Alvs explores the social, political and cultural history of ballast flora in port cities and, in so doing, reveals patterns, temporalities and instruments of colonialism, commerce and migration going back many centuries.
Seeds of Change is a long\-term project that so far has been presented in several European port cities – Marseille, Liverpool, and Bristol among them. It examines the legacies of colonialism and the global commerce of goods and people through the displacement of plants, focusing on the scientific, social and political history of ballast, the waste material used to stabilize ships in maritime trade and dumped in ports at the end of the ships' passages. Ballast contains "dormant" seeds that can remain viable in the soil for hundreds of years before germinating and growing. As Alves grows young plants from these dormant seeds – often in floating barges or gardens, developed in collaboration with local communities and scientists – she examines how we understand the identity of a place and its sociopolitical histories. As such the project questions the official accounts of culture as well as the lands it is built on and through.
Press:
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/31/nyregion/ballast-seeds-new-york.html)
[ARTNEWS](http://www.artnews.com/2018/07/20/activating-public-space-high-line-art-walk-curator-cecilia-alemani/)
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/14/arts/what-to-see-in-new-york-art-galleries-this-week.html)
[OBSERVER](https://observer.com/2017/11/artist-maria-thereza-alves-is-charting-the-history-of-migration-in-nyc-using-seeds/)
[ArtForum](https://www.artforum.com/news/maria-thereza-alves-wins-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-65000)
[INFERNO MAGAZINE](https://inferno-magazine.com/2018/02/05/maria-thereza-alves-seeds-of-change-michel-rein-paris/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/105206/winner-of-the-2016-18-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-maria-thereza-alves)
[Pioneer Works](https://pioneerworks.org/programs/seeds-of-change/)
[DAI](https://dutchartinstitute.eu/page/10343/maria-thereza-alves-is-the-recipient-of-the-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and)
**2014\-2016 Prize Winner: Abounaddara**
Abounaddara, the anonymous film collective based in Syria,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abounaddara.com/\|title\=Abounaddara\|website\=abounaddara.com}} was the recipient of The New School's 2014 Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics.{{cite web\|last1\=Kennedy\|first1\=Randy\|title\=Syrian Filmmaking Collective Wins Social Justice Art Prize\|url\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/syrian\-filmmaking\-collective\-wins\-social\-justice\-art\-prize/?\_r\=0\|website\=Arts Beat NY Times\|date\=27 October 2014 \|publisher\=The New York Times}} Throughout the course of the 18\-month collaboration, the Vera List Center and Abounaddara worked together to bring the collective's work to the [United Nations](http://webtv.un.org/watch/syria-freedom-of-speech-and-responsibility-of-representation-the-films-of-abounaddara-as-tools-to-enact-the-right-to-the-image/4300999261001) where there was a panel discussion on civilian representation and freedom of speech in Syria. The final culmination of the prize initiative, titled, "Abounaddara. The Right To The Image" was a series of events consisting of a gallery exhibition, conference and various film screenings, that explored the ways in which civilians are represented in times of conflict.
Emerging from the civil uprising in 2011, Abounaddara is known for its "[emergency cinema](https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2014/mar/26/abounaddara-collective-syria-cinema)" which seeks to transcend mainstream war reporting. The collective's work highlights individuals, coming from all sides of the conflict to remind viewers both of the daily life and complexity of the civil war unfolding in Syria. Their weekly video vignettes published on their [Vimeo account](https://vimeo.com/user11045249) are intimate, jarring, and poignant. Abounaddara's driving force within their work is the belief in the "right to the image" which they define as upholding the dignity of civilians who otherwise might not have a say in how they are represented.
Press:
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/19/movies/syrian-film-collective-offers-view-of-life-behind-a-conflict.html?smid=tw-nytimesarts&smtyp=cur&_r=0)
[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/news/id=48855)
[BOMB Magazine](http://bombmagazine.org/article/55861028/portfolio/)
[El Tiempo (Spanish)](http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/cine-y-tv/cortometrajes-de-la-guerra-en-siria/16421978)
[JutarnjiList (Croatian)](http://www.jutarnji.hr/drugo-lice-sirijske-drame-u-filmovima-anonimnog-kolektiva/1448640/)
[NPR](https://www.npr.org/2015/10/31/453509935/films-about-syrian-civil-war-move-from-online-to-new-york-gallery)
[Radio Havana Cuba (Spanish)](http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/74819-cineastas-sirios-proyectan-la-realidad-social-de-su-pais-desde-nueva-york)
[W Radio (Spanish)](http://www.wradio.com.co/noticias/internacional/cineastas-sirios-dan-voz-desde-nueva-york-a-la-gente-corriente-de-la-guerra/20151104/nota/2989828.aspx)
[artblog](https://www.theartblog.org/2014/11/news-post-syrian-collective-wins-vera-list-prize-gravers-lane-goes-big-michelle-post-brings-mucky-mucks-alive-opportunities-and-more/)
[slought](https://slought.org/resources/the_right_to_the_image)
[Souria Houria](https://souriahouria.com/syrian-cinema-collective-abounaddara-awarded-2014-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics/)
**2012\-2014 Prize Winner: Theaster Gates**
Theaster Gates was the 2012\-2014 prize recipient for, Dorchester Projects.{{cite web\|last1\=Kennedy\|first1\=Randy\|title\=New School Prize Goes to Theaster Gates\|url\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new\-school\-prize\-goes\-to\-theaster\-gates/\#postComment.\|website\=Arts Beat NY Times\|date\=11 November 2012 \|publisher\=The New York Times}} Theaster Gates: A Way of Working was an 18\-month collaboration between the artist and The New School that culminated into a two\-day forum and gallery presentation. This exhibition examined the ways in which the artist develops synergies with his work and the complexities of working in an expanded studio practice within the institutional framework. The exhibition featured several works of the artist including drawing, sculpture, installation and video.
Theaster Gates, an American artist, activist and artistic director for the [Rebuild Foundation](https://rebuild-foundation.org/), focuses his work on political enfranchisement, historical reclamation, and social inclusion. His [Dorchester Projects](http://theastergates.com/section/117693_Dorchester_Projects.html) started in 2006 with the transformation of two buildings into community gathering spaces on Chicago's South Side. Gates uses art, spirituality, and community engagement as a way to analyze urban renewal and social justice.
Press:
[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/archive/id=37157)
[NY Times](http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new-school-prize-goes-to-theaster-gates/#postComment.)
[Culturebot](http://www.culturebot.org/2013/09/19077/complicating-theaster-gates/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/109028/theaster-gates-awarded-inaugural-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics)
[Observer](https://observer.com/2012/11/theaster-gates-wins-first-ever-vera-list-prize/)
[ArtNews Media, LLC](https://www.artinamericamagazine.com/news-features/news/list-new-school-theaster-gates/)
[Words in Space](http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2013/09/22/maps-markings-another-art-roundup-harriet-bart-william-kentridge-nathan-carter-barry-mcgee-more/)
[National Urban Media](http://www.nationalurbanmedia.com/The-Vera-List-Center-Prize-for-Art-and-Politics/)
[Harvard University Graduate School of Design](https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/2012/11/theaster-gates-awarded-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and/)
[Colby News](http://www.colby.edu/news/2018/04/05/colby-appoints-theaster-gates-as-its-inaugural-distinguished-visiting-artist-and-director-of-artist-initiatives-at-the-lunder-institute-for-american-art/)
|
[
"Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice\n---------------------------------------------",
"Launched to recognize the center's 20th anniversary, the Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice (formerly the Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics) is a biennial prize honoring an artist or group of artists who has taken great risks to advance social justice. International in scope, it is awarded for a project's long\\-term impact, boldness, and artistic excellence.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"The prize initiative unfolds across various platforms and over an extended period of time. An exhibition of the winning project, a conference, integration into classes, and a publication featuring select nominated projects complement a cash award and short\\-term New York City residency for the honoree.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}}",
"Beginning with the 2018\\-2020 biennial prize cycle, the prize was renamed the Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice after art dealer Jane Lombard gifted $5 million to the center. The prize is worth $25,000\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Greenberger \\|first1\\=Alex \\|title\\=Dealer Jane Lombard Gives $5 M. to Vera List Center for Art and Politics \\|url\\=http://www.artnews.com/2018/09/20/dealer\\-jane\\-lombard\\-gives\\-5\\-m\\-vera\\-list\\-center\\-art\\-politics/ \\|website\\=ARTNEWS \\|date\\=20 September 2018 \\|accessdate\\=11 January 2019}}",
"### Prize winners",
"**2022–2024 Prize Winner: ProppaNOW**",
"The collective won the prize for the show *OCCURRENT AFFAIR*. The jury's choice voted unanimous for the artist collective. Quote from the justification for the decision: \"We are honored to bestow the 2022–2024 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice on [proppaNOW](/wiki/ProppaNOW \"ProppaNOW\"), the First Nations artist collective from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), Australia. Founded in 2003 to combat the invisibility of urban [Aboriginal contemporary art](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_contemporary_art \"Indigenous Australian contemporary art\") that addresses the issues of our time, it has broken with expectations of what is proper (‘proppa’) in Aboriginal art; created a new sovereign space for First Nations artists internationally outside colonial stereotypes, desires for authenticity, and capitalist capitulations; and opened new political imaginaries.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://aboriginalartdirectory.com/proppa\\-prize\\-winners \\|title\\=Proppa Prize Winners \\|website\\=Aboriginal Art Directory \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-28}}",
"**2020\\-2022 Prize Winner: Avni Sethi**",
"The 2020\\-2022 Prize was won by [Avni Sethi](/wiki/Avni_Sethi \"Avni Sethi\") for her project, 'Conflictorium' \\- a museum of conflict established in Mirzapur, Ahmedabad, in India.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-12\\|title\\=Gujarat: Avni Sethi wins Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice\\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gujarat\\-avni\\-sethi\\-wins\\-jane\\-lombard\\-prize\\-for\\-art\\-and\\-social\\-justice\\-6721257/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-01\\|website\\=The Indian Express}}",
"**2018\\-2020 Prize Winner: Chimurenga**",
"The 2018\\-2020 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice was awarded to [Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga_%28collective%29 \"Chimurenga (collective)\"), the Pan African collective who have boldly and unapologetically reclaimed the African imaginary.[Chimurenga](http://www.veralistcenter.org/lead/1/biennial-prize/#20182020-prize-winner-chimurenga)",
"Chimurenga invests in deep research on history, representation and culture through a methodology of collective remobilization of knowledge. The artistic process is a forward reimagining of the global polity, through a multiplicity of forms, eschewing the separation of various art forms from one another and from wider social and political practices. This includes the Pan African Space Station,[Pan African Space Station](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) the roaming Chimurenga library,[Chimurenga library](https://www.theshowroom.org/exhibitions/the-chimurenga-library) and the periodical *Chronic*, which incorporate the sonic, performative and written experiences in digital and physical spaces through which the project decenters and recreates new centers of knowledge. It reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the pan African community that is world\\-making.",
"Founded by [Ntone Edjabe](/wiki/Ntone_Edjabe \"Ntone Edjabe\") in 2002, Chimurenga performs as a pan\\-African platform that promotes voices of culture, arts and politics from Africa. As one of Chimurenga's outputs, Pan African Space Station (PASS) is an online radio station and pop\\-up studio,[Pan African Space Station (PASS)](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) simultaneously, \"a performance and exhibition space; a research platform and living archive.\" Developed by Chimurenga in collaboration with musician and composer Neo Muyanga in 2008, PASS is a virtual and material space that reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the Pan\\-African community. With its slogan \"There are other worlds out there they never told you about,\" the interdisciplinary station intersects sound, music and words, further engages in conversations including art and technology, community and borders, utopia and oppression.",
"As an internet based radio station, PASS explores the possibilities of creating new knowledge across distributed networks of time and space. Through live performance, stories about music in Africa and archival exhibitions, PASS plays a significant role in challenging existing ideas about Africa and bringing unique aspects of the interconnection between music and history. At the same time, PASS also expands its projects to physical spaces such as cities of Johannesburg, Amsterdam, Helsinki and Cairo. Chimurenga uses a metaphorical term \"landing\" to emphasize the ways in which the virtual \"space station\" enters into physical spaces. Upon landing each city, Chimurenga collaborates with local cultural producers to organize conferences, festivals and exhibitions. As such PASS is a catalyst for idea\\-sharing and innovation of African art and culture. As noted on its website, PASS investigates \"how we locate ourselves and how we mediate our human and historic commonality.\"",
"Press:\n[Art Forum](https://www.artforum.com/news/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-center-s-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-77019)\n[Dallas Art Dealers Association](http://dallasartdealers.org/news-chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-2/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/news/221020/chimurenga-receives-the-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)\n[Brittle Paper](https://brittlepaper.com/2018/10/chimurenga-collective-awarded-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)\n[ART COLLECTION](http://scheryn.com/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/SCHERYN)\n[ArtNews](http://www.artnews.com/2018/10/04/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-social-justice/)\n[Contemporary And](https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/chimurenga-named-winner-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)\n[Art News](http://www.artnews.com/2015/11/30/for-performa-15-chimurenga-hosted-a-radio-station-a-book-market-a-hair-salon-and-quite-a-bit-more/)\n[Philanthropy New York](https://philanthropynewyork.org/news/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-and-social-justice)\n[HRMS.NEWS](https://hrms.news/news/106432/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)\n[Emily Carr News](https://www.ecuad.ca/news/2018/jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-awarded-in-new-york)\n[APOLLO](https://www.apollo-magazine.com/guggenheim-to-return-kirchner-painting-to-heirs-of-original-owner/)\n[Roberto Bunini](http://robertobunini.com/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)",
"**2016\\-2018 Prize Winner: Maria Thereza Alves**",
"Brazilian artist [Maria Thereza Alves](/wiki/Maria_Thereza_Alves \"Maria Thereza Alves\")[Maria Thereza Alves](http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018-prize-winner-maria-thereza-alves-and-iseeds-of-changei/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525025401/http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018\\-prize\\-winner\\-maria\\-thereza\\-alves\\-and\\-iseeds\\-of\\-changei/ \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-25 }} research\\-based practice, literally and metaphorically holds open a space at the intersection of art and science to challenge and think expansively about the social history and possible futures that germinating seeds hold within themselves. Though her project Seeds of Change Alvs explores the social, political and cultural history of ballast flora in port cities and, in so doing, reveals patterns, temporalities and instruments of colonialism, commerce and migration going back many centuries.",
"Seeds of Change is a long\\-term project that so far has been presented in several European port cities – Marseille, Liverpool, and Bristol among them. It examines the legacies of colonialism and the global commerce of goods and people through the displacement of plants, focusing on the scientific, social and political history of ballast, the waste material used to stabilize ships in maritime trade and dumped in ports at the end of the ships' passages. Ballast contains \"dormant\" seeds that can remain viable in the soil for hundreds of years before germinating and growing. As Alves grows young plants from these dormant seeds – often in floating barges or gardens, developed in collaboration with local communities and scientists – she examines how we understand the identity of a place and its sociopolitical histories. As such the project questions the official accounts of culture as well as the lands it is built on and through.",
"Press:\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/31/nyregion/ballast-seeds-new-york.html)\n[ARTNEWS](http://www.artnews.com/2018/07/20/activating-public-space-high-line-art-walk-curator-cecilia-alemani/)\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/14/arts/what-to-see-in-new-york-art-galleries-this-week.html)\n[OBSERVER](https://observer.com/2017/11/artist-maria-thereza-alves-is-charting-the-history-of-migration-in-nyc-using-seeds/)\n[ArtForum](https://www.artforum.com/news/maria-thereza-alves-wins-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-65000)\n[INFERNO MAGAZINE](https://inferno-magazine.com/2018/02/05/maria-thereza-alves-seeds-of-change-michel-rein-paris/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/105206/winner-of-the-2016-18-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-maria-thereza-alves)\n[Pioneer Works](https://pioneerworks.org/programs/seeds-of-change/)\n[DAI](https://dutchartinstitute.eu/page/10343/maria-thereza-alves-is-the-recipient-of-the-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and)",
"**2014\\-2016 Prize Winner: Abounaddara**",
"Abounaddara, the anonymous film collective based in Syria,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abounaddara.com/\\|title\\=Abounaddara\\|website\\=abounaddara.com}} was the recipient of The New School's 2014 Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Kennedy\\|first1\\=Randy\\|title\\=Syrian Filmmaking Collective Wins Social Justice Art Prize\\|url\\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/syrian\\-filmmaking\\-collective\\-wins\\-social\\-justice\\-art\\-prize/?\\_r\\=0\\|website\\=Arts Beat NY Times\\|date\\=27 October 2014 \\|publisher\\=The New York Times}} Throughout the course of the 18\\-month collaboration, the Vera List Center and Abounaddara worked together to bring the collective's work to the [United Nations](http://webtv.un.org/watch/syria-freedom-of-speech-and-responsibility-of-representation-the-films-of-abounaddara-as-tools-to-enact-the-right-to-the-image/4300999261001) where there was a panel discussion on civilian representation and freedom of speech in Syria. The final culmination of the prize initiative, titled, \"Abounaddara. The Right To The Image\" was a series of events consisting of a gallery exhibition, conference and various film screenings, that explored the ways in which civilians are represented in times of conflict.",
"Emerging from the civil uprising in 2011, Abounaddara is known for its \"[emergency cinema](https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2014/mar/26/abounaddara-collective-syria-cinema)\" which seeks to transcend mainstream war reporting. The collective's work highlights individuals, coming from all sides of the conflict to remind viewers both of the daily life and complexity of the civil war unfolding in Syria. Their weekly video vignettes published on their [Vimeo account](https://vimeo.com/user11045249) are intimate, jarring, and poignant. Abounaddara's driving force within their work is the belief in the \"right to the image\" which they define as upholding the dignity of civilians who otherwise might not have a say in how they are represented.",
"Press:\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/19/movies/syrian-film-collective-offers-view-of-life-behind-a-conflict.html?smid=tw-nytimesarts&smtyp=cur&_r=0)\n[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/news/id=48855)\n[BOMB Magazine](http://bombmagazine.org/article/55861028/portfolio/)\n[El Tiempo (Spanish)](http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/cine-y-tv/cortometrajes-de-la-guerra-en-siria/16421978)\n[JutarnjiList (Croatian)](http://www.jutarnji.hr/drugo-lice-sirijske-drame-u-filmovima-anonimnog-kolektiva/1448640/)\n[NPR](https://www.npr.org/2015/10/31/453509935/films-about-syrian-civil-war-move-from-online-to-new-york-gallery)\n[Radio Havana Cuba (Spanish)](http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/74819-cineastas-sirios-proyectan-la-realidad-social-de-su-pais-desde-nueva-york)\n[W Radio (Spanish)](http://www.wradio.com.co/noticias/internacional/cineastas-sirios-dan-voz-desde-nueva-york-a-la-gente-corriente-de-la-guerra/20151104/nota/2989828.aspx)\n[artblog](https://www.theartblog.org/2014/11/news-post-syrian-collective-wins-vera-list-prize-gravers-lane-goes-big-michelle-post-brings-mucky-mucks-alive-opportunities-and-more/)\n[slought](https://slought.org/resources/the_right_to_the_image)\n[Souria Houria](https://souriahouria.com/syrian-cinema-collective-abounaddara-awarded-2014-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics/)",
"**2012\\-2014 Prize Winner: Theaster Gates**",
"Theaster Gates was the 2012\\-2014 prize recipient for, Dorchester Projects.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Kennedy\\|first1\\=Randy\\|title\\=New School Prize Goes to Theaster Gates\\|url\\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new\\-school\\-prize\\-goes\\-to\\-theaster\\-gates/\\#postComment.\\|website\\=Arts Beat NY Times\\|date\\=11 November 2012 \\|publisher\\=The New York Times}} Theaster Gates: A Way of Working was an 18\\-month collaboration between the artist and The New School that culminated into a two\\-day forum and gallery presentation. This exhibition examined the ways in which the artist develops synergies with his work and the complexities of working in an expanded studio practice within the institutional framework. The exhibition featured several works of the artist including drawing, sculpture, installation and video.",
"Theaster Gates, an American artist, activist and artistic director for the [Rebuild Foundation](https://rebuild-foundation.org/), focuses his work on political enfranchisement, historical reclamation, and social inclusion. His [Dorchester Projects](http://theastergates.com/section/117693_Dorchester_Projects.html) started in 2006 with the transformation of two buildings into community gathering spaces on Chicago's South Side. Gates uses art, spirituality, and community engagement as a way to analyze urban renewal and social justice.",
"Press:\n[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/archive/id=37157)\n[NY Times](http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new-school-prize-goes-to-theaster-gates/#postComment.)\n[Culturebot](http://www.culturebot.org/2013/09/19077/complicating-theaster-gates/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/109028/theaster-gates-awarded-inaugural-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics)\n[Observer](https://observer.com/2012/11/theaster-gates-wins-first-ever-vera-list-prize/)\n[ArtNews Media, LLC](https://www.artinamericamagazine.com/news-features/news/list-new-school-theaster-gates/)\n[Words in Space](http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2013/09/22/maps-markings-another-art-roundup-harriet-bart-william-kentridge-nathan-carter-barry-mcgee-more/)\n[National Urban Media](http://www.nationalurbanmedia.com/The-Vera-List-Center-Prize-for-Art-and-Politics/)\n[Harvard University Graduate School of Design](https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/2012/11/theaster-gates-awarded-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and/)\n[Colby News](http://www.colby.edu/news/2018/04/05/colby-appoints-theaster-gates-as-its-inaugural-distinguished-visiting-artist-and-director-of-artist-initiatives-at-the-lunder-institute-for-american-art/)",
""
] |
### Prize winners
**2022–2024 Prize Winner: ProppaNOW**
The collective won the prize for the show *OCCURRENT AFFAIR*. The jury's choice voted unanimous for the artist collective. Quote from the justification for the decision: "We are honored to bestow the 2022–2024 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice on [proppaNOW](/wiki/ProppaNOW "ProppaNOW"), the First Nations artist collective from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), Australia. Founded in 2003 to combat the invisibility of urban [Aboriginal contemporary art](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_contemporary_art "Indigenous Australian contemporary art") that addresses the issues of our time, it has broken with expectations of what is proper (‘proppa’) in Aboriginal art; created a new sovereign space for First Nations artists internationally outside colonial stereotypes, desires for authenticity, and capitalist capitulations; and opened new political imaginaries."{{cite web \|url\=https://aboriginalartdirectory.com/proppa\-prize\-winners \|title\=Proppa Prize Winners \|website\=Aboriginal Art Directory \|date\=2022\-10\-27 \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-28}}
**2020\-2022 Prize Winner: Avni Sethi**
The 2020\-2022 Prize was won by [Avni Sethi](/wiki/Avni_Sethi "Avni Sethi") for her project, 'Conflictorium' \- a museum of conflict established in Mirzapur, Ahmedabad, in India.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-12\|title\=Gujarat: Avni Sethi wins Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice\|url\=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gujarat\-avni\-sethi\-wins\-jane\-lombard\-prize\-for\-art\-and\-social\-justice\-6721257/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-01\|website\=The Indian Express}}
**2018\-2020 Prize Winner: Chimurenga**
The 2018\-2020 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice was awarded to [Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga_%28collective%29 "Chimurenga (collective)"), the Pan African collective who have boldly and unapologetically reclaimed the African imaginary.[Chimurenga](http://www.veralistcenter.org/lead/1/biennial-prize/#20182020-prize-winner-chimurenga)
Chimurenga invests in deep research on history, representation and culture through a methodology of collective remobilization of knowledge. The artistic process is a forward reimagining of the global polity, through a multiplicity of forms, eschewing the separation of various art forms from one another and from wider social and political practices. This includes the Pan African Space Station,[Pan African Space Station](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) the roaming Chimurenga library,[Chimurenga library](https://www.theshowroom.org/exhibitions/the-chimurenga-library) and the periodical *Chronic*, which incorporate the sonic, performative and written experiences in digital and physical spaces through which the project decenters and recreates new centers of knowledge. It reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the pan African community that is world\-making.
Founded by [Ntone Edjabe](/wiki/Ntone_Edjabe "Ntone Edjabe") in 2002, Chimurenga performs as a pan\-African platform that promotes voices of culture, arts and politics from Africa. As one of Chimurenga's outputs, Pan African Space Station (PASS) is an online radio station and pop\-up studio,[Pan African Space Station (PASS)](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) simultaneously, "a performance and exhibition space; a research platform and living archive." Developed by Chimurenga in collaboration with musician and composer Neo Muyanga in 2008, PASS is a virtual and material space that reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the Pan\-African community. With its slogan "There are other worlds out there they never told you about," the interdisciplinary station intersects sound, music and words, further engages in conversations including art and technology, community and borders, utopia and oppression.
As an internet based radio station, PASS explores the possibilities of creating new knowledge across distributed networks of time and space. Through live performance, stories about music in Africa and archival exhibitions, PASS plays a significant role in challenging existing ideas about Africa and bringing unique aspects of the interconnection between music and history. At the same time, PASS also expands its projects to physical spaces such as cities of Johannesburg, Amsterdam, Helsinki and Cairo. Chimurenga uses a metaphorical term "landing" to emphasize the ways in which the virtual "space station" enters into physical spaces. Upon landing each city, Chimurenga collaborates with local cultural producers to organize conferences, festivals and exhibitions. As such PASS is a catalyst for idea\-sharing and innovation of African art and culture. As noted on its website, PASS investigates "how we locate ourselves and how we mediate our human and historic commonality."
Press:
[Art Forum](https://www.artforum.com/news/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-center-s-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-77019)
[Dallas Art Dealers Association](http://dallasartdealers.org/news-chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-2/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/news/221020/chimurenga-receives-the-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)
[Brittle Paper](https://brittlepaper.com/2018/10/chimurenga-collective-awarded-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
[ART COLLECTION](http://scheryn.com/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/SCHERYN)
[ArtNews](http://www.artnews.com/2018/10/04/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-social-justice/)
[Contemporary And](https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/chimurenga-named-winner-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
[Art News](http://www.artnews.com/2015/11/30/for-performa-15-chimurenga-hosted-a-radio-station-a-book-market-a-hair-salon-and-quite-a-bit-more/)
[Philanthropy New York](https://philanthropynewyork.org/news/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-and-social-justice)
[HRMS.NEWS](https://hrms.news/news/106432/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)
[Emily Carr News](https://www.ecuad.ca/news/2018/jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-awarded-in-new-york)
[APOLLO](https://www.apollo-magazine.com/guggenheim-to-return-kirchner-painting-to-heirs-of-original-owner/)
[Roberto Bunini](http://robertobunini.com/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)
**2016\-2018 Prize Winner: Maria Thereza Alves**
Brazilian artist [Maria Thereza Alves](/wiki/Maria_Thereza_Alves "Maria Thereza Alves")[Maria Thereza Alves](http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018-prize-winner-maria-thereza-alves-and-iseeds-of-changei/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525025401/http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018\-prize\-winner\-maria\-thereza\-alves\-and\-iseeds\-of\-changei/ \|date\=2019\-05\-25 }} research\-based practice, literally and metaphorically holds open a space at the intersection of art and science to challenge and think expansively about the social history and possible futures that germinating seeds hold within themselves. Though her project Seeds of Change Alvs explores the social, political and cultural history of ballast flora in port cities and, in so doing, reveals patterns, temporalities and instruments of colonialism, commerce and migration going back many centuries.
Seeds of Change is a long\-term project that so far has been presented in several European port cities – Marseille, Liverpool, and Bristol among them. It examines the legacies of colonialism and the global commerce of goods and people through the displacement of plants, focusing on the scientific, social and political history of ballast, the waste material used to stabilize ships in maritime trade and dumped in ports at the end of the ships' passages. Ballast contains "dormant" seeds that can remain viable in the soil for hundreds of years before germinating and growing. As Alves grows young plants from these dormant seeds – often in floating barges or gardens, developed in collaboration with local communities and scientists – she examines how we understand the identity of a place and its sociopolitical histories. As such the project questions the official accounts of culture as well as the lands it is built on and through.
Press:
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/31/nyregion/ballast-seeds-new-york.html)
[ARTNEWS](http://www.artnews.com/2018/07/20/activating-public-space-high-line-art-walk-curator-cecilia-alemani/)
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/14/arts/what-to-see-in-new-york-art-galleries-this-week.html)
[OBSERVER](https://observer.com/2017/11/artist-maria-thereza-alves-is-charting-the-history-of-migration-in-nyc-using-seeds/)
[ArtForum](https://www.artforum.com/news/maria-thereza-alves-wins-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-65000)
[INFERNO MAGAZINE](https://inferno-magazine.com/2018/02/05/maria-thereza-alves-seeds-of-change-michel-rein-paris/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/105206/winner-of-the-2016-18-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-maria-thereza-alves)
[Pioneer Works](https://pioneerworks.org/programs/seeds-of-change/)
[DAI](https://dutchartinstitute.eu/page/10343/maria-thereza-alves-is-the-recipient-of-the-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and)
**2014\-2016 Prize Winner: Abounaddara**
Abounaddara, the anonymous film collective based in Syria,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abounaddara.com/\|title\=Abounaddara\|website\=abounaddara.com}} was the recipient of The New School's 2014 Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics.{{cite web\|last1\=Kennedy\|first1\=Randy\|title\=Syrian Filmmaking Collective Wins Social Justice Art Prize\|url\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/syrian\-filmmaking\-collective\-wins\-social\-justice\-art\-prize/?\_r\=0\|website\=Arts Beat NY Times\|date\=27 October 2014 \|publisher\=The New York Times}} Throughout the course of the 18\-month collaboration, the Vera List Center and Abounaddara worked together to bring the collective's work to the [United Nations](http://webtv.un.org/watch/syria-freedom-of-speech-and-responsibility-of-representation-the-films-of-abounaddara-as-tools-to-enact-the-right-to-the-image/4300999261001) where there was a panel discussion on civilian representation and freedom of speech in Syria. The final culmination of the prize initiative, titled, "Abounaddara. The Right To The Image" was a series of events consisting of a gallery exhibition, conference and various film screenings, that explored the ways in which civilians are represented in times of conflict.
Emerging from the civil uprising in 2011, Abounaddara is known for its "[emergency cinema](https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2014/mar/26/abounaddara-collective-syria-cinema)" which seeks to transcend mainstream war reporting. The collective's work highlights individuals, coming from all sides of the conflict to remind viewers both of the daily life and complexity of the civil war unfolding in Syria. Their weekly video vignettes published on their [Vimeo account](https://vimeo.com/user11045249) are intimate, jarring, and poignant. Abounaddara's driving force within their work is the belief in the "right to the image" which they define as upholding the dignity of civilians who otherwise might not have a say in how they are represented.
Press:
[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/19/movies/syrian-film-collective-offers-view-of-life-behind-a-conflict.html?smid=tw-nytimesarts&smtyp=cur&_r=0)
[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/news/id=48855)
[BOMB Magazine](http://bombmagazine.org/article/55861028/portfolio/)
[El Tiempo (Spanish)](http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/cine-y-tv/cortometrajes-de-la-guerra-en-siria/16421978)
[JutarnjiList (Croatian)](http://www.jutarnji.hr/drugo-lice-sirijske-drame-u-filmovima-anonimnog-kolektiva/1448640/)
[NPR](https://www.npr.org/2015/10/31/453509935/films-about-syrian-civil-war-move-from-online-to-new-york-gallery)
[Radio Havana Cuba (Spanish)](http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/74819-cineastas-sirios-proyectan-la-realidad-social-de-su-pais-desde-nueva-york)
[W Radio (Spanish)](http://www.wradio.com.co/noticias/internacional/cineastas-sirios-dan-voz-desde-nueva-york-a-la-gente-corriente-de-la-guerra/20151104/nota/2989828.aspx)
[artblog](https://www.theartblog.org/2014/11/news-post-syrian-collective-wins-vera-list-prize-gravers-lane-goes-big-michelle-post-brings-mucky-mucks-alive-opportunities-and-more/)
[slought](https://slought.org/resources/the_right_to_the_image)
[Souria Houria](https://souriahouria.com/syrian-cinema-collective-abounaddara-awarded-2014-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics/)
**2012\-2014 Prize Winner: Theaster Gates**
Theaster Gates was the 2012\-2014 prize recipient for, Dorchester Projects.{{cite web\|last1\=Kennedy\|first1\=Randy\|title\=New School Prize Goes to Theaster Gates\|url\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new\-school\-prize\-goes\-to\-theaster\-gates/\#postComment.\|website\=Arts Beat NY Times\|date\=11 November 2012 \|publisher\=The New York Times}} Theaster Gates: A Way of Working was an 18\-month collaboration between the artist and The New School that culminated into a two\-day forum and gallery presentation. This exhibition examined the ways in which the artist develops synergies with his work and the complexities of working in an expanded studio practice within the institutional framework. The exhibition featured several works of the artist including drawing, sculpture, installation and video.
Theaster Gates, an American artist, activist and artistic director for the [Rebuild Foundation](https://rebuild-foundation.org/), focuses his work on political enfranchisement, historical reclamation, and social inclusion. His [Dorchester Projects](http://theastergates.com/section/117693_Dorchester_Projects.html) started in 2006 with the transformation of two buildings into community gathering spaces on Chicago's South Side. Gates uses art, spirituality, and community engagement as a way to analyze urban renewal and social justice.
Press:
[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/archive/id=37157)
[NY Times](http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new-school-prize-goes-to-theaster-gates/#postComment.)
[Culturebot](http://www.culturebot.org/2013/09/19077/complicating-theaster-gates/)
[Art\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/109028/theaster-gates-awarded-inaugural-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics)
[Observer](https://observer.com/2012/11/theaster-gates-wins-first-ever-vera-list-prize/)
[ArtNews Media, LLC](https://www.artinamericamagazine.com/news-features/news/list-new-school-theaster-gates/)
[Words in Space](http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2013/09/22/maps-markings-another-art-roundup-harriet-bart-william-kentridge-nathan-carter-barry-mcgee-more/)
[National Urban Media](http://www.nationalurbanmedia.com/The-Vera-List-Center-Prize-for-Art-and-Politics/)
[Harvard University Graduate School of Design](https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/2012/11/theaster-gates-awarded-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and/)
[Colby News](http://www.colby.edu/news/2018/04/05/colby-appoints-theaster-gates-as-its-inaugural-distinguished-visiting-artist-and-director-of-artist-initiatives-at-the-lunder-institute-for-american-art/)
|
[
"### Prize winners",
"**2022–2024 Prize Winner: ProppaNOW**",
"The collective won the prize for the show *OCCURRENT AFFAIR*. The jury's choice voted unanimous for the artist collective. Quote from the justification for the decision: \"We are honored to bestow the 2022–2024 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice on [proppaNOW](/wiki/ProppaNOW \"ProppaNOW\"), the First Nations artist collective from [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), Australia. Founded in 2003 to combat the invisibility of urban [Aboriginal contemporary art](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_contemporary_art \"Indigenous Australian contemporary art\") that addresses the issues of our time, it has broken with expectations of what is proper (‘proppa’) in Aboriginal art; created a new sovereign space for First Nations artists internationally outside colonial stereotypes, desires for authenticity, and capitalist capitulations; and opened new political imaginaries.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://aboriginalartdirectory.com/proppa\\-prize\\-winners \\|title\\=Proppa Prize Winners \\|website\\=Aboriginal Art Directory \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-28}}",
"**2020\\-2022 Prize Winner: Avni Sethi**",
"The 2020\\-2022 Prize was won by [Avni Sethi](/wiki/Avni_Sethi \"Avni Sethi\") for her project, 'Conflictorium' \\- a museum of conflict established in Mirzapur, Ahmedabad, in India.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-12\\|title\\=Gujarat: Avni Sethi wins Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice\\|url\\=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gujarat\\-avni\\-sethi\\-wins\\-jane\\-lombard\\-prize\\-for\\-art\\-and\\-social\\-justice\\-6721257/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-01\\|website\\=The Indian Express}}",
"**2018\\-2020 Prize Winner: Chimurenga**",
"The 2018\\-2020 Jane Lombard Prize for Art and Social Justice was awarded to [Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga_%28collective%29 \"Chimurenga (collective)\"), the Pan African collective who have boldly and unapologetically reclaimed the African imaginary.[Chimurenga](http://www.veralistcenter.org/lead/1/biennial-prize/#20182020-prize-winner-chimurenga)",
"Chimurenga invests in deep research on history, representation and culture through a methodology of collective remobilization of knowledge. The artistic process is a forward reimagining of the global polity, through a multiplicity of forms, eschewing the separation of various art forms from one another and from wider social and political practices. This includes the Pan African Space Station,[Pan African Space Station](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) the roaming Chimurenga library,[Chimurenga library](https://www.theshowroom.org/exhibitions/the-chimurenga-library) and the periodical *Chronic*, which incorporate the sonic, performative and written experiences in digital and physical spaces through which the project decenters and recreates new centers of knowledge. It reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the pan African community that is world\\-making.",
"Founded by [Ntone Edjabe](/wiki/Ntone_Edjabe \"Ntone Edjabe\") in 2002, Chimurenga performs as a pan\\-African platform that promotes voices of culture, arts and politics from Africa. As one of Chimurenga's outputs, Pan African Space Station (PASS) is an online radio station and pop\\-up studio,[Pan African Space Station (PASS)](https://panafricanspacestation.org.za/) simultaneously, \"a performance and exhibition space; a research platform and living archive.\" Developed by Chimurenga in collaboration with musician and composer Neo Muyanga in 2008, PASS is a virtual and material space that reflects on the collective political histories and memories in the Pan\\-African community. With its slogan \"There are other worlds out there they never told you about,\" the interdisciplinary station intersects sound, music and words, further engages in conversations including art and technology, community and borders, utopia and oppression.",
"As an internet based radio station, PASS explores the possibilities of creating new knowledge across distributed networks of time and space. Through live performance, stories about music in Africa and archival exhibitions, PASS plays a significant role in challenging existing ideas about Africa and bringing unique aspects of the interconnection between music and history. At the same time, PASS also expands its projects to physical spaces such as cities of Johannesburg, Amsterdam, Helsinki and Cairo. Chimurenga uses a metaphorical term \"landing\" to emphasize the ways in which the virtual \"space station\" enters into physical spaces. Upon landing each city, Chimurenga collaborates with local cultural producers to organize conferences, festivals and exhibitions. As such PASS is a catalyst for idea\\-sharing and innovation of African art and culture. As noted on its website, PASS investigates \"how we locate ourselves and how we mediate our human and historic commonality.\"",
"Press:\n[Art Forum](https://www.artforum.com/news/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-center-s-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-77019)\n[Dallas Art Dealers Association](http://dallasartdealers.org/news-chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-2/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/news/221020/chimurenga-receives-the-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)\n[Brittle Paper](https://brittlepaper.com/2018/10/chimurenga-collective-awarded-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)\n[ART COLLECTION](http://scheryn.com/chimurenga-awarded-vera-list-centers-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/SCHERYN)\n[ArtNews](http://www.artnews.com/2018/10/04/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-social-justice/)\n[Contemporary And](https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/chimurenga-named-winner-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)\n[Art News](http://www.artnews.com/2015/11/30/for-performa-15-chimurenga-hosted-a-radio-station-a-book-market-a-hair-salon-and-quite-a-bit-more/)\n[Philanthropy New York](https://philanthropynewyork.org/news/chimurenga-named-winner-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-art-and-social-justice)\n[HRMS.NEWS](https://hrms.news/news/106432/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-center-s-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice)\n[Emily Carr News](https://www.ecuad.ca/news/2018/jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice-awarded-in-new-york)\n[APOLLO](https://www.apollo-magazine.com/guggenheim-to-return-kirchner-painting-to-heirs-of-original-owner/)\n[Roberto Bunini](http://robertobunini.com/chimurenga-named-winner-of-vera-list-centers-2018-20-jane-lombard-prize-for-art-and-social-justice/)",
"**2016\\-2018 Prize Winner: Maria Thereza Alves**",
"Brazilian artist [Maria Thereza Alves](/wiki/Maria_Thereza_Alves \"Maria Thereza Alves\")[Maria Thereza Alves](http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018-prize-winner-maria-thereza-alves-and-iseeds-of-changei/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525025401/http://www.veralistcenter.org/engage/project/2029/20162018\\-prize\\-winner\\-maria\\-thereza\\-alves\\-and\\-iseeds\\-of\\-changei/ \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-25 }} research\\-based practice, literally and metaphorically holds open a space at the intersection of art and science to challenge and think expansively about the social history and possible futures that germinating seeds hold within themselves. Though her project Seeds of Change Alvs explores the social, political and cultural history of ballast flora in port cities and, in so doing, reveals patterns, temporalities and instruments of colonialism, commerce and migration going back many centuries.",
"Seeds of Change is a long\\-term project that so far has been presented in several European port cities – Marseille, Liverpool, and Bristol among them. It examines the legacies of colonialism and the global commerce of goods and people through the displacement of plants, focusing on the scientific, social and political history of ballast, the waste material used to stabilize ships in maritime trade and dumped in ports at the end of the ships' passages. Ballast contains \"dormant\" seeds that can remain viable in the soil for hundreds of years before germinating and growing. As Alves grows young plants from these dormant seeds – often in floating barges or gardens, developed in collaboration with local communities and scientists – she examines how we understand the identity of a place and its sociopolitical histories. As such the project questions the official accounts of culture as well as the lands it is built on and through.",
"Press:\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/31/nyregion/ballast-seeds-new-york.html)\n[ARTNEWS](http://www.artnews.com/2018/07/20/activating-public-space-high-line-art-walk-curator-cecilia-alemani/)\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/14/arts/what-to-see-in-new-york-art-galleries-this-week.html)\n[OBSERVER](https://observer.com/2017/11/artist-maria-thereza-alves-is-charting-the-history-of-migration-in-nyc-using-seeds/)\n[ArtForum](https://www.artforum.com/news/maria-thereza-alves-wins-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-65000)\n[INFERNO MAGAZINE](https://inferno-magazine.com/2018/02/05/maria-thereza-alves-seeds-of-change-michel-rein-paris/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/105206/winner-of-the-2016-18-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics-maria-thereza-alves)\n[Pioneer Works](https://pioneerworks.org/programs/seeds-of-change/)\n[DAI](https://dutchartinstitute.eu/page/10343/maria-thereza-alves-is-the-recipient-of-the-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and)",
"**2014\\-2016 Prize Winner: Abounaddara**",
"Abounaddara, the anonymous film collective based in Syria,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abounaddara.com/\\|title\\=Abounaddara\\|website\\=abounaddara.com}} was the recipient of The New School's 2014 Vera List Center Prize for Art and Politics.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Kennedy\\|first1\\=Randy\\|title\\=Syrian Filmmaking Collective Wins Social Justice Art Prize\\|url\\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/syrian\\-filmmaking\\-collective\\-wins\\-social\\-justice\\-art\\-prize/?\\_r\\=0\\|website\\=Arts Beat NY Times\\|date\\=27 October 2014 \\|publisher\\=The New York Times}} Throughout the course of the 18\\-month collaboration, the Vera List Center and Abounaddara worked together to bring the collective's work to the [United Nations](http://webtv.un.org/watch/syria-freedom-of-speech-and-responsibility-of-representation-the-films-of-abounaddara-as-tools-to-enact-the-right-to-the-image/4300999261001) where there was a panel discussion on civilian representation and freedom of speech in Syria. The final culmination of the prize initiative, titled, \"Abounaddara. The Right To The Image\" was a series of events consisting of a gallery exhibition, conference and various film screenings, that explored the ways in which civilians are represented in times of conflict.",
"Emerging from the civil uprising in 2011, Abounaddara is known for its \"[emergency cinema](https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2014/mar/26/abounaddara-collective-syria-cinema)\" which seeks to transcend mainstream war reporting. The collective's work highlights individuals, coming from all sides of the conflict to remind viewers both of the daily life and complexity of the civil war unfolding in Syria. Their weekly video vignettes published on their [Vimeo account](https://vimeo.com/user11045249) are intimate, jarring, and poignant. Abounaddara's driving force within their work is the belief in the \"right to the image\" which they define as upholding the dignity of civilians who otherwise might not have a say in how they are represented.",
"Press:\n[NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/19/movies/syrian-film-collective-offers-view-of-life-behind-a-conflict.html?smid=tw-nytimesarts&smtyp=cur&_r=0)\n[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/news/id=48855)\n[BOMB Magazine](http://bombmagazine.org/article/55861028/portfolio/)\n[El Tiempo (Spanish)](http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/cine-y-tv/cortometrajes-de-la-guerra-en-siria/16421978)\n[JutarnjiList (Croatian)](http://www.jutarnji.hr/drugo-lice-sirijske-drame-u-filmovima-anonimnog-kolektiva/1448640/)\n[NPR](https://www.npr.org/2015/10/31/453509935/films-about-syrian-civil-war-move-from-online-to-new-york-gallery)\n[Radio Havana Cuba (Spanish)](http://www.radiohc.cu/noticias/cultura/74819-cineastas-sirios-proyectan-la-realidad-social-de-su-pais-desde-nueva-york)\n[W Radio (Spanish)](http://www.wradio.com.co/noticias/internacional/cineastas-sirios-dan-voz-desde-nueva-york-a-la-gente-corriente-de-la-guerra/20151104/nota/2989828.aspx)\n[artblog](https://www.theartblog.org/2014/11/news-post-syrian-collective-wins-vera-list-prize-gravers-lane-goes-big-michelle-post-brings-mucky-mucks-alive-opportunities-and-more/)\n[slought](https://slought.org/resources/the_right_to_the_image)\n[Souria Houria](https://souriahouria.com/syrian-cinema-collective-abounaddara-awarded-2014-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics/)",
"**2012\\-2014 Prize Winner: Theaster Gates**",
"Theaster Gates was the 2012\\-2014 prize recipient for, Dorchester Projects.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Kennedy\\|first1\\=Randy\\|title\\=New School Prize Goes to Theaster Gates\\|url\\=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new\\-school\\-prize\\-goes\\-to\\-theaster\\-gates/\\#postComment.\\|website\\=Arts Beat NY Times\\|date\\=11 November 2012 \\|publisher\\=The New York Times}} Theaster Gates: A Way of Working was an 18\\-month collaboration between the artist and The New School that culminated into a two\\-day forum and gallery presentation. This exhibition examined the ways in which the artist develops synergies with his work and the complexities of working in an expanded studio practice within the institutional framework. The exhibition featured several works of the artist including drawing, sculpture, installation and video.",
"Theaster Gates, an American artist, activist and artistic director for the [Rebuild Foundation](https://rebuild-foundation.org/), focuses his work on political enfranchisement, historical reclamation, and social inclusion. His [Dorchester Projects](http://theastergates.com/section/117693_Dorchester_Projects.html) started in 2006 with the transformation of two buildings into community gathering spaces on Chicago's South Side. Gates uses art, spirituality, and community engagement as a way to analyze urban renewal and social justice.",
"Press:\n[ArtForum](http://artforum.com/archive/id=37157)\n[NY Times](http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/new-school-prize-goes-to-theaster-gates/#postComment.)\n[Culturebot](http://www.culturebot.org/2013/09/19077/complicating-theaster-gates/)\n[Art\\&Education](https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/109028/theaster-gates-awarded-inaugural-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and-politics)\n[Observer](https://observer.com/2012/11/theaster-gates-wins-first-ever-vera-list-prize/)\n[ArtNews Media, LLC](https://www.artinamericamagazine.com/news-features/news/list-new-school-theaster-gates/)\n[Words in Space](http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2013/09/22/maps-markings-another-art-roundup-harriet-bart-william-kentridge-nathan-carter-barry-mcgee-more/)\n[National Urban Media](http://www.nationalurbanmedia.com/The-Vera-List-Center-Prize-for-Art-and-Politics/)\n[Harvard University Graduate School of Design](https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/2012/11/theaster-gates-awarded-vera-list-center-prize-for-art-and/)\n[Colby News](http://www.colby.edu/news/2018/04/05/colby-appoints-theaster-gates-as-its-inaugural-distinguished-visiting-artist-and-director-of-artist-initiatives-at-the-lunder-institute-for-american-art/)",
""
] |
Modern period
-------------
### The Sandberg Game
One game in particular was cited for putting Cubs second baseman [Ryne Sandberg](/wiki/Ryne_Sandberg "Ryne Sandberg"), as well as the [1984 Cubs](/wiki/1984_Chicago_Cubs_season "1984 Chicago Cubs season") in general, "on the map", an [NBC national telecast](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Game_of_the_Week%23NBC%27s_Game_of_the_Week "Major League Baseball Game of the Week#NBC's Game of the Week") of a Cardinals–Cubs game on June 23, {{baseball year\|1984}}.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/CHN/CHN198406230\.shtml\|title\=June 23, 1984 St. Louis Cardinals at Chicago Cubs Play by Play and Box Score\|work\=Baseball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=11 October 2015}} The Cubs had been playing well throughout the season's first few months, but as a team unaccustomed to winning, they had not yet become a serious contender in the eyes of most baseball fans.
Sandberg had played two full seasons in the major leagues, and while he had proven himself to be a top\-fielding second baseman and fast on the basepaths (over 30 stolen bases both seasons), his .260\-ish batting average and single\-digit home run production were respectable for his position but not especially noteworthy, and Sandberg was not talked about outside Chicago. The *Game of the Week*, however, put the sleeper Cubs on the national stage against their regional rival, the St. Louis Cardinals. Both teams were well\-established franchises with a strong fan base outside the Chicago and St. Louis area.
In the ninth inning, the Cubs trailed 9–8, and faced the premier relief pitcher of the time, [Bruce Sutter](/wiki/Bruce_Sutter "Bruce Sutter"). Sutter was at the forefront of the emergence of the closer in the late 1970s and early 1980s: a hard\-throwing pitcher who typically came in just for the ninth inning and saved around 30 games a season. (Sutter was especially dominant in 1984, saving 45 games.) However, in the ninth inning, Sandberg, not yet known for his power, slugged a home run to left field against the Cardinals' ace closer. Despite this dramatic act, the Cardinals scored two runs in the top of the tenth. Sandberg came up again in the tenth inning, facing a determined Sutter with one man on base. As Cubs' radio announcer [Harry Caray](/wiki/Harry_Caray "Harry Caray") described it: {{cquote\|''There's a drive, way back! Might be outta here! It is! It is! He did it again! He did it again! The game is tied! The game is tied! Holy Cow! Listen to this crowd, everybody's gone bananas!''}}
The Cubs went on to win in the 11th inning. The Cardinals' [Willie McGee](/wiki/Willie_McGee "Willie McGee") (who had [hit for the cycle](/wiki/Cycle_%28baseball%29 "Cycle (baseball)") that day) had already been named NBC's player of the game before Sandberg's first home run. As [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Sports "NBC Sports") play\-by\-play man [Bob Costas](/wiki/Bob_Costas "Bob Costas") (who called the game with [Tony Kubek](/wiki/Tony_Kubek "Tony Kubek")) said when Sandberg hit that second home run, *"Do you believe it?!"* The game is sometimes called "The Sandberg Game". The winning run for the Cubs was driven in by a single off the bat of [Dave Owen](/wiki/Dave_Owen_%28baseball%29 "Dave Owen (baseball)").
### McGwire/Sosa home run chase
[thumb\|right\|Mark McGwire hitting a home run at Busch Stadium.\|upright](/wiki/Image:Mark_mcgwire.jpg "Mark mcgwire.jpg")
{{main\|1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase}}
In 1998, the teams were connected by the [Mark McGwire\-Sammy Sosa home run race](/wiki/1998_Major_League_Baseball_home_run_record_chase "1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase"), credited by many with revitalizing the sport following the [players' strike](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Major_League_Baseball_strike "1994–95 Major League Baseball strike") which cancelled the [1994 World Series](/wiki/1994_World_Series "1994 World Series") and the first part of the [1995 season](/wiki/1995_Major_League_Baseball_season "1995 Major League Baseball season").{{cite web\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20020808\&content\_id\=99342\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=null\|title\=The Sosa\-McGwire home run race\|date\=August 8, 2002\|access\-date\=2009\-10\-12\|first\=Carrie\|last\=Muskat\|work\=MLB.com}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/columnist/bodley/2006\-03\-16\-bodley\-steroids\_x.htm\|title\=Baseball's steroids issue remains in the news\|date\=March 17, 2006\|first\=Hal\|last\=Bodley\|newspaper\=USA Today}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/29/sports/29iht\-fans.html?\_r\=1\&pagewanted\=print\|title\=Myth of men who saved baseball\|date\=March 30, 2005\|first\=David\|last\=Leonhardt\|author\-link\=David Leonhardt\|newspaper\=New York Times}}
In early September the teams met for a two\-game series in St. Louis. In the first game, McGwire hit his record\-tying 61st home run off pitcher [Mike Morgan](/wiki/Mike_Morgan_%28baseball%29 "Mike Morgan (baseball)") in the first inning as part of a 3–2 Cardinals victory. The following day, McGwire broke the record with \#62 off [Steve Trachsel](/wiki/Steve_Trachsel "Steve Trachsel") in the fourth inning as part of a 6–3 victory. In a show of sportsmanship, Sammy Sosa embraced and congratulated his rival and on\-field opponent after McGwire rounded the bases. McGwire would finish the year with 70 home runs and Sosa with 66\. However, the Cubs won the National League wild card, making the playoffs for the first time in nine years, while the Cardinals missed the playoffs. Sosa eventually became the NL MVP that season.
Sosa dedicated each of his 66 home runs that season to the memory of Cubs (and former Cardinals) broadcaster [Harry Caray](/wiki/Harry_Caray "Harry Caray"), who died in February that year.{{cite news\|title\=Unlikely Season Of Dreams For Cubs\|quote\=Since Caray died at the start of spring training, Sosa has honored him with a 'V' sign after every home run this season, along with his heart thumps and kisses for the Sosa family.\|date\=September 29, 1998\|first\=Bill\|last\=Dedman\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|page\=D3}}
### After the chase
A somber showing of acknowledgment between the two teams happened in {{baseball year\|2002}} when Cubs catcher [Joe Girardi](/wiki/Joe_Girardi "Joe Girardi") addressed the fans at Wrigley Field in a choked up way that the game between the two teams had been cancelled and that the fans should pray for the St. Louis Cardinals family. However, there were fans who booed.{{cite news\|title\=It's 'a time to put this rivalry away'\|date\=June 23, 2002\|first1\=Ana\|last1\=Beatriz\|first2\=Oscar\|last2\=Avila\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=3}} Later, a press conference was held where an emotional Girardi addressed the death of Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile "Darryl Kile"). Girardi, who played for both the Cubs and the Cardinals, addressed the fans in a regional broadcast on [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox "Major League Baseball on Fox").
In 2005, Cubs first baseman [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee "Derrek Lee") and Cardinals first baseman [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols "Albert Pujols") were locked in an MVP race. Lee led the NL in hits and batting average and bested Pujols in home runs. For his part, Pujols led the league in runs scored and had the edge on Lee in RBIs. Lee was awarded both the [Gold Glove](/wiki/Gold_Glove "Gold Glove") and [Silver Slugger](/wiki/Silver_Slugger "Silver Slugger") as the best NL first baseman on both defense and offense, respectively. However, with the Cardinals winning 100 games and the division and the Cubs finishing 21 games back in fourth place, Pujols won the MVP honors.
On June 4 and 5, {{mlby\|2011}} Pujols won back\-to\-back games against the Cubs with walk\-off home runs.
In recent years, tragedies in the Cardinals organization have caused two games between these teams to be postponed. In 2002, after Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile "Darryl Kile") was found dead in a Chicago hotel room, a game between the teams in Wrigley Field was postponed.{{cite news\|title\=MacPhail wanted vague notice; Cubs exec sought to protect Kile family members\|date\=June 23, 2002\|first\=Teddy\|last\=Greenstein\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=5}}{{cite news\|title\=Kile's Death Stuns Baseball; Cardinals: St. Louis pitcher, 33, is found in his Chicago hotel room and appears to have died of natural causes. Game against Cubs is canceled\|first\=Ross\|last\=Newhan\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=June 23, 2002\|page\=D1\|author\-link\=Ross Newhan}} Then in 2007, another Cardinals pitcher, [Josh Hancock](/wiki/Josh_Hancock "Josh Hancock"), was killed in a car crash while driving intoxicated, causing a game in St. Louis to be postponed.{{cite news\|title\=Cards lose a 'great teammate, friend'; Pitcher Hancock killed in car crash; Cubs game called off\|date\=April 30, 2007\|first\=Paul\|last\=Sullivan\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=1}}{{cite news\|title\=Cardinals' Hancock dies in car accident\|date\=April 30, 2007\|first\=Bill\|last\=Shaikin\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|page\=D1}}
Former Cubs shortstop [Ryan Theriot](/wiki/Ryan_Theriot "Ryan Theriot"), who was acquired by the Cardinals on November 30, 2010, told a St. Louis radio station that he was "finally on the right side of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry" and that he was happy to be with an organization that emphasized winning World Series championships instead of being "an afterthought". Cubs pitcher [Carlos Zambrano](/wiki/Carlos_Zambrano "Carlos Zambrano") called him "the enemy now".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.stltoday.com/sports/baseball/professional/article\_18a52492\-0736\-5b28\-a98d\-948fd6ef9371\.html?print\=1\|title\=Theriot ready to play on right side of the rivalry\|date\=January 19, 2011\|first\=Derrick\|last\=Goold\|newspaper\=St. Louis Post\-Dispatch}} The Cardinals won the World Series that season.
The two clubs played each other in the [postseason](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_postseason "Major League Baseball postseason") for the first time in the [2015 National League Division Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Division_Series "2015 National League Division Series"), as a result of the Cubs' 4–0 victory over the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/2015_Pittsburgh_Pirates_season "2015 Pittsburgh Pirates season") in the [NL Wild Card Game](/wiki/2015_National_League_Wild_Card_Game "2015 National League Wild Card Game").{{cite web\|last1\=Singer\|first1\=Tom\|last2\=Muskat\|first2\=Carrie\|title\=Arrieta, Cubs ace Wild Card test vs. Bucs\|url\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/153625192/arrieta\-cubs\-ace\-wild\-card\-test\-vs\-bucs\|publisher\=\[\[Major League Baseball Advanced Media]]\|date\=October 8, 2015\|access\-date\=October 8, 2015}} The Cubs defeated the Cardinals 3–1 to advance to the [National League Championship Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Championship_Series "2015 National League Championship Series"), where they lost to the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets "New York Mets").[Cubs power way past Cardinals again in Game 4 to win NLDS](https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/10/13/cubs-cardinals-nlds-game-4-recap), SI.com, October 13, 2015
The rivalry was further heated after [John Lackey](/wiki/John_Lackey "John Lackey") and [Jason Heyward](/wiki/Jason_Heyward "Jason Heyward") signed with the Cubs after the 2015 season and [Dexter Fowler](/wiki/Dexter_Fowler "Dexter Fowler") signed with the Cardinals after the Cubs' 2016 championship season.
### Wrigley Field Sweep
In a pivotal series that determined each team's chance for the playoffs, the Cardinals played the Cubs at Wrigley Field in a four\-game series from September 19–22, 2019\. The Cardinals went into the series three games ahead of the Cubs with the opportunity to clinch the division title, while the Cubs had the opportunity to overtake the Cardinals for the division lead. After the Cardinals won the first two games, the September 21 game was ranked the 5th most exciting game in top 10 [MLB](/wiki/MLB "MLB") games of 2019\.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2020}} In the bottom of the 7th with the Cardinals leading 7–6, Cardinals reliever Giovanny Gallegos committed a no\-stop balk while striking out [Tony Kemp](/wiki/Tony_Kemp_%28baseball%29 "Tony Kemp (baseball)"). The call was seen as controversial to some. Announcer [Tim McCarver](/wiki/Tim_McCarver "Tim McCarver") noted that Gallegos had done that the whole game and that the umpire who called it was the furthest away from the pitcher. Given a second chance, Kemp hit a two\-run home run giving the Cubs an 8–7 lead. Cubs closer Craig Kimbrel was called in to close the game for a Cubs win. However, Kimbrel gave up home runs to [Yadier Molina](/wiki/Yadier_Molina "Yadier Molina") and [Paul DeJong](/wiki/Paul_DeJong "Paul DeJong") to give the Cardinals a 9–8 lead. The Cardinals would win by that score.
The Cardinals completed the sweep the next day — their first four\-game sweep of the Cubs at Wrigley Field since 1921{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-03\-19\|title\=The St. Louis Cardinals Wrigley Field massacre: 6 months later\|url\=https://redbirdrants.com/2020/03/19/st\-louis\-cardinals\-wrigley\-field\-massacre/\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-08\|website\=Redbird Rants\|language\=en\-US}} — to clinch a playoff spot.
|
[
"Modern period\n-------------",
"### The Sandberg Game",
"One game in particular was cited for putting Cubs second baseman [Ryne Sandberg](/wiki/Ryne_Sandberg \"Ryne Sandberg\"), as well as the [1984 Cubs](/wiki/1984_Chicago_Cubs_season \"1984 Chicago Cubs season\") in general, \"on the map\", an [NBC national telecast](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Game_of_the_Week%23NBC%27s_Game_of_the_Week \"Major League Baseball Game of the Week#NBC's Game of the Week\") of a Cardinals–Cubs game on June 23, {{baseball year\\|1984}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/CHN/CHN198406230\\.shtml\\|title\\=June 23, 1984 St. Louis Cardinals at Chicago Cubs Play by Play and Box Score\\|work\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2015}} The Cubs had been playing well throughout the season's first few months, but as a team unaccustomed to winning, they had not yet become a serious contender in the eyes of most baseball fans.",
"Sandberg had played two full seasons in the major leagues, and while he had proven himself to be a top\\-fielding second baseman and fast on the basepaths (over 30 stolen bases both seasons), his .260\\-ish batting average and single\\-digit home run production were respectable for his position but not especially noteworthy, and Sandberg was not talked about outside Chicago. The *Game of the Week*, however, put the sleeper Cubs on the national stage against their regional rival, the St. Louis Cardinals. Both teams were well\\-established franchises with a strong fan base outside the Chicago and St. Louis area.",
"In the ninth inning, the Cubs trailed 9–8, and faced the premier relief pitcher of the time, [Bruce Sutter](/wiki/Bruce_Sutter \"Bruce Sutter\"). Sutter was at the forefront of the emergence of the closer in the late 1970s and early 1980s: a hard\\-throwing pitcher who typically came in just for the ninth inning and saved around 30 games a season. (Sutter was especially dominant in 1984, saving 45 games.) However, in the ninth inning, Sandberg, not yet known for his power, slugged a home run to left field against the Cardinals' ace closer. Despite this dramatic act, the Cardinals scored two runs in the top of the tenth. Sandberg came up again in the tenth inning, facing a determined Sutter with one man on base. As Cubs' radio announcer [Harry Caray](/wiki/Harry_Caray \"Harry Caray\") described it: {{cquote\\|''There's a drive, way back! Might be outta here! It is! It is! He did it again! He did it again! The game is tied! The game is tied! Holy Cow! Listen to this crowd, everybody's gone bananas!''}}",
"The Cubs went on to win in the 11th inning. The Cardinals' [Willie McGee](/wiki/Willie_McGee \"Willie McGee\") (who had [hit for the cycle](/wiki/Cycle_%28baseball%29 \"Cycle (baseball)\") that day) had already been named NBC's player of the game before Sandberg's first home run. As [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Sports \"NBC Sports\") play\\-by\\-play man [Bob Costas](/wiki/Bob_Costas \"Bob Costas\") (who called the game with [Tony Kubek](/wiki/Tony_Kubek \"Tony Kubek\")) said when Sandberg hit that second home run, *\"Do you believe it?!\"* The game is sometimes called \"The Sandberg Game\". The winning run for the Cubs was driven in by a single off the bat of [Dave Owen](/wiki/Dave_Owen_%28baseball%29 \"Dave Owen (baseball)\").",
"### McGwire/Sosa home run chase",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Mark McGwire hitting a home run at Busch Stadium.\\|upright](/wiki/Image:Mark_mcgwire.jpg \"Mark mcgwire.jpg\")\n{{main\\|1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase}}\nIn 1998, the teams were connected by the [Mark McGwire\\-Sammy Sosa home run race](/wiki/1998_Major_League_Baseball_home_run_record_chase \"1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase\"), credited by many with revitalizing the sport following the [players' strike](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Major_League_Baseball_strike \"1994–95 Major League Baseball strike\") which cancelled the [1994 World Series](/wiki/1994_World_Series \"1994 World Series\") and the first part of the [1995 season](/wiki/1995_Major_League_Baseball_season \"1995 Major League Baseball season\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20020808\\&content\\_id\\=99342\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=null\\|title\\=The Sosa\\-McGwire home run race\\|date\\=August 8, 2002\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-12\\|first\\=Carrie\\|last\\=Muskat\\|work\\=MLB.com}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/columnist/bodley/2006\\-03\\-16\\-bodley\\-steroids\\_x.htm\\|title\\=Baseball's steroids issue remains in the news\\|date\\=March 17, 2006\\|first\\=Hal\\|last\\=Bodley\\|newspaper\\=USA Today}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/29/sports/29iht\\-fans.html?\\_r\\=1\\&pagewanted\\=print\\|title\\=Myth of men who saved baseball\\|date\\=March 30, 2005\\|first\\=David\\|last\\=Leonhardt\\|author\\-link\\=David Leonhardt\\|newspaper\\=New York Times}}",
"In early September the teams met for a two\\-game series in St. Louis. In the first game, McGwire hit his record\\-tying 61st home run off pitcher [Mike Morgan](/wiki/Mike_Morgan_%28baseball%29 \"Mike Morgan (baseball)\") in the first inning as part of a 3–2 Cardinals victory. The following day, McGwire broke the record with \\#62 off [Steve Trachsel](/wiki/Steve_Trachsel \"Steve Trachsel\") in the fourth inning as part of a 6–3 victory. In a show of sportsmanship, Sammy Sosa embraced and congratulated his rival and on\\-field opponent after McGwire rounded the bases. McGwire would finish the year with 70 home runs and Sosa with 66\\. However, the Cubs won the National League wild card, making the playoffs for the first time in nine years, while the Cardinals missed the playoffs. Sosa eventually became the NL MVP that season.",
"Sosa dedicated each of his 66 home runs that season to the memory of Cubs (and former Cardinals) broadcaster [Harry Caray](/wiki/Harry_Caray \"Harry Caray\"), who died in February that year.{{cite news\\|title\\=Unlikely Season Of Dreams For Cubs\\|quote\\=Since Caray died at the start of spring training, Sosa has honored him with a 'V' sign after every home run this season, along with his heart thumps and kisses for the Sosa family.\\|date\\=September 29, 1998\\|first\\=Bill\\|last\\=Dedman\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|page\\=D3}}",
"### After the chase",
"A somber showing of acknowledgment between the two teams happened in {{baseball year\\|2002}} when Cubs catcher [Joe Girardi](/wiki/Joe_Girardi \"Joe Girardi\") addressed the fans at Wrigley Field in a choked up way that the game between the two teams had been cancelled and that the fans should pray for the St. Louis Cardinals family. However, there were fans who booed.{{cite news\\|title\\=It's 'a time to put this rivalry away'\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|first1\\=Ana\\|last1\\=Beatriz\\|first2\\=Oscar\\|last2\\=Avila\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=3}} Later, a press conference was held where an emotional Girardi addressed the death of Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile \"Darryl Kile\"). Girardi, who played for both the Cubs and the Cardinals, addressed the fans in a regional broadcast on [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox \"Major League Baseball on Fox\").",
"In 2005, Cubs first baseman [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee \"Derrek Lee\") and Cardinals first baseman [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols \"Albert Pujols\") were locked in an MVP race. Lee led the NL in hits and batting average and bested Pujols in home runs. For his part, Pujols led the league in runs scored and had the edge on Lee in RBIs. Lee was awarded both the [Gold Glove](/wiki/Gold_Glove \"Gold Glove\") and [Silver Slugger](/wiki/Silver_Slugger \"Silver Slugger\") as the best NL first baseman on both defense and offense, respectively. However, with the Cardinals winning 100 games and the division and the Cubs finishing 21 games back in fourth place, Pujols won the MVP honors.",
"On June 4 and 5, {{mlby\\|2011}} Pujols won back\\-to\\-back games against the Cubs with walk\\-off home runs.",
"In recent years, tragedies in the Cardinals organization have caused two games between these teams to be postponed. In 2002, after Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile \"Darryl Kile\") was found dead in a Chicago hotel room, a game between the teams in Wrigley Field was postponed.{{cite news\\|title\\=MacPhail wanted vague notice; Cubs exec sought to protect Kile family members\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|first\\=Teddy\\|last\\=Greenstein\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=5}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Kile's Death Stuns Baseball; Cardinals: St. Louis pitcher, 33, is found in his Chicago hotel room and appears to have died of natural causes. Game against Cubs is canceled\\|first\\=Ross\\|last\\=Newhan\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|page\\=D1\\|author\\-link\\=Ross Newhan}} Then in 2007, another Cardinals pitcher, [Josh Hancock](/wiki/Josh_Hancock \"Josh Hancock\"), was killed in a car crash while driving intoxicated, causing a game in St. Louis to be postponed.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cards lose a 'great teammate, friend'; Pitcher Hancock killed in car crash; Cubs game called off\\|date\\=April 30, 2007\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Sullivan\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=1}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Cardinals' Hancock dies in car accident\\|date\\=April 30, 2007\\|first\\=Bill\\|last\\=Shaikin\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|page\\=D1}}",
"Former Cubs shortstop [Ryan Theriot](/wiki/Ryan_Theriot \"Ryan Theriot\"), who was acquired by the Cardinals on November 30, 2010, told a St. Louis radio station that he was \"finally on the right side of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry\" and that he was happy to be with an organization that emphasized winning World Series championships instead of being \"an afterthought\". Cubs pitcher [Carlos Zambrano](/wiki/Carlos_Zambrano \"Carlos Zambrano\") called him \"the enemy now\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.stltoday.com/sports/baseball/professional/article\\_18a52492\\-0736\\-5b28\\-a98d\\-948fd6ef9371\\.html?print\\=1\\|title\\=Theriot ready to play on right side of the rivalry\\|date\\=January 19, 2011\\|first\\=Derrick\\|last\\=Goold\\|newspaper\\=St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch}} The Cardinals won the World Series that season.",
"The two clubs played each other in the [postseason](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_postseason \"Major League Baseball postseason\") for the first time in the [2015 National League Division Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Division_Series \"2015 National League Division Series\"), as a result of the Cubs' 4–0 victory over the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/2015_Pittsburgh_Pirates_season \"2015 Pittsburgh Pirates season\") in the [NL Wild Card Game](/wiki/2015_National_League_Wild_Card_Game \"2015 National League Wild Card Game\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Singer\\|first1\\=Tom\\|last2\\=Muskat\\|first2\\=Carrie\\|title\\=Arrieta, Cubs ace Wild Card test vs. Bucs\\|url\\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/153625192/arrieta\\-cubs\\-ace\\-wild\\-card\\-test\\-vs\\-bucs\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Major League Baseball Advanced Media]]\\|date\\=October 8, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2015}} The Cubs defeated the Cardinals 3–1 to advance to the [National League Championship Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Championship_Series \"2015 National League Championship Series\"), where they lost to the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets \"New York Mets\").[Cubs power way past Cardinals again in Game 4 to win NLDS](https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/10/13/cubs-cardinals-nlds-game-4-recap), SI.com, October 13, 2015",
"The rivalry was further heated after [John Lackey](/wiki/John_Lackey \"John Lackey\") and [Jason Heyward](/wiki/Jason_Heyward \"Jason Heyward\") signed with the Cubs after the 2015 season and [Dexter Fowler](/wiki/Dexter_Fowler \"Dexter Fowler\") signed with the Cardinals after the Cubs' 2016 championship season.",
"### Wrigley Field Sweep",
"In a pivotal series that determined each team's chance for the playoffs, the Cardinals played the Cubs at Wrigley Field in a four\\-game series from September 19–22, 2019\\. The Cardinals went into the series three games ahead of the Cubs with the opportunity to clinch the division title, while the Cubs had the opportunity to overtake the Cardinals for the division lead. After the Cardinals won the first two games, the September 21 game was ranked the 5th most exciting game in top 10 [MLB](/wiki/MLB \"MLB\") games of 2019\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2020}} In the bottom of the 7th with the Cardinals leading 7–6, Cardinals reliever Giovanny Gallegos committed a no\\-stop balk while striking out [Tony Kemp](/wiki/Tony_Kemp_%28baseball%29 \"Tony Kemp (baseball)\"). The call was seen as controversial to some. Announcer [Tim McCarver](/wiki/Tim_McCarver \"Tim McCarver\") noted that Gallegos had done that the whole game and that the umpire who called it was the furthest away from the pitcher. Given a second chance, Kemp hit a two\\-run home run giving the Cubs an 8–7 lead. Cubs closer Craig Kimbrel was called in to close the game for a Cubs win. However, Kimbrel gave up home runs to [Yadier Molina](/wiki/Yadier_Molina \"Yadier Molina\") and [Paul DeJong](/wiki/Paul_DeJong \"Paul DeJong\") to give the Cardinals a 9–8 lead. The Cardinals would win by that score.\nThe Cardinals completed the sweep the next day — their first four\\-game sweep of the Cubs at Wrigley Field since 1921{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-19\\|title\\=The St. Louis Cardinals Wrigley Field massacre: 6 months later\\|url\\=https://redbirdrants.com/2020/03/19/st\\-louis\\-cardinals\\-wrigley\\-field\\-massacre/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-08\\|website\\=Redbird Rants\\|language\\=en\\-US}} — to clinch a playoff spot.",
""
] |
### After the chase
A somber showing of acknowledgment between the two teams happened in {{baseball year\|2002}} when Cubs catcher [Joe Girardi](/wiki/Joe_Girardi "Joe Girardi") addressed the fans at Wrigley Field in a choked up way that the game between the two teams had been cancelled and that the fans should pray for the St. Louis Cardinals family. However, there were fans who booed.{{cite news\|title\=It's 'a time to put this rivalry away'\|date\=June 23, 2002\|first1\=Ana\|last1\=Beatriz\|first2\=Oscar\|last2\=Avila\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=3}} Later, a press conference was held where an emotional Girardi addressed the death of Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile "Darryl Kile"). Girardi, who played for both the Cubs and the Cardinals, addressed the fans in a regional broadcast on [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox "Major League Baseball on Fox").
In 2005, Cubs first baseman [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee "Derrek Lee") and Cardinals first baseman [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols "Albert Pujols") were locked in an MVP race. Lee led the NL in hits and batting average and bested Pujols in home runs. For his part, Pujols led the league in runs scored and had the edge on Lee in RBIs. Lee was awarded both the [Gold Glove](/wiki/Gold_Glove "Gold Glove") and [Silver Slugger](/wiki/Silver_Slugger "Silver Slugger") as the best NL first baseman on both defense and offense, respectively. However, with the Cardinals winning 100 games and the division and the Cubs finishing 21 games back in fourth place, Pujols won the MVP honors.
On June 4 and 5, {{mlby\|2011}} Pujols won back\-to\-back games against the Cubs with walk\-off home runs.
In recent years, tragedies in the Cardinals organization have caused two games between these teams to be postponed. In 2002, after Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile "Darryl Kile") was found dead in a Chicago hotel room, a game between the teams in Wrigley Field was postponed.{{cite news\|title\=MacPhail wanted vague notice; Cubs exec sought to protect Kile family members\|date\=June 23, 2002\|first\=Teddy\|last\=Greenstein\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=5}}{{cite news\|title\=Kile's Death Stuns Baseball; Cardinals: St. Louis pitcher, 33, is found in his Chicago hotel room and appears to have died of natural causes. Game against Cubs is canceled\|first\=Ross\|last\=Newhan\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=June 23, 2002\|page\=D1\|author\-link\=Ross Newhan}} Then in 2007, another Cardinals pitcher, [Josh Hancock](/wiki/Josh_Hancock "Josh Hancock"), was killed in a car crash while driving intoxicated, causing a game in St. Louis to be postponed.{{cite news\|title\=Cards lose a 'great teammate, friend'; Pitcher Hancock killed in car crash; Cubs game called off\|date\=April 30, 2007\|first\=Paul\|last\=Sullivan\|newspaper\=Chicago Tribune\|page\=1}}{{cite news\|title\=Cardinals' Hancock dies in car accident\|date\=April 30, 2007\|first\=Bill\|last\=Shaikin\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|page\=D1}}
Former Cubs shortstop [Ryan Theriot](/wiki/Ryan_Theriot "Ryan Theriot"), who was acquired by the Cardinals on November 30, 2010, told a St. Louis radio station that he was "finally on the right side of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry" and that he was happy to be with an organization that emphasized winning World Series championships instead of being "an afterthought". Cubs pitcher [Carlos Zambrano](/wiki/Carlos_Zambrano "Carlos Zambrano") called him "the enemy now".{{cite news\|url\=http://www.stltoday.com/sports/baseball/professional/article\_18a52492\-0736\-5b28\-a98d\-948fd6ef9371\.html?print\=1\|title\=Theriot ready to play on right side of the rivalry\|date\=January 19, 2011\|first\=Derrick\|last\=Goold\|newspaper\=St. Louis Post\-Dispatch}} The Cardinals won the World Series that season.
The two clubs played each other in the [postseason](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_postseason "Major League Baseball postseason") for the first time in the [2015 National League Division Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Division_Series "2015 National League Division Series"), as a result of the Cubs' 4–0 victory over the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/2015_Pittsburgh_Pirates_season "2015 Pittsburgh Pirates season") in the [NL Wild Card Game](/wiki/2015_National_League_Wild_Card_Game "2015 National League Wild Card Game").{{cite web\|last1\=Singer\|first1\=Tom\|last2\=Muskat\|first2\=Carrie\|title\=Arrieta, Cubs ace Wild Card test vs. Bucs\|url\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/153625192/arrieta\-cubs\-ace\-wild\-card\-test\-vs\-bucs\|publisher\=\[\[Major League Baseball Advanced Media]]\|date\=October 8, 2015\|access\-date\=October 8, 2015}} The Cubs defeated the Cardinals 3–1 to advance to the [National League Championship Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Championship_Series "2015 National League Championship Series"), where they lost to the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets "New York Mets").[Cubs power way past Cardinals again in Game 4 to win NLDS](https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/10/13/cubs-cardinals-nlds-game-4-recap), SI.com, October 13, 2015
The rivalry was further heated after [John Lackey](/wiki/John_Lackey "John Lackey") and [Jason Heyward](/wiki/Jason_Heyward "Jason Heyward") signed with the Cubs after the 2015 season and [Dexter Fowler](/wiki/Dexter_Fowler "Dexter Fowler") signed with the Cardinals after the Cubs' 2016 championship season.
|
[
"### After the chase",
"A somber showing of acknowledgment between the two teams happened in {{baseball year\\|2002}} when Cubs catcher [Joe Girardi](/wiki/Joe_Girardi \"Joe Girardi\") addressed the fans at Wrigley Field in a choked up way that the game between the two teams had been cancelled and that the fans should pray for the St. Louis Cardinals family. However, there were fans who booed.{{cite news\\|title\\=It's 'a time to put this rivalry away'\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|first1\\=Ana\\|last1\\=Beatriz\\|first2\\=Oscar\\|last2\\=Avila\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=3}} Later, a press conference was held where an emotional Girardi addressed the death of Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile \"Darryl Kile\"). Girardi, who played for both the Cubs and the Cardinals, addressed the fans in a regional broadcast on [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox \"Major League Baseball on Fox\").",
"In 2005, Cubs first baseman [Derrek Lee](/wiki/Derrek_Lee \"Derrek Lee\") and Cardinals first baseman [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols \"Albert Pujols\") were locked in an MVP race. Lee led the NL in hits and batting average and bested Pujols in home runs. For his part, Pujols led the league in runs scored and had the edge on Lee in RBIs. Lee was awarded both the [Gold Glove](/wiki/Gold_Glove \"Gold Glove\") and [Silver Slugger](/wiki/Silver_Slugger \"Silver Slugger\") as the best NL first baseman on both defense and offense, respectively. However, with the Cardinals winning 100 games and the division and the Cubs finishing 21 games back in fourth place, Pujols won the MVP honors.",
"On June 4 and 5, {{mlby\\|2011}} Pujols won back\\-to\\-back games against the Cubs with walk\\-off home runs.",
"In recent years, tragedies in the Cardinals organization have caused two games between these teams to be postponed. In 2002, after Cardinals pitcher [Darryl Kile](/wiki/Darryl_Kile \"Darryl Kile\") was found dead in a Chicago hotel room, a game between the teams in Wrigley Field was postponed.{{cite news\\|title\\=MacPhail wanted vague notice; Cubs exec sought to protect Kile family members\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|first\\=Teddy\\|last\\=Greenstein\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=5}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Kile's Death Stuns Baseball; Cardinals: St. Louis pitcher, 33, is found in his Chicago hotel room and appears to have died of natural causes. Game against Cubs is canceled\\|first\\=Ross\\|last\\=Newhan\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=June 23, 2002\\|page\\=D1\\|author\\-link\\=Ross Newhan}} Then in 2007, another Cardinals pitcher, [Josh Hancock](/wiki/Josh_Hancock \"Josh Hancock\"), was killed in a car crash while driving intoxicated, causing a game in St. Louis to be postponed.{{cite news\\|title\\=Cards lose a 'great teammate, friend'; Pitcher Hancock killed in car crash; Cubs game called off\\|date\\=April 30, 2007\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Sullivan\\|newspaper\\=Chicago Tribune\\|page\\=1}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Cardinals' Hancock dies in car accident\\|date\\=April 30, 2007\\|first\\=Bill\\|last\\=Shaikin\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|page\\=D1}}",
"Former Cubs shortstop [Ryan Theriot](/wiki/Ryan_Theriot \"Ryan Theriot\"), who was acquired by the Cardinals on November 30, 2010, told a St. Louis radio station that he was \"finally on the right side of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry\" and that he was happy to be with an organization that emphasized winning World Series championships instead of being \"an afterthought\". Cubs pitcher [Carlos Zambrano](/wiki/Carlos_Zambrano \"Carlos Zambrano\") called him \"the enemy now\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.stltoday.com/sports/baseball/professional/article\\_18a52492\\-0736\\-5b28\\-a98d\\-948fd6ef9371\\.html?print\\=1\\|title\\=Theriot ready to play on right side of the rivalry\\|date\\=January 19, 2011\\|first\\=Derrick\\|last\\=Goold\\|newspaper\\=St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch}} The Cardinals won the World Series that season.",
"The two clubs played each other in the [postseason](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_postseason \"Major League Baseball postseason\") for the first time in the [2015 National League Division Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Division_Series \"2015 National League Division Series\"), as a result of the Cubs' 4–0 victory over the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/2015_Pittsburgh_Pirates_season \"2015 Pittsburgh Pirates season\") in the [NL Wild Card Game](/wiki/2015_National_League_Wild_Card_Game \"2015 National League Wild Card Game\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Singer\\|first1\\=Tom\\|last2\\=Muskat\\|first2\\=Carrie\\|title\\=Arrieta, Cubs ace Wild Card test vs. Bucs\\|url\\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/153625192/arrieta\\-cubs\\-ace\\-wild\\-card\\-test\\-vs\\-bucs\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Major League Baseball Advanced Media]]\\|date\\=October 8, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2015}} The Cubs defeated the Cardinals 3–1 to advance to the [National League Championship Series](/wiki/2015_National_League_Championship_Series \"2015 National League Championship Series\"), where they lost to the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets \"New York Mets\").[Cubs power way past Cardinals again in Game 4 to win NLDS](https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/10/13/cubs-cardinals-nlds-game-4-recap), SI.com, October 13, 2015",
"The rivalry was further heated after [John Lackey](/wiki/John_Lackey \"John Lackey\") and [Jason Heyward](/wiki/Jason_Heyward \"Jason Heyward\") signed with the Cubs after the 2015 season and [Dexter Fowler](/wiki/Dexter_Fowler \"Dexter Fowler\") signed with the Cardinals after the Cubs' 2016 championship season.",
""
] |
Design and operation
--------------------
[right\|thumb\|Schematic of lithium–air battery charge and discharge cycles](/wiki/File:Li-air-charge-discharge.jpg "Li-air-charge-discharge.jpg")
In general lithium ions move between the anode and the cathode across the electrolyte. Under discharge, electrons follow the external circuit to do electric work and the lithium ions migrate to the cathode. During charge the lithium metal plates onto the anode, freeing {{chem\|O\|2}} at the cathode. Both non\-aqueous{{Sfn\|McCloskey\|Burke\|Nichols\|Renfrew\|2015}} (with Li2O2 or LiO2 as the discharge products) and aqueous (LiOH as the discharge product) Li\-O2 batteries have been considered.{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} The aqueous battery requires a protective layer on the negative electrode to keep the Li metal from reacting with water.
### Anode
[left\|thumb\|Schematic of artificial vs. spontaneous electrolyte interface](/wiki/File:Li-air-SEI.jpg "Li-air-SEI.jpg")
Lithium metal is the typical anode choice. At the anode, electrochemical potential forces the lithium metal to release electrons via [oxidation](/wiki/Redox "Redox") (without involving the cathodic oxygen). The half\-reaction is:
Li {{eqm}} Li\+ \+ e−
Lithium has high specific capacity (3,840 mAh/g) compared with other metal–air battery materials (820 mAh/g for Zinc, 2,965 mAh/g for [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium")). Several issues affect such cells.
The main challenge in anode development is preventing the anode from reacting with the electrolyte. Alternatives include new electrolyte materials or redesigning the interface between electrolyte and anode. Lithium anodes risk [dendritic](/wiki/Dendrite_%28crystal%29 "Dendrite (crystal)") lithium deposits, decreasing energy capacity or triggering a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit "Short circuit").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Tikekar\|first1\=Mukul D.\|last2\=Choudhury\|first2\=Snehashis\|last3\=Tu\|first3\=Zhengyuan\|last4\=Archer\|first4\=Lynden A.\|date\=2016\-09\-08\|title\=Design principles for electrolytes and interfaces for stable lithium\-metal batteries\|journal\=Nature Energy\|language\=en\|volume\=1\|issue\=9\|pages\=16114\|doi\=10\.1038/nenergy.2016\.114\|issn\=2058\-7546\|bibcode\=2016NatEn...116114T\|s2cid\=138881114 }}
The effects of pore size and pore size distribution remain poorly understood.
Upon charging/discharging in aprotic cells, layers of lithium salts precipitate onto the anode, eventually covering it and creating a barrier between the lithium and electrolyte. This barrier initially prevents corrosion, but eventually inhibits the reaction kinetics between the anode and the electrolyte. This chemical change of the solid–electrolyte interface (SEI) results in varying chemical composition across the surface, causing the current to vary accordingly. The uneven current distribution furthers branching [dendrite](/wiki/Dendrite_%28crystal%29 "Dendrite (crystal)") growth and typically leads to a short circuit between the anode and cathode.
In aqueous cells problems at the SEI stem from the high reactivity of lithium metal with water.
Several approaches attempt to overcome these problems:
* Formation of a Li\-ion protective layer using di\- and triblock [copolymer](/wiki/Copolymer "Copolymer") electrolytes. According to Seeo, Inc., such electrolytes (e.g., [polystyrene](/wiki/Polystyrene "Polystyrene") with the high Li\-ion conductivity of a soft polymer segment, such as a poly(ethylene oxide (PEO) and Li\-salt mixture) ) combine the mechanical stability of a hard polymer segment with the high ionic conductivity of the soft polymer–lithium\-salt mixture. The hardness inhibits dendrite shorts via mechanical blocking.
* Li\-ion conducting glass or glass\-ceramic materials are (generally) readily reduced by lithium metal, and therefore a thin film of a stable lithium conducting material, such as {{chem\|Li\|3\|P}} or {{chem\|Li\|3\|N}}, can be inserted between the ceramic and metal. This ceramic\-based SEI inhibits the formation of dendrites and protects the lithium metal from atmospheric contamination.
### Cathode
At the cathode during charge, oxygen donates electrons to the lithium via reduction. [Mesoporous](/wiki/Mesoporous_material "Mesoporous material") carbon has been used as a cathode substrate with metal catalysts that enhance reduction kinetics and increase the cathode's specific capacity. Manganese, cobalt, ruthenium, platinum, silver, or a mixture of cobalt and manganese are potential metal catalysts. Under some circumstances manganese\-catalyzed cathodes performed best, with a specific capacity of 3,137 mA·H/g carbon and cobalt\-catalyzed cathodes performed second best, with a specific capacity of 2414 mA·H/g carbon. Based on the first pore\-scale modeling of lithium–air batteries, the micro\-structure of the cathode significantly affects battery capacity in both non\-pore\-blocking and pore\-blocking regimes.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Andersen \| first1 \= Charles P. \| last2 \= Hu \| first2 \= Han \| last3 \= Qiu \| first3 \= Gang \| last4 \= Kalra \| first4 \= Vibha \| last5 \= Sun \| first5 \= Ying\|author5\-link\=Ying Sun (mechanical engineer) \| year \= 2015 \| title \= Pore\-Scale Transport Resolved Model Incorporating Cathode Microstructure and Peroxide Growth in Lithium–Air Batteries \| url \= http://jes.ecsdl.org/content/162/7/A1135\.short \| journal \= J. Electrochem. Soc. \| volume \= 162 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= A1135–A1145 \| doi \= 10\.1149/2\.0051507jes \| s2cid \= 55640173 }}
Most Li–air battery limits are at the cathode, which is also the source of its potential advantages.
Atmospheric oxygen must be present at the cathode, but contaminants such as water vapor can damage it.
Incomplete discharge due to blockage of the porous carbon cathode with discharge products such as [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide "Lithium peroxide") (in aprotic designs) is the most serious.
Catalysts have shown promise in creating preferential nucleation of {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} over {{chem\|Li\|2\|O}}, which is irreversible with respect to lithium.
Li–air performance is limited by the efficiency of the reaction at the cathode, because most of the [voltage drop](/wiki/Voltage_drop "Voltage drop") occurs there. Multiple chemistries have been assessed, distinguished by their electrolyte. This discussion focuses on aprotic and aqueous electrolytes as solid\-state electrochemistry is poorly understood.
In a cell with an [aprotic electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aprotic "#Aprotic") lithium oxides are produced through reduction at the cathode:
Li\+ \+ e− \+{{chem\|O\|2}} \+ \* → {{chem\|LiO\|2}}\*
Li\+ \+ e− \+{{chem\|LiO\|2}}\* →{{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}}\*
where "\*" denotes a surface site on {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} where growth proceeds, which is essentially a neutral Li vacancy in the {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} surface.
Lithium oxides are insoluble in aprotic electrolytes, which leads to cathode clogging.
A {{chem\|MnO\|2}} nanowire array cathode augmented by a genetically modified [M13 bacteriophage](/wiki/M13_bacteriophage "M13 bacteriophage") virus offers two to three times the energy density of 2015\-era lithium\-ion batteries. The virus increased the size of the nanowire array, which is about 80 nm across. The resulting wires had a spiked surface. Spikes create more surface area to host reaction sites. The viral process creates a cross\-linked 3D structure, rather than isolated wires, stabilizing the electrode. The viral process is water\-based and takes place at room temperature.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gizmag.com/m13\-virus\-electrode\-lithium\-air\-battery/29791/\|title\=Lithium–air batteries go viral for greater durability and performance\|work\=gizmag.com\|date\=15 November 2013 }}{{Cite journal \|last1\= Oh \|first1\= D. \|last2\= Qi \|first2\= J. \|last3\= Lu \|first3\= Y. C. \|last4\= Zhang \|first4\= Y. \|last5\= Shao\-Horn \|first5\= Y. \|last6\= Belcher \|first6\= A. M. \|title\= Biologically enhanced cathode design for improved capacity and cycle life for lithium–oxygen batteries \|doi\= 10\.1038/ncomms3756 \|journal\= Nature Communications \|volume\= 4 \|pages\= 2756 \|year\= 2013 \|pmid\= 24220635\|pmc\= 3930201\|bibcode\= 2013NatCo...4\.2756O }}
### Electrolyte
Efforts in Li–air batteries have focused on four electrolytes: aqueous acidic, aqueous alkaline, non\-aqueous protic, and aprotic.
In a cell with an [aqueous electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aqueous "#Aqueous") the reduction at the cathode can also produce lithium hydroxide:
#### Aqueous
An [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous "Aqueous") Li–air battery consists of a lithium metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The aqueous electrolyte combines lithium salts dissolved in water. It avoids the issue of cathode clogging because the reaction products are water\-soluble. The aqueous design has a higher practical discharge potential than its aprotic counterpart. However, lithium metal reacts violently with water and thus the aqueous design requires a solid electrolyte interface between the lithium and electrolyte. Commonly, a lithium\-conducting ceramic or glass is used, but conductivity are generally low (on the order of 10−3 S/cm at ambient temperatures).
#### Acidic electrolyte
[right\|thumb\|Schematic of a mixed aqueous–aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-mixed.jpg "Li-air-mixed.jpg")
2Li \+ ½ {{chem\|O\|2}} \+ 2H\+ → 2Li\+\+ {{chem\|H\|2\|O}}
A conjugate base is involved in the reaction. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,400 W·h/kg and 1,680 W·h/L, respectively.
#### Alkaline aqueous electrolyte
2Li \+ ½ {{chem\|O\|2}} \+ {{chem\|H\|2\|O}} → 2LiOH
Water molecules are involved in the redox reactions at the air cathode. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,300 W·h/kg and 1,520 W·h/L, respectively.
New cathode materials must account for the accommodation of substantial amounts of {{chem\|LiO\|2}}, {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} and/or LiOH without causing the cathode pores to block and employ suitable catalysts to make the electrochemical reactions energetically practical.
* Dual pore system materials offer the most promising energy capacity.
* The first pore system serves as an oxidation product store.
* The second pore system serves as oxygen transport.
#### Aprotic
[right\|thumb\|Schematic of aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aprotic.jpg "Li-air-aprotic.jpg")
Non\-aqueous Li–air batteries were demonstrated first. They usually use mixed [ethylene carbonate](/wiki/Ethylene_carbonate "Ethylene carbonate")\+ [propylene carbonate](/wiki/Propylene_carbonate "Propylene carbonate") solvents with [LiPF6](/wiki/Lithium_hexafluorophosphate "Lithium hexafluorophosphate") or Li bis\-sulfonimide salts like conventional Li\-ion batteries, however, with a gelled rather than liquid electrolyte.{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} The voltage difference upon constant current charge and discharge is usually between 1\.3 and 1\.8 V (with an OCP of ca. 4\.2 V) even at such low currents as 0\.01–0\.5 mA/cm2 and 50–500 mA/g of C on the positive electrode (see Figure 2\),{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|McCloskey\|Burke\|Nichols\|Renfrew\|2015}}{{Sfn\|Liu\|Xu\|Yan\|Sun\|2016}} However, the carbonate solvents evaporate and get oxidized due to a high overvoltage upon charge.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Amine\|2013}} Other solvents, such as end\-capped glymes, DMSO, dimethylacetamide, and ionic liquids, have been considered.{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} The carbon cathode gets oxidized above \+3\.5 V v Li during charge, forming Li2CO3, which leads to an irreversible capacity loss.{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}}
Most efforts involved [aprotic](/wiki/Aprotic "Aprotic") materials, which consist of a lithium metal anode, a liquid [organic](/wiki/Organic_compound "Organic compound") electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The electrolyte can be made of any organic liquid able to solvate lithium salts such as {{chem\|LiPF\|6}}, {{chem\|LiAsF\|6}}, {{chem\|LiN(\|SO\|2\|CF\|3\|)\|2}}, and {{chem\|LiSO\|3\|CF\|3}}, but typically consisted of [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate "Carbonate"), [ethers](/wiki/Ether "Ether") and [esters](/wiki/Ester "Ester"). The carbon cathode is usually made of a high\-surface\-area carbon material with a nanostructured [metal oxide](/wiki/Metal_oxide "Metal oxide") catalyst (commonly {{chem\|MnO\|2}} or {{chem\|Mn\|3\|O\|4}}). A major advantage is the spontaneous formation of a barrier between anode and electrolyte (analogous to the barrier formed between electrolyte and carbon–lithium anodes in conventional Li\-ion batteries) that protects the lithium metal from further reaction with the electrolyte. Although rechargeable, the {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} produced at the cathode is generally insoluble in the organic electrolyte, leading to buildup along the cathode/electrolyte interface. This makes cathodes in aprotic batteries prone to clogging and volume expansion that progressively reduces conductivity and degrades battery performance.{{cite journal\|title\=Optimization of the Cathode Structure of Lithium–Air Batteries Based on a Two\-Dimensional, Transient, Non\-Isothermal Model \|last1\=Li\|first1\=Xianglin\|last2\=Faghri \|first2\=Amir\|journal\=Journal of the Electrochemical Society\|date\=2012\|volume\=159\|issue\=10\|page\=A1747–A1754\|doi\=10\.1149/2\.043210jes}} Another issue is that organic electrolytes are flammable and can ignite if the cell is damaged.
Although most studies agree that {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} is the final discharge product of non\-aqueous Li\-O2 batteries, considerable evidence that its formation does not proceed as a direct 2\-electron electro\-reduction to peroxide O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=2−}} (which is the common pathway for O2 reduction in water on carbon) but rather via a one–electron reduction to superoxide O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=−}}, followed by its disproportionation:
{{NumBlk\|:\|2{{chem\|Li\|O\|2}} {{eqm}} {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2\|\+O\|2}} \|{{EquationRef\|1}}}}
Traditionally, [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide "Superoxide") (O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=−}}) was considered as a dangerous intermediate in aprotic oxygen batteries due to its high [nucleophilicity](/wiki/Nucleophile "Nucleophile"), basicity and redox potential{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|McCloskey\|Burke\|Nichols\|Renfrew\|2015}} However, reports{{Sfn\|Zhai\|Lau\|Wang\|Wen\|2015}}{{Sfn\|Lu\|Jung Lee\|Luo\|Chun Lau\|2016}} suggest that LiO2 is both an intermediate during the discharge to peroxide ({{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}}) and can be used as the final discharge product, potentially with an improved cycle life albeit with a lower specific energy (a little heavier battery weight). Indeed, it was shown that under certain conditions, the superoxide can be stable on the scale of 20–70 h at room temperature.{{Sfn\|Zhai\|Lau\|Wang\|Wen\|2015}} An irreversible capacity loss upon disproportionation of LiO2 in the charged battery was not addressed.
Pt/C seems to be the best electrocatalyst for O2 evolution and Au/C for O2 reduction when {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} is the product.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Xu\|Gasteiger\|Chen\|2010}} Nevertheless, "the performance of rechargeable lithium–air batteries with non\-aqueous electrolytes is limited by the reactions on the oxygen electrode, especially by O2 evolution. Conventional porous carbon air electrodes are unable to provide mAh/g and mAh/cm2 capacities and discharge rates at the magnitudes required for really high energy density batteries for EV applications."{{Sfn\|Lu\|Xu\|Gasteiger\|Chen\|2010}} The capacity (in mAh/cm2) and the cycle life of non\-aqueous Li\-O2 batteries is limited by the deposition of insoluble and poorly electronically conducting LiOx phases upon discharge.{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}} ({{chem\|Li\|3\|O\|4}} is predicted to have a better Li\+ conductivity than the LiO2 and {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} phases).{{Sfn\|Shi\|Xu\|Zhao\|2015}} This makes the practical specific energy of Li\-O2 batteries significantly smaller than the reagent\-level calculation predicts. It seems that these parameters have reached their limits, and further improvement is expected only from alternative methods.
#### Mixed aqueous–aprotic
[left\|thumb\|Schematic of aqueous type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aqueous.jpg "Li-air-aqueous.jpg")
The aqueous–aprotic or mixed Li–air battery design attempts to unite advantages of the aprotic and aqueous battery designs. The common feature of hybrid designs is a two\-part (one part aqueous and one part aprotic) electrolyte connected by a lithium\-conducting [membrane](/wiki/Membrane_%28selective_barrier%29 "Membrane (selective barrier)"). The anode abuts the aprotic side while the cathode is in contact with the aqueous side. A lithium\-conducting ceramic is typically employed as the membrane joining the two electrolytes.
The use of a solid electrolyte (see Fig. 3\) is one such alternative approaches that allows for a combination of a lithium metal anode with an aqueous cathode.{{Sfn\|Visco\|Nimon\|Katz\|Jonghe\|2004}} Ceramic solid electrolytes (CSEs) of the NASICON family (e.g., Li1−xAxM2−x(PO4)3 with A ∈ \[Al, Sc, Y] and M ∈ \[Ti, Ge]) has been studied. Compatible with water at alkaline pH and having a large electrochemical window (see Figs. 3,4\), their low Li\+ ion conductivity near room temperature (\< 0\.005 S/cm, \>85 Ω cm2){{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} makes them unsuitable for automotive and stationary energy storage applications that demand low cost (i.e., operating current densities over 100 mA/cm2). Further, both Ti and Ge are reduced by metallic Li, and an intermediate layer between the ceramic electrode and the negative electrode is required. In contrast, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can provide a higher conductivity at the expense of a faster crossover of water and of other small molecules that are reactive toward metallic Li. Among the more exotic membranes considered for Li\-O2 batteries is single\-crystal silicon.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Amine\|2013}}
In 2015 researchers announced a design that used highly porous [graphene](/wiki/Graphene "Graphene") for the anode, an electrolyte of lithium bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide/dimethoxyethane with added water and [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide "Lithium iodide") for use as a "mediator". The electrolyte produces [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide "Lithium hydroxide") (LiOH) at the cathode instead of [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide "Lithium peroxide") ({{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2\|}}). The result offered energy efficiency of 93 percent (voltage gap of .2\) and cycled more than 2,000 times with little impact on output.{{Cite web\|title\= More hurdles jumped on path to a practical lithium–air battery\|url\= http://www.gizmag.com/lithium\-air\-battery\-university\-cambridge/40411\|website\= www.gizmag.com\|access\-date\= 2015\-12\-03\|first\= Lynda\|last\= Delacey\|date\= November 19, 2015}}{{Cite journal\|title\= Cycling Li\-O2 batteries via LiOH formation and decomposition\|journal\= Science\|date\= 2015\-10\-30\|issn\= 0036\-8075\|pmid\= 26516278\|pages\= 530–533\|volume\= 350\|issue\= 6260\|doi\= 10\.1126/science.aac7730\|first1\= Tao\|last1\= Liu\|first2\= Michal\|last2\= Leskes\|first3\= Wanjing\|last3\= Yu\|first4\= Amy J.\|last4\= Moore\|first5\= Lina\|last5\= Zhou\|first6\= Paul M.\|last6\= Bayley\|first7\= Gunwoo\|last7\= Kim\|first8\= Clare P.\|last8\= Grey\|arxiv\= 1805\.03042\|bibcode\= 2015Sci...350\..530L\|s2cid\= 8780402}} However, the design required pure oxygen, rather than ambient air.{{Cite web\|title\= New design points a path to the 'ultimate' battery\|url\= http://phys.org/news/2015\-10\-path\-ultimate\-battery.html\|website\= phys.org\|access\-date\= 2015\-12\-03\|date\= October 29, 2015}}
#### Solid state
[left\|thumb\|Schematic of solid\-state type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-solidstate.jpg "Li-air-solidstate.jpg")
A [solid\-state](/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry "Solid-state chemistry") battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid\-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass\-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid\-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass\-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium [fast ion conductors](/wiki/Fast_ion_conductor "Fast ion conductor") is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.
|
[
"Design and operation\n--------------------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Schematic of lithium–air battery charge and discharge cycles](/wiki/File:Li-air-charge-discharge.jpg \"Li-air-charge-discharge.jpg\")",
"In general lithium ions move between the anode and the cathode across the electrolyte. Under discharge, electrons follow the external circuit to do electric work and the lithium ions migrate to the cathode. During charge the lithium metal plates onto the anode, freeing {{chem\\|O\\|2}} at the cathode. Both non\\-aqueous{{Sfn\\|McCloskey\\|Burke\\|Nichols\\|Renfrew\\|2015}} (with Li2O2 or LiO2 as the discharge products) and aqueous (LiOH as the discharge product) Li\\-O2 batteries have been considered.{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} The aqueous battery requires a protective layer on the negative electrode to keep the Li metal from reacting with water.",
"### Anode",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Schematic of artificial vs. spontaneous electrolyte interface](/wiki/File:Li-air-SEI.jpg \"Li-air-SEI.jpg\")\nLithium metal is the typical anode choice. At the anode, electrochemical potential forces the lithium metal to release electrons via [oxidation](/wiki/Redox \"Redox\") (without involving the cathodic oxygen). The half\\-reaction is:",
"Li {{eqm}} Li\\+ \\+ e−\nLithium has high specific capacity (3,840 mAh/g) compared with other metal–air battery materials (820 mAh/g for Zinc, 2,965 mAh/g for [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\")). Several issues affect such cells.\nThe main challenge in anode development is preventing the anode from reacting with the electrolyte. Alternatives include new electrolyte materials or redesigning the interface between electrolyte and anode. Lithium anodes risk [dendritic](/wiki/Dendrite_%28crystal%29 \"Dendrite (crystal)\") lithium deposits, decreasing energy capacity or triggering a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit \"Short circuit\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Tikekar\\|first1\\=Mukul D.\\|last2\\=Choudhury\\|first2\\=Snehashis\\|last3\\=Tu\\|first3\\=Zhengyuan\\|last4\\=Archer\\|first4\\=Lynden A.\\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-08\\|title\\=Design principles for electrolytes and interfaces for stable lithium\\-metal batteries\\|journal\\=Nature Energy\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=1\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=16114\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nenergy.2016\\.114\\|issn\\=2058\\-7546\\|bibcode\\=2016NatEn...116114T\\|s2cid\\=138881114 }}\nThe effects of pore size and pore size distribution remain poorly understood.",
"Upon charging/discharging in aprotic cells, layers of lithium salts precipitate onto the anode, eventually covering it and creating a barrier between the lithium and electrolyte. This barrier initially prevents corrosion, but eventually inhibits the reaction kinetics between the anode and the electrolyte. This chemical change of the solid–electrolyte interface (SEI) results in varying chemical composition across the surface, causing the current to vary accordingly. The uneven current distribution furthers branching [dendrite](/wiki/Dendrite_%28crystal%29 \"Dendrite (crystal)\") growth and typically leads to a short circuit between the anode and cathode.",
"In aqueous cells problems at the SEI stem from the high reactivity of lithium metal with water.",
"Several approaches attempt to overcome these problems:\n* Formation of a Li\\-ion protective layer using di\\- and triblock [copolymer](/wiki/Copolymer \"Copolymer\") electrolytes. According to Seeo, Inc., such electrolytes (e.g., [polystyrene](/wiki/Polystyrene \"Polystyrene\") with the high Li\\-ion conductivity of a soft polymer segment, such as a poly(ethylene oxide (PEO) and Li\\-salt mixture) ) combine the mechanical stability of a hard polymer segment with the high ionic conductivity of the soft polymer–lithium\\-salt mixture. The hardness inhibits dendrite shorts via mechanical blocking.\n* Li\\-ion conducting glass or glass\\-ceramic materials are (generally) readily reduced by lithium metal, and therefore a thin film of a stable lithium conducting material, such as {{chem\\|Li\\|3\\|P}} or {{chem\\|Li\\|3\\|N}}, can be inserted between the ceramic and metal. This ceramic\\-based SEI inhibits the formation of dendrites and protects the lithium metal from atmospheric contamination.",
"### Cathode",
"At the cathode during charge, oxygen donates electrons to the lithium via reduction. [Mesoporous](/wiki/Mesoporous_material \"Mesoporous material\") carbon has been used as a cathode substrate with metal catalysts that enhance reduction kinetics and increase the cathode's specific capacity. Manganese, cobalt, ruthenium, platinum, silver, or a mixture of cobalt and manganese are potential metal catalysts. Under some circumstances manganese\\-catalyzed cathodes performed best, with a specific capacity of 3,137 mA·H/g carbon and cobalt\\-catalyzed cathodes performed second best, with a specific capacity of 2414 mA·H/g carbon. Based on the first pore\\-scale modeling of lithium–air batteries, the micro\\-structure of the cathode significantly affects battery capacity in both non\\-pore\\-blocking and pore\\-blocking regimes.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Andersen \\| first1 \\= Charles P. \\| last2 \\= Hu \\| first2 \\= Han \\| last3 \\= Qiu \\| first3 \\= Gang \\| last4 \\= Kalra \\| first4 \\= Vibha \\| last5 \\= Sun \\| first5 \\= Ying\\|author5\\-link\\=Ying Sun (mechanical engineer) \\| year \\= 2015 \\| title \\= Pore\\-Scale Transport Resolved Model Incorporating Cathode Microstructure and Peroxide Growth in Lithium–Air Batteries \\| url \\= http://jes.ecsdl.org/content/162/7/A1135\\.short \\| journal \\= J. Electrochem. Soc. \\| volume \\= 162 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= A1135–A1145 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1149/2\\.0051507jes \\| s2cid \\= 55640173 }}",
"Most Li–air battery limits are at the cathode, which is also the source of its potential advantages. \nAtmospheric oxygen must be present at the cathode, but contaminants such as water vapor can damage it.\nIncomplete discharge due to blockage of the porous carbon cathode with discharge products such as [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide \"Lithium peroxide\") (in aprotic designs) is the most serious.",
"Catalysts have shown promise in creating preferential nucleation of {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} over {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O}}, which is irreversible with respect to lithium.",
"Li–air performance is limited by the efficiency of the reaction at the cathode, because most of the [voltage drop](/wiki/Voltage_drop \"Voltage drop\") occurs there. Multiple chemistries have been assessed, distinguished by their electrolyte. This discussion focuses on aprotic and aqueous electrolytes as solid\\-state electrochemistry is poorly understood.",
"In a cell with an [aprotic electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aprotic \"#Aprotic\") lithium oxides are produced through reduction at the cathode:",
"Li\\+ \\+ e− \\+{{chem\\|O\\|2}} \\+ \\* → {{chem\\|LiO\\|2}}\\*\n Li\\+ \\+ e− \\+{{chem\\|LiO\\|2}}\\* →{{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}}\\*\nwhere \"\\*\" denotes a surface site on {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} where growth proceeds, which is essentially a neutral Li vacancy in the {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} surface.\nLithium oxides are insoluble in aprotic electrolytes, which leads to cathode clogging.",
"A {{chem\\|MnO\\|2}} nanowire array cathode augmented by a genetically modified [M13 bacteriophage](/wiki/M13_bacteriophage \"M13 bacteriophage\") virus offers two to three times the energy density of 2015\\-era lithium\\-ion batteries. The virus increased the size of the nanowire array, which is about 80 nm across. The resulting wires had a spiked surface. Spikes create more surface area to host reaction sites. The viral process creates a cross\\-linked 3D structure, rather than isolated wires, stabilizing the electrode. The viral process is water\\-based and takes place at room temperature.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gizmag.com/m13\\-virus\\-electrode\\-lithium\\-air\\-battery/29791/\\|title\\=Lithium–air batteries go viral for greater durability and performance\\|work\\=gizmag.com\\|date\\=15 November 2013 }}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\= Oh \\|first1\\= D. \\|last2\\= Qi \\|first2\\= J. \\|last3\\= Lu \\|first3\\= Y. C. \\|last4\\= Zhang \\|first4\\= Y. \\|last5\\= Shao\\-Horn \\|first5\\= Y. \\|last6\\= Belcher \\|first6\\= A. M. \\|title\\= Biologically enhanced cathode design for improved capacity and cycle life for lithium–oxygen batteries \\|doi\\= 10\\.1038/ncomms3756 \\|journal\\= Nature Communications \\|volume\\= 4 \\|pages\\= 2756 \\|year\\= 2013 \\|pmid\\= 24220635\\|pmc\\= 3930201\\|bibcode\\= 2013NatCo...4\\.2756O }}",
"### Electrolyte",
"Efforts in Li–air batteries have focused on four electrolytes: aqueous acidic, aqueous alkaline, non\\-aqueous protic, and aprotic.",
"In a cell with an [aqueous electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aqueous \"#Aqueous\") the reduction at the cathode can also produce lithium hydroxide:",
"#### Aqueous",
"An [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous \"Aqueous\") Li–air battery consists of a lithium metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The aqueous electrolyte combines lithium salts dissolved in water. It avoids the issue of cathode clogging because the reaction products are water\\-soluble. The aqueous design has a higher practical discharge potential than its aprotic counterpart. However, lithium metal reacts violently with water and thus the aqueous design requires a solid electrolyte interface between the lithium and electrolyte. Commonly, a lithium\\-conducting ceramic or glass is used, but conductivity are generally low (on the order of 10−3 S/cm at ambient temperatures).",
"#### Acidic electrolyte",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Schematic of a mixed aqueous–aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-mixed.jpg \"Li-air-mixed.jpg\")\n 2Li \\+ ½ {{chem\\|O\\|2}} \\+ 2H\\+ → 2Li\\+\\+ {{chem\\|H\\|2\\|O}}\nA conjugate base is involved in the reaction. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,400 W·h/kg and 1,680 W·h/L, respectively.",
"#### Alkaline aqueous electrolyte",
"2Li \\+ ½ {{chem\\|O\\|2}} \\+ {{chem\\|H\\|2\\|O}} → 2LiOH\nWater molecules are involved in the redox reactions at the air cathode. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,300 W·h/kg and 1,520 W·h/L, respectively.\nNew cathode materials must account for the accommodation of substantial amounts of {{chem\\|LiO\\|2}}, {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} and/or LiOH without causing the cathode pores to block and employ suitable catalysts to make the electrochemical reactions energetically practical.",
"* Dual pore system materials offer the most promising energy capacity.",
"* The first pore system serves as an oxidation product store.\n* The second pore system serves as oxygen transport.\n#### Aprotic",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Schematic of aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aprotic.jpg \"Li-air-aprotic.jpg\")\nNon\\-aqueous Li–air batteries were demonstrated first. They usually use mixed [ethylene carbonate](/wiki/Ethylene_carbonate \"Ethylene carbonate\")\\+ [propylene carbonate](/wiki/Propylene_carbonate \"Propylene carbonate\") solvents with [LiPF6](/wiki/Lithium_hexafluorophosphate \"Lithium hexafluorophosphate\") or Li bis\\-sulfonimide salts like conventional Li\\-ion batteries, however, with a gelled rather than liquid electrolyte.{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} The voltage difference upon constant current charge and discharge is usually between 1\\.3 and 1\\.8 V (with an OCP of ca. 4\\.2 V) even at such low currents as 0\\.01–0\\.5 mA/cm2 and 50–500 mA/g of C on the positive electrode (see Figure 2\\),{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|McCloskey\\|Burke\\|Nichols\\|Renfrew\\|2015}}{{Sfn\\|Liu\\|Xu\\|Yan\\|Sun\\|2016}} However, the carbonate solvents evaporate and get oxidized due to a high overvoltage upon charge.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Amine\\|2013}} Other solvents, such as end\\-capped glymes, DMSO, dimethylacetamide, and ionic liquids, have been considered.{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} The carbon cathode gets oxidized above \\+3\\.5 V v Li during charge, forming Li2CO3, which leads to an irreversible capacity loss.{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}}",
"Most efforts involved [aprotic](/wiki/Aprotic \"Aprotic\") materials, which consist of a lithium metal anode, a liquid [organic](/wiki/Organic_compound \"Organic compound\") electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The electrolyte can be made of any organic liquid able to solvate lithium salts such as {{chem\\|LiPF\\|6}}, {{chem\\|LiAsF\\|6}}, {{chem\\|LiN(\\|SO\\|2\\|CF\\|3\\|)\\|2}}, and {{chem\\|LiSO\\|3\\|CF\\|3}}, but typically consisted of [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\"), [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\") and [esters](/wiki/Ester \"Ester\"). The carbon cathode is usually made of a high\\-surface\\-area carbon material with a nanostructured [metal oxide](/wiki/Metal_oxide \"Metal oxide\") catalyst (commonly {{chem\\|MnO\\|2}} or {{chem\\|Mn\\|3\\|O\\|4}}). A major advantage is the spontaneous formation of a barrier between anode and electrolyte (analogous to the barrier formed between electrolyte and carbon–lithium anodes in conventional Li\\-ion batteries) that protects the lithium metal from further reaction with the electrolyte. Although rechargeable, the {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} produced at the cathode is generally insoluble in the organic electrolyte, leading to buildup along the cathode/electrolyte interface. This makes cathodes in aprotic batteries prone to clogging and volume expansion that progressively reduces conductivity and degrades battery performance.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Optimization of the Cathode Structure of Lithium–Air Batteries Based on a Two\\-Dimensional, Transient, Non\\-Isothermal Model \\|last1\\=Li\\|first1\\=Xianglin\\|last2\\=Faghri \\|first2\\=Amir\\|journal\\=Journal of the Electrochemical Society\\|date\\=2012\\|volume\\=159\\|issue\\=10\\|page\\=A1747–A1754\\|doi\\=10\\.1149/2\\.043210jes}} Another issue is that organic electrolytes are flammable and can ignite if the cell is damaged.",
"Although most studies agree that {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} is the final discharge product of non\\-aqueous Li\\-O2 batteries, considerable evidence that its formation does not proceed as a direct 2\\-electron electro\\-reduction to peroxide O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=2−}} (which is the common pathway for O2 reduction in water on carbon) but rather via a one–electron reduction to superoxide O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=−}}, followed by its disproportionation:",
"{{NumBlk\\|:\\|2{{chem\\|Li\\|O\\|2}} {{eqm}} {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2\\|\\+O\\|2}} \\|{{EquationRef\\|1}}}}",
"Traditionally, [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") (O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=−}}) was considered as a dangerous intermediate in aprotic oxygen batteries due to its high [nucleophilicity](/wiki/Nucleophile \"Nucleophile\"), basicity and redox potential{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|McCloskey\\|Burke\\|Nichols\\|Renfrew\\|2015}} However, reports{{Sfn\\|Zhai\\|Lau\\|Wang\\|Wen\\|2015}}{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Jung Lee\\|Luo\\|Chun Lau\\|2016}} suggest that LiO2 is both an intermediate during the discharge to peroxide ({{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}}) and can be used as the final discharge product, potentially with an improved cycle life albeit with a lower specific energy (a little heavier battery weight). Indeed, it was shown that under certain conditions, the superoxide can be stable on the scale of 20–70 h at room temperature.{{Sfn\\|Zhai\\|Lau\\|Wang\\|Wen\\|2015}} An irreversible capacity loss upon disproportionation of LiO2 in the charged battery was not addressed.",
"Pt/C seems to be the best electrocatalyst for O2 evolution and Au/C for O2 reduction when {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} is the product.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Xu\\|Gasteiger\\|Chen\\|2010}} Nevertheless, \"the performance of rechargeable lithium–air batteries with non\\-aqueous electrolytes is limited by the reactions on the oxygen electrode, especially by O2 evolution. Conventional porous carbon air electrodes are unable to provide mAh/g and mAh/cm2 capacities and discharge rates at the magnitudes required for really high energy density batteries for EV applications.\"{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Xu\\|Gasteiger\\|Chen\\|2010}} The capacity (in mAh/cm2) and the cycle life of non\\-aqueous Li\\-O2 batteries is limited by the deposition of insoluble and poorly electronically conducting LiOx phases upon discharge.{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}} ({{chem\\|Li\\|3\\|O\\|4}} is predicted to have a better Li\\+ conductivity than the LiO2 and {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} phases).{{Sfn\\|Shi\\|Xu\\|Zhao\\|2015}} This makes the practical specific energy of Li\\-O2 batteries significantly smaller than the reagent\\-level calculation predicts. It seems that these parameters have reached their limits, and further improvement is expected only from alternative methods.",
"#### Mixed aqueous–aprotic",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Schematic of aqueous type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aqueous.jpg \"Li-air-aqueous.jpg\")\nThe aqueous–aprotic or mixed Li–air battery design attempts to unite advantages of the aprotic and aqueous battery designs. The common feature of hybrid designs is a two\\-part (one part aqueous and one part aprotic) electrolyte connected by a lithium\\-conducting [membrane](/wiki/Membrane_%28selective_barrier%29 \"Membrane (selective barrier)\"). The anode abuts the aprotic side while the cathode is in contact with the aqueous side. A lithium\\-conducting ceramic is typically employed as the membrane joining the two electrolytes.",
"The use of a solid electrolyte (see Fig. 3\\) is one such alternative approaches that allows for a combination of a lithium metal anode with an aqueous cathode.{{Sfn\\|Visco\\|Nimon\\|Katz\\|Jonghe\\|2004}} Ceramic solid electrolytes (CSEs) of the NASICON family (e.g., Li1−xAxM2−x(PO4)3 with A ∈ \\[Al, Sc, Y] and M ∈ \\[Ti, Ge]) has been studied. Compatible with water at alkaline pH and having a large electrochemical window (see Figs. 3,4\\), their low Li\\+ ion conductivity near room temperature (\\< 0\\.005 S/cm, \\>85 Ω cm2){{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} makes them unsuitable for automotive and stationary energy storage applications that demand low cost (i.e., operating current densities over 100 mA/cm2). Further, both Ti and Ge are reduced by metallic Li, and an intermediate layer between the ceramic electrode and the negative electrode is required. In contrast, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can provide a higher conductivity at the expense of a faster crossover of water and of other small molecules that are reactive toward metallic Li. Among the more exotic membranes considered for Li\\-O2 batteries is single\\-crystal silicon.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Amine\\|2013}}",
"In 2015 researchers announced a design that used highly porous [graphene](/wiki/Graphene \"Graphene\") for the anode, an electrolyte of lithium bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide/dimethoxyethane with added water and [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide \"Lithium iodide\") for use as a \"mediator\". The electrolyte produces [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") (LiOH) at the cathode instead of [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide \"Lithium peroxide\") ({{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2\\|}}). The result offered energy efficiency of 93 percent (voltage gap of .2\\) and cycled more than 2,000 times with little impact on output.{{Cite web\\|title\\= More hurdles jumped on path to a practical lithium–air battery\\|url\\= http://www.gizmag.com/lithium\\-air\\-battery\\-university\\-cambridge/40411\\|website\\= www.gizmag.com\\|access\\-date\\= 2015\\-12\\-03\\|first\\= Lynda\\|last\\= Delacey\\|date\\= November 19, 2015}}{{Cite journal\\|title\\= Cycling Li\\-O2 batteries via LiOH formation and decomposition\\|journal\\= Science\\|date\\= 2015\\-10\\-30\\|issn\\= 0036\\-8075\\|pmid\\= 26516278\\|pages\\= 530–533\\|volume\\= 350\\|issue\\= 6260\\|doi\\= 10\\.1126/science.aac7730\\|first1\\= Tao\\|last1\\= Liu\\|first2\\= Michal\\|last2\\= Leskes\\|first3\\= Wanjing\\|last3\\= Yu\\|first4\\= Amy J.\\|last4\\= Moore\\|first5\\= Lina\\|last5\\= Zhou\\|first6\\= Paul M.\\|last6\\= Bayley\\|first7\\= Gunwoo\\|last7\\= Kim\\|first8\\= Clare P.\\|last8\\= Grey\\|arxiv\\= 1805\\.03042\\|bibcode\\= 2015Sci...350\\..530L\\|s2cid\\= 8780402}} However, the design required pure oxygen, rather than ambient air.{{Cite web\\|title\\= New design points a path to the 'ultimate' battery\\|url\\= http://phys.org/news/2015\\-10\\-path\\-ultimate\\-battery.html\\|website\\= phys.org\\|access\\-date\\= 2015\\-12\\-03\\|date\\= October 29, 2015}}",
"#### Solid state",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Schematic of solid\\-state type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-solidstate.jpg \"Li-air-solidstate.jpg\")\nA [solid\\-state](/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry \"Solid-state chemistry\") battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid\\-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass\\-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid\\-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass\\-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium [fast ion conductors](/wiki/Fast_ion_conductor \"Fast ion conductor\") is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.",
""
] |
### Electrolyte
Efforts in Li–air batteries have focused on four electrolytes: aqueous acidic, aqueous alkaline, non\-aqueous protic, and aprotic.
In a cell with an [aqueous electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aqueous "#Aqueous") the reduction at the cathode can also produce lithium hydroxide:
#### Aqueous
An [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous "Aqueous") Li–air battery consists of a lithium metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The aqueous electrolyte combines lithium salts dissolved in water. It avoids the issue of cathode clogging because the reaction products are water\-soluble. The aqueous design has a higher practical discharge potential than its aprotic counterpart. However, lithium metal reacts violently with water and thus the aqueous design requires a solid electrolyte interface between the lithium and electrolyte. Commonly, a lithium\-conducting ceramic or glass is used, but conductivity are generally low (on the order of 10−3 S/cm at ambient temperatures).
#### Acidic electrolyte
[right\|thumb\|Schematic of a mixed aqueous–aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-mixed.jpg "Li-air-mixed.jpg")
2Li \+ ½ {{chem\|O\|2}} \+ 2H\+ → 2Li\+\+ {{chem\|H\|2\|O}}
A conjugate base is involved in the reaction. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,400 W·h/kg and 1,680 W·h/L, respectively.
#### Alkaline aqueous electrolyte
2Li \+ ½ {{chem\|O\|2}} \+ {{chem\|H\|2\|O}} → 2LiOH
Water molecules are involved in the redox reactions at the air cathode. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,300 W·h/kg and 1,520 W·h/L, respectively.
New cathode materials must account for the accommodation of substantial amounts of {{chem\|LiO\|2}}, {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} and/or LiOH without causing the cathode pores to block and employ suitable catalysts to make the electrochemical reactions energetically practical.
* Dual pore system materials offer the most promising energy capacity.
* The first pore system serves as an oxidation product store.
* The second pore system serves as oxygen transport.
#### Aprotic
[right\|thumb\|Schematic of aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aprotic.jpg "Li-air-aprotic.jpg")
Non\-aqueous Li–air batteries were demonstrated first. They usually use mixed [ethylene carbonate](/wiki/Ethylene_carbonate "Ethylene carbonate")\+ [propylene carbonate](/wiki/Propylene_carbonate "Propylene carbonate") solvents with [LiPF6](/wiki/Lithium_hexafluorophosphate "Lithium hexafluorophosphate") or Li bis\-sulfonimide salts like conventional Li\-ion batteries, however, with a gelled rather than liquid electrolyte.{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} The voltage difference upon constant current charge and discharge is usually between 1\.3 and 1\.8 V (with an OCP of ca. 4\.2 V) even at such low currents as 0\.01–0\.5 mA/cm2 and 50–500 mA/g of C on the positive electrode (see Figure 2\),{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|McCloskey\|Burke\|Nichols\|Renfrew\|2015}}{{Sfn\|Liu\|Xu\|Yan\|Sun\|2016}} However, the carbonate solvents evaporate and get oxidized due to a high overvoltage upon charge.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Amine\|2013}} Other solvents, such as end\-capped glymes, DMSO, dimethylacetamide, and ionic liquids, have been considered.{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} The carbon cathode gets oxidized above \+3\.5 V v Li during charge, forming Li2CO3, which leads to an irreversible capacity loss.{{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}}
Most efforts involved [aprotic](/wiki/Aprotic "Aprotic") materials, which consist of a lithium metal anode, a liquid [organic](/wiki/Organic_compound "Organic compound") electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The electrolyte can be made of any organic liquid able to solvate lithium salts such as {{chem\|LiPF\|6}}, {{chem\|LiAsF\|6}}, {{chem\|LiN(\|SO\|2\|CF\|3\|)\|2}}, and {{chem\|LiSO\|3\|CF\|3}}, but typically consisted of [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate "Carbonate"), [ethers](/wiki/Ether "Ether") and [esters](/wiki/Ester "Ester"). The carbon cathode is usually made of a high\-surface\-area carbon material with a nanostructured [metal oxide](/wiki/Metal_oxide "Metal oxide") catalyst (commonly {{chem\|MnO\|2}} or {{chem\|Mn\|3\|O\|4}}). A major advantage is the spontaneous formation of a barrier between anode and electrolyte (analogous to the barrier formed between electrolyte and carbon–lithium anodes in conventional Li\-ion batteries) that protects the lithium metal from further reaction with the electrolyte. Although rechargeable, the {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} produced at the cathode is generally insoluble in the organic electrolyte, leading to buildup along the cathode/electrolyte interface. This makes cathodes in aprotic batteries prone to clogging and volume expansion that progressively reduces conductivity and degrades battery performance.{{cite journal\|title\=Optimization of the Cathode Structure of Lithium–Air Batteries Based on a Two\-Dimensional, Transient, Non\-Isothermal Model \|last1\=Li\|first1\=Xianglin\|last2\=Faghri \|first2\=Amir\|journal\=Journal of the Electrochemical Society\|date\=2012\|volume\=159\|issue\=10\|page\=A1747–A1754\|doi\=10\.1149/2\.043210jes}} Another issue is that organic electrolytes are flammable and can ignite if the cell is damaged.
Although most studies agree that {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} is the final discharge product of non\-aqueous Li\-O2 batteries, considerable evidence that its formation does not proceed as a direct 2\-electron electro\-reduction to peroxide O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=2−}} (which is the common pathway for O2 reduction in water on carbon) but rather via a one–electron reduction to superoxide O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=−}}, followed by its disproportionation:
{{NumBlk\|:\|2{{chem\|Li\|O\|2}} {{eqm}} {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2\|\+O\|2}} \|{{EquationRef\|1}}}}
Traditionally, [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide "Superoxide") (O{{su\|b\=2\|p\=−}}) was considered as a dangerous intermediate in aprotic oxygen batteries due to its high [nucleophilicity](/wiki/Nucleophile "Nucleophile"), basicity and redox potential{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}}{{Sfn\|McCloskey\|Burke\|Nichols\|Renfrew\|2015}} However, reports{{Sfn\|Zhai\|Lau\|Wang\|Wen\|2015}}{{Sfn\|Lu\|Jung Lee\|Luo\|Chun Lau\|2016}} suggest that LiO2 is both an intermediate during the discharge to peroxide ({{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}}) and can be used as the final discharge product, potentially with an improved cycle life albeit with a lower specific energy (a little heavier battery weight). Indeed, it was shown that under certain conditions, the superoxide can be stable on the scale of 20–70 h at room temperature.{{Sfn\|Zhai\|Lau\|Wang\|Wen\|2015}} An irreversible capacity loss upon disproportionation of LiO2 in the charged battery was not addressed.
Pt/C seems to be the best electrocatalyst for O2 evolution and Au/C for O2 reduction when {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} is the product.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Xu\|Gasteiger\|Chen\|2010}} Nevertheless, "the performance of rechargeable lithium–air batteries with non\-aqueous electrolytes is limited by the reactions on the oxygen electrode, especially by O2 evolution. Conventional porous carbon air electrodes are unable to provide mAh/g and mAh/cm2 capacities and discharge rates at the magnitudes required for really high energy density batteries for EV applications."{{Sfn\|Lu\|Xu\|Gasteiger\|Chen\|2010}} The capacity (in mAh/cm2) and the cycle life of non\-aqueous Li\-O2 batteries is limited by the deposition of insoluble and poorly electronically conducting LiOx phases upon discharge.{{Sfn\|Balaish\|Kraytsberg\|Ein\-Eli\|2014}} ({{chem\|Li\|3\|O\|4}} is predicted to have a better Li\+ conductivity than the LiO2 and {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} phases).{{Sfn\|Shi\|Xu\|Zhao\|2015}} This makes the practical specific energy of Li\-O2 batteries significantly smaller than the reagent\-level calculation predicts. It seems that these parameters have reached their limits, and further improvement is expected only from alternative methods.
#### Mixed aqueous–aprotic
[left\|thumb\|Schematic of aqueous type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aqueous.jpg "Li-air-aqueous.jpg")
The aqueous–aprotic or mixed Li–air battery design attempts to unite advantages of the aprotic and aqueous battery designs. The common feature of hybrid designs is a two\-part (one part aqueous and one part aprotic) electrolyte connected by a lithium\-conducting [membrane](/wiki/Membrane_%28selective_barrier%29 "Membrane (selective barrier)"). The anode abuts the aprotic side while the cathode is in contact with the aqueous side. A lithium\-conducting ceramic is typically employed as the membrane joining the two electrolytes.
The use of a solid electrolyte (see Fig. 3\) is one such alternative approaches that allows for a combination of a lithium metal anode with an aqueous cathode.{{Sfn\|Visco\|Nimon\|Katz\|Jonghe\|2004}} Ceramic solid electrolytes (CSEs) of the NASICON family (e.g., Li1−xAxM2−x(PO4)3 with A ∈ \[Al, Sc, Y] and M ∈ \[Ti, Ge]) has been studied. Compatible with water at alkaline pH and having a large electrochemical window (see Figs. 3,4\), their low Li\+ ion conductivity near room temperature (\< 0\.005 S/cm, \>85 Ω cm2){{Sfn\|Imanishi\|Matsui\|Takeda\|Yamamoto\|2014}} makes them unsuitable for automotive and stationary energy storage applications that demand low cost (i.e., operating current densities over 100 mA/cm2). Further, both Ti and Ge are reduced by metallic Li, and an intermediate layer between the ceramic electrode and the negative electrode is required. In contrast, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can provide a higher conductivity at the expense of a faster crossover of water and of other small molecules that are reactive toward metallic Li. Among the more exotic membranes considered for Li\-O2 batteries is single\-crystal silicon.{{Sfn\|Lu\|Amine\|2013}}
In 2015 researchers announced a design that used highly porous [graphene](/wiki/Graphene "Graphene") for the anode, an electrolyte of lithium bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide/dimethoxyethane with added water and [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide "Lithium iodide") for use as a "mediator". The electrolyte produces [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide "Lithium hydroxide") (LiOH) at the cathode instead of [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide "Lithium peroxide") ({{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2\|}}). The result offered energy efficiency of 93 percent (voltage gap of .2\) and cycled more than 2,000 times with little impact on output.{{Cite web\|title\= More hurdles jumped on path to a practical lithium–air battery\|url\= http://www.gizmag.com/lithium\-air\-battery\-university\-cambridge/40411\|website\= www.gizmag.com\|access\-date\= 2015\-12\-03\|first\= Lynda\|last\= Delacey\|date\= November 19, 2015}}{{Cite journal\|title\= Cycling Li\-O2 batteries via LiOH formation and decomposition\|journal\= Science\|date\= 2015\-10\-30\|issn\= 0036\-8075\|pmid\= 26516278\|pages\= 530–533\|volume\= 350\|issue\= 6260\|doi\= 10\.1126/science.aac7730\|first1\= Tao\|last1\= Liu\|first2\= Michal\|last2\= Leskes\|first3\= Wanjing\|last3\= Yu\|first4\= Amy J.\|last4\= Moore\|first5\= Lina\|last5\= Zhou\|first6\= Paul M.\|last6\= Bayley\|first7\= Gunwoo\|last7\= Kim\|first8\= Clare P.\|last8\= Grey\|arxiv\= 1805\.03042\|bibcode\= 2015Sci...350\..530L\|s2cid\= 8780402}} However, the design required pure oxygen, rather than ambient air.{{Cite web\|title\= New design points a path to the 'ultimate' battery\|url\= http://phys.org/news/2015\-10\-path\-ultimate\-battery.html\|website\= phys.org\|access\-date\= 2015\-12\-03\|date\= October 29, 2015}}
#### Solid state
[left\|thumb\|Schematic of solid\-state type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-solidstate.jpg "Li-air-solidstate.jpg")
A [solid\-state](/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry "Solid-state chemistry") battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid\-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass\-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid\-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass\-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium [fast ion conductors](/wiki/Fast_ion_conductor "Fast ion conductor") is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.
|
[
"### Electrolyte",
"Efforts in Li–air batteries have focused on four electrolytes: aqueous acidic, aqueous alkaline, non\\-aqueous protic, and aprotic.",
"In a cell with an [aqueous electrolyte](/wiki/%23Aqueous \"#Aqueous\") the reduction at the cathode can also produce lithium hydroxide:",
"#### Aqueous",
"An [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous \"Aqueous\") Li–air battery consists of a lithium metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The aqueous electrolyte combines lithium salts dissolved in water. It avoids the issue of cathode clogging because the reaction products are water\\-soluble. The aqueous design has a higher practical discharge potential than its aprotic counterpart. However, lithium metal reacts violently with water and thus the aqueous design requires a solid electrolyte interface between the lithium and electrolyte. Commonly, a lithium\\-conducting ceramic or glass is used, but conductivity are generally low (on the order of 10−3 S/cm at ambient temperatures).",
"#### Acidic electrolyte",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Schematic of a mixed aqueous–aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-mixed.jpg \"Li-air-mixed.jpg\")\n 2Li \\+ ½ {{chem\\|O\\|2}} \\+ 2H\\+ → 2Li\\+\\+ {{chem\\|H\\|2\\|O}}\nA conjugate base is involved in the reaction. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,400 W·h/kg and 1,680 W·h/L, respectively.",
"#### Alkaline aqueous electrolyte",
"2Li \\+ ½ {{chem\\|O\\|2}} \\+ {{chem\\|H\\|2\\|O}} → 2LiOH\nWater molecules are involved in the redox reactions at the air cathode. The theoretical maximal Li–air cell specific energy and energy density are 1,300 W·h/kg and 1,520 W·h/L, respectively.\nNew cathode materials must account for the accommodation of substantial amounts of {{chem\\|LiO\\|2}}, {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} and/or LiOH without causing the cathode pores to block and employ suitable catalysts to make the electrochemical reactions energetically practical.",
"* Dual pore system materials offer the most promising energy capacity.",
"* The first pore system serves as an oxidation product store.\n* The second pore system serves as oxygen transport.\n#### Aprotic",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Schematic of aprotic type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aprotic.jpg \"Li-air-aprotic.jpg\")\nNon\\-aqueous Li–air batteries were demonstrated first. They usually use mixed [ethylene carbonate](/wiki/Ethylene_carbonate \"Ethylene carbonate\")\\+ [propylene carbonate](/wiki/Propylene_carbonate \"Propylene carbonate\") solvents with [LiPF6](/wiki/Lithium_hexafluorophosphate \"Lithium hexafluorophosphate\") or Li bis\\-sulfonimide salts like conventional Li\\-ion batteries, however, with a gelled rather than liquid electrolyte.{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} The voltage difference upon constant current charge and discharge is usually between 1\\.3 and 1\\.8 V (with an OCP of ca. 4\\.2 V) even at such low currents as 0\\.01–0\\.5 mA/cm2 and 50–500 mA/g of C on the positive electrode (see Figure 2\\),{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|McCloskey\\|Burke\\|Nichols\\|Renfrew\\|2015}}{{Sfn\\|Liu\\|Xu\\|Yan\\|Sun\\|2016}} However, the carbonate solvents evaporate and get oxidized due to a high overvoltage upon charge.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Amine\\|2013}} Other solvents, such as end\\-capped glymes, DMSO, dimethylacetamide, and ionic liquids, have been considered.{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} The carbon cathode gets oxidized above \\+3\\.5 V v Li during charge, forming Li2CO3, which leads to an irreversible capacity loss.{{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}}",
"Most efforts involved [aprotic](/wiki/Aprotic \"Aprotic\") materials, which consist of a lithium metal anode, a liquid [organic](/wiki/Organic_compound \"Organic compound\") electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The electrolyte can be made of any organic liquid able to solvate lithium salts such as {{chem\\|LiPF\\|6}}, {{chem\\|LiAsF\\|6}}, {{chem\\|LiN(\\|SO\\|2\\|CF\\|3\\|)\\|2}}, and {{chem\\|LiSO\\|3\\|CF\\|3}}, but typically consisted of [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\"), [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\") and [esters](/wiki/Ester \"Ester\"). The carbon cathode is usually made of a high\\-surface\\-area carbon material with a nanostructured [metal oxide](/wiki/Metal_oxide \"Metal oxide\") catalyst (commonly {{chem\\|MnO\\|2}} or {{chem\\|Mn\\|3\\|O\\|4}}). A major advantage is the spontaneous formation of a barrier between anode and electrolyte (analogous to the barrier formed between electrolyte and carbon–lithium anodes in conventional Li\\-ion batteries) that protects the lithium metal from further reaction with the electrolyte. Although rechargeable, the {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} produced at the cathode is generally insoluble in the organic electrolyte, leading to buildup along the cathode/electrolyte interface. This makes cathodes in aprotic batteries prone to clogging and volume expansion that progressively reduces conductivity and degrades battery performance.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Optimization of the Cathode Structure of Lithium–Air Batteries Based on a Two\\-Dimensional, Transient, Non\\-Isothermal Model \\|last1\\=Li\\|first1\\=Xianglin\\|last2\\=Faghri \\|first2\\=Amir\\|journal\\=Journal of the Electrochemical Society\\|date\\=2012\\|volume\\=159\\|issue\\=10\\|page\\=A1747–A1754\\|doi\\=10\\.1149/2\\.043210jes}} Another issue is that organic electrolytes are flammable and can ignite if the cell is damaged.",
"Although most studies agree that {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} is the final discharge product of non\\-aqueous Li\\-O2 batteries, considerable evidence that its formation does not proceed as a direct 2\\-electron electro\\-reduction to peroxide O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=2−}} (which is the common pathway for O2 reduction in water on carbon) but rather via a one–electron reduction to superoxide O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=−}}, followed by its disproportionation:",
"{{NumBlk\\|:\\|2{{chem\\|Li\\|O\\|2}} {{eqm}} {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2\\|\\+O\\|2}} \\|{{EquationRef\\|1}}}}",
"Traditionally, [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") (O{{su\\|b\\=2\\|p\\=−}}) was considered as a dangerous intermediate in aprotic oxygen batteries due to its high [nucleophilicity](/wiki/Nucleophile \"Nucleophile\"), basicity and redox potential{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}}{{Sfn\\|McCloskey\\|Burke\\|Nichols\\|Renfrew\\|2015}} However, reports{{Sfn\\|Zhai\\|Lau\\|Wang\\|Wen\\|2015}}{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Jung Lee\\|Luo\\|Chun Lau\\|2016}} suggest that LiO2 is both an intermediate during the discharge to peroxide ({{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}}) and can be used as the final discharge product, potentially with an improved cycle life albeit with a lower specific energy (a little heavier battery weight). Indeed, it was shown that under certain conditions, the superoxide can be stable on the scale of 20–70 h at room temperature.{{Sfn\\|Zhai\\|Lau\\|Wang\\|Wen\\|2015}} An irreversible capacity loss upon disproportionation of LiO2 in the charged battery was not addressed.",
"Pt/C seems to be the best electrocatalyst for O2 evolution and Au/C for O2 reduction when {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} is the product.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Xu\\|Gasteiger\\|Chen\\|2010}} Nevertheless, \"the performance of rechargeable lithium–air batteries with non\\-aqueous electrolytes is limited by the reactions on the oxygen electrode, especially by O2 evolution. Conventional porous carbon air electrodes are unable to provide mAh/g and mAh/cm2 capacities and discharge rates at the magnitudes required for really high energy density batteries for EV applications.\"{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Xu\\|Gasteiger\\|Chen\\|2010}} The capacity (in mAh/cm2) and the cycle life of non\\-aqueous Li\\-O2 batteries is limited by the deposition of insoluble and poorly electronically conducting LiOx phases upon discharge.{{Sfn\\|Balaish\\|Kraytsberg\\|Ein\\-Eli\\|2014}} ({{chem\\|Li\\|3\\|O\\|4}} is predicted to have a better Li\\+ conductivity than the LiO2 and {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} phases).{{Sfn\\|Shi\\|Xu\\|Zhao\\|2015}} This makes the practical specific energy of Li\\-O2 batteries significantly smaller than the reagent\\-level calculation predicts. It seems that these parameters have reached their limits, and further improvement is expected only from alternative methods.",
"#### Mixed aqueous–aprotic",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Schematic of aqueous type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-aqueous.jpg \"Li-air-aqueous.jpg\")\nThe aqueous–aprotic or mixed Li–air battery design attempts to unite advantages of the aprotic and aqueous battery designs. The common feature of hybrid designs is a two\\-part (one part aqueous and one part aprotic) electrolyte connected by a lithium\\-conducting [membrane](/wiki/Membrane_%28selective_barrier%29 \"Membrane (selective barrier)\"). The anode abuts the aprotic side while the cathode is in contact with the aqueous side. A lithium\\-conducting ceramic is typically employed as the membrane joining the two electrolytes.",
"The use of a solid electrolyte (see Fig. 3\\) is one such alternative approaches that allows for a combination of a lithium metal anode with an aqueous cathode.{{Sfn\\|Visco\\|Nimon\\|Katz\\|Jonghe\\|2004}} Ceramic solid electrolytes (CSEs) of the NASICON family (e.g., Li1−xAxM2−x(PO4)3 with A ∈ \\[Al, Sc, Y] and M ∈ \\[Ti, Ge]) has been studied. Compatible with water at alkaline pH and having a large electrochemical window (see Figs. 3,4\\), their low Li\\+ ion conductivity near room temperature (\\< 0\\.005 S/cm, \\>85 Ω cm2){{Sfn\\|Imanishi\\|Matsui\\|Takeda\\|Yamamoto\\|2014}} makes them unsuitable for automotive and stationary energy storage applications that demand low cost (i.e., operating current densities over 100 mA/cm2). Further, both Ti and Ge are reduced by metallic Li, and an intermediate layer between the ceramic electrode and the negative electrode is required. In contrast, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can provide a higher conductivity at the expense of a faster crossover of water and of other small molecules that are reactive toward metallic Li. Among the more exotic membranes considered for Li\\-O2 batteries is single\\-crystal silicon.{{Sfn\\|Lu\\|Amine\\|2013}}",
"In 2015 researchers announced a design that used highly porous [graphene](/wiki/Graphene \"Graphene\") for the anode, an electrolyte of lithium bis(trifluoromethyl) sulfonylimide/dimethoxyethane with added water and [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide \"Lithium iodide\") for use as a \"mediator\". The electrolyte produces [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") (LiOH) at the cathode instead of [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide \"Lithium peroxide\") ({{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2\\|}}). The result offered energy efficiency of 93 percent (voltage gap of .2\\) and cycled more than 2,000 times with little impact on output.{{Cite web\\|title\\= More hurdles jumped on path to a practical lithium–air battery\\|url\\= http://www.gizmag.com/lithium\\-air\\-battery\\-university\\-cambridge/40411\\|website\\= www.gizmag.com\\|access\\-date\\= 2015\\-12\\-03\\|first\\= Lynda\\|last\\= Delacey\\|date\\= November 19, 2015}}{{Cite journal\\|title\\= Cycling Li\\-O2 batteries via LiOH formation and decomposition\\|journal\\= Science\\|date\\= 2015\\-10\\-30\\|issn\\= 0036\\-8075\\|pmid\\= 26516278\\|pages\\= 530–533\\|volume\\= 350\\|issue\\= 6260\\|doi\\= 10\\.1126/science.aac7730\\|first1\\= Tao\\|last1\\= Liu\\|first2\\= Michal\\|last2\\= Leskes\\|first3\\= Wanjing\\|last3\\= Yu\\|first4\\= Amy J.\\|last4\\= Moore\\|first5\\= Lina\\|last5\\= Zhou\\|first6\\= Paul M.\\|last6\\= Bayley\\|first7\\= Gunwoo\\|last7\\= Kim\\|first8\\= Clare P.\\|last8\\= Grey\\|arxiv\\= 1805\\.03042\\|bibcode\\= 2015Sci...350\\..530L\\|s2cid\\= 8780402}} However, the design required pure oxygen, rather than ambient air.{{Cite web\\|title\\= New design points a path to the 'ultimate' battery\\|url\\= http://phys.org/news/2015\\-10\\-path\\-ultimate\\-battery.html\\|website\\= phys.org\\|access\\-date\\= 2015\\-12\\-03\\|date\\= October 29, 2015}}",
"#### Solid state",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Schematic of solid\\-state type Li–air battery design](/wiki/File:Li-air-solidstate.jpg \"Li-air-solidstate.jpg\")\nA [solid\\-state](/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry \"Solid-state chemistry\") battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid\\-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass\\-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid\\-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass\\-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium [fast ion conductors](/wiki/Fast_ion_conductor \"Fast ion conductor\") is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.",
""
] |
Challenges
----------
As of 2013, many challenges confronted designers.
### Cathode
Most Li–air battery limits are at the cathode, which is also the source of its potential advantages. Most prominent is incomplete discharge due to blockage of the porous carbon cathode with discharge products such as [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide "Lithium peroxide") (in aprotic designs). Several modes of precipitates were modeled.Y. Wang, Modeling Discharge Deposit Formation and Its Effect on Lithium–air Battery Performance, Electrochimica Acta 75 (2012\) 239–246\. A parameter, Da, was defined to measure the variations of temperature, species concentration and potentials.Y. Wang and S. C. Cho, Analysis of Air Cathode Performance for Lithium–air Batteries, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 160 (10\) A1\-A9 (2013\).Y. Wang, Z. Wang, H. Yuan and T. Li, Discharge Oxide Storage Capacity And Voltage Loss In Li–air Battery, Electrochimica Acta, 180 (2015\) 382–393
The effects of pore size and pore size distribution remain poorly understood.
Catalysts have shown promise in creating preferential nucleation of {{chem\|Li\|2\|O\|2}} over {{chem\|Li\|2\|O}}, which is irreversible with respect to lithium.
Atmospheric oxygen must be present at the cathode, but contaminants such as water vapor can damage it.
### Electrochemistry
In 2017 cell designs, the charge [overpotential](/wiki/Overpotential "Overpotential") is much higher than the discharge overpotential. Significant charge overpotential indicates the presence of secondary reactions. Thus, electric efficiency is only around 65%.
Catalysts such {{chem\|MnO\|2}}, Co, Pt and Au can potentially reduce the [overpotentials](/wiki/Overpotential "Overpotential"), but the effect is poorly understood. Several [catalysts](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis") improve cathode performance, notably {{chem\|MnO\|2}}, and the mechanism of improvement is known as surface oxygen redox providing abundant initial growth sites for lithium peroxide. It is also reported that catalysts may alter the structure of oxide deposits.
Significant drops in cell capacity with increasing discharge rates are another issue. The decrease in cell capacity is attributed to kinetic charge transfer limits. Since the anodic reaction occurs very quickly, the charge transfer limits are thought to occur at the cathode.
### Stability
Long\-term battery operation requires chemical stability of all cell components. Current cell designs show poor resistance to oxidation by reaction products and intermediates. Many aqueous electrolytes are volatile and can evaporate over time. Stability is hampered in general by parasitic chemical reactions, for instance those involving [reactive oxygen](/wiki/Reactive_oxygen "Reactive oxygen").
|
[
"Challenges\n----------",
"As of 2013, many challenges confronted designers.",
"### Cathode",
"Most Li–air battery limits are at the cathode, which is also the source of its potential advantages. Most prominent is incomplete discharge due to blockage of the porous carbon cathode with discharge products such as [lithium peroxide](/wiki/Lithium_peroxide \"Lithium peroxide\") (in aprotic designs). Several modes of precipitates were modeled.Y. Wang, Modeling Discharge Deposit Formation and Its Effect on Lithium–air Battery Performance, Electrochimica Acta 75 (2012\\) 239–246\\. A parameter, Da, was defined to measure the variations of temperature, species concentration and potentials.Y. Wang and S. C. Cho, Analysis of Air Cathode Performance for Lithium–air Batteries, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 160 (10\\) A1\\-A9 (2013\\).Y. Wang, Z. Wang, H. Yuan and T. Li, Discharge Oxide Storage Capacity And Voltage Loss In Li–air Battery, Electrochimica Acta, 180 (2015\\) 382–393",
"The effects of pore size and pore size distribution remain poorly understood.",
"Catalysts have shown promise in creating preferential nucleation of {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O\\|2}} over {{chem\\|Li\\|2\\|O}}, which is irreversible with respect to lithium.",
"Atmospheric oxygen must be present at the cathode, but contaminants such as water vapor can damage it.",
"### Electrochemistry",
"In 2017 cell designs, the charge [overpotential](/wiki/Overpotential \"Overpotential\") is much higher than the discharge overpotential. Significant charge overpotential indicates the presence of secondary reactions. Thus, electric efficiency is only around 65%.",
"Catalysts such {{chem\\|MnO\\|2}}, Co, Pt and Au can potentially reduce the [overpotentials](/wiki/Overpotential \"Overpotential\"), but the effect is poorly understood. Several [catalysts](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\") improve cathode performance, notably {{chem\\|MnO\\|2}}, and the mechanism of improvement is known as surface oxygen redox providing abundant initial growth sites for lithium peroxide. It is also reported that catalysts may alter the structure of oxide deposits.",
"Significant drops in cell capacity with increasing discharge rates are another issue. The decrease in cell capacity is attributed to kinetic charge transfer limits. Since the anodic reaction occurs very quickly, the charge transfer limits are thought to occur at the cathode.",
"### Stability",
"Long\\-term battery operation requires chemical stability of all cell components. Current cell designs show poor resistance to oxidation by reaction products and intermediates. Many aqueous electrolytes are volatile and can evaporate over time. Stability is hampered in general by parasitic chemical reactions, for instance those involving [reactive oxygen](/wiki/Reactive_oxygen \"Reactive oxygen\").",
""
] |
Career
------
Following commissioning in 1976, Allen attended [The Basic School](/wiki/The_Basic_School "The Basic School") and was assigned to [2nd Battalion, 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion%2C_8th_Marines "2nd Battalion, 8th Marines"), where he served as a platoon and rifle company commander. His next tour took him to [Marine Barracks, 8th and I](/wiki/Marine_Barracks%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C."), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") where he served at the [Marine Corps Institute](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Institute "Marine Corps Institute") and as a ceremonial officer.
Allen then attended the Postgraduate Intelligence Program of the Defense Intelligence College, where he was the Distinguished Graduate. He subsequently served as the Marine Corps Fellow to the [Center for Strategic and International Studies](/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies "Center for Strategic and International Studies") (CSIS). He was the first Marine Corps officer inducted as a Term Member of the [Council on Foreign Relations](/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations "Council on Foreign Relations").
Returning to the [Fleet Marine Force](/wiki/Fleet_Marine_Force "Fleet Marine Force") in 1985, he commanded rifle and weapons companies and served as the operations officer of [3rd Battalion, 4th Marines](/wiki/3rd_Battalion_4th_Marines "3rd Battalion 4th Marines"). During this period he received the [Leftwich Leadership Trophy](/wiki/Leftwich_Trophy "Leftwich Trophy"). In 1988, Allen reported to the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy"), where he taught in the Political Science Department and also served as the jump officer and [jumpmaster](/wiki/Jumpmaster "Jumpmaster") of the academy. In 1990 he received the William P. Clements Award as military instructor of the year.
Allen reported to The Basic School as the director of the Infantry Officer Course from 1990 to 1992 and was subsequently selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps Fellows Program, which provides "assignment to either a prominent national foreign policy/public policy research institution or to a national security studies program at a selected university".{{Cite web \|date\=22 October 1996 \|title\=MARINE CORPS ORDER 1520\.28B \|url\=http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/MCO%201520\.28B.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316020307/http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/MCO%201520\.28B.pdf \|archive\-date\=2013\-03\-16 \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-08 \|website\=marines.mil \|publisher\=Department of Defense}} Allen has served as a special assistant on the staffs of the 30th [Commandant of the Marine Corps](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps "Commandant of the United States Marine Corps") and the commanding general of [Marine Corps Combat Development Command](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Combat_Development_Command "Marine Corps Combat Development Command"). In 1994, he served as the Division G\-3 Operations Officer for the [2nd Marine Division](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 "2nd Marine Division (United States)") and subsequently assumed command of [2nd Battalion, 4th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_4th_Marines "2nd Battalion 4th Marines"); re\-designated as [2nd Battalion, 6th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_6th_Marines "2nd Battalion 6th Marines"). This unit served with [JTF\-160](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Guantanamo%23History "Joint Task Force Guantanamo#History") in [Operation SEA SIGNAL](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Signal "Operation Sea Signal") during Caribbean contingency operations in 1994, and as part of the Landing Force of the 6th Fleet in Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR during Balkans contingency operations in 1995–1996\.
Following battalion command, Allen reported as the senior [aide\-de\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp") to the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps, [Charles C. Krulak](/wiki/Charles_C._Krulak "Charles C. Krulak"), ultimately serving as his [military secretary](/wiki/Military_Secretary_to_the_Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps "Military Secretary to the Commandant of the Marine Corps").
He commanded The Basic School from 1999 to 2001, when he was selected in April 2001 to return to the Naval Academy as the deputy commandant. Allen became the 79th [Commandant of Midshipmen](/wiki/Commandant_of_Midshipmen "Commandant of Midshipmen") in January 2002, the first Marine Corps officer to serve in this position at the Naval Academy.Gen. Allen reflects on his assignment at the USNA in *[In the Shadow of Greatness](/wiki/In_the_Shadow_of_Greatness "In the Shadow of Greatness")*. Naval Institute Press, 2012, book authored by the UNSA Class of 2002\. In January 2003 Allen was nominated for appointment to the rank of brigadier general.{{cite press release\|access\-date\=January 4, 2009 \|url\=http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid\=3591\|title\=General Officer Announcements and Assignments\|date\=January 2, 2003 \|work\=DefenseLink\|publisher\=U.S. Department of Defense}}
[thumb\|upright\|Allen's official military portrait](/wiki/File:General_John_R._Allen.jpg "General John R. Allen.jpg")
Allen's first tour as a [general officer](/wiki/General_officer "General officer") was as the principal director of Asian and Pacific Affairs in the Office of the [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense"), a position he occupied for nearly three years. From 2006 to 2008, Allen served as deputy commanding general of the [II Marine Expeditionary Force](/wiki/II_Marine_Expeditionary_Force "II Marine Expeditionary Force") and commanding general of the [2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Expeditionary_Brigade_%28United_States%29 "2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (United States)"), deploying to Iraq for [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") 06–08, serving as the deputy commanding general of [Multi\-National Forces West](/wiki/Multi-National_Forces_West "Multi-National Forces West") and II MEF (Forward) in [Al Anbar Province](/wiki/Al_Anbar_Province "Al Anbar Province"), Iraq. In January 2007 Allen was nominated for appointment to the grade of major general.{{cite press release\|access\-date\=January 4, 2009\|url\=http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid\=10405
\|work\=DefenseLink \|publisher\=U.S. Department of Defense\|date\=January 17, 2007\|title\=General Officer Announcements}}
In June 2008, [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates "Robert Gates") announced Allen's nomination for promotion to the rank of lieutenant general.{{cite news\|access\-date\=January 4, 2009
\|url\=http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section\=104\&article\=55574\|work\=Stars and Stripes \|date\=June 15, 2008\|title\=Marine nominated for No. 2 CENTCOM post}}
He served as the deputy commander of the U.S. Central Command from July 15, 2008, until July 18, 2011, at [MacDill Air Force Base](/wiki/MacDill_Air_Force_Base "MacDill Air Force Base").{{cite journal\|access\-date\=January 4, 2009\|url\=https://www.mca\-marines.com/gazette/majgen\_allen.asp\|title\=General Officer Announcement – nomination of MajGen John R. Allen for appointment as the Deputy Commander, U.S. Central Command\|journal\=\[\[Marine Corps Gazette]]\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821130932/http://www.mca\-marines.com/gazette/majgen\_allen.asp \|archive\-date\=August 21, 2008}}{{cite web\|access\-date\=January 4, 2009 \|url\=http://www.centcom.mil/en/about\-centcom/leadership/\|title\=Lieutenant General John R. Allen, Deputy Commander\|work\=U.S. CENTCOM Leadership\|publisher\=CENTCOM\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130054509/http://www.centcom.mil/en/about\-centcom/leadership/ \|archive\-date\=January 30, 2009 }} On June 30, 2010, Allen temporarily commanded Central Command after General [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus "David Petraeus") left to assume command of the [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force "International Security Assistance Force") in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan").{{cite press release\|access\-date\=July 2, 2010\|url\=http://www.centcom.mil/en/press\-releases/lt\-gen\-allen\-named\-centcom\-acting\-commander
\|title\=Lt. Gen. Allen named CENTCOM acting commander\|date\=June 30, 2010\|work\=CENTCOM \|publisher\=U.S. Central Command\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703150558/http://www.centcom.mil/en/press\-releases/lt\-gen\-allen\-named\-centcom\-acting\-commander\|archive\-date\=July 3, 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} He served as acting commander until General [James Mattis](/wiki/James_Mattis "James Mattis") took command on August 11\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns\-ap\-us\-mattis\-central\-command,0,3331254\.story\|title\=Mattis takes over Central Command, vows to work with Mideast allies in Afghanistan, Iraq\|date\=August 11, 2010\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|access\-date\=August 12, 2010}}{{dead link\|date\=June 2021\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tampabay.com/news/article1114800\.ece\|title\=Mattis takes over as CentCom chief\|last1\=Mitchell\|first1\=Robbyn\|date\=August 12, 2010\|publisher\=\[\[St. Petersburg Times]]\|page\=1\|access\-date\=August 12, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012171654/http://www.tampabay.com/news/article1114800\.ece\|archive\-date\=October 12, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.centcom.mil/news/mattis\-assumes\-command\-of\-centcom\|title\=Mattis assumes command of CENTCOM\|date\=August 11, 2010\|publisher\=U.S. Central Command\|access\-date\=August 12, 2010}}
Allen was promoted to general by [Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff"), Admiral [Mike Mullen](/wiki/Michael_Mullen "Michael Mullen") prior to his assumption of command of ISAF, and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR\-A) on July 18, 2011\.{{cite web\|title\=General John R. Allen Assumes Command of ISAF\|url\=http://www.isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\-releases/general\-john\-r.\-allen\-assumes\-command\-of\-isaf.html\|work\=isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\-releases/index.php\|publisher\=ISAF Headquarters Public Affairs\|access\-date\=July 18, 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315045607/http://www.isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\-releases/general\-john\-r.\-allen\-assumes\-command\-of\-isaf.html\|archive\-date\=March 15, 2012}}
Allen's foreign awards include the Mongolian Meritorious Service Medal, First Class; the [Polish Army Medal](/wiki/Polish_Army_Medal "Polish Army Medal") in Gold; the Taiwan [Order of the Resplendent Banner](/wiki/Order_of_the_Cloud_and_Banner "Order of the Cloud and Banner"); the French Legion of Honor; the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic; Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia; and the [Ghazi Mir Bacha Khan Medal](/wiki/Ghazi_Mir_Bacha_Khan_Medal "Ghazi Mir Bacha Khan Medal").
On March 6, 2012, he received the Polish [Afghanistan Star Medal](/wiki/Polish_campaign_stars "Polish campaign stars") from Polish President, [Bronisław Komorowski](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Komorowski "Bronisław Komorowski").[*Spotkanie z polskimi żołnierzami w Afganistanie*](https://archive.today/20120911030622/http://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/wizyty-zagraniczne/art,158,spotkanie-z-polskimi-zolnierzami-w-afganistanie.html) – last (8th) photo.
On April 20, 2012, he received another Polish award, the [Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Republic_of_Poland "Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland").[*Order dla gen. Johna Allena, dowódcy ISAF*](https://archive.today/20120909141013/http://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/ordery-i-odznaczenia/art,1082,order-dla-gen-johna-allena-dowodcy-isaf.html)
[thumb\|John Allen with members of Congress in May 2012](/wiki/File:ISAF_with_Roby.jpg "ISAF with Roby.jpg")
In November 2012, he was investigated along with [Jill Kelley](/wiki/Jill_Kelley "Jill Kelley").The Telegraph (London), ["Gen John Allen investigated for 'inappropriate communications' to Jill Kelley"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9674163/Gen-John-Allen-investigated-for-inappropriate-communications-to-Jill-Kelley.html), Hannah Furness, 8:01AM GMT November 13, 2012 In response to the investigation, [Secretary Panetta](/wiki/Leon_Panetta "Leon Panetta") suspended his confirmation hearing for commander of [EUCOM](/wiki/EUCOM "EUCOM") and requested the U.S. Congress to speed the confirmation of General [Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.](/wiki/Joseph_F._Dunford%2C_Jr. "Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.") to command of forces in Afghanistan.BBC News, ["David Petraeus CIA scandal engulfs US Gen John Allen"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308225), November 13, 2012, Last updated at 05:26 ET On January 22, 2013, Allen was cleared in a misconduct inquiry.{{cite news\|title\=Gen. John Allen cleared in misconduct inquiry\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/gen\-john\-allen\-cleared\-in\-misconduct\-inquiry/2013/01/22/479c776a\-64dd\-11e2\-9e1b\-07db1d2ccd5b\_story.html\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=January 22, 2013\|first1\=Rajiv\|last1\=Chandrasekaran\|date\=January 23, 2013}}
On February 10, 2013, Allen relinquished command of the [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force "International Security Assistance Force") and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR\-A) to General Dunford.BBC News, ["Afghan Isaf commander John Allen sees 'road to winning'"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21399805), February 10, 2013
On February 19, 2013, U.S. President Obama accepted Allen's request to retire from the military as his wife fell seriously ill.{{cite news\|title\=Gen. John Allen intends to retire, decline military's top post in Europe \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/gen\-john\-allen\-intends\-to\-retire\-decline\-militarys\-top\-post\-in\-europe/2013/02/19/41cead8e\-7aaa\-11e2\-82e8\-61a46c2cde3d\_story.html \|newspaper\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=February 19, 2013\|first1\=Rajiv\|last1\=Chandrasekaran \|date\=February 20, 2013}}
On April 29, 2013, Allen's retirement ceremony was held at the United States Naval Academy.{{cite web\|title\=Gen. John Allen quietly retires from the Marine Corps \|url\=http://blogs.militarytimes.com/battle\-rattle/tag/james\-mattis/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303181938/http://blogs.militarytimes.com/battle\-rattle/tag/james\-mattis\|archive\-date\=March 3, 2014\|publisher\=MarineTimes\|access\-date\=April 30, 2013}}
### Post\-military career
After leaving the military, Allen continued to work as an adviser to Secretary of State John Kerry and former Defense Secretary [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel "Chuck Hagel"). In this capacity he worked closely with Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian interlocutors on the Israeli\-Palestinian Peace Plan.
On June 13, 2013, Allen joined the [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution "Brookings Institution") as a distinguished fellow.{{cite news \|last\=Hudon \|first\=John \|title\=Gen. John Allen Joins Brookings \|url\=http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/06/10/gen\-john\-allen\-joins\-brookings/ \|date\=June 10, 2013}}
On September 11, 2014, the [Obama Administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama "Presidency of Barack Obama") announced that Allen would coordinate international efforts against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.{{cite web\|last\=Michael R. Gordon\|date\=September 11, 2014\|title\=Retired Gen. John R. Allen in Line to Lead Effort vs. ISIS \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/12/us/retired\-general\-is\-picked\-to\-lead\-effort\-vs\-isis.html?\_r\=0\|publisher\=NY Times\|access\-date\=September 11, 2014}} He was named as the Special Presidential Envoy for the Global Coalition against ISIL, a position he would hold for 15 months. Allen's diplomatic efforts increased the size of the coalition to 65 members.{{cite news\|last1\=Storey\|first1\=David\|title\=Former U.S. Afghanistan commander to lead effort against Islamic State\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-iraq\-crisis\-usa\-coordinator\-idUSKBN0H722420140912\|access\-date\=September 15, 2014\|publisher\=Reuters\|date\=September 12, 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Gen. John Allen named as US envoy to anti\-IS coalition \|url\=http://www.timesofisrael.com/gen\-john\-allen\-named\-as\-us\-envoy\-to\-anti\-is\-coalition/\#ixzz3DOpdDPqc \|access\-date\=September 15, 2014\|publisher\=The Times of Israel \|date\=September 14, 2014}}
On October 23, 2015, the White House announced his departure from the post. He officially departed that role on November 12, 2015, and was succeeded by [Brett McGurk](/wiki/Brett_McGurk "Brett McGurk").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/24/world/middleeast/general\-john\-allen\-obama\-isis.html \|title\=Obama's Anti\-ISIS Point Man Leaving as Russia Steps In\|date\=October 23, 2015\|newspaper\=The New York Times}}
On October 4, 2017, Allen was named the seventh president of Brookings, succeeding [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott "Strobe Talbott").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.brookings.edu/news\-releases/john\-r\-allen\-named\-next\-brookings\-institution\-president/\|publisher\=Brookings Institution\|title\=John R. Allen named next Brookings Institution president\|date\=October 4, 2017}}
Allen was a member of the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council "Homeland Security Advisory Council") until his appointment expired on August 31, 2020\.{{cite web\|title\=Homeland Security Advisory Council Members \|url\=https://www.dhs.gov/homeland\-security\-advisory\-council\-members\|publisher\=U.S. Department of Homeland Security\|date\=February 13, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2017}}
In March 2022 he was reappointed to the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council "Homeland Security Advisory Council") by [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security "United States Secretary of Homeland Security") [Alejandro Mayorkas](/wiki/Alejandro_Mayorkas "Alejandro Mayorkas"){{Cite web \|title\=John Allen \|url\=https://www.dhs.gov/medialibrary/assets/images/29197 \|access\-date\=July 26, 2019 \|website\=DHS \|date\=March 21, 2022 \|language\=en}}
Since 2019, he has also been serving on the Transatlantic Task Force of the [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund "German Marshall Fund") and the [Bundeskanzler\-Helmut\-Schmidt\-Stiftung](/wiki/Federal_Chancellor_Helmut_Schmidt_Foundation "Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt Foundation") (BKHS), co\-chaired by [Karen Donfried](/wiki/Karen_Donfried "Karen Donfried") and [Wolfgang Ischinger](/wiki/Wolfgang_Ischinger "Wolfgang Ischinger").[The German Marshall Fund and Bundeskanzler\-Helmut\-Schmidt\-Stiftung Launch “Transatlantic Task Force” Setting Path Forward for U.S.\-Europe Relations](http://www.gmfus.org/press-releases/german-marshall-fund-and-bundeskanzler-helmut-schmidt-stiftung-launch-transatlantic) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214112227/http://www.gmfus.org/press\-releases/german\-marshall\-fund\-and\-bundeskanzler\-helmut\-schmidt\-stiftung\-launch\-transatlantic \|date\=December 14, 2019 }} [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund "German Marshall Fund"), press release of December 12, 2019\.
On June 8, 2022, Allen was placed on leave at the Brookings Institution amid a federal investigation into his alleged role in an illegal lobbying campaign on behalf of the wealthy Persian Gulf nation of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar"). He had not been charged with a crime.{{cite news \|last1\=Suderman \|first1\=Alan \|last2\=Mustian \|first2\=Jim \|title\=Brookings places retired general on leave amid FBI probe \|date\=June 8, 2022 \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/qatar\-middle\-east\-persian\-gulf\-tensions\-lobbying\-government\-and\-politics\-8c660b2906a0311228c59c4f539fae57}} He officially resigned from Brookings Institution on June 12, 2022,{{cite news \| title\=John R. Allen Resigns as Brookings President After Qatar Revelations \| newspaper\=The New York Times\| last\=Kirkpatrick \| first\=David D. \| date\=June 12, 2022 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/12/us/politics/john\-allen\-brookings\-resigns.html \| access\-date\=June 12, 2022}} and executive vice president [Ted Gayer](/wiki/Ted_Gayer "Ted Gayer") was named acting president.{{Cite news \|last1\=Thebault \|first1\=Reis \|last2\=Kitchener \|first2\=Caroline \|last3\=Horton \|first3\=Alex \|date\=June 12, 2022 \|title\=Retired general resigns as head of Brookings amid federal probe \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national\-security/2022/06/12/brookings\-institution\-john\-allen\-resigns/ \|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}}
In January 2023, the Justice Department informed Allen that federal prosecutors closed the investigation into whether he secretly lobbied for the government of Qatar and that no criminal charges would be brought against him under the Foreign Agents Registration Act, or any other law, based on, or as a result of, Allen's trip to Qatar in June 2017 or the government's investigation of those events.
**Continued Leadership**
In January, 2022, President Biden and the White House announced the appointment of General Allen to [Board of Visitors](https://www.usna.edu/PAO/Superintendent/bov.php) of the United States Naval Academy, a position in which he continues to serve.
In March of that same year, General Allen was presented the Distinguished Graduate Award (DGA) of the United States Naval Academy, a prestigious award bestowed on four to five Naval Academy’s sixty thousand living alumni per year. The award recognizes exceptional military or civilian service to the country, and continued contributions to the Naval Academy and its mission. Part of General Allen’s recognition as a Distinguished Graduate stemmed from his being the first Marine Corps officer ever to serve as Commandant of Midshipmen at the Academy. Other recipients of the DGA include President Jimmy Carter, Senator John McCain, Astronauts James Lovell and Charles Bolden, and Roger Staubach.
In April, 2023, General Allen was inducted as a Senior Fellow at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, where his work has focused on matters of national security and technology.
In September of that year, General Allen was inducted as a Fellow of the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences "American Academy of Arts and Sciences"). The Academy is both an honorary society that recognizes and celebrates the excellence of its members and an independent research center convening leaders from across disciplines, professions, and perspectives to address significant challenges. The Academy honors excellence and leadership. Founded in 1780, the academy counts among its earliest members, George Washington, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin.
General Allen is a Strategic Advisor to [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft") where he serves on the Microsoft Advisory Council and the Technology and National Security Advisory Council.
He is the co\-author of the book Turning Point: Policymaking in the Era of Artificial Intelligence alongside Dr. Darrell M. West (Brookings Press, 2020\). He is also the co\-author of Future War and the Defence of Europe alongside LTG (Ret.) Frederick “Ben” Hodges and Professor Dr. Julian Lindley French (Oxford University Press, 2021\). Future War has been translated into German, Romanian, and, most recently, Ukrainian. He is one of the originators of the term “hyperwar”. As a co\-inventor, Allen shares five AI related patents. He advises multiple tech start\-ups.
General Allen is a 2015 co\-recipient of the Business Executive for National Security (BENS) Eisenhower Award. He is also a 2016 co\-recipient of the Scholar\-Statesman Award from The Washington Institute.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Following commissioning in 1976, Allen attended [The Basic School](/wiki/The_Basic_School \"The Basic School\") and was assigned to [2nd Battalion, 8th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion%2C_8th_Marines \"2nd Battalion, 8th Marines\"), where he served as a platoon and rifle company commander. His next tour took him to [Marine Barracks, 8th and I](/wiki/Marine_Barracks%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.\"), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") where he served at the [Marine Corps Institute](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Institute \"Marine Corps Institute\") and as a ceremonial officer.",
"Allen then attended the Postgraduate Intelligence Program of the Defense Intelligence College, where he was the Distinguished Graduate. He subsequently served as the Marine Corps Fellow to the [Center for Strategic and International Studies](/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies \"Center for Strategic and International Studies\") (CSIS). He was the first Marine Corps officer inducted as a Term Member of the [Council on Foreign Relations](/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations \"Council on Foreign Relations\").",
"Returning to the [Fleet Marine Force](/wiki/Fleet_Marine_Force \"Fleet Marine Force\") in 1985, he commanded rifle and weapons companies and served as the operations officer of [3rd Battalion, 4th Marines](/wiki/3rd_Battalion_4th_Marines \"3rd Battalion 4th Marines\"). During this period he received the [Leftwich Leadership Trophy](/wiki/Leftwich_Trophy \"Leftwich Trophy\"). In 1988, Allen reported to the [U.S. Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\"), where he taught in the Political Science Department and also served as the jump officer and [jumpmaster](/wiki/Jumpmaster \"Jumpmaster\") of the academy. In 1990 he received the William P. Clements Award as military instructor of the year.",
"Allen reported to The Basic School as the director of the Infantry Officer Course from 1990 to 1992 and was subsequently selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps Fellows Program, which provides \"assignment to either a prominent national foreign policy/public policy research institution or to a national security studies program at a selected university\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=22 October 1996 \\|title\\=MARINE CORPS ORDER 1520\\.28B \\|url\\=http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/MCO%201520\\.28B.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316020307/http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/MCO%201520\\.28B.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-08 \\|website\\=marines.mil \\|publisher\\=Department of Defense}} Allen has served as a special assistant on the staffs of the 30th [Commandant of the Marine Corps](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps \"Commandant of the United States Marine Corps\") and the commanding general of [Marine Corps Combat Development Command](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Combat_Development_Command \"Marine Corps Combat Development Command\"). In 1994, he served as the Division G\\-3 Operations Officer for the [2nd Marine Division](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 \"2nd Marine Division (United States)\") and subsequently assumed command of [2nd Battalion, 4th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_4th_Marines \"2nd Battalion 4th Marines\"); re\\-designated as [2nd Battalion, 6th Marines](/wiki/2nd_Battalion_6th_Marines \"2nd Battalion 6th Marines\"). This unit served with [JTF\\-160](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Guantanamo%23History \"Joint Task Force Guantanamo#History\") in [Operation SEA SIGNAL](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Signal \"Operation Sea Signal\") during Caribbean contingency operations in 1994, and as part of the Landing Force of the 6th Fleet in Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR during Balkans contingency operations in 1995–1996\\.",
"Following battalion command, Allen reported as the senior [aide\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\") to the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps, [Charles C. Krulak](/wiki/Charles_C._Krulak \"Charles C. Krulak\"), ultimately serving as his [military secretary](/wiki/Military_Secretary_to_the_Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps \"Military Secretary to the Commandant of the Marine Corps\").",
"He commanded The Basic School from 1999 to 2001, when he was selected in April 2001 to return to the Naval Academy as the deputy commandant. Allen became the 79th [Commandant of Midshipmen](/wiki/Commandant_of_Midshipmen \"Commandant of Midshipmen\") in January 2002, the first Marine Corps officer to serve in this position at the Naval Academy.Gen. Allen reflects on his assignment at the USNA in *[In the Shadow of Greatness](/wiki/In_the_Shadow_of_Greatness \"In the Shadow of Greatness\")*. Naval Institute Press, 2012, book authored by the UNSA Class of 2002\\. In January 2003 Allen was nominated for appointment to the rank of brigadier general.{{cite press release\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid\\=3591\\|title\\=General Officer Announcements and Assignments\\|date\\=January 2, 2003 \\|work\\=DefenseLink\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Defense}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Allen's official military portrait](/wiki/File:General_John_R._Allen.jpg \"General John R. Allen.jpg\")\nAllen's first tour as a [general officer](/wiki/General_officer \"General officer\") was as the principal director of Asian and Pacific Affairs in the Office of the [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\"), a position he occupied for nearly three years. From 2006 to 2008, Allen served as deputy commanding general of the [II Marine Expeditionary Force](/wiki/II_Marine_Expeditionary_Force \"II Marine Expeditionary Force\") and commanding general of the [2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Expeditionary_Brigade_%28United_States%29 \"2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (United States)\"), deploying to Iraq for [Operation Iraqi Freedom](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") 06–08, serving as the deputy commanding general of [Multi\\-National Forces West](/wiki/Multi-National_Forces_West \"Multi-National Forces West\") and II MEF (Forward) in [Al Anbar Province](/wiki/Al_Anbar_Province \"Al Anbar Province\"), Iraq. In January 2007 Allen was nominated for appointment to the grade of major general.{{cite press release\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2009\\|url\\=http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid\\=10405\n\\|work\\=DefenseLink \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Defense\\|date\\=January 17, 2007\\|title\\=General Officer Announcements}}",
"In June 2008, [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates \"Robert Gates\") announced Allen's nomination for promotion to the rank of lieutenant general.{{cite news\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2009\n\\|url\\=http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section\\=104\\&article\\=55574\\|work\\=Stars and Stripes \\|date\\=June 15, 2008\\|title\\=Marine nominated for No. 2 CENTCOM post}}\nHe served as the deputy commander of the U.S. Central Command from July 15, 2008, until July 18, 2011, at [MacDill Air Force Base](/wiki/MacDill_Air_Force_Base \"MacDill Air Force Base\").{{cite journal\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2009\\|url\\=https://www.mca\\-marines.com/gazette/majgen\\_allen.asp\\|title\\=General Officer Announcement – nomination of MajGen John R. Allen for appointment as the Deputy Commander, U.S. Central Command\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Marine Corps Gazette]]\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821130932/http://www.mca\\-marines.com/gazette/majgen\\_allen.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2008}}{{cite web\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.centcom.mil/en/about\\-centcom/leadership/\\|title\\=Lieutenant General John R. Allen, Deputy Commander\\|work\\=U.S. CENTCOM Leadership\\|publisher\\=CENTCOM\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130054509/http://www.centcom.mil/en/about\\-centcom/leadership/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 30, 2009 }} On June 30, 2010, Allen temporarily commanded Central Command after General [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus \"David Petraeus\") left to assume command of the [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force \"International Security Assistance Force\") in [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\").{{cite press release\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2010\\|url\\=http://www.centcom.mil/en/press\\-releases/lt\\-gen\\-allen\\-named\\-centcom\\-acting\\-commander\n\\|title\\=Lt. Gen. Allen named CENTCOM acting commander\\|date\\=June 30, 2010\\|work\\=CENTCOM \\|publisher\\=U.S. Central Command\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703150558/http://www.centcom.mil/en/press\\-releases/lt\\-gen\\-allen\\-named\\-centcom\\-acting\\-commander\\|archive\\-date\\=July 3, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He served as acting commander until General [James Mattis](/wiki/James_Mattis \"James Mattis\") took command on August 11\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns\\-ap\\-us\\-mattis\\-central\\-command,0,3331254\\.story\\|title\\=Mattis takes over Central Command, vows to work with Mideast allies in Afghanistan, Iraq\\|date\\=August 11, 2010\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2010}}{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2021\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/news/article1114800\\.ece\\|title\\=Mattis takes over as CentCom chief\\|last1\\=Mitchell\\|first1\\=Robbyn\\|date\\=August 12, 2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[St. Petersburg Times]]\\|page\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012171654/http://www.tampabay.com/news/article1114800\\.ece\\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.centcom.mil/news/mattis\\-assumes\\-command\\-of\\-centcom\\|title\\=Mattis assumes command of CENTCOM\\|date\\=August 11, 2010\\|publisher\\=U.S. Central Command\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2010}}\nAllen was promoted to general by [Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\"), Admiral [Mike Mullen](/wiki/Michael_Mullen \"Michael Mullen\") prior to his assumption of command of ISAF, and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR\\-A) on July 18, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=General John R. Allen Assumes Command of ISAF\\|url\\=http://www.isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\\-releases/general\\-john\\-r.\\-allen\\-assumes\\-command\\-of\\-isaf.html\\|work\\=isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\\-releases/index.php\\|publisher\\=ISAF Headquarters Public Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315045607/http://www.isaf.nato.int/article/isaf\\-releases/general\\-john\\-r.\\-allen\\-assumes\\-command\\-of\\-isaf.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2012}}",
"Allen's foreign awards include the Mongolian Meritorious Service Medal, First Class; the [Polish Army Medal](/wiki/Polish_Army_Medal \"Polish Army Medal\") in Gold; the Taiwan [Order of the Resplendent Banner](/wiki/Order_of_the_Cloud_and_Banner \"Order of the Cloud and Banner\"); the French Legion of Honor; the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic; Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia; and the [Ghazi Mir Bacha Khan Medal](/wiki/Ghazi_Mir_Bacha_Khan_Medal \"Ghazi Mir Bacha Khan Medal\").",
"On March 6, 2012, he received the Polish [Afghanistan Star Medal](/wiki/Polish_campaign_stars \"Polish campaign stars\") from Polish President, [Bronisław Komorowski](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Komorowski \"Bronisław Komorowski\").[*Spotkanie z polskimi żołnierzami w Afganistanie*](https://archive.today/20120911030622/http://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/wizyty-zagraniczne/art,158,spotkanie-z-polskimi-zolnierzami-w-afganistanie.html) – last (8th) photo.",
"On April 20, 2012, he received another Polish award, the [Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Republic_of_Poland \"Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland\").[*Order dla gen. Johna Allena, dowódcy ISAF*](https://archive.today/20120909141013/http://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/ordery-i-odznaczenia/art,1082,order-dla-gen-johna-allena-dowodcy-isaf.html)\n[thumb\\|John Allen with members of Congress in May 2012](/wiki/File:ISAF_with_Roby.jpg \"ISAF with Roby.jpg\")\nIn November 2012, he was investigated along with [Jill Kelley](/wiki/Jill_Kelley \"Jill Kelley\").The Telegraph (London), [\"Gen John Allen investigated for 'inappropriate communications' to Jill Kelley\"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9674163/Gen-John-Allen-investigated-for-inappropriate-communications-to-Jill-Kelley.html), Hannah Furness, 8:01AM GMT November 13, 2012 In response to the investigation, [Secretary Panetta](/wiki/Leon_Panetta \"Leon Panetta\") suspended his confirmation hearing for commander of [EUCOM](/wiki/EUCOM \"EUCOM\") and requested the U.S. Congress to speed the confirmation of General [Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.](/wiki/Joseph_F._Dunford%2C_Jr. \"Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.\") to command of forces in Afghanistan.BBC News, [\"David Petraeus CIA scandal engulfs US Gen John Allen\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308225), November 13, 2012, Last updated at 05:26 ET On January 22, 2013, Allen was cleared in a misconduct inquiry.{{cite news\\|title\\=Gen. John Allen cleared in misconduct inquiry\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-cleared\\-in\\-misconduct\\-inquiry/2013/01/22/479c776a\\-64dd\\-11e2\\-9e1b\\-07db1d2ccd5b\\_story.html\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2013\\|first1\\=Rajiv\\|last1\\=Chandrasekaran\\|date\\=January 23, 2013}}",
"On February 10, 2013, Allen relinquished command of the [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force \"International Security Assistance Force\") and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR\\-A) to General Dunford.BBC News, [\"Afghan Isaf commander John Allen sees 'road to winning'\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21399805), February 10, 2013",
"On February 19, 2013, U.S. President Obama accepted Allen's request to retire from the military as his wife fell seriously ill.{{cite news\\|title\\=Gen. John Allen intends to retire, decline military's top post in Europe \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-intends\\-to\\-retire\\-decline\\-militarys\\-top\\-post\\-in\\-europe/2013/02/19/41cead8e\\-7aaa\\-11e2\\-82e8\\-61a46c2cde3d\\_story.html \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2013\\|first1\\=Rajiv\\|last1\\=Chandrasekaran \\|date\\=February 20, 2013}}",
"On April 29, 2013, Allen's retirement ceremony was held at the United States Naval Academy.{{cite web\\|title\\=Gen. John Allen quietly retires from the Marine Corps \\|url\\=http://blogs.militarytimes.com/battle\\-rattle/tag/james\\-mattis/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303181938/http://blogs.militarytimes.com/battle\\-rattle/tag/james\\-mattis\\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2014\\|publisher\\=MarineTimes\\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2013}}",
"### Post\\-military career",
"After leaving the military, Allen continued to work as an adviser to Secretary of State John Kerry and former Defense Secretary [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel \"Chuck Hagel\"). In this capacity he worked closely with Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian interlocutors on the Israeli\\-Palestinian Peace Plan.",
"On June 13, 2013, Allen joined the [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution \"Brookings Institution\") as a distinguished fellow.{{cite news \\|last\\=Hudon \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Gen. John Allen Joins Brookings \\|url\\=http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/06/10/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-joins\\-brookings/ \\|date\\=June 10, 2013}}",
"On September 11, 2014, the [Obama Administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama \"Presidency of Barack Obama\") announced that Allen would coordinate international efforts against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.{{cite web\\|last\\=Michael R. Gordon\\|date\\=September 11, 2014\\|title\\=Retired Gen. John R. Allen in Line to Lead Effort vs. ISIS \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/12/us/retired\\-general\\-is\\-picked\\-to\\-lead\\-effort\\-vs\\-isis.html?\\_r\\=0\\|publisher\\=NY Times\\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2014}} He was named as the Special Presidential Envoy for the Global Coalition against ISIL, a position he would hold for 15 months. Allen's diplomatic efforts increased the size of the coalition to 65 members.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Storey\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Former U.S. Afghanistan commander to lead effort against Islamic State\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-iraq\\-crisis\\-usa\\-coordinator\\-idUSKBN0H722420140912\\|access\\-date\\=September 15, 2014\\|publisher\\=Reuters\\|date\\=September 12, 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Gen. John Allen named as US envoy to anti\\-IS coalition \\|url\\=http://www.timesofisrael.com/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-named\\-as\\-us\\-envoy\\-to\\-anti\\-is\\-coalition/\\#ixzz3DOpdDPqc \\|access\\-date\\=September 15, 2014\\|publisher\\=The Times of Israel \\|date\\=September 14, 2014}}",
"On October 23, 2015, the White House announced his departure from the post. He officially departed that role on November 12, 2015, and was succeeded by [Brett McGurk](/wiki/Brett_McGurk \"Brett McGurk\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/24/world/middleeast/general\\-john\\-allen\\-obama\\-isis.html \\|title\\=Obama's Anti\\-ISIS Point Man Leaving as Russia Steps In\\|date\\=October 23, 2015\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times}}",
"On October 4, 2017, Allen was named the seventh president of Brookings, succeeding [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott \"Strobe Talbott\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.brookings.edu/news\\-releases/john\\-r\\-allen\\-named\\-next\\-brookings\\-institution\\-president/\\|publisher\\=Brookings Institution\\|title\\=John R. Allen named next Brookings Institution president\\|date\\=October 4, 2017}}",
"Allen was a member of the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council \"Homeland Security Advisory Council\") until his appointment expired on August 31, 2020\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Homeland Security Advisory Council Members \\|url\\=https://www.dhs.gov/homeland\\-security\\-advisory\\-council\\-members\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Homeland Security\\|date\\=February 13, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2017}}",
"In March 2022 he was reappointed to the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council \"Homeland Security Advisory Council\") by [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Secretary of Homeland Security\") [Alejandro Mayorkas](/wiki/Alejandro_Mayorkas \"Alejandro Mayorkas\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=John Allen \\|url\\=https://www.dhs.gov/medialibrary/assets/images/29197 \\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019 \\|website\\=DHS \\|date\\=March 21, 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Since 2019, he has also been serving on the Transatlantic Task Force of the [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund \"German Marshall Fund\") and the [Bundeskanzler\\-Helmut\\-Schmidt\\-Stiftung](/wiki/Federal_Chancellor_Helmut_Schmidt_Foundation \"Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt Foundation\") (BKHS), co\\-chaired by [Karen Donfried](/wiki/Karen_Donfried \"Karen Donfried\") and [Wolfgang Ischinger](/wiki/Wolfgang_Ischinger \"Wolfgang Ischinger\").[The German Marshall Fund and Bundeskanzler\\-Helmut\\-Schmidt\\-Stiftung Launch “Transatlantic Task Force” Setting Path Forward for U.S.\\-Europe Relations](http://www.gmfus.org/press-releases/german-marshall-fund-and-bundeskanzler-helmut-schmidt-stiftung-launch-transatlantic) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214112227/http://www.gmfus.org/press\\-releases/german\\-marshall\\-fund\\-and\\-bundeskanzler\\-helmut\\-schmidt\\-stiftung\\-launch\\-transatlantic \\|date\\=December 14, 2019 }} [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund \"German Marshall Fund\"), press release of December 12, 2019\\.",
"On June 8, 2022, Allen was placed on leave at the Brookings Institution amid a federal investigation into his alleged role in an illegal lobbying campaign on behalf of the wealthy Persian Gulf nation of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\"). He had not been charged with a crime.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Suderman \\|first1\\=Alan \\|last2\\=Mustian \\|first2\\=Jim \\|title\\=Brookings places retired general on leave amid FBI probe \\|date\\=June 8, 2022 \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/qatar\\-middle\\-east\\-persian\\-gulf\\-tensions\\-lobbying\\-government\\-and\\-politics\\-8c660b2906a0311228c59c4f539fae57}} He officially resigned from Brookings Institution on June 12, 2022,{{cite news \\| title\\=John R. Allen Resigns as Brookings President After Qatar Revelations \\| newspaper\\=The New York Times\\| last\\=Kirkpatrick \\| first\\=David D. \\| date\\=June 12, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/12/us/politics/john\\-allen\\-brookings\\-resigns.html \\| access\\-date\\=June 12, 2022}} and executive vice president [Ted Gayer](/wiki/Ted_Gayer \"Ted Gayer\") was named acting president.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Thebault \\|first1\\=Reis \\|last2\\=Kitchener \\|first2\\=Caroline \\|last3\\=Horton \\|first3\\=Alex \\|date\\=June 12, 2022 \\|title\\=Retired general resigns as head of Brookings amid federal probe \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national\\-security/2022/06/12/brookings\\-institution\\-john\\-allen\\-resigns/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}}",
"In January 2023, the Justice Department informed Allen that federal prosecutors closed the investigation into whether he secretly lobbied for the government of Qatar and that no criminal charges would be brought against him under the Foreign Agents Registration Act, or any other law, based on, or as a result of, Allen's trip to Qatar in June 2017 or the government's investigation of those events.",
"**Continued Leadership**",
"In January, 2022, President Biden and the White House announced the appointment of General Allen to [Board of Visitors](https://www.usna.edu/PAO/Superintendent/bov.php) of the United States Naval Academy, a position in which he continues to serve.",
"In March of that same year, General Allen was presented the Distinguished Graduate Award (DGA) of the United States Naval Academy, a prestigious award bestowed on four to five Naval Academy’s sixty thousand living alumni per year. The award recognizes exceptional military or civilian service to the country, and continued contributions to the Naval Academy and its mission. Part of General Allen’s recognition as a Distinguished Graduate stemmed from his being the first Marine Corps officer ever to serve as Commandant of Midshipmen at the Academy. Other recipients of the DGA include President Jimmy Carter, Senator John McCain, Astronauts James Lovell and Charles Bolden, and Roger Staubach.",
"In April, 2023, General Allen was inducted as a Senior Fellow at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, where his work has focused on matters of national security and technology.",
"In September of that year, General Allen was inducted as a Fellow of the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"American Academy of Arts and Sciences\"). The Academy is both an honorary society that recognizes and celebrates the excellence of its members and an independent research center convening leaders from across disciplines, professions, and perspectives to address significant challenges. The Academy honors excellence and leadership. Founded in 1780, the academy counts among its earliest members, George Washington, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin.",
"General Allen is a Strategic Advisor to [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") where he serves on the Microsoft Advisory Council and the Technology and National Security Advisory Council.",
"He is the co\\-author of the book Turning Point: Policymaking in the Era of Artificial Intelligence alongside Dr. Darrell M. West (Brookings Press, 2020\\). He is also the co\\-author of Future War and the Defence of Europe alongside LTG (Ret.) Frederick “Ben” Hodges and Professor Dr. Julian Lindley French (Oxford University Press, 2021\\). Future War has been translated into German, Romanian, and, most recently, Ukrainian. He is one of the originators of the term “hyperwar”. As a co\\-inventor, Allen shares five AI related patents. He advises multiple tech start\\-ups.\nGeneral Allen is a 2015 co\\-recipient of the Business Executive for National Security (BENS) Eisenhower Award. He is also a 2016 co\\-recipient of the Scholar\\-Statesman Award from The Washington Institute.",
""
] |
### Post\-military career
After leaving the military, Allen continued to work as an adviser to Secretary of State John Kerry and former Defense Secretary [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel "Chuck Hagel"). In this capacity he worked closely with Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian interlocutors on the Israeli\-Palestinian Peace Plan.
On June 13, 2013, Allen joined the [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution "Brookings Institution") as a distinguished fellow.{{cite news \|last\=Hudon \|first\=John \|title\=Gen. John Allen Joins Brookings \|url\=http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/06/10/gen\-john\-allen\-joins\-brookings/ \|date\=June 10, 2013}}
On September 11, 2014, the [Obama Administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama "Presidency of Barack Obama") announced that Allen would coordinate international efforts against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.{{cite web\|last\=Michael R. Gordon\|date\=September 11, 2014\|title\=Retired Gen. John R. Allen in Line to Lead Effort vs. ISIS \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/12/us/retired\-general\-is\-picked\-to\-lead\-effort\-vs\-isis.html?\_r\=0\|publisher\=NY Times\|access\-date\=September 11, 2014}} He was named as the Special Presidential Envoy for the Global Coalition against ISIL, a position he would hold for 15 months. Allen's diplomatic efforts increased the size of the coalition to 65 members.{{cite news\|last1\=Storey\|first1\=David\|title\=Former U.S. Afghanistan commander to lead effort against Islamic State\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-iraq\-crisis\-usa\-coordinator\-idUSKBN0H722420140912\|access\-date\=September 15, 2014\|publisher\=Reuters\|date\=September 12, 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Gen. John Allen named as US envoy to anti\-IS coalition \|url\=http://www.timesofisrael.com/gen\-john\-allen\-named\-as\-us\-envoy\-to\-anti\-is\-coalition/\#ixzz3DOpdDPqc \|access\-date\=September 15, 2014\|publisher\=The Times of Israel \|date\=September 14, 2014}}
On October 23, 2015, the White House announced his departure from the post. He officially departed that role on November 12, 2015, and was succeeded by [Brett McGurk](/wiki/Brett_McGurk "Brett McGurk").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/24/world/middleeast/general\-john\-allen\-obama\-isis.html \|title\=Obama's Anti\-ISIS Point Man Leaving as Russia Steps In\|date\=October 23, 2015\|newspaper\=The New York Times}}
On October 4, 2017, Allen was named the seventh president of Brookings, succeeding [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott "Strobe Talbott").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.brookings.edu/news\-releases/john\-r\-allen\-named\-next\-brookings\-institution\-president/\|publisher\=Brookings Institution\|title\=John R. Allen named next Brookings Institution president\|date\=October 4, 2017}}
Allen was a member of the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council "Homeland Security Advisory Council") until his appointment expired on August 31, 2020\.{{cite web\|title\=Homeland Security Advisory Council Members \|url\=https://www.dhs.gov/homeland\-security\-advisory\-council\-members\|publisher\=U.S. Department of Homeland Security\|date\=February 13, 2017\|access\-date\=March 17, 2017}}
In March 2022 he was reappointed to the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council "Homeland Security Advisory Council") by [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security "United States Secretary of Homeland Security") [Alejandro Mayorkas](/wiki/Alejandro_Mayorkas "Alejandro Mayorkas"){{Cite web \|title\=John Allen \|url\=https://www.dhs.gov/medialibrary/assets/images/29197 \|access\-date\=July 26, 2019 \|website\=DHS \|date\=March 21, 2022 \|language\=en}}
Since 2019, he has also been serving on the Transatlantic Task Force of the [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund "German Marshall Fund") and the [Bundeskanzler\-Helmut\-Schmidt\-Stiftung](/wiki/Federal_Chancellor_Helmut_Schmidt_Foundation "Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt Foundation") (BKHS), co\-chaired by [Karen Donfried](/wiki/Karen_Donfried "Karen Donfried") and [Wolfgang Ischinger](/wiki/Wolfgang_Ischinger "Wolfgang Ischinger").[The German Marshall Fund and Bundeskanzler\-Helmut\-Schmidt\-Stiftung Launch “Transatlantic Task Force” Setting Path Forward for U.S.\-Europe Relations](http://www.gmfus.org/press-releases/german-marshall-fund-and-bundeskanzler-helmut-schmidt-stiftung-launch-transatlantic) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214112227/http://www.gmfus.org/press\-releases/german\-marshall\-fund\-and\-bundeskanzler\-helmut\-schmidt\-stiftung\-launch\-transatlantic \|date\=December 14, 2019 }} [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund "German Marshall Fund"), press release of December 12, 2019\.
On June 8, 2022, Allen was placed on leave at the Brookings Institution amid a federal investigation into his alleged role in an illegal lobbying campaign on behalf of the wealthy Persian Gulf nation of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar"). He had not been charged with a crime.{{cite news \|last1\=Suderman \|first1\=Alan \|last2\=Mustian \|first2\=Jim \|title\=Brookings places retired general on leave amid FBI probe \|date\=June 8, 2022 \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/qatar\-middle\-east\-persian\-gulf\-tensions\-lobbying\-government\-and\-politics\-8c660b2906a0311228c59c4f539fae57}} He officially resigned from Brookings Institution on June 12, 2022,{{cite news \| title\=John R. Allen Resigns as Brookings President After Qatar Revelations \| newspaper\=The New York Times\| last\=Kirkpatrick \| first\=David D. \| date\=June 12, 2022 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/12/us/politics/john\-allen\-brookings\-resigns.html \| access\-date\=June 12, 2022}} and executive vice president [Ted Gayer](/wiki/Ted_Gayer "Ted Gayer") was named acting president.{{Cite news \|last1\=Thebault \|first1\=Reis \|last2\=Kitchener \|first2\=Caroline \|last3\=Horton \|first3\=Alex \|date\=June 12, 2022 \|title\=Retired general resigns as head of Brookings amid federal probe \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national\-security/2022/06/12/brookings\-institution\-john\-allen\-resigns/ \|access\-date\=June 16, 2022}}
In January 2023, the Justice Department informed Allen that federal prosecutors closed the investigation into whether he secretly lobbied for the government of Qatar and that no criminal charges would be brought against him under the Foreign Agents Registration Act, or any other law, based on, or as a result of, Allen's trip to Qatar in June 2017 or the government's investigation of those events.
**Continued Leadership**
In January, 2022, President Biden and the White House announced the appointment of General Allen to [Board of Visitors](https://www.usna.edu/PAO/Superintendent/bov.php) of the United States Naval Academy, a position in which he continues to serve.
In March of that same year, General Allen was presented the Distinguished Graduate Award (DGA) of the United States Naval Academy, a prestigious award bestowed on four to five Naval Academy’s sixty thousand living alumni per year. The award recognizes exceptional military or civilian service to the country, and continued contributions to the Naval Academy and its mission. Part of General Allen’s recognition as a Distinguished Graduate stemmed from his being the first Marine Corps officer ever to serve as Commandant of Midshipmen at the Academy. Other recipients of the DGA include President Jimmy Carter, Senator John McCain, Astronauts James Lovell and Charles Bolden, and Roger Staubach.
In April, 2023, General Allen was inducted as a Senior Fellow at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, where his work has focused on matters of national security and technology.
In September of that year, General Allen was inducted as a Fellow of the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences "American Academy of Arts and Sciences"). The Academy is both an honorary society that recognizes and celebrates the excellence of its members and an independent research center convening leaders from across disciplines, professions, and perspectives to address significant challenges. The Academy honors excellence and leadership. Founded in 1780, the academy counts among its earliest members, George Washington, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin.
General Allen is a Strategic Advisor to [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft") where he serves on the Microsoft Advisory Council and the Technology and National Security Advisory Council.
He is the co\-author of the book Turning Point: Policymaking in the Era of Artificial Intelligence alongside Dr. Darrell M. West (Brookings Press, 2020\). He is also the co\-author of Future War and the Defence of Europe alongside LTG (Ret.) Frederick “Ben” Hodges and Professor Dr. Julian Lindley French (Oxford University Press, 2021\). Future War has been translated into German, Romanian, and, most recently, Ukrainian. He is one of the originators of the term “hyperwar”. As a co\-inventor, Allen shares five AI related patents. He advises multiple tech start\-ups.
General Allen is a 2015 co\-recipient of the Business Executive for National Security (BENS) Eisenhower Award. He is also a 2016 co\-recipient of the Scholar\-Statesman Award from The Washington Institute.
|
[
"### Post\\-military career",
"After leaving the military, Allen continued to work as an adviser to Secretary of State John Kerry and former Defense Secretary [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel \"Chuck Hagel\"). In this capacity he worked closely with Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian interlocutors on the Israeli\\-Palestinian Peace Plan.",
"On June 13, 2013, Allen joined the [Brookings Institution](/wiki/Brookings_Institution \"Brookings Institution\") as a distinguished fellow.{{cite news \\|last\\=Hudon \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Gen. John Allen Joins Brookings \\|url\\=http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/06/10/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-joins\\-brookings/ \\|date\\=June 10, 2013}}",
"On September 11, 2014, the [Obama Administration](/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama \"Presidency of Barack Obama\") announced that Allen would coordinate international efforts against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.{{cite web\\|last\\=Michael R. Gordon\\|date\\=September 11, 2014\\|title\\=Retired Gen. John R. Allen in Line to Lead Effort vs. ISIS \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/12/us/retired\\-general\\-is\\-picked\\-to\\-lead\\-effort\\-vs\\-isis.html?\\_r\\=0\\|publisher\\=NY Times\\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2014}} He was named as the Special Presidential Envoy for the Global Coalition against ISIL, a position he would hold for 15 months. Allen's diplomatic efforts increased the size of the coalition to 65 members.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Storey\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Former U.S. Afghanistan commander to lead effort against Islamic State\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-iraq\\-crisis\\-usa\\-coordinator\\-idUSKBN0H722420140912\\|access\\-date\\=September 15, 2014\\|publisher\\=Reuters\\|date\\=September 12, 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Gen. John Allen named as US envoy to anti\\-IS coalition \\|url\\=http://www.timesofisrael.com/gen\\-john\\-allen\\-named\\-as\\-us\\-envoy\\-to\\-anti\\-is\\-coalition/\\#ixzz3DOpdDPqc \\|access\\-date\\=September 15, 2014\\|publisher\\=The Times of Israel \\|date\\=September 14, 2014}}",
"On October 23, 2015, the White House announced his departure from the post. He officially departed that role on November 12, 2015, and was succeeded by [Brett McGurk](/wiki/Brett_McGurk \"Brett McGurk\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/24/world/middleeast/general\\-john\\-allen\\-obama\\-isis.html \\|title\\=Obama's Anti\\-ISIS Point Man Leaving as Russia Steps In\\|date\\=October 23, 2015\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times}}",
"On October 4, 2017, Allen was named the seventh president of Brookings, succeeding [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott \"Strobe Talbott\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.brookings.edu/news\\-releases/john\\-r\\-allen\\-named\\-next\\-brookings\\-institution\\-president/\\|publisher\\=Brookings Institution\\|title\\=John R. Allen named next Brookings Institution president\\|date\\=October 4, 2017}}",
"Allen was a member of the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council \"Homeland Security Advisory Council\") until his appointment expired on August 31, 2020\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Homeland Security Advisory Council Members \\|url\\=https://www.dhs.gov/homeland\\-security\\-advisory\\-council\\-members\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Homeland Security\\|date\\=February 13, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=March 17, 2017}}",
"In March 2022 he was reappointed to the [Homeland Security Advisory Council](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Advisory_Council \"Homeland Security Advisory Council\") by [Secretary of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Secretary of Homeland Security\") [Alejandro Mayorkas](/wiki/Alejandro_Mayorkas \"Alejandro Mayorkas\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=John Allen \\|url\\=https://www.dhs.gov/medialibrary/assets/images/29197 \\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019 \\|website\\=DHS \\|date\\=March 21, 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Since 2019, he has also been serving on the Transatlantic Task Force of the [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund \"German Marshall Fund\") and the [Bundeskanzler\\-Helmut\\-Schmidt\\-Stiftung](/wiki/Federal_Chancellor_Helmut_Schmidt_Foundation \"Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt Foundation\") (BKHS), co\\-chaired by [Karen Donfried](/wiki/Karen_Donfried \"Karen Donfried\") and [Wolfgang Ischinger](/wiki/Wolfgang_Ischinger \"Wolfgang Ischinger\").[The German Marshall Fund and Bundeskanzler\\-Helmut\\-Schmidt\\-Stiftung Launch “Transatlantic Task Force” Setting Path Forward for U.S.\\-Europe Relations](http://www.gmfus.org/press-releases/german-marshall-fund-and-bundeskanzler-helmut-schmidt-stiftung-launch-transatlantic) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214112227/http://www.gmfus.org/press\\-releases/german\\-marshall\\-fund\\-and\\-bundeskanzler\\-helmut\\-schmidt\\-stiftung\\-launch\\-transatlantic \\|date\\=December 14, 2019 }} [German Marshall Fund](/wiki/German_Marshall_Fund \"German Marshall Fund\"), press release of December 12, 2019\\.",
"On June 8, 2022, Allen was placed on leave at the Brookings Institution amid a federal investigation into his alleged role in an illegal lobbying campaign on behalf of the wealthy Persian Gulf nation of [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\"). He had not been charged with a crime.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Suderman \\|first1\\=Alan \\|last2\\=Mustian \\|first2\\=Jim \\|title\\=Brookings places retired general on leave amid FBI probe \\|date\\=June 8, 2022 \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/qatar\\-middle\\-east\\-persian\\-gulf\\-tensions\\-lobbying\\-government\\-and\\-politics\\-8c660b2906a0311228c59c4f539fae57}} He officially resigned from Brookings Institution on June 12, 2022,{{cite news \\| title\\=John R. Allen Resigns as Brookings President After Qatar Revelations \\| newspaper\\=The New York Times\\| last\\=Kirkpatrick \\| first\\=David D. \\| date\\=June 12, 2022 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/12/us/politics/john\\-allen\\-brookings\\-resigns.html \\| access\\-date\\=June 12, 2022}} and executive vice president [Ted Gayer](/wiki/Ted_Gayer \"Ted Gayer\") was named acting president.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Thebault \\|first1\\=Reis \\|last2\\=Kitchener \\|first2\\=Caroline \\|last3\\=Horton \\|first3\\=Alex \\|date\\=June 12, 2022 \\|title\\=Retired general resigns as head of Brookings amid federal probe \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national\\-security/2022/06/12/brookings\\-institution\\-john\\-allen\\-resigns/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 16, 2022}}",
"In January 2023, the Justice Department informed Allen that federal prosecutors closed the investigation into whether he secretly lobbied for the government of Qatar and that no criminal charges would be brought against him under the Foreign Agents Registration Act, or any other law, based on, or as a result of, Allen's trip to Qatar in June 2017 or the government's investigation of those events.",
"**Continued Leadership**",
"In January, 2022, President Biden and the White House announced the appointment of General Allen to [Board of Visitors](https://www.usna.edu/PAO/Superintendent/bov.php) of the United States Naval Academy, a position in which he continues to serve.",
"In March of that same year, General Allen was presented the Distinguished Graduate Award (DGA) of the United States Naval Academy, a prestigious award bestowed on four to five Naval Academy’s sixty thousand living alumni per year. The award recognizes exceptional military or civilian service to the country, and continued contributions to the Naval Academy and its mission. Part of General Allen’s recognition as a Distinguished Graduate stemmed from his being the first Marine Corps officer ever to serve as Commandant of Midshipmen at the Academy. Other recipients of the DGA include President Jimmy Carter, Senator John McCain, Astronauts James Lovell and Charles Bolden, and Roger Staubach.",
"In April, 2023, General Allen was inducted as a Senior Fellow at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, where his work has focused on matters of national security and technology.",
"In September of that year, General Allen was inducted as a Fellow of the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"American Academy of Arts and Sciences\"). The Academy is both an honorary society that recognizes and celebrates the excellence of its members and an independent research center convening leaders from across disciplines, professions, and perspectives to address significant challenges. The Academy honors excellence and leadership. Founded in 1780, the academy counts among its earliest members, George Washington, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin.",
"General Allen is a Strategic Advisor to [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") where he serves on the Microsoft Advisory Council and the Technology and National Security Advisory Council.",
"He is the co\\-author of the book Turning Point: Policymaking in the Era of Artificial Intelligence alongside Dr. Darrell M. West (Brookings Press, 2020\\). He is also the co\\-author of Future War and the Defence of Europe alongside LTG (Ret.) Frederick “Ben” Hodges and Professor Dr. Julian Lindley French (Oxford University Press, 2021\\). Future War has been translated into German, Romanian, and, most recently, Ukrainian. He is one of the originators of the term “hyperwar”. As a co\\-inventor, Allen shares five AI related patents. He advises multiple tech start\\-ups.\nGeneral Allen is a 2015 co\\-recipient of the Business Executive for National Security (BENS) Eisenhower Award. He is also a 2016 co\\-recipient of the Scholar\\-Statesman Award from The Washington Institute.",
""
] |
Events
------
On 23 September, Barcelona won its first\-ever piece of silverware (a bronze object) after beating their biggest rival, Català FC, 3 to 1 courtesy of goals from [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper "Joan Gamper") (2\) and [Otto Maier](/wiki/Otto_Maier_%28footballer%29 "Otto Maier (footballer)"). This was also the first match of the 1900–01 season and the last game played at the [Velódromo de la Bonanova](/wiki/Vel%C3%B3dromo_de_la_Bonanova "Velódromo de la Bonanova").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.webdelcule.com/1899\-96/1909\.html \|title\=Historia del FC Barcelona, Web de los Culés \|trans\-title\=History of the FC Barcelona, Web of the Culés \|language\=es \|website\=www.webdelcule.com \|access\-date\=10 November 2022}}
On 18 November, Barcelona played its first match on a field next to the Hotel Casanovas, the club's second [football pitch](/wiki/Football_pitch "Football pitch") after Bonanova. They played against [Hispania AC](/wiki/Hispania_Athletic_Club "Hispania Athletic Club") and ended in a 0–0 draw.
On 23 December, Barça played their first match against *Societat Espanyola de Futbol* (Society Spanish Football), which would later become [RCD Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol "RCD Espanyol"). The match ended without goals in an atmosphere of brotherhood.
On 20 January, Barcelona played their first\-ever match in an official competition, the opening match of the [1900–01 Copa Macaya](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Copa_Macaya "1900–01 Copa Macaya") against Hispania AC at Hotel Casanovas, but despite scoring first thanks to [George Girvan](/wiki/George_Girvan "George Girvan"), a Scottish player formerly of [Escocès FC](/wiki/Escoc%C3%A8s_FC "Escocès FC"), it was Hispania who won 2–1 after coming back with two goals from their [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 "Captain (association football)"), [Gustavo Green](/wiki/Gustavo_Green "Gustavo Green").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2014/06/primera\-edicion\-de\-la\-copa\-macaya\-enero\-abril\-1901/ \|title\=Primera edición de la Copa Macaya Enero\-Abril 1901 \|trans\-title\=First edition of the Macaya Cup January\-April 1901 \|language\=es \|publisher\=\[\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\|CIHEFE]] \|date\=1 June 2014 \|access\-date\=10 November 2022}}
On 27 January, Barcelona got their first\-ever victory in an official competition after beating Societat Espanyola 4 to 1\. Joan Gamper scored all 4 goals.
On 17 March, Barcelona achieved the biggest victory in the club's history with an 18–0 win over [AUF Tarragona](/wiki/AUF_Tarragona "AUF Tarragona"). Joan Gamper scored half of them, and [Alexander Black](/wiki/Alexander_Black_%28footballer%29 "Alexander Black (footballer)") scored a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick%23Association_football "Hat-trick#Association football").
On 25 April, [Bartomeu Terradas](/wiki/Bartomeu_Terradas "Bartomeu Terradas") succeeded [Walter Wild](/wiki/Walter_Wild "Walter Wild") as president of the club.
|
[
"Events\n------",
"On 23 September, Barcelona won its first\\-ever piece of silverware (a bronze object) after beating their biggest rival, Català FC, 3 to 1 courtesy of goals from [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper \"Joan Gamper\") (2\\) and [Otto Maier](/wiki/Otto_Maier_%28footballer%29 \"Otto Maier (footballer)\"). This was also the first match of the 1900–01 season and the last game played at the [Velódromo de la Bonanova](/wiki/Vel%C3%B3dromo_de_la_Bonanova \"Velódromo de la Bonanova\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.webdelcule.com/1899\\-96/1909\\.html \\|title\\=Historia del FC Barcelona, Web de los Culés \\|trans\\-title\\=History of the FC Barcelona, Web of the Culés \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.webdelcule.com \\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2022}}",
"On 18 November, Barcelona played its first match on a field next to the Hotel Casanovas, the club's second [football pitch](/wiki/Football_pitch \"Football pitch\") after Bonanova. They played against [Hispania AC](/wiki/Hispania_Athletic_Club \"Hispania Athletic Club\") and ended in a 0–0 draw.",
"On 23 December, Barça played their first match against *Societat Espanyola de Futbol* (Society Spanish Football), which would later become [RCD Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol \"RCD Espanyol\"). The match ended without goals in an atmosphere of brotherhood.",
"On 20 January, Barcelona played their first\\-ever match in an official competition, the opening match of the [1900–01 Copa Macaya](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Copa_Macaya \"1900–01 Copa Macaya\") against Hispania AC at Hotel Casanovas, but despite scoring first thanks to [George Girvan](/wiki/George_Girvan \"George Girvan\"), a Scottish player formerly of [Escocès FC](/wiki/Escoc%C3%A8s_FC \"Escocès FC\"), it was Hispania who won 2–1 after coming back with two goals from their [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28association_football%29 \"Captain (association football)\"), [Gustavo Green](/wiki/Gustavo_Green \"Gustavo Green\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cihefe.es/cuadernosdefutbol/2014/06/primera\\-edicion\\-de\\-la\\-copa\\-macaya\\-enero\\-abril\\-1901/ \\|title\\=Primera edición de la Copa Macaya Enero\\-Abril 1901 \\|trans\\-title\\=First edition of the Macaya Cup January\\-April 1901 \\|language\\=es \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:es:Centro de Investigaciones de Historia y Estadística del Fútbol Español\\|CIHEFE]] \\|date\\=1 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2022}}",
"On 27 January, Barcelona got their first\\-ever victory in an official competition after beating Societat Espanyola 4 to 1\\. Joan Gamper scored all 4 goals.",
"On 17 March, Barcelona achieved the biggest victory in the club's history with an 18–0 win over [AUF Tarragona](/wiki/AUF_Tarragona \"AUF Tarragona\"). Joan Gamper scored half of them, and [Alexander Black](/wiki/Alexander_Black_%28footballer%29 \"Alexander Black (footballer)\") scored a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick%23Association_football \"Hat-trick#Association football\").",
"On 25 April, [Bartomeu Terradas](/wiki/Bartomeu_Terradas \"Bartomeu Terradas\") succeeded [Walter Wild](/wiki/Walter_Wild \"Walter Wild\") as president of the club.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Dallas Cowboys (first stint)
Scifres was selected in the third round (83rd overall) of the [1997 NFL draft](/wiki/1997_NFL_draft "1997 NFL draft") by the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys").{{Cite web \|title\=1997 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/1997/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} At 25 years old, he was expected to be more polished than most rookies, but he struggled in pass protection. His progress was also slowed in [training camp](/wiki/Training_camp "Training camp"), by the fact that he was being used at all three [offensive line](/wiki/Offensive_line "Offensive line") positions. He was released on September 1, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season "1998 NFL season").{{cite web\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/02/sports/transactions\-653268\.html \| title\=Transactions \| accessdate\=February 19, 2017}}
### Carolina Panthers
On October, 2, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season "1998 NFL season"), he signed with the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers "Carolina Panthers"). On November 5, he was waived to make room for [linebacker](/wiki/Linebacker "Linebacker") [Ernest Jones](/wiki/Ernest_Jones_%28defensive_lineman%29 "Ernest Jones (defensive lineman)").{{cite web\| url\=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\-11\-06/sports/1998310100\_1\_vaughn\-hebron\-contract\-extension\-minor\-league\-contracts \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017044346/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\-11\-06/sports/1998310100\_1\_vaughn\-hebron\-contract\-extension\-minor\-league\-contracts \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=October 17, 2015 \| title\=Transactions \| accessdate\=February 19, 2017}}
### Miami Dolphins
On November, 25, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season "1998 NFL season"), he signed with the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins "Miami Dolphins").{{cite web\| url\=http://articles.sun\-sentinel.com/1998\-11\-26/sports/9811250573\_1\_bernie\-parmalee\-practice\-today\-dolphins \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094125/http://articles.sun\-sentinel.com/1998\-11\-26/sports/9811250573\_1\_bernie\-parmalee\-practice\-today\-dolphins \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=January 8, 2017 \| title\=Donnalley Misses Practice, Is Uncertain For Sunday \| accessdate\=February 19, 2017}} He was released on December 15\.
### New Orleans Saints
On February 24, [1999](/wiki/1999_NFL_season "1999 NFL season"), he signed with the [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints "New Orleans Saints"), and was assigned to the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 "Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe "NFL Europe"), where as a starter he was part of the league's championship team. He was cut by the Saints on September 5\. He was added to the [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad "Practice squad") on November 11\. He was released on November 23\.
### St. Louis Rams
On April 18, [2000](/wiki/2000_NFL_season "2000 NFL season"), he was signed as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") by the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams "St. Louis Rams"). He was assigned to the [Scottish Claymores](/wiki/Scottish_Claymores "Scottish Claymores") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe "NFL Europe"), as an injury replacement with five games remaining in the season. He became a starter and helped the team reach the 2000 [World Bowl](/wiki/World_Bowl "World Bowl"). He was released by the Rams on May 4\.
### Dallas Cowboys (second stint)
On August 1, [2000](/wiki/2000_NFL_season "2000 NFL season"), he signed with the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys"), but was released before the season started on August 21\.{{cite web\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/02/sports/transactions\-653268\.html \| title\=Transactions \| accessdate\=February 19, 2017}}
### San Francisco Demons
In 2001, he signed with the [San Francisco Demons](/wiki/San_Francisco_Demons "San Francisco Demons") of the [XFL](/wiki/XFL_%282001%29 "XFL (2001)"). He was a starter until the league folded at the end of its debut season.
### Arena Football League
From 2001 to 2005, he played for five different [AFL](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League") teams, that included the [Arizona Rattlers](/wiki/Arizona_Rattlers "Arizona Rattlers"), [Indiana Firebirds](/wiki/Indiana_Firebirds "Indiana Firebirds"), [Buffalo Destroyers](/wiki/Buffalo_Destroyers "Buffalo Destroyers"), [Las Vegas Gladiators](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Gladiators "Las Vegas Gladiators") and [New York Dragons](/wiki/New_York_Dragons "New York Dragons").
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Dallas Cowboys (first stint)",
"Scifres was selected in the third round (83rd overall) of the [1997 NFL draft](/wiki/1997_NFL_draft \"1997 NFL draft\") by the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=1997 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/1997/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} At 25 years old, he was expected to be more polished than most rookies, but he struggled in pass protection. His progress was also slowed in [training camp](/wiki/Training_camp \"Training camp\"), by the fact that he was being used at all three [offensive line](/wiki/Offensive_line \"Offensive line\") positions. He was released on September 1, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season \"1998 NFL season\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/02/sports/transactions\\-653268\\.html \\| title\\=Transactions \\| accessdate\\=February 19, 2017}}",
"### Carolina Panthers",
"On October, 2, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season \"1998 NFL season\"), he signed with the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers \"Carolina Panthers\"). On November 5, he was waived to make room for [linebacker](/wiki/Linebacker \"Linebacker\") [Ernest Jones](/wiki/Ernest_Jones_%28defensive_lineman%29 \"Ernest Jones (defensive lineman)\").{{cite web\\| url\\=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\\-11\\-06/sports/1998310100\\_1\\_vaughn\\-hebron\\-contract\\-extension\\-minor\\-league\\-contracts \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017044346/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\\-11\\-06/sports/1998310100\\_1\\_vaughn\\-hebron\\-contract\\-extension\\-minor\\-league\\-contracts \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=October 17, 2015 \\| title\\=Transactions \\| accessdate\\=February 19, 2017}}",
"### Miami Dolphins",
"On November, 25, [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season \"1998 NFL season\"), he signed with the [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins \"Miami Dolphins\").{{cite web\\| url\\=http://articles.sun\\-sentinel.com/1998\\-11\\-26/sports/9811250573\\_1\\_bernie\\-parmalee\\-practice\\-today\\-dolphins \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094125/http://articles.sun\\-sentinel.com/1998\\-11\\-26/sports/9811250573\\_1\\_bernie\\-parmalee\\-practice\\-today\\-dolphins \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=January 8, 2017 \\| title\\=Donnalley Misses Practice, Is Uncertain For Sunday \\| accessdate\\=February 19, 2017}} He was released on December 15\\.",
"### New Orleans Saints",
"On February 24, [1999](/wiki/1999_NFL_season \"1999 NFL season\"), he signed with the [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints \"New Orleans Saints\"), and was assigned to the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 \"Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)\") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe \"NFL Europe\"), where as a starter he was part of the league's championship team. He was cut by the Saints on September 5\\. He was added to the [practice squad](/wiki/Practice_squad \"Practice squad\") on November 11\\. He was released on November 23\\.",
"### St. Louis Rams",
"On April 18, [2000](/wiki/2000_NFL_season \"2000 NFL season\"), he was signed as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") by the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams \"St. Louis Rams\"). He was assigned to the [Scottish Claymores](/wiki/Scottish_Claymores \"Scottish Claymores\") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe \"NFL Europe\"), as an injury replacement with five games remaining in the season. He became a starter and helped the team reach the 2000 [World Bowl](/wiki/World_Bowl \"World Bowl\"). He was released by the Rams on May 4\\.",
"### Dallas Cowboys (second stint)",
"On August 1, [2000](/wiki/2000_NFL_season \"2000 NFL season\"), he signed with the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\"), but was released before the season started on August 21\\.{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/02/sports/transactions\\-653268\\.html \\| title\\=Transactions \\| accessdate\\=February 19, 2017}}",
"### San Francisco Demons",
"In 2001, he signed with the [San Francisco Demons](/wiki/San_Francisco_Demons \"San Francisco Demons\") of the [XFL](/wiki/XFL_%282001%29 \"XFL (2001)\"). He was a starter until the league folded at the end of its debut season.",
"### Arena Football League",
"From 2001 to 2005, he played for five different [AFL](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\") teams, that included the [Arizona Rattlers](/wiki/Arizona_Rattlers \"Arizona Rattlers\"), [Indiana Firebirds](/wiki/Indiana_Firebirds \"Indiana Firebirds\"), [Buffalo Destroyers](/wiki/Buffalo_Destroyers \"Buffalo Destroyers\"), [Las Vegas Gladiators](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Gladiators \"Las Vegas Gladiators\") and [New York Dragons](/wiki/New_York_Dragons \"New York Dragons\").",
""
] |
Event
-----
| \+ **Other on\-screen personnel** | Role | Name |
|[Commentators](/wiki/Commentator_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Commentator (professional wrestling)")
[Tom Hannifan](/wiki/Tom_Hannifan "Tom Hannifan") |
| [Matthew Rehwoldt](/wiki/Matthew_Rehwoldt "Matthew Rehwoldt") |
|[Ring announcer](/wiki/Ring_announcer "Ring announcer")
[David Penzer](/wiki/David_Penzer "David Penzer") |
|[Referees](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Referee (professional wrestling)")
Allison Leigh |
| Daniel Spencer |
| Frank Gastineau |
| [Interviewer](/wiki/Interviewer "Interviewer") | Gia Miller |
### Pre\-show
There were three matches that took place on the pre\-show, with one taped as a digital exclusive. In the opener, [Eddie Edwards](/wiki/Eric_Maher "Eric Maher") faced [Bhupinder Gujjar](/wiki/Bhupinder_Gujjar "Bhupinder Gujjar"). Edwards won after hitting a *Boston Knee Party*.
In the main event of the pre\-show, [Rosemary](/wiki/Rosemary_%28wrestler%29 "Rosemary (wrestler)") (with [Jessicka](/wiki/Jessicka_Havok "Jessicka Havok")) took on [KiLynn King](/wiki/KiLynn_King "KiLynn King") (with [Taylor Wilde](/wiki/Taylor_Wilde "Taylor Wilde")). Rosemary won after Jessicka distracted King, allowing Rosemary to deliver a spear to King for the win.
### Preliminary matches
The main card opened with a match between Mike Bailey and Jonathan Gresham. In the closing stages, Bailey delivered a tornado kick and locked in a leg lock for the submission win.
Next, Joe Hendry defended the Impact Digital Media Championship against Brian Myers. In the end, Myers delivered a DDT and a spear for a two\-count. Hendry then delivered a cutter and delivered the Standing Ovation for the victory.
In the next bout, [Deonna Purrazzo](/wiki/Deonna_Purrazzo "Deonna Purrazzo") faced [Gisele Shaw](/wiki/Gisele_Shaw "Gisele Shaw") (with Jai Vidal). Purrazzo won after locking in the Venus de Milo, forcing Shaw to submit. After the match, Savannah Evans attacked Purrazzo, but Tasha Steelz came out and joined forces with Evans to continue beating down Purrazzo. Steelz then attacked Evans, and delivered a DDT and a cutter on Vidal.
Next, [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 "Kenny King (wrestler)") took on [PCO](/wiki/Pierre_Carl_Ouellet "Pierre Carl Ouellet"). In the end, King hit a snap suplex and a frog splash for a two\-count. Eddie Edwards then came down and distracted PCO. King then hit a steel chair on PCO. PCO then punched King through the chair for the victory.
The next match was for the Impact X Division Championship, contested between defending champion Trey Miguel, and Lince Dorado. In the closing stages, Miguel delivered a sunset flip powerbomb and then flipped Dorado into a pin to retain the title.
Next, [Bullet Club](/wiki/Bullet_Club "Bullet Club") ([Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin "Ace Austin") and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey "Chris Bey")) defended the [Impact World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/Impact_World_Tag_Team_Championship "Impact World Tag Team Championship") against [TMDK](/wiki/The_Mighty_Don%27t_Kneel "The Mighty Don't Kneel") ([Shane Haste](/wiki/Shane_Haste "Shane Haste") and Bad Dude Tito). In the end, Tito delivered a frog splash to Bey, but Austin broke it up. Bey and Austin then delivered double knees to Haste before hitting the Art of Finesse/The Fold combination for the win.
The penultimate match was a Busted Open match between Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer; where the first person to bleed will lose. In the closing stages, Dreamer used a cheese grater and drove it into Bully's skull, which caused bleeding, but The Good Hands (Jason Hotch and John Skyler) covered it. Bully then delivered a low blow to Dreamer. Bully then sent Dreamer into the ring post, which caused Dreamer to bleed, causing the referee to end the match and declare Bully the winner. After the match, The Good Hands attacked Dreamer, until [Yuya Uemura](/wiki/Yuya_Uemura "Yuya Uemura") made the save, but Bully and The Good Hands also beat him down. Darren McCarty (the former Detroit Red Wings forward) attacked Bully, but The Good Hands also beat him down. Scott D'Amore made his return and sent down Gresham, Hendry, Bailey, [Heath and Rhino](/wiki/Heath_and_Rhino "Heath and Rhino") to chase them down. D'Amore then delivered a Canadian Destroyer to Hotch.
### Main event
The main event was a six\-man tag team match between Time Machine and Steve Maclin, Rich Swann and Frankie Kazarian. [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin "Chris Sabin") and [Alex Shelley](/wiki/Alex_Shelley "Alex Shelley") delivered a dropkick/flatliner combination on Kazarian for a two\-count. Time Machine then delivered a triple dropkick in the corner to Swann. Kazarian delivered a backstabber to [Kushida](/wiki/Kushida_%28wrestler%29 "Kushida (wrestler)"). Kazarian and Swann delivered cutters to Kushida. Swann then hit a 450° splash for a near fall. Shelley then hit a Sliced Bread on Swann. Kushida then locked in the Hoverboard Lock on Maclin for a tapout win.
|
[
"Event\n-----",
"",
"| \\+ **Other on\\-screen personnel** | Role | Name |",
"|[Commentators](/wiki/Commentator_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Commentator (professional wrestling)\")",
"[Tom Hannifan](/wiki/Tom_Hannifan \"Tom Hannifan\") |\n| [Matthew Rehwoldt](/wiki/Matthew_Rehwoldt \"Matthew Rehwoldt\") |\n|[Ring announcer](/wiki/Ring_announcer \"Ring announcer\")",
"[David Penzer](/wiki/David_Penzer \"David Penzer\") |\n|[Referees](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Referee (professional wrestling)\")",
"Allison Leigh |\n| Daniel Spencer |\n| Frank Gastineau |\n| [Interviewer](/wiki/Interviewer \"Interviewer\") | Gia Miller |",
"",
"### Pre\\-show",
"There were three matches that took place on the pre\\-show, with one taped as a digital exclusive. In the opener, [Eddie Edwards](/wiki/Eric_Maher \"Eric Maher\") faced [Bhupinder Gujjar](/wiki/Bhupinder_Gujjar \"Bhupinder Gujjar\"). Edwards won after hitting a *Boston Knee Party*.",
"In the main event of the pre\\-show, [Rosemary](/wiki/Rosemary_%28wrestler%29 \"Rosemary (wrestler)\") (with [Jessicka](/wiki/Jessicka_Havok \"Jessicka Havok\")) took on [KiLynn King](/wiki/KiLynn_King \"KiLynn King\") (with [Taylor Wilde](/wiki/Taylor_Wilde \"Taylor Wilde\")). Rosemary won after Jessicka distracted King, allowing Rosemary to deliver a spear to King for the win.",
"### Preliminary matches",
"The main card opened with a match between Mike Bailey and Jonathan Gresham. In the closing stages, Bailey delivered a tornado kick and locked in a leg lock for the submission win.",
"Next, Joe Hendry defended the Impact Digital Media Championship against Brian Myers. In the end, Myers delivered a DDT and a spear for a two\\-count. Hendry then delivered a cutter and delivered the Standing Ovation for the victory.",
"In the next bout, [Deonna Purrazzo](/wiki/Deonna_Purrazzo \"Deonna Purrazzo\") faced [Gisele Shaw](/wiki/Gisele_Shaw \"Gisele Shaw\") (with Jai Vidal). Purrazzo won after locking in the Venus de Milo, forcing Shaw to submit. After the match, Savannah Evans attacked Purrazzo, but Tasha Steelz came out and joined forces with Evans to continue beating down Purrazzo. Steelz then attacked Evans, and delivered a DDT and a cutter on Vidal.",
"Next, [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 \"Kenny King (wrestler)\") took on [PCO](/wiki/Pierre_Carl_Ouellet \"Pierre Carl Ouellet\"). In the end, King hit a snap suplex and a frog splash for a two\\-count. Eddie Edwards then came down and distracted PCO. King then hit a steel chair on PCO. PCO then punched King through the chair for the victory.",
"The next match was for the Impact X Division Championship, contested between defending champion Trey Miguel, and Lince Dorado. In the closing stages, Miguel delivered a sunset flip powerbomb and then flipped Dorado into a pin to retain the title.",
"Next, [Bullet Club](/wiki/Bullet_Club \"Bullet Club\") ([Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin \"Ace Austin\") and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey \"Chris Bey\")) defended the [Impact World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/Impact_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"Impact World Tag Team Championship\") against [TMDK](/wiki/The_Mighty_Don%27t_Kneel \"The Mighty Don't Kneel\") ([Shane Haste](/wiki/Shane_Haste \"Shane Haste\") and Bad Dude Tito). In the end, Tito delivered a frog splash to Bey, but Austin broke it up. Bey and Austin then delivered double knees to Haste before hitting the Art of Finesse/The Fold combination for the win.",
"The penultimate match was a Busted Open match between Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer; where the first person to bleed will lose. In the closing stages, Dreamer used a cheese grater and drove it into Bully's skull, which caused bleeding, but The Good Hands (Jason Hotch and John Skyler) covered it. Bully then delivered a low blow to Dreamer. Bully then sent Dreamer into the ring post, which caused Dreamer to bleed, causing the referee to end the match and declare Bully the winner. After the match, The Good Hands attacked Dreamer, until [Yuya Uemura](/wiki/Yuya_Uemura \"Yuya Uemura\") made the save, but Bully and The Good Hands also beat him down. Darren McCarty (the former Detroit Red Wings forward) attacked Bully, but The Good Hands also beat him down. Scott D'Amore made his return and sent down Gresham, Hendry, Bailey, [Heath and Rhino](/wiki/Heath_and_Rhino \"Heath and Rhino\") to chase them down. D'Amore then delivered a Canadian Destroyer to Hotch.",
"### Main event",
"The main event was a six\\-man tag team match between Time Machine and Steve Maclin, Rich Swann and Frankie Kazarian. [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin \"Chris Sabin\") and [Alex Shelley](/wiki/Alex_Shelley \"Alex Shelley\") delivered a dropkick/flatliner combination on Kazarian for a two\\-count. Time Machine then delivered a triple dropkick in the corner to Swann. Kazarian delivered a backstabber to [Kushida](/wiki/Kushida_%28wrestler%29 \"Kushida (wrestler)\"). Kazarian and Swann delivered cutters to Kushida. Swann then hit a 450° splash for a near fall. Shelley then hit a Sliced Bread on Swann. Kushida then locked in the Hoverboard Lock on Maclin for a tapout win.",
""
] |
### Preliminary matches
The main card opened with a match between Mike Bailey and Jonathan Gresham. In the closing stages, Bailey delivered a tornado kick and locked in a leg lock for the submission win.
Next, Joe Hendry defended the Impact Digital Media Championship against Brian Myers. In the end, Myers delivered a DDT and a spear for a two\-count. Hendry then delivered a cutter and delivered the Standing Ovation for the victory.
In the next bout, [Deonna Purrazzo](/wiki/Deonna_Purrazzo "Deonna Purrazzo") faced [Gisele Shaw](/wiki/Gisele_Shaw "Gisele Shaw") (with Jai Vidal). Purrazzo won after locking in the Venus de Milo, forcing Shaw to submit. After the match, Savannah Evans attacked Purrazzo, but Tasha Steelz came out and joined forces with Evans to continue beating down Purrazzo. Steelz then attacked Evans, and delivered a DDT and a cutter on Vidal.
Next, [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 "Kenny King (wrestler)") took on [PCO](/wiki/Pierre_Carl_Ouellet "Pierre Carl Ouellet"). In the end, King hit a snap suplex and a frog splash for a two\-count. Eddie Edwards then came down and distracted PCO. King then hit a steel chair on PCO. PCO then punched King through the chair for the victory.
The next match was for the Impact X Division Championship, contested between defending champion Trey Miguel, and Lince Dorado. In the closing stages, Miguel delivered a sunset flip powerbomb and then flipped Dorado into a pin to retain the title.
Next, [Bullet Club](/wiki/Bullet_Club "Bullet Club") ([Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin "Ace Austin") and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey "Chris Bey")) defended the [Impact World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/Impact_World_Tag_Team_Championship "Impact World Tag Team Championship") against [TMDK](/wiki/The_Mighty_Don%27t_Kneel "The Mighty Don't Kneel") ([Shane Haste](/wiki/Shane_Haste "Shane Haste") and Bad Dude Tito). In the end, Tito delivered a frog splash to Bey, but Austin broke it up. Bey and Austin then delivered double knees to Haste before hitting the Art of Finesse/The Fold combination for the win.
The penultimate match was a Busted Open match between Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer; where the first person to bleed will lose. In the closing stages, Dreamer used a cheese grater and drove it into Bully's skull, which caused bleeding, but The Good Hands (Jason Hotch and John Skyler) covered it. Bully then delivered a low blow to Dreamer. Bully then sent Dreamer into the ring post, which caused Dreamer to bleed, causing the referee to end the match and declare Bully the winner. After the match, The Good Hands attacked Dreamer, until [Yuya Uemura](/wiki/Yuya_Uemura "Yuya Uemura") made the save, but Bully and The Good Hands also beat him down. Darren McCarty (the former Detroit Red Wings forward) attacked Bully, but The Good Hands also beat him down. Scott D'Amore made his return and sent down Gresham, Hendry, Bailey, [Heath and Rhino](/wiki/Heath_and_Rhino "Heath and Rhino") to chase them down. D'Amore then delivered a Canadian Destroyer to Hotch.
|
[
"### Preliminary matches",
"The main card opened with a match between Mike Bailey and Jonathan Gresham. In the closing stages, Bailey delivered a tornado kick and locked in a leg lock for the submission win.",
"Next, Joe Hendry defended the Impact Digital Media Championship against Brian Myers. In the end, Myers delivered a DDT and a spear for a two\\-count. Hendry then delivered a cutter and delivered the Standing Ovation for the victory.",
"In the next bout, [Deonna Purrazzo](/wiki/Deonna_Purrazzo \"Deonna Purrazzo\") faced [Gisele Shaw](/wiki/Gisele_Shaw \"Gisele Shaw\") (with Jai Vidal). Purrazzo won after locking in the Venus de Milo, forcing Shaw to submit. After the match, Savannah Evans attacked Purrazzo, but Tasha Steelz came out and joined forces with Evans to continue beating down Purrazzo. Steelz then attacked Evans, and delivered a DDT and a cutter on Vidal.",
"Next, [Kenny King](/wiki/Kenny_King_%28wrestler%29 \"Kenny King (wrestler)\") took on [PCO](/wiki/Pierre_Carl_Ouellet \"Pierre Carl Ouellet\"). In the end, King hit a snap suplex and a frog splash for a two\\-count. Eddie Edwards then came down and distracted PCO. King then hit a steel chair on PCO. PCO then punched King through the chair for the victory.",
"The next match was for the Impact X Division Championship, contested between defending champion Trey Miguel, and Lince Dorado. In the closing stages, Miguel delivered a sunset flip powerbomb and then flipped Dorado into a pin to retain the title.",
"Next, [Bullet Club](/wiki/Bullet_Club \"Bullet Club\") ([Ace Austin](/wiki/Ace_Austin \"Ace Austin\") and [Chris Bey](/wiki/Chris_Bey \"Chris Bey\")) defended the [Impact World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/Impact_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"Impact World Tag Team Championship\") against [TMDK](/wiki/The_Mighty_Don%27t_Kneel \"The Mighty Don't Kneel\") ([Shane Haste](/wiki/Shane_Haste \"Shane Haste\") and Bad Dude Tito). In the end, Tito delivered a frog splash to Bey, but Austin broke it up. Bey and Austin then delivered double knees to Haste before hitting the Art of Finesse/The Fold combination for the win.",
"The penultimate match was a Busted Open match between Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer; where the first person to bleed will lose. In the closing stages, Dreamer used a cheese grater and drove it into Bully's skull, which caused bleeding, but The Good Hands (Jason Hotch and John Skyler) covered it. Bully then delivered a low blow to Dreamer. Bully then sent Dreamer into the ring post, which caused Dreamer to bleed, causing the referee to end the match and declare Bully the winner. After the match, The Good Hands attacked Dreamer, until [Yuya Uemura](/wiki/Yuya_Uemura \"Yuya Uemura\") made the save, but Bully and The Good Hands also beat him down. Darren McCarty (the former Detroit Red Wings forward) attacked Bully, but The Good Hands also beat him down. Scott D'Amore made his return and sent down Gresham, Hendry, Bailey, [Heath and Rhino](/wiki/Heath_and_Rhino \"Heath and Rhino\") to chase them down. D'Amore then delivered a Canadian Destroyer to Hotch.",
""
] |
Background and personal life
----------------------------
Kobozev was born in a wealthy family of a [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkiv "Kharkiv") [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer"). His father, Ivan Josefovich Kobozev (1874, [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkiv "Kharkiv") – 1943, Moscow) graduated from Kharkov Imperial University. His mother, Sophia Adolfovna Feist (d. 1952\) was a granddaughter of the German\-born [Taganrog](/wiki/Taganrog "Taganrog") [watchmaker](/wiki/Watchmaker "Watchmaker") Franz Feist (1805–1888\).[Franz Feist//Taganrog Old Cemetery](http://cemetery.su/people/1784#grave-info) Her family was [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheranism "Lutheranism"). Her father, Adolf Feist, was first a teacher of German; in 1891 he became a member of the board of Kharkov Land Bank.Масленков Игорь Витальевич. [Из истории семьи. Кобозевы](http://samlib.ru/m/maslenkow_i_w/i03-1.shtml). samlib.ru. His mother's aunt, Maria Feist, was a sweetheart of [Alexander Chekhov](/wiki/Alexander_Chekhov "Alexander Chekhov").
Nikolay's grandfather, Josef Alekseevich Kobozev (1846, [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod "Belgorod") – July 18, 1901, Kharkov) moved to Kharkov in the 1860s where he got engaged in textile and flour trade. In 1889 he became a board member of the Second Kharkov Society of Mutual Credit. In 1892 he was elected to the Kharkov city [duma](/wiki/Duma "Duma").
According to independent researcher Igor Maslenkov, Kobozev's earliest ancestor was a [serf peasant](/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia "Serfdom in Russia") of a [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod_Oblast "Belgorod Oblast") [boyar scion](/wiki/Boyar_scions "Boyar scions") Artyom Pischyulin, settled at the village of Melehovo.[Масленков И. В. О происхождении Н. И. Кобозева \[Текст]/И. В. Масленков // Социально\-культурные и исторические аспекты развития региона: история и современность: материалы \[сборник] /СКФУ. \- Ставрополь, 2021\. \- Вып. 18\. 4\.1\. \- с. 254\-267\.](https://forum.vgd.ru/2971/122782/) His grandson, Dmitry Kosmin syn Kobyzev (1697–1752\) became a [merchant](/wiki/Merchant "Merchant") in Belgorod. His wife, Agrafena Fedotovna Maslova (1689–1770\) was the daughter of a local poor nobleman. Their son, Stepan, was a merchant too; he was married to the daughter of another Belgorod merchant, Stephanida Rodionovna Dubinina. Stepan's brother, Ivan Dmitrievich Kobozev, was the salt head in Belgorod since 1778\. Yakov Stepanovich Kobozev was a Belgorod merchant and [ratman](/wiki/City_council "City council"). The latter's son, Nikolay Yakovlevich (1781–1834\), was a merchant too, but his son, Aleksey Nikolayevich (1804–?) left the merchant guild for the status of an ordinary burger in 1858\.
In 1903 his father moved to Moscow, where he worked as a lawyer ({{transl\|ru\|prisjazhny poverenny}}) at the Administration of Moscow Vindavo\-Rybinsk Railroad. After the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution") of 1917, he served as a lawyer at the Ministry of Transport.
Nikolay's brother, Vsevolod (1905–1939\), was an engineer at the Soviet Ministry of Transport, the head of the electrification department. He was married to the daughter of [Vissarion Karandeev](/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%2C_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 "Карандеев, Виссарион Виссарионович"), the professor of Moscow higher women's courses. For successful electrification of the Yaroslavl railways [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin") granted him with a golden watch. But in 1937 he was arrested and, in 1939, [executed by shooting](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union "Political repression in the Soviet Union").
His other brother, Boris was a musician; he died in 1918 from [Spanish flu](/wiki/Spanish_flu "Spanish flu"). He also had a sister named Inna, who was seriously ill for most of her life.
Kobozev was married to Esther (Ekaterina in [Russian Orthodoxy](/wiki/Russian_Orthodoxy "Russian Orthodoxy")) Efimovna Halbreich of [Jewish](/wiki/Jews "Jews") background. In 1946 they had a son named Aleksey (1946–2015\), who had a daughter. His brother's lineage is continued in the male line.
Since early childhood, Kobozev was ill with [poliomielitis](/wiki/Polio "Polio"). Since the 1920s, he had had a number of serious diseases, including complications of the polio. At some point in his life, he was wheelchaired and had to meet with his students at home.Солженицын А. Бодался теленок с дубом//Николай Иванович Кобозев. М.: Согласие, 1996\. С. 417\. He had long periods of staying at hospitals or was down in bed recovering. In 1973 he was completely bed\-bound.Солженицын А. Бодался теленок с дубом//Николай Иванович Кобозев. М.: Солгасие, 1996\. С. 442\. His wife had stayed loyal and supportive throughout his life.
|
[
"Background and personal life\n----------------------------",
"Kobozev was born in a wealthy family of a [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkiv \"Kharkiv\") [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\"). His father, Ivan Josefovich Kobozev (1874, [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkiv \"Kharkiv\") – 1943, Moscow) graduated from Kharkov Imperial University. His mother, Sophia Adolfovna Feist (d. 1952\\) was a granddaughter of the German\\-born [Taganrog](/wiki/Taganrog \"Taganrog\") [watchmaker](/wiki/Watchmaker \"Watchmaker\") Franz Feist (1805–1888\\).[Franz Feist//Taganrog Old Cemetery](http://cemetery.su/people/1784#grave-info) Her family was [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheranism \"Lutheranism\"). Her father, Adolf Feist, was first a teacher of German; in 1891 he became a member of the board of Kharkov Land Bank.Масленков Игорь Витальевич. [Из истории семьи. Кобозевы](http://samlib.ru/m/maslenkow_i_w/i03-1.shtml). samlib.ru. His mother's aunt, Maria Feist, was a sweetheart of [Alexander Chekhov](/wiki/Alexander_Chekhov \"Alexander Chekhov\").",
"Nikolay's grandfather, Josef Alekseevich Kobozev (1846, [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod \"Belgorod\") – July 18, 1901, Kharkov) moved to Kharkov in the 1860s where he got engaged in textile and flour trade. In 1889 he became a board member of the Second Kharkov Society of Mutual Credit. In 1892 he was elected to the Kharkov city [duma](/wiki/Duma \"Duma\").",
"According to independent researcher Igor Maslenkov, Kobozev's earliest ancestor was a [serf peasant](/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia \"Serfdom in Russia\") of a [Belgorod](/wiki/Belgorod_Oblast \"Belgorod Oblast\") [boyar scion](/wiki/Boyar_scions \"Boyar scions\") Artyom Pischyulin, settled at the village of Melehovo.[Масленков И. В. О происхождении Н. И. Кобозева \\[Текст]/И. В. Масленков // Социально\\-культурные и исторические аспекты развития региона: история и современность: материалы \\[сборник] /СКФУ. \\- Ставрополь, 2021\\. \\- Вып. 18\\. 4\\.1\\. \\- с. 254\\-267\\.](https://forum.vgd.ru/2971/122782/) His grandson, Dmitry Kosmin syn Kobyzev (1697–1752\\) became a [merchant](/wiki/Merchant \"Merchant\") in Belgorod. His wife, Agrafena Fedotovna Maslova (1689–1770\\) was the daughter of a local poor nobleman. Their son, Stepan, was a merchant too; he was married to the daughter of another Belgorod merchant, Stephanida Rodionovna Dubinina. Stepan's brother, Ivan Dmitrievich Kobozev, was the salt head in Belgorod since 1778\\. Yakov Stepanovich Kobozev was a Belgorod merchant and [ratman](/wiki/City_council \"City council\"). The latter's son, Nikolay Yakovlevich (1781–1834\\), was a merchant too, but his son, Aleksey Nikolayevich (1804–?) left the merchant guild for the status of an ordinary burger in 1858\\.",
"In 1903 his father moved to Moscow, where he worked as a lawyer ({{transl\\|ru\\|prisjazhny poverenny}}) at the Administration of Moscow Vindavo\\-Rybinsk Railroad. After the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\") of 1917, he served as a lawyer at the Ministry of Transport.",
"Nikolay's brother, Vsevolod (1905–1939\\), was an engineer at the Soviet Ministry of Transport, the head of the electrification department. He was married to the daughter of [Vissarion Karandeev](/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%2C_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 \"Карандеев, Виссарион Виссарионович\"), the professor of Moscow higher women's courses. For successful electrification of the Yaroslavl railways [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\") granted him with a golden watch. But in 1937 he was arrested and, in 1939, [executed by shooting](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Political repression in the Soviet Union\").",
"His other brother, Boris was a musician; he died in 1918 from [Spanish flu](/wiki/Spanish_flu \"Spanish flu\"). He also had a sister named Inna, who was seriously ill for most of her life.",
"Kobozev was married to Esther (Ekaterina in [Russian Orthodoxy](/wiki/Russian_Orthodoxy \"Russian Orthodoxy\")) Efimovna Halbreich of [Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") background. In 1946 they had a son named Aleksey (1946–2015\\), who had a daughter. His brother's lineage is continued in the male line.",
"Since early childhood, Kobozev was ill with [poliomielitis](/wiki/Polio \"Polio\"). Since the 1920s, he had had a number of serious diseases, including complications of the polio. At some point in his life, he was wheelchaired and had to meet with his students at home.Солженицын А. Бодался теленок с дубом//Николай Иванович Кобозев. М.: Согласие, 1996\\. С. 417\\. He had long periods of staying at hospitals or was down in bed recovering. In 1973 he was completely bed\\-bound.Солженицын А. Бодался теленок с дубом//Николай Иванович Кобозев. М.: Солгасие, 1996\\. С. 442\\. His wife had stayed loyal and supportive throughout his life.",
""
] |
Scientific accomplishments
--------------------------
In 1924 Kobozev graduated from the [Physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics") and [Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics") Department of [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University "Moscow State University") (MSU). The same year he entered the [post\-graduate studies](/wiki/Postgraduate_education "Postgraduate education") at the Scientific Research Institute of Chemistry under mentorship of professor [Evgeny Shpitalsky](/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 "Шпитальский, Евгений Иванович").[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 107\. Since 1929 he was a lecturer at the Physical Chemistry Department of MSU. In 1935 he started to organize the laboratory of inorganic catalysis at Moscow State University. The same year he received the [doctoral degree](/wiki/Doctorate "Doctorate") in chemical studies, the rank of [professor](/wiki/Professor "Professor") and became an active member of MSU's Institute of Chemistry, without [dissertation](/wiki/Thesis "Thesis") defense. Between 1925 and 1935 he promoted advanced scientific ideas at [conferences](/wiki/Academic_conference "Academic conference"), organized a special catalysis workshop at MSU's Physical Chemistry Department, and a catalysis sector at the State Institute of Nitrogen, attracting many students.
### Theories
#### Catalysis
Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 145\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.
In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases "Kinetic theory of gases") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis "Heterogeneous catalysis"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 108\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom "Atom") of [metal](/wiki/Metal "Metal") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.
In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 8\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.
He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.
It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.
He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 146\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation "Solvation") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 147\.
Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 148\.
Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.
Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 149\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis") in catalysis.
Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 "Dispersion (chemistry)") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 150\.
Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 151\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.
Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\|url\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\.html\|title \= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}
Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.
Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis "Homogeneous catalysis"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide "Hydrogen peroxide"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.
#### Thermodynamics
Kobozev actively studied [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics") and [etropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"). He believed that neither cells or [molecules](/wiki/Molecule "Molecule"), nor atoms could factor [reasoning](/wiki/Reason "Reason").Михеев А. [О работе Николая Ивановича Кобозева «Исследование в области термодинамики процессов информации и мышления»](http://xn--c1a8aza.xn--p1ai/kobozev.htm). \[Электронный ресурс] In order to explain it, he introduced the concept of special particles called *psychons*. In 1948 he also introduced the concept of *vector\-[brownian motion](/wiki/Brownian_motion "Brownian motion")* aimed at finding out what in the nerve system rules living being's behavior. His work on the vector\-brownian motion is believed to be the predecessor of [cybernetics](/wiki/Cybernetics "Cybernetics").
Kobozev had a specific concept of time in regards to life and death relationship. He classified time into *translational* (time of collective development) and *dispersional* (time of personal development). He believed that human's [reasoning](/wiki/Reason "Reason") is tightly connected to the current time, while death is a person's disconnection from the 'knot' *(klubok*) of the current time. In 1954 he developed the concept of *advanced complex* (*operezhayuschiy kompleks*) in chemical [kinetics](/wiki/Kinetics_%28physics%29 "Kinetics (physics)") and worked on the problem of time in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics").
Regarding reasoning, Kobozev believed it cannot be evolved from information, and it is given to a human with birth. He also believed that every ethnicity (race) has had its own symbolic means of communication expressed in language from creation rather than developed it during evolution.
He introduced the terms of *negative [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy")*, which he thought was essential part of logic, and *anti\-entropy*, which blocked systemic thinking.
#### Applied studies
In the 1930s, Institute of Nitric Industry at Moscow State University was founded, and Kobozev was invited there to be the head of the department of catalysis.{{Cite web\|url\=http://kutol.narod.ru/KOBOZ/chapter1\.htm\|title \= Многогранное научное творчество и научные интересы Николая Ивановича охватывают ряд областей физической химии}} His work was focused on [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") oxidation, [methane](/wiki/Methane "Methane") electro\-cracking to [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene "Acetylene"), methane explosion conversion, as well as [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") synthesis and synthesis of [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide "Peroxide") from [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") in discharge. Together with his co\-workers, Kobozev had developed the methods of studying [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_energy "Kinetic energy") reaction and introduced the energy catalysis theory explaining the mechanism of activation in the reaction in discharge, as well as the mechanism of reaction activating additives, such as [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 "Mercury (element)") vapor in methane electro\-cracking or nitrogen in ozone synthesis. The laboratory had managed to synthesize [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"), nitroleum and nitric [anhydride](/wiki/Anhydrite "Anhydrite"). Kobozev initiated the first in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") synthesis of acetylene from natural methane. Kobozev suggested using electric discharge to obtain active gases in hydrogen plasma, products of water dissociation, etc. Under Kobozev's mentoring, there were carried out experiments that resulted in the first generation of 100% ozone. In 1960 he initiated the first all\-Soviet conference dedicated to ozone.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 110\.
In 1947 he founded the Laboratory of Catalysis and Gas Electrochemistry aimed at secret research for the government.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 85\. First, the laboratory was charged with tasks regarding rocket fuel, but later on professor Kobozev had managed to initiate fundamental research in catalysis, gas [electrochemitry](/wiki/Electrochemistry "Electrochemistry") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics"). In 1950 the laboratory head and his staff were awarded with the [state prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize "USSR State Prize").
In total, Kobozev was the author of 12 concepts.Кутолин С.А. [БЛАЖЕННЫ ЧИСТЫЕ СЕРДЦЕМ. Сказание о Николае Ивановиче Кобозеве](http://rusphysics.ru/articles/777/)//Химический дизайн. Контекст\-хроника как опыт рефлексии в естествознании.(к биографии Н.И.Кобозева) Новосибирск: Изд.\-во Chem.Lab.NCD, 1999 Kobozev had published about 400 academic works. Out of his students, 12 received the doctoral degree.
|
[
"Scientific accomplishments\n--------------------------",
"In 1924 Kobozev graduated from the [Physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\") and [Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\") Department of [Moscow State University](/wiki/Moscow_State_University \"Moscow State University\") (MSU). The same year he entered the [post\\-graduate studies](/wiki/Postgraduate_education \"Postgraduate education\") at the Scientific Research Institute of Chemistry under mentorship of professor [Evgeny Shpitalsky](/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 \"Шпитальский, Евгений Иванович\").[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 107\\. Since 1929 he was a lecturer at the Physical Chemistry Department of MSU. In 1935 he started to organize the laboratory of inorganic catalysis at Moscow State University. The same year he received the [doctoral degree](/wiki/Doctorate \"Doctorate\") in chemical studies, the rank of [professor](/wiki/Professor \"Professor\") and became an active member of MSU's Institute of Chemistry, without [dissertation](/wiki/Thesis \"Thesis\") defense. Between 1925 and 1935 he promoted advanced scientific ideas at [conferences](/wiki/Academic_conference \"Academic conference\"), organized a special catalysis workshop at MSU's Physical Chemistry Department, and a catalysis sector at the State Institute of Nitrogen, attracting many students.",
"### Theories",
"#### Catalysis",
"Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 145\\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.",
"In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases \"Kinetic theory of gases\") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis \"Heterogeneous catalysis\"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 108\\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") of [metal](/wiki/Metal \"Metal\") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.",
"In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 8\\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.",
"He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.",
"It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.",
"He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 146\\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation \"Solvation\") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 147\\.",
"Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 148\\.",
"Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.",
"Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 149\\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\") in catalysis.",
"Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 \"Dispersion (chemistry)\") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 150\\.",
"Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 151\\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.",
"Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\\.html\\|title \\= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}",
"Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.",
"Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis \"Homogeneous catalysis\"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide \"Hydrogen peroxide\"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.",
"#### Thermodynamics",
"Kobozev actively studied [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\") and [etropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\"). He believed that neither cells or [molecules](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\"), nor atoms could factor [reasoning](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\").Михеев А. [О работе Николая Ивановича Кобозева «Исследование в области термодинамики процессов информации и мышления»](http://xn--c1a8aza.xn--p1ai/kobozev.htm). \\[Электронный ресурс] In order to explain it, he introduced the concept of special particles called *psychons*. In 1948 he also introduced the concept of *vector\\-[brownian motion](/wiki/Brownian_motion \"Brownian motion\")* aimed at finding out what in the nerve system rules living being's behavior. His work on the vector\\-brownian motion is believed to be the predecessor of [cybernetics](/wiki/Cybernetics \"Cybernetics\").",
"Kobozev had a specific concept of time in regards to life and death relationship. He classified time into *translational* (time of collective development) and *dispersional* (time of personal development). He believed that human's [reasoning](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\") is tightly connected to the current time, while death is a person's disconnection from the 'knot' *(klubok*) of the current time. In 1954 he developed the concept of *advanced complex* (*operezhayuschiy kompleks*) in chemical [kinetics](/wiki/Kinetics_%28physics%29 \"Kinetics (physics)\") and worked on the problem of time in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\").",
"Regarding reasoning, Kobozev believed it cannot be evolved from information, and it is given to a human with birth. He also believed that every ethnicity (race) has had its own symbolic means of communication expressed in language from creation rather than developed it during evolution.",
"He introduced the terms of *negative [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\")*, which he thought was essential part of logic, and *anti\\-entropy*, which blocked systemic thinking.",
"#### Applied studies",
"In the 1930s, Institute of Nitric Industry at Moscow State University was founded, and Kobozev was invited there to be the head of the department of catalysis.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://kutol.narod.ru/KOBOZ/chapter1\\.htm\\|title \\= Многогранное научное творчество и научные интересы Николая Ивановича охватывают ряд областей физической химии}} His work was focused on [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") oxidation, [methane](/wiki/Methane \"Methane\") electro\\-cracking to [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\"), methane explosion conversion, as well as [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") synthesis and synthesis of [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\") from [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") in discharge. Together with his co\\-workers, Kobozev had developed the methods of studying [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_energy \"Kinetic energy\") reaction and introduced the energy catalysis theory explaining the mechanism of activation in the reaction in discharge, as well as the mechanism of reaction activating additives, such as [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\") vapor in methane electro\\-cracking or nitrogen in ozone synthesis. The laboratory had managed to synthesize [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"), nitroleum and nitric [anhydride](/wiki/Anhydrite \"Anhydrite\"). Kobozev initiated the first in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") synthesis of acetylene from natural methane. Kobozev suggested using electric discharge to obtain active gases in hydrogen plasma, products of water dissociation, etc. Under Kobozev's mentoring, there were carried out experiments that resulted in the first generation of 100% ozone. In 1960 he initiated the first all\\-Soviet conference dedicated to ozone.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 110\\.",
"In 1947 he founded the Laboratory of Catalysis and Gas Electrochemistry aimed at secret research for the government.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 85\\. First, the laboratory was charged with tasks regarding rocket fuel, but later on professor Kobozev had managed to initiate fundamental research in catalysis, gas [electrochemitry](/wiki/Electrochemistry \"Electrochemistry\") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\"). In 1950 the laboratory head and his staff were awarded with the [state prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize \"USSR State Prize\").",
"In total, Kobozev was the author of 12 concepts.Кутолин С.А. [БЛАЖЕННЫ ЧИСТЫЕ СЕРДЦЕМ. Сказание о Николае Ивановиче Кобозеве](http://rusphysics.ru/articles/777/)//Химический дизайн. Контекст\\-хроника как опыт рефлексии в естествознании.(к биографии Н.И.Кобозева) Новосибирск: Изд.\\-во Chem.Lab.NCD, 1999 Kobozev had published about 400 academic works. Out of his students, 12 received the doctoral degree.",
""
] |
### Theories
#### Catalysis
Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 145\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.
In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases "Kinetic theory of gases") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis "Heterogeneous catalysis"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 108\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom "Atom") of [metal](/wiki/Metal "Metal") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.
In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 8\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.
He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.
It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.
He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 146\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation "Solvation") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 147\.
Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 148\.
Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.
Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 149\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis") in catalysis.
Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 "Dispersion (chemistry)") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 150\.
Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 151\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.
Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\|url\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\.html\|title \= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}
Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.
Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis "Homogeneous catalysis"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide "Hydrogen peroxide"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.
#### Thermodynamics
Kobozev actively studied [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics") and [etropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"). He believed that neither cells or [molecules](/wiki/Molecule "Molecule"), nor atoms could factor [reasoning](/wiki/Reason "Reason").Михеев А. [О работе Николая Ивановича Кобозева «Исследование в области термодинамики процессов информации и мышления»](http://xn--c1a8aza.xn--p1ai/kobozev.htm). \[Электронный ресурс] In order to explain it, he introduced the concept of special particles called *psychons*. In 1948 he also introduced the concept of *vector\-[brownian motion](/wiki/Brownian_motion "Brownian motion")* aimed at finding out what in the nerve system rules living being's behavior. His work on the vector\-brownian motion is believed to be the predecessor of [cybernetics](/wiki/Cybernetics "Cybernetics").
Kobozev had a specific concept of time in regards to life and death relationship. He classified time into *translational* (time of collective development) and *dispersional* (time of personal development). He believed that human's [reasoning](/wiki/Reason "Reason") is tightly connected to the current time, while death is a person's disconnection from the 'knot' *(klubok*) of the current time. In 1954 he developed the concept of *advanced complex* (*operezhayuschiy kompleks*) in chemical [kinetics](/wiki/Kinetics_%28physics%29 "Kinetics (physics)") and worked on the problem of time in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics").
Regarding reasoning, Kobozev believed it cannot be evolved from information, and it is given to a human with birth. He also believed that every ethnicity (race) has had its own symbolic means of communication expressed in language from creation rather than developed it during evolution.
He introduced the terms of *negative [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy")*, which he thought was essential part of logic, and *anti\-entropy*, which blocked systemic thinking.
#### Applied studies
In the 1930s, Institute of Nitric Industry at Moscow State University was founded, and Kobozev was invited there to be the head of the department of catalysis.{{Cite web\|url\=http://kutol.narod.ru/KOBOZ/chapter1\.htm\|title \= Многогранное научное творчество и научные интересы Николая Ивановича охватывают ряд областей физической химии}} His work was focused on [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") oxidation, [methane](/wiki/Methane "Methane") electro\-cracking to [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene "Acetylene"), methane explosion conversion, as well as [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") synthesis and synthesis of [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide "Peroxide") from [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") in discharge. Together with his co\-workers, Kobozev had developed the methods of studying [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_energy "Kinetic energy") reaction and introduced the energy catalysis theory explaining the mechanism of activation in the reaction in discharge, as well as the mechanism of reaction activating additives, such as [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 "Mercury (element)") vapor in methane electro\-cracking or nitrogen in ozone synthesis. The laboratory had managed to synthesize [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"), nitroleum and nitric [anhydride](/wiki/Anhydrite "Anhydrite"). Kobozev initiated the first in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") synthesis of acetylene from natural methane. Kobozev suggested using electric discharge to obtain active gases in hydrogen plasma, products of water dissociation, etc. Under Kobozev's mentoring, there were carried out experiments that resulted in the first generation of 100% ozone. In 1960 he initiated the first all\-Soviet conference dedicated to ozone.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 110\.
In 1947 he founded the Laboratory of Catalysis and Gas Electrochemistry aimed at secret research for the government.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 85\. First, the laboratory was charged with tasks regarding rocket fuel, but later on professor Kobozev had managed to initiate fundamental research in catalysis, gas [electrochemitry](/wiki/Electrochemistry "Electrochemistry") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics"). In 1950 the laboratory head and his staff were awarded with the [state prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize "USSR State Prize").
In total, Kobozev was the author of 12 concepts.Кутолин С.А. [БЛАЖЕННЫ ЧИСТЫЕ СЕРДЦЕМ. Сказание о Николае Ивановиче Кобозеве](http://rusphysics.ru/articles/777/)//Химический дизайн. Контекст\-хроника как опыт рефлексии в естествознании.(к биографии Н.И.Кобозева) Новосибирск: Изд.\-во Chem.Lab.NCD, 1999 Kobozev had published about 400 academic works. Out of his students, 12 received the doctoral degree.
|
[
"### Theories",
"#### Catalysis",
"Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 145\\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.",
"In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases \"Kinetic theory of gases\") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis \"Heterogeneous catalysis\"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 108\\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") of [metal](/wiki/Metal \"Metal\") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.",
"In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 8\\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.",
"He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.",
"It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.",
"He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 146\\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation \"Solvation\") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 147\\.",
"Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 148\\.",
"Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.",
"Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 149\\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\") in catalysis.",
"Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 \"Dispersion (chemistry)\") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 150\\.",
"Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 151\\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.",
"Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\\.html\\|title \\= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}",
"Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.",
"Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis \"Homogeneous catalysis\"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide \"Hydrogen peroxide\"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.",
"#### Thermodynamics",
"Kobozev actively studied [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\") and [etropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\"). He believed that neither cells or [molecules](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\"), nor atoms could factor [reasoning](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\").Михеев А. [О работе Николая Ивановича Кобозева «Исследование в области термодинамики процессов информации и мышления»](http://xn--c1a8aza.xn--p1ai/kobozev.htm). \\[Электронный ресурс] In order to explain it, he introduced the concept of special particles called *psychons*. In 1948 he also introduced the concept of *vector\\-[brownian motion](/wiki/Brownian_motion \"Brownian motion\")* aimed at finding out what in the nerve system rules living being's behavior. His work on the vector\\-brownian motion is believed to be the predecessor of [cybernetics](/wiki/Cybernetics \"Cybernetics\").",
"Kobozev had a specific concept of time in regards to life and death relationship. He classified time into *translational* (time of collective development) and *dispersional* (time of personal development). He believed that human's [reasoning](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\") is tightly connected to the current time, while death is a person's disconnection from the 'knot' *(klubok*) of the current time. In 1954 he developed the concept of *advanced complex* (*operezhayuschiy kompleks*) in chemical [kinetics](/wiki/Kinetics_%28physics%29 \"Kinetics (physics)\") and worked on the problem of time in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\").",
"Regarding reasoning, Kobozev believed it cannot be evolved from information, and it is given to a human with birth. He also believed that every ethnicity (race) has had its own symbolic means of communication expressed in language from creation rather than developed it during evolution.",
"He introduced the terms of *negative [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\")*, which he thought was essential part of logic, and *anti\\-entropy*, which blocked systemic thinking.",
"#### Applied studies",
"In the 1930s, Institute of Nitric Industry at Moscow State University was founded, and Kobozev was invited there to be the head of the department of catalysis.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://kutol.narod.ru/KOBOZ/chapter1\\.htm\\|title \\= Многогранное научное творчество и научные интересы Николая Ивановича охватывают ряд областей физической химии}} His work was focused on [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") oxidation, [methane](/wiki/Methane \"Methane\") electro\\-cracking to [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\"), methane explosion conversion, as well as [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") synthesis and synthesis of [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\") from [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") in discharge. Together with his co\\-workers, Kobozev had developed the methods of studying [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_energy \"Kinetic energy\") reaction and introduced the energy catalysis theory explaining the mechanism of activation in the reaction in discharge, as well as the mechanism of reaction activating additives, such as [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\") vapor in methane electro\\-cracking or nitrogen in ozone synthesis. The laboratory had managed to synthesize [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"), nitroleum and nitric [anhydride](/wiki/Anhydrite \"Anhydrite\"). Kobozev initiated the first in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") synthesis of acetylene from natural methane. Kobozev suggested using electric discharge to obtain active gases in hydrogen plasma, products of water dissociation, etc. Under Kobozev's mentoring, there were carried out experiments that resulted in the first generation of 100% ozone. In 1960 he initiated the first all\\-Soviet conference dedicated to ozone.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 110\\.",
"In 1947 he founded the Laboratory of Catalysis and Gas Electrochemistry aimed at secret research for the government.[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 85\\. First, the laboratory was charged with tasks regarding rocket fuel, but later on professor Kobozev had managed to initiate fundamental research in catalysis, gas [electrochemitry](/wiki/Electrochemistry \"Electrochemistry\") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\"). In 1950 the laboratory head and his staff were awarded with the [state prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize \"USSR State Prize\").",
"In total, Kobozev was the author of 12 concepts.Кутолин С.А. [БЛАЖЕННЫ ЧИСТЫЕ СЕРДЦЕМ. Сказание о Николае Ивановиче Кобозеве](http://rusphysics.ru/articles/777/)//Химический дизайн. Контекст\\-хроника как опыт рефлексии в естествознании.(к биографии Н.И.Кобозева) Новосибирск: Изд.\\-во Chem.Lab.NCD, 1999 Kobozev had published about 400 academic works. Out of his students, 12 received the doctoral degree.",
""
] |
#### Catalysis
Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 145\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.
In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases "Kinetic theory of gases") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis "Heterogeneous catalysis"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\. С. 108\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom "Atom") of [metal](/wiki/Metal "Metal") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.
In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 8\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.
He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.
It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.
He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). P. 146\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation "Solvation") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 147\.
Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 148\.
Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.
Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 149\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis "Enzyme catalysis") in catalysis.
Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 "Dispersion (chemistry)") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 150\.
Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\. Book 1\. \[Russian Edition; 1949\). p. 151\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.
Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\|url\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\.html\|title \= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}
Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.
Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis "Homogeneous catalysis"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide "Hydrogen peroxide"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.
|
[
"#### Catalysis",
"Kobozev's main focus was on [catalysis](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\") and [thermodynamics](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\"). The main problem in catalysis development has been the lack of a single generalized theory. Kobozev believed that the catalysis theories of his time were incapable of producing a common mechanism because they failed to explain the nature and structure of the active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 145\\. He saw the main issue of the contemporary catalysis theories in the concept of crystalline nature of catalytic activity. In 1934 he introduced the term *electrocatalysis*.",
"In 1939, connecting the [kinetic](/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases \"Kinetic theory of gases\") analysis method with the [heterogenous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis \"Heterogeneous catalysis\"),[Лаборатория катализа и газовой электрохимии. К 60\\-летию лаборатории](https://docplayer.ru/62396708-Nash-solnechnyy-dom.html)/Кафедра физической химии/МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова. М., 2007\\. С. 108\\. he introduced the theory of *active ensembles* which regarded how many [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") of [metal](/wiki/Metal \"Metal\") catalyst can produce a catalytically active center.",
"In his research he had estimated the minimal number of catalytically active atoms in aggregates for some chemical reactions.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 8\\. He argued that the active centers were factored by energy rather than crystalline structures.",
"He called the minimal group of atoms showing catalytic activity *active ensemble*. However, he believed that the motion of such active ensembles was limited by special *migration areas*. Kobozev showcased how the number of atoms in an active ensemble and the average rate of a migration area could be determined by a change in specific activity I on the spread of a catalyst over the surface of a carrier. His study had revealed a connection between the typical heterogenous catalysis and the activity of complex [enzymatic catalysts](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\"). In 1936 together with A. M. Dubrovskaya, Kobozev demonstrated that regular promoters on the surface of a catalyst are in larger concentration, than inside the phase, while in some cases promoter's presence on the surface brings about decline in catalytic activity.",
"It had been discovered that in heterogenous catalysis a solid body engages in the reaction not by the entire surface but by a small part of some active surface elements acting in the background of the large inactive crystalline mass of a catalyst. Kobozev had noticed that for some catalysts active surface was only 0\\.05%, therefore, he had supposed that such active centers were not crystalline but small groups of random atoms. Consequently, he had concluded that catalytic activity takes place not in the crystalline, but the amorphous, precrystalline, phase.",
"He had also noticed that the crystalline phase was made of a cellular, or mosaic, structure – an aggregate made of closed cells ('migration areas') surrounded by energetic and geometrical barriers impermeable to atoms of the surface, thus remaining isolated. Getting into migration area, as if hollows, atoms gather at the bottom, i.e. in place of maximum [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") potential, creating ensembles. So formed ensembles of atoms of a certain composition, are active centers on an inactive catalytic carrierBerkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). P. 146\\. Kobozev had studied dissolution of active substance on an inert carrier and found out that increased [dissolution](/wiki/Solvation \"Solvation\") resulted in rise in catalytic activity, while minimum of active substance brought about formation of maximally active catalysts. Kobozev had also proposed a formula calculating the number of atoms engaged in active centers.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 147\\.",
"Kobozev's research showed that the most active ensembles consisted of 2 or 3 atoms, which corresponded with Balandin's theory.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 148\\.",
"Kobozev and his students argued that activation of catalyst particles for the reaction has two factors: [adsorbsion](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\"), i.e. interaction of an ion or atom with particles of a catalyst, and formation of an active center, i.e. interaction of catalyst's particles, which can, however, play separately.",
"Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named *aggravation* (1946\\)Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 149\\. when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co\\-workers tried to explain superactivity of [enzymes](/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis \"Enzyme catalysis\") in catalysis.",
"Kobozev's theory of active ensembles contradicted the contemporary works on the relationship between activity and [dispersion](/wiki/Dispersion_%28chemistry%29 \"Dispersion (chemistry)\") in catalysis which argued that catalytic activity of a solid body was higher with rise in the level of dispersion.Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 150\\.",
"Further research of the relationship between dispersion and catalytic activity showed that crystalline structures, indeed, had catalystic activity,Berkman S., Morrel J.C. Egloff G. Catalysis, Inorganic and organic. Chicago, 1940\\. Book 1\\. \\[Russian Edition; 1949\\). p. 151\\. and his theory hadn't been accepted. Kobozev's catalysts had been proved to be of little production potential, while crystalline catalysts used in industry were fully accepted for their high output.",
"Kobozev's theory is believed to be practically implemented only if the amount of metal catalyst is small and the object has a block shape.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://poznayka.org/s87596t1\\.html\\|title \\= Гетерогенный катализ. Теории гетерогенного катализа}}",
"Kobozev expressed the idea of *recuperation of energy* that, held by the group of atoms connected to the active center, can partly activate molecules of a new substrate contacting the catalyst.",
"Kobozev took part in developments by professor Shpitalsky regarding the theory of intermediate products in the [homogenous catalysis](/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis \"Homogeneous catalysis\"). Based on catalytic and enzymatic degradation of [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide \"Hydrogen peroxide\"), Kobozev showcased how studying the results of kinetic research can reveal the chemical composition and physical properties of those intermediate products that had before been only vaguely assumed in literature.",
""
] |
Criticism and support
---------------------
For being a somewhat unconventional scientist he was severely criticized by some of his colleagues. In 1950, the Soviet chemist V. Goldansky published an article entitled "Pseudoscience of professor N. I. Kobozev", in which Kobozev's studies were called 'quasi\-science', while he was compared with physical idealists. The author of the publication expressed concern that Kobozev's concepts could have negative impact on his students and colleagues averting them from 'real science'.
Amongst opponents of Kobozev was the electrochemist and academician [Alexander Frumkin](/wiki/Alexander_Frumkin "Alexander Frumkin"). The polemic between the two reflected the political and scientific [schism](/wiki/Schism "Schism") between the Soviet academic scientists focused on inventing the [nuclear bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") and the Moscow university scientists. Their conflict was summed up by attempts to prove the other wrong on fundamental points.{{cite web\|title\=Точная наука электрохимия\|trans\-title\=The Fine Science of Electrochemistry\|lang\=ru\|url\=https://temkin\-76\.ucoz.ru/VITA/electrochimiy.pdf\|website\=temkin\-76\.ucoz.ru\|access\-date\=2024\-07\-24}} However, it was A. Frumkin who suggested that Kobozev would get employed with the Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry and abandon the Moscow University, which Kobozev declined.
In 1938 old and famed Russian scientists [N. D. Zelinsky](/wiki/Nikolay_Zelinsky "Nikolay Zelinsky") and [N. S. Kurnakov](/wiki/Nikolai_Kurnakov "Nikolai Kurnakov") recommended the 34\-year\-old Kobozev for the full membership in the [Soviet Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences "Russian Academy of Sciences"), but he was rejected. There had been four or five attempts. According to Kobozev's wife, either Frumkin or [Nesmeyanov](/wiki/Alexander_Nesmeyanov "Alexander Nesmeyanov") said that since Kobozev was ill he wouldn't attend the meetings and his candidacy was never considered again.
In 1946 N. D. Zelinsky so said about Kobozev, "Soviet science can be proud of Kobozev's work ... as a great success. I personally recommend works of professor N. I. Kobozev for the [Stalin prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize "USSR State Prize") in chemistry and believe that they deserve such a high award." Kobozev rejected the initiative himself; in his letter from March 23, 1954, he explained why his candidacy for the Stalin prize should be declined by that he had not submitted academic writings for 1953 and did not go through the assessment at the Academic Board of the Moscow University.
Kobozev had found himself in conflict with the famous physicist [Lev Landau](/wiki/Lev_Landau "Lev Landau"). At one of the conferences, Landau severely criticized the presentation of V.K. Semenchenko. Later Kobozev declared that he wouldn't give the speech if Landau failed to apologize. Landau followed Kobozev's demand, but the latter had since faced strong opposition from the Soviet society of physicists, which negatively affected his academic career.
|
[
"Criticism and support\n---------------------",
"For being a somewhat unconventional scientist he was severely criticized by some of his colleagues. In 1950, the Soviet chemist V. Goldansky published an article entitled \"Pseudoscience of professor N. I. Kobozev\", in which Kobozev's studies were called 'quasi\\-science', while he was compared with physical idealists. The author of the publication expressed concern that Kobozev's concepts could have negative impact on his students and colleagues averting them from 'real science'.",
"Amongst opponents of Kobozev was the electrochemist and academician [Alexander Frumkin](/wiki/Alexander_Frumkin \"Alexander Frumkin\"). The polemic between the two reflected the political and scientific [schism](/wiki/Schism \"Schism\") between the Soviet academic scientists focused on inventing the [nuclear bomb](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") and the Moscow university scientists. Their conflict was summed up by attempts to prove the other wrong on fundamental points.{{cite web\\|title\\=Точная наука электрохимия\\|trans\\-title\\=The Fine Science of Electrochemistry\\|lang\\=ru\\|url\\=https://temkin\\-76\\.ucoz.ru/VITA/electrochimiy.pdf\\|website\\=temkin\\-76\\.ucoz.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-24}} However, it was A. Frumkin who suggested that Kobozev would get employed with the Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry and abandon the Moscow University, which Kobozev declined.",
"In 1938 old and famed Russian scientists [N. D. Zelinsky](/wiki/Nikolay_Zelinsky \"Nikolay Zelinsky\") and [N. S. Kurnakov](/wiki/Nikolai_Kurnakov \"Nikolai Kurnakov\") recommended the 34\\-year\\-old Kobozev for the full membership in the [Soviet Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Russian Academy of Sciences\"), but he was rejected. There had been four or five attempts. According to Kobozev's wife, either Frumkin or [Nesmeyanov](/wiki/Alexander_Nesmeyanov \"Alexander Nesmeyanov\") said that since Kobozev was ill he wouldn't attend the meetings and his candidacy was never considered again.",
"In 1946 N. D. Zelinsky so said about Kobozev, \"Soviet science can be proud of Kobozev's work ... as a great success. I personally recommend works of professor N. I. Kobozev for the [Stalin prize](/wiki/USSR_State_Prize \"USSR State Prize\") in chemistry and believe that they deserve such a high award.\" Kobozev rejected the initiative himself; in his letter from March 23, 1954, he explained why his candidacy for the Stalin prize should be declined by that he had not submitted academic writings for 1953 and did not go through the assessment at the Academic Board of the Moscow University.",
"Kobozev had found himself in conflict with the famous physicist [Lev Landau](/wiki/Lev_Landau \"Lev Landau\"). At one of the conferences, Landau severely criticized the presentation of V.K. Semenchenko. Later Kobozev declared that he wouldn't give the speech if Landau failed to apologize. Landau followed Kobozev's demand, but the latter had since faced strong opposition from the Soviet society of physicists, which negatively affected his academic career.",
""
] |
History
-------
Phil Madsen and other [Ross Perot](/wiki/Ross_Perot "Ross Perot") supporters formed the Independence Party of Minnesota in [Bloomington, Minnesota](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Minnesota "Bloomington, Minnesota"), on July 22, 1992\. [Dean Barkley](/wiki/Dean_Barkley "Dean Barkley") ran for a seat in the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") in the [1992 election](/wiki/1992_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections "1992 United States House of Representatives elections").{{sfn\|Freeze\|2020\|p\=182}}
Other supporters led by Don Dow, State Director, and Victoria Staten, Assistant State Director and Ross Perot's spokesperson on NAFTA, worked as part of [United We Stand America](/wiki/United_We_Stand_America "United We Stand America"), and some eventually found their way to the Independence Party after the elections. Over the following years, the party began to field candidates in other state races.
On June 22, 1996, the party affiliated with the [Reform Party of the United States of America](/wiki/Reform_Party_of_the_United_States_of_America "Reform Party of the United States of America") and became the Reform Party of Minnesota (RPMN).{{sfn\|Freeze\|2020\|p\=182}}
[Bob Lessard](/wiki/Bob_Lessard "Bob Lessard") of [International Falls](/wiki/International_Falls%2C_Minnesota "International Falls, Minnesota"), joined the party in 2001 after he was re\-elected to the Senate as an independent with 54\.3% of the vote.{{Citation \| last \= Winger \| first \= Richard \| title \= Independents Elected \| journal \= Ballot Access News \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 1 \| date \= 2001\-04\-01 \| url \= http://ballot\-access.org/2001/0401\.html\#17 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20020127021545/http://ballot\-access.org/2001/0401\.html\#17 \|archive\-date \= 2002\-01\-27}} [Sheila Kiscaden](/wiki/Sheila_Kiscaden "Sheila Kiscaden"), a incumbent Republican, was reelected to the [Minnesota Senate](/wiki/Minnesota_Senate "Minnesota Senate") in 2002 with the party's nomination after she failed to win the Republican nomination.{{sfn\|Freeze\|2020\|p\=184}}
The state party carried that name until it disaffiliated from the national party in 2000 due to factional dissent and the increasing influence of [Pat Buchanan](/wiki/Pat_Buchanan "Pat Buchanan") within the party. The party immediately changed its name back to Independence Party on March 4, 2000\.{{cite news \|url\= http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=PD\&s\_site\=twincities\&p\_multi\=SP\&p\_theme\=realcities\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=0EB73982168C3FAA\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\| title\=Reform Party votes to leave national group\|publisher\=Saint Paul Pioneer Press\| date \=2000\-03\-05\|access\-date\=2010\-05\-26}}{{sfn\|Freeze\|2020\|p\=182}} After his most influential opponents left the party, Buchanan went on to become the Reform Party's candidate for president.
[left\|thumb\|250px\|Independence Party of Minnesota's 2006 convention at [Midway Stadium](/wiki/Midway_Stadium "Midway Stadium").](/wiki/File:IndMNconvention2006.jpg "IndMNconvention2006.jpg")
On 2004's [Super Tuesday](/wiki/Super_Tuesday "Super Tuesday"), March 2, the party held [caucuses](/wiki/Caucus "Caucus") around the state along with Minnesota's other three parties. Since the organization had no national party affiliation, it merely ran a [straw poll](/wiki/Straw_poll "Straw poll") to gauge the opinions of members with regard to the available presidential candidates in the [2004 election](/wiki/U.S._presidential_election%2C_2004 "U.S. presidential election, 2004"). For the poll, the group used [instant\-runoff voting](/wiki/IRV_implementations_in_United_States%23Independence_Party_of_Minnesota_.282004_Presidential_poll.29 "IRV implementations in United States#Independence Party of Minnesota .282004 Presidential poll.29"), a voting method that has been gaining interest in the state. Additionally, the party had several fairly progressive agenda items to vote on. For a bit of levity, there was also a vote on the [mascot](/wiki/Mascot "Mascot") to use for the party. Three top possibilities were the [bison](/wiki/American_Bison "American Bison"), [hawk](/wiki/Hawk "Hawk"), and [white buffalo](/wiki/White_buffalo "White buffalo"). Technology was also involved in the IPM's caucusing, as it used the Internet to conduct a two\-day online "virtual caucus" for people who were unable to attend the evening of Super Tuesday.
On March 5, 2004, the party announced that the presidential winner was [John Edwards](/wiki/John_Edwards "John Edwards"), who had privately circulated his decision to withdraw shortly before IP members voted. The Super Tuesday ballot was probably the first statewide experiment in instant\-runoff voting. The Bison, to be named Indy, won the mascot vote, out\-polling the nearest competitors by a 19% margin.
In May 2005, [Peter Hutchinson](/wiki/Peter_Hutchinson "Peter Hutchinson"), who was [Minnesota Finance Commissioner](/wiki/Minnesota_Department_of_Finance "Minnesota Department of Finance") in the [Rudy Perpich](/wiki/Rudy_Perpich "Rudy Perpich") administration, announced that he was planning to seek the Independence Party's nomination for governor in the 2006 election. Hutchinson finished 3rd of 6 earning 141,735 votes for 6\.4% of the total vote.{{Cite web \| title \= Official Results General Election – Nov. 7, 2006:Statewide Results for Governor \| publisher \= Minnesota Secretary of Stat \| date \= 2006\-12\-16 \| url \= http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\=S\&Races\=0331 \| access\-date \= 2010\-05\-08 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100514000330/http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\=S\&Races\=0331 \| archive\-date \= 2010\-05\-14 }}
In the 2006 elections, IP [5th district congressional candidate](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_5th_congressional_district_election%2C_2006 "Minnesota's 5th congressional district election, 2006") Tammy Lee received 51,456 votes for 21\.01% of the total vote.{{Cite web\|title\=Official Results General Election – Nov. 7, 2006:Results from Congressional District 05 \|publisher\=Minnesota Secretary of Stat \|date\=2006\-12\-16 \|url\=http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\=CG\&CD\=05 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513235856/http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\=CG\&CD\=05 \|archive\-date\=May 13, 2010 }} Lee's strong showing resulted in part from her unusually strong (for third parties) fundraising, Lee raised $228,938{{Cite web \| last \= Federal Election Commission \| author\-link \= Federal Election Commission \| title \= Candidate (H6MN05282\) Summary Reports – 2005–2006 Cycle \| date \= 2006\-12\-31 \| url \= http://herndon1\.sdrdc.com/cgi\-bin/cancomsrs/?\_06\+H6MN05282 \| access\-date \= 2010\-05\-08}} for her run.
In May 2008, a "[Draft](/wiki/Draft_%28politics%29 "Draft (politics)") Dean Barkley" movement started [on the web](https://web.archive.org/web/20130831231116/http://www.draftdeanbarkley.com/) to encourage the former senator to run again. He accepted, and [finished third](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Minnesota%2C_2008 "United States Senate election in Minnesota, 2008"), winning a significant 15% of all votes cast. His candidacy had a significant impact on a race in which the eventual winner [Al Franken](/wiki/Al_Franken "Al Franken") and then\-incumbent Senator [Norm Coleman](/wiki/Norm_Coleman "Norm Coleman") were separated by only 312 votes. Two other federal candidates, David Dillon in the 3rd congressional district and Bob Anderson in the 6th congressional district, received 10% of the vote in their races. 2008 is the high\-water mark for the Minnesota Independence Party in both the number of federal candidates running and the percent of vote received—both key measures of the base of support.
In 2010, gubernatorial candidate Tom Horner, a former public relations executive and chief of staff to U.S. Senator [David Durenberger](/wiki/David_Durenberger "David Durenberger") received 12% of the vote,{{cite news \|url\=http://minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/2010/campaign/results/mn/governor.php\| title\=Election results: Minnesota: Governor\|publisher\=Minnesota Public Radio\| date \=2010\-11\-03\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-29}} nearly doubling the total of previous IP gubernatorial candidate [Peter Hutchinson](/wiki/Peter_Hutchinson "Peter Hutchinson"). Horner polled as high as 18% in the weeks leading up to the election,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.minnpost.com/glean/2010/09/dayton\-slumps\-horner\-surges\-kstp\-tv\-poll\| title\=Dayton slumps, Horner surges in KSTP\-TV poll\|publisher\=MinnPost\| date \=2010\-09\-16\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-29}} but was significantly outspent by the GOP and DFL candidates and the third\-party expenditure groups supporting their candidacies. Horner did receive endorsement from three of the state's five living ex\-governors: Republicans [Arne Carlson](/wiki/Arne_Carlson "Arne Carlson") and [Al Quie](/wiki/Al_Quie "Al Quie") as well as Ventura. Former U.S. Senate candidate and prominent Minnesota attorney Mike Ciresi also endorsed Horner.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.minnpost.com/politics\-policy/2010/10/surprising\-poll\-results\-and\-ventura\-endorsement\-latest\-developments\-governor\| title\=Surprising poll results \-\- and a Ventura endorsement \-\- latest developments in governor's race\|publisher\=MinnPost\| date \=2010\-10\-22\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-29}} Most Minnesota newspapers including the *[Star Tribune](/wiki/Star_Tribune "Star Tribune")*, *[St. Paul Pioneer Press](/wiki/St._Paul_Pioneer_Press "St. Paul Pioneer Press")*, *[St. Cloud Times](/wiki/St._Cloud_Times "St. Cloud Times")*, *[Duluth News Tribune](/wiki/Duluth_News_Tribune "Duluth News Tribune")*, and *[Rochester Post\-Bulletin](/wiki/Rochester_Post-Bulletin "Rochester Post-Bulletin")*, as well as North Dakota's *[Grand Forks Herald](/wiki/Grand_Forks_Herald "Grand Forks Herald")* endorsed the IP candidate.{{cite news \|url\=http://politicsinminnesota.com/2010/10/horner\-picks\-up\-a\-spate\-of\-newspaper\-endorsements/\| title\=Horner picks up flurry of newspaper endorsements\|publisher\=Politics in Minnesota\| date \=2010\-10\-18\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-29}}
In 2014, the Independence Party endorsed several candidates for state and national office: Hannah Nicollet for [governor](/wiki/Minnesota_gubernatorial_election%2C_2014 "Minnesota gubernatorial election, 2014"), Kevin Terrell for [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Minnesota%2C_2014 "United States Senate election in Minnesota, 2014"), attorney Brandan Borgos for Minnesota Attorney General, whistleblower Pat Dean for state auditor, Bob Helland for secretary of state, John Denney for US congress CD\-6, Paula Overby for US congress CD\-2 and Iraq War veteran Dave Thomas for US congress CD\-4\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/34e7ddc145ce42b4a8aaced9a202abc8/MN\-\-Ventura\-Independence\-Party\|work\=The Republic\|date\=January 28, 2015\|access\-date\=February 5, 2015\|title\=Ventura saddened over Independence Party's loss of major party status in Minnesota\|agency\=Associated Press\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205221416/http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/34e7ddc145ce42b4a8aaced9a202abc8/MN\-\-Ventura\-Independence\-Party\|archive\-date\=February 5, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}
In [2016](/wiki/Evan_McMullin_presidential_campaign%2C_2016 "Evan McMullin presidential campaign, 2016"), the party endorsed [Evan McMullin](/wiki/Evan_McMullin "Evan McMullin"), a former [CIA](/wiki/CIA "CIA") agent and former chief policy director for the [House Republican Conference](/wiki/House_Republican_Conference "House Republican Conference"), for [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States").{{cite web\|url\=https://thehill.com/blogs/ballot\-box/presidential\-races/291398\-minnesota\-independence\-party\-picks\-mcmullin\-as/ \|title\=Minnesota party picks McMullin as presidential nominee \|first\=Jessie\|last\=Hellmann \|work\=\[\[The Hill (newspaper)\|The Hill]]\|date\=August 14, 2016 \|access\-date\=September 5, 2016}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Phil Madsen and other [Ross Perot](/wiki/Ross_Perot \"Ross Perot\") supporters formed the Independence Party of Minnesota in [Bloomington, Minnesota](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Minnesota \"Bloomington, Minnesota\"), on July 22, 1992\\. [Dean Barkley](/wiki/Dean_Barkley \"Dean Barkley\") ran for a seat in the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") in the [1992 election](/wiki/1992_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections \"1992 United States House of Representatives elections\").{{sfn\\|Freeze\\|2020\\|p\\=182}}",
"Other supporters led by Don Dow, State Director, and Victoria Staten, Assistant State Director and Ross Perot's spokesperson on NAFTA, worked as part of [United We Stand America](/wiki/United_We_Stand_America \"United We Stand America\"), and some eventually found their way to the Independence Party after the elections. Over the following years, the party began to field candidates in other state races.",
"On June 22, 1996, the party affiliated with the [Reform Party of the United States of America](/wiki/Reform_Party_of_the_United_States_of_America \"Reform Party of the United States of America\") and became the Reform Party of Minnesota (RPMN).{{sfn\\|Freeze\\|2020\\|p\\=182}}",
"[Bob Lessard](/wiki/Bob_Lessard \"Bob Lessard\") of [International Falls](/wiki/International_Falls%2C_Minnesota \"International Falls, Minnesota\"), joined the party in 2001 after he was re\\-elected to the Senate as an independent with 54\\.3% of the vote.{{Citation \\| last \\= Winger \\| first \\= Richard \\| title \\= Independents Elected \\| journal \\= Ballot Access News \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| date \\= 2001\\-04\\-01 \\| url \\= http://ballot\\-access.org/2001/0401\\.html\\#17 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20020127021545/http://ballot\\-access.org/2001/0401\\.html\\#17 \\|archive\\-date \\= 2002\\-01\\-27}} [Sheila Kiscaden](/wiki/Sheila_Kiscaden \"Sheila Kiscaden\"), a incumbent Republican, was reelected to the [Minnesota Senate](/wiki/Minnesota_Senate \"Minnesota Senate\") in 2002 with the party's nomination after she failed to win the Republican nomination.{{sfn\\|Freeze\\|2020\\|p\\=184}}",
"The state party carried that name until it disaffiliated from the national party in 2000 due to factional dissent and the increasing influence of [Pat Buchanan](/wiki/Pat_Buchanan \"Pat Buchanan\") within the party. The party immediately changed its name back to Independence Party on March 4, 2000\\.{{cite news \\|url\\= http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=PD\\&s\\_site\\=twincities\\&p\\_multi\\=SP\\&p\\_theme\\=realcities\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=0EB73982168C3FAA\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\| title\\=Reform Party votes to leave national group\\|publisher\\=Saint Paul Pioneer Press\\| date \\=2000\\-03\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-26}}{{sfn\\|Freeze\\|2020\\|p\\=182}} After his most influential opponents left the party, Buchanan went on to become the Reform Party's candidate for president.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Independence Party of Minnesota's 2006 convention at [Midway Stadium](/wiki/Midway_Stadium \"Midway Stadium\").](/wiki/File:IndMNconvention2006.jpg \"IndMNconvention2006.jpg\")\nOn 2004's [Super Tuesday](/wiki/Super_Tuesday \"Super Tuesday\"), March 2, the party held [caucuses](/wiki/Caucus \"Caucus\") around the state along with Minnesota's other three parties. Since the organization had no national party affiliation, it merely ran a [straw poll](/wiki/Straw_poll \"Straw poll\") to gauge the opinions of members with regard to the available presidential candidates in the [2004 election](/wiki/U.S._presidential_election%2C_2004 \"U.S. presidential election, 2004\"). For the poll, the group used [instant\\-runoff voting](/wiki/IRV_implementations_in_United_States%23Independence_Party_of_Minnesota_.282004_Presidential_poll.29 \"IRV implementations in United States#Independence Party of Minnesota .282004 Presidential poll.29\"), a voting method that has been gaining interest in the state. Additionally, the party had several fairly progressive agenda items to vote on. For a bit of levity, there was also a vote on the [mascot](/wiki/Mascot \"Mascot\") to use for the party. Three top possibilities were the [bison](/wiki/American_Bison \"American Bison\"), [hawk](/wiki/Hawk \"Hawk\"), and [white buffalo](/wiki/White_buffalo \"White buffalo\"). Technology was also involved in the IPM's caucusing, as it used the Internet to conduct a two\\-day online \"virtual caucus\" for people who were unable to attend the evening of Super Tuesday.",
"On March 5, 2004, the party announced that the presidential winner was [John Edwards](/wiki/John_Edwards \"John Edwards\"), who had privately circulated his decision to withdraw shortly before IP members voted. The Super Tuesday ballot was probably the first statewide experiment in instant\\-runoff voting. The Bison, to be named Indy, won the mascot vote, out\\-polling the nearest competitors by a 19% margin.",
"In May 2005, [Peter Hutchinson](/wiki/Peter_Hutchinson \"Peter Hutchinson\"), who was [Minnesota Finance Commissioner](/wiki/Minnesota_Department_of_Finance \"Minnesota Department of Finance\") in the [Rudy Perpich](/wiki/Rudy_Perpich \"Rudy Perpich\") administration, announced that he was planning to seek the Independence Party's nomination for governor in the 2006 election. Hutchinson finished 3rd of 6 earning 141,735 votes for 6\\.4% of the total vote.{{Cite web \\| title \\= Official Results General Election – Nov. 7, 2006:Statewide Results for Governor \\| publisher \\= Minnesota Secretary of Stat \\| date \\= 2006\\-12\\-16 \\| url \\= http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\\=S\\&Races\\=0331 \\| access\\-date \\= 2010\\-05\\-08 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100514000330/http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\\=S\\&Races\\=0331 \\| archive\\-date \\= 2010\\-05\\-14 }}",
"In the 2006 elections, IP [5th district congressional candidate](/wiki/Minnesota%27s_5th_congressional_district_election%2C_2006 \"Minnesota's 5th congressional district election, 2006\") Tammy Lee received 51,456 votes for 21\\.01% of the total vote.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Official Results General Election – Nov. 7, 2006:Results from Congressional District 05 \\|publisher\\=Minnesota Secretary of Stat \\|date\\=2006\\-12\\-16 \\|url\\=http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\\=CG\\&CD\\=05 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513235856/http://electionresults.sos.state.mn.us/20061107/ElecRslts.asp?M\\=CG\\&CD\\=05 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 13, 2010 }} Lee's strong showing resulted in part from her unusually strong (for third parties) fundraising, Lee raised $228,938{{Cite web \\| last \\= Federal Election Commission \\| author\\-link \\= Federal Election Commission \\| title \\= Candidate (H6MN05282\\) Summary Reports – 2005–2006 Cycle \\| date \\= 2006\\-12\\-31 \\| url \\= http://herndon1\\.sdrdc.com/cgi\\-bin/cancomsrs/?\\_06\\+H6MN05282 \\| access\\-date \\= 2010\\-05\\-08}} for her run.",
"In May 2008, a \"[Draft](/wiki/Draft_%28politics%29 \"Draft (politics)\") Dean Barkley\" movement started [on the web](https://web.archive.org/web/20130831231116/http://www.draftdeanbarkley.com/) to encourage the former senator to run again. He accepted, and [finished third](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Minnesota%2C_2008 \"United States Senate election in Minnesota, 2008\"), winning a significant 15% of all votes cast. His candidacy had a significant impact on a race in which the eventual winner [Al Franken](/wiki/Al_Franken \"Al Franken\") and then\\-incumbent Senator [Norm Coleman](/wiki/Norm_Coleman \"Norm Coleman\") were separated by only 312 votes. Two other federal candidates, David Dillon in the 3rd congressional district and Bob Anderson in the 6th congressional district, received 10% of the vote in their races. 2008 is the high\\-water mark for the Minnesota Independence Party in both the number of federal candidates running and the percent of vote received—both key measures of the base of support.",
"In 2010, gubernatorial candidate Tom Horner, a former public relations executive and chief of staff to U.S. Senator [David Durenberger](/wiki/David_Durenberger \"David Durenberger\") received 12% of the vote,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/2010/campaign/results/mn/governor.php\\| title\\=Election results: Minnesota: Governor\\|publisher\\=Minnesota Public Radio\\| date \\=2010\\-11\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-29}} nearly doubling the total of previous IP gubernatorial candidate [Peter Hutchinson](/wiki/Peter_Hutchinson \"Peter Hutchinson\"). Horner polled as high as 18% in the weeks leading up to the election,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.minnpost.com/glean/2010/09/dayton\\-slumps\\-horner\\-surges\\-kstp\\-tv\\-poll\\| title\\=Dayton slumps, Horner surges in KSTP\\-TV poll\\|publisher\\=MinnPost\\| date \\=2010\\-09\\-16\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-29}} but was significantly outspent by the GOP and DFL candidates and the third\\-party expenditure groups supporting their candidacies. Horner did receive endorsement from three of the state's five living ex\\-governors: Republicans [Arne Carlson](/wiki/Arne_Carlson \"Arne Carlson\") and [Al Quie](/wiki/Al_Quie \"Al Quie\") as well as Ventura. Former U.S. Senate candidate and prominent Minnesota attorney Mike Ciresi also endorsed Horner.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.minnpost.com/politics\\-policy/2010/10/surprising\\-poll\\-results\\-and\\-ventura\\-endorsement\\-latest\\-developments\\-governor\\| title\\=Surprising poll results \\-\\- and a Ventura endorsement \\-\\- latest developments in governor's race\\|publisher\\=MinnPost\\| date \\=2010\\-10\\-22\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-29}} Most Minnesota newspapers including the *[Star Tribune](/wiki/Star_Tribune \"Star Tribune\")*, *[St. Paul Pioneer Press](/wiki/St._Paul_Pioneer_Press \"St. Paul Pioneer Press\")*, *[St. Cloud Times](/wiki/St._Cloud_Times \"St. Cloud Times\")*, *[Duluth News Tribune](/wiki/Duluth_News_Tribune \"Duluth News Tribune\")*, and *[Rochester Post\\-Bulletin](/wiki/Rochester_Post-Bulletin \"Rochester Post-Bulletin\")*, as well as North Dakota's *[Grand Forks Herald](/wiki/Grand_Forks_Herald \"Grand Forks Herald\")* endorsed the IP candidate.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://politicsinminnesota.com/2010/10/horner\\-picks\\-up\\-a\\-spate\\-of\\-newspaper\\-endorsements/\\| title\\=Horner picks up flurry of newspaper endorsements\\|publisher\\=Politics in Minnesota\\| date \\=2010\\-10\\-18\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-29}}",
"In 2014, the Independence Party endorsed several candidates for state and national office: Hannah Nicollet for [governor](/wiki/Minnesota_gubernatorial_election%2C_2014 \"Minnesota gubernatorial election, 2014\"), Kevin Terrell for [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Minnesota%2C_2014 \"United States Senate election in Minnesota, 2014\"), attorney Brandan Borgos for Minnesota Attorney General, whistleblower Pat Dean for state auditor, Bob Helland for secretary of state, John Denney for US congress CD\\-6, Paula Overby for US congress CD\\-2 and Iraq War veteran Dave Thomas for US congress CD\\-4\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/34e7ddc145ce42b4a8aaced9a202abc8/MN\\-\\-Ventura\\-Independence\\-Party\\|work\\=The Republic\\|date\\=January 28, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2015\\|title\\=Ventura saddened over Independence Party's loss of major party status in Minnesota\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205221416/http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/34e7ddc145ce42b4a8aaced9a202abc8/MN\\-\\-Ventura\\-Independence\\-Party\\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In [2016](/wiki/Evan_McMullin_presidential_campaign%2C_2016 \"Evan McMullin presidential campaign, 2016\"), the party endorsed [Evan McMullin](/wiki/Evan_McMullin \"Evan McMullin\"), a former [CIA](/wiki/CIA \"CIA\") agent and former chief policy director for the [House Republican Conference](/wiki/House_Republican_Conference \"House Republican Conference\"), for [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thehill.com/blogs/ballot\\-box/presidential\\-races/291398\\-minnesota\\-independence\\-party\\-picks\\-mcmullin\\-as/ \\|title\\=Minnesota party picks McMullin as presidential nominee \\|first\\=Jessie\\|last\\=Hellmann \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hill (newspaper)\\|The Hill]]\\|date\\=August 14, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=September 5, 2016}}",
""
] |
Politics
--------
Salolainen was elected to the [Parliament of Finland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Finland "Parliament of Finland") for the first time in the [1970 parliamentary elections](/wiki/1970_Finnish_parliamentary_election "1970 Finnish parliamentary election"). In Parliament, he served as Deputy Chairman of the Social Committee (1970–1975\) and Chairman of the Finance Committee (1979–1987\). Salolainen was also a member of the [Helsinki City Council](/wiki/Helsinki_City_Council "Helsinki City Council") between 1972 and 1984\.
Salolainen served as Minister for Foreign Affairs in the [Holkeri Government](/wiki/Holkeri_Cabinet "Holkeri Cabinet"), and Minister of Trade and Industry (Foreign Trade Minister) in 1987–1991\.{{cite web \|url\= http://valtioneuvosto.fi/tietoa/historiaa/hallitukset\-ja\-ministerit/raportti/\-/r/m2/77 \|title\=Ministerin tiedot: Salolainen, Pertti Edvard\|website\=\|publisher\=Valtioneuvosto }}
He was a questioned publicity in 1989, being visiting China as the first Western official guest after the [massacre of Tiananmein Square](/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 "Tiananmen Square protests of 1989"). The decision to travel to China was made by the government and had the approval from President [Mauno Koivisto](/wiki/Mauno_Koivisto "Mauno Koivisto").{{cite web \|url\=http://fi.gbtimes.com/politiikka/suomi\-ja\-kiina\-60\-vuotta\-kumppanuutta \|title\=Suomi ja Kiina – 60 vuotta kumppanuutta \|last\=Suokas\|first\= Janne \|website\=\|publisher\=GBTimes}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/paakirjoitukset/Pallo\-omassa\-nilkassa/500403 \|title\=Pallo omassa nilkassa \|last\=Liukkonen\|first\=Mauri \|website\=\|date\=8 June 2014 \|publisher\=Savon Sanomat}}
Salolainen continued as Foreign Trade Minister and [Deputy Prime Minister of Finland](/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Finland "Deputy Prime Minister of Finland") between 1991 and 1995 in the [Aho Government](/wiki/Aho_Cabinet "Aho Cabinet") In the early 1990s, he was responsible for the Finnish membership negotiations in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/2011011112985922\_uu.shtml \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112154510/http://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/2011011112985922\_uu.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=12 January 2011 \|title\=EU\-jäsenyydestä neuvotellut Salolainen: Sain tappouhkauksia\|last\=Tanner\|first\= Matti \|website\=\|publisher\=Iltalehti}}
Salolainen was Chairman of the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area")'s negotiating delegation from 1990 to 1993 and chairman of the Finnish EU negotiating delegation and negotiating minister 1993–1995\.
Salolainen has later told that he and other ministers had gotten death treats at the time, when Finland negotiated the membership in the EU. He has told later that he was under the protection of [Finnish Security Intelligence Service](/wiki/Finnish_Security_Intelligence_Service "Finnish Security Intelligence Service") because the death threats were considered serious.
In 1991 Salolainen was elected as the Chairman of the National Coalition Party after [Ilkka Suominen](/wiki/Ilkka_Suominen "Ilkka Suominen"). He was in charged until 1994 when he was succeeded by [Sauli Niinistö](/wiki/Sauli_Niinist%C3%B6 "Sauli Niinistö"). Salolainen left the Parliament in October 1996 after he was appointed as the Finland's Ambassador to London. He Ambassador under 2004\. He was replaced in Parliament by [Pirjo\-Riitta Antvuori](/wiki/Pirjo-Riitta_Antvuori "Pirjo-Riitta Antvuori").
### Return to politics in 2004
In the [2007 parliamentary elections](/wiki/2007_Finnish_parliamentary_election "2007 Finnish parliamentary election"), Salolainen became a candidate, by the wish from party's chairman [Jyrki Katainen](/wiki/Jyrki_Katainen "Jyrki Katainen"), from Helsinki, even though he had already refused the candidacy
He returned to the Parliament from Helsinki as National Coalition Party's candidate with the fourth highest number of votes (8,621 votes){{cite web \|url\=http://www.iltasanomat.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/uutinen.asp?id\=1307981 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930221054/http://www.iltasanomat.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/uutinen.asp?id\=1307981 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=30 September 2007 \|title\=Pertti Salolainen sittenkin vaaleihin \|last\=Anttila\|first\= Timo J. \|website\=\|publisher\=Ilta Sanomat}}{{cite web \|url\= http://tulospalvelu.vaalit.fi/E2007/s/valitut/helsinkivpval.htm \|title\= Eduskuntavaalit 18\.3\.2007: Valitut ehdokkaat Helsingin vaalipiiri \|website\=\|publisher\=Oikeusministeriö }} In his previous election, Salolainen had been the highest vote getter.
In the 2011 parliamentary elections, Salolainen was elected for a further term of 6, 205 votes
{{cite web \|url\= http://tulospalvelu.vaalit.fi/E2011/s/valitut/helsinkivpval.htm \|title\= Eduskuntavaalit 17\.4\.20011: Valitut ehdokkaat Helsingin vaalipiiri \|website\=\|publisher\=Oikeusministeriö }}
|
[
"Politics\n--------",
"Salolainen was elected to the [Parliament of Finland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Finland \"Parliament of Finland\") for the first time in the [1970 parliamentary elections](/wiki/1970_Finnish_parliamentary_election \"1970 Finnish parliamentary election\"). In Parliament, he served as Deputy Chairman of the Social Committee (1970–1975\\) and Chairman of the Finance Committee (1979–1987\\). Salolainen was also a member of the [Helsinki City Council](/wiki/Helsinki_City_Council \"Helsinki City Council\") between 1972 and 1984\\.",
"Salolainen served as Minister for Foreign Affairs in the [Holkeri Government](/wiki/Holkeri_Cabinet \"Holkeri Cabinet\"), and Minister of Trade and Industry (Foreign Trade Minister) in 1987–1991\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://valtioneuvosto.fi/tietoa/historiaa/hallitukset\\-ja\\-ministerit/raportti/\\-/r/m2/77 \\|title\\=Ministerin tiedot: Salolainen, Pertti Edvard\\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Valtioneuvosto }}",
"He was a questioned publicity in 1989, being visiting China as the first Western official guest after the [massacre of Tiananmein Square](/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 \"Tiananmen Square protests of 1989\"). The decision to travel to China was made by the government and had the approval from President [Mauno Koivisto](/wiki/Mauno_Koivisto \"Mauno Koivisto\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fi.gbtimes.com/politiikka/suomi\\-ja\\-kiina\\-60\\-vuotta\\-kumppanuutta \\|title\\=Suomi ja Kiina – 60 vuotta kumppanuutta \\|last\\=Suokas\\|first\\= Janne \\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=GBTimes}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/paakirjoitukset/Pallo\\-omassa\\-nilkassa/500403 \\|title\\=Pallo omassa nilkassa \\|last\\=Liukkonen\\|first\\=Mauri \\|website\\=\\|date\\=8 June 2014 \\|publisher\\=Savon Sanomat}}",
"Salolainen continued as Foreign Trade Minister and [Deputy Prime Minister of Finland](/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Finland \"Deputy Prime Minister of Finland\") between 1991 and 1995 in the [Aho Government](/wiki/Aho_Cabinet \"Aho Cabinet\") In the early 1990s, he was responsible for the Finnish membership negotiations in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/2011011112985922\\_uu.shtml \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112154510/http://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/2011011112985922\\_uu.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2011 \\|title\\=EU\\-jäsenyydestä neuvotellut Salolainen: Sain tappouhkauksia\\|last\\=Tanner\\|first\\= Matti \\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Iltalehti}}",
"Salolainen was Chairman of the [European Economic Area](/wiki/European_Economic_Area \"European Economic Area\")'s negotiating delegation from 1990 to 1993 and chairman of the Finnish EU negotiating delegation and negotiating minister 1993–1995\\.",
"Salolainen has later told that he and other ministers had gotten death treats at the time, when Finland negotiated the membership in the EU. He has told later that he was under the protection of [Finnish Security Intelligence Service](/wiki/Finnish_Security_Intelligence_Service \"Finnish Security Intelligence Service\") because the death threats were considered serious.",
"In 1991 Salolainen was elected as the Chairman of the National Coalition Party after [Ilkka Suominen](/wiki/Ilkka_Suominen \"Ilkka Suominen\"). He was in charged until 1994 when he was succeeded by [Sauli Niinistö](/wiki/Sauli_Niinist%C3%B6 \"Sauli Niinistö\"). Salolainen left the Parliament in October 1996 after he was appointed as the Finland's Ambassador to London. He Ambassador under 2004\\. He was replaced in Parliament by [Pirjo\\-Riitta Antvuori](/wiki/Pirjo-Riitta_Antvuori \"Pirjo-Riitta Antvuori\").",
"### Return to politics in 2004",
"In the [2007 parliamentary elections](/wiki/2007_Finnish_parliamentary_election \"2007 Finnish parliamentary election\"), Salolainen became a candidate, by the wish from party's chairman [Jyrki Katainen](/wiki/Jyrki_Katainen \"Jyrki Katainen\"), from Helsinki, even though he had already refused the candidacy",
"He returned to the Parliament from Helsinki as National Coalition Party's candidate with the fourth highest number of votes (8,621 votes){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iltasanomat.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/uutinen.asp?id\\=1307981 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930221054/http://www.iltasanomat.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/uutinen.asp?id\\=1307981 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2007 \\|title\\=Pertti Salolainen sittenkin vaaleihin \\|last\\=Anttila\\|first\\= Timo J. \\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Ilta Sanomat}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://tulospalvelu.vaalit.fi/E2007/s/valitut/helsinkivpval.htm \\|title\\= Eduskuntavaalit 18\\.3\\.2007: Valitut ehdokkaat Helsingin vaalipiiri \\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Oikeusministeriö }} In his previous election, Salolainen had been the highest vote getter.",
"In the 2011 parliamentary elections, Salolainen was elected for a further term of 6, 205 votes\n{{cite web \\|url\\= http://tulospalvelu.vaalit.fi/E2011/s/valitut/helsinkivpval.htm \\|title\\= Eduskuntavaalit 17\\.4\\.20011: Valitut ehdokkaat Helsingin vaalipiiri \\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Oikeusministeriö }}",
""
] |
Introduction
------------
Since 2001, the DFS has developed its own radar and sensor data processing system, called PHOENIX (a programmatic name instead of an acronym), which is applied in a variety of environments, for a variety of purposes, and with a variety of functional requirements. With PHOENIX the DFS aimed at the level of an advanced ATC system in terms of the previous definitions, not to ATM. To meet these challenges a series of general concepts had been developed and implemented, which are of general interest for the definition and implementation of advanced ATC and C³ systems.
The PHOENIX tracker was originally developed for the surveillance of civilian ATC traffic. It is capable to perform MSDF utilizing very different sensor types regarding accuracy, update rates, as well as their supported attributes. Due to its flexible design it is perfectly suitable for surface movement ground surveillance.
### Grand context
German air traffic of today comprises between 1,000 and 2,000 aircraft tracks at the same time in the national airspace. Besides classical ATC radars also new types of sensors or position information sources like Multilateration, ADS\-B, and others are to be integrated. Per day it is required to process up to 10,000 flight plans. In the context of the discussion and development of transnational functional airspaces block like FABEC the required number of maintainable tracks will even grow beyond the 3,000, possibly more than 5,000 simultaneous tracks. An equivalent growth in needed flightplan handling capacity can be reasonably assumed. Each aircraft needs suitable Kalman filtering for tracking to cope both with steady flight and manoeuvre conditions in the different airspaces, and each IFR aircraft needs linkage processing to correlate flightplan data correctly to the track; simple code\-callsign\-pairing is insufficient due to multiple use of SSR codes.
At the same time the track and flightplan data have to be presented to a number of controller workstations (CWPs), ranging from 1 (low\-end applications) or 5 (in towers) to 120 (in ACCs), which results in the demand of an excellent scalability for such a system. Furthermore, CWPs will create much coordination data and additional track\-related information which are distributed over the LAN and eventually to external partner systems. To keep the total complex still controllable, system status monitoring and commanding facilities have to be inbuilt. Last but not least such system environments need large sets of configuration and resource data that have to be managed efficiently.
### Phoenix deployment
PHOENIX is a common R/SDPS tool in the German ATC world, used at more than 150 operational locations, scheduled for more than 700 additional locations, and used as a test, analysis, and evaluation tool in more than 200 locations.
Today, PHOENIX is an international R/SDPS tool with system recognised internationally.
|
[
"Introduction\n------------",
"Since 2001, the DFS has developed its own radar and sensor data processing system, called PHOENIX (a programmatic name instead of an acronym), which is applied in a variety of environments, for a variety of purposes, and with a variety of functional requirements. With PHOENIX the DFS aimed at the level of an advanced ATC system in terms of the previous definitions, not to ATM. To meet these challenges a series of general concepts had been developed and implemented, which are of general interest for the definition and implementation of advanced ATC and C³ systems.",
"The PHOENIX tracker was originally developed for the surveillance of civilian ATC traffic. It is capable to perform MSDF utilizing very different sensor types regarding accuracy, update rates, as well as their supported attributes. Due to its flexible design it is perfectly suitable for surface movement ground surveillance.",
"### Grand context",
"German air traffic of today comprises between 1,000 and 2,000 aircraft tracks at the same time in the national airspace. Besides classical ATC radars also new types of sensors or position information sources like Multilateration, ADS\\-B, and others are to be integrated. Per day it is required to process up to 10,000 flight plans. In the context of the discussion and development of transnational functional airspaces block like FABEC the required number of maintainable tracks will even grow beyond the 3,000, possibly more than 5,000 simultaneous tracks. An equivalent growth in needed flightplan handling capacity can be reasonably assumed. Each aircraft needs suitable Kalman filtering for tracking to cope both with steady flight and manoeuvre conditions in the different airspaces, and each IFR aircraft needs linkage processing to correlate flightplan data correctly to the track; simple code\\-callsign\\-pairing is insufficient due to multiple use of SSR codes.",
"At the same time the track and flightplan data have to be presented to a number of controller workstations (CWPs), ranging from 1 (low\\-end applications) or 5 (in towers) to 120 (in ACCs), which results in the demand of an excellent scalability for such a system. Furthermore, CWPs will create much coordination data and additional track\\-related information which are distributed over the LAN and eventually to external partner systems. To keep the total complex still controllable, system status monitoring and commanding facilities have to be inbuilt. Last but not least such system environments need large sets of configuration and resource data that have to be managed efficiently.",
"### Phoenix deployment",
"PHOENIX is a common R/SDPS tool in the German ATC world, used at more than 150 operational locations, scheduled for more than 700 additional locations, and used as a test, analysis, and evaluation tool in more than 200 locations. \nToday, PHOENIX is an international R/SDPS tool with system recognised internationally.",
""
] |
Activities
----------
The minimum commitment for UAS membership is attendance at weekly training nights during term\-time, generally held in Newcastle (see Town Nights below). A whole host of other activities are available on a sign up basis to provide an insight into life in the RAF.
### Flying
[thumb\|right\|University Air Squadron [Scottish Aviation Bulldog](/wiki/Scottish_Aviation_Bulldog "Scottish Aviation Bulldog") at [RAF Cottesmore](/wiki/RAF_Cottesmore "RAF Cottesmore") in 2000](/wiki/File:Scottish_Avn_Bulldog_T.1_XX707_Soton_COTT_22.07.00_edited-2.jpg "Scottish Avn Bulldog T.1 XX707 Soton COTT 22.07.00 edited-2.jpg")
Students follow a modified form of the Elementary Flying Syllabus covering the basics of flight up to solo navigation exercises. Students that complete this initial syllabus can then progress to the Advanced Flying Syllabus and learn formation flying, aerobatics, and low\-level navigation skills. Each student is nominally allocated 10 hours of flying training each year, though some flyers exceed this amount.
The flying aspect of NUAS is overseen by the [Commanding Officer](/wiki/Commanding_Officer "Commanding Officer") (OC NUAS) and the Chief Flying Instructor (CFI), both of which are RAF Qualified Flying Instructors (QFIs). Additional Instructors are sometimes available on flying Training Periods.
All flying is based at [RAF Leeming](/wiki/RAF_Leeming "RAF Leeming") where the [Grob Tutor](/wiki/Grob_G_115E "Grob G 115E") is used as the instructional aircraft. Previous types operated were the [de Havilland Chipmunk](/wiki/De_Havilland_Chipmunk "De Havilland Chipmunk") and [Scottish Aviation Bulldog](/wiki/Scottish_Aviation_Bulldog "Scottish Aviation Bulldog").
### Adventurous Training
NUAS participates in many forms of adventurous training (AT), including [climbing](/wiki/Climbing "Climbing"), [canoeing](/wiki/Canoeing "Canoeing"), [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking "Kayaking"), [mountaineering](/wiki/Mountaineering "Mountaineering"), [sailing](/wiki/Sailing "Sailing"), [ski touring](/wiki/Ski_touring "Ski touring") and [mountain biking](/wiki/Mountain_biking "Mountain biking"). The squadron's Ground Training Instructor (GTI) facilitates many of the above activities, but most activities and exercises are organised by students \- either individually, or in small groups.
NUAS relies heavily on student instructors for adventurous training (AT). Qualifications can be gained by attending a Joint Services Adventure Training (JSAT) course,[JSAT Courses](http://www.army.mod.uk/atg/jsat_courses.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126042656/http://army.mod.uk/atg/jsat\_courses.htm \|date\=26 January 2009 }} which is usually free. Students attending will be taught the necessary techniques for successful and safe instruction in their chosen discipline, and can then lead others on AT.
NUAS holds an annual Ski Trip, most recently to France and then Andorra, as well as one or two other major expeditions. These expeditions have involved travelling to places such as Iceland for Mountain Biking and Corsica, where students hiked part of the G20\.
### Force Development
Force Development (FD) includes visits to places of historical or educational value, such as museums and cities both in the UK and abroad. Most exercises are organised by students. Previous years have seen students visit Malta, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Cyprus.
### Sports
NUAS takes part in many inter\-UAS and inter\-service competitions, and occasionally provides an RAF presence at major sporting fixtures. NUAS also participates in the RAF Leeming CO's Cup each year.
### Charities
Every year NUAS students select a charity or charities to fundraise for throughout the year through student\-run events. Each year a Charity Town Night is timetabled in order to raise money for a charity selected by the students.
### Town Nights
These are weekly training nights which happen every Tuesday in Newcastle during term time (twice a term in Durham). A student appointed as the Town Night Exec arranges a timetable of activities throughout the academic year, covering a range of subjects from Air Power to Leadership Qualities. As mentioned, Town Nights are compulsory activities for all student members of NUAS, and written permission is required from OC NUAS if a student is unable to attend.
|
[
"Activities\n----------",
"",
"The minimum commitment for UAS membership is attendance at weekly training nights during term\\-time, generally held in Newcastle (see Town Nights below). A whole host of other activities are available on a sign up basis to provide an insight into life in the RAF.",
"### Flying",
"[thumb\\|right\\|University Air Squadron [Scottish Aviation Bulldog](/wiki/Scottish_Aviation_Bulldog \"Scottish Aviation Bulldog\") at [RAF Cottesmore](/wiki/RAF_Cottesmore \"RAF Cottesmore\") in 2000](/wiki/File:Scottish_Avn_Bulldog_T.1_XX707_Soton_COTT_22.07.00_edited-2.jpg \"Scottish Avn Bulldog T.1 XX707 Soton COTT 22.07.00 edited-2.jpg\")\nStudents follow a modified form of the Elementary Flying Syllabus covering the basics of flight up to solo navigation exercises. Students that complete this initial syllabus can then progress to the Advanced Flying Syllabus and learn formation flying, aerobatics, and low\\-level navigation skills. Each student is nominally allocated 10 hours of flying training each year, though some flyers exceed this amount.",
"The flying aspect of NUAS is overseen by the [Commanding Officer](/wiki/Commanding_Officer \"Commanding Officer\") (OC NUAS) and the Chief Flying Instructor (CFI), both of which are RAF Qualified Flying Instructors (QFIs). Additional Instructors are sometimes available on flying Training Periods.",
"All flying is based at [RAF Leeming](/wiki/RAF_Leeming \"RAF Leeming\") where the [Grob Tutor](/wiki/Grob_G_115E \"Grob G 115E\") is used as the instructional aircraft. Previous types operated were the [de Havilland Chipmunk](/wiki/De_Havilland_Chipmunk \"De Havilland Chipmunk\") and [Scottish Aviation Bulldog](/wiki/Scottish_Aviation_Bulldog \"Scottish Aviation Bulldog\").",
"### Adventurous Training",
"NUAS participates in many forms of adventurous training (AT), including [climbing](/wiki/Climbing \"Climbing\"), [canoeing](/wiki/Canoeing \"Canoeing\"), [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking \"Kayaking\"), [mountaineering](/wiki/Mountaineering \"Mountaineering\"), [sailing](/wiki/Sailing \"Sailing\"), [ski touring](/wiki/Ski_touring \"Ski touring\") and [mountain biking](/wiki/Mountain_biking \"Mountain biking\"). The squadron's Ground Training Instructor (GTI) facilitates many of the above activities, but most activities and exercises are organised by students \\- either individually, or in small groups.",
"NUAS relies heavily on student instructors for adventurous training (AT). Qualifications can be gained by attending a Joint Services Adventure Training (JSAT) course,[JSAT Courses](http://www.army.mod.uk/atg/jsat_courses.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126042656/http://army.mod.uk/atg/jsat\\_courses.htm \\|date\\=26 January 2009 }} which is usually free. Students attending will be taught the necessary techniques for successful and safe instruction in their chosen discipline, and can then lead others on AT.",
"NUAS holds an annual Ski Trip, most recently to France and then Andorra, as well as one or two other major expeditions. These expeditions have involved travelling to places such as Iceland for Mountain Biking and Corsica, where students hiked part of the G20\\.",
"### Force Development",
"Force Development (FD) includes visits to places of historical or educational value, such as museums and cities both in the UK and abroad. Most exercises are organised by students. Previous years have seen students visit Malta, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Cyprus.",
"### Sports",
"NUAS takes part in many inter\\-UAS and inter\\-service competitions, and occasionally provides an RAF presence at major sporting fixtures. NUAS also participates in the RAF Leeming CO's Cup each year.",
"### Charities",
"Every year NUAS students select a charity or charities to fundraise for throughout the year through student\\-run events. Each year a Charity Town Night is timetabled in order to raise money for a charity selected by the students.",
"### Town Nights",
"These are weekly training nights which happen every Tuesday in Newcastle during term time (twice a term in Durham). A student appointed as the Town Night Exec arranges a timetable of activities throughout the academic year, covering a range of subjects from Air Power to Leadership Qualities. As mentioned, Town Nights are compulsory activities for all student members of NUAS, and written permission is required from OC NUAS if a student is unable to attend.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 1939, a woman dies while giving birth in a [slaughterhouse](/wiki/Slaughterhouse "Slaughterhouse") in [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), and the supervisor abandons the baby in a dumpster. When young [Luda Mae Hewitt](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Luda_Mae_Hewitt "List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Luda Mae Hewitt") finds the child, she takes him back to the Hewitt residence, names him [Thomas](/wiki/Leatherface "Leatherface") and raises him as her own son.
Thirty years later, Thomas works in the slaughterhouse under the same supervisor who left him in the dumpster. When the plant is shut down by the health department, he refuses to leave until the supervisor makes him. Thomas kills the supervisor with a hammer and finds a [chainsaw](/wiki/Chainsaw "Chainsaw"), which he takes with him. When Sheriff Hoyt attempts to arrest him, Luda Mae's son, [Charlie Hewitt](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Sheriff_Hoyt_/_Charlie_Hewitt_Jr. "List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Sheriff Hoyt / Charlie Hewitt Jr.") kills Hoyt and assumes his identity.
Meanwhile, brothers Eric and Dean, are driving across the country with their girlfriends, Chrissie and Bailey, to enlist in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"). At a diner, they run into a biker gang, one of whom follows them on her motorcycle. She draws a shotgun and orders the group to pull over. In the ensuing chaos, the car crashes, and Chrissie is thrown into a field. When Hoyt arrives, he kills the biker and makes them put her body in his car. He then calls for [Uncle Monty](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Monty_Hewitt "List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Monty Hewitt") to tow the jeep, which Chrissie is hiding in.
Hoyt drives the group to the Hewitt house where he has Thomas butcher the biker's body. Chrissie runs to the highway and flags down Holden, the biker's boyfriend, and they return to the house together. Hoyt tortures Dean after finding out that he was [going to forgo the Vietnam War draft](/wiki/Draft_dodging "Draft dodging"). When Hoyt leaves, Eric breaks free from his restraints and gets Dean to safety before sneaking into the house to free Bailey. Bailey escapes in Monty's truck but Thomas stabs her with a meat hook and drags her back to the house. Dean gets caught in a bear trap, and Hoyt knocks Eric unconscious.
Holden and Chrissie part ways to search for their friends. While Chrissie finds Dean, Holden takes Hoyt hostage. Thomas straps Eric to a wooden table and slices off the nerves in both of his arms. Hoyt calls out to Thomas for help, and Thomas kills Holden with the chainsaw. Chrissie finds Eric in the basement but is unable to free him, and hides when Thomas returns. Thomas kills Eric with the chainsaw, then skins his face and wears it as a mask. Chrissie is about to flee when she hears Bailey's screams and decides to save her. She finds her upstairs, but Hoyt catches her and brings her downstairs for dinner, along with Bailey and an unconscious Dean. Leatherface slits Bailey's throat and tries to take Chrissie to the basement, but she stabs him in the back with a screwdriver, and jumps out of a window.
Dean regains consciousness and savagely beats Hoyt before heading off to find Chrissie. Chrissie enters the slaughterhouse, grabs a knife and cuts Leatherface's face, but he overpowers her. Dean intervenes but Leatherface kills him with the chainsaw. Chrissie escapes in the slaughterhouse supervisor's car and drives off. She sees a [state trooper](/wiki/State_trooper "State trooper") with a pulled\-over pedestrian, but as she pulls over, Leatherface appears in the backseat and impales her with the chainsaw, causing the car to lose control and kill both the trooper and pedestrian. A triumphant Leatherface walks along the road back towards the Hewitt house.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 1939, a woman dies while giving birth in a [slaughterhouse](/wiki/Slaughterhouse \"Slaughterhouse\") in [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), and the supervisor abandons the baby in a dumpster. When young [Luda Mae Hewitt](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Luda_Mae_Hewitt \"List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Luda Mae Hewitt\") finds the child, she takes him back to the Hewitt residence, names him [Thomas](/wiki/Leatherface \"Leatherface\") and raises him as her own son.",
"Thirty years later, Thomas works in the slaughterhouse under the same supervisor who left him in the dumpster. When the plant is shut down by the health department, he refuses to leave until the supervisor makes him. Thomas kills the supervisor with a hammer and finds a [chainsaw](/wiki/Chainsaw \"Chainsaw\"), which he takes with him. When Sheriff Hoyt attempts to arrest him, Luda Mae's son, [Charlie Hewitt](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Sheriff_Hoyt_/_Charlie_Hewitt_Jr. \"List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Sheriff Hoyt / Charlie Hewitt Jr.\") kills Hoyt and assumes his identity.",
"Meanwhile, brothers Eric and Dean, are driving across the country with their girlfriends, Chrissie and Bailey, to enlist in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"). At a diner, they run into a biker gang, one of whom follows them on her motorcycle. She draws a shotgun and orders the group to pull over. In the ensuing chaos, the car crashes, and Chrissie is thrown into a field. When Hoyt arrives, he kills the biker and makes them put her body in his car. He then calls for [Uncle Monty](/wiki/List_of_The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_characters%23Monty_Hewitt \"List of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters#Monty Hewitt\") to tow the jeep, which Chrissie is hiding in.",
"Hoyt drives the group to the Hewitt house where he has Thomas butcher the biker's body. Chrissie runs to the highway and flags down Holden, the biker's boyfriend, and they return to the house together. Hoyt tortures Dean after finding out that he was [going to forgo the Vietnam War draft](/wiki/Draft_dodging \"Draft dodging\"). When Hoyt leaves, Eric breaks free from his restraints and gets Dean to safety before sneaking into the house to free Bailey. Bailey escapes in Monty's truck but Thomas stabs her with a meat hook and drags her back to the house. Dean gets caught in a bear trap, and Hoyt knocks Eric unconscious.",
"Holden and Chrissie part ways to search for their friends. While Chrissie finds Dean, Holden takes Hoyt hostage. Thomas straps Eric to a wooden table and slices off the nerves in both of his arms. Hoyt calls out to Thomas for help, and Thomas kills Holden with the chainsaw. Chrissie finds Eric in the basement but is unable to free him, and hides when Thomas returns. Thomas kills Eric with the chainsaw, then skins his face and wears it as a mask. Chrissie is about to flee when she hears Bailey's screams and decides to save her. She finds her upstairs, but Hoyt catches her and brings her downstairs for dinner, along with Bailey and an unconscious Dean. Leatherface slits Bailey's throat and tries to take Chrissie to the basement, but she stabs him in the back with a screwdriver, and jumps out of a window.",
"Dean regains consciousness and savagely beats Hoyt before heading off to find Chrissie. Chrissie enters the slaughterhouse, grabs a knife and cuts Leatherface's face, but he overpowers her. Dean intervenes but Leatherface kills him with the chainsaw. Chrissie escapes in the slaughterhouse supervisor's car and drives off. She sees a [state trooper](/wiki/State_trooper \"State trooper\") with a pulled\\-over pedestrian, but as she pulls over, Leatherface appears in the backseat and impales her with the chainsaw, causing the car to lose control and kill both the trooper and pedestrian. A triumphant Leatherface walks along the road back towards the Hewitt house.",
""
] |
Germanic languages
------------------
### English
Excluding four common irregular verbs, the principal parts of all other [English verbs](/wiki/English_verb "English verb") are the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive"), [preterite](/wiki/Preterite "Preterite") and [past participle](/wiki/Past_participle "Past participle"). All forms of these English verbs can be derived from the three principal parts. Four verbs have an unpredictable 3rd person singular form and the verb "to be" is so irregular it has seven separate forms. Lists or recitations of principal parts in English often omit the third principal part's auxiliary verb, rendering it identical to its grammatically distinct [participial](/wiki/Participial "Participial") form. For example, the verb "to take" has the principal parts *take – took – (have) taken*. The verb "to bet" has *bet – bet – (have) bet* and the verb "to break" has *break – broke – (have) broken*. With irregular verbs the simple present 3S (he, she, it) is derived from infinitive\+'s' with the exception of spelling changes such as *catch – catches*, *fly – flies* and *teach – teaches*, which follow the same rules for regular 3S verbs.
#### Examples of irregular verbs and their principal parts
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ only one part is irregular | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **sew** |
| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\|blue\|sewed}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|red\|sewn}}** |
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ both parts are irregular | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **sing** |
| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\|red\|sang}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|red\|sung}}** |
|
{{col\-break}}
| \+ all forms are the same | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **cut** |
| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\|purple\|cut}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|cut}}** |
|
{{Col\-end}}
#### Regular verbs
Most verbs are regular enough that all forms can be derived directly from the infinitive. For example, the verb *love* derives all its forms systematically (*love, loved, loving, has loved, loves*), and since these can all be deduced from the basic form (the citation, dictionary, or lexicographic form, which in English is the bare [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive")), no other principal parts have to be learned. With [irregular verbs](/wiki/Irregular_verbs "Irregular verbs") like the verb *sing*, on the other hand, the forms *sang* and *(have) sung* cannot be deduced, so the learner of English must memorize three principal parts, *sing – sang – (have) sung*. The present 3S (he/she/it) is derived from the infinitive\+'s' with the exception of verbs ending in a single \-o, or ending in \-s, \-x, \-z or the digraphs \-sh, \-ch, in which case it is derived from 'infinitive\+es'. With three irregular verbs (and their derivatives) the 3S has to be learnt independently (e.g. has, does, undoes, redoes).
{{Col\-begin}}
{{col\-break}}
| \+ ends in the letter e | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **score** |
| preterite | **score{{font color\|blue\|d}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|scored}}** |
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ other endings | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **risk** |
| preterite | **risk{{font color\|orange\|e}}{{font color\|blue\|d}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|risked}}** |
|
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ doubling consonants | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **stop** |
| preterite | **stop{{font color\|red\|p}}{{font color\|orange\|e}}{{font color\|blue\|d}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|stopped}}** |
|
{{Col\-end}}
#### Highly irregular verbs
There are three verbs (in addition to their derivatives) with an irregular third person singular form in the present tense. As a result, three principal parts are insufficient to [conjugate](/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation "Grammatical conjugation") these fully.
{{Col\-begin}}
{{col\-break}}
| \+ to have | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **have** |
| present 3S | **{{font color\|red\|has}}** (hæz) |
| preterite | **{{font color\|red\|had}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|had}}** |
|
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ to say | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **say** |
| present 3S | **{{font color\|red\|says}}** (sɛz) |
| preterite | **{{font color\|red\|said}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|said}}** |
|
{{Col\-break}}
| \+ to do | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **do** |
| present 3S | **{{font color\|red\|does}}** (dʌz) |
| preterite | **{{font color\|red\|did}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|purple\|done}}** |
|
{{Col\-end}}
#### To be
The verb "to be" is completely irregular having seven separate forms.
| \+ To be with seven different forms | Part | rendering |
| --- | --- | --- |
| infinitive | to **be** |
| present 1S | **{{font color\|red\|am}}** |
| present plural and 2S | **{{font color\|red\|are}}** |
| present 3S | **{{font color\|red\|is}}** |
| preterite 1S and 3S | **{{font color\|red\|was}}** |
| preterite plural and 2S | **{{font color\|red\|were}}** |
| past participle | **{{font color\|red\|been}}** |
|
### German
The situation in German is very similar to English. Regular verbs require no memorizing of principal parts, since all forms can be deduced from the infinitive. However, some uncertainty may exist as to the choice of the perfect [auxiliary](/wiki/Auxiliary_verb "Auxiliary verb"), which could be *haben* ('to have') or *sein* ('to be'). This can be solved by memorizing the infinitive with the third\-person singular perfect tense, which some teachers recommend.
*tanzen – er hat getanzt*
[Strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb "Germanic strong verb") and irregular [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb "Germanic weak verb") are more complicated. As in English, these verbs are usually memorized by means of three principal parts: *infinitive – third\-person singular past tense – third\-person singular perfect tense*.
*singen – sang – gesungen* ('to sing' – a typical strong verb)
*bringen – brachte – gebracht* ('to bring' – an irregular weak verb)
However, in order to deduce the full paradigm, learners must also know the *third\-person singular present* and the *third\-person singular past subjunctive*, which involve some peculiarities.
A small number of verbs have other irregularities, most of which are limited to the forms of the present tense.
### Icelandic
There are four types of principal parts in the [Icelandic language](/wiki/Icelandic_language "Icelandic language"), determined by the type of verb:
#### Weak verbs
Icelandic [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb "Germanic weak verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| að *borða* ("to *eat*") | ég *borðaði* ("I *ate*") | ég hef *borðað* ("I have *eaten*) |
| Að *elska* ("to *love*") | ég *elskaði* ("I *loved*") | ég hef *elskað* ("I have *loved*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *borði*, "though I *eat*") from the first principal part (að *borða*, "to *eat*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *borðaði*, "though I *ate*") from the second principal part (ég *borðaði*, "I *ate*").
In some other classes of weak verbs without 'a' as the thematic vowel, the present indicative singular undergoes more changes, but they are still to a large extent predictable.
#### Strong verbs
Icelandic [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb "Germanic strong verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [plural](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *finna* ("to *find*") | Ég *fann* ("I *found*") | Við *fundum* ("we *found*") | Ég hef *fundið* ("I have *found*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *finni*, "though I *find*") from the first principal part (að *finna*, "to *find*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *fyndi*, "though I *found*") from the third principal part (við *fundum*, "we *found*").
The present singular indicative in this class also undergoes more changes (i\-umlaut, dental suffix assimilation etc.), which may let some verbs seem irregular at first glance. They are, however, mainly regular changes, like those in the weak verbs.
#### Preterite\-present verb
Icelandic [Preterite\-present verbs](/wiki/Preterite-present_verb "Preterite-present verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [present tense](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *kunna* ("to *know*") | Ég *kann* ("I *know*") | Ég *kunni* ("I *knew*") | Ég hef *kunnað* ("I've *known*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *kunni*, "though I *knew*") from the first principal part (að *kunna*, "to *know*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *kynni*, "though I *knew*") from the third principal part (ég *kunni*, "I *knew*").
#### Ri\-verbs
Icelandic [Ri\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb "Ri-verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *snúa* ("to *turn*") | Ég *sneri*[Ri\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb "Ri-verb") are written with an *e* in the second principal part according to the [Icelandic Ministry of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_%28Iceland%29 "Ministry of Education (Iceland)") even though it is pronounced as if it were written with an *é*. ("I *turned*") | Ég hef *snúið* ("I have *turned*") |
| Að *gróa* ("to *heal*") | Ég *greri* ("I *healed*") | Ég hef *gróið* ("I have *healed*") |
| Að *núa* ("to *rub*") | Ég *neri* ("I *rubbed*") | Ég hef *núið* ("I have *rubbed*") |
| Að *róa* ("to *row*") | Ég *reri* ("I *rowed*") | Ég hef *róið* ("I have *rowed*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *snúi*, "though I *turn*") from the first principal part (að *snúa*, "to *turn*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *sneri*, "though I *turned*") from the second principal part (ég *sneri*, "I *turned*").
|
[
"Germanic languages\n------------------",
"### English",
"Excluding four common irregular verbs, the principal parts of all other [English verbs](/wiki/English_verb \"English verb\") are the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\"), [preterite](/wiki/Preterite \"Preterite\") and [past participle](/wiki/Past_participle \"Past participle\"). All forms of these English verbs can be derived from the three principal parts. Four verbs have an unpredictable 3rd person singular form and the verb \"to be\" is so irregular it has seven separate forms. Lists or recitations of principal parts in English often omit the third principal part's auxiliary verb, rendering it identical to its grammatically distinct [participial](/wiki/Participial \"Participial\") form. For example, the verb \"to take\" has the principal parts *take – took – (have) taken*. The verb \"to bet\" has *bet – bet – (have) bet* and the verb \"to break\" has *break – broke – (have) broken*. With irregular verbs the simple present 3S (he, she, it) is derived from infinitive\\+'s' with the exception of spelling changes such as *catch – catches*, *fly – flies* and *teach – teaches*, which follow the same rules for regular 3S verbs.",
"#### Examples of irregular verbs and their principal parts",
"",
"{{Col\\-begin}}",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ only one part is irregular | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **sew** |\n| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\\|blue\\|sewed}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|red\\|sewn}}** |",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ both parts are irregular | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **sing** |\n| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\\|red\\|sang}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|red\\|sung}}** |\n|",
"{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ all forms are the same | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **cut** |\n| preterite (or simple past) | **{{font color\\|purple\\|cut}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|cut}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-end}}",
"#### Regular verbs",
"Most verbs are regular enough that all forms can be derived directly from the infinitive. For example, the verb *love* derives all its forms systematically (*love, loved, loving, has loved, loves*), and since these can all be deduced from the basic form (the citation, dictionary, or lexicographic form, which in English is the bare [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\")), no other principal parts have to be learned. With [irregular verbs](/wiki/Irregular_verbs \"Irregular verbs\") like the verb *sing*, on the other hand, the forms *sang* and *(have) sung* cannot be deduced, so the learner of English must memorize three principal parts, *sing – sang – (have) sung*. The present 3S (he/she/it) is derived from the infinitive\\+'s' with the exception of verbs ending in a single \\-o, or ending in \\-s, \\-x, \\-z or the digraphs \\-sh, \\-ch, in which case it is derived from 'infinitive\\+es'. With three irregular verbs (and their derivatives) the 3S has to be learnt independently (e.g. has, does, undoes, redoes).",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ ends in the letter e | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **score** |\n| preterite | **score{{font color\\|blue\\|d}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|scored}}** |",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ other endings | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **risk** |\n| preterite | **risk{{font color\\|orange\\|e}}{{font color\\|blue\\|d}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|risked}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ doubling consonants | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **stop** |\n| preterite | **stop{{font color\\|red\\|p}}{{font color\\|orange\\|e}}{{font color\\|blue\\|d}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|stopped}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-end}}",
"#### Highly irregular verbs",
"There are three verbs (in addition to their derivatives) with an irregular third person singular form in the present tense. As a result, three principal parts are insufficient to [conjugate](/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation \"Grammatical conjugation\") these fully.",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ to have | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **have** |\n| present 3S | **{{font color\\|red\\|has}}** (hæz) |\n| preterite | **{{font color\\|red\\|had}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|had}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ to say | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **say** |\n| present 3S | **{{font color\\|red\\|says}}** (sɛz) |\n| preterite | **{{font color\\|red\\|said}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|said}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-break}}",
"| \\+ to do | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **do** |\n| present 3S | **{{font color\\|red\\|does}}** (dʌz) |\n| preterite | **{{font color\\|red\\|did}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|purple\\|done}}** |\n|",
"{{Col\\-end}}",
"#### To be",
"The verb \"to be\" is completely irregular having seven separate forms.",
"",
"| \\+ To be with seven different forms | Part | rendering |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| infinitive | to **be** |\n| present 1S | **{{font color\\|red\\|am}}** |\n| present plural and 2S | **{{font color\\|red\\|are}}** |\n| present 3S | **{{font color\\|red\\|is}}** |\n| preterite 1S and 3S | **{{font color\\|red\\|was}}** |\n| preterite plural and 2S | **{{font color\\|red\\|were}}** |\n| past participle | **{{font color\\|red\\|been}}** |\n|",
"### German",
"The situation in German is very similar to English. Regular verbs require no memorizing of principal parts, since all forms can be deduced from the infinitive. However, some uncertainty may exist as to the choice of the perfect [auxiliary](/wiki/Auxiliary_verb \"Auxiliary verb\"), which could be *haben* ('to have') or *sein* ('to be'). This can be solved by memorizing the infinitive with the third\\-person singular perfect tense, which some teachers recommend.\n*tanzen – er hat getanzt*",
"[Strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb \"Germanic strong verb\") and irregular [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb \"Germanic weak verb\") are more complicated. As in English, these verbs are usually memorized by means of three principal parts: *infinitive – third\\-person singular past tense – third\\-person singular perfect tense*. \n*singen – sang – gesungen* ('to sing' – a typical strong verb)\n*bringen – brachte – gebracht* ('to bring' – an irregular weak verb)",
"However, in order to deduce the full paradigm, learners must also know the *third\\-person singular present* and the *third\\-person singular past subjunctive*, which involve some peculiarities.",
"A small number of verbs have other irregularities, most of which are limited to the forms of the present tense.",
"### Icelandic",
"There are four types of principal parts in the [Icelandic language](/wiki/Icelandic_language \"Icelandic language\"), determined by the type of verb:",
"#### Weak verbs",
"Icelandic [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb \"Germanic weak verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| að *borða* (\"to *eat*\") | ég *borðaði* (\"I *ate*\") | ég hef *borðað* (\"I have *eaten*) |\n| Að *elska* (\"to *love*\") | ég *elskaði* (\"I *loved*\") | ég hef *elskað* (\"I have *loved*\") |",
"",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *borði*, \"though I *eat*\") from the first principal part (að *borða*, \"to *eat*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *borðaði*, \"though I *ate*\") from the second principal part (ég *borðaði*, \"I *ate*\").",
"In some other classes of weak verbs without 'a' as the thematic vowel, the present indicative singular undergoes more changes, but they are still to a large extent predictable.",
"#### Strong verbs",
"Icelandic [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb \"Germanic strong verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [plural](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *finna* (\"to *find*\") | Ég *fann* (\"I *found*\") | Við *fundum* (\"we *found*\") | Ég hef *fundið* (\"I have *found*\") |",
"",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *finni*, \"though I *find*\") from the first principal part (að *finna*, \"to *find*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *fyndi*, \"though I *found*\") from the third principal part (við *fundum*, \"we *found*\").",
"The present singular indicative in this class also undergoes more changes (i\\-umlaut, dental suffix assimilation etc.), which may let some verbs seem irregular at first glance. They are, however, mainly regular changes, like those in the weak verbs.",
"#### Preterite\\-present verb",
"Icelandic [Preterite\\-present verbs](/wiki/Preterite-present_verb \"Preterite-present verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [present tense](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *kunna* (\"to *know*\") | Ég *kann* (\"I *know*\") | Ég *kunni* (\"I *knew*\") | Ég hef *kunnað* (\"I've *known*\") |",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *kunni*, \"though I *knew*\") from the first principal part (að *kunna*, \"to *know*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *kynni*, \"though I *knew*\") from the third principal part (ég *kunni*, \"I *knew*\").",
"#### Ri\\-verbs",
"Icelandic [Ri\\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb \"Ri-verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *snúa* (\"to *turn*\") | Ég *sneri*[Ri\\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb \"Ri-verb\") are written with an *e* in the second principal part according to the [Icelandic Ministry of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_%28Iceland%29 \"Ministry of Education (Iceland)\") even though it is pronounced as if it were written with an *é*. (\"I *turned*\") | Ég hef *snúið* (\"I have *turned*\") |\n| Að *gróa* (\"to *heal*\") | Ég *greri* (\"I *healed*\") | Ég hef *gróið* (\"I have *healed*\") |\n| Að *núa* (\"to *rub*\") | Ég *neri* (\"I *rubbed*\") | Ég hef *núið* (\"I have *rubbed*\") |\n| Að *róa* (\"to *row*\") | Ég *reri* (\"I *rowed*\") | Ég hef *róið* (\"I have *rowed*\") |",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *snúi*, \"though I *turn*\") from the first principal part (að *snúa*, \"to *turn*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *sneri*, \"though I *turned*\") from the second principal part (ég *sneri*, \"I *turned*\").",
""
] |
### Icelandic
There are four types of principal parts in the [Icelandic language](/wiki/Icelandic_language "Icelandic language"), determined by the type of verb:
#### Weak verbs
Icelandic [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb "Germanic weak verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| að *borða* ("to *eat*") | ég *borðaði* ("I *ate*") | ég hef *borðað* ("I have *eaten*) |
| Að *elska* ("to *love*") | ég *elskaði* ("I *loved*") | ég hef *elskað* ("I have *loved*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *borði*, "though I *eat*") from the first principal part (að *borða*, "to *eat*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *borðaði*, "though I *ate*") from the second principal part (ég *borðaði*, "I *ate*").
In some other classes of weak verbs without 'a' as the thematic vowel, the present indicative singular undergoes more changes, but they are still to a large extent predictable.
#### Strong verbs
Icelandic [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb "Germanic strong verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [plural](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *finna* ("to *find*") | Ég *fann* ("I *found*") | Við *fundum* ("we *found*") | Ég hef *fundið* ("I have *found*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *finni*, "though I *find*") from the first principal part (að *finna*, "to *find*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *fyndi*, "though I *found*") from the third principal part (við *fundum*, "we *found*").
The present singular indicative in this class also undergoes more changes (i\-umlaut, dental suffix assimilation etc.), which may let some verbs seem irregular at first glance. They are, however, mainly regular changes, like those in the weak verbs.
#### Preterite\-present verb
Icelandic [Preterite\-present verbs](/wiki/Preterite-present_verb "Preterite-present verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [present tense](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *kunna* ("to *know*") | Ég *kann* ("I *know*") | Ég *kunni* ("I *knew*") | Ég hef *kunnað* ("I've *known*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *kunni*, "though I *knew*") from the first principal part (að *kunna*, "to *know*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *kynni*, "though I *knew*") from the third principal part (ég *kunni*, "I *knew*").
#### Ri\-verbs
Icelandic [Ri\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb "Ri-verb") have the following principal parts:
| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood "Realis mood") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle "Participle") |
| Að *snúa* ("to *turn*") | Ég *sneri*[Ri\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb "Ri-verb") are written with an *e* in the second principal part according to the [Icelandic Ministry of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_%28Iceland%29 "Ministry of Education (Iceland)") even though it is pronounced as if it were written with an *é*. ("I *turned*") | Ég hef *snúið* ("I have *turned*") |
| Að *gróa* ("to *heal*") | Ég *greri* ("I *healed*") | Ég hef *gróið* ("I have *healed*") |
| Að *núa* ("to *rub*") | Ég *neri* ("I *rubbed*") | Ég hef *núið* ("I have *rubbed*") |
| Að *róa* ("to *row*") | Ég *reri* ("I *rowed*") | Ég hef *róið* ("I have *rowed*") |
It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *snúi*, "though I *turn*") from the first principal part (að *snúa*, "to *turn*"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood") (þótt ég *sneri*, "though I *turned*") from the second principal part (ég *sneri*, "I *turned*").
|
[
"### Icelandic",
"There are four types of principal parts in the [Icelandic language](/wiki/Icelandic_language \"Icelandic language\"), determined by the type of verb:",
"#### Weak verbs",
"Icelandic [weak verbs](/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb \"Germanic weak verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| að *borða* (\"to *eat*\") | ég *borðaði* (\"I *ate*\") | ég hef *borðað* (\"I have *eaten*) |\n| Að *elska* (\"to *love*\") | ég *elskaði* (\"I *loved*\") | ég hef *elskað* (\"I have *loved*\") |",
"",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *borði*, \"though I *eat*\") from the first principal part (að *borða*, \"to *eat*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *borðaði*, \"though I *ate*\") from the second principal part (ég *borðaði*, \"I *ate*\").",
"In some other classes of weak verbs without 'a' as the thematic vowel, the present indicative singular undergoes more changes, but they are still to a large extent predictable.",
"#### Strong verbs",
"Icelandic [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb \"Germanic strong verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [plural](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *finna* (\"to *find*\") | Ég *fann* (\"I *found*\") | Við *fundum* (\"we *found*\") | Ég hef *fundið* (\"I have *found*\") |",
"",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *finni*, \"though I *find*\") from the first principal part (að *finna*, \"to *find*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *fyndi*, \"though I *found*\") from the third principal part (við *fundum*, \"we *found*\").",
"The present singular indicative in this class also undergoes more changes (i\\-umlaut, dental suffix assimilation etc.), which may let some verbs seem irregular at first glance. They are, however, mainly regular changes, like those in the weak verbs.",
"#### Preterite\\-present verb",
"Icelandic [Preterite\\-present verbs](/wiki/Preterite-present_verb \"Preterite-present verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part | Fourth principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [present tense](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *kunna* (\"to *know*\") | Ég *kann* (\"I *know*\") | Ég *kunni* (\"I *knew*\") | Ég hef *kunnað* (\"I've *known*\") |",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *kunni*, \"though I *knew*\") from the first principal part (að *kunna*, \"to *know*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *kynni*, \"though I *knew*\") from the third principal part (ég *kunni*, \"I *knew*\").",
"#### Ri\\-verbs",
"Icelandic [Ri\\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb \"Ri-verb\") have the following principal parts:",
"",
"| First principal part | Second principal part | Third principal part |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") | [First person](/wiki/Grammatical_person \"Grammatical person\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [past tense](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [indicative mood](/wiki/Realis_mood \"Realis mood\") | [Past participle](/wiki/Participle \"Participle\") |\n| Að *snúa* (\"to *turn*\") | Ég *sneri*[Ri\\-verbs](/wiki/Ri-verb \"Ri-verb\") are written with an *e* in the second principal part according to the [Icelandic Ministry of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_%28Iceland%29 \"Ministry of Education (Iceland)\") even though it is pronounced as if it were written with an *é*. (\"I *turned*\") | Ég hef *snúið* (\"I have *turned*\") |\n| Að *gróa* (\"to *heal*\") | Ég *greri* (\"I *healed*\") | Ég hef *gróið* (\"I have *healed*\") |\n| Að *núa* (\"to *rub*\") | Ég *neri* (\"I *rubbed*\") | Ég hef *núið* (\"I have *rubbed*\") |\n| Að *róa* (\"to *row*\") | Ég *reri* (\"I *rowed*\") | Ég hef *róið* (\"I have *rowed*\") |",
"It is possible to make the [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *snúi*, \"though I *turn*\") from the first principal part (að *snúa*, \"to *turn*\"). It is also possible to make the [past](/wiki/Past_tense \"Past tense\") [subjunctive mood](/wiki/Subjunctive_mood \"Subjunctive mood\") (þótt ég *sneri*, \"though I *turned*\") from the second principal part (ég *sneri*, \"I *turned*\").",
""
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.