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### Early life and artistic career in Lithuania Moshe Rosenthalis was born on 18 November 1922 in [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 "Marijampolė"), Lithuania. Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 11\. His father was a grain merchant who had fallen from grace. David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi. At three, he strove to draw the street outside his home with a pencil. Rosenthalis received his first art lessons from the painter Aryeh (Levas) Margushilski, then a young art student and later a mentor to many painters in Tel Aviv. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi. In 1940, after completing his studies at the Hebrew High School in Marijampolė, he was accepted to the [Kaunas Art School](/wiki/Kaunas_Art_School "Kaunas Art School"), and studied there for a year. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi, xxiii, xxiv. In 1941, after the Germans invaded territories held by the Soviet Union, he fled to the Russian interior. Later, he was conscripted into the Lithuanian division of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") and was wounded in battle. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. He was appointed as the official painter of his battalion. He painted portraits of military heroes and leaders and organized [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist "Protagonist") exhibitions to raise the soldiers' morale. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxii. After his discharge from the army, Rosenthalis settled in Vilnius and enrolled in the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts "Vilnius Academy of Arts"), where he studied from 1945 to 1950\. Alec Mishori, Moshe Rosenthalis: History of the Jewish People, in The Great Sight, 2013, p. 14e. His teachers include [Petras Kalpokas](/wiki/Petras_Kalpokas "Petras Kalpokas") and [Antanas Gudaitis](/wiki/Antanas_Gudaitis_%281904%29 "Antanas Gudaitis (1904)"); notable artists who studied there were [Chaïm Soutine](/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine "Chaïm Soutine"), [Pinchus Kremegne](/wiki/Pinchus_Kremegne "Pinchus Kremegne") and [Jacques Lipchitz](/wiki/Jacques_Lipchitz "Jacques Lipchitz"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix, x. He won two drawing prizes: one for poster design and the other for his diploma work. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. His final project, "Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail in 1940", was on display at the Moscow Art Academy. Today it is on display at the Soviet Art Gallery of [Grūtas Park](/wiki/Gr%C5%ABtas_Park "Grūtas Park"). Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 12\-13\. In 1950, at age 28, he was accepted to the [Lithuanian Artists' Association](/wiki/Lithuanian_Artists%27_Association "Lithuanian Artists' Association"). Carl Hoffman (August 16, 2012\). [A treasure lost and found](https://www.jpost.com/metro/arts-and-culture/a-treasure-lost-and-found). [The Jerusalem Post](/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post "The Jerusalem Post"). The official artistic style in the Soviet Union at that period was socialist realism, manifesting the natural and materialistic world without taking a stand. Rosenthalis had no option but to compromise and follow that school. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis \- Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. P. 145\. [thumb\|left\|upright\|Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail, 1950, oil on canvas, 160\*220 (graduation project), [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania "National Museum of Lithuania")](/wiki/File:%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1._%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A1._1950.jpg "משה רוזנטליס. שחרור אסירים פוליטיים מבית הכלא בקאונס. 1950.jpg") He participated in exhibitions throughout Lithuania, and in 1951 gained critical acclaim from [Pravda](/wiki/Pravda "Pravda") art critic when he took part in a group exhibition held in [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery "Tretyakov Gallery"), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), among 300 canvasses, David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix. and has been awarded the Medal of Excellence by the [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet "Supreme Soviet"). Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis –Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 145\. His works were acquired by museums and institutions throughout the USSR. Three of his works were purchased by the [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania "National Museum of Lithuania"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix. An additional source of income for him was [portrait paintings](/wiki/Portrait_painting "Portrait painting"). He painted well\-known figures, following the official social realism art. When he drew women, children, and close friends, he took more liberty, and the viewer can notice the future evocative colors and pronounced brush strokes. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiv, xv.
[ "### Early life and artistic career in Lithuania", "Moshe Rosenthalis was born on 18 November 1922 in [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 \"Marijampolė\"), Lithuania.", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 11\\.", "His father was a grain merchant who had fallen from grace.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi.", "At three, he strove to draw the street outside his home with a pencil. Rosenthalis received his first art lessons from the painter Aryeh (Levas) Margushilski, then a young art student and later a mentor to many painters in Tel Aviv.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi.", "", "In 1940, after completing his studies at the Hebrew High School in Marijampolė, he was accepted to the [Kaunas Art School](/wiki/Kaunas_Art_School \"Kaunas Art School\"), and studied there for a year.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi, xxiii, xxiv.", "In 1941, after the Germans invaded territories held by the Soviet Union, he fled to the Russian interior. Later, he was conscripted into the Lithuanian division of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") and was wounded in battle.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "He was appointed as the official painter of his battalion. He painted portraits of military heroes and leaders and organized [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist \"Protagonist\") exhibitions to raise the soldiers' morale.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxii.", "", "After his discharge from the army, Rosenthalis settled in Vilnius and enrolled in the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts \"Vilnius Academy of Arts\"), where he studied from 1945 to 1950\\.", "Alec Mishori, Moshe Rosenthalis: History of the Jewish People, in The Great Sight, 2013, p. 14e.", "His teachers include [Petras Kalpokas](/wiki/Petras_Kalpokas \"Petras Kalpokas\") and [Antanas Gudaitis](/wiki/Antanas_Gudaitis_%281904%29 \"Antanas Gudaitis (1904)\"); notable artists who studied there were [Chaïm Soutine](/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine \"Chaïm Soutine\"), [Pinchus Kremegne](/wiki/Pinchus_Kremegne \"Pinchus Kremegne\") and [Jacques Lipchitz](/wiki/Jacques_Lipchitz \"Jacques Lipchitz\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix, x.", "He won two drawing prizes: one for poster design and the other for his diploma work.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "His final project, \"Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail in 1940\", was on display at the Moscow Art Academy. Today it is on display at the Soviet Art Gallery of [Grūtas Park](/wiki/Gr%C5%ABtas_Park \"Grūtas Park\").", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 12\\-13\\.", "In 1950, at age 28, he was accepted to the [Lithuanian Artists' Association](/wiki/Lithuanian_Artists%27_Association \"Lithuanian Artists' Association\").", "Carl Hoffman (August 16, 2012\\). [A treasure lost and found](https://www.jpost.com/metro/arts-and-culture/a-treasure-lost-and-found). [The Jerusalem Post](/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post \"The Jerusalem Post\").", "The official artistic style in the Soviet Union at that period was socialist realism, manifesting the natural and materialistic world without taking a stand. Rosenthalis had no option but to compromise and follow that school.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis \\- Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. P. 145\\.", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail, 1950, oil on canvas, 160\\*220 (graduation project), [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania \"National Museum of Lithuania\")](/wiki/File:%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1._%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A1._1950.jpg \"משה רוזנטליס. שחרור אסירים פוליטיים מבית הכלא בקאונס. 1950.jpg\") \nHe participated in exhibitions throughout Lithuania, and in 1951 gained critical acclaim from [Pravda](/wiki/Pravda \"Pravda\") art critic when he took part in a group exhibition held in [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery \"Tretyakov Gallery\"), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), among 300 canvasses,", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix.", "and has been awarded the Medal of Excellence by the [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet \"Supreme Soviet\").", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis –Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 145\\.", "His works were acquired by museums and institutions throughout the USSR. Three of his works were purchased by the [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania \"National Museum of Lithuania\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix.", "An additional source of income for him was [portrait paintings](/wiki/Portrait_painting \"Portrait painting\"). He painted well\\-known figures, following the official social realism art. When he drew women, children, and close friends, he took more liberty, and the viewer can notice the future evocative colors and pronounced brush strokes.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiv, xv.", "", "" ]
### Life and art in Israel In 1957, because of his wife Sarah's birthplace in Polish Vilnius, the family received an exit permit and moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"). Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 14\. Contrary to the artistic fetters in Lithuania, Poland was unabated by the Soviet establishment and had artistic freedom, influenced by the cultural trends prevalent in Paris, Western Europe, and the USA. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. x. He visited the Warsaw Museum and was overwhelmed by a Polish Avant\-Garde exhibition. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis–Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. In 1958, at 36, after living in Poland for seven months, Rosenthalis immigrated to Israel and settled with his family in a shack on the outskirts of Tel Aviv. The Israeli art scene was turbulent by the controversy between two movements: first, artists who advocate loyalty to the Israeli native character, and the second, [Ofakim Hadashim](/wiki/Ofakim_Hadashim "Ofakim Hadashim") (New Horizons), at the helm of [Joseph Zaritsky](/wiki/Joseph_Zaritsky "Joseph Zaritsky"), supported the global abstract school, had the upper hand. Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The Open Museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 26\. Rosenthalis was fluent in Hebrew, which he learned at the Jewish School in Marijampolė, and made his living teaching elementary drawing. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xvi. He learned about modern art by visiting art galleries and studying books. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xiv, xvi. During his first years in Israel, Rosenthalis continued to paint realistic portraits and topics corresponding to the diaspora along with figurative and evocative subjects. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 20\. Among the figures he painted were the poets [Avraham Shlonsky](/wiki/Avraham_Shlonsky "Avraham Shlonsky"); and the artists [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg "Chaim Gliksberg"), [Shimshon Holzman](/wiki/Shimshon_Holzman "Shimshon Holzman"), and [Moshe Ziffer](/wiki/Moshe_Ziffer "Moshe Ziffer"). During these years he participated in group and annual exhibitions in [Independence Hall](/wiki/Independence_Hall_%28Israel%29 "Independence Hall (Israel)"), [Tel Aviv Museum](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum "Tel Aviv Museum"), and the [Israel Painters and Sculptors Association](/wiki/Israel_Painters_and_Sculptors_Association "Israel Painters and Sculptors Association"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. In the early 1960s, Rosenthalis painted his first abstract works but continued to paint landscapes, human figures, and [still life](/wiki/Still_life "Still life"), in a combination of abstract and realistic modes. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial partks, p. 20\. Since 1963, for ten years, Rosenthalis explored the use of color on canvas and practiced the methods of [Kazimir Malevich](/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich "Kazimir Malevich"). He used color as direct as possible and abandoned the use of light, shade, and perspective. Many of his paintings comprise small angular areas in horizontal or vertical composition. Usually, the canvas set up in a few brush strokes, produced angular shapes related to the colors and their mutual alteration. Rosenthalis used a dozen delicate brush strokes. He inserted into many of his paintings bluish\-gray color at the paintings' center. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xviii, xix. Over the years he concentrated on the structural basics of painting, while the topic became insignificant in his art. His paintings become prosaic, inspecting the correspondence between the color, the effects of light, and the apparent compositions. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 148\. In 1973, Rosenthalis stayed as an [artist\-in\-residence](/wiki/Artist-in-residence "Artist-in-residence") at the [Cité internationale des arts](/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_des_arts "Cité internationale des arts") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), where he experienced the French [Modernism](/wiki/Modernism "Modernism"), which proved to be a pivotal point of his oeuvre. While in Paris, he studied the works of great modern artists such as [Braque](/wiki/Braque "Braque"), [Delaunay](/wiki/Delaunay "Delaunay"), [Dufy](/wiki/Raoul_Dufy "Raoul Dufy"), [Kandinsky](/wiki/Kandinsky "Kandinsky"), [Matisse](/wiki/Matisse "Matisse"), and [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso "Picasso"). Manifestation of their influence can be seen in the increased translucency origin in his work thereafter. These paintings are performed partially, or entirely, in a diluted palette of colors so that their transparency reveals the background so that, also, as an integral function within the color format. After Paris, Rosenthalis used his brush friskily. He installed various geometric shapes, juxtaposed or superimposed. Shading is attained via the translucent effect, which allocates a role to the light and the watered down of paint. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. The tension between cold and warm colors, and between line and form, and he contrived the concept of polarity–not in a realistic way, but as an abstract expression of inner ideas and feelings. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 148\. In 1990, [Raffi Lavie](/wiki/Raffi_Lavie "Raffi Lavie") wrote in [Ha'ir](/wiki/Ha%27ir "Ha'ir"): "A Rosenthalis' festival is on display... Picasso, Matisse, and Kandinsky would have liked what he had taken from each of them. The temperament, the fluidity of line, and the richness of color... This is a real painting, free of all pretensions of movements or of non\-artistic theories.". Raffi Lavie, Ha'ir, 1990\. Since settling in Israel in 1958, for 17 years, Rosenthalis eschewed self\-exposure. His [Solo exhibition](/wiki/Solo_exhibition "Solo exhibition") at the [Petah Tikva Museum of Art](/wiki/Petah_Tikva_Museum_of_Art "Petah Tikva Museum of Art") in 1975 was his first major show. Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 27\. Dov Homsky wrote about the exhibition in [Al HaMishmar](/wiki/Al_HaMishmar "Al HaMishmar"): "The painting for Rosenthalis is a happening per se, a purpose per se ... His vision is humanistic. He fused his 'topics' into his 'self' His perception was impromptu and forthright, without intellectual inquiry. We can perceive the artists' love in each detail, the colors game, which is mischievous and sober simultaneously—made in a lyric affection of a very sensitive painter.". Dov Homsky (May 7, 1975\). The Painter Moshe Rosenthalis. Al HaMishmar. [Adam Baruch](/wiki/Adam_Baruch "Adam Baruch") wrote in [Yedioth Ahronoth](/wiki/Yedioth_Ahronoth "Yedioth Ahronoth"): "Even a viewer with the most pronounced contemporary inclinations will doff his hat to painting that is replete, well aware of the theatricality of the occupation, without becoming pathetic–and with the ability to cross or avoid such critical barriers as 'relevance' etc." Adam Baruch (March 31, 1978\). Seasoned eye. Yedioth Ahronoth. p. 7\. A 1983 [retrospective](/wiki/Retrospective "Retrospective") exhibition at [Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Herzliya_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art") presented Rosenthalis' works from the years 1950–1983\. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. Elyakim Yaron wrote: "An artist of perpetual change that cannot be summarized." Elyakim Yaron, Paintings 1947\-1983\. Moshe Rosenthalis Retrospective. Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art. 1983\. p. 3\-5\. In an introduction to a book about Rosenthalis, published by Keter Publishing House in 1984, [Clara Malraux](/wiki/Clara_Malraux "Clara Malraux") wrote: "The application of paint... is the most refined expression of the extent of the spectrum of colors in all its transitions... He planned and fitted together everything, leaving nothing to chance, despite the work's thrust for spontaneousness... This is total coordination between the man and the technique, between temperament and experience. Rosenthalis knows all the ways of French painting, but his uniqueness is in his own path." Clara Malraux, introduction. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. vii. A series of his paintings are devoted to music Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet "Ynet"). and women with musical instruments.David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. Rosenthalis had been working in his atelier at Jaffa Port since 1964, his painting depicting the studio's exterior overlooking the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea") and interior, presented in his 2002 one\-man exhibition at the [Israeli National Maritime Museum](/wiki/Israeli_National_Maritime_Museum "Israeli National Maritime Museum") in Haifa. Daniela Talmor, Studio facing the sea, Haifa Museums, Israeli National Maritime Museum, 2002, p. 70\-96\. In some of his early [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa "Jaffa")'s seashores from the late 1960s\-early 1970s it's hard to discern any actual object. He muted the colors in his early compositions. He heightened the colors in his compositions starting in the 1970s. Since the 1980s, his color palette becomes even more luminous with linear motifs. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen, and Omer industrial parks, 2004, p. 22\-23\. He had a house in Safed, where he spent every summer, free from teaching and another undertaking, dedicated himself only to his art, painting the marketplace and its inhabitants. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. XXII. In 2004, he presented a solo exhibition at The Open Museum, [Migdal Tefen](/wiki/Migdal_Tefen "Migdal Tefen"). Part of it displayed works he called 'etudes', created primarily outside his studio. These were small oil paintings, that served as a foundation for his sizeable and elaborate paintings, using a nimble freestyle. Rinat Aboulafia (June 7, 2004\). [Lives among the canvases](https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=803050). [Globes](/wiki/Globes_%28newspaper%29 "Globes (newspaper)"). Initially, he created them in the mid\-1950s in Lithuania, and continued in Israel, depicting the landscapes of Jaffa, Jerusalem, and Safed. On the show, they stood underneath the large compatible paintings. [Smadar Sheffi](/wiki/Smadar_Sheffi "Smadar Sheffi") (June 9, 2004\). [Like Picasso](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/2004-06-09/ty-article/0000017f-dbd4-d3a5-af7f-fbfee1030000). [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz").
[ "### Life and art in Israel", "In 1957, because of his wife Sarah's birthplace in Polish Vilnius, the family received an exit permit and moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\").", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 14\\.", "Contrary to the artistic fetters in Lithuania, Poland was unabated by the Soviet establishment and had artistic freedom, influenced by the cultural trends prevalent in Paris, Western Europe, and the USA.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. x.", "He visited the Warsaw Museum and was overwhelmed by a Polish Avant\\-Garde exhibition.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis–Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "In 1958, at 36, after living in Poland for seven months, Rosenthalis immigrated to Israel and settled with his family in a shack on the outskirts of Tel Aviv. The Israeli art scene was turbulent by the controversy between two movements: first, artists who advocate loyalty to the Israeli native character, and the second, [Ofakim Hadashim](/wiki/Ofakim_Hadashim \"Ofakim Hadashim\") (New Horizons), at the helm of [Joseph Zaritsky](/wiki/Joseph_Zaritsky \"Joseph Zaritsky\"), supported the global abstract school, had the upper hand.", "Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The Open Museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 26\\.", "", "Rosenthalis was fluent in Hebrew, which he learned at the Jewish School in Marijampolė, and made his living teaching elementary drawing.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xvi.", "He learned about modern art by visiting art galleries and studying books.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xiv, xvi.", "During his first years in Israel, Rosenthalis continued to paint realistic portraits and topics corresponding to the diaspora along with figurative and evocative subjects.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 20\\.", "Among the figures he painted were the poets [Avraham Shlonsky](/wiki/Avraham_Shlonsky \"Avraham Shlonsky\"); and the artists [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg \"Chaim Gliksberg\"), [Shimshon Holzman](/wiki/Shimshon_Holzman \"Shimshon Holzman\"), and [Moshe Ziffer](/wiki/Moshe_Ziffer \"Moshe Ziffer\"). \nDuring these years he participated in group and annual exhibitions in [Independence Hall](/wiki/Independence_Hall_%28Israel%29 \"Independence Hall (Israel)\"), [Tel Aviv Museum](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum \"Tel Aviv Museum\"), and the [Israel Painters and Sculptors Association](/wiki/Israel_Painters_and_Sculptors_Association \"Israel Painters and Sculptors Association\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "", "In the early 1960s, Rosenthalis painted his first abstract works but continued to paint landscapes, human figures, and [still life](/wiki/Still_life \"Still life\"), in a combination of abstract and realistic modes.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial partks, p. 20\\.", "Since 1963, for ten years, Rosenthalis explored the use of color on canvas and practiced the methods of [Kazimir Malevich](/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich \"Kazimir Malevich\"). He used color as direct as possible and abandoned the use of light, shade, and perspective. Many of his paintings comprise small angular areas in horizontal or vertical composition. Usually, the canvas set up in a few brush strokes, produced angular shapes related to the colors and their mutual alteration. Rosenthalis used a dozen delicate brush strokes. He inserted into many of his paintings bluish\\-gray color at the paintings' center.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xviii, xix.", "Over the years he concentrated on the structural basics of painting, while the topic became insignificant in his art. His paintings become prosaic, inspecting the correspondence between the color, the effects of light, and the apparent compositions.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 148\\.", "", "In 1973, Rosenthalis stayed as an [artist\\-in\\-residence](/wiki/Artist-in-residence \"Artist-in-residence\") at the [Cité internationale des arts](/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_des_arts \"Cité internationale des arts\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), where he experienced the French [Modernism](/wiki/Modernism \"Modernism\"), which proved to be a pivotal point of his oeuvre. While in Paris, he studied the works of great modern artists such as [Braque](/wiki/Braque \"Braque\"), [Delaunay](/wiki/Delaunay \"Delaunay\"), [Dufy](/wiki/Raoul_Dufy \"Raoul Dufy\"), [Kandinsky](/wiki/Kandinsky \"Kandinsky\"), [Matisse](/wiki/Matisse \"Matisse\"), and [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso \"Picasso\"). Manifestation of their influence can be seen in the increased translucency origin in his work thereafter. These paintings are performed partially, or entirely, in a diluted palette of colors so that their transparency reveals the background so that, also, as an integral function within the color format. After Paris, Rosenthalis used his brush friskily. He installed various geometric shapes, juxtaposed or superimposed. Shading is attained via the translucent effect, which allocates a role to the light and the watered down of paint.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "The tension between cold and warm colors, and between line and form, and he contrived the concept of polarity–not in a realistic way, but as an abstract expression of inner ideas and feelings.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 148\\.", "In 1990, [Raffi Lavie](/wiki/Raffi_Lavie \"Raffi Lavie\") wrote in [Ha'ir](/wiki/Ha%27ir \"Ha'ir\"): \"A Rosenthalis' festival is on display... Picasso, Matisse, and Kandinsky would have liked what he had taken from each of them. The temperament, the fluidity of line, and the richness of color... This is a real painting, free of all pretensions of movements or of non\\-artistic theories.\".", "Raffi Lavie, Ha'ir, 1990\\.", "", "Since settling in Israel in 1958, for 17 years, Rosenthalis eschewed self\\-exposure. His [Solo exhibition](/wiki/Solo_exhibition \"Solo exhibition\") at the [Petah Tikva Museum of Art](/wiki/Petah_Tikva_Museum_of_Art \"Petah Tikva Museum of Art\") in 1975 was his first major show.", "Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 27\\.", "Dov Homsky wrote about the exhibition in [Al HaMishmar](/wiki/Al_HaMishmar \"Al HaMishmar\"): \"The painting for Rosenthalis is a happening per se, a purpose per se ... His vision is humanistic. He fused his 'topics' into his 'self' His perception was impromptu and forthright, without intellectual inquiry. We can perceive the artists' love in each detail, the colors game, which is mischievous and sober simultaneously—made in a lyric affection of a very sensitive painter.\".", "Dov Homsky (May 7, 1975\\). The Painter Moshe Rosenthalis. Al HaMishmar.", "[Adam Baruch](/wiki/Adam_Baruch \"Adam Baruch\") wrote in [Yedioth Ahronoth](/wiki/Yedioth_Ahronoth \"Yedioth Ahronoth\"): \"Even a viewer with the most pronounced contemporary inclinations will doff his hat to painting that is replete, well aware of the theatricality of the occupation, without becoming pathetic–and with the ability to cross or avoid such critical barriers as 'relevance' etc.\"", "Adam Baruch (March 31, 1978\\). Seasoned eye. Yedioth Ahronoth. p. 7\\.", "", "A 1983 [retrospective](/wiki/Retrospective \"Retrospective\") exhibition at [Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Herzliya_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art\") presented Rosenthalis' works from the years 1950–1983\\.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "Elyakim Yaron wrote: \"An artist of perpetual change that cannot be summarized.\"", "Elyakim Yaron, Paintings 1947\\-1983\\. Moshe Rosenthalis Retrospective. Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art. 1983\\. p. 3\\-5\\.", "In an introduction to a book about Rosenthalis, published by Keter Publishing House in 1984, [Clara Malraux](/wiki/Clara_Malraux \"Clara Malraux\") wrote: \"The application of paint... is the most refined expression of the extent of the spectrum of colors in all its transitions... He planned and fitted together everything, leaving nothing to chance, despite the work's thrust for spontaneousness... This is total coordination between the man and the technique, between temperament and experience. Rosenthalis knows all the ways of French painting, but his uniqueness is in his own path.\"", "Clara Malraux, introduction. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. vii.", "A series of his paintings are devoted to music\nDaniel Oz (November 29, 2009\\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet \"Ynet\"). \n and women with musical instruments.David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "Rosenthalis had been working in his atelier at Jaffa Port since 1964, his painting depicting the studio's exterior overlooking the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\") and interior, presented in his 2002 one\\-man exhibition at the [Israeli National Maritime Museum](/wiki/Israeli_National_Maritime_Museum \"Israeli National Maritime Museum\") in Haifa.", "Daniela Talmor, Studio facing the sea, Haifa Museums, Israeli National Maritime Museum, 2002, p. 70\\-96\\.", "In some of his early [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa \"Jaffa\")'s seashores from the late 1960s\\-early 1970s it's hard to discern any actual object. He muted the colors in his early compositions. He heightened the colors in his compositions starting in the 1970s. Since the 1980s, his color palette becomes even more luminous with linear motifs.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen, and Omer industrial parks, 2004, p. 22\\-23\\.", "He had a house in Safed, where he spent every summer, free from teaching and another undertaking, dedicated himself only to his art, painting the marketplace and its inhabitants.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. XXII.", "", "In 2004, he presented a solo exhibition at The Open Museum, [Migdal Tefen](/wiki/Migdal_Tefen \"Migdal Tefen\"). Part of it displayed works he called 'etudes', created primarily outside his studio. These were small oil paintings, that served as a foundation for his sizeable and elaborate paintings, using a nimble freestyle.", "Rinat Aboulafia (June 7, 2004\\). [Lives among the canvases](https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=803050). [Globes](/wiki/Globes_%28newspaper%29 \"Globes (newspaper)\").", "Initially, he created them in the mid\\-1950s in Lithuania, and continued in Israel, depicting the landscapes of Jaffa, Jerusalem, and Safed. On the show, they stood underneath the large compatible paintings.", "[Smadar Sheffi](/wiki/Smadar_Sheffi \"Smadar Sheffi\") (June 9, 2004\\). [Like Picasso](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/2004-06-09/ty-article/0000017f-dbd4-d3a5-af7f-fbfee1030000). [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz \"Haaretz\").", "", "" ]
### Posthumous Moshe Rosenthalis died at the age of 86 on August 26, 2008\. Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. P. 8\. He was survived by his wife Sara, who departed two years after him, [Avelim](https://www.avelim.co.il/%d7%a9%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%96%d7%a0%d7%98%d7%9c%d7%99%d7%a1-%d7%96%d7%9c/). A bereavement announcement. and his son Avner, who worked as his [art dealer](/wiki/Art_dealer "Art dealer") and [curator](/wiki/Curator "Curator"). His eldest son, Raphael, died in his forties. Sarit Fux (November 28, 2009\). [In the Name of the Father](https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/47/ART1/971/233.html). [Maariv](/wiki/Maariv "Maariv"). In 2009, his son Avner Rosenthalis, turn his studio into Rosenthalis House, an art gallery with a permanent collection of his fathers' works and a changing exhibition with various artists. Hila Shkolnik\-Brener (November 16, 2009\). [Quadrangular homage for Moshe Rosenthalis](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/art/2009-11-16/ty-article/0000017f-f868-d318-afff-fb6bf1ee0000). Ha'ir. In 2017, he closed Rosenthalis House. Eden Slutski (February 25, 2021\). [Inside the kitchen of Rodenthalis family](https://www.mako.co.il/living-rooms/kitchen/Article-4aff7464188d771026.htm). Mako. In 2009, the exhibition "Moshe Rosenthalis The Freedom of Color" was on display at the [Town Hall, Vilnius](/wiki/Town_Hall%2C_Vilnius "Town Hall, Vilnius") and later moved to the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum "M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum"). The exhibition encompassed artworks he produced during the years 1945 \- 2007\. M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. 248 pp. He worked with diverse bases: acrylic and oil on canvas, watercolors, oil pastels, gouache, oil paintings using cardboard and plywood, collages and drawings. Hannah Koffler. In: Studio facing the sea, The National Maritime Museum. 2002\. p. 96\. He experienced diverse art schools including Abstract, Fauvism, expressionism, and [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28art_movement%29 "Realism (art movement)"). Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet "Ynet"). In a foreword to a book dedicated to Rosenthalis, published by Masada Publishing House in 1990, Adam Baruch wrote: "Rosenthalis is rooted in culture, not in Israeli culture, in its politics and poetics. He is here and not here. Faithful to himself, he lives among his canvases, within the history of modern art rather than within the history of Israeli art." Adam Baruch, “Rosenthalis, towards the 1990s. in: Moshe Rosenthalis, Ramat Gan, Masada, 1990, p. 7\. Four large\-scale artwork delineates selected chapters from the annals of the Jewish People, commissioned by businessman [Shaul Eisenberg](/wiki/Shaul_Eisenberg "Shaul Eisenberg"), installed on the walls of the boardroom at Asia House in Tel Aviv in 1980\. Rosenthalis paint them in a realistic\-[symbolic](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 "Symbolism (arts)")\-figurative style, with a disregard for the classic perspective\-color rules. In 1983 he created parallel four paintings, an abstract interpretation of the previous works, unwinding the literary narrative. Alec Mishori, In The Great Sight, Moshe Rosenthalis, History of the Jewish People. ANU \- Museum of the Jewish People, P. 11e\-64e. In 2013, the exhibition "The Great Sight" was presented at the [ANU \- Museum of the Jewish People](/wiki/ANU_-_Museum_of_the_Jewish_People "ANU - Museum of the Jewish People"). The exhibition is composed of eight works together with dozens of small\-scale drawings, sketches, and diagrams used as preparatory work for the four realistic paintings. [The Great Sight](https://web.archive.org/web/20211121232426/https:/www.anumuseum.org.il/event/great-sight/). Anu Museum.
[ "### Posthumous", "Moshe Rosenthalis died at the age of 86 on August 26, 2008\\.", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. P. 8\\.", "He was survived by his wife Sara, who departed two years after him,", "[Avelim](https://www.avelim.co.il/%d7%a9%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%96%d7%a0%d7%98%d7%9c%d7%99%d7%a1-%d7%96%d7%9c/). A bereavement announcement.", "and his son Avner, who worked as his [art dealer](/wiki/Art_dealer \"Art dealer\") and [curator](/wiki/Curator \"Curator\"). His eldest son, Raphael, died in his forties.", "Sarit Fux (November 28, 2009\\). [In the Name of the Father](https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/47/ART1/971/233.html). [Maariv](/wiki/Maariv \"Maariv\").", "In 2009, his son Avner Rosenthalis, turn his studio into Rosenthalis House, an art gallery with a permanent collection of his fathers' works and a changing exhibition with various artists.", "Hila Shkolnik\\-Brener (November 16, 2009\\). [Quadrangular homage for Moshe Rosenthalis](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/art/2009-11-16/ty-article/0000017f-f868-d318-afff-fb6bf1ee0000). Ha'ir.", "In 2017, he closed Rosenthalis House.", "Eden Slutski (February 25, 2021\\). [Inside the kitchen of Rodenthalis family](https://www.mako.co.il/living-rooms/kitchen/Article-4aff7464188d771026.htm). Mako.", "", "In 2009, the exhibition \"Moshe Rosenthalis The Freedom of Color\" was on display at the [Town Hall, Vilnius](/wiki/Town_Hall%2C_Vilnius \"Town Hall, Vilnius\") and later moved to the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum \"M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum\"). The exhibition encompassed artworks he produced during the years 1945 \\- 2007\\.", "M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. 248 pp.", "He worked with diverse bases: acrylic and oil on canvas, watercolors, oil pastels, gouache, oil paintings using cardboard and plywood, collages and drawings.", "Hannah Koffler. In: Studio facing the sea, The National Maritime Museum. 2002\\. p. 96\\.", "He experienced diverse art schools including Abstract, Fauvism, expressionism, and [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28art_movement%29 \"Realism (art movement)\").", "Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet \"Ynet\").", "In a foreword to a book dedicated to Rosenthalis, published by Masada Publishing House in 1990, Adam Baruch wrote: \"Rosenthalis is rooted in culture, not in Israeli culture, in its politics and poetics. He is here and not here. Faithful to himself, he lives among his canvases, within the history of modern art rather than within the history of Israeli art.\"", "Adam Baruch, “Rosenthalis, towards the 1990s. in: Moshe Rosenthalis, Ramat Gan, Masada, 1990, p. 7\\.", "", "Four large\\-scale artwork delineates selected chapters from the annals of the Jewish People, commissioned by businessman [Shaul Eisenberg](/wiki/Shaul_Eisenberg \"Shaul Eisenberg\"), installed on the walls of the boardroom at Asia House in Tel Aviv in 1980\\. Rosenthalis paint them in a realistic\\-[symbolic](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 \"Symbolism (arts)\")\\-figurative style, with a disregard for the classic perspective\\-color rules. In 1983 he created parallel four paintings, an abstract interpretation of the previous works, unwinding the literary narrative.", "Alec Mishori, In The Great Sight, Moshe Rosenthalis, History of the Jewish People. ANU \\- Museum of the Jewish People, P. 11e\\-64e.", "In 2013, the exhibition \"The Great Sight\" was presented at the [ANU \\- Museum of the Jewish People](/wiki/ANU_-_Museum_of_the_Jewish_People \"ANU - Museum of the Jewish People\"). The exhibition is composed of eight works together with dozens of small\\-scale drawings, sketches, and diagrams used as preparatory work for the four realistic paintings.", "[The Great Sight](https://web.archive.org/web/20211121232426/https:/www.anumuseum.org.il/event/great-sight/). Anu Museum.", "", "" ]
Biography --------- She graduated from the [Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Academy_for_Performing_Arts "Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts"); as a student, Yan Yan worked for the film industry as an assistant director, production manager, art director, and wardrobe designer. Her graduation short film *Snapshots* won the Distinguish Award at the International Short Film \& Video Awards of [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") in 1998\. After directing several short dramas for [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong "Radio Television Hong Kong"), she established her own production company Dragonfly J Ltd., to make her film. Her debut feature film, *Gege* (*Brother*), although using a very limited budget, a small crew, and a non\-actors cast, was awarded the [FIPRESCI Award](/wiki/FIPRESCI_Award "FIPRESCI Award") at the 25th [Hong Kong International Film Festival](/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Film_Festival "Hong Kong International Film Festival"), the POVEGLIA Award at the International Week of Film Critics of the 58th [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival "Venice Film Festival"), the Woosuk Award at [Jeonju International Film Festival](/wiki/Jeonju_International_Film_Festival "Jeonju International Film Festival") in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"), as well as the Ecumenical Jury Prize at the [International Film Festival Bratislava](/wiki/International_Film_Festival_Bratislava "International Film Festival Bratislava") and [Fribourg International Film Festival](/wiki/Fribourg_International_Film_Festival "Fribourg International Film Festival") 2001\. Her second film *[Butterfly](/wiki/Butterfly_%282004_film%29 "Butterfly (2004 film)"),* based on a short story by [Chen Xue](/wiki/Chen_Xue_%28writer%29 "Chen Xue (writer)"),{{Cite web \|title\=Golden Horse Film Festival 2004 \|url\=https://mubi.com/en/awards\-and\-festivals/golden\-horse?year\=2004 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-12 \|website\=MUBI \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=YESASIA: Hong Kong Films Awards (2005\) \- Awards List \- YumCha! Awards \& Festivals \|url\=https://www.yesasia.com/global/yumcha/hong\-kong\-film\-awards/0\-0\-0\-aeid.1000\_sb.154\_aey.2005\-en/film\-awards.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-12 \|website\=www.yesasia.com}} was chosen as the Opening Film at [Venice Film Festival Critics Week](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival "Venice Film Festival") (La Biennale di Venezia), the Hong Kong Gay \& Lesbian Film and Video Film Festival 2004 and [Créteil International Women's Film Festival](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9teil_International_Women%27s_Film_Festival "Créteil International Women's Film Festival") in France 2005\. The film won the Best Feature award at the [Paris Lesbian and Feminist Film Festival](/wiki/Paris_Lesbian_and_Feminist_Film_Festival "Paris Lesbian and Feminist Film Festival"). [Tian Yuan](/wiki/Tian_Yuan_%28singer%29 "Tian Yuan (singer)") was awarded as the Best New Artist at the [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Awards "Hong Kong Film Awards") in 2005\. The film was also nominated at the Taiwan [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards "Golden Horse Awards") in 2004 for Best Adapted Screenplay (Yan Yan Mak) and Best Supporting Actor ([Eric Kot](/wiki/Eric_Kot "Eric Kot")). Butterfly has been screened at the Hong Kong Retrospective, the Hong Kong Gay \& Lesbian Film Festival 2019\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hklgff.hk/programme/hong\-kong\-retrospective \|title\=Hong Kong Retrospective {{!}} HKLGFF \|website\=www.hklgff.hk \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906001402/http://www.hklgff.hk/programme/hong\-kong\-retrospective \|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-06}} Since 2005, after becoming a collaborator with Hong Kong [Cantopop](/wiki/Cantopop "Cantopop") singer [Denise Ho](/wiki/Denise_Ho "Denise Ho"), Yan Yan has produced numerous music videos, music short films, and TV Commercials. *The Scarlet Robe* won the Best Drama in [BigScreen Festival](/wiki/BigScreen_Festival "BigScreen Festival"), China 2007\. They finished their first feature\-length film [*The Decameron* (a documentary about madness, under the music project "10 Days in the Madhouse")](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw3R1PXUzq8) in 2009\. Recently, Yan Yan has collaborated with [Denise Ho](/wiki/Denise_Ho "Denise Ho") as her concert producer and director in *[Reimagine Hong Kong](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JC8WxXx5ow0)* (2015\), *Macpherson Woods* (2015\), *[Dear Friend](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wBgt4RkF4LE),* (2016\) and [On The Pulse Of Hocc Live 2018](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADBuROuLOsU). She had also produced 'Galactica', a concert by a singer [Endy Chow Kwok Yin](/wiki/Endy_Chow "Endy Chow") in 2017/18\. Yan Yan completed another feature [*Merry\-Go\-Round* (*Dong Feng Po*)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwV8TG8pn_k) in 2010 in Hong Kong. It was elected as the Best Chinese\-Language Film by Film Critics China, nominated at The Hong Kong Film Award 2011 for the Best Cinematography Award, and won the Best Film Song Award (["Here to Stay" by Jun Kung](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYrItHVkdAs)), won the Best Actress ([Ella Koon](/wiki/Ella_Koon "Ella Koon")) and the Best Actor ([Teddy Robin](/wiki/Teddy_Robin "Teddy Robin")) at Australia Golden Koala Film Festival. Her other feature work, [*The Great War* (2013\)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-v6eXDwryM), a documentary about Grasshopper x [Softhard](/wiki/Softhard "Softhard") Concert 2012, has had its Gala premiere at the [New York Asian Film Festival](/wiki/New_York_Asian_Film_Festival "New York Asian Film Festival") 2013 as also selected as the closing\-film of the film festival.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nyaff.org/nyaff13/films/the\-great\-war\-directors\-cut\|title\=New York Asian Film Festival}} Yan Yan's latest work, ['Sound Of Silence' (SOS)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqKh99dgut0&t=5s), is the Closing Film of the [6th Hong Kong Kids International Film Festival 2022 (KIFF)](https://www.kiff.asia/zh/soundofsilence) and won numerous awards in film festivals worldwide.
[ "Biography\n---------", "She graduated from the [Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Academy_for_Performing_Arts \"Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts\"); as a student, Yan Yan worked for the film industry as an assistant director, production manager, art director, and wardrobe designer. Her graduation short film *Snapshots* won the Distinguish Award at the International Short Film \\& Video Awards of [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") in 1998\\.", "After directing several short dramas for [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong \"Radio Television Hong Kong\"), she established her own production company Dragonfly J Ltd., to make her film. Her debut feature film, *Gege* (*Brother*), although using a very limited budget, a small crew, and a non\\-actors cast, was awarded the [FIPRESCI Award](/wiki/FIPRESCI_Award \"FIPRESCI Award\") at the 25th [Hong Kong International Film Festival](/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Film_Festival \"Hong Kong International Film Festival\"), the POVEGLIA Award at the International Week of Film Critics of the 58th [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival \"Venice Film Festival\"), the Woosuk Award at [Jeonju International Film Festival](/wiki/Jeonju_International_Film_Festival \"Jeonju International Film Festival\") in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"), as well as the Ecumenical Jury Prize at the [International Film Festival Bratislava](/wiki/International_Film_Festival_Bratislava \"International Film Festival Bratislava\") and [Fribourg International Film Festival](/wiki/Fribourg_International_Film_Festival \"Fribourg International Film Festival\") 2001\\.", "Her second film *[Butterfly](/wiki/Butterfly_%282004_film%29 \"Butterfly (2004 film)\"),* based on a short story by [Chen Xue](/wiki/Chen_Xue_%28writer%29 \"Chen Xue (writer)\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Golden Horse Film Festival 2004 \\|url\\=https://mubi.com/en/awards\\-and\\-festivals/golden\\-horse?year\\=2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-12 \\|website\\=MUBI \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=YESASIA: Hong Kong Films Awards (2005\\) \\- Awards List \\- YumCha! Awards \\& Festivals \\|url\\=https://www.yesasia.com/global/yumcha/hong\\-kong\\-film\\-awards/0\\-0\\-0\\-aeid.1000\\_sb.154\\_aey.2005\\-en/film\\-awards.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-12 \\|website\\=www.yesasia.com}} was chosen as the Opening Film at [Venice Film Festival Critics Week](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival \"Venice Film Festival\") (La Biennale di Venezia), the Hong Kong Gay \\& Lesbian Film and Video Film Festival 2004 and [Créteil International Women's Film Festival](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9teil_International_Women%27s_Film_Festival \"Créteil International Women's Film Festival\") in France 2005\\. The film won the Best Feature award at the [Paris Lesbian and Feminist Film Festival](/wiki/Paris_Lesbian_and_Feminist_Film_Festival \"Paris Lesbian and Feminist Film Festival\"). [Tian Yuan](/wiki/Tian_Yuan_%28singer%29 \"Tian Yuan (singer)\") was awarded as the Best New Artist at the [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Awards \"Hong Kong Film Awards\") in 2005\\. The film was also nominated at the Taiwan [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards \"Golden Horse Awards\") in 2004 for Best Adapted Screenplay (Yan Yan Mak) and Best Supporting Actor ([Eric Kot](/wiki/Eric_Kot \"Eric Kot\")). Butterfly has been screened at the Hong Kong Retrospective, the Hong Kong Gay \\& Lesbian Film Festival 2019\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hklgff.hk/programme/hong\\-kong\\-retrospective \\|title\\=Hong Kong Retrospective {{!}} HKLGFF \\|website\\=www.hklgff.hk \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906001402/http://www.hklgff.hk/programme/hong\\-kong\\-retrospective \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-06}}", "Since 2005, after becoming a collaborator with Hong Kong [Cantopop](/wiki/Cantopop \"Cantopop\") singer [Denise Ho](/wiki/Denise_Ho \"Denise Ho\"), Yan Yan has produced numerous music videos, music short films, and TV Commercials. *The Scarlet Robe* won the Best Drama in [BigScreen Festival](/wiki/BigScreen_Festival \"BigScreen Festival\"), China 2007\\. They finished their first feature\\-length film [*The Decameron* (a documentary about madness, under the music project \"10 Days in the Madhouse\")](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw3R1PXUzq8) in 2009\\. Recently, Yan Yan has collaborated with [Denise Ho](/wiki/Denise_Ho \"Denise Ho\") as her concert producer and director in *[Reimagine Hong Kong](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JC8WxXx5ow0)* (2015\\), *Macpherson Woods* (2015\\), *[Dear Friend](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wBgt4RkF4LE),* (2016\\) and [On The Pulse Of Hocc Live 2018](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADBuROuLOsU). She had also produced 'Galactica', a concert by a singer [Endy Chow Kwok Yin](/wiki/Endy_Chow \"Endy Chow\") in 2017/18\\.", "Yan Yan completed another feature [*Merry\\-Go\\-Round* (*Dong Feng Po*)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwV8TG8pn_k) in 2010 in Hong Kong. It was elected as the Best Chinese\\-Language Film by Film Critics China, nominated at The Hong Kong Film Award 2011 for the Best Cinematography Award, and won the Best Film Song Award ([\"Here to Stay\" by Jun Kung](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYrItHVkdAs)), won the Best Actress ([Ella Koon](/wiki/Ella_Koon \"Ella Koon\")) and the Best Actor ([Teddy Robin](/wiki/Teddy_Robin \"Teddy Robin\")) at Australia Golden Koala Film Festival.", "Her other feature work, [*The Great War* (2013\\)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-v6eXDwryM), a documentary about Grasshopper x [Softhard](/wiki/Softhard \"Softhard\") Concert 2012, has had its Gala premiere at the [New York Asian Film Festival](/wiki/New_York_Asian_Film_Festival \"New York Asian Film Festival\") 2013 as also selected as the closing\\-film of the film festival.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nyaff.org/nyaff13/films/the\\-great\\-war\\-directors\\-cut\\|title\\=New York Asian Film Festival}}", "Yan Yan's latest work, ['Sound Of Silence' (SOS)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqKh99dgut0&t=5s), is the Closing Film of the [6th Hong Kong Kids International Film Festival 2022 (KIFF)](https://www.kiff.asia/zh/soundofsilence) and won numerous awards in film festivals worldwide.", "" ]
History ------- The earliest archival information about St. Nicholas Church dates back to 1601\.Парафія с. Біла. Церква Святого Миколая, Тернопільсько\-Зборівська архиєпархія. Парафії, монастирі, храми. Шематизм, Автор концепції Куневич Б.; керівник проєкту, науковий редактор Стоцький Я., Тернопіль : ТОВ «Новий колір», 2014, s. 116\. : іл., ISBN 978\-966\-2061\-29\-1\. In 1832–1842, the village of Bila had an independent parish. In 1844, St. Nicholas Church was a daughter church, in 1877 the church of Bila was already the mother church, and there were daughter churches in [Chystyliv](/wiki/Chystyliv "Chystyliv") and [Plotycha](/wiki/Plotycha%2C_Bila_rural_hromada%2C_Ternopil_Raion%2C_Ternopil_Oblast "Plotycha, Bila rural hromada, Ternopil Raion, Ternopil Oblast"). During the ministry of at. Omelian Zastirzheshch, a porch was built. At the turn of the XIX–XX centuries, the parish priest of Bila was at. [Amvrosii Krushelnytskyi](/wiki/Amvrosii_Krushelnytskyi "Amvrosii Krushelnytskyi"), the father of the singer [Solomiya Krushelnytska](/wiki/Solomiya_Krushelnytska "Solomiya Krushelnytska"). The last pre\-war parish priest of the village was at. Yevhen Alyskevych, who was expelled and repressed by the Soviet authorities in 1939\. Under the pastor, at. Mykola Butrynskyi, the parish and the church were transferred to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1946\. After 1960, the state authorities closed St. Nicholas Church and used it as a warehouse for the regional printing house. For a long time, the Greek Catholic underground in Bila was associated with the ministry and life of the repressed underground priest, at. Volodymyr Telenko (1908–1992\). A room in his house was an underground church. He baptized, married, confessed, and gave communion to 80 percent of the residents of Bila. At the end of 1989, on the feast of St. Nicholas, the first Divine Liturgy was celebrated by at. Telenko, the new parish priest of Bila, at. Vasyl Kozii, and two other underground priests, at. Vasyl Baran and at. Yevstakhii Smal. The Church of St. Nicholas was opened in February 1989, when it was still undergoing renovation. On 12 December 1989, at the request of the parishioners and with the blessing of Bishop [Volodymyr Sterniuk](/wiki/Volodymyr_Sterniuk "Volodymyr Sterniuk"), at. Smal consecrated the renovated church and the altar. In 1994, at. Vasyl Kozii consecrated a cross for the construction of a new church of the Intercession, and on the feast of the Intercession in 1995, at. Kozii consecrated a chapel on the site where the new church was to be built. In 2004–2007, the church was restored inside and out. It was painted by the famous iconographer Taras Hatala. On 19 December 2007, the then Bishop (now Metropolitan) [Vasyl Semeniuk](/wiki/Vasyl_Semeniuk "Vasyl Semeniuk"), together with the community, consecrated the throne and the restored church.
[ "History\n-------", "The earliest archival information about St. Nicholas Church dates back to 1601\\.Парафія с. Біла. Церква Святого Миколая, Тернопільсько\\-Зборівська архиєпархія. Парафії, монастирі, храми. Шематизм, Автор концепції Куневич Б.; керівник проєкту, науковий редактор Стоцький Я., Тернопіль : ТОВ «Новий колір», 2014, s. 116\\. : іл., ISBN 978\\-966\\-2061\\-29\\-1\\.", "In 1832–1842, the village of Bila had an independent parish. In 1844, St. Nicholas Church was a daughter church, in 1877 the church of Bila was already the mother church, and there were daughter churches in [Chystyliv](/wiki/Chystyliv \"Chystyliv\") and [Plotycha](/wiki/Plotycha%2C_Bila_rural_hromada%2C_Ternopil_Raion%2C_Ternopil_Oblast \"Plotycha, Bila rural hromada, Ternopil Raion, Ternopil Oblast\"). During the ministry of at. Omelian Zastirzheshch, a porch was built.", "At the turn of the XIX–XX centuries, the parish priest of Bila was at. [Amvrosii Krushelnytskyi](/wiki/Amvrosii_Krushelnytskyi \"Amvrosii Krushelnytskyi\"), the father of the singer [Solomiya Krushelnytska](/wiki/Solomiya_Krushelnytska \"Solomiya Krushelnytska\"). The last pre\\-war parish priest of the village was at. Yevhen Alyskevych, who was expelled and repressed by the Soviet authorities in 1939\\.", "Under the pastor, at. Mykola Butrynskyi, the parish and the church were transferred to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1946\\. After 1960, the state authorities closed St. Nicholas Church and used it as a warehouse for the regional printing house.", "For a long time, the Greek Catholic underground in Bila was associated with the ministry and life of the repressed underground priest, at. Volodymyr Telenko (1908–1992\\). A room in his house was an underground church. He baptized, married, confessed, and gave communion to 80 percent of the residents of Bila. At the end of 1989, on the feast of St. Nicholas, the first Divine Liturgy was celebrated by at. Telenko, the new parish priest of Bila, at. Vasyl Kozii, and two other underground priests, at. Vasyl Baran and at. Yevstakhii Smal.", "The Church of St. Nicholas was opened in February 1989, when it was still undergoing renovation. On 12 December 1989, at the request of the parishioners and with the blessing of Bishop [Volodymyr Sterniuk](/wiki/Volodymyr_Sterniuk \"Volodymyr Sterniuk\"), at. Smal consecrated the renovated church and the altar.", "In 1994, at. Vasyl Kozii consecrated a cross for the construction of a new church of the Intercession, and on the feast of the Intercession in 1995, at. Kozii consecrated a chapel on the site where the new church was to be built.", "In 2004–2007, the church was restored inside and out. It was painted by the famous iconographer Taras Hatala. On 19 December 2007, the then Bishop (now Metropolitan) [Vasyl Semeniuk](/wiki/Vasyl_Semeniuk \"Vasyl Semeniuk\"), together with the community, consecrated the throne and the restored church.", "" ]
Sports sponsored ---------------- | {{CollegePrimaryHeader\|team\=Grambling State Tigers\|Men's sports\|Women's sports}} | | | [Baseball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_baseball "Grambling State Tigers baseball") | [Basketball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_women%27s_basketball "Grambling State Tigers women's basketball") | | [Basketball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_men%27s_basketball "Grambling State Tigers men's basketball") | Bowling | | Cross country | Cross country | | [Football](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_football "Grambling State Tigers football") | Soccer | | Track and field† | Softball | | | Tennis | | | Track and field† | | | Volleyball | | {{small\|† – Track and field includes both indoor and outdoor.}} | | ### Baseball {{main article\|Grambling State Tigers baseball}} #### Notable players * [Tommie Agee](/wiki/Tommie_Agee "Tommie Agee") * [Matt Alexander](/wiki/Matt_Alexander "Matt Alexander") * [Courtney Duncan](/wiki/Courtney_Duncan "Courtney Duncan") * [Ralph Garr](/wiki/Ralph_Garr "Ralph Garr") * [Johnny Jeter](/wiki/Johnny_Jeter_%28baseball%29 "Johnny Jeter (baseball)") * [Lenny Webster](/wiki/Lenny_Webster "Lenny Webster") * [Gerald Williams](/wiki/Gerald_Williams_%28baseball%29 "Gerald Williams (baseball)") * [Gary Eave](/wiki/Gary_Eave "Gary Eave") ### Men's basketball {{main article\|Grambling State Tigers men's basketball}} The Grambling State Tigers won the [NAIA](/wiki/National_Association_of_Intercollegiate_Athletics "National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics") National [championship tournament](/wiki/NAIA_national_men%27s_basketball_championship "NAIA national men's basketball championship") in [1961](/wiki/1961_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1961 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament"), beating [Georgetown College (Ky.)](/wiki/Georgetown_College_%28Kentucky%29 "Georgetown College (Kentucky)"). The victory made Grambling State the first and only college basketball program in the state to win a national basketball championship. In the following years, the Tigers made it to the NAIA Final Four, and placed 3rd in [1963](/wiki/1963_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1963 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament"), and [1966](/wiki/1966_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1966 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament"), defeating [Fort Hays State (Kan.)](/wiki/Fort_Hays_State_University "Fort Hays State University") and [Norfolk State (Va.)](/wiki/Norfolk_State_University "Norfolk State University") respectively. The Tigers appeared in the NAIA National Tournament eight times from [1959](/wiki/1959_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1959 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament") to [1971](/wiki/1971_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1971 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament"), with a total NAIA National Tournament record of 19–7\. Former NBA star [Charles Hardnett](/wiki/Charles_Hardnett "Charles Hardnett") played for the National Championship Tiger team. The team reached their first NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament in 2024 after winning the SWAC Tournament Championship. {{cite web \| title\=Ticket Punched: Grambling State Wins SWAC Men’s Basketball Tournament for First Time in School History \| website\=Southwestern Athletic Conference \| date\=12 November 2023 \| url\=https://swac.org/news/2024/3/17/ticket\-punched\-grambling\-state\-wins\-swac\-mens\-basketball\-tournament\-for\-first\-time\-in\-school\-history.aspx \| access\-date\=20 March 2024}} In 2013, the Tigers went 0–28, with only one single\-digit loss (an 8\-point loss to [Alabama A\&M](/wiki/Alabama_A%26M_University "Alabama A&M University") in the [SWAC tournament](/wiki/2013_SWAC_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2013 SWAC men's basketball tournament")). Grambling State's most popular and highest attended regular season basketball rivalries are against the Southern Jaguars and Prairie View A\&M Panthers. ### Women's basketball {{main article\|Grambling State Tigers women's basketball}} ### Football {{main article\|Grambling State Tigers football}} [200px\|left\|thumb\|[Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium "Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium") at [Grambling State University](/wiki/Grambling_State_University "Grambling State University") in [Grambling](/wiki/Grambling%2C_Louisiana "Grambling, Louisiana"), [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana")](/wiki/File:Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium_Grambling%2C_Louisiana.jpg "Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium Grambling, Louisiana.jpg") Grambling State plays its arch rival [Southern University](/wiki/Southern_University "Southern University") in the annual [Bayou Classic](/wiki/Bayou_Classic "Bayou Classic"), which is hosted at the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome "Louisiana Superdome") in [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana") over Thanksgiving weekend and broadcast nationally on [NBCSN](/wiki/NBCSN "NBCSN"). GSU also plays in the annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/State_Fair_Classic "State Fair Classic") against the [Prairie View A\&M Panthers](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_Panthers "Prairie View A&M Panthers") at the [Cotton Bowl](/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_%28stadium%29 "Cotton Bowl (stadium)"), in [Fair Park](/wiki/Fair_Park "Fair Park"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). Former football coach [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28football_coach%29 "Eddie Robinson (football coach)") previously held the [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association") record for most career wins as a head coach at an NCAA division I school.[Penn State penalties: $60 million fine, 4\-year bowl ban](http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-0724-penn-state--20120724,0,6965116.story) *[The Chicago Tribune](/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune "The Chicago Tribune")*. July 23, 2012 During Robinson's 55\-year coaching career, the university gained a national reputation because of the large number of athletes who joined the professional ranks in football. After Robinson's retirement in 1997, former GSU standout and NFL [Super Bowl XXII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXII "Super Bowl XXII") MVP [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28quarterback%29 "Doug Williams (quarterback)") took over the reins of the university's football program. Grambling has won fourteen [black college national championships](/wiki/Black_college_football_national_championship "Black college football national championship"), tied for second most in the country (Robinson's teams won nine of those championships). The 1981 TV movie *[Grambling's White Tiger](/wiki/Grambling%27s_White_Tiger "Grambling's White Tiger")* set in 1967, tells the true story of Jim Gregory, the first white Quarterback at Grambling. In October 2013, citing health hazards within the Grambling State athletic facilities and team mismanagement in a letter to the administration, the Grambling State football team refused to play their October 19 game against Jackson St., forfeiting the match up, resulting in a loss.{{cite web\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\-football/news/20131018/grambling\-football/ \|title\=The inside story of what caused Grambling football players to revolt\|access\-date\=October 19, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019122714/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\-football/news/20131018/grambling\-football/ \|archive\-date\=October 19, 2013 }} The NCAA would later go on to announce the ruling on the game was officially declared a no contest.{{cite web\|author\=Sean Isabella, USA TODAY Sports \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2013/10/30/ncaa\-decides\-grambling\-jackson\-state\-game\-is\-a\-no\-contest/3317935/ \|title\=NCAA decides Grambling\-Jackson State game is a 'no contest' \|publisher\=Usatoday.com \|date\=October 30, 2013 \|access\-date\=August 11, 2015}} The Tigers would return for their very next game a week later against Texas Southern.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\-tsn\-agn\-tsouthern\-grambling\-20131026,0,2715862\.story \|title\=Grambling State returns to field with loss\|website\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]] \|access\-date\=November 1, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103163201/http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\-tsn\-agn\-tsouthern\-grambling\-20131026%2C0%2C2715862\.story \|archive\-date\=November 3, 2013 }} In 2017, Grambling State completed a few million dollars worth of renovations to the field and scoreboard.[GSU announces major stadium improvements](https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu-announces-major-stadium-improvements/)Grambling State News {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726182659/https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu\-announces\-major\-stadium\-improvements/ \|date\=July 26, 2023 }} #### Notable players **Pro Football Hall of Fame members** * [Willie Brown](/wiki/Willie_Brown_%28American_football%29 "Willie Brown (American football)") * [Buck Buchanan](/wiki/Buck_Buchanan "Buck Buchanan") * [Willie Davis](/wiki/Willie_Davis_%28defensive_end%29 "Willie Davis (defensive end)") * [Charlie Joiner](/wiki/Charlie_Joiner "Charlie Joiner")
[ "Sports sponsored\n----------------", "", "|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|team\\=Grambling State Tigers\\|Men's sports\\|Women's sports}}", "| |\n| [Baseball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_baseball \"Grambling State Tigers baseball\") | [Basketball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_women%27s_basketball \"Grambling State Tigers women's basketball\") |\n| [Basketball](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_men%27s_basketball \"Grambling State Tigers men's basketball\") | Bowling |\n| Cross country | Cross country |\n| [Football](/wiki/Grambling_State_Tigers_football \"Grambling State Tigers football\") | Soccer |\n| Track and field† | Softball |\n| | Tennis |\n| | Track and field† |\n| | Volleyball |\n| {{small\\|† – Track and field includes both indoor and outdoor.}} | |", "### Baseball", "{{main article\\|Grambling State Tigers baseball}}", "#### Notable players", "* [Tommie Agee](/wiki/Tommie_Agee \"Tommie Agee\")\n* [Matt Alexander](/wiki/Matt_Alexander \"Matt Alexander\")\n* [Courtney Duncan](/wiki/Courtney_Duncan \"Courtney Duncan\")\n* [Ralph Garr](/wiki/Ralph_Garr \"Ralph Garr\")\n* [Johnny Jeter](/wiki/Johnny_Jeter_%28baseball%29 \"Johnny Jeter (baseball)\")\n* [Lenny Webster](/wiki/Lenny_Webster \"Lenny Webster\")\n* [Gerald Williams](/wiki/Gerald_Williams_%28baseball%29 \"Gerald Williams (baseball)\")\n* [Gary Eave](/wiki/Gary_Eave \"Gary Eave\")", "### Men's basketball", "{{main article\\|Grambling State Tigers men's basketball}}", "The Grambling State Tigers won the [NAIA](/wiki/National_Association_of_Intercollegiate_Athletics \"National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics\") National [championship tournament](/wiki/NAIA_national_men%27s_basketball_championship \"NAIA national men's basketball championship\") in [1961](/wiki/1961_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1961 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), beating [Georgetown College (Ky.)](/wiki/Georgetown_College_%28Kentucky%29 \"Georgetown College (Kentucky)\"). The victory made Grambling State the first and only college basketball program in the state to win a national basketball championship. In the following years, the Tigers made it to the NAIA Final Four, and placed 3rd in [1963](/wiki/1963_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1963 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), and [1966](/wiki/1966_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1966 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), defeating [Fort Hays State (Kan.)](/wiki/Fort_Hays_State_University \"Fort Hays State University\") and [Norfolk State (Va.)](/wiki/Norfolk_State_University \"Norfolk State University\") respectively. The Tigers appeared in the NAIA National Tournament eight times from [1959](/wiki/1959_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1959 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\") to [1971](/wiki/1971_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1971 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), with a total NAIA National Tournament record of 19–7\\. Former NBA star [Charles Hardnett](/wiki/Charles_Hardnett \"Charles Hardnett\") played for the National Championship Tiger team. The team reached their first NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament in 2024 after winning the SWAC Tournament Championship. {{cite web \\| title\\=Ticket Punched: Grambling State Wins SWAC Men’s Basketball Tournament for First Time in School History \\| website\\=Southwestern Athletic Conference \\| date\\=12 November 2023 \\| url\\=https://swac.org/news/2024/3/17/ticket\\-punched\\-grambling\\-state\\-wins\\-swac\\-mens\\-basketball\\-tournament\\-for\\-first\\-time\\-in\\-school\\-history.aspx \\| access\\-date\\=20 March 2024}} In 2013, the Tigers went 0–28, with only one single\\-digit loss (an 8\\-point loss to [Alabama A\\&M](/wiki/Alabama_A%26M_University \"Alabama A&M University\") in the [SWAC tournament](/wiki/2013_SWAC_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2013 SWAC men's basketball tournament\")). Grambling State's most popular and highest attended regular season basketball rivalries are against the Southern Jaguars and Prairie View A\\&M Panthers.", "### Women's basketball", "{{main article\\|Grambling State Tigers women's basketball}}", "### Football", "{{main article\\|Grambling State Tigers football}}\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|[Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium \"Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium\") at [Grambling State University](/wiki/Grambling_State_University \"Grambling State University\") in [Grambling](/wiki/Grambling%2C_Louisiana \"Grambling, Louisiana\"), [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\")](/wiki/File:Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium_Grambling%2C_Louisiana.jpg \"Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium Grambling, Louisiana.jpg\")", "Grambling State plays its arch rival [Southern University](/wiki/Southern_University \"Southern University\") in the annual [Bayou Classic](/wiki/Bayou_Classic \"Bayou Classic\"), which is hosted at the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome \"Louisiana Superdome\") in [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\") over Thanksgiving weekend and broadcast nationally on [NBCSN](/wiki/NBCSN \"NBCSN\").", "GSU also plays in the annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/State_Fair_Classic \"State Fair Classic\") against the [Prairie View A\\&M Panthers](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_Panthers \"Prairie View A&M Panthers\") at the [Cotton Bowl](/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_%28stadium%29 \"Cotton Bowl (stadium)\"), in [Fair Park](/wiki/Fair_Park \"Fair Park\"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\").", "Former football coach [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28football_coach%29 \"Eddie Robinson (football coach)\") previously held the [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\") record for most career wins as a head coach at an NCAA division I school.[Penn State penalties: $60 million fine, 4\\-year bowl ban](http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-0724-penn-state--20120724,0,6965116.story) *[The Chicago Tribune](/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune \"The Chicago Tribune\")*. July 23, 2012", "During Robinson's 55\\-year coaching career, the university gained a national reputation because of the large number of athletes who joined the professional ranks in football.", "After Robinson's retirement in 1997, former GSU standout and NFL [Super Bowl XXII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXII \"Super Bowl XXII\") MVP [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28quarterback%29 \"Doug Williams (quarterback)\") took over the reins of the university's football program.", "Grambling has won fourteen [black college national championships](/wiki/Black_college_football_national_championship \"Black college football national championship\"), tied for second most in the country (Robinson's teams won nine of those championships).", "The 1981 TV movie *[Grambling's White Tiger](/wiki/Grambling%27s_White_Tiger \"Grambling's White Tiger\")* set in 1967, tells the true story of Jim Gregory, the first white Quarterback at Grambling.", "In October 2013, citing health hazards within the Grambling State athletic facilities and team mismanagement in a letter to the administration, the Grambling State football team refused to play their October 19 game against Jackson St., forfeiting the match up, resulting in a loss.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\\-football/news/20131018/grambling\\-football/ \\|title\\=The inside story of what caused Grambling football players to revolt\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019122714/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\\-football/news/20131018/grambling\\-football/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 19, 2013 }} The NCAA would later go on to announce the ruling on the game was officially declared a no contest.{{cite web\\|author\\=Sean Isabella, USA TODAY Sports \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2013/10/30/ncaa\\-decides\\-grambling\\-jackson\\-state\\-game\\-is\\-a\\-no\\-contest/3317935/ \\|title\\=NCAA decides Grambling\\-Jackson State game is a 'no contest' \\|publisher\\=Usatoday.com \\|date\\=October 30, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=August 11, 2015}} The Tigers would return for their very next game a week later against Texas Southern.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\\-tsn\\-agn\\-tsouthern\\-grambling\\-20131026,0,2715862\\.story \\|title\\=Grambling State returns to field with loss\\|website\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]] \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103163201/http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\\-tsn\\-agn\\-tsouthern\\-grambling\\-20131026%2C0%2C2715862\\.story \\|archive\\-date\\=November 3, 2013 }}", "In 2017, Grambling State completed a few million dollars worth of renovations to the field and scoreboard.[GSU announces major stadium improvements](https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu-announces-major-stadium-improvements/)Grambling State News {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726182659/https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu\\-announces\\-major\\-stadium\\-improvements/ \\|date\\=July 26, 2023 }}", "#### Notable players", "**Pro Football Hall of Fame members**\n* [Willie Brown](/wiki/Willie_Brown_%28American_football%29 \"Willie Brown (American football)\")\n* [Buck Buchanan](/wiki/Buck_Buchanan \"Buck Buchanan\")\n* [Willie Davis](/wiki/Willie_Davis_%28defensive_end%29 \"Willie Davis (defensive end)\")\n* [Charlie Joiner](/wiki/Charlie_Joiner \"Charlie Joiner\")", "" ]
### Football {{main article\|Grambling State Tigers football}} [200px\|left\|thumb\|[Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium "Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium") at [Grambling State University](/wiki/Grambling_State_University "Grambling State University") in [Grambling](/wiki/Grambling%2C_Louisiana "Grambling, Louisiana"), [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana")](/wiki/File:Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium_Grambling%2C_Louisiana.jpg "Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium Grambling, Louisiana.jpg") Grambling State plays its arch rival [Southern University](/wiki/Southern_University "Southern University") in the annual [Bayou Classic](/wiki/Bayou_Classic "Bayou Classic"), which is hosted at the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome "Louisiana Superdome") in [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana") over Thanksgiving weekend and broadcast nationally on [NBCSN](/wiki/NBCSN "NBCSN"). GSU also plays in the annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/State_Fair_Classic "State Fair Classic") against the [Prairie View A\&M Panthers](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_Panthers "Prairie View A&M Panthers") at the [Cotton Bowl](/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_%28stadium%29 "Cotton Bowl (stadium)"), in [Fair Park](/wiki/Fair_Park "Fair Park"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). Former football coach [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28football_coach%29 "Eddie Robinson (football coach)") previously held the [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association") record for most career wins as a head coach at an NCAA division I school.[Penn State penalties: $60 million fine, 4\-year bowl ban](http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-0724-penn-state--20120724,0,6965116.story) *[The Chicago Tribune](/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune "The Chicago Tribune")*. July 23, 2012 During Robinson's 55\-year coaching career, the university gained a national reputation because of the large number of athletes who joined the professional ranks in football. After Robinson's retirement in 1997, former GSU standout and NFL [Super Bowl XXII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXII "Super Bowl XXII") MVP [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28quarterback%29 "Doug Williams (quarterback)") took over the reins of the university's football program. Grambling has won fourteen [black college national championships](/wiki/Black_college_football_national_championship "Black college football national championship"), tied for second most in the country (Robinson's teams won nine of those championships). The 1981 TV movie *[Grambling's White Tiger](/wiki/Grambling%27s_White_Tiger "Grambling's White Tiger")* set in 1967, tells the true story of Jim Gregory, the first white Quarterback at Grambling. In October 2013, citing health hazards within the Grambling State athletic facilities and team mismanagement in a letter to the administration, the Grambling State football team refused to play their October 19 game against Jackson St., forfeiting the match up, resulting in a loss.{{cite web\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\-football/news/20131018/grambling\-football/ \|title\=The inside story of what caused Grambling football players to revolt\|access\-date\=October 19, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019122714/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\-football/news/20131018/grambling\-football/ \|archive\-date\=October 19, 2013 }} The NCAA would later go on to announce the ruling on the game was officially declared a no contest.{{cite web\|author\=Sean Isabella, USA TODAY Sports \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2013/10/30/ncaa\-decides\-grambling\-jackson\-state\-game\-is\-a\-no\-contest/3317935/ \|title\=NCAA decides Grambling\-Jackson State game is a 'no contest' \|publisher\=Usatoday.com \|date\=October 30, 2013 \|access\-date\=August 11, 2015}} The Tigers would return for their very next game a week later against Texas Southern.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\-tsn\-agn\-tsouthern\-grambling\-20131026,0,2715862\.story \|title\=Grambling State returns to field with loss\|website\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]] \|access\-date\=November 1, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103163201/http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\-tsn\-agn\-tsouthern\-grambling\-20131026%2C0%2C2715862\.story \|archive\-date\=November 3, 2013 }} In 2017, Grambling State completed a few million dollars worth of renovations to the field and scoreboard.[GSU announces major stadium improvements](https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu-announces-major-stadium-improvements/)Grambling State News {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726182659/https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu\-announces\-major\-stadium\-improvements/ \|date\=July 26, 2023 }} #### Notable players **Pro Football Hall of Fame members** * [Willie Brown](/wiki/Willie_Brown_%28American_football%29 "Willie Brown (American football)") * [Buck Buchanan](/wiki/Buck_Buchanan "Buck Buchanan") * [Willie Davis](/wiki/Willie_Davis_%28defensive_end%29 "Willie Davis (defensive end)") * [Charlie Joiner](/wiki/Charlie_Joiner "Charlie Joiner")
[ "### Football", "{{main article\\|Grambling State Tigers football}}\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|[Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium \"Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium\") at [Grambling State University](/wiki/Grambling_State_University \"Grambling State University\") in [Grambling](/wiki/Grambling%2C_Louisiana \"Grambling, Louisiana\"), [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\")](/wiki/File:Eddie_G._Robinson_Memorial_Stadium_Grambling%2C_Louisiana.jpg \"Eddie G. Robinson Memorial Stadium Grambling, Louisiana.jpg\")", "Grambling State plays its arch rival [Southern University](/wiki/Southern_University \"Southern University\") in the annual [Bayou Classic](/wiki/Bayou_Classic \"Bayou Classic\"), which is hosted at the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome \"Louisiana Superdome\") in [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\") over Thanksgiving weekend and broadcast nationally on [NBCSN](/wiki/NBCSN \"NBCSN\").", "GSU also plays in the annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/State_Fair_Classic \"State Fair Classic\") against the [Prairie View A\\&M Panthers](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_Panthers \"Prairie View A&M Panthers\") at the [Cotton Bowl](/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_%28stadium%29 \"Cotton Bowl (stadium)\"), in [Fair Park](/wiki/Fair_Park \"Fair Park\"), in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\").", "Former football coach [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28football_coach%29 \"Eddie Robinson (football coach)\") previously held the [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\") record for most career wins as a head coach at an NCAA division I school.[Penn State penalties: $60 million fine, 4\\-year bowl ban](http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-0724-penn-state--20120724,0,6965116.story) *[The Chicago Tribune](/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune \"The Chicago Tribune\")*. July 23, 2012", "During Robinson's 55\\-year coaching career, the university gained a national reputation because of the large number of athletes who joined the professional ranks in football.", "After Robinson's retirement in 1997, former GSU standout and NFL [Super Bowl XXII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXII \"Super Bowl XXII\") MVP [Doug Williams](/wiki/Doug_Williams_%28quarterback%29 \"Doug Williams (quarterback)\") took over the reins of the university's football program.", "Grambling has won fourteen [black college national championships](/wiki/Black_college_football_national_championship \"Black college football national championship\"), tied for second most in the country (Robinson's teams won nine of those championships).", "The 1981 TV movie *[Grambling's White Tiger](/wiki/Grambling%27s_White_Tiger \"Grambling's White Tiger\")* set in 1967, tells the true story of Jim Gregory, the first white Quarterback at Grambling.", "In October 2013, citing health hazards within the Grambling State athletic facilities and team mismanagement in a letter to the administration, the Grambling State football team refused to play their October 19 game against Jackson St., forfeiting the match up, resulting in a loss.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\\-football/news/20131018/grambling\\-football/ \\|title\\=The inside story of what caused Grambling football players to revolt\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019122714/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/college\\-football/news/20131018/grambling\\-football/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 19, 2013 }} The NCAA would later go on to announce the ruling on the game was officially declared a no contest.{{cite web\\|author\\=Sean Isabella, USA TODAY Sports \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2013/10/30/ncaa\\-decides\\-grambling\\-jackson\\-state\\-game\\-is\\-a\\-no\\-contest/3317935/ \\|title\\=NCAA decides Grambling\\-Jackson State game is a 'no contest' \\|publisher\\=Usatoday.com \\|date\\=October 30, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=August 11, 2015}} The Tigers would return for their very next game a week later against Texas Southern.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\\-tsn\\-agn\\-tsouthern\\-grambling\\-20131026,0,2715862\\.story \\|title\\=Grambling State returns to field with loss\\|website\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]] \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103163201/http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/sns\\-tsn\\-agn\\-tsouthern\\-grambling\\-20131026%2C0%2C2715862\\.story \\|archive\\-date\\=November 3, 2013 }}", "In 2017, Grambling State completed a few million dollars worth of renovations to the field and scoreboard.[GSU announces major stadium improvements](https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu-announces-major-stadium-improvements/)Grambling State News {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726182659/https://www.gram.edu/news/index.php/2017/05/04/gsu\\-announces\\-major\\-stadium\\-improvements/ \\|date\\=July 26, 2023 }}", "#### Notable players", "**Pro Football Hall of Fame members**\n* [Willie Brown](/wiki/Willie_Brown_%28American_football%29 \"Willie Brown (American football)\")\n* [Buck Buchanan](/wiki/Buck_Buchanan \"Buck Buchanan\")\n* [Willie Davis](/wiki/Willie_Davis_%28defensive_end%29 \"Willie Davis (defensive end)\")\n* [Charlie Joiner](/wiki/Charlie_Joiner \"Charlie Joiner\")", "" ]
Military career --------------- Feist was born in [Cuxhaven](/wiki/Cuxhaven "Cuxhaven"), [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony "Lower Saxony"). He enlisted in the [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr "Bundeswehr") in 1966 as an officer cadet and graduated from [Naval Academy Mürwik](/wiki/Naval_Academy_M%C3%BCrwik "Naval Academy Mürwik") in 1968\. After that he served on board [fast attack craft](/wiki/Fast_attack_craft "Fast attack craft") and [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer"). From 1974 he was trained as an antisubmarine warfare officer, and later undertook the admiral staff course at the Bundeswehr Command and Staff College in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"). In 1979 Feist became the commanding officer of the guided\-missile fast attack craft *Greif*. From then on Feist served as assistant branch chief of "Politico\-Military Affairs" at the [German Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Defence_%28Germany%29 "Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)") in [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn "Bonn") (1981–1983\) and as branch chief of "Planning" at the [Allied Command Baltic Approaches (BALTAP)](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Baltic_Approaches "Allied Forces Baltic Approaches") in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") (1984–1987\). He commanded the 2nd Fast Attack Craft Squadron based in [Olpenitz](/wiki/Olpenitz "Olpenitz") between 1987 and 1990 and was instructor at the Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, which was followed by a service run at the Armed Forces Staff, Federal Ministry of Defence in Bonn as branch chief of "Politico\-Military Affairs". Further assignments led Feist to [SHAPE](/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Powers_Europe "Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe") in [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), the German Fleet Command in [Glücksburg](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCcksburg "Glücksburg"), and the Military District Command I, [Kiel](/wiki/Kiel "Kiel"). Feist was promoted to the rank of [vice admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral "Vice admiral") in October 2000, when he became vice chief of defence and commissioner for reserve affairs in the Bundeswehr. Feist was promoted to the rank of [admiral](/wiki/Admiral_%28Germany%29 "Admiral (Germany)") (four stars) in 2002, thus becoming the highest\-ranking officer in the German Navy, and he was appointed [Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Deputy_Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe "Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe") (DSACEUR). He held that position until 2004\. In addition, he was named operation commander for the [European Union\-led](/wiki/European_Union_Force "European Union Force") mission, Operation Concordia, to the [Republic of Macedonia](/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia "Republic of Macedonia") in February 2003\. Feist was retired from active duty by Federal Minister for Defence, [Peter Struck](/wiki/Peter_Struck_%28politician%29 "Peter Struck (politician)"), on 15 September 2004\. A [Großer Zapfenstreich](/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Zapfenstreich "Großer Zapfenstreich") was held in recognition of his service. Feist died in [Timmendorfer Strand](/wiki/Timmendorfer_Strand "Timmendorfer Strand") due to cancer. He is survived by his wife Heidi and two sons.
[ "Military career\n---------------", "Feist was born in [Cuxhaven](/wiki/Cuxhaven \"Cuxhaven\"), [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony \"Lower Saxony\"). He enlisted in the [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr \"Bundeswehr\") in 1966 as an officer cadet and graduated from [Naval Academy Mürwik](/wiki/Naval_Academy_M%C3%BCrwik \"Naval Academy Mürwik\") in 1968\\. After that he served on board [fast attack craft](/wiki/Fast_attack_craft \"Fast attack craft\") and [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\"). From 1974 he was trained as an antisubmarine warfare officer, and later undertook the admiral staff course at the Bundeswehr Command and Staff College in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"). In 1979 Feist became the commanding officer of the guided\\-missile fast attack craft *Greif*.", "From then on Feist served as assistant branch chief of \"Politico\\-Military Affairs\" at the [German Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Defence_%28Germany%29 \"Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)\") in [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn \"Bonn\") (1981–1983\\) and as branch chief of \"Planning\" at the [Allied Command Baltic Approaches (BALTAP)](/wiki/Allied_Forces_Baltic_Approaches \"Allied Forces Baltic Approaches\") in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") (1984–1987\\). He commanded the 2nd Fast Attack Craft Squadron based in [Olpenitz](/wiki/Olpenitz \"Olpenitz\") between 1987 and 1990 and was instructor at the Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, which was followed by a service run at the Armed Forces Staff, Federal Ministry of Defence in Bonn as branch chief of \"Politico\\-Military Affairs\".", "Further assignments led Feist to [SHAPE](/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Powers_Europe \"Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe\") in [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), the German Fleet Command in [Glücksburg](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCcksburg \"Glücksburg\"), and the Military District Command I, [Kiel](/wiki/Kiel \"Kiel\").", "Feist was promoted to the rank of [vice admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral \"Vice admiral\") in October 2000, when he became vice chief of defence and commissioner for reserve affairs in the Bundeswehr.", "Feist was promoted to the rank of [admiral](/wiki/Admiral_%28Germany%29 \"Admiral (Germany)\") (four stars) in 2002, thus becoming the highest\\-ranking officer in the German Navy, and he was appointed [Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe](/wiki/Deputy_Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe \"Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe\") (DSACEUR). He held that position until 2004\\. In addition, he was named operation commander for the [European Union\\-led](/wiki/European_Union_Force \"European Union Force\") mission, Operation Concordia, to the [Republic of Macedonia](/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia \"Republic of Macedonia\") in February 2003\\.", "Feist was retired from active duty by Federal Minister for Defence, [Peter Struck](/wiki/Peter_Struck_%28politician%29 \"Peter Struck (politician)\"), on 15 September 2004\\. A [Großer Zapfenstreich](/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Zapfenstreich \"Großer Zapfenstreich\") was held in recognition of his service.", "Feist died in [Timmendorfer Strand](/wiki/Timmendorfer_Strand \"Timmendorfer Strand\") due to cancer. He is survived by his wife Heidi and two sons.", "" ]
History ------- ### Indigenous history The Parramatta River valley, from [Prospect](/wiki/Prospect%2C_New_South_Wales "Prospect, New South Wales") to the sea, has been occupied by Aboriginal people for at least the last 10,000 years (Attenbrow, 2002:20\). The Burramatta clan of the [Dharug](/wiki/Dharug "Dharug") people occupied this area, and used its rich plant and animal resources. The river yielded crayfish, shellfish, eels, turtles, mullet and other fish with both the fresh and tidal portions a rich resource. The men fished from shore using special three pronged spears, and trapped and hunted native animals. The women usually fished from bark canoes using hooks fashioned from shell or bone, and traditionally dug yams from the riverbank and gathered berries, plant seeds and fruits. Animal skins provided clothing in cold weather and fur was braided into body belts for carrying tools and weapons (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 6–7\). Research has demonstrated that the presence of large and cohesive Aboriginal groups in the township of Parramatta represented a conspicuous and enduring aspect of the post\-colonial periods of Parramatta's development.Steele, 1999, 8 Parramatta was their traditional hunting and fishing grounds and this aspect of traditional use can be interpreted still in Parramatta Park through features such remnant indigenous plantings, scarred trees and the proximity to the [Parramatta River](/wiki/Parramatta_River "Parramatta River") and riverine features such as the anabranch of the Crescent and the "Island", a billabong type feature near the [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney "George Street, Sydney") gatehouse. ### Governor Phillip (1788–1792\) [thumb\|Governor Phillip's cottage on the site of Old Government House ({{circa\|1798}})](/wiki/File:View_of_Governor%27s_House%2C_Rosehill%2C_Parramatta_c1798.jpg "View of Governor's House, Rosehill, Parramatta c1798.jpg") Governor [Arthur Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip "Arthur Phillip")'s instructions from [King George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom "George III of the United Kingdom") required him to begin cultivation immediately on landing (Kass et al. 1996: p. 9\). Within days of the [First Fleet](/wiki/First_Fleet "First Fleet")'s arrival at [Sydney Cove](/wiki/Sydney_Cove "Sydney Cove"), Phillip's servant Henry Dodd, who had some farming experience, was put in charge of convicts to clear and cultivate land at the head of Farm Cove. Immediate difficulties arose. Much of the seed had been ruined by weevils and overheating on the voyage and the local sandy soil and the February heat proved unsuitable for debilitated seed. Phillip was always acutely aware of the need for agricultural self\-sufficiency as their stores would need to be supplemented within the year. On Tuesday 22 April 1788, Phillip set off with a party to explore the headwaters of what is today known as the Parramatta River. Early on Thursday 24 April, they came across a natural phenomenon where the river had scoured into the side of a hill, forming an extensive river flat in a semi\-circular shape and where the former course of the river had formed a billabong, or anabranch. Phillip named the feature the 'crescent', and from the top of the hill thousands of acres of what appeared to be arable land could be seen (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 11–12\). The soil at the Crescent consisted of red podsolic clay soils with a deep mineralised acidic over\-layer, a subsidiary heavy clay layer, and a substratum of weathered grey Ashfield shale of the Wianamatta Group (Walker 1961\). Fortuitously, the area was located at both the limit of navigation on the Parramatta River, and also at the limit of tidal influence. Philip had found fertile land with a plentiful supply of fresh water which was accessible from Sydney Cove. In September when the Farm Cove crop failed, he realised that the land around the Cove would not support the colony and decided to shift the colony's agricultural efforts to Parramatta, known at that time as 'Rose Hill'. In November 1788, Phillip sent a party of soldiers under Captain Campbell, accompanied by a convict labour force, to establish an agricultural settlement on the fertile land at the Crescent. Land was cleared, to be used for growing crops and grazing, and a redoubt was built in the area (DPWS 1997: p. 15\). Hopes for the long\-term survival of the colony were pinned on the area. Major [Robert Ross](/wiki/Robert_Ross_%28British_Marines_officer%29 "Robert Ross (British Marines officer)"), the commandant of the marines, expressed the hopes of many when he wrote that from: > "... my having in company with the Governor viewed that part of the country they are going to, and my knowledge of Captain Campbell's attention and perseverance in forwarding everything that tends to the good of the public, flatters me with the hope that under his fostering hand, the scheme may succeed. But should the ground, unfortunately, not answer the intended purpose, I shall give up every hope of finding any place near as fit to form a settlement upon, much less the purpose of establishing a colony" (HRNSW 1978: P.198\). The Rose Hill settlement was laid out to a plan by William Dawes, a young and competent naval lieutenant with a knowledge of surveying. The colony's first effective town plan resulted in a design described as a classic 'Renaissance scheme' (Kass et al. 1996: p. 22\). The east–west track from the Landing Place to the Redoubt became the major axis of the town with High (now George) Street, planned as the principal avenue, to be {{convert\|205\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} wide and {{convert\|1\|mi\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in length. At the western end of this avenue, on the brow of the hill above the Redoubt, Phillip planned a small house for his own use which would close the western vista from the avenue. A second street (Church Street), running north south, crossed High Street. The vista through this Street was to be closed off by the planned church and Town Hall. On Church Street nine houses were built for unmarried women and several small huts for convict families of good character. On each side of High Street, 32 huts had been erected, each {{convert\|25\|by\|12\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} and spaced {{convert\|100\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} apart. Each hut was of wattle and daub construction with brick chimneys and thatched roofs. They had two rooms, one of which had a brick fireplace, and were designed to hold ten convicts. By March 1791 about 100 such huts had been completed (Kass et al. 1996: p. 24\). Town allotments were much larger than usual, measuring {{convert\|100\|by\|200\|ft\|m\|\-1\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}, and convicts were encouraged to cultivate the land around them and to grow their own vegetables. On the hill above the Crescent and facing down the length of High Street, the Governor's cottage was built using convict labour. Captain [Watkin Tench](/wiki/Watkin_Tench "Watkin Tench") described this residence as being '{{convert\|44\|ft\|m\|disp\=sqbr}} long by {{convert\|16\|ft\|m\|disp\=sqbr}}) wide, for the governor, on a ground floor only, with excellent out houses and appurtenances attached to it' (Tench 1979: pp. 224–5\). The extensive garden setting of the building, as well as its prominent position, with a view over the township, gave some status to what was essentially a vernacular cottage. Although the governor's residence was somewhat larger, and had less occupants, it was similar in form to the vernacular cottages built to accommodate the convicts. From Tench's description it would appear that Governor Phillip's House at Rose Hill was largely constructed of materials which could be obtained locally, primarily timber, 'wattles' and clay or mud. The hip roof form was used for the earliest dwellings, with either a thatched, bark or shingle roof and timber rafters. Timber posts formed the structural framework, and a network of 'wattles' woven from Acacia branches was inserted between the posts and the gaps filled with mud. The walls were then plastered with pale coloured clay, which required constant renewal. There are four images of the house in the 1790s. The {{circa\|1790}} watercolour, *View of Rose Hill, Port Jackson* (artist unknown); two 1793 sketches by the Italian artist [Fernando Brambila](/wiki/Fernando_Brambila "Fernando Brambila"), the official artist to [Alejandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alejandro_Malaspina "Alejandro Malaspina")'s Spanish expedition to the Americas, [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia "Micronesia"), and New South Wales; and a 1798 engraving by [James Heath](/wiki/James_Heath_%28engraver%29 "James Heath (engraver)") which was published in [David Collins](/wiki/David_Collins_%28lieutenant_governor%29 "David Collins (lieutenant governor)")' An Account of the English Colony in NSW (London 1798\) (DPWS 1997: p. 17\). The pattern of fenestration shown in these four etchings indicates that the house had two rooms with a central hall in a similar arrangement to the front central portion of the present house. Each of the two main rooms had a fireplace located on the rear wall. This arrangement of rooms would have provided a private bedroom for the Governor and a more public room in which guests could be received (DPWS 1997: p. 18\). The central hall may have functioned as a waiting room. There was also a skillion at the rear (DPWS 1997: p. 18\). While the construction of the Hunter cellars have destroyed a large part of the physical remains of the early dwelling, it is thought that brick flooring discovered during archaeological investigations under the north western section of the central part of today's house, dates back to Governor Phillip's original building (Proudfoot 1971: p. 5\). By cross referencing these surviving archaeological remains with the building portrayed in the 1793 Brambila etchings, the Phillip building's position can be relatively accurately located. It stood on the same east west axis as the centre of the present house but the front wall was set back further to the west. The back wall of the Phillip house was also located further to the west than that of the subsequent Hunter house. The 1790 lath and plaster house also had a small outbuilding at the rear. It would almost certainly have been constructed with similar 'wattle and daub' materials to the main house and, like it, would not have been entirely weatherproof. By the time Fernando Brambila sketched the settlement in April 1793 this original outbuilding had been replaced by two more substantial buildings, one almost as large as the house itself. The exact date of construction of these buildings is not known. No documentary evidence has been located referring to them, but given that Arthur Phillip left the colony in December 1792 and his successor, [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose "Francis Grose"), was far less supportive of public works, a 1792 date seems probable (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). The configuration of the buildings forming the Government House complex are the same in both Brambilla sketches. The northern outbuilding appears to be linked to the main house through the rear skillion while the southern outbuilding is detached. The brick footings of the northern building survive, at least in part. These bricks are of a different size and texture to those used later at Old Government House and support the theory that they form the footings for the Phillip outbuilding. The substantial brick footings also suggest a brick rather than a lath and plaster structure (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). As depicted by Brambila the northern outbuilding is one and a half storeys high with an attic or loft, and it may have been a bedroom wing to allow the two principal rooms in the house to be used as reception rooms. The outbuilding on the southern side was one storey and completely detached. It may have been a kitchen removed from the house to lessen the risk of fire. A substantial brick drain survives under the floor of the Macquarie additions to the central block which may in the future provide clues as to the use of these early outbuildings (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). Even at this date, visitors were commenting favourably on the gardens surrounding the governor's house. The botanist of Alejandro Malaspina's expedition described the party's visit to Parramatta: > "They visited the new Government House, which stood on a hill at the end of the chief street. In a beautiful garden surrounding it were a number of well grown fruit trees, such as pomegranates and apples, and nearly all of the vegetables known in Europe for culinary purposes. The different beds were edged with strawberries and two kinds of geraniums, the Geranium inquinans and zonale (pelargonium) and Cheiranthus Icanus (common stock) were all in full bloom. The shoots of vines growing on the south side appeared to be healthy, and some bunches of grapes, which the Spanish party tasted in the Gardeners residence, were of excellent flavour. There were also melons and 'arbouses'(?) in great abundance" (translation from SMH 12 November 1910\). ### Governor Hunter (1795–1800\) When Phillip departed in late 1792, government of the Colony was placed in the hands of the commanding officer of the New South Wales Corps, Major [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose_%28British_Army_officer%29 "Francis Grose (British Army officer)"). When Grose also returned to England due to ill health in December 1794, Captain [William Paterson](/wiki/William_Paterson_%28explorer%29 "William Paterson (explorer)") served as Lieutenant Governor until the arrival of Hunter in September 1795\. There are few references to Old Government House during the period of their respective Lieutenant Governorships, and neither Grose nor Patterson appear to have made any substantive improvements or alterations to the Phillip\-era buildings. The colony was governed by Captain [John Hunter](/wiki/John_Hunter_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)") from 1795 to 1800\. He used Phillip's cottage until it became uninhabitable. By mid 1799, the house was regarded as being too small and the framing was so decayed that the roof fell in. It was condemned and a new residence for the governor was commenced, which was to be built of more permanent materials. Hunter was forced to hire labourers for essential work until the arrival of convict mechanics on the *[Barwell](/wiki/Barwell_%281782_ship%29 "Barwell (1782 ship)")* in mid\-1798\. The "Statement of work executed at the different settlements during the year 1799" which indicates the scope of public works undertaken at Parramatta by the different convict work groups, shows that carpenters and sawyers were allocated to the project, and that a party of convicts was also set to collecting and burning lime for the brickwork there (Rosen 2003: pp. 48–9\). In April 1799, the brick foundations of the new house were laid, but the partially completed house was badly damaged in a fierce southerly storm in early June (DPWS 1997: p. 21\). The extent of repairs would indicate that much of the damage was done by water, with the soft mortar being washed away and the floors and joinery swollen and twisted out of shape. The completed house was described as being {{convert\|60\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} long and {{convert\|24\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} broad from out to out with a suite of rooms upstairs and cellars under the house (DPWS 1997: p. 21\). The two storeyed single pile brick building contained reception rooms and bedrooms. The house was coated in roughcast and this original Hunter roughcast, or harling finish, survives intact on the two chimneys which were encased by Macquarie's extensions to the roof in the 1810s. Fragments of the clay roofing tiles from the Hunter house can also be seen embedded in these chimneys. The outbuildings of the original Phillip house were retained by Hunter and were probably used as a kitchen and for other uses related to the running of the house. ### Governors King and Bligh, Foveaux and Patterson (1800–1809\) [thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|The house in 1805](/wiki/File:Government_House_Parramatta_1805.jpg "Government House Parramatta 1805.jpg") When Captain [Phillip Gidley King](/wiki/Phillip_Gidley_King "Phillip Gidley King") arrived in New South Wales in April 1800 with orders for Hunter's recall to England, the new house at Parramatta was not quite ready, and by this time [Government House](/wiki/First_Government_House%2C_Sydney "First Government House, Sydney") in Sydney was uninhabitable (Rosen 2003: p. 51\). King handed over the government of the Colony to [William Bligh](/wiki/William_Bligh "William Bligh") in August 1806\. After only seventeen months in office, in January 1808, the officers of the [New South Wales Corps](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Corps "New South Wales Corps") engineered his arrest. He remained in confinement in Sydney for over a year, then sailed to [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart") on {{HMS\|Porpoise\|1804\|6}} in March 1809, remaining there until the arrival of Governor Macquarie late that year. His successors also had brief tenures in office. Major [George Johnston](/wiki/George_Johnston_%28British_Marines_officer%29 "George Johnston (British Marines officer)") assumed the office of Lieutenant Governor following Bligh's arrest. Six months later he was replaced by Colonel [Joseph Foveaux](/wiki/Joseph_Foveaux "Joseph Foveaux"), who in turn was replaced in January 1809 by [Lieutenant Governor William Paterson](/wiki/William_Paterson_%28explorer%29 "William Paterson (explorer)") who remained in office until relieved by Macquarie (Proudfoot 1971: p. 24\). No work appears to have been done on the fabric of the Old Government House during this period. Comments made in respect to the property at this time, such as those of [François Péron](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_P%C3%A9ron "François Péron"), the naturalist who accompanied the French expedition of [Nicolas Baudin](/wiki/Nicolas_Baudin "Nicolas Baudin"), relate to the 'Government Garden' which surrounded Old Government House. When King arrived in 1800 he was accompanied by the botanist [George Caley](/wiki/George_Caley "George Caley"), who had been sent to the Colony at the expense of [Sir Joseph Banks](/wiki/Sir_Joseph_Banks "Sir Joseph Banks") to collect specimens of Australian flora for the [Kew Gardens](/wiki/Kew_Gardens "Kew Gardens"). King allowed Caley the use of the Government Domain at Parramatta, where he allocated him a 'botanical' garden under the direction of Lieutenant Governor William Paterson. Paterson himself was a member of the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society") and a keen botanist, who also collected plants for Banks and the Royal Gardens at Kew. Caley was to remain in the Colony for ten years, collecting vast numbers of indigenous plants and seeds, and sending descriptions and comments to Banks – including comments on the political situation in the Colony. Caley and Paterson used the gardens around Old Government House to experiment on the naturalisation of imported plants, and to establish collections of native species for transport to England. Péron, in his *Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Australes* published in Paris between 1807 and 1816, remarks on the value of these gardens (quoted in Proudfoot 1971: p. 22\). > "...here also are collected the most remarkable of the indigenous plants, intended to enrich the famous royal gardens at Kew. It is from this spot that England has, at various times, acquired most of her treasures in the vegetable kingdom, which have enabled the English botanists to publish many important volumes". ### Governor Macquarie (1810–1821\) [thumb\|Government House in 1819](/wiki/File:Port_Jackson%2C_vue_de_la_maison_du_Gouverneur_a_Parramatta_1819.jpg "Port Jackson, vue de la maison du Gouverneur a Parramatta 1819.jpg") [Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie "Lachlan Macquarie") planned improvements to both the township of Parramatta and to the Governor's residence there. By this time the ordered town layout planned by Phillip had been overlaid by buildings without regard to the original plan. On a visit in 1811 Macquarie laid out the town once more, in regular streets crossing at right angles. He ordered that no house should be built within the town before a plan of the house or building had been submitted through a Magistrate for approval by the Governor (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\). He also determined that the grounds surrounding the governor's house at Parramatta should be reclaimed for use by the Governor, and made regulations restricting indiscriminate public entry (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\). It is from this time that the term "Domain" or "Demense" first came into use in reference to the Parramatta Government House and the government holdings associated with it. One reason for these restrictions on access to the Domain was that Macquarie had decided to enlarge Government House to accommodate himself and his family and staff. Initially the Macquaries rarely spent more than a day or two per month at Old Government House, as it could only accommodate the Governor and Lieutenant Governor and their wives. One of the out buildings may have been used to provide accommodation for the remainder of the party, alternatively they would have been accommodated at a local inn. [thumb\|The entrance hall/foyer](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_003.jpg "(1)Old Government House 003.jpg") In addition, by 1812 the house was in poor condition. [Richard Rouse](/wiki/Richard_Rouse_%28Australian_colonial_settler%29 "Richard Rouse (Australian colonial settler)") was later to report to Commissioner [John Bigge](/wiki/John_Bigge "John Bigge") that the foundations of the centre part of the Hunter house were so decayed that a great part of the foundation had to be taken out and replaced with new brickwork and woodwork (Proudfoot 1971: p. 28\). The ground floors had sunk, roofing shingles had rotted, and the outbuildings were in a complete state of decay (DPWS 1997: p. 24\). In 1812 and 1813 an attempt was made to rehabilitate the existing building. Convict carpenters and plasterers were assigned to the work, and the kitchen was replastered, window glass was replaced, a water closet was fitted, and new doors were made. In 1815 further additions were made to prop up the decaying house. It is thought that this also included the construction of a staircase at the rear of the Hunter house (DPWS 1997: p. 24\). The scope of works necessitated the employment of six sawyers and nineteen plasterers, labourers, and carpenters, and lasted from May to June. One of the chief sources of grievance against Macquarie by the free settlers, was the scarcity of skilled convict labour caused by Macquarie's policy of retaining these skilled convicts for employment on public works, including the rebuilding of Old Government House. Commissioner Bigge noted in his "Report on the State of the Colony" that Macquarie was reluctant to disperse the skilled artisans, and that of the 11 767 male convicts who had arrived in the Colony between 1 January 1814 and 29 December 1820, some 4,587 were employed by the administration of which 1,587 were mechanics and 3,000 were labourers (Rosen 2003: p. 64\). [thumb\|A downstairs sitting room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_058.jpg "(1)Old Government House 058.jpg") [thumb\|The formal dining room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_077.jpg "(1)Old Government House 077.jpg") Macquarie instructed his Aide\-de\-Camp, Lieutenant [John Watts](/wiki/John_Watts_%28military_architect%29 "John Watts (military architect)"), to prepare plans to re\-build and extend the house. Watts enjoyed the confidence of [Elizabeth Macquarie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Macquarie "Elizabeth Macquarie"), and in the new layout the vernacular house of Governor Hunter was transformed into an elegant Palladian style country house in the English manner. The Palladian symmetry of the new house was emphasised by the addition of two identical but mirror image side pavilions, connected by passageways to the main house. Watts also added the plinth, string course and portico to the front of the house. The whole structure was lined in plaster dressed to give it the appearance of ashlar. The zones of the house were clearly separated. The Macquaries occupied the northern pavilion, with the Breakfast Room probably being used as a private dining and drawing room. The servants occupied the southern pavilion and a rear building, separated by a yard. Sleeping accommodation for servants was provided in a separate building, and possibly also in a loft. The central portion of the house was used for receiving, entertaining and accommodating guests. Between 24 March 1815 and 24 June 1815 the construction of the new house was the sole focus of Government public works at Parramatta, but evidence suggests that work began in fact in early 1815 (there is a gap in the Rouse returns for the first three months of this year as they have not survived). Six convict sawyers, six carpenters, four bricklayers, two plasterers, and seven labourers were engaged on construction during this period. Some 20,000 nails were manufactured by the smiths, and {{convert\|400\|impbu\|L\|abbr\=off\|order\=flip}} of lime, as well as two cedar logs, {{convert\|80\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of cedar planks, cedar window sills, and a staircase were sent up from Sydney to Parramatta for use in the new building (Rosen 2003: p. 67\). Although Lieutenant Watts was commissioned to design the additions to the house, the detailed design of the portico over the front door was undertaken by [Francis Greenway](/wiki/Francis_Greenway "Francis Greenway"). In August 1816 stone steps and a plinth were ordered together with four columns and four pilasters. A sheet of lead measuring {{convert\|2\.28\|x\|1\.14\|m\|ftin\|0\|abbr\=on}} wide was ordered in March 1817\. A drawing by Watts of his portico design survives, but not the drawings by Greenway. Watts' design shows a portico with two pairs of Roman Doric columns and a plain frieze and fillet. As eventually constructed, Greenway elaborated the portico to include two sets of pillars with corresponding pilasters against the wall, and added a simplified Doric frieze with triglyphs and mutules. It is not known if the enlargement to the front door is contemporary with the addition of the portico, or if it was altered at a later date. The two elements appear to have been designed separately as the pilasters overlap the door. The French mariner, [Louis de Freycinet](/wiki/Louis_de_Freycinet "Louis de Freycinet"), and his wife [Rose de Freycinet](/wiki/Rose_de_Freycinet "Rose de Freycinet"), visited Parramatta and dined with the Macquaries. An engraving based on sketches prepared by Freycinet {{circa\|1819}} shows the Greenway portico with the earlier form of door, so it is probable he saw it in its earlier configuration prior to alteration. This engraving also shows how the Macquaries had transformed the house and its setting in the image of an English gentleman's country residence. Works were undertaken to improve the grounds. Macquarie recorded that stables and a coach\-house were constructed in 1817, a fact confirmed by Greenway who claimed credit for their construction. A dove or pigeon house was added by 1820, and a rustic 'bark hut' designed by Mrs Macquarie was built on the top of the hill. No illustration of the bark hut has been found however the pigeon house can be seen in early 1820 views of Parramatta. The pigeon house was round, with a domed shingle roof. Another round building was located adjacent to it, but the use of this second structure is unknown. It was possibly either a fowl house or bath house. These two buildings did not survive for long and it appears they were removed to make way for the construction of the officers' quarters. The pigeon house may, however, have been relocated further south, as a colonnaded round structure with a similar lantern appears in later 1820s and 1830s views of the house. In 1831 the 'pigeon house' was used for accommodation, possibly for servants. No mention of the structure is made, however, in inventories later than the 1830s. About 1818 another addition was made to the rear of the house which doubled the entire length of the original Hunter's residence. This provided more bedrooms upstairs and additional accommodation for the Governor downstairs. The roof was modified into a M shape, in cross section and may have had dormers in the back slope facing west. [thumb\|Kitchen area](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_080.jpg "(1)Old Government House 080.jpg") The driving force behind the design for the extensions to house was probably Mrs Macquarie. She was familiar with architectural pattern books, bringing one with her to Australia. She had also been involved in the design and laying out of the grounds at her family home at Airds in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). In the English and Scottish country houses with which she was familiar, the setting of the house was as important as the design of the house itself. As a result, the layout of the gardens was probably redesigned and supervised by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 30\). In the early years of the Colony, the Garden beds at Government House were necessary for the production of food. By Macquarie's time this was no longer the case, and the garden beds from the front of the house were removed and the house set in landscaped grounds with a series of pathways. The kitchen garden and orchard were re\-established in an area located away from the main house. Mature native trees were retained and exotic species such as English oaks, elms, mulberries, pears and oranges were planted in the Domain. The Macquaries used the house extensively between November 1816 and their return to England in 1822\. Governor Macquarie sometimes left his wife and child there while he toured the colony, and in November 1820 whilst he was away, the house was badly damaged by a lightning strike. No physical evidence of the damage survives, but contemporary descriptions indicate that considerable repairs to the building were required on both the upper and lower levels. [thumb\|A room on the second floor](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_104.jpg "(1)Old Government House 104.jpg") The [Bigge inquiry](/wiki/John_Bigge%23The_Bigge_Inquiry "John Bigge#The Bigge Inquiry") necessitated a complete inventory of Macquarie's building activities, and gives an indication of the use of the various rooms in Old Government House during his tenure. The northern pavilion comprised the Governor's private apartments, and contained the breakfast room with French doors opening out to a bower to the north. The pavilion also contained the bedroom used by the Governor, a dressing room and lobby. The bedroom was also used for gatherings as it contained eleven chairs. This was typical of a late eighteenth century interior when the best bed chamber was second only in status to the best parlour and was used for entertaining as well as sleeping. Although all of the p1ans show the passage between the northern pavilion and the central block as enclosed it was termed a 'colonnade', and contained no furniture. The lack of furniture may also indicate that it was originally external, as in the 1850s there are references to three stone columns on the southern side of the passageway. It is thought that there may have been a private entrance to the northern pavilion from the front garden through the colonnade as there was a porch or awning in this location by the mid\-1850s, indicating a door. The middle hall was used as a seating area, with six adults chairs, one child's chair and a stool for a servant. This area, like the main hall, may have been used by people waiting to see the Governor. Alternatively it was used for meeting larger groups than could be accommodated in his adjacent office. The butler's pantry was located immediately off the hall. Like the middle hall the front hall also contained chairs for waiting visitors. The two front rooms were used as a dining room and a drawing room. The dining room was originally the furthest from the kitchen, but in the twentieth century this arrangement was reversed. It is not known which room the earlier governors used as a dining room (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\). [thumb\|An upstairs bedroom](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_115a.jpg "(1)Old Government House 115a.jpg") The upstairs rooms were used as bed rooms and dressing rooms. By 1821 the water closet was located adjacent to the staircase. The servant's loft was located between the water closet and room 7, which is thought to be the room of Macquarie's aide\-de\-camp, Sgt Whalan, and accessed from the southern colonnade. This servant's loft may have been in the back half of the roof of the main portion of the house accessed via a very narrow, steep staircase. No evidence of this configuration occurs on the plan however dormer windows occurred in this location. The alternate view is that the dormers may have lit the central corridor (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\). In the southern wing at the back of the house, two of the rooms were reserved for larders. One was the kitchen proper and the other the scullery. The laundry was in a separate building (DPWS 1997: p. 37\). [thumb\|The main staircase](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_095.jpg "(1)Old Government House 095.jpg") George Salter had built a cottage on the River bank on the reach running north away from the Crescent between 1798 and 1805, and grew wheat and maize. Part of Salter's holding was purchased by Governor Macquarie in 1813 in move towards consolidating the Domain land. Up until the 1820s the Domain was a convict working property containing the Lumber Yard and up to ninety convicts working in quarrying, milling, blacksmithing, farming and gardening. Later, the Domain area was further increased with purchase of other properties. A small farm house built by George Salter in 1798–1806 was acquired and extended by Governor Lachlan Maquarie in 1816 for use as a dairy. This building is now called [Dairy Cottage](/wiki/Dairy_Cottage%2C_Parramatta "Dairy Cottage, Parramatta") and has a heritage listing.{{cite NSW SHR\|4681041\|Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\|access\-date\=27 September 2017}} ### Governor Brisbane (1821–1825\) Lachlan Macquarie's successor [Governor Brisbane](/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane "Thomas Brisbane") preferred to reside at Government House at Parramatta rather than Government House in Sydney. His preference for Parramatta was probably not due to the attributes of the house or its extensive grounds, but that the domain provided an excellent site for his private observatory. The Observatory, erected in 1822 was part of Brisbane's intention to make Parramatta "the Greenwich of the Southern Hemisphere" (DPWS 1997: p. 39\). Brisbane was accompanied to Australia by two astronomers: [Charles Rumker](/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Christian_R%C3%BCmker "Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker"), who had already attained a good reputation as an astronomer and mathematician; and [James Dunlop](/wiki/James_Dunlop "James Dunlop"), whose great natural ability in mechanical appliances and instruments saw him identified as a suitable man for second assistant in the Observatory in an out of the way place like Parramatta. On arrival in New South Wales, Brisbane's instruments were immediately set up on piers in the Domain to allow the observation of the solstice on 21 December 1821\. By April 1822, the construction of the observatory had been completed in anticipation of the appearance of [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Comet_Encke "Comet Encke"), an event not observable in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") or at the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope") (Rosen 2003: p. 80\). The observatory was privately funded by Brisbane and consisted of two buildings: an observatory equipped at Brisbane's personal expense; and a residence attached to it. Located about {{convert\|100\|yd\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} behind Government House, the observatory was a plain building, {{convert\|28\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} square by {{convert\|11\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} high, with a flat roof with two domes {{convert\|11\|ft\|6\|in\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in diameter projecting from it, one at the north and the other at the south. On the north and south sides were five windows, three of which were in a semi\-circular projection from the wall at the base of the domes. Transit openings in the domes extended to one of the windows to allow observations of the horizon. A {{convert\|16\|in\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} [Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach "Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach") repeating circle was located under the north dome and a {{convert\|46\|in\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} equatorial Banks telescope was under the south dome. There was also an [Edward Troughton](/wiki/Edward_Troughton "Edward Troughton") mural circle and a {{convert\|5\+1/2\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} Troughton transit instrument. A Hardy clock showed sidereal time and an [Abraham\-Louis Breguet](/wiki/Abraham-Louis_Breguet "Abraham-Louis Breguet") clock showed mean time. All instruments were mounted on solid masonry piers. There was also a [Jean Nicolas Fortin](/wiki/Jean_Nicolas_Fortin "Jean Nicolas Fortin") pendulum and two instruments for observing the dip and variation of the magnetic needle. Some £470 was spent on the building in 1832, when the house was extended by two small rooms. In 1835, the transit was replaced by a {{convert\|3\+1/2\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} Jones' transit circle, after which the mural circle was predominantly used because Dunlop believed the Jones circle was too difficult for one person to operate (Rosen 2003: pp. 86–87\). [thumb\|330x330px\|Remains of the observatory in Parramatta Park, Parramatta, N.S.W.](/wiki/File:Parramatta_park%2C_Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales%2C_Sydney_-_Wiki0081.jpg "Parramatta park, Parramatta, New South Wales, Sydney - Wiki0081.jpg") Although comprehensive plans of the Observatory remain the building has largely vanished, with only the stone piers surviving. These piers are now the sole remnants of the astronomical activities that occurred at Parramatta; however, another substantial legacy remains. In 1824, at the instigation of the Royal Society, the measurement of an arc of the meridian of New South Wales through Parramatta was ordered by [Earl Bathurst](/wiki/Henry_Bathurst%2C_3rd_Earl_Bathurst "Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst"). The arc would provide data 'for determining correctly the figure of the Earth ... \[and] be useful in laying a foundation for a correct Survey of our Colonies'. In 1828, when Thomas Mitchell began the first trigonometrical survey of New South Wales, his initial meridian was taken from the Parramatta transit instrument in consultation with Dunlop. That survey underpinned mapping in New South Wales until recent times (Rosen 2003: p. 80\). Surveyor Edward Ebbsworth, when conducting his 1887 survey of Parramatta Park, ensured that the exact location of the piers would be preserved by fixing a copper plug in the basal stone of the piers. The Observatory functioned from 1822, the year of its construction until 1829 when Rumker returned to Europe. In 1831 Dunlop, who had retired to take up farming was appointed superintendent, repairs were undertaken and the observatory operated again, until its closure in 1847, when the astronomical equipment was removed to Sydney and eventually installed in the new [Sydney Observatory](/wiki/Sydney_Observatory "Sydney Observatory") built on Flagstaff (later Observatory) Hill (DPWS 1997: p. 39; Rosen 2003; p. 81\). The work of Brisbane and his associated astronomers were the first scientific astronomical observations, and amongst the first scientific experimental work, to come from Australia (the French had conducted experiments into [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination "Magnetic declination") in the southern hemisphere at [Recherche Bay](/wiki/Recherche_Bay "Recherche Bay") in 1791\). Rumker's publication of his observations of Encke's Comet resulted in him being awarded a silver medal and £100 by the [Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society "Royal Astronomical Society") and a gold medal from the [Institut de France](/wiki/Institut_de_France "Institut de France"). In 1826, Rumker also discovered a new comet in the constellation of [Orion](/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29 "Orion (constellation)"). Rumker's chief publication resulting from his work at Parramatta, the Preliminary Catalogue of Fixed Stars, Intended for a Prospectus of a Catalogue of the Stars of the Southern Hemisphere, Included within the Tropic of Capricorn; Now Reducing from the Observations, Made in the Observatory at Parramatta by Charles Rumker, Hamburg, appeared in 1832\. Dunlop on the other hand published his observations on the length of a seconds pendulum in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1823, and his observations of nebulae of the southern hemisphere in 1828\. For this latter work, he received a gold medal from the Royal Astronomical Society. He also published, in 1829, a life of double stars observed from the Parramatta Observatory in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society. Governor Brisbane's own monumental work, A Catalogue of 7385 Stars, Chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere, published in 1835 by the Admiralty, was regarded by the European scientific community a major scientific achievement (Rosen 2003: pp. 80–81\). It was in recognition of his patronage of astronomy in NSW, and for the abundance of observations that came pouring in from Parramatta, that in 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him the gold medal for the Parramatta Catalogue of Stars and General Observations, printed by the Royal Society in their Transactions. [Sir John Herschel](/wiki/Sir_John_Herschel "Sir John Herschel"), at that time President of the Astronomical Society, said, in presenting the medal: > "We give this medal accompanied with the strongest expressions of our admiration for your patriotic and princely support given to Astronomy in regions so remote. It will be to you a source of honest pride as long as you live to reflect that the most brilliant trait of Australian history marks the era of your government, and that your name will be identified with the future glories of that colony in ages yet to come, as the founder of her science. It is a distinction worthy of a British Governor. Our first triumphs in those fair climes have been the peaceful ones of science, and the treasures they have transmitted to us are imperishable records of useful knowledge, speedily to be returned with interest, to the improvement of their condition and their elevation in the scale of nations" (BoM: 2001\). Associated with Brisbane's transit stones are two marker trees which stand to the south of the transit stones. These are *[Pinus roxburghii](/wiki/Pinus_roxburghii "Pinus roxburghii")* (tortoise shell pines), the same species used as marker trees at Brisbane's Makerstoun observatory in Scotland. Two more marker trees were located near the southern Domain gatehouse, spaced at an identical distance as those at the observatory, on the same north–south alignment extending through the transit stones. These original marker trees are now more than 180 years old (Rosen 2003: p. 89\). Brisbane continued to maintain the Macquarie's garden and the domain pastures. He was also concerned with horticultural improvements, planting clover and rye in 1824 and irrigating the gardens using a 'garden engine'. One hundred garden pots were also purchased for a 'Botanical and Horticultural establishment' (Rosen 2003: pp. 83–4\). Brisbane encouraged botanical experimentation at Parramatta as well as astronomy. He conducted largely unsuccessful experiments in growing Virginian tobacco, Georgian cotton, Brazilian coffee and New Zealand flax. Imported grasses were planted to improve the quality of the pasture. Lady Brisbane continued the planting of the park begun by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 39\). During 1823 a series of minor repairs were undertaken at Old Government House, under the supervision of the recently appointed Civil Architect, [Standish Lawrence Harris](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect "New South Wales Government Architect"). A door was added and a brick chimney constructed (the location of both of which are now unknown). Repairs to brick work and the shingles were undertaken and stone flagging laid. Harris also designed a Bath House for the Governor, which had its own reticulated water supply and which continues to exist albeit in a much altered form (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). In 1847 a journalist noted that the bath was in the centre of the building and was furnished with a shower bath. An adjoining room was fitted with apparatus for generating steam and a third was adapted for heating water (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). Each of the rooms was ornamented with a handsome cornice. The Bath House was supplied with water from the Parramatta River by way of a forcing pump. The pump was sunk through rock {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} deep and lined in brickwork. In the garden, {{convert\|276\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of brickwork with {{convert\|238\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of lead pipe and {{convert\|44\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of stone capping was undertaken. The total excavation into the side of the hill was some {{convert\|555\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}. It appears that the main house may also have been connected to the pump. In 1972, a report in the Parramatta Advertiser claimed that the water was pumped from the river in the vicinity of today's amphitheatre and flowed away via a brick drain to a duck pond near where the bowling club now stands (Rosen 2003: p. 84\). In 1886 the Bath House was substantially altered and converted into a park pavilion (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). The Garrison Building, or Officers Quarters as it was more commonly known, appears at this time. The officers quarters are not mentioned on Antill's 1821 inventory, indicating that they were probably constructed for Governor Brisbane in early 1822\. The building consists of two wings, one room deep, separated by a passage. The walls are of varying thicknesses and alignments, indicating that the building was built in stages. It may have incorporated earlier outbuildings, possibly those constructed for servants accommodation between 1815 and 1816, as part of the Macquaries improvements to the house. The building was constructed to provide additional accommodation for the officers who formed the Governor's staff and for household servants. The four rooms for the officers faced the rear courtyard of the house. Lycett's 1824 aquatint, although somewhat inaccurate in its depiction of the main house, shows a rear block with no verandah connected to the main house via a covered way. The arrangement of windows pictured matches that of the south east corner of the Garrison Building (DPWS 1997: p. 41\). The round structure in the centre of the image may be the old pigeon house with an added colonnade. The Officers Quarters had by 1838 a long verandah running north south across the front of the building. A photograph of the rear of the building taken in 1908 shows a rear verandah, its roof integral with the back slope of the roof. The west wing which accommodated the servants did not have a verandah. It opened into a separate yard behind the officers quarters. Two of the rooms are larger, with sandstone fireplaces. One of these was probably the servant's dining room. The dining room may have been the room located in the south east corner, closest to the kitchen wing of the main house. A covered way, connecting the back suite of buildings with the kitchen block, is indicated on the 1857 site plan. It is also described by Lady Franklin and shown in Lycett's engraving. ### Governor Darling (1825–1831\) [Darling's](/wiki/Ralph_Darling "Ralph Darling") military governorship of the formerly French [Mauritius](/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius") between 1819 and 1823 was poor preparation for his post in New South Wales, where he was confronted by a free colonial society that was increasingly intolerant of the constraints of a penal colony. He set about reforming the administration of the colony and demanded that officials conduct themselves respectably. Darling's military bearing and attitudes were resented, and conflict with the newly instigated [Executive Council](/wiki/Executive_Council_of_New_South_Wales "Executive Council of New South Wales") and with the judiciary marred a hard\-working administration that, at last, integrated the civil service and reformed the monetary and banking system (Rosen 2003: p. 91\). When Darling arrived, Government House Sydney was in a poor condition, having been uninhabited for four years. Darling described the Sydney house as 'a perfect Hovel' and, after initially staying in the house of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_New_South_Wales "Chief Justice of New South Wales"), he took up residence at Parramatta while the Sydney house was renovated. Government House Parramatta was described at the time by the artist [Joseph Lycett](/wiki/Joseph_Lycett "Joseph Lycett") as combining 'all the requisites of a rural residence, with the convenience of being at only a short distance from Sydney'. While the Darlings were cognisant of the attractions of Parramatta, the Governor was determined that he would not repeat Brisbane's mistake of isolating himself there. Sydney again became the principal residence of the Governor, while Parramatta served as a winter retreat and a haven when repairs were being undertaken at Sydney (Rosen 2003: p. 91\). Governor Darling had little impact on the fabric of Old Government House. An inventory survives which provides evidence of how the house was used in 1831\. The dining room remained in the same position, however, the larger Breakfast room was now used as a Drawing Room, with the Governor's Office and a small office adjacent. The private secretary also had an office in the house. Only two of the servants are accommodated in the main building, the remainder are accommodated in the separate servants quarters at the back of the Garrison Building. The servants hall is also now located in the separate servants quarters (DPWS 1997: p. 42\). In 1828, the British Treasury considered the expense of furnishing the various colonial government houses. The decision was taken that inventories of furniture should be made, and that the Governor was to be made responsible for any deficiencies. In the future, both building maintenance and furniture costs would be borne by the NSW Colonial Treasury. This policy shift marks the beginning of the decline of Government House Parramatta. Over the next decade, the saga of the construction of the Sydney Government House dragged on, and Government House Parramatta languished as its future as a viceregal residence waned. In August 1829, after Darling received an estimate for additions to the stables, it was decided not to proceed with the work, and hostility between successive Governors and the NSW Executive Council resulted in the Colonial Treasury becoming uninterested in providing the 'indulgence' of two houses for the Governor (Rosen 2003: p. 94\). ### Governor Bourke (1831–1837\) [Governor Bourke](/wiki/Richard_Bourke "Richard Bourke") preferred Parramatta, and initially chose to live in the house as he thought the climate might be beneficial to his wife's health. His wife died in the house in May 1832, probably of rheumatic [carditis](/wiki/Carditis "Carditis"). In addition to the Governor and his wife, two of his sons formed part of his household. The eldest son John was blind and the younger son, Richard, acted as the Governor's private secretary from 1831 until 1834\. The Bourkes appear to have altered the room usage, with the former drawing room being converted into a bedroom, possibly for their blind son or Mrs Bourke. The door to the rear passage was probably added to enable the room to be entered without passing through the hall where visitors might possibly be waiting. The breakfast room was used as a drawing room (DPWS 1997: p. 44\). The gardens continued to be maintained. The servants were for the most part accommodated in the back suite of buildings, as were the officers of the Governor's staff. Despite the death of his wife there, Parramatta was known to be Bourke's favourite residence. He made good use of the Domain, taking daily walks or riding and, while he resided in Sydney when required, he worked as much as possible at Parramatta and escaped there on the weekends (Rosen 2003: p. 99\). Bourke and subsequent governors continued to use Old Government House, however once the decision was made in 1832 to build a new Government House in Sydney it became difficult for the Governor's to obtain funding to maintain the house at Parramatta. [Lord Viscount Goderich](/wiki/F._J._Robinson%2C_1st_Viscount_Goderich "F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich"), in a despatch to Bourke gave instructions regarding the disposal of Old Government House. Bourke pleaded for the retention of the house: > 'Were your Lordship fully acquainted with the endless labor and detail and the personal importunity attending the administration of this Government, and the expense consequent upon a constant residence in Sydney, I am convinced you would not hesitate to allow the Governor the partial rest from fatigue, and needful economy of money, which the occasional retirement to the country affords him. I believe I am correct in stating that neither the Council nor the public seem to call for the surrender of the Parramatta house' (Rosen 2003: p.99\). The correspondence continued for years and the matter was not finally resolved until the 1850s when the house was let (DPWS 1997: p. 43\). Minor maintenance work, mainly plastering, repainting and reshingling, continued to be done on the main house and outbuildings. Reflecting changes in the convict system, the Department of the Colonial Architect would supply plans and specifications for work which was to be undertaken, largely by contractors under supervision by the department. With only a small number of mechanics retained for minor works, a shortage of skilled labour and high wages meant that the cost of repairs attracted the criticism of both the NSW Executive Council and the Colonial Treasury. Unskilled convict labourers continued to be supplied by the Assignment Board, and in July 1833 a shepherd and a labourer were allocated to the Domain (Rosen 2003: p. 100\). The only new construction approved during the period of Bourke's governorship were additions to the Guardhouse approved in 1835 at a cost of £97 (Rosen 2003: pp. 100, 102\). ### Governor Gipps (1838–1846\) [Governor Gipps](/wiki/George_Gipps "George Gipps") corresponded with Lord Stanley regarding the continuing use of the house. Stanley agreed that the Governor could retain Old Government House provided that the expenses associated with the running and maintenance of the house were paid for by the Governor, and not from the public purse. Gipps decided in late 1845 that he did not wish to use house and advertised it for lease in a series of lots. He was unwell, having a heart condition that made even climbing the staircase difficult (DPWS 1997: p. 45\). He may have wished to lease Old Government House because of the considerable energy required to maintain two households. The property was to be let in two lots. The first lot comprised the entrance lodge, Old Government House itself, offices, stabling, garden, dairy, men's huts and farm buildings, with the whole of the land formerly attached thereto of about {{convert\|1000\| acre\|ha\|order\=flip}}. The second lot comprised the remainder of the land of the Governor's Domain, but without the stone quarries (DPWS 1997: p. 46\). It does not appear, however, that the house was leased for long, probably less than a year. ### Governor Fitzroy (1846–1855\) [thumb\|Monument to Lady Fitzroy and Lieutenant Masters in Parramatta Park.](/wiki/File:SLNSW_796765_Lady_Fitzroys_Monument_Parramatta_Park.jpg "SLNSW 796765 Lady Fitzroys Monument Parramatta Park.jpg") The new Governor, [Charles Augustus Fitzroy](/wiki/Charles_Augustus_FitzRoy "Charles Augustus FitzRoy"), began his term in August 1846 and used the house frequently. Like the other Governors before him, Governor Fitzroy restricted public access to the Domain, reserving it for his own use, with tragic consequences. His wife, the Hon. Lady Mary Fitzroy, and his Aide\-de\-Camp, Lieutenant Masters, were killed in a carriage accident in December 1847 as they started out on a journey to [St James' Church, Sydney](/wiki/St_James%27_Church%2C_Sydney "St James' Church, Sydney") to attend a wedding, when the Governor was driving the carriage (DPWS 1997: p. 47\). The Governor did not visit the house much following her death, and it is believed that he had the house boarded up (DPWS 1997: p. 47\). In 1850 the Colonial Architect requested an inspection of the house. As a result of the inspection, almost all areas of the house were found to require repair and renovation. An extensive white ant problem was identified particularly in the shingle roof, and a large nest was discovered in the ceiling over the Governor's bedroom. As a result, extensive work was required to a number of the ceilings in the buildings (DPWS 1997: pp. 47–8\). The list of recommended repairs indicates that the level of finishes varied from room to room, with colouring undertaken in rooms such as the governor's rooms, whereas those occupied by servants, such as the kitchen, housekeepers room, and the housemaids room were limewashed. The inspection report also noted that the public rooms were generally papered and that this was protected during the works (DPWS 1997: p. 50\). The extent of work actually undertaken is not known, however the reports regarding the condition of the building made five years later indicate that the white ant problem was not solved (DPWS 1997: p. 50\). In 1852 the external wood work of the house was repainted by James Houison (DPWS 1997: p. 50\). The works were to be undertaken to the satisfaction of the colonial architect, Samuel Elyard, who noted the colours on a sketch of the house drawn in the early 1870s, as being: grey\-green shutters in a light tone, but deeper than the tone of the house; all building walls in a strong yellow ochre; light warm grey roofs; light green shades in the front of the main building, with others dark green (DPWS 1997: p. 51\). In early 1855 the Colonial Architect investigated the condition of the house again, and reported that the house was in such a decayed state that it was useless to attempt to repair it. The ravages of the white ants with which it was infested had more or less destroyed the whole of the timberwork in the building. The roof and the floors were for the most part rotten. The insect infestation appeared to be so extensive throughout the house that in the opinion of the Colonial Architect if any repairs were made the new work would soon become as bad as the old. He advised the Governor that the premises would require a considerable outlay to make them habitable, and felt that he could not recommend to the Governor incurring such expense upon such a dilapidated building (DPWS 1997: p. 51\). ### Governor Denison et al. 1855– [Governor Denison](/wiki/William_Denison "William Denison") did not wish to fund repairs to the house, and accordingly he leased in 1856 to James Byrnes and John Richard Harding. An argument resulted between the Governor and the NSW Legislative Council as to the income from the lease of the domain. The Legislature felt that it was public money, whereas the Governor was of the opinion that the domain had been set aside for the use of the Governors of NSW. Denison recommended, however, that the income should be spent on the repair of the boundary fence (which had been damaged by fire) and the buildings (DPWS 1997: p. 51\). However, no expenditure on the house appears to have taken place at this time. The [New South Wales Legislative Council](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Legislative_Council "New South Wales Legislative Council") eventually passed an Act in March 1857, to allow for the disposal of the surplus domain lands and for the creation of [Parramatta Park](/wiki/Parramatta_Park%2C_New_South_Wales "Parramatta Park, New South Wales") (DPWS 1997: p. 52\). The legislation allowed for the establishment of the Park however no provision was made for the upkeep of the house or its extensive gardens. To form the park, the extent of the Domain was reduced to {{convert\|246\|acre\|ha\|order\=flip}}, and the remainder of the land sold. The surviving buildings were leased (DPWS 1997: p. 52\). In the late 1850s the extent of the park was further reduced by the construction of the western railway line. The line from Parramatta was extended to Blacktown and a cutting required at Rose Hill. As a result, the stables and the Fitzroy's dog kennels were demolished as they were in the path of the new railway line (DPWS 1997: p. 52\). From the mid\-1850s until after the turn of the century the house was leased. Very few details of the occupants are known, but between 1865 and 1877 the house was tenanted by Andrew Blake. From 1878 a Mrs Abrahams ran a boarding house, entitled the 'Government House Boarding Establishment.' From 1885 to 1895 D. J. Bishop was proprietor and erected some buildings in the course of his tenure. Mrs. Abrahams again leased the property in 1897 and the 'present tenant' was given a week's notice to quit. But after struggling to pay the rent across 1899, in early 1900 she was forced to give up the enterprise. From 1901 to 1905 a Mr Drummond operated St. John's Preparatory School there. Although the house remained in the ownership of the Government, under the management of the Parramatta Park Trust, between 1888 and 1908, there is little record of any expenditure on the house during this time. The roof was replaced with corrugated iron {{circa\|1890}} and the Garrison Building repaired after being damaged by fire. By 1908 the house was in poor condition. Large sections of the external render were missing from the front and the rear, the eaves had dropped, and Lady Gipps' Bower had collapsed (DPWS 1997: p. 55\). ### The Park Gatehouses The gatehouses date from the 1870s and represent an intact collection of park accommodation structures. Four of the gatehouses have been conserved. The style of the gatehouses reflects their strategic location, ranging from the grand entrances of the Tudor\-style George St gatehouse and the Gothic\-style Macquarie St Gatehouse, to the humble utilitarian entrances. The George St Gatehouse is a key entry point for the Park and an iconic landmark in Parramatta. It was built by the Parramatta Park Trust in 1885, on the site of Governor Macquarie's small stone lodge. The architect was Scottish born Gordon McKinnon and it was built by local builders Hart and Lavors. The wrought iron gates were made by local blacksmith T. Forsyth. Individually and as a group the gatehouses demonstrate English cultural references and concepts of nineteenth century park landscape enhancement and utility. ### The Boer War Memorial The Boer War Memorial which was erected in 1904 is one of comparatively few memorials to the [Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War "Second Boer War") throughout Australia. This particular example is an important one, as the first of the Australian troops to arrive in Africa in 1899 to take part in the Boer War came from the [Lancer Barracks](/wiki/Lancer_Barracks "Lancer Barracks"), Parramatta. The detachment of the NSW Lancers returning to Australia from England, was the first Australian Colonial force to land in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") for the Anglo\-Boer War. The Lancers were soon joined in the early operations by the first Australian Regiment (formed from most of the Australian colonies). 100 Lancers from the surrounding districts took part in engagements which inspired [Banjo Paterson](/wiki/Banjo_Paterson "Banjo Paterson") to write a poem celebrating the pride with which the Lancers represented their country: > And out in front the Lancers rode that New South Wales had sent. > With easy stride across the plains the long lean 'Walers' went; > > ``` > Unknown, untried these squadrons were, but proudly out they drew. > > ``` > Beside the British regiments that fought at Waterloo The Boer War was the first overseas military engagement in which troops representing Australia, as distinct from Britain, took part. The Memorial incorporates four Doric columns, together with entablature blocks and cornices which were recycled from the Parramatta Courthouse built by [Mortimer Lewis](/wiki/Mortimer_Lewis "Mortimer Lewis") in 1837\. The gun on top of the memorial was one of six nine pound field guns purchased by New South Wales in 1856, and was originally intended to be part of the defence of [Port Jackson](/wiki/Port_Jackson "Port Jackson"). The memorial was constructed in 1904 and unveiled by Sir [Austin Chapman](/wiki/Austin_Chapman "Austin Chapman"), Federal Minister for Defence in the first Deakin government 1903–1904\. ### The King's School A major program of restoration works was undertaken in 1909 under the supervision of the Government Architect, Walter Liberty Vernon. A measured drawing of Old Government House undertaken {{circa\|1908}} shows the layout of the house before the conversion to a school. This plan, which shows a layout largely unmodified since 1855, shows the open configuration of verandah to the northern corridor between the main building and the northern pavilion (DPWS 1997: pp. 55–6\). There are no verandahs to the pavilions themselves, as these were added in 1909\. The configuration of the kitchen as shown on the drawings is the reverse of the Watts plan and appears to indicate that the bread oven, shown on Watts plans, had not been constructed. This is confirmed by the 1821 inventory which describes the room as a scullery, not a bakehouse (DPWS 1997: p. 56\). [The King's School](/wiki/The_King%27s_School%2C_Parramatta "The King's School, Parramatta") is the oldest independent school in Australia and was founded in a very real sense at the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo"), where the [Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington")'s success in defeating [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") led to a wave of popularity that swept him into office as the [Prime Minister of Great Britain](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Great_Britain "Prime Minister of Great Britain"). There the Duke was able to exercise his preferment in appointments to significant positions. This resulted in him despatching his protégé, Archdeacon [William Broughton](/wiki/William_Broughton_%28bishop%29 "William Broughton (bishop)"), to Australia to introduce a "superior description" of education into New South Wales. Started by Broughton in 1831, the King's School became the most significant school for young gentlemen of its time and the site of the first quality education in the colony (King's School 2006\). The first intake of boys to the school was to produce a [President of the Queensland Legislative Council](/wiki/President_of_the_Queensland_Legislative_Council "President of the Queensland Legislative Council"), a [Speaker of the Queensland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Queensland_Legislative_Assembly "Speaker of the Queensland Legislative Assembly"), a Mayor and several other State politicians, clergymen, a police magistrate, graziers and the first Australian Methodist missionary. The school has provided education to princes and entertained members of the British Royal Family on several occasions. The [King of Malaysia](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong "Yang di-Pertuan Agong") sent his three sons to the School in 1965, and the Royal family of Thailand also sent the [Crown Prince of Thailand](/wiki/Crown_Prince_of_Thailand "Crown Prince of Thailand") to King's in 1970 (King's School 2006\). The drawings held in the PWD Plan Room show the extent of works proposed and the new layout on conversion to the school. The configuration of the central portion of the house was largely retained intact. Upstairs the volume of the stairhall was reduced and a WC added. The former WC had been converted into a bath room by this stage. On the first floor were located two dormitories, the married masters room, the matron's room, the sick room, the bathroom and WC. In the central portion of the house, on the ground floor, were located the Dining Room (south room) and the school hall (north room), two class rooms (north and south west rooms) and the masters sitting room. In the northern pavilion were located two dormitories and the master's room. An ablutions block was added to the rear of the north pavilion, containing showers, wash basins, WC's and urinals. To create this addition, the form of the pavilion was continued outwards and contained showers and wash basins. The toilets were in a smaller addition separated by a tar paved path. A new entrance to the northern passage was created from the rear yard. It allowed access through a lobby to the 'new' bedroom as well as to the northern passageway. The rear yard was partially tar paved. A new entrance to the cellar was created, where the steps to the French doors had previously been located. The French doors were removed. As part of the restoration, the Officers Quarters were converted to provide accommodation for the Masters and the laundress. The Officers bedrooms were used by the masters and a new lobby and bathroom added to the rear, accessed from a common room. Two rooms in the southern wing were converted into a laundry, with new coppers and tubs. The south western end of the building was substantially demolished (DPWS 1997: pp. 59–61\). ### The National Trust In 1967 an Act of Parliament was created to allow the National Trust to take over the management of the house (DPWS 1997: p. 62\). A program of restoration works were undertaken between 1968 and 1970 aimed at returning the house to the configuration that was used by Macquarie based on the plans of Lieutenant Watts (DPWS 1997: p. 62\). A number of the alterations undertaken for the King's School were removed. The servants bedrooms were removed and the kitchen returned to its original location. A bread oven was salvaged from a bakery in Parramatta and installed in the kitchen. As no evidence of the nineteenth century layout of the kitchen survived in the room, the layout was based on the Watts plans (DPWS 1997: p. 62\). During the 1990s the National Trust removed a number of the earlier modifications, including many of the outbuildings. Despite the use of the Watts plans, the house both internally and externally is somewhat different in detail to its appearance in 1816\. Many of the elements have been replaced once, twice or even three times. Although in most rooms the volumes are still intact, the majority of the fabric that is immediately visible is not the original nineteenth century fabric, but is twentieth century 'restoration' (DPWS 1997: p. 63\). The approach of the Trust has been to present the ground floor largely as it was used by the Macquaries, with the exception of the Governors Office (DPWS 1997: p. 64\). Very few of the service areas are presented to the public. Work has been undertaken in the Macquaries' drawing room to present the room as it would have appeared based on the early inventories (DPWS 1997: p. 64\). The garden was also modified to a layout based on nineteenth century landscaping principles by Loudon and a local nurseryman, Thomas Shepard. Some time later it was discovered that the layout that was removed, was in fact an early layout of the carriage loop that had survived intact until the 1850s when it was mapped during the preparation of surveys for the new rail line (DPWS 1997: p. 63\). The garden remains in its altered configuration. The grounds, which were considered by early visitors to be far superior to the house, currently provide little evidence of the landscaped setting intended and created by the Macquaries (DPWS 1997: p. 63\).
[ "History\n-------", "### Indigenous history", "The Parramatta River valley, from [Prospect](/wiki/Prospect%2C_New_South_Wales \"Prospect, New South Wales\") to the sea, has been occupied by Aboriginal people for at least the last 10,000 years (Attenbrow, 2002:20\\). The Burramatta clan of the [Dharug](/wiki/Dharug \"Dharug\") people occupied this area, and used its rich plant and animal resources. The river yielded crayfish, shellfish, eels, turtles, mullet and other fish with both the fresh and tidal portions a rich resource. The men fished from shore using special three pronged spears, and trapped and hunted native animals. The women usually fished from bark canoes using hooks fashioned from shell or bone, and traditionally dug yams from the riverbank and gathered berries, plant seeds and fruits. Animal skins provided clothing in cold weather and fur was braided into body belts for carrying tools and weapons (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 6–7\\).", "Research has demonstrated that the presence of large and cohesive Aboriginal groups in the township of Parramatta represented a conspicuous and enduring aspect of the post\\-colonial periods of Parramatta's development.Steele, 1999, 8 Parramatta was their traditional hunting and fishing grounds and this aspect of traditional use can be interpreted still in Parramatta Park through features such remnant indigenous plantings, scarred trees and the proximity to the [Parramatta River](/wiki/Parramatta_River \"Parramatta River\") and riverine features such as the anabranch of the Crescent and the \"Island\", a billabong type feature near the [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney \"George Street, Sydney\") gatehouse.", "### Governor Phillip (1788–1792\\)", "[thumb\\|Governor Phillip's cottage on the site of Old Government House ({{circa\\|1798}})](/wiki/File:View_of_Governor%27s_House%2C_Rosehill%2C_Parramatta_c1798.jpg \"View of Governor's House, Rosehill, Parramatta c1798.jpg\")\nGovernor [Arthur Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip \"Arthur Phillip\")'s instructions from [King George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George III of the United Kingdom\") required him to begin cultivation immediately on landing (Kass et al. 1996: p. 9\\). Within days of the [First Fleet](/wiki/First_Fleet \"First Fleet\")'s arrival at [Sydney Cove](/wiki/Sydney_Cove \"Sydney Cove\"), Phillip's servant Henry Dodd, who had some farming experience, was put in charge of convicts to clear and cultivate land at the head of Farm Cove. Immediate difficulties arose. Much of the seed had been ruined by weevils and overheating on the voyage and the local sandy soil and the February heat proved unsuitable for debilitated seed. Phillip was always acutely aware of the need for agricultural self\\-sufficiency as their stores would need to be supplemented within the year.", "On Tuesday 22 April 1788, Phillip set off with a party to explore the headwaters of what is today known as the Parramatta River. Early on Thursday 24 April, they came across a natural phenomenon where the river had scoured into the side of a hill, forming an extensive river flat in a semi\\-circular shape and where the former course of the river had formed a billabong, or anabranch. Phillip named the feature the 'crescent', and from the top of the hill thousands of acres of what appeared to be arable land could be seen (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 11–12\\). The soil at the Crescent consisted of red podsolic clay soils with a deep mineralised acidic over\\-layer, a subsidiary heavy clay layer, and a substratum of weathered grey Ashfield shale of the Wianamatta Group (Walker 1961\\). Fortuitously, the area was located at both the limit of navigation on the Parramatta River, and also at the limit of tidal influence. Philip had found fertile land with a plentiful supply of fresh water which was accessible from Sydney Cove. In September when the Farm Cove crop failed, he realised that the land around the Cove would not support the colony and decided to shift the colony's agricultural efforts to Parramatta, known at that time as 'Rose Hill'.", "In November 1788, Phillip sent a party of soldiers under Captain Campbell, accompanied by a convict labour force, to establish an agricultural settlement on the fertile land at the Crescent.", "Land was cleared, to be used for growing crops and grazing, and a redoubt was built in the area (DPWS 1997: p. 15\\). Hopes for the long\\-term survival of the colony were pinned on the area. Major [Robert Ross](/wiki/Robert_Ross_%28British_Marines_officer%29 \"Robert Ross (British Marines officer)\"), the commandant of the marines, expressed the hopes of many when he wrote that from:", "> \"... my having in company with the Governor viewed that part of the country they are going to, and my knowledge of Captain Campbell's attention and perseverance in forwarding everything that tends to the good of the public, flatters me with the hope that under his fostering hand, the scheme may succeed. But should the ground, unfortunately, not answer the intended purpose, I shall give up every hope of finding any place near as fit to form a settlement upon, much less the purpose of establishing a colony\" (HRNSW 1978: P.198\\).", "", "The Rose Hill settlement was laid out to a plan by William Dawes, a young and competent naval lieutenant with a knowledge of surveying. The colony's first effective town plan resulted in a design described as a classic 'Renaissance scheme' (Kass et al. 1996: p. 22\\). The east–west track from the Landing Place to the Redoubt became the major axis of the town with High (now George) Street, planned as the principal avenue, to be {{convert\\|205\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} wide and {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in length. At the western end of this avenue, on the brow of the hill above the Redoubt, Phillip planned a small house for his own use which would close the western vista from the avenue. A second street (Church Street), running north south, crossed High Street. The vista through this Street was to be closed off by the planned church and Town Hall. On Church Street nine houses were built for unmarried women and several small huts for convict families of good character. On each side of High Street, 32 huts had been erected, each {{convert\\|25\\|by\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} and spaced {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} apart. Each hut was of wattle and daub construction with brick chimneys and thatched roofs. They had two rooms, one of which had a brick fireplace, and were designed to hold ten convicts. By March 1791 about 100 such huts had been completed (Kass et al. 1996: p. 24\\). Town allotments were much larger than usual, measuring {{convert\\|100\\|by\\|200\\|ft\\|m\\|\\-1\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}, and convicts were encouraged to cultivate the land around them and to grow their own vegetables.", "On the hill above the Crescent and facing down the length of High Street, the Governor's cottage was built using convict labour. Captain [Watkin Tench](/wiki/Watkin_Tench \"Watkin Tench\") described this residence as being '{{convert\\|44\\|ft\\|m\\|disp\\=sqbr}} long by {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|m\\|disp\\=sqbr}}) wide, for the governor, on a ground floor only, with excellent out houses and appurtenances attached to it' (Tench 1979: pp. 224–5\\). The extensive garden setting of the building, as well as its prominent position, with a view over the township, gave some status to what was essentially a vernacular cottage. Although the governor's residence was somewhat larger, and had less occupants, it was similar in form to the vernacular cottages built to accommodate the convicts. From Tench's description it would appear that Governor Phillip's House at Rose Hill was largely constructed of materials which could be obtained locally, primarily timber, 'wattles' and clay or mud. The hip roof form was used for the earliest dwellings, with either a thatched, bark or shingle roof and timber rafters. Timber posts formed the structural framework, and a network of 'wattles' woven from Acacia branches was inserted between the posts and the gaps filled with mud. The walls were then plastered with pale coloured clay, which required constant renewal.", "There are four images of the house in the 1790s. The {{circa\\|1790}} watercolour, *View of Rose Hill, Port Jackson* (artist unknown); two 1793 sketches by the Italian artist [Fernando Brambila](/wiki/Fernando_Brambila \"Fernando Brambila\"), the official artist to [Alejandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alejandro_Malaspina \"Alejandro Malaspina\")'s Spanish expedition to the Americas, [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia \"Micronesia\"), and New South Wales; and a 1798 engraving by [James Heath](/wiki/James_Heath_%28engraver%29 \"James Heath (engraver)\") which was published in [David Collins](/wiki/David_Collins_%28lieutenant_governor%29 \"David Collins (lieutenant governor)\")' An Account of the English Colony in NSW (London 1798\\) (DPWS 1997: p. 17\\). The pattern of fenestration shown in these four etchings indicates that the house had two rooms with a central hall in a similar arrangement to the front central portion of the present house. Each of the two main rooms had a fireplace located on the rear wall. This arrangement of rooms would have provided a private bedroom for the Governor and a more public room in which guests could be received (DPWS 1997: p. 18\\). The central hall may have functioned as a waiting room. There was also a skillion at the rear (DPWS 1997: p. 18\\). While the construction of the Hunter cellars have destroyed a large part of the physical remains of the early dwelling, it is thought that brick flooring discovered during archaeological investigations under the north western section of the central part of today's house, dates back to Governor Phillip's original building (Proudfoot 1971: p. 5\\). By cross referencing these surviving archaeological remains with the building portrayed in the 1793 Brambila etchings, the Phillip building's position can be relatively accurately located. It stood on the same east west axis as the centre of the present house but the front wall was set back further to the west. The back wall of the Phillip house was also located further to the west than that of the subsequent Hunter house.", "The 1790 lath and plaster house also had a small outbuilding at the rear. It would almost certainly have been constructed with similar 'wattle and daub' materials to the main house and, like it, would not have been entirely weatherproof. By the time Fernando Brambila sketched the settlement in April 1793 this original outbuilding had been replaced by two more substantial buildings, one almost as large as the house itself. The exact date of construction of these buildings is not known. No documentary evidence has been located referring to them, but given that Arthur Phillip left the colony in December 1792 and his successor, [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose \"Francis Grose\"), was far less supportive of public works, a 1792 date seems probable (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\). The configuration of the buildings forming the Government House complex are the same in both Brambilla sketches. The northern outbuilding appears to be linked to the main house through the rear skillion while the southern outbuilding is detached. The brick footings of the northern building survive, at least in part. These bricks are of a different size and texture to those used later at Old Government House and support the theory that they form the footings for the Phillip outbuilding. The substantial brick footings also suggest a brick rather than a lath and plaster structure (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\). As depicted by Brambila the northern outbuilding is one and a half storeys high with an attic or loft, and it may have been a bedroom wing to allow the two principal rooms in the house to be used as reception rooms. The outbuilding on the southern side was one storey and completely detached. It may have been a kitchen removed from the house to lessen the risk of fire. A substantial brick drain survives under the floor of the Macquarie additions to the central block which may in the future provide clues as to the use of these early outbuildings (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\).", "Even at this date, visitors were commenting favourably on the gardens surrounding the governor's house. The botanist of Alejandro Malaspina's expedition described the party's visit to Parramatta:", "> \"They visited the new Government House, which stood on a hill at the end of the chief street. In a beautiful garden surrounding it were a number of well grown fruit trees, such as pomegranates and apples, and nearly all of the vegetables known in Europe for culinary purposes. The different beds were edged with strawberries and two kinds of geraniums, the Geranium inquinans and zonale (pelargonium) and Cheiranthus Icanus (common stock) were all in full bloom. The shoots of vines growing on the south side appeared to be healthy, and some bunches of grapes, which the Spanish party tasted in the Gardeners residence, were of excellent flavour. There were also melons and 'arbouses'(?) in great abundance\" (translation from SMH 12 November 1910\\).", "", "### Governor Hunter (1795–1800\\)", "When Phillip departed in late 1792, government of the Colony was placed in the hands of the commanding officer of the New South Wales Corps, Major [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose_%28British_Army_officer%29 \"Francis Grose (British Army officer)\"). When Grose also returned to England due to ill health in December 1794, Captain [William Paterson](/wiki/William_Paterson_%28explorer%29 \"William Paterson (explorer)\") served as Lieutenant Governor until the arrival of Hunter in September 1795\\. There are few references to Old Government House during the period of their respective Lieutenant Governorships, and neither Grose nor Patterson appear to have made any substantive improvements or alterations to the Phillip\\-era buildings.", "The colony was governed by Captain [John Hunter](/wiki/John_Hunter_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)\") from 1795 to 1800\\. He used Phillip's cottage until it became uninhabitable. By mid 1799, the house was regarded as being too small and the framing was so decayed that the roof fell in. It was condemned and a new residence for the governor was commenced, which was to be built of more permanent materials. Hunter was forced to hire labourers for essential work until the arrival of convict mechanics on the *[Barwell](/wiki/Barwell_%281782_ship%29 \"Barwell (1782 ship)\")* in mid\\-1798\\. The \"Statement of work executed at the different settlements during the year 1799\" which indicates the scope of public works undertaken at Parramatta by the different convict work groups, shows that carpenters and sawyers were allocated to the project, and that a party of convicts was also set to collecting and burning lime for the brickwork there (Rosen 2003: pp. 48–9\\). In April 1799, the brick foundations of the new house were laid, but the partially completed house was badly damaged in a fierce southerly storm in early June (DPWS 1997: p. 21\\). The extent of repairs would indicate that much of the damage was done by water, with the soft mortar being washed away and the floors and joinery swollen and twisted out of shape. The completed house was described as being {{convert\\|60\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} long and {{convert\\|24\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} broad from out to out with a suite of rooms upstairs and cellars under the house (DPWS 1997: p. 21\\). The two storeyed single pile brick building contained reception rooms and bedrooms. The house was coated in roughcast and this original Hunter roughcast, or harling finish, survives intact on the two chimneys which were encased by Macquarie's extensions to the roof in the 1810s. Fragments of the clay roofing tiles from the Hunter house can also be seen embedded in these chimneys. The outbuildings of the original Phillip house were retained by Hunter and were probably used as a kitchen and for other uses related to the running of the house.", "### Governors King and Bligh, Foveaux and Patterson (1800–1809\\)", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|The house in 1805](/wiki/File:Government_House_Parramatta_1805.jpg \"Government House Parramatta 1805.jpg\")\nWhen Captain [Phillip Gidley King](/wiki/Phillip_Gidley_King \"Phillip Gidley King\") arrived in New South Wales in April 1800 with orders for Hunter's recall to England, the new house at Parramatta was not quite ready, and by this time [Government House](/wiki/First_Government_House%2C_Sydney \"First Government House, Sydney\") in Sydney was uninhabitable (Rosen 2003: p. 51\\).", "King handed over the government of the Colony to [William Bligh](/wiki/William_Bligh \"William Bligh\") in August 1806\\. After only seventeen months in office, in January 1808, the officers of the [New South Wales Corps](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Corps \"New South Wales Corps\") engineered his arrest. He remained in confinement in Sydney for over a year, then sailed to [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\") on {{HMS\\|Porpoise\\|1804\\|6}} in March 1809, remaining there until the arrival of Governor Macquarie late that year. His successors also had brief tenures in office. Major [George Johnston](/wiki/George_Johnston_%28British_Marines_officer%29 \"George Johnston (British Marines officer)\") assumed the office of Lieutenant Governor following Bligh's arrest. Six months later he was replaced by Colonel [Joseph Foveaux](/wiki/Joseph_Foveaux \"Joseph Foveaux\"), who in turn was replaced in January 1809 by [Lieutenant Governor William Paterson](/wiki/William_Paterson_%28explorer%29 \"William Paterson (explorer)\") who remained in office until relieved by Macquarie (Proudfoot 1971: p. 24\\).", "No work appears to have been done on the fabric of the Old Government House during this period. Comments made in respect to the property at this time, such as those of [François Péron](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_P%C3%A9ron \"François Péron\"), the naturalist who accompanied the French expedition of [Nicolas Baudin](/wiki/Nicolas_Baudin \"Nicolas Baudin\"), relate to the 'Government Garden' which surrounded Old Government House. When King arrived in 1800 he was accompanied by the botanist [George Caley](/wiki/George_Caley \"George Caley\"), who had been sent to the Colony at the expense of [Sir Joseph Banks](/wiki/Sir_Joseph_Banks \"Sir Joseph Banks\") to collect specimens of Australian flora for the [Kew Gardens](/wiki/Kew_Gardens \"Kew Gardens\"). King allowed Caley the use of the Government Domain at Parramatta, where he allocated him a 'botanical' garden under the direction of Lieutenant Governor William Paterson. Paterson himself was a member of the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\") and a keen botanist, who also collected plants for Banks and the Royal Gardens at Kew. Caley was to remain in the Colony for ten years, collecting vast numbers of indigenous plants and seeds, and sending descriptions and comments to Banks – including comments on the political situation in the Colony. Caley and Paterson used the gardens around Old Government House to experiment on the naturalisation of imported plants, and to establish collections of native species for transport to England. Péron, in his *Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Australes* published in Paris between 1807 and 1816, remarks on the value of these gardens (quoted in Proudfoot 1971: p. 22\\).", "> \"...here also are collected the most remarkable of the indigenous plants, intended to enrich the famous royal gardens at Kew. It is from this spot that England has, at various times, acquired most of her treasures in the vegetable kingdom, which have enabled the English botanists to publish many important volumes\".", "", "### Governor Macquarie (1810–1821\\)", "[thumb\\|Government House in 1819](/wiki/File:Port_Jackson%2C_vue_de_la_maison_du_Gouverneur_a_Parramatta_1819.jpg \"Port Jackson, vue de la maison du Gouverneur a Parramatta 1819.jpg\")\n[Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie \"Lachlan Macquarie\") planned improvements to both the township of Parramatta and to the Governor's residence there. By this time the ordered town layout planned by Phillip had been overlaid by buildings without regard to the original plan. On a visit in 1811 Macquarie laid out the town once more, in regular streets crossing at right angles. He ordered that no house should be built within the town before a plan of the house or building had been submitted through a Magistrate for approval by the Governor (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\\).", "He also determined that the grounds surrounding the governor's house at Parramatta should be reclaimed for use by the Governor, and made regulations restricting indiscriminate public entry (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\\). It is from this time that the term \"Domain\" or \"Demense\" first came into use in reference to the Parramatta Government House and the government holdings associated with it. One reason for these restrictions on access to the Domain was that Macquarie had decided to enlarge Government House to accommodate himself and his family and staff. Initially the Macquaries rarely spent more than a day or two per month at Old Government House, as it could only accommodate the Governor and Lieutenant Governor and their wives. One of the out buildings may have been used to provide accommodation for the remainder of the party, alternatively they would have been accommodated at a local inn.\n[thumb\\|The entrance hall/foyer](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_003.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 003.jpg\")\nIn addition, by 1812 the house was in poor condition. [Richard Rouse](/wiki/Richard_Rouse_%28Australian_colonial_settler%29 \"Richard Rouse (Australian colonial settler)\") was later to report to Commissioner [John Bigge](/wiki/John_Bigge \"John Bigge\") that the foundations of the centre part of the Hunter house were so decayed that a great part of the foundation had to be taken out and replaced with new brickwork and woodwork (Proudfoot 1971: p. 28\\). The ground floors had sunk, roofing shingles had rotted, and the outbuildings were in a complete state of decay (DPWS 1997: p. 24\\).", "In 1812 and 1813 an attempt was made to rehabilitate the existing building. Convict carpenters and plasterers were assigned to the work, and the kitchen was replastered, window glass was replaced, a water closet was fitted, and new doors were made. In 1815 further additions were made to prop up the decaying house. It is thought that this also included the construction of a staircase at the rear of the Hunter house (DPWS 1997: p. 24\\). The scope of works necessitated the employment of six sawyers and nineteen plasterers, labourers, and carpenters, and lasted from May to June. One of the chief sources of grievance against Macquarie by the free settlers, was the scarcity of skilled convict labour caused by Macquarie's policy of retaining these skilled convicts for employment on public works, including the rebuilding of Old Government House. Commissioner Bigge noted in his \"Report on the State of the Colony\" that Macquarie was reluctant to disperse the skilled artisans, and that of the 11 767 male convicts who had arrived in the Colony between 1 January 1814 and 29 December 1820, some 4,587 were employed by the administration of which 1,587 were mechanics and 3,000 were labourers (Rosen 2003: p. 64\\).\n[thumb\\|A downstairs sitting room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_058.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 058.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The formal dining room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_077.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 077.jpg\")\nMacquarie instructed his Aide\\-de\\-Camp, Lieutenant [John Watts](/wiki/John_Watts_%28military_architect%29 \"John Watts (military architect)\"), to prepare plans to re\\-build and extend the house. Watts enjoyed the confidence of [Elizabeth Macquarie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Macquarie \"Elizabeth Macquarie\"), and in the new layout the vernacular house of Governor Hunter was transformed into an elegant Palladian style country house in the English manner. The Palladian symmetry of the new house was emphasised by the addition of two identical but mirror image side pavilions, connected by passageways to the main house. Watts also added the plinth, string course and portico to the front of the house. The whole structure was lined in plaster dressed to give it the appearance of ashlar. The zones of the house were clearly separated. The Macquaries occupied the northern pavilion, with the Breakfast Room probably being used as a private dining and drawing room. The servants occupied the southern pavilion and a rear building, separated by a yard. Sleeping accommodation for servants was provided in a separate building, and possibly also in a loft. The central portion of the house was used for receiving, entertaining and accommodating guests.", "Between 24 March 1815 and 24 June 1815 the construction of the new house was the sole focus of Government public works at Parramatta, but evidence suggests that work began in fact in early 1815 (there is a gap in the Rouse returns for the first three months of this year as they have not survived). Six convict sawyers, six carpenters, four bricklayers, two plasterers, and seven labourers were engaged on construction during this period. Some 20,000 nails were manufactured by the smiths, and {{convert\\|400\\|impbu\\|L\\|abbr\\=off\\|order\\=flip}} of lime, as well as two cedar logs, {{convert\\|80\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of cedar planks, cedar window sills, and a staircase were sent up from Sydney to Parramatta for use in the new building (Rosen 2003: p. 67\\).", "Although Lieutenant Watts was commissioned to design the additions to the house, the detailed design of the portico over the front door was undertaken by [Francis Greenway](/wiki/Francis_Greenway \"Francis Greenway\"). In August 1816 stone steps and a plinth were ordered together with four columns and four pilasters. A sheet of lead measuring {{convert\\|2\\.28\\|x\\|1\\.14\\|m\\|ftin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wide was ordered in March 1817\\. A drawing by Watts of his portico design survives, but not the drawings by Greenway. Watts' design shows a portico with two pairs of Roman Doric columns and a plain frieze and fillet. As eventually constructed, Greenway elaborated the portico to include two sets of pillars with corresponding pilasters against the wall, and added a simplified Doric frieze with triglyphs and mutules. It is not known if the enlargement to the front door is contemporary with the addition of the portico, or if it was altered at a later date. The two elements appear to have been designed separately as the pilasters overlap the door. The French mariner, [Louis de Freycinet](/wiki/Louis_de_Freycinet \"Louis de Freycinet\"), and his wife [Rose de Freycinet](/wiki/Rose_de_Freycinet \"Rose de Freycinet\"), visited Parramatta and dined with the Macquaries. An engraving based on sketches prepared by Freycinet {{circa\\|1819}} shows the Greenway portico with the earlier form of door, so it is probable he saw it in its earlier configuration prior to alteration. This engraving also shows how the Macquaries had transformed the house and its setting in the image of an English gentleman's country residence.", "Works were undertaken to improve the grounds. Macquarie recorded that stables and a coach\\-house were constructed in 1817, a fact confirmed by Greenway who claimed credit for their construction. A dove or pigeon house was added by 1820, and a rustic 'bark hut' designed by Mrs Macquarie was built on the top of the hill. No illustration of the bark hut has been found however the pigeon house can be seen in early 1820 views of Parramatta. The pigeon house was round, with a domed shingle roof. Another round building was located adjacent to it, but the use of this second structure is unknown. It was possibly either a fowl house or bath house. These two buildings did not survive for long and it appears they were removed to make way for the construction of the officers' quarters. The pigeon house may, however, have been relocated further south, as a colonnaded round structure with a similar lantern appears in later 1820s and 1830s views of the house. In 1831 the 'pigeon house' was used for accommodation, possibly for servants. No mention of the structure is made, however, in inventories later than the 1830s.", "About 1818 another addition was made to the rear of the house which doubled the entire length of the original Hunter's residence. This provided more bedrooms upstairs and additional accommodation for the Governor downstairs. The roof was modified into a M shape, in cross section and may have had dormers in the back slope facing west.\n[thumb\\|Kitchen area](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_080.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 080.jpg\")\nThe driving force behind the design for the extensions to house was probably Mrs Macquarie. She was familiar with architectural pattern books, bringing one with her to Australia. She had also been involved in the design and laying out of the grounds at her family home at Airds in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"). In the English and Scottish country houses with which she was familiar, the setting of the house was as important as the design of the house itself. As a result, the layout of the gardens was probably redesigned and supervised by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 30\\). In the early years of the Colony, the Garden beds at Government House were necessary for the production of food. By Macquarie's time this was no longer the case, and the garden beds from the front of the house were removed and the house set in landscaped grounds with a series of pathways. The kitchen garden and orchard were re\\-established in an area located away from the main house. Mature native trees were retained and exotic species such as English oaks, elms, mulberries, pears and oranges were planted in the Domain.", "The Macquaries used the house extensively between November 1816 and their return to England in 1822\\. Governor Macquarie sometimes left his wife and child there while he toured the colony, and in November 1820 whilst he was away, the house was badly damaged by a lightning strike. No physical evidence of the damage survives, but contemporary descriptions indicate that considerable repairs to the building were required on both the upper and lower levels.\n[thumb\\|A room on the second floor](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_104.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 104.jpg\")\nThe [Bigge inquiry](/wiki/John_Bigge%23The_Bigge_Inquiry \"John Bigge#The Bigge Inquiry\") necessitated a complete inventory of Macquarie's building activities, and gives an indication of the use of the various rooms in Old Government House during his tenure. The northern pavilion comprised the Governor's private apartments, and contained the breakfast room with French doors opening out to a bower to the north. The pavilion also contained the bedroom used by the Governor, a dressing room and lobby. The bedroom was also used for gatherings as it contained eleven chairs. This was typical of a late eighteenth century interior when the best bed chamber was second only in status to the best parlour and was used for entertaining as well as sleeping. Although all of the p1ans show the passage between the northern pavilion and the central block as enclosed it was termed a 'colonnade', and contained no furniture. The lack of furniture may also indicate that it was originally external, as in the 1850s there are references to three stone columns on the southern side of the passageway. It is thought that there may have been a private entrance to the northern pavilion from the front garden through the colonnade as there was a porch or awning in this location by the mid\\-1850s, indicating a door. The middle hall was used as a seating area, with six adults chairs, one child's chair and a stool for a servant. This area, like the main hall, may have been used by people waiting to see the Governor. Alternatively it was used for meeting larger groups than could be accommodated in his adjacent office. The butler's pantry was located immediately off the hall. Like the middle hall the front hall also contained chairs for waiting visitors. The two front rooms were used as a dining room and a drawing room. The dining room was originally the furthest from the kitchen, but in the twentieth century this arrangement was reversed. It is not known which room the earlier governors used as a dining room (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\\).\n[thumb\\|An upstairs bedroom](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_115a.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 115a.jpg\")\nThe upstairs rooms were used as bed rooms and dressing rooms. By 1821 the water closet was located adjacent to the staircase. The servant's loft was located between the water closet and room 7, which is thought to be the room of Macquarie's aide\\-de\\-camp, Sgt Whalan, and accessed from the southern colonnade. This servant's loft may have been in the back half of the roof of the main portion of the house accessed via a very narrow, steep staircase. No evidence of this configuration occurs on the plan however dormer windows occurred in this location. The alternate view is that the dormers may have lit the central corridor (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\\).", "In the southern wing at the back of the house, two of the rooms were reserved for larders. One was the kitchen proper and the other the scullery. The laundry was in a separate building (DPWS 1997: p. 37\\).\n[thumb\\|The main staircase](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_095.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 095.jpg\")\nGeorge Salter had built a cottage on the River bank on the reach running north away from the Crescent between 1798 and 1805, and grew wheat and maize. Part of Salter's holding was purchased by Governor Macquarie in 1813 in move towards consolidating the Domain land. Up until the 1820s the Domain was a convict working property containing the Lumber Yard and up to ninety convicts working in quarrying, milling, blacksmithing, farming and gardening. Later, the Domain area was further increased with purchase of other properties. A small farm house built by George Salter in 1798–1806 was acquired and extended by Governor Lachlan Maquarie in 1816 for use as a dairy. This building is now called [Dairy Cottage](/wiki/Dairy_Cottage%2C_Parramatta \"Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\") and has a heritage listing.{{cite NSW SHR\\|4681041\\|Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2017}}", "### Governor Brisbane (1821–1825\\)", "Lachlan Macquarie's successor [Governor Brisbane](/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane \"Thomas Brisbane\") preferred to reside at Government House at Parramatta rather than Government House in Sydney. His preference for Parramatta was probably not due to the attributes of the house or its extensive grounds, but that the domain provided an excellent site for his private observatory.", "The Observatory, erected in 1822 was part of Brisbane's intention to make Parramatta \"the Greenwich of the Southern Hemisphere\" (DPWS 1997: p. 39\\). Brisbane was accompanied to Australia by two astronomers: [Charles Rumker](/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Christian_R%C3%BCmker \"Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker\"), who had already attained a good reputation as an astronomer and mathematician; and [James Dunlop](/wiki/James_Dunlop \"James Dunlop\"), whose great natural ability in mechanical appliances and instruments saw him identified as a suitable man for second assistant in the Observatory in an out of the way place like Parramatta. On arrival in New South Wales, Brisbane's instruments were immediately set up on piers in the Domain to allow the observation of the solstice on 21 December 1821\\. By April 1822, the construction of the observatory had been completed in anticipation of the appearance of [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Comet_Encke \"Comet Encke\"), an event not observable in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") or at the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\") (Rosen 2003: p. 80\\). The observatory was privately funded by Brisbane and consisted of two buildings: an observatory equipped at Brisbane's personal expense; and a residence attached to it. Located about {{convert\\|100\\|yd\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} behind Government House, the observatory was a plain building, {{convert\\|28\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} square by {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} high, with a flat roof with two domes {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in diameter projecting from it, one at the north and the other at the south. On the north and south sides were five windows, three of which were in a semi\\-circular projection from the wall at the base of the domes. Transit openings in the domes extended to one of the windows to allow observations of the horizon. A {{convert\\|16\\|in\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach \"Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach\") repeating circle was located under the north dome and a {{convert\\|46\\|in\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} equatorial Banks telescope was under the south dome. There was also an [Edward Troughton](/wiki/Edward_Troughton \"Edward Troughton\") mural circle and a {{convert\\|5\\+1/2\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} Troughton transit instrument. A Hardy clock showed sidereal time and an [Abraham\\-Louis Breguet](/wiki/Abraham-Louis_Breguet \"Abraham-Louis Breguet\") clock showed mean time. All instruments were mounted on solid masonry piers. There was also a [Jean Nicolas Fortin](/wiki/Jean_Nicolas_Fortin \"Jean Nicolas Fortin\") pendulum and two instruments for observing the dip and variation of the magnetic needle. Some £470 was spent on the building in 1832, when the house was extended by two small rooms. In 1835, the transit was replaced by a {{convert\\|3\\+1/2\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} Jones' transit circle, after which the mural circle was predominantly used because Dunlop believed the Jones circle was too difficult for one person to operate (Rosen 2003: pp. 86–87\\).\n[thumb\\|330x330px\\|Remains of the observatory in Parramatta Park, Parramatta, N.S.W.](/wiki/File:Parramatta_park%2C_Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales%2C_Sydney_-_Wiki0081.jpg \"Parramatta park, Parramatta, New South Wales, Sydney - Wiki0081.jpg\")\nAlthough comprehensive plans of the Observatory remain the building has largely vanished, with only the stone piers surviving. These piers are now the sole remnants of the astronomical activities that occurred at Parramatta; however, another substantial legacy remains. In 1824, at the instigation of the Royal Society, the measurement of an arc of the meridian of New South Wales through Parramatta was ordered by [Earl Bathurst](/wiki/Henry_Bathurst%2C_3rd_Earl_Bathurst \"Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst\"). The arc would provide data 'for determining correctly the figure of the Earth ... \\[and] be useful in laying a foundation for a correct Survey of our Colonies'. In 1828, when Thomas Mitchell began the first trigonometrical survey of New South Wales, his initial meridian was taken from the Parramatta transit instrument in consultation with Dunlop. That survey underpinned mapping in New South Wales until recent times (Rosen 2003: p. 80\\). Surveyor Edward Ebbsworth, when conducting his 1887 survey of Parramatta Park, ensured that the exact location of the piers would be preserved by fixing a copper plug in the basal stone of the piers. The Observatory functioned from 1822, the year of its construction until 1829 when Rumker returned to Europe. In 1831 Dunlop, who had retired to take up farming was appointed superintendent, repairs were undertaken and the observatory operated again, until its closure in 1847, when the astronomical equipment was removed to Sydney and eventually installed in the new [Sydney Observatory](/wiki/Sydney_Observatory \"Sydney Observatory\") built on Flagstaff (later Observatory) Hill (DPWS 1997: p. 39; Rosen 2003; p. 81\\).", "The work of Brisbane and his associated astronomers were the first scientific astronomical observations, and amongst the first scientific experimental work, to come from Australia (the French had conducted experiments into [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination \"Magnetic declination\") in the southern hemisphere at [Recherche Bay](/wiki/Recherche_Bay \"Recherche Bay\") in 1791\\). Rumker's publication of his observations of Encke's Comet resulted in him being awarded a silver medal and £100 by the [Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society \"Royal Astronomical Society\") and a gold medal from the [Institut de France](/wiki/Institut_de_France \"Institut de France\"). In 1826, Rumker also discovered a new comet in the constellation of [Orion](/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29 \"Orion (constellation)\"). Rumker's chief publication resulting from his work at Parramatta, the Preliminary Catalogue of Fixed Stars, Intended for a Prospectus of a Catalogue of the Stars of the Southern Hemisphere, Included within the Tropic of Capricorn; Now Reducing from the Observations, Made in the Observatory at Parramatta by Charles Rumker, Hamburg, appeared in 1832\\. Dunlop on the other hand published his observations on the length of a seconds pendulum in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1823, and his observations of nebulae of the southern hemisphere in 1828\\. For this latter work, he received a gold medal from the Royal Astronomical Society. He also published, in 1829, a life of double stars observed from the Parramatta Observatory in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society. Governor Brisbane's own monumental work, A Catalogue of 7385 Stars, Chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere, published in 1835 by the Admiralty, was regarded by the European scientific community a major scientific achievement (Rosen 2003: pp. 80–81\\). It was in recognition of his patronage of astronomy in NSW, and for the abundance of observations that came pouring in from Parramatta, that in 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him the gold medal for the Parramatta Catalogue of Stars and General Observations, printed by the Royal Society in their Transactions. [Sir John Herschel](/wiki/Sir_John_Herschel \"Sir John Herschel\"), at that time President of the Astronomical Society, said, in presenting the medal:", "> \"We give this medal accompanied with the strongest expressions of our admiration for your patriotic and princely support given to Astronomy in regions so remote. It will be to you a source of honest pride as long as you live to reflect that the most brilliant trait of Australian history marks the era of your government, and that your name will be identified with the future glories of that colony in ages yet to come, as the founder of her science. It is a distinction worthy of a British Governor. Our first triumphs in those fair climes have been the peaceful ones of science, and the treasures they have transmitted to us are imperishable records of useful knowledge, speedily to be returned with interest, to the improvement of their condition and their elevation in the scale of nations\" (BoM: 2001\\).", "", "Associated with Brisbane's transit stones are two marker trees which stand to the south of the transit stones. These are *[Pinus roxburghii](/wiki/Pinus_roxburghii \"Pinus roxburghii\")* (tortoise shell pines), the same species used as marker trees at Brisbane's Makerstoun observatory in Scotland. Two more marker trees were located near the southern Domain gatehouse, spaced at an identical distance as those at the observatory, on the same north–south alignment extending through the transit stones. These original marker trees are now more than 180 years old (Rosen 2003: p. 89\\).", "Brisbane continued to maintain the Macquarie's garden and the domain pastures. He was also concerned with horticultural improvements, planting clover and rye in 1824 and irrigating the gardens using a 'garden engine'. One hundred garden pots were also purchased for a 'Botanical and Horticultural establishment' (Rosen 2003: pp. 83–4\\). Brisbane encouraged botanical experimentation at Parramatta as well as astronomy. He conducted largely unsuccessful experiments in growing Virginian tobacco, Georgian cotton, Brazilian coffee and New Zealand flax. Imported grasses were planted to improve the quality of the pasture. Lady Brisbane continued the planting of the park begun by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 39\\).", "During 1823 a series of minor repairs were undertaken at Old Government House, under the supervision of the recently appointed Civil Architect, [Standish Lawrence Harris](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect \"New South Wales Government Architect\"). A door was added and a brick chimney constructed (the location of both of which are now unknown). Repairs to brick work and the shingles were undertaken and stone flagging laid.", "Harris also designed a Bath House for the Governor, which had its own reticulated water supply and which continues to exist albeit in a much altered form (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\). In 1847 a journalist noted that the bath was in the centre of the building and was furnished with a shower bath. An adjoining room was fitted with apparatus for generating steam and a third was adapted for heating water (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\). Each of the rooms was ornamented with a handsome cornice. The Bath House was supplied with water from the Parramatta River by way of a forcing pump. The pump was sunk through rock {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} deep and lined in brickwork. In the garden, {{convert\\|276\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of brickwork with {{convert\\|238\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of lead pipe and {{convert\\|44\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of stone capping was undertaken. The total excavation into the side of the hill was some {{convert\\|555\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}. It appears that the main house may also have been connected to the pump. In 1972, a report in the Parramatta Advertiser claimed that the water was pumped from the river in the vicinity of today's amphitheatre and flowed away via a brick drain to a duck pond near where the bowling club now stands (Rosen 2003: p. 84\\). In 1886 the Bath House was substantially altered and converted into a park pavilion (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\).", "The Garrison Building, or Officers Quarters as it was more commonly known, appears at this time. The officers quarters are not mentioned on Antill's 1821 inventory, indicating that they were probably constructed for Governor Brisbane in early 1822\\. The building consists of two wings, one room deep, separated by a passage. The walls are of varying thicknesses and alignments, indicating that the building was built in stages. It may have incorporated earlier outbuildings, possibly those constructed for servants accommodation between 1815 and 1816, as part of the Macquaries improvements to the house. The building was constructed to provide additional accommodation for the officers who formed the Governor's staff and for household servants. The four rooms for the officers faced the rear courtyard of the house. Lycett's 1824 aquatint, although somewhat inaccurate in its depiction of the main house, shows a rear block with no verandah connected to the main house via a covered way. The arrangement of windows pictured matches that of the south east corner of the Garrison Building (DPWS 1997: p. 41\\). The round structure in the centre of the image may be the old pigeon house with an added colonnade. The Officers Quarters had by 1838 a long verandah running north south across the front of the building. A photograph of the rear of the building taken in 1908 shows a rear verandah, its roof integral with the back slope of the roof. The west wing which accommodated the servants did not have a verandah. It opened into a separate yard behind the officers quarters. Two of the rooms are larger, with sandstone fireplaces. One of these was probably the servant's dining room. The dining room may have been the room located in the south east corner, closest to the kitchen wing of the main house. A covered way, connecting the back suite of buildings with the kitchen block, is indicated on the 1857 site plan. It is also described by Lady Franklin and shown in Lycett's engraving.", "### Governor Darling (1825–1831\\)", "[Darling's](/wiki/Ralph_Darling \"Ralph Darling\") military governorship of the formerly French [Mauritius](/wiki/Mauritius \"Mauritius\") between 1819 and 1823 was poor preparation for his post in New South Wales, where he was confronted by a free colonial society that was increasingly intolerant of the constraints of a penal colony. He set about reforming the administration of the colony and demanded that officials conduct themselves respectably. Darling's military bearing and attitudes were resented, and conflict with the newly instigated [Executive Council](/wiki/Executive_Council_of_New_South_Wales \"Executive Council of New South Wales\") and with the judiciary marred a hard\\-working administration that, at last, integrated the civil service and reformed the monetary and banking system (Rosen 2003: p. 91\\).", "When Darling arrived, Government House Sydney was in a poor condition, having been uninhabited for four years. Darling described the Sydney house as 'a perfect Hovel' and, after initially staying in the house of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_New_South_Wales \"Chief Justice of New South Wales\"), he took up residence at Parramatta while the Sydney house was renovated. Government House Parramatta was described at the time by the artist [Joseph Lycett](/wiki/Joseph_Lycett \"Joseph Lycett\") as combining 'all the requisites of a rural residence, with the convenience of being at only a short distance from Sydney'. While the Darlings were cognisant of the attractions of Parramatta, the Governor was determined that he would not repeat Brisbane's mistake of isolating himself there. Sydney again became the principal residence of the Governor, while Parramatta served as a winter retreat and a haven when repairs were being undertaken at Sydney (Rosen 2003: p. 91\\).", "Governor Darling had little impact on the fabric of Old Government House. An inventory survives which provides evidence of how the house was used in 1831\\. The dining room remained in the same position, however, the larger Breakfast room was now used as a Drawing Room, with the Governor's Office and a small office adjacent. The private secretary also had an office in the house. Only two of the servants are accommodated in the main building, the remainder are accommodated in the separate servants quarters at the back of the Garrison Building. The servants hall is also now located in the separate servants quarters (DPWS 1997: p. 42\\).", "In 1828, the British Treasury considered the expense of furnishing the various colonial government houses. The decision was taken that inventories of furniture should be made, and that the Governor was to be made responsible for any deficiencies. In the future, both building maintenance and furniture costs would be borne by the NSW Colonial Treasury. This policy shift marks the beginning of the decline of Government House Parramatta. Over the next decade, the saga of the construction of the Sydney Government House dragged on, and Government House Parramatta languished as its future as a viceregal residence waned. In August 1829, after Darling received an estimate for additions to the stables, it was decided not to proceed with the work, and hostility between successive Governors and the NSW Executive Council resulted in the Colonial Treasury becoming uninterested in providing the 'indulgence' of two houses for the Governor (Rosen 2003: p. 94\\).", "### Governor Bourke (1831–1837\\)", "[Governor Bourke](/wiki/Richard_Bourke \"Richard Bourke\") preferred Parramatta, and initially chose to live in the house as he thought the climate might be beneficial to his wife's health. His wife died in the house in May 1832, probably of rheumatic [carditis](/wiki/Carditis \"Carditis\"). In addition to the Governor and his wife, two of his sons formed part of his household. The eldest son John was blind and the younger son, Richard, acted as the Governor's private secretary from 1831 until 1834\\. The Bourkes appear to have altered the room usage, with the former drawing room being converted into a bedroom, possibly for their blind son or Mrs Bourke. The door to the rear passage was probably added to enable the room to be entered without passing through the hall where visitors might possibly be waiting. The breakfast room was used as a drawing room (DPWS 1997: p. 44\\). The gardens continued to be maintained. The servants were for the most part accommodated in the back suite of buildings, as were the officers of the Governor's staff.", "Despite the death of his wife there, Parramatta was known to be Bourke's favourite residence. He made good use of the Domain, taking daily walks or riding and, while he resided in Sydney when required, he worked as much as possible at Parramatta and escaped there on the weekends (Rosen 2003: p. 99\\). Bourke and subsequent governors continued to use Old Government House, however once the decision was made in 1832 to build a new Government House in Sydney it became difficult for the Governor's to obtain funding to maintain the house at Parramatta. [Lord Viscount Goderich](/wiki/F._J._Robinson%2C_1st_Viscount_Goderich \"F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich\"), in a despatch to Bourke gave instructions regarding the disposal of Old Government House. Bourke pleaded for the retention of the house:", "> 'Were your Lordship fully acquainted with the endless labor and detail and the personal importunity attending the administration of this Government, and the expense consequent upon a constant residence in Sydney, I am convinced you would not hesitate to allow the Governor the partial rest from fatigue, and needful economy of money, which the occasional retirement to the country affords him. I believe I am correct in stating that neither the Council nor the public seem to call for the surrender of the Parramatta house' (Rosen 2003: p.99\\).", "The correspondence continued for years and the matter was not finally resolved until the 1850s when the house was let (DPWS 1997: p. 43\\).", "Minor maintenance work, mainly plastering, repainting and reshingling, continued to be done on the main house and outbuildings. Reflecting changes in the convict system, the Department of the Colonial Architect would supply plans and specifications for work which was to be undertaken, largely by contractors under supervision by the department. With only a small number of mechanics retained for minor works, a shortage of skilled labour and high wages meant that the cost of repairs attracted the criticism of both the NSW Executive Council and the Colonial Treasury. Unskilled convict labourers continued to be supplied by the Assignment Board, and in July 1833 a shepherd and a labourer were allocated to the Domain (Rosen 2003: p. 100\\). The only new construction approved during the period of Bourke's governorship were additions to the Guardhouse approved in 1835 at a cost of £97 (Rosen 2003: pp. 100, 102\\).", "### Governor Gipps (1838–1846\\)", "[Governor Gipps](/wiki/George_Gipps \"George Gipps\") corresponded with Lord Stanley regarding the continuing use of the house. Stanley agreed that the Governor could retain Old Government House provided that the expenses associated with the running and maintenance of the house were paid for by the Governor, and not from the public purse. Gipps decided in late 1845 that he did not wish to use house and advertised it for lease in a series of lots. He was unwell, having a heart condition that made even climbing the staircase difficult (DPWS 1997: p. 45\\). He may have wished to lease Old Government House because of the considerable energy required to maintain two households. The property was to be let in two lots. The first lot comprised the entrance lodge, Old Government House itself, offices, stabling, garden, dairy, men's huts and farm buildings, with the whole of the land formerly attached thereto of about {{convert\\|1000\\| acre\\|ha\\|order\\=flip}}. The second lot comprised the remainder of the land of the Governor's Domain, but without the stone quarries (DPWS 1997: p. 46\\). It does not appear, however, that the house was leased for long, probably less than a year.", "### Governor Fitzroy (1846–1855\\)", "[thumb\\|Monument to Lady Fitzroy and Lieutenant Masters in Parramatta Park.](/wiki/File:SLNSW_796765_Lady_Fitzroys_Monument_Parramatta_Park.jpg \"SLNSW 796765 Lady Fitzroys Monument Parramatta Park.jpg\")\nThe new Governor, [Charles Augustus Fitzroy](/wiki/Charles_Augustus_FitzRoy \"Charles Augustus FitzRoy\"), began his term in August 1846 and used the house frequently. Like the other Governors before him, Governor Fitzroy restricted public access to the Domain, reserving it for his own use, with tragic consequences. His wife, the Hon. Lady Mary Fitzroy, and his Aide\\-de\\-Camp, Lieutenant Masters, were killed in a carriage accident in December 1847 as they started out on a journey to [St James' Church, Sydney](/wiki/St_James%27_Church%2C_Sydney \"St James' Church, Sydney\") to attend a wedding, when the Governor was driving the carriage (DPWS 1997: p. 47\\). The Governor did not visit the house much following her death, and it is believed that he had the house boarded up (DPWS 1997: p. 47\\).", "In 1850 the Colonial Architect requested an inspection of the house. As a result of the inspection, almost all areas of the house were found to require repair and renovation. An extensive white ant problem was identified particularly in the shingle roof, and a large nest was discovered in the ceiling over the Governor's bedroom. As a result, extensive work was required to a number of the ceilings in the buildings (DPWS 1997: pp. 47–8\\).", "The list of recommended repairs indicates that the level of finishes varied from room to room, with colouring undertaken in rooms such as the governor's rooms, whereas those occupied by servants, such as the kitchen, housekeepers room, and the housemaids room were limewashed. The inspection report also noted that the public rooms were generally papered and that this was protected during the works (DPWS 1997: p. 50\\). The extent of work actually undertaken is not known, however the reports regarding the condition of the building made five years later indicate that the white ant problem was not solved (DPWS 1997: p. 50\\).", "In 1852 the external wood work of the house was repainted by James Houison (DPWS 1997: p. 50\\). The works were to be undertaken to the satisfaction of the colonial architect, Samuel Elyard, who noted the colours on a sketch of the house drawn in the early 1870s, as being: grey\\-green shutters in a light tone, but deeper than the tone of the house; all building walls in a strong yellow ochre; light warm grey roofs; light green shades in the front of the main building, with others dark green (DPWS 1997: p. 51\\).", "In early 1855 the Colonial Architect investigated the condition of the house again, and reported that the house was in such a decayed state that it was useless to attempt to repair it. The ravages of the white ants with which it was infested had more or less destroyed the whole of the timberwork in the building. The roof and the floors were for the most part rotten. The insect infestation appeared to be so extensive throughout the house that in the opinion of the Colonial Architect if any repairs were made the new work would soon become as bad as the old. He advised the Governor that the premises would require a considerable outlay to make them habitable, and felt that he could not recommend to the Governor incurring such expense upon such a dilapidated building (DPWS 1997: p. 51\\).", "### Governor Denison et al. 1855–", "[Governor Denison](/wiki/William_Denison \"William Denison\") did not wish to fund repairs to the house, and accordingly he leased in 1856 to James Byrnes and John Richard Harding. An argument resulted between the Governor and the NSW Legislative Council as to the income from the lease of the domain. The Legislature felt that it was public money, whereas the Governor was of the opinion that the domain had been set aside for the use of the Governors of NSW. Denison recommended, however, that the income should be spent on the repair of the boundary fence (which had been damaged by fire) and the buildings (DPWS 1997: p. 51\\). However, no expenditure on the house appears to have taken place at this time.", "The [New South Wales Legislative Council](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Legislative_Council \"New South Wales Legislative Council\") eventually passed an Act in March 1857, to allow for the disposal of the surplus domain lands and for the creation of [Parramatta Park](/wiki/Parramatta_Park%2C_New_South_Wales \"Parramatta Park, New South Wales\") (DPWS 1997: p. 52\\). The legislation allowed for the establishment of the Park however no provision was made for the upkeep of the house or its extensive gardens. To form the park, the extent of the Domain was reduced to {{convert\\|246\\|acre\\|ha\\|order\\=flip}}, and the remainder of the land sold. The surviving buildings were leased (DPWS 1997: p. 52\\). In the late 1850s the extent of the park was further reduced by the construction of the western railway line. The line from Parramatta was extended to Blacktown and a cutting required at Rose Hill. As a result, the stables and the Fitzroy's dog kennels were demolished as they were in the path of the new railway line (DPWS 1997: p. 52\\).", "From the mid\\-1850s until after the turn of the century the house was leased. Very few details of the occupants are known, but between 1865 and 1877 the house was tenanted by Andrew Blake. From 1878 a Mrs Abrahams ran a boarding house, entitled the 'Government House Boarding Establishment.' From 1885 to 1895 D. J. Bishop was proprietor and erected some buildings in the course of his tenure. Mrs. Abrahams again leased the property in 1897 and the 'present tenant' was given a week's notice to quit. But after struggling to pay the rent across 1899, in early 1900 she was forced to give up the enterprise. From 1901 to 1905 a Mr Drummond operated St. John's Preparatory School there.", "Although the house remained in the ownership of the Government, under the management of the Parramatta Park Trust, between 1888 and 1908, there is little record of any expenditure on the house during this time. The roof was replaced with corrugated iron {{circa\\|1890}} and the Garrison Building repaired after being damaged by fire. By 1908 the house was in poor condition. Large sections of the external render were missing from the front and the rear, the eaves had dropped, and Lady Gipps' Bower had collapsed (DPWS 1997: p. 55\\).", "### The Park Gatehouses", "The gatehouses date from the 1870s and represent an intact collection of park accommodation structures. Four of the gatehouses have been conserved. The style of the gatehouses reflects their strategic location, ranging from the grand entrances of the Tudor\\-style George St gatehouse and the Gothic\\-style Macquarie St Gatehouse, to the humble utilitarian entrances. The George St Gatehouse is a key entry point for the Park and an iconic landmark in Parramatta. It was built by the Parramatta Park Trust in 1885, on the site of Governor Macquarie's small stone lodge. The architect was Scottish born Gordon McKinnon and it was built by local builders Hart and Lavors. The wrought iron gates were made by local blacksmith T. Forsyth. Individually and as a group the gatehouses demonstrate English cultural references and concepts of nineteenth century park landscape enhancement and utility.", "### The Boer War Memorial", "The Boer War Memorial which was erected in 1904 is one of comparatively few memorials to the [Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War \"Second Boer War\") throughout Australia. This particular example is an important one, as the first of the Australian troops to arrive in Africa in 1899 to take part in the Boer War came from the [Lancer Barracks](/wiki/Lancer_Barracks \"Lancer Barracks\"), Parramatta. The detachment of the NSW Lancers returning to Australia from England, was the first Australian Colonial force to land in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") for the Anglo\\-Boer War. The Lancers were soon joined in the early operations by the first Australian Regiment (formed from most of the Australian colonies). 100 Lancers from the surrounding districts took part in engagements which inspired [Banjo Paterson](/wiki/Banjo_Paterson \"Banjo Paterson\") to write a poem celebrating the pride with which the Lancers represented their country:", "", "> And out in front the Lancers rode that New South Wales had sent. \n> With easy stride across the plains the long lean 'Walers' went;\n> \n> ```\n> Unknown, untried these squadrons were, but proudly out they drew.\n> \n> ```\n> Beside the British regiments that fought at Waterloo", "The Boer War was the first overseas military engagement in which troops representing Australia, as distinct from Britain, took part. The Memorial incorporates four Doric columns, together with entablature blocks and cornices which were recycled from the Parramatta Courthouse built by [Mortimer Lewis](/wiki/Mortimer_Lewis \"Mortimer Lewis\") in 1837\\. The gun on top of the memorial was one of six nine pound field guns purchased by New South Wales in 1856, and was originally intended to be part of the defence of [Port Jackson](/wiki/Port_Jackson \"Port Jackson\"). The memorial was constructed in 1904 and unveiled by Sir [Austin Chapman](/wiki/Austin_Chapman \"Austin Chapman\"), Federal Minister for Defence in the first Deakin government 1903–1904\\.", "### The King's School", "A major program of restoration works was undertaken in 1909 under the supervision of the Government Architect, Walter Liberty Vernon. A measured drawing of Old Government House undertaken {{circa\\|1908}} shows the layout of the house before the conversion to a school. This plan, which shows a layout largely unmodified since 1855, shows the open configuration of verandah to the northern corridor between the main building and the northern pavilion (DPWS 1997: pp. 55–6\\). There are no verandahs to the pavilions themselves, as these were added in 1909\\. The configuration of the kitchen as shown on the drawings is the reverse of the Watts plan and appears to indicate that the bread oven, shown on Watts plans, had not been constructed. This is confirmed by the 1821 inventory which describes the room as a scullery, not a bakehouse (DPWS 1997: p. 56\\).", "[The King's School](/wiki/The_King%27s_School%2C_Parramatta \"The King's School, Parramatta\") is the oldest independent school in Australia and was founded in a very real sense at the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\"), where the [Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\")'s success in defeating [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") led to a wave of popularity that swept him into office as the [Prime Minister of Great Britain](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Great_Britain \"Prime Minister of Great Britain\"). There the Duke was able to exercise his preferment in appointments to significant positions. This resulted in him despatching his protégé, Archdeacon [William Broughton](/wiki/William_Broughton_%28bishop%29 \"William Broughton (bishop)\"), to Australia to introduce a \"superior description\" of education into New South Wales. Started by Broughton in 1831, the King's School became the most significant school for young gentlemen of its time and the site of the first quality education in the colony (King's School 2006\\). The first intake of boys to the school was to produce a [President of the Queensland Legislative Council](/wiki/President_of_the_Queensland_Legislative_Council \"President of the Queensland Legislative Council\"), a [Speaker of the Queensland Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Queensland_Legislative_Assembly \"Speaker of the Queensland Legislative Assembly\"), a Mayor and several other State politicians, clergymen, a police magistrate, graziers and the first Australian Methodist missionary. The school has provided education to princes and entertained members of the British Royal Family on several occasions. The [King of Malaysia](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong \"Yang di-Pertuan Agong\") sent his three sons to the School in 1965, and the Royal family of Thailand also sent the [Crown Prince of Thailand](/wiki/Crown_Prince_of_Thailand \"Crown Prince of Thailand\") to King's in 1970 (King's School 2006\\).", "The drawings held in the PWD Plan Room show the extent of works proposed and the new layout on conversion to the school. The configuration of the central portion of the house was largely retained intact. Upstairs the volume of the stairhall was reduced and a WC added. The former WC had been converted into a bath room by this stage. On the first floor were located two dormitories, the married masters room, the matron's room, the sick room, the bathroom and WC. In the central portion of the house, on the ground floor, were located the Dining Room (south room) and the school hall (north room), two class rooms (north and south west rooms) and the masters sitting room. In the northern pavilion were located two dormitories and the master's room. An ablutions block was added to the rear of the north pavilion, containing showers, wash basins, WC's and urinals. To create this addition, the form of the pavilion was continued outwards and contained showers and wash basins. The toilets were in a smaller addition separated by a tar paved path. A new entrance to the northern passage was created from the rear yard. It allowed access through a lobby to the 'new' bedroom as well as to the northern passageway. The rear yard was partially tar paved. A new entrance to the cellar was created, where the steps to the French doors had previously been located. The French doors were removed. As part of the restoration, the Officers Quarters were converted to provide accommodation for the Masters and the laundress. The Officers bedrooms were used by the masters and a new lobby and bathroom added to the rear, accessed from a common room. Two rooms in the southern wing were converted into a laundry, with new coppers and tubs. The south western end of the building was substantially demolished (DPWS 1997: pp. 59–61\\).", "### The National Trust", "In 1967 an Act of Parliament was created to allow the National Trust to take over the management of the house (DPWS 1997: p. 62\\). A program of restoration works were undertaken between 1968 and 1970 aimed at returning the house to the configuration that was used by Macquarie based on the plans of Lieutenant Watts (DPWS 1997: p. 62\\). A number of the alterations undertaken for the King's School were removed. The servants bedrooms were removed and the kitchen returned to its original location. A bread oven was salvaged from a bakery in Parramatta and installed in the kitchen. As no evidence of the nineteenth century layout of the kitchen survived in the room, the layout was based on the Watts plans (DPWS 1997: p. 62\\). During the 1990s the National Trust removed a number of the earlier modifications, including many of the outbuildings. Despite the use of the Watts plans, the house both internally and externally is somewhat different in detail to its appearance in 1816\\. Many of the elements have been replaced once, twice or even three times. Although in most rooms the volumes are still intact, the majority of the fabric that is immediately visible is not the original nineteenth century fabric, but is twentieth century 'restoration' (DPWS 1997: p. 63\\).", "The approach of the Trust has been to present the ground floor largely as it was used by the Macquaries, with the exception of the Governors Office (DPWS 1997: p. 64\\). Very few of the service areas are presented to the public. Work has been undertaken in the Macquaries' drawing room to present the room as it would have appeared based on the early inventories (DPWS 1997: p. 64\\).", "The garden was also modified to a layout based on nineteenth century landscaping principles by Loudon and a local nurseryman, Thomas Shepard. Some time later it was discovered that the layout that was removed, was in fact an early layout of the carriage loop that had survived intact until the 1850s when it was mapped during the preparation of surveys for the new rail line (DPWS 1997: p. 63\\). The garden remains in its altered configuration. The grounds, which were considered by early visitors to be far superior to the house, currently provide little evidence of the landscaped setting intended and created by the Macquaries (DPWS 1997: p. 63\\).", "" ]
### Governor Phillip (1788–1792\) [thumb\|Governor Phillip's cottage on the site of Old Government House ({{circa\|1798}})](/wiki/File:View_of_Governor%27s_House%2C_Rosehill%2C_Parramatta_c1798.jpg "View of Governor's House, Rosehill, Parramatta c1798.jpg") Governor [Arthur Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip "Arthur Phillip")'s instructions from [King George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom "George III of the United Kingdom") required him to begin cultivation immediately on landing (Kass et al. 1996: p. 9\). Within days of the [First Fleet](/wiki/First_Fleet "First Fleet")'s arrival at [Sydney Cove](/wiki/Sydney_Cove "Sydney Cove"), Phillip's servant Henry Dodd, who had some farming experience, was put in charge of convicts to clear and cultivate land at the head of Farm Cove. Immediate difficulties arose. Much of the seed had been ruined by weevils and overheating on the voyage and the local sandy soil and the February heat proved unsuitable for debilitated seed. Phillip was always acutely aware of the need for agricultural self\-sufficiency as their stores would need to be supplemented within the year. On Tuesday 22 April 1788, Phillip set off with a party to explore the headwaters of what is today known as the Parramatta River. Early on Thursday 24 April, they came across a natural phenomenon where the river had scoured into the side of a hill, forming an extensive river flat in a semi\-circular shape and where the former course of the river had formed a billabong, or anabranch. Phillip named the feature the 'crescent', and from the top of the hill thousands of acres of what appeared to be arable land could be seen (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 11–12\). The soil at the Crescent consisted of red podsolic clay soils with a deep mineralised acidic over\-layer, a subsidiary heavy clay layer, and a substratum of weathered grey Ashfield shale of the Wianamatta Group (Walker 1961\). Fortuitously, the area was located at both the limit of navigation on the Parramatta River, and also at the limit of tidal influence. Philip had found fertile land with a plentiful supply of fresh water which was accessible from Sydney Cove. In September when the Farm Cove crop failed, he realised that the land around the Cove would not support the colony and decided to shift the colony's agricultural efforts to Parramatta, known at that time as 'Rose Hill'. In November 1788, Phillip sent a party of soldiers under Captain Campbell, accompanied by a convict labour force, to establish an agricultural settlement on the fertile land at the Crescent. Land was cleared, to be used for growing crops and grazing, and a redoubt was built in the area (DPWS 1997: p. 15\). Hopes for the long\-term survival of the colony were pinned on the area. Major [Robert Ross](/wiki/Robert_Ross_%28British_Marines_officer%29 "Robert Ross (British Marines officer)"), the commandant of the marines, expressed the hopes of many when he wrote that from: > "... my having in company with the Governor viewed that part of the country they are going to, and my knowledge of Captain Campbell's attention and perseverance in forwarding everything that tends to the good of the public, flatters me with the hope that under his fostering hand, the scheme may succeed. But should the ground, unfortunately, not answer the intended purpose, I shall give up every hope of finding any place near as fit to form a settlement upon, much less the purpose of establishing a colony" (HRNSW 1978: P.198\). The Rose Hill settlement was laid out to a plan by William Dawes, a young and competent naval lieutenant with a knowledge of surveying. The colony's first effective town plan resulted in a design described as a classic 'Renaissance scheme' (Kass et al. 1996: p. 22\). The east–west track from the Landing Place to the Redoubt became the major axis of the town with High (now George) Street, planned as the principal avenue, to be {{convert\|205\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} wide and {{convert\|1\|mi\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in length. At the western end of this avenue, on the brow of the hill above the Redoubt, Phillip planned a small house for his own use which would close the western vista from the avenue. A second street (Church Street), running north south, crossed High Street. The vista through this Street was to be closed off by the planned church and Town Hall. On Church Street nine houses were built for unmarried women and several small huts for convict families of good character. On each side of High Street, 32 huts had been erected, each {{convert\|25\|by\|12\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} and spaced {{convert\|100\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} apart. Each hut was of wattle and daub construction with brick chimneys and thatched roofs. They had two rooms, one of which had a brick fireplace, and were designed to hold ten convicts. By March 1791 about 100 such huts had been completed (Kass et al. 1996: p. 24\). Town allotments were much larger than usual, measuring {{convert\|100\|by\|200\|ft\|m\|\-1\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}, and convicts were encouraged to cultivate the land around them and to grow their own vegetables. On the hill above the Crescent and facing down the length of High Street, the Governor's cottage was built using convict labour. Captain [Watkin Tench](/wiki/Watkin_Tench "Watkin Tench") described this residence as being '{{convert\|44\|ft\|m\|disp\=sqbr}} long by {{convert\|16\|ft\|m\|disp\=sqbr}}) wide, for the governor, on a ground floor only, with excellent out houses and appurtenances attached to it' (Tench 1979: pp. 224–5\). The extensive garden setting of the building, as well as its prominent position, with a view over the township, gave some status to what was essentially a vernacular cottage. Although the governor's residence was somewhat larger, and had less occupants, it was similar in form to the vernacular cottages built to accommodate the convicts. From Tench's description it would appear that Governor Phillip's House at Rose Hill was largely constructed of materials which could be obtained locally, primarily timber, 'wattles' and clay or mud. The hip roof form was used for the earliest dwellings, with either a thatched, bark or shingle roof and timber rafters. Timber posts formed the structural framework, and a network of 'wattles' woven from Acacia branches was inserted between the posts and the gaps filled with mud. The walls were then plastered with pale coloured clay, which required constant renewal. There are four images of the house in the 1790s. The {{circa\|1790}} watercolour, *View of Rose Hill, Port Jackson* (artist unknown); two 1793 sketches by the Italian artist [Fernando Brambila](/wiki/Fernando_Brambila "Fernando Brambila"), the official artist to [Alejandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alejandro_Malaspina "Alejandro Malaspina")'s Spanish expedition to the Americas, [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia "Micronesia"), and New South Wales; and a 1798 engraving by [James Heath](/wiki/James_Heath_%28engraver%29 "James Heath (engraver)") which was published in [David Collins](/wiki/David_Collins_%28lieutenant_governor%29 "David Collins (lieutenant governor)")' An Account of the English Colony in NSW (London 1798\) (DPWS 1997: p. 17\). The pattern of fenestration shown in these four etchings indicates that the house had two rooms with a central hall in a similar arrangement to the front central portion of the present house. Each of the two main rooms had a fireplace located on the rear wall. This arrangement of rooms would have provided a private bedroom for the Governor and a more public room in which guests could be received (DPWS 1997: p. 18\). The central hall may have functioned as a waiting room. There was also a skillion at the rear (DPWS 1997: p. 18\). While the construction of the Hunter cellars have destroyed a large part of the physical remains of the early dwelling, it is thought that brick flooring discovered during archaeological investigations under the north western section of the central part of today's house, dates back to Governor Phillip's original building (Proudfoot 1971: p. 5\). By cross referencing these surviving archaeological remains with the building portrayed in the 1793 Brambila etchings, the Phillip building's position can be relatively accurately located. It stood on the same east west axis as the centre of the present house but the front wall was set back further to the west. The back wall of the Phillip house was also located further to the west than that of the subsequent Hunter house. The 1790 lath and plaster house also had a small outbuilding at the rear. It would almost certainly have been constructed with similar 'wattle and daub' materials to the main house and, like it, would not have been entirely weatherproof. By the time Fernando Brambila sketched the settlement in April 1793 this original outbuilding had been replaced by two more substantial buildings, one almost as large as the house itself. The exact date of construction of these buildings is not known. No documentary evidence has been located referring to them, but given that Arthur Phillip left the colony in December 1792 and his successor, [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose "Francis Grose"), was far less supportive of public works, a 1792 date seems probable (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). The configuration of the buildings forming the Government House complex are the same in both Brambilla sketches. The northern outbuilding appears to be linked to the main house through the rear skillion while the southern outbuilding is detached. The brick footings of the northern building survive, at least in part. These bricks are of a different size and texture to those used later at Old Government House and support the theory that they form the footings for the Phillip outbuilding. The substantial brick footings also suggest a brick rather than a lath and plaster structure (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). As depicted by Brambila the northern outbuilding is one and a half storeys high with an attic or loft, and it may have been a bedroom wing to allow the two principal rooms in the house to be used as reception rooms. The outbuilding on the southern side was one storey and completely detached. It may have been a kitchen removed from the house to lessen the risk of fire. A substantial brick drain survives under the floor of the Macquarie additions to the central block which may in the future provide clues as to the use of these early outbuildings (DPWS 1997: p. 19\). Even at this date, visitors were commenting favourably on the gardens surrounding the governor's house. The botanist of Alejandro Malaspina's expedition described the party's visit to Parramatta: > "They visited the new Government House, which stood on a hill at the end of the chief street. In a beautiful garden surrounding it were a number of well grown fruit trees, such as pomegranates and apples, and nearly all of the vegetables known in Europe for culinary purposes. The different beds were edged with strawberries and two kinds of geraniums, the Geranium inquinans and zonale (pelargonium) and Cheiranthus Icanus (common stock) were all in full bloom. The shoots of vines growing on the south side appeared to be healthy, and some bunches of grapes, which the Spanish party tasted in the Gardeners residence, were of excellent flavour. There were also melons and 'arbouses'(?) in great abundance" (translation from SMH 12 November 1910\).
[ "### Governor Phillip (1788–1792\\)", "[thumb\\|Governor Phillip's cottage on the site of Old Government House ({{circa\\|1798}})](/wiki/File:View_of_Governor%27s_House%2C_Rosehill%2C_Parramatta_c1798.jpg \"View of Governor's House, Rosehill, Parramatta c1798.jpg\")\nGovernor [Arthur Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip \"Arthur Phillip\")'s instructions from [King George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George III of the United Kingdom\") required him to begin cultivation immediately on landing (Kass et al. 1996: p. 9\\). Within days of the [First Fleet](/wiki/First_Fleet \"First Fleet\")'s arrival at [Sydney Cove](/wiki/Sydney_Cove \"Sydney Cove\"), Phillip's servant Henry Dodd, who had some farming experience, was put in charge of convicts to clear and cultivate land at the head of Farm Cove. Immediate difficulties arose. Much of the seed had been ruined by weevils and overheating on the voyage and the local sandy soil and the February heat proved unsuitable for debilitated seed. Phillip was always acutely aware of the need for agricultural self\\-sufficiency as their stores would need to be supplemented within the year.", "On Tuesday 22 April 1788, Phillip set off with a party to explore the headwaters of what is today known as the Parramatta River. Early on Thursday 24 April, they came across a natural phenomenon where the river had scoured into the side of a hill, forming an extensive river flat in a semi\\-circular shape and where the former course of the river had formed a billabong, or anabranch. Phillip named the feature the 'crescent', and from the top of the hill thousands of acres of what appeared to be arable land could be seen (Kass et al. 1996: pp. 11–12\\). The soil at the Crescent consisted of red podsolic clay soils with a deep mineralised acidic over\\-layer, a subsidiary heavy clay layer, and a substratum of weathered grey Ashfield shale of the Wianamatta Group (Walker 1961\\). Fortuitously, the area was located at both the limit of navigation on the Parramatta River, and also at the limit of tidal influence. Philip had found fertile land with a plentiful supply of fresh water which was accessible from Sydney Cove. In September when the Farm Cove crop failed, he realised that the land around the Cove would not support the colony and decided to shift the colony's agricultural efforts to Parramatta, known at that time as 'Rose Hill'.", "In November 1788, Phillip sent a party of soldiers under Captain Campbell, accompanied by a convict labour force, to establish an agricultural settlement on the fertile land at the Crescent.", "Land was cleared, to be used for growing crops and grazing, and a redoubt was built in the area (DPWS 1997: p. 15\\). Hopes for the long\\-term survival of the colony were pinned on the area. Major [Robert Ross](/wiki/Robert_Ross_%28British_Marines_officer%29 \"Robert Ross (British Marines officer)\"), the commandant of the marines, expressed the hopes of many when he wrote that from:", "> \"... my having in company with the Governor viewed that part of the country they are going to, and my knowledge of Captain Campbell's attention and perseverance in forwarding everything that tends to the good of the public, flatters me with the hope that under his fostering hand, the scheme may succeed. But should the ground, unfortunately, not answer the intended purpose, I shall give up every hope of finding any place near as fit to form a settlement upon, much less the purpose of establishing a colony\" (HRNSW 1978: P.198\\).", "", "The Rose Hill settlement was laid out to a plan by William Dawes, a young and competent naval lieutenant with a knowledge of surveying. The colony's first effective town plan resulted in a design described as a classic 'Renaissance scheme' (Kass et al. 1996: p. 22\\). The east–west track from the Landing Place to the Redoubt became the major axis of the town with High (now George) Street, planned as the principal avenue, to be {{convert\\|205\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} wide and {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in length. At the western end of this avenue, on the brow of the hill above the Redoubt, Phillip planned a small house for his own use which would close the western vista from the avenue. A second street (Church Street), running north south, crossed High Street. The vista through this Street was to be closed off by the planned church and Town Hall. On Church Street nine houses were built for unmarried women and several small huts for convict families of good character. On each side of High Street, 32 huts had been erected, each {{convert\\|25\\|by\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} and spaced {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} apart. Each hut was of wattle and daub construction with brick chimneys and thatched roofs. They had two rooms, one of which had a brick fireplace, and were designed to hold ten convicts. By March 1791 about 100 such huts had been completed (Kass et al. 1996: p. 24\\). Town allotments were much larger than usual, measuring {{convert\\|100\\|by\\|200\\|ft\\|m\\|\\-1\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}, and convicts were encouraged to cultivate the land around them and to grow their own vegetables.", "On the hill above the Crescent and facing down the length of High Street, the Governor's cottage was built using convict labour. Captain [Watkin Tench](/wiki/Watkin_Tench \"Watkin Tench\") described this residence as being '{{convert\\|44\\|ft\\|m\\|disp\\=sqbr}} long by {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|m\\|disp\\=sqbr}}) wide, for the governor, on a ground floor only, with excellent out houses and appurtenances attached to it' (Tench 1979: pp. 224–5\\). The extensive garden setting of the building, as well as its prominent position, with a view over the township, gave some status to what was essentially a vernacular cottage. Although the governor's residence was somewhat larger, and had less occupants, it was similar in form to the vernacular cottages built to accommodate the convicts. From Tench's description it would appear that Governor Phillip's House at Rose Hill was largely constructed of materials which could be obtained locally, primarily timber, 'wattles' and clay or mud. The hip roof form was used for the earliest dwellings, with either a thatched, bark or shingle roof and timber rafters. Timber posts formed the structural framework, and a network of 'wattles' woven from Acacia branches was inserted between the posts and the gaps filled with mud. The walls were then plastered with pale coloured clay, which required constant renewal.", "There are four images of the house in the 1790s. The {{circa\\|1790}} watercolour, *View of Rose Hill, Port Jackson* (artist unknown); two 1793 sketches by the Italian artist [Fernando Brambila](/wiki/Fernando_Brambila \"Fernando Brambila\"), the official artist to [Alejandro Malaspina](/wiki/Alejandro_Malaspina \"Alejandro Malaspina\")'s Spanish expedition to the Americas, [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia \"Micronesia\"), and New South Wales; and a 1798 engraving by [James Heath](/wiki/James_Heath_%28engraver%29 \"James Heath (engraver)\") which was published in [David Collins](/wiki/David_Collins_%28lieutenant_governor%29 \"David Collins (lieutenant governor)\")' An Account of the English Colony in NSW (London 1798\\) (DPWS 1997: p. 17\\). The pattern of fenestration shown in these four etchings indicates that the house had two rooms with a central hall in a similar arrangement to the front central portion of the present house. Each of the two main rooms had a fireplace located on the rear wall. This arrangement of rooms would have provided a private bedroom for the Governor and a more public room in which guests could be received (DPWS 1997: p. 18\\). The central hall may have functioned as a waiting room. There was also a skillion at the rear (DPWS 1997: p. 18\\). While the construction of the Hunter cellars have destroyed a large part of the physical remains of the early dwelling, it is thought that brick flooring discovered during archaeological investigations under the north western section of the central part of today's house, dates back to Governor Phillip's original building (Proudfoot 1971: p. 5\\). By cross referencing these surviving archaeological remains with the building portrayed in the 1793 Brambila etchings, the Phillip building's position can be relatively accurately located. It stood on the same east west axis as the centre of the present house but the front wall was set back further to the west. The back wall of the Phillip house was also located further to the west than that of the subsequent Hunter house.", "The 1790 lath and plaster house also had a small outbuilding at the rear. It would almost certainly have been constructed with similar 'wattle and daub' materials to the main house and, like it, would not have been entirely weatherproof. By the time Fernando Brambila sketched the settlement in April 1793 this original outbuilding had been replaced by two more substantial buildings, one almost as large as the house itself. The exact date of construction of these buildings is not known. No documentary evidence has been located referring to them, but given that Arthur Phillip left the colony in December 1792 and his successor, [Francis Grose](/wiki/Francis_Grose \"Francis Grose\"), was far less supportive of public works, a 1792 date seems probable (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\). The configuration of the buildings forming the Government House complex are the same in both Brambilla sketches. The northern outbuilding appears to be linked to the main house through the rear skillion while the southern outbuilding is detached. The brick footings of the northern building survive, at least in part. These bricks are of a different size and texture to those used later at Old Government House and support the theory that they form the footings for the Phillip outbuilding. The substantial brick footings also suggest a brick rather than a lath and plaster structure (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\). As depicted by Brambila the northern outbuilding is one and a half storeys high with an attic or loft, and it may have been a bedroom wing to allow the two principal rooms in the house to be used as reception rooms. The outbuilding on the southern side was one storey and completely detached. It may have been a kitchen removed from the house to lessen the risk of fire. A substantial brick drain survives under the floor of the Macquarie additions to the central block which may in the future provide clues as to the use of these early outbuildings (DPWS 1997: p. 19\\).", "Even at this date, visitors were commenting favourably on the gardens surrounding the governor's house. The botanist of Alejandro Malaspina's expedition described the party's visit to Parramatta:", "> \"They visited the new Government House, which stood on a hill at the end of the chief street. In a beautiful garden surrounding it were a number of well grown fruit trees, such as pomegranates and apples, and nearly all of the vegetables known in Europe for culinary purposes. The different beds were edged with strawberries and two kinds of geraniums, the Geranium inquinans and zonale (pelargonium) and Cheiranthus Icanus (common stock) were all in full bloom. The shoots of vines growing on the south side appeared to be healthy, and some bunches of grapes, which the Spanish party tasted in the Gardeners residence, were of excellent flavour. There were also melons and 'arbouses'(?) in great abundance\" (translation from SMH 12 November 1910\\).", "", "" ]
### Governor Macquarie (1810–1821\) [thumb\|Government House in 1819](/wiki/File:Port_Jackson%2C_vue_de_la_maison_du_Gouverneur_a_Parramatta_1819.jpg "Port Jackson, vue de la maison du Gouverneur a Parramatta 1819.jpg") [Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie "Lachlan Macquarie") planned improvements to both the township of Parramatta and to the Governor's residence there. By this time the ordered town layout planned by Phillip had been overlaid by buildings without regard to the original plan. On a visit in 1811 Macquarie laid out the town once more, in regular streets crossing at right angles. He ordered that no house should be built within the town before a plan of the house or building had been submitted through a Magistrate for approval by the Governor (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\). He also determined that the grounds surrounding the governor's house at Parramatta should be reclaimed for use by the Governor, and made regulations restricting indiscriminate public entry (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\). It is from this time that the term "Domain" or "Demense" first came into use in reference to the Parramatta Government House and the government holdings associated with it. One reason for these restrictions on access to the Domain was that Macquarie had decided to enlarge Government House to accommodate himself and his family and staff. Initially the Macquaries rarely spent more than a day or two per month at Old Government House, as it could only accommodate the Governor and Lieutenant Governor and their wives. One of the out buildings may have been used to provide accommodation for the remainder of the party, alternatively they would have been accommodated at a local inn. [thumb\|The entrance hall/foyer](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_003.jpg "(1)Old Government House 003.jpg") In addition, by 1812 the house was in poor condition. [Richard Rouse](/wiki/Richard_Rouse_%28Australian_colonial_settler%29 "Richard Rouse (Australian colonial settler)") was later to report to Commissioner [John Bigge](/wiki/John_Bigge "John Bigge") that the foundations of the centre part of the Hunter house were so decayed that a great part of the foundation had to be taken out and replaced with new brickwork and woodwork (Proudfoot 1971: p. 28\). The ground floors had sunk, roofing shingles had rotted, and the outbuildings were in a complete state of decay (DPWS 1997: p. 24\). In 1812 and 1813 an attempt was made to rehabilitate the existing building. Convict carpenters and plasterers were assigned to the work, and the kitchen was replastered, window glass was replaced, a water closet was fitted, and new doors were made. In 1815 further additions were made to prop up the decaying house. It is thought that this also included the construction of a staircase at the rear of the Hunter house (DPWS 1997: p. 24\). The scope of works necessitated the employment of six sawyers and nineteen plasterers, labourers, and carpenters, and lasted from May to June. One of the chief sources of grievance against Macquarie by the free settlers, was the scarcity of skilled convict labour caused by Macquarie's policy of retaining these skilled convicts for employment on public works, including the rebuilding of Old Government House. Commissioner Bigge noted in his "Report on the State of the Colony" that Macquarie was reluctant to disperse the skilled artisans, and that of the 11 767 male convicts who had arrived in the Colony between 1 January 1814 and 29 December 1820, some 4,587 were employed by the administration of which 1,587 were mechanics and 3,000 were labourers (Rosen 2003: p. 64\). [thumb\|A downstairs sitting room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_058.jpg "(1)Old Government House 058.jpg") [thumb\|The formal dining room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_077.jpg "(1)Old Government House 077.jpg") Macquarie instructed his Aide\-de\-Camp, Lieutenant [John Watts](/wiki/John_Watts_%28military_architect%29 "John Watts (military architect)"), to prepare plans to re\-build and extend the house. Watts enjoyed the confidence of [Elizabeth Macquarie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Macquarie "Elizabeth Macquarie"), and in the new layout the vernacular house of Governor Hunter was transformed into an elegant Palladian style country house in the English manner. The Palladian symmetry of the new house was emphasised by the addition of two identical but mirror image side pavilions, connected by passageways to the main house. Watts also added the plinth, string course and portico to the front of the house. The whole structure was lined in plaster dressed to give it the appearance of ashlar. The zones of the house were clearly separated. The Macquaries occupied the northern pavilion, with the Breakfast Room probably being used as a private dining and drawing room. The servants occupied the southern pavilion and a rear building, separated by a yard. Sleeping accommodation for servants was provided in a separate building, and possibly also in a loft. The central portion of the house was used for receiving, entertaining and accommodating guests. Between 24 March 1815 and 24 June 1815 the construction of the new house was the sole focus of Government public works at Parramatta, but evidence suggests that work began in fact in early 1815 (there is a gap in the Rouse returns for the first three months of this year as they have not survived). Six convict sawyers, six carpenters, four bricklayers, two plasterers, and seven labourers were engaged on construction during this period. Some 20,000 nails were manufactured by the smiths, and {{convert\|400\|impbu\|L\|abbr\=off\|order\=flip}} of lime, as well as two cedar logs, {{convert\|80\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of cedar planks, cedar window sills, and a staircase were sent up from Sydney to Parramatta for use in the new building (Rosen 2003: p. 67\). Although Lieutenant Watts was commissioned to design the additions to the house, the detailed design of the portico over the front door was undertaken by [Francis Greenway](/wiki/Francis_Greenway "Francis Greenway"). In August 1816 stone steps and a plinth were ordered together with four columns and four pilasters. A sheet of lead measuring {{convert\|2\.28\|x\|1\.14\|m\|ftin\|0\|abbr\=on}} wide was ordered in March 1817\. A drawing by Watts of his portico design survives, but not the drawings by Greenway. Watts' design shows a portico with two pairs of Roman Doric columns and a plain frieze and fillet. As eventually constructed, Greenway elaborated the portico to include two sets of pillars with corresponding pilasters against the wall, and added a simplified Doric frieze with triglyphs and mutules. It is not known if the enlargement to the front door is contemporary with the addition of the portico, or if it was altered at a later date. The two elements appear to have been designed separately as the pilasters overlap the door. The French mariner, [Louis de Freycinet](/wiki/Louis_de_Freycinet "Louis de Freycinet"), and his wife [Rose de Freycinet](/wiki/Rose_de_Freycinet "Rose de Freycinet"), visited Parramatta and dined with the Macquaries. An engraving based on sketches prepared by Freycinet {{circa\|1819}} shows the Greenway portico with the earlier form of door, so it is probable he saw it in its earlier configuration prior to alteration. This engraving also shows how the Macquaries had transformed the house and its setting in the image of an English gentleman's country residence. Works were undertaken to improve the grounds. Macquarie recorded that stables and a coach\-house were constructed in 1817, a fact confirmed by Greenway who claimed credit for their construction. A dove or pigeon house was added by 1820, and a rustic 'bark hut' designed by Mrs Macquarie was built on the top of the hill. No illustration of the bark hut has been found however the pigeon house can be seen in early 1820 views of Parramatta. The pigeon house was round, with a domed shingle roof. Another round building was located adjacent to it, but the use of this second structure is unknown. It was possibly either a fowl house or bath house. These two buildings did not survive for long and it appears they were removed to make way for the construction of the officers' quarters. The pigeon house may, however, have been relocated further south, as a colonnaded round structure with a similar lantern appears in later 1820s and 1830s views of the house. In 1831 the 'pigeon house' was used for accommodation, possibly for servants. No mention of the structure is made, however, in inventories later than the 1830s. About 1818 another addition was made to the rear of the house which doubled the entire length of the original Hunter's residence. This provided more bedrooms upstairs and additional accommodation for the Governor downstairs. The roof was modified into a M shape, in cross section and may have had dormers in the back slope facing west. [thumb\|Kitchen area](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_080.jpg "(1)Old Government House 080.jpg") The driving force behind the design for the extensions to house was probably Mrs Macquarie. She was familiar with architectural pattern books, bringing one with her to Australia. She had also been involved in the design and laying out of the grounds at her family home at Airds in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). In the English and Scottish country houses with which she was familiar, the setting of the house was as important as the design of the house itself. As a result, the layout of the gardens was probably redesigned and supervised by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 30\). In the early years of the Colony, the Garden beds at Government House were necessary for the production of food. By Macquarie's time this was no longer the case, and the garden beds from the front of the house were removed and the house set in landscaped grounds with a series of pathways. The kitchen garden and orchard were re\-established in an area located away from the main house. Mature native trees were retained and exotic species such as English oaks, elms, mulberries, pears and oranges were planted in the Domain. The Macquaries used the house extensively between November 1816 and their return to England in 1822\. Governor Macquarie sometimes left his wife and child there while he toured the colony, and in November 1820 whilst he was away, the house was badly damaged by a lightning strike. No physical evidence of the damage survives, but contemporary descriptions indicate that considerable repairs to the building were required on both the upper and lower levels. [thumb\|A room on the second floor](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_104.jpg "(1)Old Government House 104.jpg") The [Bigge inquiry](/wiki/John_Bigge%23The_Bigge_Inquiry "John Bigge#The Bigge Inquiry") necessitated a complete inventory of Macquarie's building activities, and gives an indication of the use of the various rooms in Old Government House during his tenure. The northern pavilion comprised the Governor's private apartments, and contained the breakfast room with French doors opening out to a bower to the north. The pavilion also contained the bedroom used by the Governor, a dressing room and lobby. The bedroom was also used for gatherings as it contained eleven chairs. This was typical of a late eighteenth century interior when the best bed chamber was second only in status to the best parlour and was used for entertaining as well as sleeping. Although all of the p1ans show the passage between the northern pavilion and the central block as enclosed it was termed a 'colonnade', and contained no furniture. The lack of furniture may also indicate that it was originally external, as in the 1850s there are references to three stone columns on the southern side of the passageway. It is thought that there may have been a private entrance to the northern pavilion from the front garden through the colonnade as there was a porch or awning in this location by the mid\-1850s, indicating a door. The middle hall was used as a seating area, with six adults chairs, one child's chair and a stool for a servant. This area, like the main hall, may have been used by people waiting to see the Governor. Alternatively it was used for meeting larger groups than could be accommodated in his adjacent office. The butler's pantry was located immediately off the hall. Like the middle hall the front hall also contained chairs for waiting visitors. The two front rooms were used as a dining room and a drawing room. The dining room was originally the furthest from the kitchen, but in the twentieth century this arrangement was reversed. It is not known which room the earlier governors used as a dining room (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\). [thumb\|An upstairs bedroom](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_115a.jpg "(1)Old Government House 115a.jpg") The upstairs rooms were used as bed rooms and dressing rooms. By 1821 the water closet was located adjacent to the staircase. The servant's loft was located between the water closet and room 7, which is thought to be the room of Macquarie's aide\-de\-camp, Sgt Whalan, and accessed from the southern colonnade. This servant's loft may have been in the back half of the roof of the main portion of the house accessed via a very narrow, steep staircase. No evidence of this configuration occurs on the plan however dormer windows occurred in this location. The alternate view is that the dormers may have lit the central corridor (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\). In the southern wing at the back of the house, two of the rooms were reserved for larders. One was the kitchen proper and the other the scullery. The laundry was in a separate building (DPWS 1997: p. 37\). [thumb\|The main staircase](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_095.jpg "(1)Old Government House 095.jpg") George Salter had built a cottage on the River bank on the reach running north away from the Crescent between 1798 and 1805, and grew wheat and maize. Part of Salter's holding was purchased by Governor Macquarie in 1813 in move towards consolidating the Domain land. Up until the 1820s the Domain was a convict working property containing the Lumber Yard and up to ninety convicts working in quarrying, milling, blacksmithing, farming and gardening. Later, the Domain area was further increased with purchase of other properties. A small farm house built by George Salter in 1798–1806 was acquired and extended by Governor Lachlan Maquarie in 1816 for use as a dairy. This building is now called [Dairy Cottage](/wiki/Dairy_Cottage%2C_Parramatta "Dairy Cottage, Parramatta") and has a heritage listing.{{cite NSW SHR\|4681041\|Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\|access\-date\=27 September 2017}}
[ "### Governor Macquarie (1810–1821\\)", "[thumb\\|Government House in 1819](/wiki/File:Port_Jackson%2C_vue_de_la_maison_du_Gouverneur_a_Parramatta_1819.jpg \"Port Jackson, vue de la maison du Gouverneur a Parramatta 1819.jpg\")\n[Governor Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie \"Lachlan Macquarie\") planned improvements to both the township of Parramatta and to the Governor's residence there. By this time the ordered town layout planned by Phillip had been overlaid by buildings without regard to the original plan. On a visit in 1811 Macquarie laid out the town once more, in regular streets crossing at right angles. He ordered that no house should be built within the town before a plan of the house or building had been submitted through a Magistrate for approval by the Governor (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\\).", "He also determined that the grounds surrounding the governor's house at Parramatta should be reclaimed for use by the Governor, and made regulations restricting indiscriminate public entry (Proudfoot 1971: p. 26\\). It is from this time that the term \"Domain\" or \"Demense\" first came into use in reference to the Parramatta Government House and the government holdings associated with it. One reason for these restrictions on access to the Domain was that Macquarie had decided to enlarge Government House to accommodate himself and his family and staff. Initially the Macquaries rarely spent more than a day or two per month at Old Government House, as it could only accommodate the Governor and Lieutenant Governor and their wives. One of the out buildings may have been used to provide accommodation for the remainder of the party, alternatively they would have been accommodated at a local inn.\n[thumb\\|The entrance hall/foyer](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_003.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 003.jpg\")\nIn addition, by 1812 the house was in poor condition. [Richard Rouse](/wiki/Richard_Rouse_%28Australian_colonial_settler%29 \"Richard Rouse (Australian colonial settler)\") was later to report to Commissioner [John Bigge](/wiki/John_Bigge \"John Bigge\") that the foundations of the centre part of the Hunter house were so decayed that a great part of the foundation had to be taken out and replaced with new brickwork and woodwork (Proudfoot 1971: p. 28\\). The ground floors had sunk, roofing shingles had rotted, and the outbuildings were in a complete state of decay (DPWS 1997: p. 24\\).", "In 1812 and 1813 an attempt was made to rehabilitate the existing building. Convict carpenters and plasterers were assigned to the work, and the kitchen was replastered, window glass was replaced, a water closet was fitted, and new doors were made. In 1815 further additions were made to prop up the decaying house. It is thought that this also included the construction of a staircase at the rear of the Hunter house (DPWS 1997: p. 24\\). The scope of works necessitated the employment of six sawyers and nineteen plasterers, labourers, and carpenters, and lasted from May to June. One of the chief sources of grievance against Macquarie by the free settlers, was the scarcity of skilled convict labour caused by Macquarie's policy of retaining these skilled convicts for employment on public works, including the rebuilding of Old Government House. Commissioner Bigge noted in his \"Report on the State of the Colony\" that Macquarie was reluctant to disperse the skilled artisans, and that of the 11 767 male convicts who had arrived in the Colony between 1 January 1814 and 29 December 1820, some 4,587 were employed by the administration of which 1,587 were mechanics and 3,000 were labourers (Rosen 2003: p. 64\\).\n[thumb\\|A downstairs sitting room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_058.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 058.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The formal dining room](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_077.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 077.jpg\")\nMacquarie instructed his Aide\\-de\\-Camp, Lieutenant [John Watts](/wiki/John_Watts_%28military_architect%29 \"John Watts (military architect)\"), to prepare plans to re\\-build and extend the house. Watts enjoyed the confidence of [Elizabeth Macquarie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Macquarie \"Elizabeth Macquarie\"), and in the new layout the vernacular house of Governor Hunter was transformed into an elegant Palladian style country house in the English manner. The Palladian symmetry of the new house was emphasised by the addition of two identical but mirror image side pavilions, connected by passageways to the main house. Watts also added the plinth, string course and portico to the front of the house. The whole structure was lined in plaster dressed to give it the appearance of ashlar. The zones of the house were clearly separated. The Macquaries occupied the northern pavilion, with the Breakfast Room probably being used as a private dining and drawing room. The servants occupied the southern pavilion and a rear building, separated by a yard. Sleeping accommodation for servants was provided in a separate building, and possibly also in a loft. The central portion of the house was used for receiving, entertaining and accommodating guests.", "Between 24 March 1815 and 24 June 1815 the construction of the new house was the sole focus of Government public works at Parramatta, but evidence suggests that work began in fact in early 1815 (there is a gap in the Rouse returns for the first three months of this year as they have not survived). Six convict sawyers, six carpenters, four bricklayers, two plasterers, and seven labourers were engaged on construction during this period. Some 20,000 nails were manufactured by the smiths, and {{convert\\|400\\|impbu\\|L\\|abbr\\=off\\|order\\=flip}} of lime, as well as two cedar logs, {{convert\\|80\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of cedar planks, cedar window sills, and a staircase were sent up from Sydney to Parramatta for use in the new building (Rosen 2003: p. 67\\).", "Although Lieutenant Watts was commissioned to design the additions to the house, the detailed design of the portico over the front door was undertaken by [Francis Greenway](/wiki/Francis_Greenway \"Francis Greenway\"). In August 1816 stone steps and a plinth were ordered together with four columns and four pilasters. A sheet of lead measuring {{convert\\|2\\.28\\|x\\|1\\.14\\|m\\|ftin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wide was ordered in March 1817\\. A drawing by Watts of his portico design survives, but not the drawings by Greenway. Watts' design shows a portico with two pairs of Roman Doric columns and a plain frieze and fillet. As eventually constructed, Greenway elaborated the portico to include two sets of pillars with corresponding pilasters against the wall, and added a simplified Doric frieze with triglyphs and mutules. It is not known if the enlargement to the front door is contemporary with the addition of the portico, or if it was altered at a later date. The two elements appear to have been designed separately as the pilasters overlap the door. The French mariner, [Louis de Freycinet](/wiki/Louis_de_Freycinet \"Louis de Freycinet\"), and his wife [Rose de Freycinet](/wiki/Rose_de_Freycinet \"Rose de Freycinet\"), visited Parramatta and dined with the Macquaries. An engraving based on sketches prepared by Freycinet {{circa\\|1819}} shows the Greenway portico with the earlier form of door, so it is probable he saw it in its earlier configuration prior to alteration. This engraving also shows how the Macquaries had transformed the house and its setting in the image of an English gentleman's country residence.", "Works were undertaken to improve the grounds. Macquarie recorded that stables and a coach\\-house were constructed in 1817, a fact confirmed by Greenway who claimed credit for their construction. A dove or pigeon house was added by 1820, and a rustic 'bark hut' designed by Mrs Macquarie was built on the top of the hill. No illustration of the bark hut has been found however the pigeon house can be seen in early 1820 views of Parramatta. The pigeon house was round, with a domed shingle roof. Another round building was located adjacent to it, but the use of this second structure is unknown. It was possibly either a fowl house or bath house. These two buildings did not survive for long and it appears they were removed to make way for the construction of the officers' quarters. The pigeon house may, however, have been relocated further south, as a colonnaded round structure with a similar lantern appears in later 1820s and 1830s views of the house. In 1831 the 'pigeon house' was used for accommodation, possibly for servants. No mention of the structure is made, however, in inventories later than the 1830s.", "About 1818 another addition was made to the rear of the house which doubled the entire length of the original Hunter's residence. This provided more bedrooms upstairs and additional accommodation for the Governor downstairs. The roof was modified into a M shape, in cross section and may have had dormers in the back slope facing west.\n[thumb\\|Kitchen area](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_080.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 080.jpg\")\nThe driving force behind the design for the extensions to house was probably Mrs Macquarie. She was familiar with architectural pattern books, bringing one with her to Australia. She had also been involved in the design and laying out of the grounds at her family home at Airds in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"). In the English and Scottish country houses with which she was familiar, the setting of the house was as important as the design of the house itself. As a result, the layout of the gardens was probably redesigned and supervised by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 30\\). In the early years of the Colony, the Garden beds at Government House were necessary for the production of food. By Macquarie's time this was no longer the case, and the garden beds from the front of the house were removed and the house set in landscaped grounds with a series of pathways. The kitchen garden and orchard were re\\-established in an area located away from the main house. Mature native trees were retained and exotic species such as English oaks, elms, mulberries, pears and oranges were planted in the Domain.", "The Macquaries used the house extensively between November 1816 and their return to England in 1822\\. Governor Macquarie sometimes left his wife and child there while he toured the colony, and in November 1820 whilst he was away, the house was badly damaged by a lightning strike. No physical evidence of the damage survives, but contemporary descriptions indicate that considerable repairs to the building were required on both the upper and lower levels.\n[thumb\\|A room on the second floor](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_104.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 104.jpg\")\nThe [Bigge inquiry](/wiki/John_Bigge%23The_Bigge_Inquiry \"John Bigge#The Bigge Inquiry\") necessitated a complete inventory of Macquarie's building activities, and gives an indication of the use of the various rooms in Old Government House during his tenure. The northern pavilion comprised the Governor's private apartments, and contained the breakfast room with French doors opening out to a bower to the north. The pavilion also contained the bedroom used by the Governor, a dressing room and lobby. The bedroom was also used for gatherings as it contained eleven chairs. This was typical of a late eighteenth century interior when the best bed chamber was second only in status to the best parlour and was used for entertaining as well as sleeping. Although all of the p1ans show the passage between the northern pavilion and the central block as enclosed it was termed a 'colonnade', and contained no furniture. The lack of furniture may also indicate that it was originally external, as in the 1850s there are references to three stone columns on the southern side of the passageway. It is thought that there may have been a private entrance to the northern pavilion from the front garden through the colonnade as there was a porch or awning in this location by the mid\\-1850s, indicating a door. The middle hall was used as a seating area, with six adults chairs, one child's chair and a stool for a servant. This area, like the main hall, may have been used by people waiting to see the Governor. Alternatively it was used for meeting larger groups than could be accommodated in his adjacent office. The butler's pantry was located immediately off the hall. Like the middle hall the front hall also contained chairs for waiting visitors. The two front rooms were used as a dining room and a drawing room. The dining room was originally the furthest from the kitchen, but in the twentieth century this arrangement was reversed. It is not known which room the earlier governors used as a dining room (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\\).\n[thumb\\|An upstairs bedroom](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_115a.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 115a.jpg\")\nThe upstairs rooms were used as bed rooms and dressing rooms. By 1821 the water closet was located adjacent to the staircase. The servant's loft was located between the water closet and room 7, which is thought to be the room of Macquarie's aide\\-de\\-camp, Sgt Whalan, and accessed from the southern colonnade. This servant's loft may have been in the back half of the roof of the main portion of the house accessed via a very narrow, steep staircase. No evidence of this configuration occurs on the plan however dormer windows occurred in this location. The alternate view is that the dormers may have lit the central corridor (DPWS 1997: pp. 36–7\\).", "In the southern wing at the back of the house, two of the rooms were reserved for larders. One was the kitchen proper and the other the scullery. The laundry was in a separate building (DPWS 1997: p. 37\\).\n[thumb\\|The main staircase](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_095.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 095.jpg\")\nGeorge Salter had built a cottage on the River bank on the reach running north away from the Crescent between 1798 and 1805, and grew wheat and maize. Part of Salter's holding was purchased by Governor Macquarie in 1813 in move towards consolidating the Domain land. Up until the 1820s the Domain was a convict working property containing the Lumber Yard and up to ninety convicts working in quarrying, milling, blacksmithing, farming and gardening. Later, the Domain area was further increased with purchase of other properties. A small farm house built by George Salter in 1798–1806 was acquired and extended by Governor Lachlan Maquarie in 1816 for use as a dairy. This building is now called [Dairy Cottage](/wiki/Dairy_Cottage%2C_Parramatta \"Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\") and has a heritage listing.{{cite NSW SHR\\|4681041\\|Dairy Cottage, Parramatta\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2017}}", "" ]
### Governor Brisbane (1821–1825\) Lachlan Macquarie's successor [Governor Brisbane](/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane "Thomas Brisbane") preferred to reside at Government House at Parramatta rather than Government House in Sydney. His preference for Parramatta was probably not due to the attributes of the house or its extensive grounds, but that the domain provided an excellent site for his private observatory. The Observatory, erected in 1822 was part of Brisbane's intention to make Parramatta "the Greenwich of the Southern Hemisphere" (DPWS 1997: p. 39\). Brisbane was accompanied to Australia by two astronomers: [Charles Rumker](/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Christian_R%C3%BCmker "Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker"), who had already attained a good reputation as an astronomer and mathematician; and [James Dunlop](/wiki/James_Dunlop "James Dunlop"), whose great natural ability in mechanical appliances and instruments saw him identified as a suitable man for second assistant in the Observatory in an out of the way place like Parramatta. On arrival in New South Wales, Brisbane's instruments were immediately set up on piers in the Domain to allow the observation of the solstice on 21 December 1821\. By April 1822, the construction of the observatory had been completed in anticipation of the appearance of [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Comet_Encke "Comet Encke"), an event not observable in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") or at the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope") (Rosen 2003: p. 80\). The observatory was privately funded by Brisbane and consisted of two buildings: an observatory equipped at Brisbane's personal expense; and a residence attached to it. Located about {{convert\|100\|yd\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} behind Government House, the observatory was a plain building, {{convert\|28\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} square by {{convert\|11\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} high, with a flat roof with two domes {{convert\|11\|ft\|6\|in\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} in diameter projecting from it, one at the north and the other at the south. On the north and south sides were five windows, three of which were in a semi\-circular projection from the wall at the base of the domes. Transit openings in the domes extended to one of the windows to allow observations of the horizon. A {{convert\|16\|in\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} [Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach "Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach") repeating circle was located under the north dome and a {{convert\|46\|in\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} equatorial Banks telescope was under the south dome. There was also an [Edward Troughton](/wiki/Edward_Troughton "Edward Troughton") mural circle and a {{convert\|5\+1/2\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} Troughton transit instrument. A Hardy clock showed sidereal time and an [Abraham\-Louis Breguet](/wiki/Abraham-Louis_Breguet "Abraham-Louis Breguet") clock showed mean time. All instruments were mounted on solid masonry piers. There was also a [Jean Nicolas Fortin](/wiki/Jean_Nicolas_Fortin "Jean Nicolas Fortin") pendulum and two instruments for observing the dip and variation of the magnetic needle. Some £470 was spent on the building in 1832, when the house was extended by two small rooms. In 1835, the transit was replaced by a {{convert\|3\+1/2\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} Jones' transit circle, after which the mural circle was predominantly used because Dunlop believed the Jones circle was too difficult for one person to operate (Rosen 2003: pp. 86–87\). [thumb\|330x330px\|Remains of the observatory in Parramatta Park, Parramatta, N.S.W.](/wiki/File:Parramatta_park%2C_Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales%2C_Sydney_-_Wiki0081.jpg "Parramatta park, Parramatta, New South Wales, Sydney - Wiki0081.jpg") Although comprehensive plans of the Observatory remain the building has largely vanished, with only the stone piers surviving. These piers are now the sole remnants of the astronomical activities that occurred at Parramatta; however, another substantial legacy remains. In 1824, at the instigation of the Royal Society, the measurement of an arc of the meridian of New South Wales through Parramatta was ordered by [Earl Bathurst](/wiki/Henry_Bathurst%2C_3rd_Earl_Bathurst "Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst"). The arc would provide data 'for determining correctly the figure of the Earth ... \[and] be useful in laying a foundation for a correct Survey of our Colonies'. In 1828, when Thomas Mitchell began the first trigonometrical survey of New South Wales, his initial meridian was taken from the Parramatta transit instrument in consultation with Dunlop. That survey underpinned mapping in New South Wales until recent times (Rosen 2003: p. 80\). Surveyor Edward Ebbsworth, when conducting his 1887 survey of Parramatta Park, ensured that the exact location of the piers would be preserved by fixing a copper plug in the basal stone of the piers. The Observatory functioned from 1822, the year of its construction until 1829 when Rumker returned to Europe. In 1831 Dunlop, who had retired to take up farming was appointed superintendent, repairs were undertaken and the observatory operated again, until its closure in 1847, when the astronomical equipment was removed to Sydney and eventually installed in the new [Sydney Observatory](/wiki/Sydney_Observatory "Sydney Observatory") built on Flagstaff (later Observatory) Hill (DPWS 1997: p. 39; Rosen 2003; p. 81\). The work of Brisbane and his associated astronomers were the first scientific astronomical observations, and amongst the first scientific experimental work, to come from Australia (the French had conducted experiments into [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination "Magnetic declination") in the southern hemisphere at [Recherche Bay](/wiki/Recherche_Bay "Recherche Bay") in 1791\). Rumker's publication of his observations of Encke's Comet resulted in him being awarded a silver medal and £100 by the [Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society "Royal Astronomical Society") and a gold medal from the [Institut de France](/wiki/Institut_de_France "Institut de France"). In 1826, Rumker also discovered a new comet in the constellation of [Orion](/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29 "Orion (constellation)"). Rumker's chief publication resulting from his work at Parramatta, the Preliminary Catalogue of Fixed Stars, Intended for a Prospectus of a Catalogue of the Stars of the Southern Hemisphere, Included within the Tropic of Capricorn; Now Reducing from the Observations, Made in the Observatory at Parramatta by Charles Rumker, Hamburg, appeared in 1832\. Dunlop on the other hand published his observations on the length of a seconds pendulum in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1823, and his observations of nebulae of the southern hemisphere in 1828\. For this latter work, he received a gold medal from the Royal Astronomical Society. He also published, in 1829, a life of double stars observed from the Parramatta Observatory in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society. Governor Brisbane's own monumental work, A Catalogue of 7385 Stars, Chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere, published in 1835 by the Admiralty, was regarded by the European scientific community a major scientific achievement (Rosen 2003: pp. 80–81\). It was in recognition of his patronage of astronomy in NSW, and for the abundance of observations that came pouring in from Parramatta, that in 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him the gold medal for the Parramatta Catalogue of Stars and General Observations, printed by the Royal Society in their Transactions. [Sir John Herschel](/wiki/Sir_John_Herschel "Sir John Herschel"), at that time President of the Astronomical Society, said, in presenting the medal: > "We give this medal accompanied with the strongest expressions of our admiration for your patriotic and princely support given to Astronomy in regions so remote. It will be to you a source of honest pride as long as you live to reflect that the most brilliant trait of Australian history marks the era of your government, and that your name will be identified with the future glories of that colony in ages yet to come, as the founder of her science. It is a distinction worthy of a British Governor. Our first triumphs in those fair climes have been the peaceful ones of science, and the treasures they have transmitted to us are imperishable records of useful knowledge, speedily to be returned with interest, to the improvement of their condition and their elevation in the scale of nations" (BoM: 2001\). Associated with Brisbane's transit stones are two marker trees which stand to the south of the transit stones. These are *[Pinus roxburghii](/wiki/Pinus_roxburghii "Pinus roxburghii")* (tortoise shell pines), the same species used as marker trees at Brisbane's Makerstoun observatory in Scotland. Two more marker trees were located near the southern Domain gatehouse, spaced at an identical distance as those at the observatory, on the same north–south alignment extending through the transit stones. These original marker trees are now more than 180 years old (Rosen 2003: p. 89\). Brisbane continued to maintain the Macquarie's garden and the domain pastures. He was also concerned with horticultural improvements, planting clover and rye in 1824 and irrigating the gardens using a 'garden engine'. One hundred garden pots were also purchased for a 'Botanical and Horticultural establishment' (Rosen 2003: pp. 83–4\). Brisbane encouraged botanical experimentation at Parramatta as well as astronomy. He conducted largely unsuccessful experiments in growing Virginian tobacco, Georgian cotton, Brazilian coffee and New Zealand flax. Imported grasses were planted to improve the quality of the pasture. Lady Brisbane continued the planting of the park begun by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 39\). During 1823 a series of minor repairs were undertaken at Old Government House, under the supervision of the recently appointed Civil Architect, [Standish Lawrence Harris](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect "New South Wales Government Architect"). A door was added and a brick chimney constructed (the location of both of which are now unknown). Repairs to brick work and the shingles were undertaken and stone flagging laid. Harris also designed a Bath House for the Governor, which had its own reticulated water supply and which continues to exist albeit in a much altered form (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). In 1847 a journalist noted that the bath was in the centre of the building and was furnished with a shower bath. An adjoining room was fitted with apparatus for generating steam and a third was adapted for heating water (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). Each of the rooms was ornamented with a handsome cornice. The Bath House was supplied with water from the Parramatta River by way of a forcing pump. The pump was sunk through rock {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} deep and lined in brickwork. In the garden, {{convert\|276\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of brickwork with {{convert\|238\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of lead pipe and {{convert\|44\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}} of stone capping was undertaken. The total excavation into the side of the hill was some {{convert\|555\|ft\|m\|abbr\=in\|order\=flip}}. It appears that the main house may also have been connected to the pump. In 1972, a report in the Parramatta Advertiser claimed that the water was pumped from the river in the vicinity of today's amphitheatre and flowed away via a brick drain to a duck pond near where the bowling club now stands (Rosen 2003: p. 84\). In 1886 the Bath House was substantially altered and converted into a park pavilion (DPWS 1997: p. 40\). The Garrison Building, or Officers Quarters as it was more commonly known, appears at this time. The officers quarters are not mentioned on Antill's 1821 inventory, indicating that they were probably constructed for Governor Brisbane in early 1822\. The building consists of two wings, one room deep, separated by a passage. The walls are of varying thicknesses and alignments, indicating that the building was built in stages. It may have incorporated earlier outbuildings, possibly those constructed for servants accommodation between 1815 and 1816, as part of the Macquaries improvements to the house. The building was constructed to provide additional accommodation for the officers who formed the Governor's staff and for household servants. The four rooms for the officers faced the rear courtyard of the house. Lycett's 1824 aquatint, although somewhat inaccurate in its depiction of the main house, shows a rear block with no verandah connected to the main house via a covered way. The arrangement of windows pictured matches that of the south east corner of the Garrison Building (DPWS 1997: p. 41\). The round structure in the centre of the image may be the old pigeon house with an added colonnade. The Officers Quarters had by 1838 a long verandah running north south across the front of the building. A photograph of the rear of the building taken in 1908 shows a rear verandah, its roof integral with the back slope of the roof. The west wing which accommodated the servants did not have a verandah. It opened into a separate yard behind the officers quarters. Two of the rooms are larger, with sandstone fireplaces. One of these was probably the servant's dining room. The dining room may have been the room located in the south east corner, closest to the kitchen wing of the main house. A covered way, connecting the back suite of buildings with the kitchen block, is indicated on the 1857 site plan. It is also described by Lady Franklin and shown in Lycett's engraving.
[ "### Governor Brisbane (1821–1825\\)", "Lachlan Macquarie's successor [Governor Brisbane](/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane \"Thomas Brisbane\") preferred to reside at Government House at Parramatta rather than Government House in Sydney. His preference for Parramatta was probably not due to the attributes of the house or its extensive grounds, but that the domain provided an excellent site for his private observatory.", "The Observatory, erected in 1822 was part of Brisbane's intention to make Parramatta \"the Greenwich of the Southern Hemisphere\" (DPWS 1997: p. 39\\). Brisbane was accompanied to Australia by two astronomers: [Charles Rumker](/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Christian_R%C3%BCmker \"Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker\"), who had already attained a good reputation as an astronomer and mathematician; and [James Dunlop](/wiki/James_Dunlop \"James Dunlop\"), whose great natural ability in mechanical appliances and instruments saw him identified as a suitable man for second assistant in the Observatory in an out of the way place like Parramatta. On arrival in New South Wales, Brisbane's instruments were immediately set up on piers in the Domain to allow the observation of the solstice on 21 December 1821\\. By April 1822, the construction of the observatory had been completed in anticipation of the appearance of [Encke's Comet](/wiki/Comet_Encke \"Comet Encke\"), an event not observable in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") or at the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\") (Rosen 2003: p. 80\\). The observatory was privately funded by Brisbane and consisted of two buildings: an observatory equipped at Brisbane's personal expense; and a residence attached to it. Located about {{convert\\|100\\|yd\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} behind Government House, the observatory was a plain building, {{convert\\|28\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} square by {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} high, with a flat roof with two domes {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} in diameter projecting from it, one at the north and the other at the south. On the north and south sides were five windows, three of which were in a semi\\-circular projection from the wall at the base of the domes. Transit openings in the domes extended to one of the windows to allow observations of the horizon. A {{convert\\|16\\|in\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach \"Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach\") repeating circle was located under the north dome and a {{convert\\|46\\|in\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} equatorial Banks telescope was under the south dome. There was also an [Edward Troughton](/wiki/Edward_Troughton \"Edward Troughton\") mural circle and a {{convert\\|5\\+1/2\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} Troughton transit instrument. A Hardy clock showed sidereal time and an [Abraham\\-Louis Breguet](/wiki/Abraham-Louis_Breguet \"Abraham-Louis Breguet\") clock showed mean time. All instruments were mounted on solid masonry piers. There was also a [Jean Nicolas Fortin](/wiki/Jean_Nicolas_Fortin \"Jean Nicolas Fortin\") pendulum and two instruments for observing the dip and variation of the magnetic needle. Some £470 was spent on the building in 1832, when the house was extended by two small rooms. In 1835, the transit was replaced by a {{convert\\|3\\+1/2\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} Jones' transit circle, after which the mural circle was predominantly used because Dunlop believed the Jones circle was too difficult for one person to operate (Rosen 2003: pp. 86–87\\).\n[thumb\\|330x330px\\|Remains of the observatory in Parramatta Park, Parramatta, N.S.W.](/wiki/File:Parramatta_park%2C_Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales%2C_Sydney_-_Wiki0081.jpg \"Parramatta park, Parramatta, New South Wales, Sydney - Wiki0081.jpg\")\nAlthough comprehensive plans of the Observatory remain the building has largely vanished, with only the stone piers surviving. These piers are now the sole remnants of the astronomical activities that occurred at Parramatta; however, another substantial legacy remains. In 1824, at the instigation of the Royal Society, the measurement of an arc of the meridian of New South Wales through Parramatta was ordered by [Earl Bathurst](/wiki/Henry_Bathurst%2C_3rd_Earl_Bathurst \"Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst\"). The arc would provide data 'for determining correctly the figure of the Earth ... \\[and] be useful in laying a foundation for a correct Survey of our Colonies'. In 1828, when Thomas Mitchell began the first trigonometrical survey of New South Wales, his initial meridian was taken from the Parramatta transit instrument in consultation with Dunlop. That survey underpinned mapping in New South Wales until recent times (Rosen 2003: p. 80\\). Surveyor Edward Ebbsworth, when conducting his 1887 survey of Parramatta Park, ensured that the exact location of the piers would be preserved by fixing a copper plug in the basal stone of the piers. The Observatory functioned from 1822, the year of its construction until 1829 when Rumker returned to Europe. In 1831 Dunlop, who had retired to take up farming was appointed superintendent, repairs were undertaken and the observatory operated again, until its closure in 1847, when the astronomical equipment was removed to Sydney and eventually installed in the new [Sydney Observatory](/wiki/Sydney_Observatory \"Sydney Observatory\") built on Flagstaff (later Observatory) Hill (DPWS 1997: p. 39; Rosen 2003; p. 81\\).", "The work of Brisbane and his associated astronomers were the first scientific astronomical observations, and amongst the first scientific experimental work, to come from Australia (the French had conducted experiments into [magnetic declination](/wiki/Magnetic_declination \"Magnetic declination\") in the southern hemisphere at [Recherche Bay](/wiki/Recherche_Bay \"Recherche Bay\") in 1791\\). Rumker's publication of his observations of Encke's Comet resulted in him being awarded a silver medal and £100 by the [Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society \"Royal Astronomical Society\") and a gold medal from the [Institut de France](/wiki/Institut_de_France \"Institut de France\"). In 1826, Rumker also discovered a new comet in the constellation of [Orion](/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29 \"Orion (constellation)\"). Rumker's chief publication resulting from his work at Parramatta, the Preliminary Catalogue of Fixed Stars, Intended for a Prospectus of a Catalogue of the Stars of the Southern Hemisphere, Included within the Tropic of Capricorn; Now Reducing from the Observations, Made in the Observatory at Parramatta by Charles Rumker, Hamburg, appeared in 1832\\. Dunlop on the other hand published his observations on the length of a seconds pendulum in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1823, and his observations of nebulae of the southern hemisphere in 1828\\. For this latter work, he received a gold medal from the Royal Astronomical Society. He also published, in 1829, a life of double stars observed from the Parramatta Observatory in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society. Governor Brisbane's own monumental work, A Catalogue of 7385 Stars, Chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere, published in 1835 by the Admiralty, was regarded by the European scientific community a major scientific achievement (Rosen 2003: pp. 80–81\\). It was in recognition of his patronage of astronomy in NSW, and for the abundance of observations that came pouring in from Parramatta, that in 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him the gold medal for the Parramatta Catalogue of Stars and General Observations, printed by the Royal Society in their Transactions. [Sir John Herschel](/wiki/Sir_John_Herschel \"Sir John Herschel\"), at that time President of the Astronomical Society, said, in presenting the medal:", "> \"We give this medal accompanied with the strongest expressions of our admiration for your patriotic and princely support given to Astronomy in regions so remote. It will be to you a source of honest pride as long as you live to reflect that the most brilliant trait of Australian history marks the era of your government, and that your name will be identified with the future glories of that colony in ages yet to come, as the founder of her science. It is a distinction worthy of a British Governor. Our first triumphs in those fair climes have been the peaceful ones of science, and the treasures they have transmitted to us are imperishable records of useful knowledge, speedily to be returned with interest, to the improvement of their condition and their elevation in the scale of nations\" (BoM: 2001\\).", "", "Associated with Brisbane's transit stones are two marker trees which stand to the south of the transit stones. These are *[Pinus roxburghii](/wiki/Pinus_roxburghii \"Pinus roxburghii\")* (tortoise shell pines), the same species used as marker trees at Brisbane's Makerstoun observatory in Scotland. Two more marker trees were located near the southern Domain gatehouse, spaced at an identical distance as those at the observatory, on the same north–south alignment extending through the transit stones. These original marker trees are now more than 180 years old (Rosen 2003: p. 89\\).", "Brisbane continued to maintain the Macquarie's garden and the domain pastures. He was also concerned with horticultural improvements, planting clover and rye in 1824 and irrigating the gardens using a 'garden engine'. One hundred garden pots were also purchased for a 'Botanical and Horticultural establishment' (Rosen 2003: pp. 83–4\\). Brisbane encouraged botanical experimentation at Parramatta as well as astronomy. He conducted largely unsuccessful experiments in growing Virginian tobacco, Georgian cotton, Brazilian coffee and New Zealand flax. Imported grasses were planted to improve the quality of the pasture. Lady Brisbane continued the planting of the park begun by Mrs Macquarie (DPWS 1997: p. 39\\).", "During 1823 a series of minor repairs were undertaken at Old Government House, under the supervision of the recently appointed Civil Architect, [Standish Lawrence Harris](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect \"New South Wales Government Architect\"). A door was added and a brick chimney constructed (the location of both of which are now unknown). Repairs to brick work and the shingles were undertaken and stone flagging laid.", "Harris also designed a Bath House for the Governor, which had its own reticulated water supply and which continues to exist albeit in a much altered form (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\). In 1847 a journalist noted that the bath was in the centre of the building and was furnished with a shower bath. An adjoining room was fitted with apparatus for generating steam and a third was adapted for heating water (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\). Each of the rooms was ornamented with a handsome cornice. The Bath House was supplied with water from the Parramatta River by way of a forcing pump. The pump was sunk through rock {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} deep and lined in brickwork. In the garden, {{convert\\|276\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of brickwork with {{convert\\|238\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of lead pipe and {{convert\\|44\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}} of stone capping was undertaken. The total excavation into the side of the hill was some {{convert\\|555\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=in\\|order\\=flip}}. It appears that the main house may also have been connected to the pump. In 1972, a report in the Parramatta Advertiser claimed that the water was pumped from the river in the vicinity of today's amphitheatre and flowed away via a brick drain to a duck pond near where the bowling club now stands (Rosen 2003: p. 84\\). In 1886 the Bath House was substantially altered and converted into a park pavilion (DPWS 1997: p. 40\\).", "The Garrison Building, or Officers Quarters as it was more commonly known, appears at this time. The officers quarters are not mentioned on Antill's 1821 inventory, indicating that they were probably constructed for Governor Brisbane in early 1822\\. The building consists of two wings, one room deep, separated by a passage. The walls are of varying thicknesses and alignments, indicating that the building was built in stages. It may have incorporated earlier outbuildings, possibly those constructed for servants accommodation between 1815 and 1816, as part of the Macquaries improvements to the house. The building was constructed to provide additional accommodation for the officers who formed the Governor's staff and for household servants. The four rooms for the officers faced the rear courtyard of the house. Lycett's 1824 aquatint, although somewhat inaccurate in its depiction of the main house, shows a rear block with no verandah connected to the main house via a covered way. The arrangement of windows pictured matches that of the south east corner of the Garrison Building (DPWS 1997: p. 41\\). The round structure in the centre of the image may be the old pigeon house with an added colonnade. The Officers Quarters had by 1838 a long verandah running north south across the front of the building. A photograph of the rear of the building taken in 1908 shows a rear verandah, its roof integral with the back slope of the roof. The west wing which accommodated the servants did not have a verandah. It opened into a separate yard behind the officers quarters. Two of the rooms are larger, with sandstone fireplaces. One of these was probably the servant's dining room. The dining room may have been the room located in the south east corner, closest to the kitchen wing of the main house. A covered way, connecting the back suite of buildings with the kitchen block, is indicated on the 1857 site plan. It is also described by Lady Franklin and shown in Lycett's engraving.", "" ]
Description ----------- [thumb\|The front portico](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_002.jpg "(1)Old Government House 002.jpg") The original area of the Governor's Domain has been reduced from {{convert\|99\.6\|to\|85\|ha\|acre\|abbr\=off}}, and the area to the north and east of the river is now largely devoted to sporting facilities. The area contains over eighty items of cultural significance. These items include: buildings (such as Old Government House), relics (former observatory), historic plantings, archaeological sites (41 in all, including former roads, convict huts, stables, redoubt, lumberyard), vistas (across Parramatta and along George St to the former wharf) and natural items such as bushland. Evidence of Aboriginal use of this area includes stone artefacts and scarred trees (Rosen, S. 2003\). [thumb\|The residence as viewed from [Parramatta Park](/wiki/Parramatta_Park%2C_New_South_Wales "Parramatta Park, New South Wales")](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta_July_2018.jpg "Old Government House, Parramatta July 2018.jpg") Within the boundary of the place, the layout of the major elements of the park retains much of the Governor Macquarie usage of the space. Existing roads for the most part follow the original carriage ways. The generally open [Cumberland Plain Woodlands](/wiki/Cumberland_Plain_Woodland "Cumberland Plain Woodland") survive in patches in the Park, with much of the open landscape of the broader Governor's Domain, which reflect Elizabeth Macquarie's design principles, still evident in the Park as it exists today. The 'Crescent', the natural amphitheatre which attracted Governor Phillip to the area – influencing the decision to establish the farm there, is evident today and used as an outdoor amphitheatre and performance space. The astronomical work of Governor Brisbane at the site can still be seen in the remains of the observatory and the marker trees, and represents the commencement of Australian scientific endeavour and the start of a process during which Australia developed a world renowned reputation for scientific research and discovery. The road ways and their layouts reflect the natural topography of the area including the River Road which follows the course of the Parramatta River and their alignments have remained substantially unchanged since the 1880s. The roads are likely to have beneath them substantial remains of older road surfaces, culverts and retaining walls. The roadways within the Park also have a park\-land ambience which separate them from the busy roads surrounding the Park. River Road is a particularly pleasant and evocative tree\-lined avenue. Old Government House at Parramatta was built by convicts and is the oldest surviving public building on the Australian mainland. The original 1799 building was enlarged in 1815 to a design by John Watts to form a two\-storey block, two single storey end pavilions and two linked blocks with extended eaves. The central portico is attributed to Francis Greenway (Irving 1985: 55\). With its symmetrical proportions, shadow patterns from extended eaves and central portico it exhibits the 'Palladian' characteristics of Australian Old Colonial Georgian architecture. A section of the brick flooring of the Phillip era, of July 1790, survives and is on display. The three rooms at the front of the main section of the house date to Governor Hunter in 1799, while the remainder of the main house and the two side pavilions date to Governor Macquarie in 1818\. The entrance hall of Old Government House notably features a black\-and\-white chequered floor, in keeping with the tastes of the period. However, due to the absence of building materials such as marble or granite in the early Sydney settlement, the floor had to made out of painted wood. The original wooden flooring can be seen to this day. [thumb\|The rear of the house, facing the courtyard](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta.jpg "Old Government House, Parramatta.jpg") The Governor's dairy survives in its original setting, and has recently been stabilised and restored by the Park Trust. The park landscape and use has continued since 1857\. Memorials have been erected reflecting layers of community meaning. Important amongst these is the Boer War Memorial erected in 1904 which continues as a major landmark feature of the place. The Boer War Memorial, the memorial to Lady Mary Fitzroy, and the gatehouses remain in their original sites and are in good condition. Other elements, however, have been subjected to substantial change over the decades. The Macquarie stables and coachhouse were removed when the Great Western Railway line was pushed through the south\-western section of the Domain. Little remains of Governor Brisbane's observatory with the exception of the transit stones and the marker trees. Similarly, Governor Brisbane's bathhouse, although still in its original site, has undergone extensive alteration. The original interior has been stripped out, the fabric within the arches removed, and the building turned into an open pavilion. ### Precincts Old Government House precinct [thumb\|The gardens and grounds during spring](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta_-_spring.jpg "Old Government House, Parramatta - spring.jpg") This precinct surrounds the building complex of Old Government House, including its garden to the east and north, rear [courtyard](/wiki/Courtyard "Courtyard") to the west, range of outbuildings west of that and further rear yard / courtyard beyond that. Old Government House's garden and grounds are richly planted. The Crescent Precinct This comprises "The Crescent", a billabong landform of an old anabranch of the Parramatta River, which, with its rich deposited river silt and loam, has long been a centre of Government cultivation in the colony, helping feed its near\-starving early inhabitants. Successful cultivation of cereal crops, grapes (some of Australia's earliest) and other crops here literally fed the colony after 1788 and crop failures and erratic ship arrivals. Later in the twentieth century the Crescent was in\-filled and has taken on more of a passive recreation focus, for outdoor concerts and events. The ridgeline along Constitution Hill wrapping west of the Crescent's rim has been revegetated in native trees, shrubs and grasses since the mid\-1990s to strengthen the biodiversity values and viability of remnant eucalypt trees here. The Paddocks Precinct This comprises the paddocks west of Constitution Hill and the Dairy/Salter's Cottage precinct. This comprises farm paddock elements remaining from the Government Domain, which once extended further west (all of what is today Westmead – being West Meadow) and Northmead (North Meadow). Today these are primarily grassed for passive recreation with playground equipment, picnic and other facilities scattered around. The Dairy/Salter's Cottage Precinct This comprises some of the earliest building complexes in the park lands, and remnants of early land grants to private farmers of the Government Domain. It is fenced off from the surroundings and interpreted for its historic uses with a modest garden and small representative orchard, sculpture, interpretation and guided tours. ### Other buildings and features George Street Gatehouse [thumb\|The George Street Gatehouse](/wiki/File:George_Street_Gatehouse%2C_Parramatta%2C_NSW_01.jpg "George Street Gatehouse, Parramatta, NSW 01.jpg") [thumb\|The [Macquarie Street Gatehouse](/wiki/Macquarie_Street_Gatehouse "Macquarie Street Gatehouse")](/wiki/File:Macquarie_Street_Gatehouse_-_Parramatta_Park%2C_Parramatta%2C_NSW_%287822335970%29.jpg "Macquarie Street Gatehouse - Parramatta Park, Parramatta, NSW (7822335970).jpg") The first gatehouse in this location was a stone lodge built by Governor Macquarie in 1820\. Macquarie extended the then Government /Governor's Domain out (east) two blocks to O'Connell Street (formerly it had come up to Pitt Street/Row, far closer to Old Government House. He added a stone gate lodge. In 1885 a two\-storey brick Tudor Revival pattern book gate house replaced the first gate lodge which was demolished. Architect Gordon McKinnon designed the new gate house, local builders Hart \& Lavor were paid £590 to build it, with local blacksmith T. Forsyth crafting its [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") gates.Willoughby, 2013 The lodge is identical to another built on a pastoral property in the Western District of Victoria.Stuart Read, pers.comm., 8/11/2013 Historically the gatehouse keeper's wife provided picnickers in the park with hot water for tea. Matilda and Samuel Case are believed to be the first residents of the "Tudor" Gatehouse, in 1885\. In 1901 Gertrude and Lewis Taylor lived there with son Keith, born in the upstairs bedroom the following year. Also in 1902 William Entwhistle moved from the Mays Hill gatehouse to the George Street gatehouse. In the late 1930s Florence and Percy Wyles kept a small zoo, cared for the horses and ran a small shop in the lobby of the gatehouse. Until 1951 Joseph Rose's family lived there while the United States Army occupied Parramatta Park (Willoughby, 2013, citing Chris Rapp, "The History of a Gate House: the story of a Parramatta Park Entrance"). Mays Hill Gatehouse This single storey cottage faces the Great Western Road, now the Great Western Highway. Observatory Site Governor Thomas Brisbane's Observatory site includes two transit stones, two marker trees (Himalayan or chir pine, *Pinus roxburghii*) to its south, two more chir pines near the Southern Domain gate house spaced the same distance apart as the two close to the observatory, centred exactly on the same north–south alignment extending through the gap in the transit stones (on the Great Western Highway) which probably mark the location of a marker stone), the Observatory Memorial (1880\) obelisk and archaeological remains of the footings of both the {{convert\|28\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|order\=flip}} square observatory with its northern and southern domed ends and the former astronomer's cottage to its west.Brian McDonald \& Associates, Parramatta Park Historic Buildings \& Monuments Study, 1986 Other buildings include(d): * Westmead Gatehouse * Governors' Bathhouse (now a gazebo/pavilion) * Governor's Stables (demolished to construct the 1855 railway extension from Parramatta to Penrith) * Dairy Complex and Salter's Cottage
[ "Description\n-----------", "[thumb\\|The front portico](/wiki/File:%281%29Old_Government_House_002.jpg \"(1)Old Government House 002.jpg\")\nThe original area of the Governor's Domain has been reduced from {{convert\\|99\\.6\\|to\\|85\\|ha\\|acre\\|abbr\\=off}}, and the area to the north and east of the river is now largely devoted to sporting facilities. The area contains over eighty items of cultural significance. These items include: buildings (such as Old Government House), relics (former observatory), historic plantings, archaeological sites (41 in all, including former roads, convict huts, stables, redoubt, lumberyard), vistas (across Parramatta and along George St to the former wharf) and natural items such as bushland. Evidence of Aboriginal use of this area includes stone artefacts and scarred trees (Rosen, S. 2003\\).\n[thumb\\|The residence as viewed from [Parramatta Park](/wiki/Parramatta_Park%2C_New_South_Wales \"Parramatta Park, New South Wales\")](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta_July_2018.jpg \"Old Government House, Parramatta July 2018.jpg\")\nWithin the boundary of the place, the layout of the major elements of the park retains much of the Governor Macquarie usage of the space. Existing roads for the most part follow the original carriage ways. The generally open [Cumberland Plain Woodlands](/wiki/Cumberland_Plain_Woodland \"Cumberland Plain Woodland\") survive in patches in the Park, with much of the open landscape of the broader Governor's Domain, which reflect Elizabeth Macquarie's design principles, still evident in the Park as it exists today. The 'Crescent', the natural amphitheatre which attracted Governor Phillip to the area – influencing the decision to establish the farm there, is evident today and used as an outdoor amphitheatre and performance space.", "The astronomical work of Governor Brisbane at the site can still be seen in the remains of the observatory and the marker trees, and represents the commencement of Australian scientific endeavour and the start of a process during which Australia developed a world renowned reputation for scientific research and discovery.", "The road ways and their layouts reflect the natural topography of the area including the River Road which follows the course of the Parramatta River and their alignments have remained substantially unchanged since the 1880s. The roads are likely to have beneath them substantial remains of older road surfaces, culverts and retaining walls. The roadways within the Park also have a park\\-land ambience which separate them from the busy roads surrounding the Park. River Road is a particularly pleasant and evocative tree\\-lined avenue.", "Old Government House at Parramatta was built by convicts and is the oldest surviving public building on the Australian mainland. The original 1799 building was enlarged in 1815 to a design by John Watts to form a two\\-storey block, two single storey end pavilions and two linked blocks with extended eaves. The central portico is attributed to Francis Greenway (Irving 1985: 55\\). With its symmetrical proportions, shadow patterns from extended eaves and central portico it exhibits the 'Palladian' characteristics of Australian Old Colonial Georgian architecture. A section of the brick flooring of the Phillip era, of July 1790, survives and is on display. The three rooms at the front of the main section of the house date to Governor Hunter in 1799, while the remainder of the main house and the two side pavilions date to Governor Macquarie in 1818\\. The entrance hall of Old Government House notably features a black\\-and\\-white chequered floor, in keeping with the tastes of the period. However, due to the absence of building materials such as marble or granite in the early Sydney settlement, the floor had to made out of painted wood. The original wooden flooring can be seen to this day.\n[thumb\\|The rear of the house, facing the courtyard](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta.jpg \"Old Government House, Parramatta.jpg\")\nThe Governor's dairy survives in its original setting, and has recently been stabilised and restored by the Park Trust. The park landscape and use has continued since 1857\\. Memorials have been erected reflecting layers of community meaning. Important amongst these is the Boer War Memorial erected in 1904 which continues as a major landmark feature of the place. The Boer War Memorial, the memorial to Lady Mary Fitzroy, and the gatehouses remain in their original sites and are in good condition. Other elements, however, have been subjected to substantial change over the decades. The Macquarie stables and coachhouse were removed when the Great Western Railway line was pushed through the south\\-western section of the Domain. Little remains of Governor Brisbane's observatory with the exception of the transit stones and the marker trees. Similarly, Governor Brisbane's bathhouse, although still in its original site, has undergone extensive alteration. The original interior has been stripped out, the fabric within the arches removed, and the building turned into an open pavilion.", "### Precincts", "Old Government House precinct\n[thumb\\|The gardens and grounds during spring](/wiki/File:Old_Government_House%2C_Parramatta_-_spring.jpg \"Old Government House, Parramatta - spring.jpg\")\nThis precinct surrounds the building complex of Old Government House, including its garden to the east and north, rear [courtyard](/wiki/Courtyard \"Courtyard\") to the west, range of outbuildings west of that and further rear yard / courtyard beyond that. Old Government House's garden and grounds are richly planted.\nThe Crescent Precinct\nThis comprises \"The Crescent\", a billabong landform of an old anabranch of the Parramatta River, which, with its rich deposited river silt and loam, has long been a centre of Government cultivation in the colony, helping feed its near\\-starving early inhabitants. Successful cultivation of cereal crops, grapes (some of Australia's earliest) and other crops here literally fed the colony after 1788 and crop failures and erratic ship arrivals. Later in the twentieth century the Crescent was in\\-filled and has taken on more of a passive recreation focus, for outdoor concerts and events.\nThe ridgeline along Constitution Hill wrapping west of the Crescent's rim has been revegetated in native trees, shrubs and grasses since the mid\\-1990s to strengthen the biodiversity values and viability of remnant eucalypt trees here.\nThe Paddocks Precinct\nThis comprises the paddocks west of Constitution Hill and the Dairy/Salter's Cottage precinct. This comprises farm paddock elements remaining from the Government Domain, which once extended further west (all of what is today Westmead – being West Meadow) and Northmead (North Meadow). Today these are primarily grassed for passive recreation with playground equipment, picnic and other facilities scattered around.\nThe Dairy/Salter's Cottage Precinct\nThis comprises some of the earliest building complexes in the park lands, and remnants of early land grants to private farmers of the Government Domain. It is fenced off from the surroundings and interpreted for its historic uses with a modest garden and small representative orchard, sculpture, interpretation and guided tours.\n### Other buildings and features", "George Street Gatehouse\n[thumb\\|The George Street Gatehouse](/wiki/File:George_Street_Gatehouse%2C_Parramatta%2C_NSW_01.jpg \"George Street Gatehouse, Parramatta, NSW 01.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The [Macquarie Street Gatehouse](/wiki/Macquarie_Street_Gatehouse \"Macquarie Street Gatehouse\")](/wiki/File:Macquarie_Street_Gatehouse_-_Parramatta_Park%2C_Parramatta%2C_NSW_%287822335970%29.jpg \"Macquarie Street Gatehouse - Parramatta Park, Parramatta, NSW (7822335970).jpg\")\nThe first gatehouse in this location was a stone lodge built by Governor Macquarie in 1820\\. Macquarie extended the then Government /Governor's Domain out (east) two blocks to O'Connell Street (formerly it had come up to Pitt Street/Row, far closer to Old Government House. He added a stone gate lodge.\nIn 1885 a two\\-storey brick Tudor Revival pattern book gate house replaced the first gate lodge which was demolished. Architect Gordon McKinnon designed the new gate house, local builders Hart \\& Lavor were paid £590 to build it, with local blacksmith T. Forsyth crafting its [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") gates.Willoughby, 2013 The lodge is identical to another built on a pastoral property in the Western District of Victoria.Stuart Read, pers.comm., 8/11/2013 Historically the gatehouse keeper's wife provided picnickers in the park with hot water for tea.", "Matilda and Samuel Case are believed to be the first residents of the \"Tudor\" Gatehouse, in 1885\\. In 1901 Gertrude and Lewis Taylor lived there with son Keith, born in the upstairs bedroom the following year. Also in 1902 William Entwhistle moved from the Mays Hill gatehouse to the George Street gatehouse. In the late 1930s Florence and Percy Wyles kept a small zoo, cared for the horses and ran a small shop in the lobby of the gatehouse. Until 1951 Joseph Rose's family lived there while the United States Army occupied Parramatta Park (Willoughby, 2013, citing Chris Rapp, \"The History of a Gate House: the story of a Parramatta Park Entrance\").", "Mays Hill Gatehouse\nThis single storey cottage faces the Great Western Road, now the Great Western Highway.\nObservatory Site\nGovernor Thomas Brisbane's Observatory site includes two transit stones, two marker trees (Himalayan or chir pine, *Pinus roxburghii*) to its south, two more chir pines near the Southern Domain gate house spaced the same distance apart as the two close to the observatory, centred exactly on the same north–south alignment extending through the gap in the transit stones (on the Great Western Highway) which probably mark the location of a marker stone), the Observatory Memorial (1880\\) obelisk and archaeological remains of the footings of both the {{convert\\|28\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} square observatory with its northern and southern domed ends and the former astronomer's cottage to its west.Brian McDonald \\& Associates, Parramatta Park Historic Buildings \\& Monuments Study, 1986\nOther buildings include(d):\n* Westmead Gatehouse\n* Governors' Bathhouse (now a gazebo/pavilion)\n* Governor's Stables (demolished to construct the 1855 railway extension from Parramatta to Penrith)\n* Dairy Complex and Salter's Cottage", "" ]
Writing career -------------- ### England (1850–1857\) Pullan turned to the periodical press to earn a living, especially after she was widowed. She published articles about needlework with illustrations and detailed patterns, capitalizing on the skills she would have been taught as a girl to instruct other women about middle\-class taste in clothing and home furnishings. The 1840s saw the rise of domestic instruction for young women as a new area of publishing, and Pullan had a hand in establishing or writing new columns on needlework at many women's magazines. In the end, she became "the most prolific contributor of fancywork patterns to the mid\-nineteenth century press". Her success was due in part to her business skills and in part to her writing style, which was "informative, entertaining, and engaging without being polemical." Pullan's earliest books on needlework were published under the title *Lady's Library* (1850\). Written in epistolary style, the individual volumes focused on different forms of fancywork and other decorative methods, including knitting, [crocheting](/wiki/Crocheting "Crocheting"), [netting](/wiki/Net_%28textile%29 "Net (textile)"), braiding, embroidery, [papier\-mâché](/wiki/Papier-m%C3%A2ch%C3%A9 "Papier-mâché"), and [japanning](/wiki/Japanning "Japanning"). The series was discontinued after six volumes, but Pullan used this experience to establish herself as a writer for the periodical press. Early columns Pullan wrote for included "Accomplishments for Young Women" in *Home Circle* (beginning 1850, under the pen name 'Aiguillette') and "Work" in *[Belle Assemblée](/wiki/Belle_Assembl%C3%A9e "Belle Assemblée")* (beginning 1851\). In 1851, she took part in the [Crystal Palace exhibition](/wiki/The_Great_Exhibition "The Great Exhibition"), showing [point lace](/wiki/Needle_lace "Needle lace") work to establish herself as an expert on fancywork. In 1852, she became the editor of the fancywork department of the *Ladies' Cabinet* (into which *Belle Assemblée* and *Ladies' Companion* had recently merged). That same year, she also took over "The Work\-Table Friend" column on fancywork patterns in *Family Friend*, expanding it into a supplement of 3–4 pages. Three years later, she and fellow needlework columnist [Eliza Warren](/wiki/Eliza_Warren "Eliza Warren") coauthored *Treasures in Needlework*, an illustrated reprint of their various columns for *Family Friend* that encompassed knitting, crocheting, [tatting](/wiki/Tatting "Tatting"), point lace, netting, braiding, and embroidery. In 1856, Pullan became the director of the fancywork department at *Domestic Magazine*. She also served for a time as editor of the *London and Paris Ladies' Magazine of Fashion*. She later contributed to "The Lady's Library" in *Morning Chronicle* and "The Work\-Table" in *Lady's Newspaper*. Other periodicals she wrote for over the years included the *London Review*, *Illustrated Magazine of Art*, and *Governess*. Given the range of publications she worked on, it was hardly an exaggeration for her to write in the late 1850s that "there is not one Magazine, in which Fancy\-work is a feature, that does not, with or without acknowledgement, avail itself of my labors." Pullan was a successful businesswoman as well as writer, running a needlework patterns and supplies shop in London that did so well that she eventually opened a branch shop and a mail\-order business. She taught classes at the shop and, as a canny form of advertising, invited her readers to stop by to discuss needlework with her in person. ### America (1857–1862\) In 1857, Pullan emigrated to New York. She contributed to the "Work\-Table"' column in *[Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper](/wiki/Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_Newspaper "Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper")*, eventually rising to become editor of its entire fashion section. Other American periodicals she contributed to included the *[New York Leader](/wiki/New_York_Leader_%2819th_century%29 "New York Leader (19th century)")*, *American Agriculturist*, and *Boys' and Girls' Own Magazine*. In America, Pullan was able to pursue a project of writing a comprehensive illustrated encyclopedia of fancywork. *The Lady's Manual of Fancy\-Work* (1859\) was wide\-ranging, even encompassing patchwork, which was not usually included in needlework and fancywork books. Pullan also established a fancywork consulting business in New York, helping women choose fabrics, threads, and other materials for their projects. One of her clients was the actor Laura Keene, and Pullan apparently even designed some of her costumes. During this period, Pullan became a champion of the newly popular sewing machine, seeing it as the "liberator of our sex" from the "drudgery of ... plain needlework." During Pullan's final illness, [Miriam Squier](/wiki/Miriam_Leslie "Miriam Leslie")—then a member of the *Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper* staff and later a publisher in her own right—covered her columns but gave the pay for this work to the ailing Pullan.
[ "Writing career\n--------------", "### England (1850–1857\\)", "Pullan turned to the periodical press to earn a living, especially after she was widowed. She published articles about needlework with illustrations and detailed patterns, capitalizing on the skills she would have been taught as a girl to instruct other women about middle\\-class taste in clothing and home furnishings. The 1840s saw the rise of domestic instruction for young women as a new area of publishing, and Pullan had a hand in establishing or writing new columns on needlework at many women's magazines. In the end, she became \"the most prolific contributor of fancywork patterns to the mid\\-nineteenth century press\". Her success was due in part to her business skills and in part to her writing style, which was \"informative, entertaining, and engaging without being polemical.\"", "Pullan's earliest books on needlework were published under the title *Lady's Library* (1850\\). Written in epistolary style, the individual volumes focused on different forms of fancywork and other decorative methods, including knitting, [crocheting](/wiki/Crocheting \"Crocheting\"), [netting](/wiki/Net_%28textile%29 \"Net (textile)\"), braiding, embroidery, [papier\\-mâché](/wiki/Papier-m%C3%A2ch%C3%A9 \"Papier-mâché\"), and [japanning](/wiki/Japanning \"Japanning\"). The series was discontinued after six volumes, but Pullan used this experience to establish herself as a writer for the periodical press.", "Early columns Pullan wrote for included \"Accomplishments for Young Women\" in *Home Circle* (beginning 1850, under the pen name 'Aiguillette') and \"Work\" in *[Belle Assemblée](/wiki/Belle_Assembl%C3%A9e \"Belle Assemblée\")* (beginning 1851\\). In 1851, she took part in the [Crystal Palace exhibition](/wiki/The_Great_Exhibition \"The Great Exhibition\"), showing [point lace](/wiki/Needle_lace \"Needle lace\") work to establish herself as an expert on fancywork.", "In 1852, she became the editor of the fancywork department of the *Ladies' Cabinet* (into which *Belle Assemblée* and *Ladies' Companion* had recently merged). That same year, she also took over \"The Work\\-Table Friend\" column on fancywork patterns in *Family Friend*, expanding it into a supplement of 3–4 pages. Three years later, she and fellow needlework columnist [Eliza Warren](/wiki/Eliza_Warren \"Eliza Warren\") coauthored *Treasures in Needlework*, an illustrated reprint of their various columns for *Family Friend* that encompassed knitting, crocheting, [tatting](/wiki/Tatting \"Tatting\"), point lace, netting, braiding, and embroidery.", "In 1856, Pullan became the director of the fancywork department at *Domestic Magazine*. She also served for a time as editor of the *London and Paris Ladies' Magazine of Fashion*. She later contributed to \"The Lady's Library\" in *Morning Chronicle* and \"The Work\\-Table\" in *Lady's Newspaper*. Other periodicals she wrote for over the years included the *London Review*, *Illustrated Magazine of Art*, and *Governess*. Given the range of publications she worked on, it was hardly an exaggeration for her to write in the late 1850s that \"there is not one Magazine, in which Fancy\\-work is a feature, that does not, with or without acknowledgement, avail itself of my labors.\"", "Pullan was a successful businesswoman as well as writer, running a needlework patterns and supplies shop in London that did so well that she eventually opened a branch shop and a mail\\-order business. She taught classes at the shop and, as a canny form of advertising, invited her readers to stop by to discuss needlework with her in person.", "### America (1857–1862\\)", "In 1857, Pullan emigrated to New York. She contributed to the \"Work\\-Table\"' column in *[Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper](/wiki/Frank_Leslie%27s_Illustrated_Newspaper \"Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper\")*, eventually rising to become editor of its entire fashion section. Other American periodicals she contributed to included the *[New York Leader](/wiki/New_York_Leader_%2819th_century%29 \"New York Leader (19th century)\")*, *American Agriculturist*, and *Boys' and Girls' Own Magazine*.", "In America, Pullan was able to pursue a project of writing a comprehensive illustrated encyclopedia of fancywork. *The Lady's Manual of Fancy\\-Work* (1859\\) was wide\\-ranging, even encompassing patchwork, which was not usually included in needlework and fancywork books.", "Pullan also established a fancywork consulting business in New York, helping women choose fabrics, threads, and other materials for their projects. One of her clients was the actor Laura Keene, and Pullan apparently even designed some of her costumes. During this period, Pullan became a champion of the newly popular sewing machine, seeing it as the \"liberator of our sex\" from the \"drudgery of ... plain needlework.\"", "During Pullan's final illness, [Miriam Squier](/wiki/Miriam_Leslie \"Miriam Leslie\")—then a member of the *Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper* staff and later a publisher in her own right—covered her columns but gave the pay for this work to the ailing Pullan.", "" ]
Life ---- He was the second son of Sir Andrew Murray of Arngask and [Balvaird](/wiki/Balvaird_Castle "Balvaird Castle"), brother of [William Murray of Tullibardine](/wiki/William_Murray_of_Tullibardine "William Murray of Tullibardine"), by his second wife, Janet Graham, fourth daughter of [William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose](/wiki/William_Graham%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Montrose "William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose"). He was brought up at the court of [James VI](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland "James VI of Scotland"), who made him his cupbearer in 1580, and master of the horse in 1583\.Amy Juhala, 'For the King Favours Them Very Strangely', in Miles Kerr\-Peterson and Steven J. Reid, *James VI and Noble Power* (Routledge: Abingdon, 2017\), p. 165\. On 12 December 1588 he presented a complaint against the inhabitants of [Auchtermuchty](/wiki/Auchtermuchty "Auchtermuchty"), Fife, who, when he went to take possession of the lands of Auchtermuchty, attacked him and the gentlemen of his company, wounding him in various parts of the body, and cutting off one of the fingers of his right hand. At court he opposed the [Octavians](/wiki/Octavians "Octavians") by creating trouble between them and the [Scottish kirk](/wiki/Church_of_Scotland "Church of Scotland"). After he had been knighted by James VI (the date is uncertain) he was, on 26 April 1599, admitted on the privy council and made [comptroller of the royal revenues](/wiki/Comptroller_of_Scotland "Comptroller of Scotland"), replacing [George Home of Wedderburn](/wiki/George_Home_%28Comptroller_of_Scotland%29 "George Home (Comptroller of Scotland)") in April 1599\.Amy Juhala, 'For the King Favours Them Very Strangely', in Miles Kerr\-Peterson and Steven J. Reid, *James VI and Noble Power* (Routledge: Abingdon, 2017\), p. 165\. He was also made steward of the stewartry of Fife. On 6 December 1599, while holding a court at [Falkland](/wiki/Falkland%2C_Fife "Falkland, Fife"), was attacked by neighbouring lairds and their servants. Murray was at [Perth](/wiki/Perth%2C_Scotland "Perth, Scotland") at the time of the [Gowrie conspiracy](/wiki/Gowrie_conspiracy "Gowrie conspiracy"), 5 August 1600, and was subsequently credited with having been privy to the concoction of a semblance of a plot, aiming the overthrow of [John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie](/wiki/John_Ruthven%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Gowrie "John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie"). He took a prominent part calming the inhabitants of Perth after Gowrie, their provost, was killed, and with others succeeded in bringing the king in safety to Falkland. Murray succeeded Gowrie as provost of Perth, and also obtained a grant of the [barony of Ruthven](/wiki/Barony_of_Ruthven "Barony of Ruthven"), and of the lands belonging to the [abbacy of Scone](/wiki/Abbacy_of_Scone "Abbacy of Scone"), of which Gowrie was [commendator](/wiki/Commendator "Commendator"). In May 1601 he was appointed by the [assembly of the kirk](/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland "General Assembly of the Church of Scotland") one of a commission to discuss how to support the kirk and clergy in all the districts of Scotland. On 10 Nov he obtained from the king the castle land of Falkland, with the office of ranger of the Lomonds and forester of the woods. Murray was one of the retinue who attended King James in 1603 when he went to take possession of the English throne. On his return to Scotland on 11 August he obtained a commission for raising a guard or police of forty horsemen to be at the service of the privy council. He was one of the Scottish commissioners named by the parliament of Perth in 1604 to treat concerning a union with England, when he was created Viscount Stormont. On 1 April 1605 the barony of Ruthven and the lands belonging to the abbacy of Scone were erected into the temporal lordship of Scone, with a seat and vote in parliament, with which he was invested; on 30 May 1606 he had charter of the barony of Segie, erected into the lordship of Segie; and on 18 August 1608 of the lands and barony which belonged to [abbacy of Scone](/wiki/Scone_Abbey "Scone Abbey"), united into the temporal lordship of Scone. In June 1605 Scone, as comptroller and captain of the guards, was appointed to proceed to [Kintyre](/wiki/Kintyre "Kintyre") in Argyllshire to receive the obedience of the chiefs of the clans of the southern [Hebrides](/wiki/Hebrides "Hebrides"), and payment of the king's rents and duties. He was one of the assessors for the trial at [Linlithgow](/wiki/Linlithgow "Linlithgow") in January 1606 of the ministers concerned in the contumacious [Aberdeen assembly](/wiki/Aberdeen_assembly "Aberdeen assembly") of 1605\. In March 1607 he was appointed one of the commissioners to represent the king in the synods of Perth and Fife, in connection with the scheme for the appointment of perpetual moderators. The synod of Perth having resisted his proposal for the appointment of [Alexander Lindsay](/wiki/Alexander_Lindsay_of_Evelick_%28bishop%29 "Alexander Lindsay of Evelick (bishop)") as perpetual moderator, he, in the king's name, dissolved the assembly, and as the members of the assembly resolved to proceed to the choice of their own moderator, a violent scene ensued. Scone, being asked by the moderator in the name of Christ to desist troubling the meeting, replied, 'The devil a Jesus is here.' After attempting by force to prevent the elected moderator taking the chair, Scone sent for the bailies of the town, and commanded them to ring the common bell and remove the rebels. On pretence of consulting the council of the city the bailies withdrew, but did not return, and avoided interference in the dispute. After the close of the sitting Scone locked the doors, but the assembly met in the open air and proceeded with their business. After Scone's contest with the synod of Perth, the synod of Fife, which should have met at Dysart on 28 April, was on the 23rd prorogued on pretence of the prevalence of the pestilence in the burgh. When it did meet, on 18 August, it also proved contumacious. In November 1607 Scone was censured by the privy council for negligence in his duty as captain of the guard in not securing the arrest of the [Earl of Crawford](/wiki/David_Lindsay%2C_11th_Earl_of_Crawford "David Lindsay, 11th Earl of Crawford") and the laird of Edzell, and he was also, on 2 February 1608, urged to adopt more energetic measures for the arrest of Lord Maxwell. Some time before March 1608 he was succeeded in the comptrollership by Sir James Hay of Fingask, but he still continued to hold the office of captain of the guard. As commissioner from the king he took part in the ecclesiastical conference at Falkland on 4 May 1609, in regard to the discipline of the kirk, and he was one of the lords of the articles for the parliament which met at Edinburgh in the following June. On 8 March 1609 he was appointed one of a commission for preventing the dilapidation of the bishoprics, and on the 23rd he was appointed, along with [George Gledstanes](/wiki/George_Gledstanes "George Gledstanes"), [Archbishop of St. Andrews](/wiki/Archbishop_of_St._Andrews "Archbishop of St. Andrews"), to examine the charge against John Fairfull, minister of Dunfermline, of having prayed for the restoration of the banished ministers, with the result that Fairfull was found guilty. Scone was chosen one of the members of the privy council on its reconstruction, 20 January 1610, when it was limited to thirty\-five members. On the institution of the office of [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace "Justice of the peace") in June 1610, he was appointed justice for the counties of Fife, Kinross, and Perth. On 15 November he was appointed one of the assessors to aid the [Earl of Dunbar](/wiki/George_Home%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dunbar "George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar") as treasurer. On 25 April 1611 an act was passed by the privy council disbanding the king's guard, but Scone was still to receive his pay as captain, and on 11 June he was authorised to retain nine of the guard for the apprehension of persons for the non\-payment of taxes. Subsequently, the guard was placed under the command of [Sir Robert Ker of Ancrum](/wiki/Robert_Carr%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ancram "Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Ancram"), and Scone had an act exonerating him for all he had done while holding the office of captain. Scone was one of the three commissioners appointed by the king to the general assembly at Perth on 5 August 1618, when sanction was given to the [Five Articles of Perth](/wiki/Five_Articles_of_Perth "Five Articles of Perth"). He was also the king's commissioner to a conference between the bishops and presbyterian ministers at St. Andrews in August 1619\. At the parliament held at Edinburgh in July 1621 he was chosen by the bishops one of the lords of the articles; and after the sanction by parliament of the five articles of the Perth assembly he the same night set off to London with the news. He was, by patent of 16 August, raised to the dignity of Viscount Stormont. On 19 May 1623 he was named one of a commission to sit in Edinburgh twice a week for the hearing of grievances. He died 27 August 1631, and was buried at [Scone](/wiki/Scone%2C_Scotland "Scone, Scotland"), where he had erected a monument to his memory designed by [Maximilian Colt](/wiki/Maximilian_Colt "Maximilian Colt") in 1618\.Pearson, Fiona ed., *Virtue and Vision, Sculpture and Scotland*, National Galleries of Scotland (1991\), 8, 28\. His epitaph at Scone includes: 'he helped his friends, who enjoy the fruits of his labour; his buildings proofs he was politique; good men knew he loved virtue, and malefactors that he maintained justice; he founded this hospital, and builded this church; his soul enjoys happiness; and under this tomb builded by himself, lies his body.'Nisbet, Alexander, *A System of Heraldry,* vol. 2, reprint (1984\), 204–206\.
[ "Life\n----", "He was the second son of Sir Andrew Murray of Arngask and [Balvaird](/wiki/Balvaird_Castle \"Balvaird Castle\"), brother of [William Murray of Tullibardine](/wiki/William_Murray_of_Tullibardine \"William Murray of Tullibardine\"), by his second wife, Janet Graham, fourth daughter of [William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose](/wiki/William_Graham%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Montrose \"William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose\"). He was brought up at the court of [James VI](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland \"James VI of Scotland\"), who made him his cupbearer in 1580, and master of the horse in 1583\\.Amy Juhala, 'For the King Favours Them Very Strangely', in Miles Kerr\\-Peterson and Steven J. Reid, *James VI and Noble Power* (Routledge: Abingdon, 2017\\), p. 165\\. On 12 December 1588 he presented a complaint against the inhabitants of [Auchtermuchty](/wiki/Auchtermuchty \"Auchtermuchty\"), Fife, who, when he went to take possession of the lands of Auchtermuchty, attacked him and the gentlemen of his company, wounding him in various parts of the body, and cutting off one of the fingers of his right hand. At court he opposed the [Octavians](/wiki/Octavians \"Octavians\") by creating trouble between them and the [Scottish kirk](/wiki/Church_of_Scotland \"Church of Scotland\"). After he had been knighted by James VI (the date is uncertain) he was, on 26 April 1599, admitted on the privy council and made [comptroller of the royal revenues](/wiki/Comptroller_of_Scotland \"Comptroller of Scotland\"), replacing [George Home of Wedderburn](/wiki/George_Home_%28Comptroller_of_Scotland%29 \"George Home (Comptroller of Scotland)\") in April 1599\\.Amy Juhala, 'For the King Favours Them Very Strangely', in Miles Kerr\\-Peterson and Steven J. Reid, *James VI and Noble Power* (Routledge: Abingdon, 2017\\), p. 165\\. He was also made steward of the stewartry of Fife. On 6 December 1599, while holding a court at [Falkland](/wiki/Falkland%2C_Fife \"Falkland, Fife\"), was attacked by neighbouring lairds and their servants.", "Murray was at [Perth](/wiki/Perth%2C_Scotland \"Perth, Scotland\") at the time of the [Gowrie conspiracy](/wiki/Gowrie_conspiracy \"Gowrie conspiracy\"), 5 August 1600, and was subsequently credited with having been privy to the concoction of a semblance of a plot, aiming the overthrow of [John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie](/wiki/John_Ruthven%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Gowrie \"John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie\"). He took a prominent part calming the inhabitants of Perth after Gowrie, their provost, was killed, and with others succeeded in bringing the king in safety to Falkland. Murray succeeded Gowrie as provost of Perth, and also obtained a grant of the [barony of Ruthven](/wiki/Barony_of_Ruthven \"Barony of Ruthven\"), and of the lands belonging to the [abbacy of Scone](/wiki/Abbacy_of_Scone \"Abbacy of Scone\"), of which Gowrie was [commendator](/wiki/Commendator \"Commendator\"). In May 1601 he was appointed by the [assembly of the kirk](/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland \"General Assembly of the Church of Scotland\") one of a commission to discuss how to support the kirk and clergy in all the districts of Scotland. On 10 Nov he obtained from the king the castle land of Falkland, with the office of ranger of the Lomonds and forester of the woods.", "Murray was one of the retinue who attended King James in 1603 when he went to take possession of the English throne. On his return to Scotland on 11 August he obtained a commission for raising a guard or police of forty horsemen to be at the service of the privy council. He was one of the Scottish commissioners named by the parliament of Perth in 1604 to treat concerning a union with England, when he was created Viscount Stormont. On 1 April 1605 the barony of Ruthven and the lands belonging to the abbacy of Scone were erected into the temporal lordship of Scone, with a seat and vote in parliament, with which he was invested; on 30 May 1606 he had charter of the barony of Segie, erected into the lordship of Segie; and on 18 August 1608 of the lands and barony which belonged to [abbacy of Scone](/wiki/Scone_Abbey \"Scone Abbey\"), united into the temporal lordship of Scone.", "In June 1605 Scone, as comptroller and captain of the guards, was appointed to proceed to [Kintyre](/wiki/Kintyre \"Kintyre\") in Argyllshire to receive the obedience of the chiefs of the clans of the southern [Hebrides](/wiki/Hebrides \"Hebrides\"), and payment of the king's rents and duties. He was one of the assessors for the trial at [Linlithgow](/wiki/Linlithgow \"Linlithgow\") in January 1606 of the ministers concerned in the contumacious [Aberdeen assembly](/wiki/Aberdeen_assembly \"Aberdeen assembly\") of 1605\\. In March 1607 he was appointed one of the commissioners to represent the king in the synods of Perth and Fife, in connection with the scheme for the appointment of perpetual moderators. The synod of Perth having resisted his proposal for the appointment of [Alexander Lindsay](/wiki/Alexander_Lindsay_of_Evelick_%28bishop%29 \"Alexander Lindsay of Evelick (bishop)\") as perpetual moderator, he, in the king's name, dissolved the assembly, and as the members of the assembly resolved to proceed to the choice of their own moderator, a violent scene ensued. Scone, being asked by the moderator in the name of Christ to desist troubling the meeting, replied, 'The devil a Jesus is here.' After attempting by force to prevent the elected moderator taking the chair, Scone sent for the bailies of the town, and commanded them to ring the common bell and remove the rebels. On pretence of consulting the council of the city the bailies withdrew, but did not return, and avoided interference in the dispute. After the close of the sitting Scone locked the doors, but the assembly met in the open air and proceeded with their business. After Scone's contest with the synod of Perth, the synod of Fife, which should have met at Dysart on 28 April, was on the 23rd prorogued on pretence of the prevalence of the pestilence in the burgh. When it did meet, on 18 August, it also proved contumacious.", "In November 1607 Scone was censured by the privy council for negligence in his duty as captain of the guard in not securing the arrest of the [Earl of Crawford](/wiki/David_Lindsay%2C_11th_Earl_of_Crawford \"David Lindsay, 11th Earl of Crawford\") and the laird of Edzell, and he was also, on 2 February 1608, urged to adopt more energetic measures for the arrest of Lord Maxwell. Some time before March 1608 he was succeeded in the comptrollership by Sir James Hay of Fingask, but he still continued to hold the office of captain of the guard. As commissioner from the king he took part in the ecclesiastical conference at Falkland on 4 May 1609, in regard to the discipline of the kirk, and he was one of the lords of the articles for the parliament which met at Edinburgh in the following June. On 8 March 1609 he was appointed one of a commission for preventing the dilapidation of the bishoprics, and on the 23rd he was appointed, along with [George Gledstanes](/wiki/George_Gledstanes \"George Gledstanes\"), [Archbishop of St. Andrews](/wiki/Archbishop_of_St._Andrews \"Archbishop of St. Andrews\"), to examine the charge against John Fairfull, minister of Dunfermline, of having prayed for the restoration of the banished ministers, with the result that Fairfull was found guilty. Scone was chosen one of the members of the privy council on its reconstruction, 20 January 1610, when it was limited to thirty\\-five members. On the institution of the office of [justice of the peace](/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace \"Justice of the peace\") in June 1610, he was appointed justice for the counties of Fife, Kinross, and Perth. On 15 November he was appointed one of the assessors to aid the [Earl of Dunbar](/wiki/George_Home%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dunbar \"George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar\") as treasurer. On 25 April 1611 an act was passed by the privy council disbanding the king's guard, but Scone was still to receive his pay as captain, and on 11 June he was authorised to retain nine of the guard for the apprehension of persons for the non\\-payment of taxes. Subsequently, the guard was placed under the command of [Sir Robert Ker of Ancrum](/wiki/Robert_Carr%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ancram \"Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Ancram\"), and Scone had an act exonerating him for all he had done while holding the office of captain.", "Scone was one of the three commissioners appointed by the king to the general assembly at Perth on 5 August 1618, when sanction was given to the [Five Articles of Perth](/wiki/Five_Articles_of_Perth \"Five Articles of Perth\"). He was also the king's commissioner to a conference between the bishops and presbyterian ministers at St. Andrews in August 1619\\. At the parliament held at Edinburgh in July 1621 he was chosen by the bishops one of the lords of the articles; and after the sanction by parliament of the five articles of the Perth assembly he the same night set off to London with the news. He was, by patent of 16 August, raised to the dignity of Viscount Stormont. On 19 May 1623 he was named one of a commission to sit in Edinburgh twice a week for the hearing of grievances. He died 27 August 1631, and was buried at [Scone](/wiki/Scone%2C_Scotland \"Scone, Scotland\"), where he had erected a monument to his memory designed by [Maximilian Colt](/wiki/Maximilian_Colt \"Maximilian Colt\") in 1618\\.Pearson, Fiona ed., *Virtue and Vision, Sculpture and Scotland*, National Galleries of Scotland (1991\\), 8, 28\\.", "His epitaph at Scone includes: 'he helped his friends, who enjoy the fruits of his labour; his buildings proofs he was politique; good men knew he loved virtue, and malefactors that he maintained justice; he founded this hospital, and builded this church; his soul enjoys happiness; and under this tomb builded by himself, lies his body.'Nisbet, Alexander, *A System of Heraldry,* vol. 2, reprint (1984\\), 204–206\\.", "" ]
Career ------ Johnson first became involved in show business in 1965, as an actor playing the sheriff's deputy in the Spanish "[Spaghetti Western](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western "Spaghetti Western")" *Brandy*, directed by [Jose Luis Borau](/wiki/Jose_Luis_Borau "Jose Luis Borau"). He spent ten years of his youth in Spain, where he worked as a movie extra in films such as [Franklin Schaffner](/wiki/Franklin_Schaffner "Franklin Schaffner")'s *[Nicholas and Alexandra](/wiki/Nicholas_and_Alexandra "Nicholas and Alexandra")* and [David Lean](/wiki/David_Lean "David Lean")'s *[Dr. Zhivago](/wiki/Dr._Zhivago_%28film%29 "Dr. Zhivago (film)")*. His early experiences led to small acting roles in the European western *Ride and Kill* and the 1964 drama *[The Thin Red Line](/wiki/The_Thin_Red_Line_%281964_film%29 "The Thin Red Line (1964 film)")*. After earning an undergraduate degree in Drama from the [University of Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia "University of Virginia") and an [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts "Master of Arts") in Film Scholarship from the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa "University of Iowa"), Johnson moved to New York. There he entered the Director's Guild training program. One of his first projects was [Paul Mazursky](/wiki/Paul_Mazursky "Paul Mazursky")'s autobiographical drama *[Next Stop, Greenwich Village](/wiki/Next_Stop%2C_Greenwich_Village "Next Stop, Greenwich Village")*. Johnson relocated to Los Angeles and worked as an assistant director on such projects as *[Movie Movie](/wiki/Movie_Movie "Movie Movie")*, *[The Brink's Job](/wiki/The_Brink%27s_Job "The Brink's Job")*, *[Escape from Alcatraz](/wiki/Escape_from_Alcatraz_%28film%29 "Escape from Alcatraz (film)")* and [Mel Brooks](/wiki/Mel_Brooks "Mel Brooks")'s *[High Anxiety](/wiki/High_Anxiety "High Anxiety")*, which was co\-written by future business partner [Barry Levinson](/wiki/Barry_Levinson "Barry Levinson"). As part of [Baltimore Pictures](/wiki/Baltimore_Pictures "Baltimore Pictures"), his partnership with Levinson, Johnson produced all of the writer\-director's films from 1982–1994\. In addition to *[Rain Man](/wiki/Rain_Man "Rain Man")*, their diverse slate of features includes *[Good Morning, Vietnam](/wiki/Good_Morning%2C_Vietnam "Good Morning, Vietnam")*, *[The Natural](/wiki/The_Natural "The Natural")*, *[Tin Men](/wiki/Tin_Men "Tin Men")*, *[Toys](/wiki/Toys_%28film%29 "Toys (film)")*, *[Young Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Young_Sherlock_Holmes "Young Sherlock Holmes")*, *[Avalon](/wiki/Avalon_%281990_film%29 "Avalon (1990 film)")*, *[Diner](/wiki/Diner_%281982_film%29 "Diner (1982 film)")* (their 1982 debut project, for which Levinson's screenplay garnered an [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") nomination) and *[Bugsy](/wiki/Bugsy "Bugsy")*, which was nominated for ten [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards"), including Best Picture and Best Director. *[Bugsy](/wiki/Bugsy "Bugsy")* also captured a Best Picture [Golden Globe Award](/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award "Golden Globe Award"). In 1994, Johnson established his own independent production company, Gran Via Productions,{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/exec/mark\-johnson\|title\=Mark Johnson\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|access\-date\=December 13, 2016}} and won the [Los Angeles Film Critics](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Film_Critics "Los Angeles Film Critics") New Generation Award for his very first effort; *[A Little Princess](/wiki/A_Little_Princess_%281995_film%29 "A Little Princess (1995 film)")*, directed by [Alfonso Cuarón](/wiki/Alfonso_Cuar%C3%B3n "Alfonso Cuarón"). Under his new banner, Johnson produced the comedy *[Home Fries](/wiki/Home_Fries "Home Fries")*, written by [Vince Gilligan](/wiki/Vince_Gilligan "Vince Gilligan") and starring [Drew Barrymore](/wiki/Drew_Barrymore "Drew Barrymore"), and the dramatic thriller *[Donnie Brasco](/wiki/Donnie_Brasco_%28film%29 "Donnie Brasco (film)")*, starring [Al Pacino](/wiki/Al_Pacino "Al Pacino") and [Johnny Depp](/wiki/Johnny_Depp "Johnny Depp"). Gilligan won a screenwriting competition of which Johnson was a judge, subsequently had two of his screenplays produced by Johnson, *Home Fries* and *Wilder Napalm*. Johnson would later serve as a producer for Gilligan's television series *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/magazine/the\-dark\-art\-of\-breaking\-bad.html\|title \= The Dark Art of 'Breaking Bad'\|newspaper \= The New York Times\|date \= July 6, 2011\|last1 \= Segal\|first1 \= David}} He also served as executive producer for [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS")\-TV's *[L.A. Doctors](/wiki/L.A._Doctors "L.A. Doctors")* and *[Falcone](/wiki/Falcone_%28TV_series%29 "Falcone (TV series)")*, and for the hit drama *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian_%28TV_series%29 "The Guardian (TV series)")*. Johnson's recent slate of motion pictures includes *[The Alamo](/wiki/The_Alamo_%282004_film%29 "The Alamo (2004 film)")* and *[The Rookie](/wiki/The_Rookie_%282002_film%29 "The Rookie (2002 film)")*, both directed by John Lee Hancock; *[The Banger Sisters](/wiki/The_Banger_Sisters "The Banger Sisters")*, with [Susan Sarandon](/wiki/Susan_Sarandon "Susan Sarandon") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn "Goldie Hawn"); [Brad Silberling](/wiki/Brad_Silberling "Brad Silberling")'s drama *[Moonlight Mile](/wiki/Moonlight_Mile_%28film%29 "Moonlight Mile (film)")*, with Sarandon and [Dustin Hoffman](/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman "Dustin Hoffman"); [Tom Shadyac](/wiki/Tom_Shadyac "Tom Shadyac")'s supernatural thriller *[Dragonfly](/wiki/Dragonfly_%282002_film%29 "Dragonfly (2002 film)")*, with [Kevin Costner](/wiki/Kevin_Costner "Kevin Costner") and [Kathy Bates](/wiki/Kathy_Bates "Kathy Bates"); Levinson's Irish satire *[An Everlasting Piece](/wiki/An_Everlasting_Piece "An Everlasting Piece")*; [Robert Zemeckis](/wiki/Robert_Zemeckis "Robert Zemeckis")'s spooky thriller *[What Lies Beneath](/wiki/What_Lies_Beneath "What Lies Beneath")*, starring [Harrison Ford](/wiki/Harrison_Ford "Harrison Ford") and [Michelle Pfeiffer](/wiki/Michelle_Pfeiffer "Michelle Pfeiffer"); the hit comedy *[Galaxy Quest](/wiki/Galaxy_Quest "Galaxy Quest")*, with [Tim Allen](/wiki/Tim_Allen "Tim Allen"), [Alan Rickman](/wiki/Alan_Rickman "Alan Rickman") and [Sigourney Weaver](/wiki/Sigourney_Weaver "Sigourney Weaver"); and *[My Dog Skip](/wiki/My_Dog_Skip_%28film%29 "My Dog Skip (film)")*, the acclaimed family drama (co\-produced with [John Lee Hancock](/wiki/John_Lee_Hancock "John Lee Hancock")) starring [Frankie Muniz](/wiki/Frankie_Muniz "Frankie Muniz"), [Diane Lane](/wiki/Diane_Lane "Diane Lane") and [Kevin Bacon](/wiki/Kevin_Bacon "Kevin Bacon"). In recent years, Johnson produced Nick Cassavetes's drama *[The Notebook](/wiki/The_Notebook_%282004_film%29 "The Notebook (2004 film)")*, *[The Wendell Baker Story](/wiki/The_Wendell_Baker_Story "The Wendell Baker Story")*, which marked the directorial debuts of brothers [Luke](/wiki/Luke_Wilson "Luke Wilson") and [Andrew Wilson](/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_%28actor%29 "Andrew Wilson (actor)"), and *[How to Eat Fried Worms](/wiki/How_to_Eat_Fried_Worms "How to Eat Fried Worms")*. Johnson has either presented or executive produced [Luis Llosa](/wiki/Luis_Llosa "Luis Llosa")'s directorial debut, *[Sniper](/wiki/Sniper_%281993_film%29 "Sniper (1993 film)")*, [Tim Robbins](/wiki/Tim_Robbins "Tim Robbins")'s directorial debut, *[Bob Roberts](/wiki/Bob_Roberts "Bob Roberts")*, [Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh "Steven Soderbergh")'s *[Kafka](/wiki/Kafka_%28film%29 "Kafka (film)")*, [Robert Redford](/wiki/Robert_Redford "Robert Redford")'s [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards")\-nominated *[Quiz Show](/wiki/Quiz_Show_%28film%29 "Quiz Show (film)")* and *[Journey of Hope](/wiki/Journey_of_Hope "Journey of Hope")*, winner of the 1999 Foreign Language [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards"). Recent projects include *[The Hunting Party](/wiki/The_Hunting_Party_%282007_film%29 "The Hunting Party (2007 film)")*, starring [Richard Gere](/wiki/Richard_Gere "Richard Gere"), *[Lake City](/wiki/Lake_City_%28film%29 "Lake City (film)")*, starring [Sissy Spacek](/wiki/Sissy_Spacek "Sissy Spacek"), *[Ballast](/wiki/Ballast_%28film%29 "Ballast (film)")*, the critically acclaimed debut of director Lance Hammer, and *[My Sister's Keeper](/wiki/My_Sister%27s_Keeper_%28film%29 "My Sister's Keeper (film)")*, starring [Cameron Diaz](/wiki/Cameron_Diaz "Cameron Diaz"), [Alec Baldwin](/wiki/Alec_Baldwin "Alec Baldwin") and [Abigail Breslin](/wiki/Abigail_Breslin "Abigail Breslin"). He is working with [Guillermo del Toro](/wiki/Guillermo_del_Toro "Guillermo del Toro") to produce the movie adaption of [David Moody](/wiki/David_Moody_%28writer%29 "David Moody (writer)")'s novel *Hater*.{{cite news\|last\=Fleming\|first\=Michael\|title\=Universal, del Toro love 'Hater'\|url\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117986200\|access\-date\=August 8, 2012\|newspaper\=Variety\|date\=May 20, 2008}} In 2005, Johnson produced *[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:The_Lion%2C_the_Witch_and_the_Wardrobe "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe")*, directed by [Andrew Adamson](/wiki/Andrew_Adamson "Andrew Adamson") and starring [Tilda Swinton](/wiki/Tilda_Swinton "Tilda Swinton"). The film was nominated for three [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") and three [BAFTAs](/wiki/BAFTA "BAFTA"), winning one of each. In 2008 he produced a sequel, *[Prince Caspian](/wiki/Prince_Caspian_%28film%29 "Prince Caspian (film)")*. The third film in the *[Narnia](/wiki/Narnia "Narnia")* series, *[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:The_Voyage_of_the_Dawn_Treader "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader")*, directed by [Michael Apted](/wiki/Michael_Apted "Michael Apted"), was released December 10, 2010\. Johnson released three feature films in 2012: *[Not Fade Away](/wiki/Not_Fade_Away_%28film%29 "Not Fade Away (film)")*, written and directed by *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos "The Sopranos")* creator [David Chase](/wiki/David_Chase "David Chase") and starring [James Gandolfini](/wiki/James_Gandolfini "James Gandolfini"), *[Chasing Mavericks](/wiki/Chasing_Mavericks "Chasing Mavericks")* directed by [Curtis Hanson](/wiki/Curtis_Hanson "Curtis Hanson") and starring [Gerard Butler](/wiki/Gerard_Butler "Gerard Butler"), and *[Won't Back Down](/wiki/Won%27t_Back_Down_%28film%29 "Won't Back Down (film)")* starring [Viola Davis](/wiki/Viola_Davis "Viola Davis"), [Maggie Gyllenhaal](/wiki/Maggie_Gyllenhaal "Maggie Gyllenhaal") and [Holly Hunter](/wiki/Holly_Hunter "Holly Hunter"). He produced the 2015 thriller *[Secret in Their Eyes](/wiki/Secret_in_Their_Eyes "Secret in Their Eyes")* starring [Julia Roberts](/wiki/Julia_Roberts "Julia Roberts"), [Nicole Kidman](/wiki/Nicole_Kidman "Nicole Kidman") and [Chiwetel Ejiofor](/wiki/Chiwetel_Ejiofor "Chiwetel Ejiofor"). Johnson was an executive producer on [AMC](/wiki/AMC_%28TV_channel%29 "AMC (TV channel)")'s [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Award "Emmy Award")\-winning series *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*. He was an executive producer on the [Sundance Channel](/wiki/SundanceTV "SundanceTV") original series *[Rectify](/wiki/Rectify "Rectify")*, and [AMC](/wiki/AMC_%28TV_channel%29 "AMC (TV channel)")'s *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")* spinoff, *[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul "Better Call Saul")*. In 2019 he produced *[El Camino: A Breaking Bad Movie](/wiki/El_Camino:A_Breaking_Bad_Movie "A Breaking Bad Movie")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix"). In 2021, he produced the thriller *[The Little Things](/wiki/The_Little_Things_%282021_film%29 "The Little Things (2021 film)")* starring [Denzel Washington](/wiki/Denzel_Washington "Denzel Washington"), [Rami Malek](/wiki/Rami_Malek "Rami Malek") and [Jared Leto](/wiki/Jared_Leto "Jared Leto"), written and directed by [John Lee Hancock](/wiki/John_Lee_Hancock "John Lee Hancock"). In 2021 he executive produced the [AMC\+](/wiki/AMC%2B "AMC+") series adaptation of [Anne Rice](/wiki/Anne_Rice "Anne Rice")'s *[Interview with the Vampire](/wiki/Interview_with_the_Vampire_%28TV_series%29 "Interview with the Vampire (TV series)")*.{{cite news\|last\=Goldberg\|first\=Lesley\|title\='Interview With the Vampire' Series a Go at AMC\|url\=https://variety.com/2022/tv/global/mark\-johnson\-vix\-exile\-content\-1235462272/\|access\-date\=December 26, 2022\|newspaper\=The Hollywood Reporter\|date\=June 24, 2021}} In 2023, he executive produced *[Mayfair Witches](/wiki/Mayfair_Witches "Mayfair Witches")*, based on another [Anne Rice](/wiki/Anne_Rice "Anne Rice") property.{{cite news\|last\=Radish\|first\=Christina\|title\='Mayfair Witches' EP Mark Johnson on Developing the Stories of Anne Rice for TV and How the Possibilities Seem Endless\|url\=https://collider.com/mayfair\-witches\-mark\-johnson\-interview/\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=Collider\|date\=February 8, 2023}} In late 2022 it was announced that Johnson would venture into his first\-ever Spanish\-language series, a Church scandal drama, "Amen" (a working title).{{cite news\|last\=de la Fuente\|first\=Anna Marie\|title\='Better Call Saul' Producer Mark Johnson Partners With ViX\+ and Exile Content for Spanish\-Language Series 'Amen'\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/interview\-with\-the\-vampire\-amc\-series\-anne\-rice\-1234973303/\|access\-date\=December 26, 2022\|newspaper\=Variety\|date\=December 15, 2022}} Produced by Johnson, the 2023 release *[The Holdovers](/wiki/The_Holdovers "The Holdovers")* reunited [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti "Paul Giamatti") with his *[Sideways](/wiki/Sideways "Sideways")* director [Alexander Payne](/wiki/Alexander_Payne "Alexander Payne").John Hazelton (February 17, 2024\){{Cite news\|url\=https://www.screendaily.com/features/how\-the\-holdovers\-producer\-mark\-johnson\-has\-sustained\-a\-decades\-long\-career\-i\-dont\-assume\-anything/5190573\.article\|title\=How 'The Holdovers' producer Mark Johnson has sustained a decades\-long career\|publisher\=ScreenDaily\|access\-date\=2024\-03\-20}} The film enjoyed widespread critical acclaim and garnered [Golden Globe](/wiki/Golden_Globe "Golden Globe") wins for [Da'Vine Joy Randolph](/wiki/Da%27Vine_Joy_Randolph "Da'Vine Joy Randolph") and [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti "Paul Giamatti"). From seven [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA "BAFTA") nominations it secured two awards, for Best Supporting Actress and Best Casting Director.{{cite news\|last\=Zane\|first\=Alex\|title\='The Holdovers' from Countdown to the BAFTAs\|url\=https://www.everand.com/podcast/701076901/The\-Holdovers\|date\=January 18, 2024}} It was nominated for five [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Award "Academy Award"), including Best Picture. Ultimately, it secured the Best Supporting Actress award for [Da'Vine Joy Randolph](/wiki/Da%27Vine_Joy_Randolph "Da'Vine Joy Randolph").{{cite news\|last\=Phillips\|first\=David\|title\=Producer Mark Johnson on Bringing 'The Holdovers' and Character\-Driven Films to Theaters\|url\=https://www.awardsdaily.com/2023/11/20/producer\-mark\-johnson\-on\-bringing\-the\-holdovers\-and\-character\-driven\-films\-to\-theaters/\|date\=November 20, 2024}} Johnson served many years on the Board of Governors of the [Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences") (Producers Branch). For seventeen years, he headed the Best Foreign Language Film Committee.{{cite news\|last\=Hammond\|first\=Pete\|title\=Oscar Winner Mark Johnson On His Latest Best Picture Nomination For 'The Holdovers'; Plus Secrets Of A Long Career Producing Classic Movies And TV Series – Behind The Lens\|url\=https://deadline.com/video/holdovers\-mark\-johnson\-video\-interview/\|date\=February 16, 2024}} In 2020, the category was renamed Best International Feature Film.
[ "Career\n------", "Johnson first became involved in show business in 1965, as an actor playing the sheriff's deputy in the Spanish \"[Spaghetti Western](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western \"Spaghetti Western\")\" *Brandy*, directed by [Jose Luis Borau](/wiki/Jose_Luis_Borau \"Jose Luis Borau\"). He spent ten years of his youth in Spain, where he worked as a movie extra in films such as [Franklin Schaffner](/wiki/Franklin_Schaffner \"Franklin Schaffner\")'s *[Nicholas and Alexandra](/wiki/Nicholas_and_Alexandra \"Nicholas and Alexandra\")* and [David Lean](/wiki/David_Lean \"David Lean\")'s *[Dr. Zhivago](/wiki/Dr._Zhivago_%28film%29 \"Dr. Zhivago (film)\")*. His early experiences led to small acting roles in the European western *Ride and Kill* and the 1964 drama *[The Thin Red Line](/wiki/The_Thin_Red_Line_%281964_film%29 \"The Thin Red Line (1964 film)\")*. After earning an undergraduate degree in Drama from the [University of Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia \"University of Virginia\") and an [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") in Film Scholarship from the [University of Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa \"University of Iowa\"), Johnson moved to New York. There he entered the Director's Guild training program. One of his first projects was [Paul Mazursky](/wiki/Paul_Mazursky \"Paul Mazursky\")'s autobiographical drama *[Next Stop, Greenwich Village](/wiki/Next_Stop%2C_Greenwich_Village \"Next Stop, Greenwich Village\")*. Johnson relocated to Los Angeles and worked as an assistant director on such projects as *[Movie Movie](/wiki/Movie_Movie \"Movie Movie\")*, *[The Brink's Job](/wiki/The_Brink%27s_Job \"The Brink's Job\")*, *[Escape from Alcatraz](/wiki/Escape_from_Alcatraz_%28film%29 \"Escape from Alcatraz (film)\")* and [Mel Brooks](/wiki/Mel_Brooks \"Mel Brooks\")'s *[High Anxiety](/wiki/High_Anxiety \"High Anxiety\")*, which was co\\-written by future business partner [Barry Levinson](/wiki/Barry_Levinson \"Barry Levinson\").", "As part of [Baltimore Pictures](/wiki/Baltimore_Pictures \"Baltimore Pictures\"), his partnership with Levinson, Johnson produced all of the writer\\-director's films from 1982–1994\\. In addition to *[Rain Man](/wiki/Rain_Man \"Rain Man\")*, their diverse slate of features includes *[Good Morning, Vietnam](/wiki/Good_Morning%2C_Vietnam \"Good Morning, Vietnam\")*, *[The Natural](/wiki/The_Natural \"The Natural\")*, *[Tin Men](/wiki/Tin_Men \"Tin Men\")*, *[Toys](/wiki/Toys_%28film%29 \"Toys (film)\")*, *[Young Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Young_Sherlock_Holmes \"Young Sherlock Holmes\")*, *[Avalon](/wiki/Avalon_%281990_film%29 \"Avalon (1990 film)\")*, *[Diner](/wiki/Diner_%281982_film%29 \"Diner (1982 film)\")* (their 1982 debut project, for which Levinson's screenplay garnered an [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") nomination) and *[Bugsy](/wiki/Bugsy \"Bugsy\")*, which was nominated for ten [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\"), including Best Picture and Best Director. *[Bugsy](/wiki/Bugsy \"Bugsy\")* also captured a Best Picture [Golden Globe Award](/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award \"Golden Globe Award\").", "In 1994, Johnson established his own independent production company, Gran Via Productions,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/exec/mark\\-johnson\\|title\\=Mark Johnson\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2016}} and won the [Los Angeles Film Critics](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Film_Critics \"Los Angeles Film Critics\") New Generation Award for his very first effort; *[A Little Princess](/wiki/A_Little_Princess_%281995_film%29 \"A Little Princess (1995 film)\")*, directed by [Alfonso Cuarón](/wiki/Alfonso_Cuar%C3%B3n \"Alfonso Cuarón\"). Under his new banner, Johnson produced the comedy *[Home Fries](/wiki/Home_Fries \"Home Fries\")*, written by [Vince Gilligan](/wiki/Vince_Gilligan \"Vince Gilligan\") and starring [Drew Barrymore](/wiki/Drew_Barrymore \"Drew Barrymore\"), and the dramatic thriller *[Donnie Brasco](/wiki/Donnie_Brasco_%28film%29 \"Donnie Brasco (film)\")*, starring [Al Pacino](/wiki/Al_Pacino \"Al Pacino\") and [Johnny Depp](/wiki/Johnny_Depp \"Johnny Depp\"). Gilligan won a screenwriting competition of which Johnson was a judge, subsequently had two of his screenplays produced by Johnson, *Home Fries* and *Wilder Napalm*. Johnson would later serve as a producer for Gilligan's television series *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/magazine/the\\-dark\\-art\\-of\\-breaking\\-bad.html\\|title \\= The Dark Art of 'Breaking Bad'\\|newspaper \\= The New York Times\\|date \\= July 6, 2011\\|last1 \\= Segal\\|first1 \\= David}} He also served as executive producer for [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\")\\-TV's *[L.A. Doctors](/wiki/L.A._Doctors \"L.A. Doctors\")* and *[Falcone](/wiki/Falcone_%28TV_series%29 \"Falcone (TV series)\")*, and for the hit drama *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian_%28TV_series%29 \"The Guardian (TV series)\")*.", "Johnson's recent slate of motion pictures includes *[The Alamo](/wiki/The_Alamo_%282004_film%29 \"The Alamo (2004 film)\")* and *[The Rookie](/wiki/The_Rookie_%282002_film%29 \"The Rookie (2002 film)\")*, both directed by John Lee Hancock; *[The Banger Sisters](/wiki/The_Banger_Sisters \"The Banger Sisters\")*, with [Susan Sarandon](/wiki/Susan_Sarandon \"Susan Sarandon\") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn \"Goldie Hawn\"); [Brad Silberling](/wiki/Brad_Silberling \"Brad Silberling\")'s drama *[Moonlight Mile](/wiki/Moonlight_Mile_%28film%29 \"Moonlight Mile (film)\")*, with Sarandon and [Dustin Hoffman](/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman \"Dustin Hoffman\"); [Tom Shadyac](/wiki/Tom_Shadyac \"Tom Shadyac\")'s supernatural thriller *[Dragonfly](/wiki/Dragonfly_%282002_film%29 \"Dragonfly (2002 film)\")*, with [Kevin Costner](/wiki/Kevin_Costner \"Kevin Costner\") and [Kathy Bates](/wiki/Kathy_Bates \"Kathy Bates\"); Levinson's Irish satire *[An Everlasting Piece](/wiki/An_Everlasting_Piece \"An Everlasting Piece\")*; [Robert Zemeckis](/wiki/Robert_Zemeckis \"Robert Zemeckis\")'s spooky thriller *[What Lies Beneath](/wiki/What_Lies_Beneath \"What Lies Beneath\")*, starring [Harrison Ford](/wiki/Harrison_Ford \"Harrison Ford\") and [Michelle Pfeiffer](/wiki/Michelle_Pfeiffer \"Michelle Pfeiffer\"); the hit comedy *[Galaxy Quest](/wiki/Galaxy_Quest \"Galaxy Quest\")*, with [Tim Allen](/wiki/Tim_Allen \"Tim Allen\"), [Alan Rickman](/wiki/Alan_Rickman \"Alan Rickman\") and [Sigourney Weaver](/wiki/Sigourney_Weaver \"Sigourney Weaver\"); and *[My Dog Skip](/wiki/My_Dog_Skip_%28film%29 \"My Dog Skip (film)\")*, the acclaimed family drama (co\\-produced with [John Lee Hancock](/wiki/John_Lee_Hancock \"John Lee Hancock\")) starring [Frankie Muniz](/wiki/Frankie_Muniz \"Frankie Muniz\"), [Diane Lane](/wiki/Diane_Lane \"Diane Lane\") and [Kevin Bacon](/wiki/Kevin_Bacon \"Kevin Bacon\").", "In recent years, Johnson produced Nick Cassavetes's drama *[The Notebook](/wiki/The_Notebook_%282004_film%29 \"The Notebook (2004 film)\")*, *[The Wendell Baker Story](/wiki/The_Wendell_Baker_Story \"The Wendell Baker Story\")*, which marked the directorial debuts of brothers [Luke](/wiki/Luke_Wilson \"Luke Wilson\") and [Andrew Wilson](/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_%28actor%29 \"Andrew Wilson (actor)\"), and *[How to Eat Fried Worms](/wiki/How_to_Eat_Fried_Worms \"How to Eat Fried Worms\")*.", "Johnson has either presented or executive produced [Luis Llosa](/wiki/Luis_Llosa \"Luis Llosa\")'s directorial debut, *[Sniper](/wiki/Sniper_%281993_film%29 \"Sniper (1993 film)\")*, [Tim Robbins](/wiki/Tim_Robbins \"Tim Robbins\")'s directorial debut, *[Bob Roberts](/wiki/Bob_Roberts \"Bob Roberts\")*, [Steven Soderbergh](/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh \"Steven Soderbergh\")'s *[Kafka](/wiki/Kafka_%28film%29 \"Kafka (film)\")*, [Robert Redford](/wiki/Robert_Redford \"Robert Redford\")'s [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\")\\-nominated *[Quiz Show](/wiki/Quiz_Show_%28film%29 \"Quiz Show (film)\")* and *[Journey of Hope](/wiki/Journey_of_Hope \"Journey of Hope\")*, winner of the 1999 Foreign Language [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\"). Recent projects include *[The Hunting Party](/wiki/The_Hunting_Party_%282007_film%29 \"The Hunting Party (2007 film)\")*, starring [Richard Gere](/wiki/Richard_Gere \"Richard Gere\"), *[Lake City](/wiki/Lake_City_%28film%29 \"Lake City (film)\")*, starring [Sissy Spacek](/wiki/Sissy_Spacek \"Sissy Spacek\"), *[Ballast](/wiki/Ballast_%28film%29 \"Ballast (film)\")*, the critically acclaimed debut of director Lance Hammer, and *[My Sister's Keeper](/wiki/My_Sister%27s_Keeper_%28film%29 \"My Sister's Keeper (film)\")*, starring [Cameron Diaz](/wiki/Cameron_Diaz \"Cameron Diaz\"), [Alec Baldwin](/wiki/Alec_Baldwin \"Alec Baldwin\") and [Abigail Breslin](/wiki/Abigail_Breslin \"Abigail Breslin\"). He is working with [Guillermo del Toro](/wiki/Guillermo_del_Toro \"Guillermo del Toro\") to produce the movie adaption of [David Moody](/wiki/David_Moody_%28writer%29 \"David Moody (writer)\")'s novel *Hater*.{{cite news\\|last\\=Fleming\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=Universal, del Toro love 'Hater'\\|url\\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117986200\\|access\\-date\\=August 8, 2012\\|newspaper\\=Variety\\|date\\=May 20, 2008}}", "In 2005, Johnson produced *[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:The_Lion%2C_the_Witch_and_the_Wardrobe \"The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe\")*, directed by [Andrew Adamson](/wiki/Andrew_Adamson \"Andrew Adamson\") and starring [Tilda Swinton](/wiki/Tilda_Swinton \"Tilda Swinton\"). The film was nominated for three [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") and three [BAFTAs](/wiki/BAFTA \"BAFTA\"), winning one of each. In 2008 he produced a sequel, *[Prince Caspian](/wiki/Prince_Caspian_%28film%29 \"Prince Caspian (film)\")*. The third film in the *[Narnia](/wiki/Narnia \"Narnia\")* series, *[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:The_Voyage_of_the_Dawn_Treader \"The Voyage of the Dawn Treader\")*, directed by [Michael Apted](/wiki/Michael_Apted \"Michael Apted\"), was released December 10, 2010\\.", "Johnson released three feature films in 2012: *[Not Fade Away](/wiki/Not_Fade_Away_%28film%29 \"Not Fade Away (film)\")*, written and directed by *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos \"The Sopranos\")* creator [David Chase](/wiki/David_Chase \"David Chase\") and starring [James Gandolfini](/wiki/James_Gandolfini \"James Gandolfini\"), *[Chasing Mavericks](/wiki/Chasing_Mavericks \"Chasing Mavericks\")* directed by [Curtis Hanson](/wiki/Curtis_Hanson \"Curtis Hanson\") and starring [Gerard Butler](/wiki/Gerard_Butler \"Gerard Butler\"), and *[Won't Back Down](/wiki/Won%27t_Back_Down_%28film%29 \"Won't Back Down (film)\")* starring [Viola Davis](/wiki/Viola_Davis \"Viola Davis\"), [Maggie Gyllenhaal](/wiki/Maggie_Gyllenhaal \"Maggie Gyllenhaal\") and [Holly Hunter](/wiki/Holly_Hunter \"Holly Hunter\"). He produced the 2015 thriller *[Secret in Their Eyes](/wiki/Secret_in_Their_Eyes \"Secret in Their Eyes\")* starring [Julia Roberts](/wiki/Julia_Roberts \"Julia Roberts\"), [Nicole Kidman](/wiki/Nicole_Kidman \"Nicole Kidman\") and [Chiwetel Ejiofor](/wiki/Chiwetel_Ejiofor \"Chiwetel Ejiofor\").", "Johnson was an executive producer on [AMC](/wiki/AMC_%28TV_channel%29 \"AMC (TV channel)\")'s [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Award \"Emmy Award\")\\-winning series *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*. He was an executive producer on the [Sundance Channel](/wiki/SundanceTV \"SundanceTV\") original series *[Rectify](/wiki/Rectify \"Rectify\")*, and [AMC](/wiki/AMC_%28TV_channel%29 \"AMC (TV channel)\")'s *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")* spinoff, *[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul \"Better Call Saul\")*. In 2019 he produced *[El Camino: A Breaking Bad Movie](/wiki/El_Camino:A_Breaking_Bad_Movie \"A Breaking Bad Movie\")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\"). In 2021, he produced the thriller *[The Little Things](/wiki/The_Little_Things_%282021_film%29 \"The Little Things (2021 film)\")* starring [Denzel Washington](/wiki/Denzel_Washington \"Denzel Washington\"), [Rami Malek](/wiki/Rami_Malek \"Rami Malek\") and [Jared Leto](/wiki/Jared_Leto \"Jared Leto\"), written and directed by [John Lee Hancock](/wiki/John_Lee_Hancock \"John Lee Hancock\"). In 2021 he executive produced the [AMC\\+](/wiki/AMC%2B \"AMC+\") series adaptation of [Anne Rice](/wiki/Anne_Rice \"Anne Rice\")'s *[Interview with the Vampire](/wiki/Interview_with_the_Vampire_%28TV_series%29 \"Interview with the Vampire (TV series)\")*.{{cite news\\|last\\=Goldberg\\|first\\=Lesley\\|title\\='Interview With the Vampire' Series a Go at AMC\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2022/tv/global/mark\\-johnson\\-vix\\-exile\\-content\\-1235462272/\\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2022\\|newspaper\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|date\\=June 24, 2021}} In 2023, he executive produced *[Mayfair Witches](/wiki/Mayfair_Witches \"Mayfair Witches\")*, based on another [Anne Rice](/wiki/Anne_Rice \"Anne Rice\") property.{{cite news\\|last\\=Radish\\|first\\=Christina\\|title\\='Mayfair Witches' EP Mark Johnson on Developing the Stories of Anne Rice for TV and How the Possibilities Seem Endless\\|url\\=https://collider.com/mayfair\\-witches\\-mark\\-johnson\\-interview/\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=Collider\\|date\\=February 8, 2023}}", "In late 2022 it was announced that Johnson would venture into his first\\-ever Spanish\\-language series, a Church scandal drama, \"Amen\" (a working title).{{cite news\\|last\\=de la Fuente\\|first\\=Anna Marie\\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Producer Mark Johnson Partners With ViX\\+ and Exile Content for Spanish\\-Language Series 'Amen'\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/interview\\-with\\-the\\-vampire\\-amc\\-series\\-anne\\-rice\\-1234973303/\\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2022\\|newspaper\\=Variety\\|date\\=December 15, 2022}}", "Produced by Johnson, the 2023 release *[The Holdovers](/wiki/The_Holdovers \"The Holdovers\")* reunited [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti \"Paul Giamatti\") with his *[Sideways](/wiki/Sideways \"Sideways\")* director [Alexander Payne](/wiki/Alexander_Payne \"Alexander Payne\").John Hazelton (February 17, 2024\\){{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.screendaily.com/features/how\\-the\\-holdovers\\-producer\\-mark\\-johnson\\-has\\-sustained\\-a\\-decades\\-long\\-career\\-i\\-dont\\-assume\\-anything/5190573\\.article\\|title\\=How 'The Holdovers' producer Mark Johnson has sustained a decades\\-long career\\|publisher\\=ScreenDaily\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-20}} The film enjoyed widespread critical acclaim and garnered [Golden Globe](/wiki/Golden_Globe \"Golden Globe\") wins for [Da'Vine Joy Randolph](/wiki/Da%27Vine_Joy_Randolph \"Da'Vine Joy Randolph\") and [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti \"Paul Giamatti\"). From seven [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA \"BAFTA\") nominations it secured two awards, for Best Supporting Actress and Best Casting Director.{{cite news\\|last\\=Zane\\|first\\=Alex\\|title\\='The Holdovers' from Countdown to the BAFTAs\\|url\\=https://www.everand.com/podcast/701076901/The\\-Holdovers\\|date\\=January 18, 2024}} It was nominated for five [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Award \"Academy Award\"), including Best Picture. Ultimately, it secured the Best Supporting Actress award for [Da'Vine Joy Randolph](/wiki/Da%27Vine_Joy_Randolph \"Da'Vine Joy Randolph\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Phillips\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Producer Mark Johnson on Bringing 'The Holdovers' and Character\\-Driven Films to Theaters\\|url\\=https://www.awardsdaily.com/2023/11/20/producer\\-mark\\-johnson\\-on\\-bringing\\-the\\-holdovers\\-and\\-character\\-driven\\-films\\-to\\-theaters/\\|date\\=November 20, 2024}}", "Johnson served many years on the Board of Governors of the [Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences \"Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\") (Producers Branch). For seventeen years, he headed the Best Foreign Language Film Committee.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hammond\\|first\\=Pete\\|title\\=Oscar Winner Mark Johnson On His Latest Best Picture Nomination For 'The Holdovers'; Plus Secrets Of A Long Career Producing Classic Movies And TV Series – Behind The Lens\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/video/holdovers\\-mark\\-johnson\\-video\\-interview/\\|date\\=February 16, 2024}} In 2020, the category was renamed Best International Feature Film.", "" ]
Career ------ After graduation, she turned to journalism and made her debut in the feminist newspaper La Fronde, directed by [Marguerite Durand](/wiki/Marguerite_Durand "Marguerite Durand"). She married [Gustave Téry](/wiki/Gustave_T%C3%A9ry "Gustave Téry"), professor of philosophy, with whom she had two children, including [Simone Téry](/wiki/Simone_T%C3%A9ry "Simone Téry"). In 1903, when Simone was four, Andree divorced Gustave. In 1905, she married Henri d'Ardenne de Tizac, curator of the [Musée Cernuschi](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi "Musée Cernuschi") and author of novels under the pseudonym of [Jean Viollis](/wiki/Jean_Viollis "Jean Viollis"). They had two other children. With her second husband, she became involved in literary journalism as a critic, columnist, serialist, and storyteller; they also co\-authored novels. Viollis affiliated with *L'Écho de Paris* and *Excelsior*, writing in favor of women's emancipation and the rights of the mother. From 1914, she worked at the newspaper *Le Petit Parisien*, staying twenty years, where she turned to major reporting and covered diverse areas, including sporting events, major trials, political interviews, and war correspondence. During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), for the period of 1914 to 1916, she served as a nurse at the front, as well as at [Bar\-le\-Duc](/wiki/Bar-le-Duc "Bar-le-Duc") and [Sainte\-Menehould](/wiki/Sainte-Menehould "Sainte-Menehould"). [thumb\|*Seule en Russie* (1929\)](/wiki/File:Andr%C3%A9e_Viollis-1929-couverture_de_Seule_en_Russie.jpg "Andrée Viollis-1929-couverture de Seule en Russie.jpg") In 1919 and until 1922, she served as editorial assistant to *The Times* and the *Daily Mail*. She investigated the [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR") of 1927 ten years after the [Bolshevik Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution"), testified to the [Afghan civil war in 1929](/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281928%E2%80%931929%29 "Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)"), to the Indian revolt in 1930, accompanied the Minister for the Colonies, [Paul Reynaud](/wiki/Paul_Reynaud "Paul Reynaud") in [Indochina](/wiki/Indochina "Indochina") in 1931, and followed in 1932 the [Shanghai incident](/wiki/January_28_incident "January 28 incident"). During the [Popular Front](/wiki/Popular_Front_%28France%29 "Popular Front (France)"), she joined forces with anti\-fascist intellectuals. With the support of [André Chamson](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Chamson "André Chamson") and [Jean Guéhenno](/wiki/Jean_Gu%C3%A9henno "Jean Guéhenno"), she became the director of the weekly political\-literary *Vendredi*, where she defended the cause of the [Spanish Republic](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic "Second Spanish Republic") and of the victims of [French colonization](/wiki/French_colonial_empire "French colonial empire"). Viollis was part of the French group associated with the [World Committee Against War and Fascism](/wiki/World_Committee_Against_War_and_Fascism "World Committee Against War and Fascism"). In 1936, in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), she chaired the first congress of the [Union des jeunes filles de France](/wiki/Union_des_jeunes_filles_de_France "Union des jeunes filles de France"). In 1938, she joined the editorial staff of the communist daily *[Ce soir](/wiki/Ce_soir "Ce soir")*, directed by [Louis Aragon](/wiki/Louis_Aragon "Louis Aragon") and [Jean\-Richard Bloch](/wiki/Jean-Richard_Bloch "Jean-Richard Bloch"). After *Vendredi* ended publication in November 1938, she joined *La Lumière*, along with [Louis Martin\-Chauffier](/wiki/Louis_Martin-Chauffier "Louis Martin-Chauffier") and [André Wurmser](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wurmser "André Wurmser"). Close to communist intellectual circles, she joined the Resistance in the southern zone during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), and put her journalist experience to work for this commitment, spending the war years in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon") and [Dieulefit](/wiki/Dieulefit "Dieulefit").
[ "Career\n------", "After graduation, she turned to journalism and made her debut in the feminist newspaper La Fronde, directed by [Marguerite Durand](/wiki/Marguerite_Durand \"Marguerite Durand\").", "She married [Gustave Téry](/wiki/Gustave_T%C3%A9ry \"Gustave Téry\"), professor of philosophy, with whom she had two children, including [Simone Téry](/wiki/Simone_T%C3%A9ry \"Simone Téry\"). In 1903, when Simone was four, Andree divorced Gustave. In 1905, she married Henri d'Ardenne de Tizac, curator of the [Musée Cernuschi](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Cernuschi \"Musée Cernuschi\") and author of novels under the pseudonym of [Jean Viollis](/wiki/Jean_Viollis \"Jean Viollis\"). They had two other children. With her second husband, she became involved in literary journalism as a critic, columnist, serialist, and storyteller; they also co\\-authored novels.", "Viollis affiliated with *L'Écho de Paris* and *Excelsior*, writing in favor of women's emancipation and the rights of the mother. From 1914, she worked at the newspaper *Le Petit Parisien*, staying twenty years, where she turned to major reporting and covered diverse areas, including sporting events, major trials, political interviews, and war correspondence. During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), for the period of 1914 to 1916, she served as a nurse at the front, as well as at [Bar\\-le\\-Duc](/wiki/Bar-le-Duc \"Bar-le-Duc\") and [Sainte\\-Menehould](/wiki/Sainte-Menehould \"Sainte-Menehould\").\n[thumb\\|*Seule en Russie* (1929\\)](/wiki/File:Andr%C3%A9e_Viollis-1929-couverture_de_Seule_en_Russie.jpg \"Andrée Viollis-1929-couverture de Seule en Russie.jpg\")\nIn 1919 and until 1922, she served as editorial assistant to *The Times* and the *Daily Mail*. She investigated the [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\") of 1927 ten years after the [Bolshevik Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\"), testified to the [Afghan civil war in 1929](/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281928%E2%80%931929%29 \"Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)\"), to the Indian revolt in 1930, accompanied the Minister for the Colonies, [Paul Reynaud](/wiki/Paul_Reynaud \"Paul Reynaud\") in [Indochina](/wiki/Indochina \"Indochina\") in 1931, and followed in 1932 the [Shanghai incident](/wiki/January_28_incident \"January 28 incident\").", "During the [Popular Front](/wiki/Popular_Front_%28France%29 \"Popular Front (France)\"), she joined forces with anti\\-fascist intellectuals. With the support of [André Chamson](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Chamson \"André Chamson\") and [Jean Guéhenno](/wiki/Jean_Gu%C3%A9henno \"Jean Guéhenno\"), she became the director of the weekly political\\-literary *Vendredi*, where she defended the cause of the [Spanish Republic](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic \"Second Spanish Republic\") and of the victims of [French colonization](/wiki/French_colonial_empire \"French colonial empire\").", "Viollis was part of the French group associated with the [World Committee Against War and Fascism](/wiki/World_Committee_Against_War_and_Fascism \"World Committee Against War and Fascism\"). In 1936, in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), she chaired the first congress of the [Union des jeunes filles de France](/wiki/Union_des_jeunes_filles_de_France \"Union des jeunes filles de France\"). In 1938, she joined the editorial staff of the communist daily *[Ce soir](/wiki/Ce_soir \"Ce soir\")*, directed by [Louis Aragon](/wiki/Louis_Aragon \"Louis Aragon\") and [Jean\\-Richard Bloch](/wiki/Jean-Richard_Bloch \"Jean-Richard Bloch\"). After *Vendredi* ended publication in November 1938, she joined *La Lumière*, along with [Louis Martin\\-Chauffier](/wiki/Louis_Martin-Chauffier \"Louis Martin-Chauffier\") and [André Wurmser](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wurmser \"André Wurmser\"). Close to communist intellectual circles, she joined the Resistance in the southern zone during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), and put her journalist experience to work for this commitment, spending the war years in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\") and [Dieulefit](/wiki/Dieulefit \"Dieulefit\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Young was born to [Latter Day Saint](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint "Latter Day Saint") converts [Joseph Young](/wiki/Joseph_Young "Joseph Young") and Jane A. Bicknell in [Kirtland](/wiki/Kirtland%2C_Ohio "Kirtland, Ohio"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"). His uncle was Latter Day Saint [apostle](/wiki/Apostle_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)") [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young "Brigham Young"). As an infant, Seymour Young was present with his mother at the [Haun's Mill massacre](/wiki/Haun%27s_Mill_massacre "Haun's Mill massacre"). He moved with his family to [Nauvoo](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois "Nauvoo, Illinois"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") in 1839 and then to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley "Salt Lake Valley") as [Mormon pioneers](/wiki/Mormon_pioneers "Mormon pioneers") in 1850\. From 1857 to 1858, Young served as a [Mormon missionary](/wiki/Mormon_missionary "Mormon missionary") in [England](/wiki/England "England"), working primarily in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire "Yorkshire") and [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire "Lincolnshire"). He was called home to [Utah Territory](/wiki/Utah_Territory "Utah Territory") prematurely because of the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War "Utah War"). In 1870 and 1871 Young accompanied his father on a mission to England and [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"); the two also preached in and visited relatives in Ohio and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"). In 1874, Young graduated with a medical degree from [University Medical College](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Medicine "New York University School of Medicine") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"); shortly thereafter, he began practicing medicine in Salt Lake City. In 1882, Young became a member of the [First Seven Presidents of the Seventy](/wiki/Seventy_%28LDS_Church%29%23Early_Latter_Day_Saint_quorums_of_seventy "Seventy (LDS Church)#Early Latter Day Saint quorums of seventy"). He became the senior president of the seven\-man council in 1892, and retained this position until his death. He also became a member of the general board of the [Deseret Sunday School Union](/wiki/Deseret_Sunday_School_Union "Deseret Sunday School Union"). On October 9, 1884, Young became one of the last individuals added to the church's [Council of Fifty](/wiki/Council_of_Fifty "Council of Fifty"). Young practiced [plural marriage](/wiki/Plural_marriage "Plural marriage") and was married to two wives and was the father of 13 children. Young died of [nephritis](/wiki/Nephritis "Nephritis") in Salt Lake City, [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah").[State of Utah Death Certificate](http://images.archives.utah.gov/data/81448/2259474/2259474_0000505.jpg) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172419/http://images.archives.utah.gov/data/81448/2259474/2259474\_0000505\.jpg \|date\=2011\-07\-18 }}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Young was born to [Latter Day Saint](/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint \"Latter Day Saint\") converts [Joseph Young](/wiki/Joseph_Young \"Joseph Young\") and Jane A. Bicknell in [Kirtland](/wiki/Kirtland%2C_Ohio \"Kirtland, Ohio\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"). His uncle was Latter Day Saint [apostle](/wiki/Apostle_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Apostle (Latter Day Saints)\") [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young \"Brigham Young\"). As an infant, Seymour Young was present with his mother at the [Haun's Mill massacre](/wiki/Haun%27s_Mill_massacre \"Haun's Mill massacre\"). He moved with his family to [Nauvoo](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois \"Nauvoo, Illinois\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") in 1839 and then to the [Salt Lake Valley](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley \"Salt Lake Valley\") as [Mormon pioneers](/wiki/Mormon_pioneers \"Mormon pioneers\") in 1850\\.", "From 1857 to 1858, Young served as a [Mormon missionary](/wiki/Mormon_missionary \"Mormon missionary\") in [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), working primarily in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") and [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire \"Lincolnshire\"). He was called home to [Utah Territory](/wiki/Utah_Territory \"Utah Territory\") prematurely because of the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War \"Utah War\"). In 1870 and 1871 Young accompanied his father on a mission to England and [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"); the two also preached in and visited relatives in Ohio and [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\").", "In 1874, Young graduated with a medical degree from [University Medical College](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Medicine \"New York University School of Medicine\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"); shortly thereafter, he began practicing medicine in Salt Lake City.", "In 1882, Young became a member of the [First Seven Presidents of the Seventy](/wiki/Seventy_%28LDS_Church%29%23Early_Latter_Day_Saint_quorums_of_seventy \"Seventy (LDS Church)#Early Latter Day Saint quorums of seventy\"). He became the senior president of the seven\\-man council in 1892, and retained this position until his death. He also became a member of the general board of the [Deseret Sunday School Union](/wiki/Deseret_Sunday_School_Union \"Deseret Sunday School Union\").", "On October 9, 1884, Young became one of the last individuals added to the church's [Council of Fifty](/wiki/Council_of_Fifty \"Council of Fifty\"). Young practiced [plural marriage](/wiki/Plural_marriage \"Plural marriage\") and was married to two wives and was the father of 13 children.", "Young died of [nephritis](/wiki/Nephritis \"Nephritis\") in Salt Lake City, [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\").[State of Utah Death Certificate](http://images.archives.utah.gov/data/81448/2259474/2259474_0000505.jpg) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172419/http://images.archives.utah.gov/data/81448/2259474/2259474\\_0000505\\.jpg \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-18 }}", "" ]
History ------- ### Background and training Igor Von Adamovich had worked as an actor in the miniseries A Lonely Heart (2004\). The influence of his mother lead him to learn the piano and later also started on the guitar. Michael Band, of English, Belgian and German origin, began playing guitar at age 8, and in his youth had an indie rock band called Ob the Edge. He was born in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), and has lived in [Mato Grosso do Sul](/wiki/Mato_Grosso_do_Sul "Mato Grosso do Sul") and in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), and stopped to business school to devote himself to music. Jonathan Couto began learning to play the tambourine, then learned guitar and formed a samba band in fifth grade together with his classmates. Guilherme dos Santos made a theater workshop hidden from their parents and acted in musicals. The British producer [Jason Herbert](/wiki/Jason_Herbert "Jason Herbert"), currently living in Brazil and also a former member of the boy band Big Fun, decided in 2010 to develop a project to create a boy band internationally. A year later, he, with the help of American producer [Venus Brown](/wiki/Venus_Brown "Venus Brown"), got into contact with Igor and Michael, who were already known to them. With the help of Jason, Jonathan and William joined the band. Posto 9 was chosen by the band due to being considered one of the spot's most frequented by locals and tourists to [Ipanema beach](/wiki/Ipanema_beach "Ipanema beach"), where Igor and Michael often frequented. ### 2013\-present: P9 The band's first single, "My Favorite Girl" was released on March 11, 2013 and became known for being part of the soundtrack of the [telenovela](/wiki/Telenovela "Telenovela") [Salve Jorge](/wiki/Salve_Jorge "Salve Jorge"). In an interview, they said that they had received the news about their music being featured in Salve Jorge during their stay in the United States recording their debut album, through a message they received from [WhatsApp](/wiki/WhatsApp "WhatsApp") when they were at a restaurant. "My Favorite Girl"'s eponymous EP was released on iTunes Store on May 27, 2013 by Sony Music, containing four tracks, including "My Favorite Girl," two remixes made by Deeplick, and the song "Love You In Those Jeans". The music video for "My Favorite Girl" released on May 26, 2013 in twenty four hours broke the record views for a Brazilian band on YouTube at this time. The song reached \#36 in the Parade Brazil Hot \& Popular Pop and \#40 on the Hot 100 Airplay Brazil. "Love You In Those Jeans" was released on June 18, 2013 as the second single from P9\. The self\-titled debut album was recorded in the United States by [Venus Brown](/wiki/Venus_Brown "Venus Brown") and with the participation of Charlie Brown on percussion. It went on pre\-sale on iTunes on June 18, 2013 and was launched on July 1, 2013\. Months after, the song "Love You in Those Jeans" was added in the soundtrack of the [telenovela](/wiki/Telenovela "Telenovela") [Amor à Vida](/wiki/Amor_%C3%A0_Vida "Amor à Vida").
[ "History\n-------", "### Background and training", "Igor Von Adamovich had worked as an actor in the miniseries A Lonely Heart (2004\\). The influence of his mother lead him to learn the piano and later also started on the guitar.", "Michael Band, of English, Belgian and German origin, began playing guitar at age 8, and in his youth had an indie rock band called Ob the Edge. He was born in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), and has lived in [Mato Grosso do Sul](/wiki/Mato_Grosso_do_Sul \"Mato Grosso do Sul\") and in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), and stopped to business school to devote himself to music.", "Jonathan Couto began learning to play the tambourine, then learned guitar and formed a samba band in fifth grade together with his classmates.", "Guilherme dos Santos made a theater workshop hidden from their parents and acted in musicals.", "The British producer [Jason Herbert](/wiki/Jason_Herbert \"Jason Herbert\"), currently living in Brazil and also a former member of the boy band Big Fun, decided in 2010 to develop a project to create a boy band internationally. A year later, he, with the help of American producer [Venus Brown](/wiki/Venus_Brown \"Venus Brown\"), got into contact with Igor and Michael, who were already known to them. With the help of Jason, Jonathan and William joined the band. Posto 9 was chosen by the band due to being considered one of the spot's most frequented by locals and tourists to [Ipanema beach](/wiki/Ipanema_beach \"Ipanema beach\"), where Igor and Michael often frequented.", "### 2013\\-present: P9", "The band's first single, \"My Favorite Girl\" was released on March 11, 2013 and became known for being part of the soundtrack of the [telenovela](/wiki/Telenovela \"Telenovela\") [Salve Jorge](/wiki/Salve_Jorge \"Salve Jorge\"). In an interview, they said that they had received the news about their music being featured in Salve Jorge during their stay in the United States recording their debut album, through a message they received from [WhatsApp](/wiki/WhatsApp \"WhatsApp\") when they were at a restaurant.", "\"My Favorite Girl\"'s eponymous EP was released on iTunes Store on May 27, 2013 by Sony Music, containing four tracks, including \"My Favorite Girl,\" two remixes made by Deeplick, and the song \"Love You In Those Jeans\". The music video for \"My Favorite Girl\" released on May 26, 2013 in twenty four hours broke the record views for a Brazilian band on YouTube at this time. The song reached \\#36 in the Parade Brazil Hot \\& Popular Pop and \\#40 on the Hot 100 Airplay Brazil. \"Love You In Those Jeans\" was released on June 18, 2013 as the second single from P9\\.", "The self\\-titled debut album was recorded in the United States by [Venus Brown](/wiki/Venus_Brown \"Venus Brown\") and with the participation of Charlie Brown on percussion. It went on pre\\-sale on iTunes on June 18, 2013 and was launched on July 1, 2013\\. Months after, the song \"Love You in Those Jeans\" was added in the soundtrack of the [telenovela](/wiki/Telenovela \"Telenovela\") [Amor à Vida](/wiki/Amor_%C3%A0_Vida \"Amor à Vida\").", "" ]
Watermills ---------- {{for\|an explanation of the various pieces of machinery mentioned\|Mill machinery}}The River Darent powered a number of [watermills](/wiki/Watermill "Watermill"). From source to mouth they are: ### Westerham (Elm View) Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 444 537}} [thumb\|c. 1912](/wiki/File:Westerham_1912.jpg "Westerham 1912.jpg") The miller at this [corn mill](/wiki/Corn_mill "Corn mill") in 1771 was James Marchane, who was joined by his son James. James Jr died in 1805 and James Sr died c. 1812\. The mill was sketched by G. Samuel in 1818\. It had an overshot [waterwheel](/wiki/Waterwheel "Waterwheel").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.zyworld.com/felbridge/handouts/Hedgecourt\-cottages.htm \|title\=Felbridge History Group \- Hedgecourt Mill Cottages \|access\-date\=25 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=10 April 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410230713/http://www.zyworld.com/felbridge/handouts/Hedgecourt\-cottages.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} The cast iron overshot waterwheel was {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|2\|ft\|9\.5\|in\|m\|2}}. It was fitted in 1868, replacing a wooden wheel which may have been breast shot. In 1890, the waterwheel was adapted to drive a set of pumps to supply Westerham. An average of {{convert\|25000\|impgal\|L}} could be supplied. The milling machinery was removed in 1936 and during the Second World War a [doodlebug](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb "V-1 flying bomb") landed nearby and blew the roof of the mill off. The derelict building stood in April 1954, but had been demolished by July 1960\. ### Darenth (Tower Wood) Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 449 540}} This corn mill had an external cast iron overshot waterwheel carried on a wooden axle. The mill was working up to the outbreak of the First World War and demolished in the 1930s. It had two pairs of [millstones](/wiki/Millstone "Millstone"). ### Squerryes (Spring Shaw) Mill, Westerham {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 447 532}} Squerryes, or Spring Shaw Mill was a corn mill with a cast iron overshot [waterwheel](/wiki/Waterwheel "Waterwheel") some {{convert\|9\|or\|10\|ft\|2}} diameter and {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|2}} wide. The mill was marked as disused on the 1895 6" [Ordnance Survey](/wiki/Ordnance_Survey "Ordnance Survey") map. It was a small building of {{convert\|17\|ft\|6\|in \|m\|2}} square and had been demolished by 1955\. Little is known of the machinery except that the upright shaft was wooden and of {{convert\|11\.5\|in\|mm}} diameter. The wooden great spur wheel was of compass arm construction.{{cite book \| first \= Alan\| last \= Stoyel\| year \= 2008\| title \= Memories of Kentish Watermills, The Rivers Cray \& Darent\| publisher \= Landmark Publishing\| location \= Ashbourne\|isbn\= 978\-1\-84306\-418\-3}} ### Valence Pump, Brasted {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 461 535}} This water powered pump was driven by a cast iron high breast shot waterwheel of {{convert\|16\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|3\|ft\|5\|in\|m\|2}}. A {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|2}} diameter cast iron spur geared pitwheel drove two ram pumps. The pump dated from 1858 and was still in existence in 1980\. ### Brasted Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 470 552}} [thumb\|c. 1909](/wiki/File:Brasted_1906.jpg "Brasted 1906.jpg") This was a corn mill, now converted to a dwelling. The [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\|13\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|6\|ft\|6\|in\|m\|2}}. In September 1812, James Weight, miller of Brasted, was claiming relief for himself, his wife and five children. A man by the name of Staples who went by the name of Chapman had leased the mill in [Brasted](/wiki/Brasted "Brasted") in 1812; he claimed relief in January 1815\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://freepages.rootsweb.com/\~mrawson/genealogy/settlement.html\|title\=Sevenoaks, Kent \- Petty Sessions \- Settlement Examinations\|website\=Freepages.rootsweb.com\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} The mill ceased work in the 1920s and the machinery was removed c. 1934\. ### Sundridge Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 489 556}} This was a paper mill. In December 1822 Nicholas Tapsfield, [papermaker](/wiki/Papermaking "Papermaking") of [Sundridge](/wiki/Sundridge%2C_Kent "Sundridge, Kent") was claiming relief for himself and his wife Mary. He had been apprenticed at a [paper mill at East Malling](/wiki/East_Malling_Stream "East Malling Stream"). In December 1831, Thomas Green, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself, his wife and five children. He had been apprenticed in 1804 to William Dacie at a paper mill in [Bermondsey](/wiki/Bermondsey "Bermondsey"), then to a Mr Hall in St. Mary Cray when Dacie retired. In March 1832, Henry Sparks, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself, wife Susanna and five children. He had been apprenticed to Messrs. Smith \& Knight at [Godalming](/wiki/Godalming "Godalming") in 1796, serving only four years. In May 1839, Henry Thomas, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself. He had been a papermaker all his working life. The internal overshot waterwheel was {{convert\|12\|ft\|6\|in\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|6\|ft\|3\|in\|m\|2}}, carried on an [oak](/wiki/Oak "Oak") axle. Sundridge Mill produced paper for the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England "Bank of England") until its closure in 1901, business being transferred to Eynsford Paper Mill. The mill buildings were converted to a laundry, and the waterwheel was removed c. 1914 to be replaced by steam power. The mill was demolished in October 1969\. ### Chipstead Mill, Chevening {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 499 560}} Chipstead Mill was a four\-storey building which had been enlarged in the late 19th century. It worked until after the Second World War, but the machinery had been removed by 1950\. The waterwheel was overshot and drove two pairs of French Burr millstones. A steam engine provided auxiliary power until it was replaced by a {{convert\|75\|hp\|kW}} suction [gas engine](/wiki/Gas_engine "Gas engine"). Roller milling plant had been installed in the 1890s but milling ceased in the 1920s. The mill building was standing in the 1980s. ### Longford Mill, Dunton Green {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 513 568}} This was a corn mill rebuilt by Weeks of Maidstone in 1859, it had an internal cast iron overshot waterwheel {{convert\|7\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|2}}, which had probably replaced a breast shot waterwheel of larger diameter. The waterwheel drove three pairs of [millstones](/wiki/Millstone "Millstone"). Electricity replaced water power between the wars, and the mill last worked in 1947\. The stones of the mill were said to have been caused to run backwards at one time through the mill being bewitched.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.millsarchive.com/kent/MillPageData/MillsList.aspx?powersource\=2\|title\=Kent Millers' Tales\|date\=18 April 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418233451/http://www.millsarchive.com/kent/MillPageData/MillsList.aspx?powersource\=2 \|access\-date\=2 July 2022\|archive\-date\=18 April 2010 }}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 138 }}{{cite book \| first \= William\| last \= Coles Finch\| author\-link\=William Coles Finch\| year \= 1933\| title \= Watermills \& Windmills\| pages \= 40–41\| publisher \= C W Daniel Company\| location \= London WC1}} The mill drove three pairs of millstones, the machinery being mostly of cast iron. The mill building survived until 1987 when the site was redeveloped. ### Otford Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 524 594}} There was a watermill in Otford in 1541\. The last mill on this site was a corn mill with two waterwheels. It was latterly used as a saw mill and burnt down on 7 January 1924\. A picture of the mill can be seen [here](http://www.otford.info/gallery/displayimage.php?album=47&pos=0). The breastshot waterwheel remained in 1930\.{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 139 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.otford.info/otford\-the\-past\-in\-pictures/\|title\=Otford \- the past in pictures\|website\=Otford.info\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} One waterwheel was of wood construction, driving three pairs of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. The machinery was all wooden. The second waterwheel was of cast iron, driving two pairs of French Burr stones vis cast iron machinery. ### Upper Mill, Shoreham {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 520 610}} This was a corn mill. Originally powered by an internal breast shot waterwheel of some {{convert\|14\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|2}} driving one pair of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. The great spur wheel was a cast iron wheel with wooden cogs. The waterwheel had been replaced by a [turbine](/wiki/Water_turbine "Water turbine") which drove the millstones via a great spur wheel that was only {{convert\|3\|ft\|3\|in\|mm}} diameter. The mill was house converted in 1971\. ### Lower (Shoreham Paper) Mill, Shoreham {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 520 621}} This was the site of a [fulling mill](/wiki/Fulling_mill "Fulling mill") belonging to Palsters Manor. It was bought by the Passele family in the 14th century. The manor passed to Francis Sandbach in 1578 and was willed to John Polhill. He bought the fulling mill in 1602\. The last mill on the site was a paper mill; it was demolished in 1936\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://polhill.info/\|title\=Polhill – Family History\|website\=Polhill.info\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} The low breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\|16\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|8\|ft\|m\|2}}. It drove machinery via a layshaft driven from the spur geared pitwheel. The mill was demolished in the 1930s.Stoyel gives 1930, Wood gives 1936 The paper mill had been run for over 200 years by the Wilmot family. ### Wood Mill, Eynsford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 531 648}} Although it is said that this mill, which stood just downstream of [Eynsford](/wiki/Eynsford "Eynsford") Bridge, was a corn mill with an undershot waterwheel other evidence shows this to have been a water powered saw mill which had been erected c. 1853\. It may have stood on the site of an earlier mill. ### Old Mill, Eynsford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 540 656}} This was a corn mill. It stands immediately downstream of the bridge by Eynsford [ford](/wiki/Ford_%28crossing%29 "Ford (crossing)"). The low breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\|8\|ft\|m\|2}} diameter in 1887, being replaced by one of at least {{convert\|10\|ft\|m\|2}} diameter. It was {{convert\|10\|ft\|m\|2}} wide. The millstones were only {{convert\|3\|ft\|mm}} diameter, suggesting that only a limited amount of flour was available. The mill was working until 1911, no auxiliary power being used. The building was house converted in the 1920s and survives today. ### Eynsford Paper Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 544 661}} This paper mill was founded in 1648 by [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot "Huguenot") refugees. The paper mill replaced an earlier corn mill. In 1882, it is recorded as having a waterwheel {{convert\|18\|ft\|3\|in\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|8\|ft\|m\|2}}. The mill suffered two fires in the 20th century but was rebuilt. It was working until 1952 but has now been demolished. ### Farningham Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 545 670}} A mill has been on this site since Domesday. In the 15th century the mill was in the possession of the Roper family, Sir Anthony Roper being charged with "pulling down and allowing the watermill to decay and become uninhabited" in 1636\. He was ordered to rebuild the mill within two years. The present building built by the Colyers dates to c.1780\. The mill was a corn mill; the converted building survives. A curious feature is that the door on the north side of the east face is painted on, to look symmetrical with the real door. The mill was latterly worked by a [turbine](/wiki/Water_turbine "Water turbine") which drove a saw mill in its final years of operation. The mill last worked for trade in 1900\. ### Franks Generating Station, Horton Kirby {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 556 677}} This installation was of the late 19th century. A turbine drove a generating plant to provide electricity to [Franks Hall](/wiki/Franks_Hall "Franks Hall"). After it ceased to be used, the turbine is said to have been installed in Westminster Mill. ### Westminster Mill, Horton Kirby {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 560 685}} [thumb\|Westminster Mill](/wiki/File:Horton_Kirby_Westminster.jpg "Horton Kirby Westminster.jpg") This was a corn mill which stood upstream of the paper mill. Henry Knight was a miller in [Horton](/wiki/Horton_Kirby "Horton Kirby") who died in 1724 and Thomas Welch was a miller in Horton who died in 1734\. George Cannon took the mill in the early 1830s. In 1843 he was bankrupt as a common brewer, an occupation he carried on along with the mill. Ill health forced his retirement in 1852, and the mill was bought by his brother Stephen. His son, also Stephen, was running Old Mill from 1850, then being 14 years old. Stephen Cannon (father) died in 1872 and Stephen Cannon (son) sold Westminster Mill and Old Mill in order to concentrate the milling business at a mill in [Bexley](/wiki/River_Cray "River Cray"). Latterly the waterwheel was replaced by a turbine and the mill generated electricity. The mill burnt down when struck by lightning in 1908 and was rebuilt as a factory which made shoe laces. The factory closed down in 1991 and the mill has been demolished and the site redeveloped as housing.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hortonkirbyandsouthdarenth.co.uk/vds/HKSDvds2005\.htm \|title\=Horton Kirby \|access\-date\=16 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=26 July 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726191034/http://www.hortonkirbyandsouthdarenth.co.uk/vds/HKSDvds2005\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/research/monumental\-inscriptions\|title\=Monumental Inscriptions \| Kent Archaeological Society\|website\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} ### Horton Kirby Paper Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 563 695}} This mill is under the [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct "Viaduct") of the [Chatham Main Line](/wiki/Chatham_Main_Line "Chatham Main Line") railway. In 1700 there were two corn mills and a forge here. The mill was rebuilt by Henry Hall in 1820 as a paper mill. Paper from this mill was used to print *[The Sphere](/wiki/The_Sphere_%28newspaper%29 "The Sphere (newspaper)")* and *[The Tatler](/wiki/Tatler_%281709%29 "Tatler (1709)")*; photographs of the paper making process at the mill were used in the first edition of *[The Children's Encyclopedia](/wiki/The_Children%27s_Encyclopedia "The Children's Encyclopedia")*. Henry Hall was the proprietor in 1840\. An illustration of the machine house c.1880 can be seen [here](http://www.baph.org.uk/imagepages/quarterly/q20p24.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022191019/http://baph.org.uk/imagepages/quarterly/q20p24\.html \|date\=22 October 2007 }}. The mill has a chimney {{convert\|230\|ft\|m}} high, which is a [listed building](/wiki/Listed_building "Listed building"). The mill was last used as a factory and closed in 2003, with plans being put forward for conversion to housing use in 2005\.{{cite book \| last \= Fuller \& Spain\| year \= 1986\| title \= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\| publisher \= Kent Archaeological Society\| location \= Maidstone\| isbn \= 0\-906746\-08\-6\| page \= 77 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.abandonedpast.co.uk/index.cfm?sid\=6605\&pid\=136219\|title\=Loading...\|website\=Abandonedpast.co.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.sevenoaks.gov.uk/news/2005/march/1050\.asp\|title\=Sevenoaks DC\|website\=Sevenoaks.gov.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022\|archive\-date\=26 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326001831/http://www.sevenoaks.gov.uk/news/2005/march/1050\.asp\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/england/kent/6194966\.stm\|title\=Paper mill plan brings investment\|date\=29 November 2006\|access\-date\=2 July 2022\|website\=News.bbc.co.uk}} The chimney dates to 1880\. ### Frog Lane Mill, Sutton at Hone {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 559 696}} This corn mill was of the 19th century. The cast iron breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\|10\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|2}} carried on a {{convert\|5\|in\|mm}} square axle. An unusual feature of this mill was that the pitwheel was the same diameter as the waterwheel. The mill had ceased working by 1914\. The upper storeys of the mill were demolished in February 1936, leaving the brick base, waterwheel and some machinery. These had been cleared away by June 1965\. ### South Darenth Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 563 697}} South Darenth Mill was a brick building that replaced an earlier mill that burnt down in 1879\. This mill was run by the Cannon family. The mill had a cast iron waterwheel which drove three pairs of millstones. A steam engine provided auxiliary power. In 1894, roller milling plant was installed but milling ceased in 1905\. The building was severely damaged in the Great Storm of 1987\. ### Darenth Paper Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 558 714}} Darenth Paper Mill was working until 1931 when it was taken over by Messrs Portals Ltd, of [Laverstoke](/wiki/Laverstoke "Laverstoke"), [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"). In 1910, it was in the occupation of Messrs T H Saunders \& Co Ltd, also at Hawley Mills and Beech and Rye Mills, [High Wycombe](/wiki/High_Wycombe "High Wycombe"), [Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Buckinghamshire "Buckinghamshire"). The breast shot waterwheel was of cast iron with wooden floats. It was{{convert\|12\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|10\|ft\|m\|2}}. ### Sutton (Old, Sutton at Hone, Darenth Corn, Little Darenth) Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 557 713}} [thumb\|Old Mill](/wiki/File:Sutton_at_Hone.jpg "Sutton at Hone.jpg") This corn mill stood at Old Mill Farm. It was built by Thomas Edmeads in the early 19th century. In 1806 the tenant millers were Stephen and George Cannon. The Cannon brothers were declared bankrupt in May 1816 but discharged their debts and returned to milling. George Cannon was again declared bankrupt in 1823\. Stephen Cannon had three sons William, George and Stephen. They all learnt the milling trade at his mill. Stephen Cannon later bought the mill and it passed to his daughter Harriet on his death on 27 February 1856\. The mill remained in the Cannon family until 1872, and the mill house until 1888\. Latterly the mill had a steam engine and a tall chimney.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bexley.gov.uk/localstudies/history\_pdfs/30\_four\_generations\_of\_water\_millers.pdf\|title\=Bexley Local Studies\|website\=Bexley.gov.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{Dead link\|date\=February 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{cite book \| last \= Fuller \& Spain\| year \= 1986\| title \= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\| publisher \= Kent Archaeological Society\| location \= Maidstone\| isbn \= 0\-906746\-08\-6\| page \= 119 }} During the First World War, a bomb hit the mill, but did not explode, although the mill was put out of action. The mill was demolished in September 1928\. Photographs of the mill during demolition reveal the cast iron low breast shot waterwheel drove three pairs of millstones via a cast iron layshaft. The original wooden upright shaft and crown wheel were retained. ### Hawley Mills, Sutton at Hone {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 552 718}} A site mentioned in Domesday, the mills here were held by the manor of Bignoures and belonged to the [Knights of St. John](/wiki/Knights_of_St._John "Knights of St. John") in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), being let at a peppercorn rent to the Prioress of Dartford Nunnery. A wheat mill and a malt mill were released to one George Tasser in 1534\. [William Vaughan](/wiki/William_Vaughan_%28philanthropist%29 "William Vaughan (philanthropist)") received them from the Crown in 1546 and the mills reverted to the Crown when he died in 1580\. The two mills were granted to [John Spilman](/wiki/John_Spilman "John Spilman") (later Sir John Spilman) by the Crown in 1581\. In 1588, Spilman converted the corn mill into a paper mill, and obtained a monopoly for his paper by manipulating the favour and patronage of successive monarchs. [Thomas Churchyard](/wiki/Thomas_Churchyard "Thomas Churchyard") wrote a long poem in 1588, the first description of the papermaking process. Spielman employed 600 men, mainly Germans. The mills remained in the Spilman family until 1679, then a Mr Blackman was the owner in 1686 but he was bankrupt by 1739\. Messrs. Pike and Edsall purchased the mill and converted it into a [gunpowder mill](/wiki/Gunpowder "Gunpowder").There were explosions here in 1745, 1790, 1795, 1796, 1799 and 1833\. These killed at least forty people. Edsall went bankrupt in 1778 and the mills were purchased by Messrs [Pigou](/wiki/Pigou "Pigou") and [Andrews](/wiki/Miles_Peter_Andrews "Miles Peter Andrews"). The mill was a papermill by 1840, when William Wiggins was the owner. The malt mill was not required by Spilman, and he leased it to [Godfrey Box](/wiki/Godfrey_Box "Godfrey Box") of Liège. He erected an iron rolling and slitting mill (for the manufacture of nails; the first in England) between 1590 and 1595, which by 1758 had two waterwheels, one working the upper roller, the other working the lower rollers and a guillotine. A company of "white paper makers" was established here in 1694 and during the 18th century the mill was owned by a Mr Quelch.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/early\_modern/industry\_me.shtml\|title\=Early Modern: Industry \- Metal working\|website\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 140 }}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 27 }}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 29 }}{{cite book \| last \= Fuller \& Spain\| year \= 1986\| title \= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\| publisher \= Kent Archaeological Society\| location \= Maidstone\| isbn \= 0\-906746\-08\-6\| page \= 73 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/technology/paper.shtml\|title\=Dartford Technology: Papermaking \- Sir John Spilman\|website\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} ### Dartford Powder Mills Approximately {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 548 728}} The Powder Mills were in operation from c. 1730, possibly on the site of Spilman's paper mill of 1588\. It was in operation until the 20th century. ### Lower Paper Mill, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 547 732}} Lower Mill was built in the mid\-17th century, and closed in 1790\. Later it was used as a zinc rolling mill and a printing works for silk and calico. ### Victoria Mills, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 545 739}} [thumb\|c. 1900](/wiki/File:Dartford_Victoria_c1900.jpg "Dartford Victoria c1900.jpg") Victoria Mills stood on the site of a 15th\-century fulling mill and an old [wire mill](/wiki/Wire "Wire"), mentioned by [William Lambarde](/wiki/William_Lambarde "William Lambarde") in 1570 as a [glazing mill](/wiki/Compacted_oxide_layer_glaze "Compacted oxide layer glaze"). This was used for polishing armoured plate. In the early 19th century there were three mills here; an [oil mill](/wiki/Vegetable_oil "Vegetable oil"), a [mustard mill](/wiki/Mustard_plant "Mustard plant") and a corn mill in the late 18th century it was owned by a Mr Fomereau and worked by the Loder family. The corn mill was a four\-storey wood structure built in 1790\. In the early 19th century, miller James Hard was appointed miller to [King George IV](/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom "George IV of the United Kingdom"). It had a [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") breast shot waterwheel of 20' diameter driving four pairs of millstones.{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 143 }}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 21 }}{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 28 }} ### Colyers (Orchard's, Bridge, Acacia Hall) Mill, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 544 739}} In 1217 [King John](/wiki/John_of_England "John of England") granted a mill worth 100/\- a year, situated in [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford "Dartford") to Michael de Wallensi and in 1221 William, Prior of Rochester, granted to Alan Martel, Prior of the [Knights Templar](/wiki/Knights_Templar "Knights Templar"), half an acre of land by the mill. The mill belonged to the Bishop of Rochester in 1253 and in 1299 was known as Orchard's mill, being then privately owned. Henry Colyer was the miller in 1840\.{{cite book \| first \= Kenneth\| last \= Reid\| year \= 1987\| title \= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\| publisher \= Charles Skilton Ltd.\| location \= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\| isbn \= 0\-284\-39165\-4\| page \= 141 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/medieval/industry.shtml\|title\=Medieval Period: Industry\|website\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} The mill was later run by R \& H Strickland Ltd, although milling ceased in 1893 and the building was stripped of its machinery, including a large cast iron waterwheel and a steam engine, in 1898\. It then served as a social club for Messrs [Burroughs Wellcome](/wiki/Burroughs_Wellcome "Burroughs Wellcome") \& Co. The mill burnt down on 24 January 1962\. ### Silk Printing Works, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 544 743}} There was a silk printing works in Dartford which is said to have been powered by a waterwheel. It was said that the waterwheel had been "recently removed" in 1986 as part of a clearance programme for the section of river that the works stood on. ### Phoenix Mill, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 544 745}} This was the furthermost mill on the Darent. About 1650 one John Brown erected a "brassell" mill for splitting iron into rods and nails. Nicholas Tooke owned the mill in 1656 followed by Charles Mauum from 1687 to 1719 and then Messrs. Cooke and Coolson in 1779\. The brassell mill gave way to a saw mill, then in 1790 a seven\-storey [cotton mill](/wiki/Cotton_mill "Cotton mill") was built. This burnt down in 1795 and a smaller building, the Phoenix Mill was erected in 1797\. George Willding was the miller and Messrs Saunders and Harrison were mustard makers here in 1840\. T H Saunders rebuilt it in 1855\. William Masters was a workman here until his death in 1873, and has a memorial in Horton Kirby church. It was a paper mill and closed in 1889\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dartfordbc.gov.uk/dartford/history.htm \|title\=Dartford History \|access\-date\=16 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=11 October 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011163619/http://www.dartfordbc.gov.uk/dartford/history.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "Watermills\n----------", "{{for\\|an explanation of the various pieces of machinery mentioned\\|Mill machinery}}The River Darent powered a number of [watermills](/wiki/Watermill \"Watermill\"). From source to mouth they are:", "### Westerham (Elm View) Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 444 537}}", "[thumb\\|c. 1912](/wiki/File:Westerham_1912.jpg \"Westerham 1912.jpg\")\nThe miller at this [corn mill](/wiki/Corn_mill \"Corn mill\") in 1771 was James Marchane, who was joined by his son James. James Jr died in 1805 and James Sr died c. 1812\\. The mill was sketched by G. Samuel in 1818\\. It had an overshot [waterwheel](/wiki/Waterwheel \"Waterwheel\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.zyworld.com/felbridge/handouts/Hedgecourt\\-cottages.htm \\|title\\=Felbridge History Group \\- Hedgecourt Mill Cottages \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410230713/http://www.zyworld.com/felbridge/handouts/Hedgecourt\\-cottages.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The cast iron overshot waterwheel was {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|2\\|ft\\|9\\.5\\|in\\|m\\|2}}. It was fitted in 1868, replacing a wooden wheel which may have been breast shot. In 1890, the waterwheel was adapted to drive a set of pumps to supply Westerham. An average of {{convert\\|25000\\|impgal\\|L}} could be supplied. The milling machinery was removed in 1936 and during the Second World War a [doodlebug](/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb \"V-1 flying bomb\") landed nearby and blew the roof of the mill off. The derelict building stood in April 1954, but had been demolished by July 1960\\.", "### Darenth (Tower Wood) Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 449 540}}", "This corn mill had an external cast iron overshot waterwheel carried on a wooden axle. The mill was working up to the outbreak of the First World War and demolished in the 1930s. It had two pairs of [millstones](/wiki/Millstone \"Millstone\").", "### Squerryes (Spring Shaw) Mill, Westerham", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 447 532}}", "Squerryes, or Spring Shaw Mill was a corn mill with a cast iron overshot [waterwheel](/wiki/Waterwheel \"Waterwheel\") some {{convert\\|9\\|or\\|10\\|ft\\|2}} diameter and {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} wide. The mill was marked as disused on the 1895 6\" [Ordnance Survey](/wiki/Ordnance_Survey \"Ordnance Survey\") map. It was a small building of {{convert\\|17\\|ft\\|6\\|in \\|m\\|2}} square and had been demolished by 1955\\. Little is known of the machinery except that the upright shaft was wooden and of {{convert\\|11\\.5\\|in\\|mm}} diameter. The wooden great spur wheel was of compass arm construction.{{cite book \\| first \\= Alan\\| last \\= Stoyel\\| year \\= 2008\\| title \\= Memories of Kentish Watermills, The Rivers Cray \\& Darent\\| publisher \\= Landmark Publishing\\| location \\= Ashbourne\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1\\-84306\\-418\\-3}}", "### Valence Pump, Brasted", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 461 535}}", "This water powered pump was driven by a cast iron high breast shot waterwheel of {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|5\\|in\\|m\\|2}}. A {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} diameter cast iron spur geared pitwheel drove two ram pumps. The pump dated from 1858 and was still in existence in 1980\\.", "### Brasted Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 470 552}}", "[thumb\\|c. 1909](/wiki/File:Brasted_1906.jpg \"Brasted 1906.jpg\")\nThis was a corn mill, now converted to a dwelling. The [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\\|13\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|m\\|2}}. In September 1812, James Weight, miller of Brasted, was claiming relief for himself, his wife and five children. A man by the name of Staples who went by the name of Chapman had leased the mill in [Brasted](/wiki/Brasted \"Brasted\") in 1812; he claimed relief in January 1815\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://freepages.rootsweb.com/\\~mrawson/genealogy/settlement.html\\|title\\=Sevenoaks, Kent \\- Petty Sessions \\- Settlement Examinations\\|website\\=Freepages.rootsweb.com\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}} The mill ceased work in the 1920s and the machinery was removed c. 1934\\.", "### Sundridge Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 489 556}}", "This was a paper mill. In December 1822 Nicholas Tapsfield, [papermaker](/wiki/Papermaking \"Papermaking\") of [Sundridge](/wiki/Sundridge%2C_Kent \"Sundridge, Kent\") was claiming relief for himself and his wife Mary. He had been apprenticed at a [paper mill at East Malling](/wiki/East_Malling_Stream \"East Malling Stream\"). In December 1831, Thomas Green, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself, his wife and five children. He had been apprenticed in 1804 to William Dacie at a paper mill in [Bermondsey](/wiki/Bermondsey \"Bermondsey\"), then to a Mr Hall in St. Mary Cray when Dacie retired. In March 1832, Henry Sparks, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself, wife Susanna and five children. He had been apprenticed to Messrs. Smith \\& Knight at [Godalming](/wiki/Godalming \"Godalming\") in 1796, serving only four years. In May 1839, Henry Thomas, papermaker of Sundridge was claiming relief for himself. He had been a papermaker all his working life. The internal overshot waterwheel was {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|3\\|in\\|m\\|2}}, carried on an [oak](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\") axle. Sundridge Mill produced paper for the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England \"Bank of England\") until its closure in 1901, business being transferred to Eynsford Paper Mill. The mill buildings were converted to a laundry, and the waterwheel was removed c. 1914 to be replaced by steam power. The mill was demolished in October 1969\\.", "### Chipstead Mill, Chevening", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 499 560}}", "Chipstead Mill was a four\\-storey building which had been enlarged in the late 19th century. It worked until after the Second World War, but the machinery had been removed by 1950\\. The waterwheel was overshot and drove two pairs of French Burr millstones. A steam engine provided auxiliary power until it was replaced by a {{convert\\|75\\|hp\\|kW}} suction [gas engine](/wiki/Gas_engine \"Gas engine\"). Roller milling plant had been installed in the 1890s but milling ceased in the 1920s. The mill building was standing in the 1980s.", "### Longford Mill, Dunton Green", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 513 568}}", "This was a corn mill rebuilt by Weeks of Maidstone in 1859, it had an internal cast iron overshot waterwheel {{convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|2}}, which had probably replaced a breast shot waterwheel of larger diameter. The waterwheel drove three pairs of [millstones](/wiki/Millstone \"Millstone\"). Electricity replaced water power between the wars, and the mill last worked in 1947\\. The stones of the mill were said to have been caused to run backwards at one time through the mill being bewitched.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.millsarchive.com/kent/MillPageData/MillsList.aspx?powersource\\=2\\|title\\=Kent Millers' Tales\\|date\\=18 April 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418233451/http://www.millsarchive.com/kent/MillPageData/MillsList.aspx?powersource\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=18 April 2010 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 138 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= William\\| last \\= Coles Finch\\| author\\-link\\=William Coles Finch\\| year \\= 1933\\| title \\= Watermills \\& Windmills\\| pages \\= 40–41\\| publisher \\= C W Daniel Company\\| location \\= London WC1}} The mill drove three pairs of millstones, the machinery being mostly of cast iron. The mill building survived until 1987 when the site was redeveloped.", "### Otford Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 524 594}}", "There was a watermill in Otford in 1541\\. The last mill on this site was a corn mill with two waterwheels. It was latterly used as a saw mill and burnt down on 7 January 1924\\. A picture of the mill can be seen [here](http://www.otford.info/gallery/displayimage.php?album=47&pos=0). The breastshot waterwheel remained in 1930\\.{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 139 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.otford.info/otford\\-the\\-past\\-in\\-pictures/\\|title\\=Otford \\- the past in pictures\\|website\\=Otford.info\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}} One waterwheel was of wood construction, driving three pairs of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. The machinery was all wooden. The second waterwheel was of cast iron, driving two pairs of French Burr stones vis cast iron machinery.", "### Upper Mill, Shoreham", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 520 610}}", "This was a corn mill. Originally powered by an internal breast shot waterwheel of some {{convert\\|14\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} driving one pair of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. The great spur wheel was a cast iron wheel with wooden cogs. The waterwheel had been replaced by a [turbine](/wiki/Water_turbine \"Water turbine\") which drove the millstones via a great spur wheel that was only {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|3\\|in\\|mm}} diameter. The mill was house converted in 1971\\.", "### Lower (Shoreham Paper) Mill, Shoreham", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 520 621}}", "This was the site of a [fulling mill](/wiki/Fulling_mill \"Fulling mill\") belonging to Palsters Manor. It was bought by the Passele family in the 14th century. The manor passed to Francis Sandbach in 1578 and was willed to John Polhill. He bought the fulling mill in 1602\\. The last mill on the site was a paper mill; it was demolished in 1936\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://polhill.info/\\|title\\=Polhill – Family History\\|website\\=Polhill.info\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}} The low breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|8\\|ft\\|m\\|2}}. It drove machinery via a layshaft driven from the spur geared pitwheel. The mill was demolished in the 1930s.Stoyel gives 1930, Wood gives 1936 The paper mill had been run for over 200 years by the Wilmot family.", "### Wood Mill, Eynsford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 531 648}}", "Although it is said that this mill, which stood just downstream of [Eynsford](/wiki/Eynsford \"Eynsford\") Bridge, was a corn mill with an undershot waterwheel other evidence shows this to have been a water powered saw mill which had been erected c. 1853\\. It may have stood on the site of an earlier mill.", "### Old Mill, Eynsford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 540 656}}", "This was a corn mill. It stands immediately downstream of the bridge by Eynsford [ford](/wiki/Ford_%28crossing%29 \"Ford (crossing)\"). The low breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\\|8\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} diameter in 1887, being replaced by one of at least {{convert\\|10\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} diameter. It was {{convert\\|10\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} wide. The millstones were only {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|mm}} diameter, suggesting that only a limited amount of flour was available. The mill was working until 1911, no auxiliary power being used. The building was house converted in the 1920s and survives today.", "### Eynsford Paper Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 544 661}}", "This paper mill was founded in 1648 by [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") refugees. The paper mill replaced an earlier corn mill. In 1882, it is recorded as having a waterwheel {{convert\\|18\\|ft\\|3\\|in\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|8\\|ft\\|m\\|2}}. The mill suffered two fires in the 20th century but was rebuilt. It was working until 1952 but has now been demolished.", "### Farningham Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 545 670}}", "A mill has been on this site since Domesday. In the 15th century the mill was in the possession of the Roper family, Sir Anthony Roper being charged with \"pulling down and allowing the watermill to decay and become uninhabited\" in 1636\\. He was ordered to rebuild the mill within two years. The present building built by the Colyers dates to c.1780\\. The mill was a corn mill; the converted building survives. A curious feature is that the door on the north side of the east face is painted on, to look symmetrical with the real door. The mill was latterly worked by a [turbine](/wiki/Water_turbine \"Water turbine\") which drove a saw mill in its final years of operation. The mill last worked for trade in 1900\\.", "### Franks Generating Station, Horton Kirby", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 556 677}}", "This installation was of the late 19th century. A turbine drove a generating plant to provide electricity to [Franks Hall](/wiki/Franks_Hall \"Franks Hall\"). After it ceased to be used, the turbine is said to have been installed in Westminster Mill.", "### Westminster Mill, Horton Kirby", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 560 685}}", "[thumb\\|Westminster Mill](/wiki/File:Horton_Kirby_Westminster.jpg \"Horton Kirby Westminster.jpg\")\nThis was a corn mill which stood upstream of the paper mill. Henry Knight was a miller in [Horton](/wiki/Horton_Kirby \"Horton Kirby\") who died in 1724 and Thomas Welch was a miller in Horton who died in 1734\\. George Cannon took the mill in the early 1830s. In 1843 he was bankrupt as a common brewer, an occupation he carried on along with the mill. Ill health forced his retirement in 1852, and the mill was bought by his brother Stephen. His son, also Stephen, was running Old Mill from 1850, then being 14 years old. Stephen Cannon (father) died in 1872 and Stephen Cannon (son) sold Westminster Mill and Old Mill in order to concentrate the milling business at a mill in [Bexley](/wiki/River_Cray \"River Cray\"). Latterly the waterwheel was replaced by a turbine and the mill generated electricity. The mill burnt down when struck by lightning in 1908 and was rebuilt as a factory which made shoe laces. The factory closed down in 1991 and the mill has been demolished and the site redeveloped as housing.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hortonkirbyandsouthdarenth.co.uk/vds/HKSDvds2005\\.htm \\|title\\=Horton Kirby \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 July 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726191034/http://www.hortonkirbyandsouthdarenth.co.uk/vds/HKSDvds2005\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/research/monumental\\-inscriptions\\|title\\=Monumental Inscriptions \\| Kent Archaeological Society\\|website\\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}", "### Horton Kirby Paper Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 563 695}}", "This mill is under the [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct \"Viaduct\") of the [Chatham Main Line](/wiki/Chatham_Main_Line \"Chatham Main Line\") railway. In 1700 there were two corn mills and a forge here. The mill was rebuilt by Henry Hall in 1820 as a paper mill. Paper from this mill was used to print *[The Sphere](/wiki/The_Sphere_%28newspaper%29 \"The Sphere (newspaper)\")* and *[The Tatler](/wiki/Tatler_%281709%29 \"Tatler (1709)\")*; photographs of the paper making process at the mill were used in the first edition of *[The Children's Encyclopedia](/wiki/The_Children%27s_Encyclopedia \"The Children's Encyclopedia\")*. Henry Hall was the proprietor in 1840\\. An illustration of the machine house c.1880 can be seen [here](http://www.baph.org.uk/imagepages/quarterly/q20p24.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022191019/http://baph.org.uk/imagepages/quarterly/q20p24\\.html \\|date\\=22 October 2007 }}. The mill has a chimney {{convert\\|230\\|ft\\|m}} high, which is a [listed building](/wiki/Listed_building \"Listed building\"). The mill was last used as a factory and closed in 2003, with plans being put forward for conversion to housing use in 2005\\.{{cite book \\| last \\= Fuller \\& Spain\\| year \\= 1986\\| title \\= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\\| publisher \\= Kent Archaeological Society\\| location \\= Maidstone\\| isbn \\= 0\\-906746\\-08\\-6\\| page \\= 77 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abandonedpast.co.uk/index.cfm?sid\\=6605\\&pid\\=136219\\|title\\=Loading...\\|website\\=Abandonedpast.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sevenoaks.gov.uk/news/2005/march/1050\\.asp\\|title\\=Sevenoaks DC\\|website\\=Sevenoaks.gov.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326001831/http://www.sevenoaks.gov.uk/news/2005/march/1050\\.asp\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/england/kent/6194966\\.stm\\|title\\=Paper mill plan brings investment\\|date\\=29 November 2006\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022\\|website\\=News.bbc.co.uk}} The chimney dates to 1880\\.", "### Frog Lane Mill, Sutton at Hone", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 559 696}}", "This corn mill was of the 19th century. The cast iron breast shot waterwheel was {{convert\\|10\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} carried on a {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|mm}} square axle. An unusual feature of this mill was that the pitwheel was the same diameter as the waterwheel. The mill had ceased working by 1914\\. The upper storeys of the mill were demolished in February 1936, leaving the brick base, waterwheel and some machinery. These had been cleared away by June 1965\\.", "### South Darenth Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 563 697}}", "South Darenth Mill was a brick building that replaced an earlier mill that burnt down in 1879\\. This mill was run by the Cannon family. The mill had a cast iron waterwheel which drove three pairs of millstones. A steam engine provided auxiliary power. In 1894, roller milling plant was installed but milling ceased in 1905\\. The building was severely damaged in the Great Storm of 1987\\.", "### Darenth Paper Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 558 714}}", "Darenth Paper Mill was working until 1931 when it was taken over by Messrs Portals Ltd, of [Laverstoke](/wiki/Laverstoke \"Laverstoke\"), [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\"). In 1910, it was in the occupation of Messrs T H Saunders \\& Co Ltd, also at Hawley Mills and Beech and Rye Mills, [High Wycombe](/wiki/High_Wycombe \"High Wycombe\"), [Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Buckinghamshire \"Buckinghamshire\"). The breast shot waterwheel was of cast iron with wooden floats. It was{{convert\\|12\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|10\\|ft\\|m\\|2}}.", "### Sutton (Old, Sutton at Hone, Darenth Corn, Little Darenth) Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 557 713}}", "[thumb\\|Old Mill](/wiki/File:Sutton_at_Hone.jpg \"Sutton at Hone.jpg\")\nThis corn mill stood at Old Mill Farm. It was built by Thomas Edmeads in the early 19th century. In 1806 the tenant millers were Stephen and George Cannon. The Cannon brothers were declared bankrupt in May 1816 but discharged their debts and returned to milling. George Cannon was again declared bankrupt in 1823\\. Stephen Cannon had three sons William, George and Stephen. They all learnt the milling trade at his mill.", "Stephen Cannon later bought the mill and it passed to his daughter Harriet on his death on 27 February 1856\\. The mill remained in the Cannon family until 1872, and the mill house until 1888\\. Latterly the mill had a steam engine and a tall chimney.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bexley.gov.uk/localstudies/history\\_pdfs/30\\_four\\_generations\\_of\\_water\\_millers.pdf\\|title\\=Bexley Local Studies\\|website\\=Bexley.gov.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{cite book \\| last \\= Fuller \\& Spain\\| year \\= 1986\\| title \\= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\\| publisher \\= Kent Archaeological Society\\| location \\= Maidstone\\| isbn \\= 0\\-906746\\-08\\-6\\| page \\= 119 }} During the First World War, a bomb hit the mill, but did not explode, although the mill was put out of action. The mill was demolished in September 1928\\. Photographs of the mill during demolition reveal the cast iron low breast shot waterwheel drove three pairs of millstones via a cast iron layshaft. The original wooden upright shaft and crown wheel were retained.", "### Hawley Mills, Sutton at Hone", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 552 718}}", "A site mentioned in Domesday, the mills here were held by the manor of Bignoures and belonged to the [Knights of St. John](/wiki/Knights_of_St._John \"Knights of St. John\") in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\"), being let at a peppercorn rent to the Prioress of Dartford Nunnery. A wheat mill and a malt mill were released to one George Tasser in 1534\\. [William Vaughan](/wiki/William_Vaughan_%28philanthropist%29 \"William Vaughan (philanthropist)\") received them from the Crown in 1546 and the mills reverted to the Crown when he died in 1580\\. The two mills were granted to [John Spilman](/wiki/John_Spilman \"John Spilman\") (later Sir John Spilman) by the Crown in 1581\\.", "In 1588, Spilman converted the corn mill into a paper mill, and obtained a monopoly for his paper by manipulating the favour and patronage of successive monarchs. [Thomas Churchyard](/wiki/Thomas_Churchyard \"Thomas Churchyard\") wrote a long poem in 1588, the first description of the papermaking process. Spielman employed 600 men, mainly Germans. The mills remained in the Spilman family until 1679, then a Mr Blackman was the owner in 1686 but he was bankrupt by 1739\\. Messrs. Pike and Edsall purchased the mill and converted it into a [gunpowder mill](/wiki/Gunpowder \"Gunpowder\").There were explosions here in 1745, 1790, 1795, 1796, 1799 and 1833\\. These killed at least forty people. Edsall went bankrupt in 1778 and the mills were purchased by Messrs [Pigou](/wiki/Pigou \"Pigou\") and [Andrews](/wiki/Miles_Peter_Andrews \"Miles Peter Andrews\"). The mill was a papermill by 1840, when William Wiggins was the owner.", "The malt mill was not required by Spilman, and he leased it to [Godfrey Box](/wiki/Godfrey_Box \"Godfrey Box\") of Liège. He erected an iron rolling and slitting mill (for the manufacture of nails; the first in England) between 1590 and 1595, which by 1758 had two waterwheels, one working the upper roller, the other working the lower rollers and a guillotine. A company of \"white paper makers\" was established here in 1694 and during the 18th century the mill was owned by a Mr Quelch.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/early\\_modern/industry\\_me.shtml\\|title\\=Early Modern: Industry \\- Metal working\\|website\\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 140 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 27 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 29 }}{{cite book \\| last \\= Fuller \\& Spain\\| year \\= 1986\\| title \\= Watermills (Kent and the Borders of Sussex)\\| publisher \\= Kent Archaeological Society\\| location \\= Maidstone\\| isbn \\= 0\\-906746\\-08\\-6\\| page \\= 73 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/technology/paper.shtml\\|title\\=Dartford Technology: Papermaking \\- Sir John Spilman\\|website\\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}", "### Dartford Powder Mills", "Approximately {{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 548 728}}", "The Powder Mills were in operation from c. 1730, possibly on the site of Spilman's paper mill of 1588\\. It was in operation until the 20th century.", "### Lower Paper Mill, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 547 732}}", "Lower Mill was built in the mid\\-17th century, and closed in 1790\\. Later it was used as a zinc rolling mill and a printing works for silk and calico.", "### Victoria Mills, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 545 739}}", "[thumb\\|c. 1900](/wiki/File:Dartford_Victoria_c1900.jpg \"Dartford Victoria c1900.jpg\")\nVictoria Mills stood on the site of a 15th\\-century fulling mill and an old [wire mill](/wiki/Wire \"Wire\"), mentioned by [William Lambarde](/wiki/William_Lambarde \"William Lambarde\") in 1570 as a [glazing mill](/wiki/Compacted_oxide_layer_glaze \"Compacted oxide layer glaze\"). This was used for polishing armoured plate. In the early 19th century there were three mills here; an [oil mill](/wiki/Vegetable_oil \"Vegetable oil\"), a [mustard mill](/wiki/Mustard_plant \"Mustard plant\") and a corn mill in the late 18th century it was owned by a Mr Fomereau and worked by the Loder family. The corn mill was a four\\-storey wood structure built in 1790\\. In the early 19th century, miller James Hard was appointed miller to [King George IV](/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George IV of the United Kingdom\"). It had a [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") breast shot waterwheel of 20' diameter driving four pairs of millstones.{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 143 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 21 }}{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 28 }}", "### Colyers (Orchard's, Bridge, Acacia Hall) Mill, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 544 739}}", "In 1217 [King John](/wiki/John_of_England \"John of England\") granted a mill worth 100/\\- a year, situated in [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford \"Dartford\") to Michael de Wallensi and in 1221 William, Prior of Rochester, granted to Alan Martel, Prior of the [Knights Templar](/wiki/Knights_Templar \"Knights Templar\"), half an acre of land by the mill. The mill belonged to the Bishop of Rochester in 1253 and in 1299 was known as Orchard's mill, being then privately owned. Henry Colyer was the miller in 1840\\.{{cite book \\| first \\= Kenneth\\| last \\= Reid\\| year \\= 1987\\| title \\= Watermills of the London Countryside, Vol 1\\| publisher \\= Charles Skilton Ltd.\\| location \\= Cheddar, Somerset, UK\\| isbn \\= 0\\-284\\-39165\\-4\\| page \\= 141 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/medieval/industry.shtml\\|title\\=Medieval Period: Industry\\|website\\=Dartfordarchive.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}} The mill was later run by R \\& H Strickland Ltd, although milling ceased in 1893 and the building was stripped of its machinery, including a large cast iron waterwheel and a steam engine, in 1898\\. It then served as a social club for Messrs [Burroughs Wellcome](/wiki/Burroughs_Wellcome \"Burroughs Wellcome\") \\& Co. The mill burnt down on 24 January 1962\\.", "### Silk Printing Works, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 544 743}}", "There was a silk printing works in Dartford which is said to have been powered by a waterwheel. It was said that the waterwheel had been \"recently removed\" in 1986 as part of a clearance programme for the section of river that the works stood on.", "### Phoenix Mill, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 544 745}}", "This was the furthermost mill on the Darent. About 1650 one John Brown erected a \"brassell\" mill for splitting iron into rods and nails. Nicholas Tooke owned the mill in 1656 followed by Charles Mauum from 1687 to 1719 and then Messrs. Cooke and Coolson in 1779\\. The brassell mill gave way to a saw mill, then in 1790 a seven\\-storey [cotton mill](/wiki/Cotton_mill \"Cotton mill\") was built. This burnt down in 1795 and a smaller building, the Phoenix Mill was erected in 1797\\. George Willding was the miller and Messrs Saunders and Harrison were mustard makers here in 1840\\. T H Saunders rebuilt it in 1855\\. William Masters was a workman here until his death in 1873, and has a memorial in Horton Kirby church. It was a paper mill and closed in 1889\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dartfordbc.gov.uk/dartford/history.htm \\|title\\=Dartford History \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011163619/http://www.dartfordbc.gov.uk/dartford/history.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
Tributaries ----------- Various tributaries feed into the River Darent. They also powered a number of watermills. ### Stream at Brasted #### Mill Farm Mill, Brasted {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 468 554}} Mill Farm Mill may have been built in 1705, which is the date of the Mill House. It was worked by the Smith family, ceasing work c. 1858\. The {{convert\|14\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|2}} cast iron waterwheel and machinery were removed before the First World War. The building was standing in 1954, converted to a garage. ### Stream at Chevening #### Whitley (Dibden) Mill, Chevening {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 508 533}} This mill stood deep in woodland west of [Sevenoaks](/wiki/Sevenoaks "Sevenoaks"). It was held by Ralph Bosville of Bradbourne Manor in the 16th century. The mill was in existence until at least the mid\-19th century but had ceased working by 1900\. The overshot waterwheel of composite construction was carried on a wooden axle {{convert\|9\|ft\|6\|in\|m\|2}} long and {{convert\|18\|in\|mm}} square at the waterwheel, {{convert\|12\|in\|mm}} diameter in the mill. The mill was in ruins by the 1920s{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/early\_owners/early\_bradbourne\_article.htm \|title\=Early History of Bradbourne: A working document \|publisher\=Roger Sheldon \|access\-date\=27 December 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313150110/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/early\_owners/early\_bradbourne\_article.htm \|archive\-date\=13 March 2012 }} ### Stream at Ightham #### Ightham Mill A tributary rising near St. Cleres is reputed to have driven a watermill, possibly the one at [Ightham](/wiki/Ightham "Ightham") recorded in 1322 as the property of William Inge.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.felhs.org.uk/bulletins/Bulletin%2073\.doc\|title\=Fehls\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} #### Kemsing Mill {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 543 586}} This mill was on the tributary that drove the mill at Ightham. [Kemsing](/wiki/Kemsing "Kemsing") is reputed to be the site of a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain") watermill at Springhead, which was excavated in 1949\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.biab.ac.uk/online/results1\.asp?ItemID\=91410\|title\=Library\|website\=Biab.ac.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://cka.moon\-demon.co.uk/KAR018/KAR018\_Otford.htm\|title\=Article from the Kent Archaeological Review, Winter 1969 (Issue \#18\) \-\- Otford's Busy Year..\|website\=Cka.moon\-demon.co.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}} ### Greatness Stream #### Greatness Mill, Sevenoaks An old mill site, in 1381 a mill at Gretnarsche was in the possession of [John Colepeper](/wiki/John_Culpeper "John Culpeper"). The mills were later in the ownership of the Fane/[Vane](/wiki/Vane_%28surname%29 "Vane (surname)") family, being known as "Gretness\-mylls" in the 1550s, being two water corn mills. John Thorpe (miller?) was living at Greatness Mill at the time of his death in 1835\. The building is of weatherboard on a steel frame on a brick base, replacing an earlier mill that burnt down{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/Research/01/ANR/01/03/30\.htm\|title\=A History of Ash next Ridley : page 30\|website\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/Research/01/ANR/01/03/32\.htm\|title\=A History of Ash next Ridley : page 32\|website\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\|access\-date\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.alton.demon.co.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000083\.html \|title\=I399: Ethel BOORMAN (26 Dec 1893 \- Dec 1966\) \|access\-date\=16 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=16 July 2004 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040716204108/http://www.alton.demon.co.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000083\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} after the First World War. The overshot waterwheel was {{convert\|20\|ft\|m\|2}} by {{convert\|4\|ft\|6\|in\|m\|2}}. It drove two pairs of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. Roller milling plant had been fitted by 1906\. In 1927, the mill was still worked by water power, aided by a {{convert\|15\|hp\|kW}} [gas engine](/wiki/Gas_engine "Gas engine"). #### Greatness Silk Mill, Sevenoaks {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 535 570}} This mill was built in 1761 by Peter Nouaille, who came into the possession of the manorial watermill on marrying Elizabeth de la Mare of Greatness. It stood downstream of the corn mill. Nouaille went bankrupt in 1778 but recovered, employing 100 people when he retired in 1800\. The mill had a breastshot waterwheel. It closed down after Nouaille's death c. 1828\. The mills were immortalised in the poem *Ode on the Silk Mills at Greatness* by Joseph Harrison. ### Guzzlebrook #### Childs Bridge Mill, Kemsing {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 545 580}} A long lost mill site, thought to have been a corn mill. The mill pond was some {{convert\|400\|yd\|m}} by {{convert\|50\|yd\|m}} in extent. #### Longlodge Mill, Otford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 531 584}} Possibly the site of one of Otford's eight Domesday mills. The mill was abandoned at an early date as it was not remembered in field names. ### Stream at Bradbourne #### Bradbourne Mill, Sevenoaks This was a corn mill. On 24 October 1545 Bradbourne Mill was granted by [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") to William Darkenolde for 21 years at £6\.13s.4d per annum. The King finding the timber for the repair of the mill. In 1557, Ralph Bosville bought the mill. In 1592, Henry Bosville died, leaving his manor of Bradbourne, and a "water grist mill" in the tenure of Richard Phillipes and a "Sythe Mill" in the occupation of Chapman amongst his property.[http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the\_bosville\_boswell\_family/ralph\_bosville\_1555\_1580\.htm](http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the_bosville_boswell_family/ralph_bosville_1555_1580.htm) {{dead link\|date\=July 2022}}<http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/documents_by_date/1545_doc.htm> {{dead link\|date\=July 2022}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the\_bosville\_boswell\_family/henry\_bosville\_1580\_1592\.htm \|title\=Henry Bosville owner of Bradbourne 1580 to 1592 \|access\-date\=16 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=8 August 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808012620/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/the\_bosville\_boswell\_family/henry\_bosville\_1580\_1592\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/documents\_by\_date/1593\_inq\_post\_mort.htm \|title\=I \|access\-date\=16 December 2007 \|archive\-date\=10 August 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810015440/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/documents\_by\_date/1593\_inq\_post\_mort.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Cranpit Stream #### Hall's Engineering Works, Dartford {{gbmappingsmall\|TQ 542 745}} [Millwright](/wiki/Millwright "Millwright") John Hall built a cast iron waterwheel to replace a [windmill](/wiki/List_of_windmills_in_Kent "List of windmills in Kent") that powered some of the machinery at his workshops in Hythe Street, Dartford.
[ "Tributaries\n-----------", "Various tributaries feed into the River Darent. They also powered a number of watermills.", "### Stream at Brasted", "#### Mill Farm Mill, Brasted", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 468 554}}", "Mill Farm Mill may have been built in 1705, which is the date of the Mill House. It was worked by the Smith family, ceasing work c. 1858\\. The {{convert\\|14\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} cast iron waterwheel and machinery were removed before the First World War. The building was standing in 1954, converted to a garage.", "### Stream at Chevening", "#### Whitley (Dibden) Mill, Chevening", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 508 533}}", "This mill stood deep in woodland west of [Sevenoaks](/wiki/Sevenoaks \"Sevenoaks\"). It was held by Ralph Bosville of Bradbourne Manor in the 16th century. The mill was in existence until at least the mid\\-19th century but had ceased working by 1900\\. The overshot waterwheel of composite construction was carried on a wooden axle {{convert\\|9\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|m\\|2}} long and {{convert\\|18\\|in\\|mm}} square at the waterwheel, {{convert\\|12\\|in\\|mm}} diameter in the mill. The mill was in ruins by the 1920s{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/early\\_owners/early\\_bradbourne\\_article.htm \\|title\\=Early History of Bradbourne: A working document \\|publisher\\=Roger Sheldon \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313150110/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/early\\_owners/early\\_bradbourne\\_article.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2012 }}", "### Stream at Ightham", "#### Ightham Mill", "A tributary rising near St. Cleres is reputed to have driven a watermill, possibly the one at [Ightham](/wiki/Ightham \"Ightham\") recorded in 1322 as the property of William Inge.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.felhs.org.uk/bulletins/Bulletin%2073\\.doc\\|title\\=Fehls\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}", "#### Kemsing Mill", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 543 586}}", "This mill was on the tributary that drove the mill at Ightham. [Kemsing](/wiki/Kemsing \"Kemsing\") is reputed to be the site of a [Roman](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\") watermill at Springhead, which was excavated in 1949\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biab.ac.uk/online/results1\\.asp?ItemID\\=91410\\|title\\=Library\\|website\\=Biab.ac.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://cka.moon\\-demon.co.uk/KAR018/KAR018\\_Otford.htm\\|title\\=Article from the Kent Archaeological Review, Winter 1969 (Issue \\#18\\) \\-\\- Otford's Busy Year..\\|website\\=Cka.moon\\-demon.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}", "### Greatness Stream", "#### Greatness Mill, Sevenoaks", "An old mill site, in 1381 a mill at Gretnarsche was in the possession of [John Colepeper](/wiki/John_Culpeper \"John Culpeper\"). The mills were later in the ownership of the Fane/[Vane](/wiki/Vane_%28surname%29 \"Vane (surname)\") family, being known as \"Gretness\\-mylls\" in the 1550s, being two water corn mills. John Thorpe (miller?) was living at Greatness Mill at the time of his death in 1835\\. The building is of weatherboard on a steel frame on a brick base, replacing an earlier mill that burnt down{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/Research/01/ANR/01/03/30\\.htm\\|title\\=A History of Ash next Ridley : page 30\\|website\\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/Research/01/ANR/01/03/32\\.htm\\|title\\=A History of Ash next Ridley : page 32\\|website\\=Kentarchaeology.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2022}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.alton.demon.co.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000083\\.html \\|title\\=I399: Ethel BOORMAN (26 Dec 1893 \\- Dec 1966\\) \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 July 2004 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040716204108/http://www.alton.demon.co.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000083\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} after the First World War. The overshot waterwheel was {{convert\\|20\\|ft\\|m\\|2}} by {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|m\\|2}}. It drove two pairs of French Burr millstones and one pair of Peak millstones. Roller milling plant had been fitted by 1906\\. In 1927, the mill was still worked by water power, aided by a {{convert\\|15\\|hp\\|kW}} [gas engine](/wiki/Gas_engine \"Gas engine\").", "#### Greatness Silk Mill, Sevenoaks", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 535 570}}", "This mill was built in 1761 by Peter Nouaille, who came into the possession of the manorial watermill on marrying Elizabeth de la Mare of Greatness. It stood downstream of the corn mill. Nouaille went bankrupt in 1778 but recovered, employing 100 people when he retired in 1800\\. The mill had a breastshot waterwheel. It closed down after Nouaille's death c. 1828\\. The mills were immortalised in the poem *Ode on the Silk Mills at Greatness* by Joseph Harrison.", "### Guzzlebrook", "#### Childs Bridge Mill, Kemsing", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 545 580}}", "A long lost mill site, thought to have been a corn mill. The mill pond was some {{convert\\|400\\|yd\\|m}} by {{convert\\|50\\|yd\\|m}} in extent.", "#### Longlodge Mill, Otford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 531 584}}", "Possibly the site of one of Otford's eight Domesday mills. The mill was abandoned at an early date as it was not remembered in field names.", "### Stream at Bradbourne", "#### Bradbourne Mill, Sevenoaks", "This was a corn mill. On 24 October 1545 Bradbourne Mill was granted by [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\") to William Darkenolde for 21 years at £6\\.13s.4d per annum. The King finding the timber for the repair of the mill. In 1557, Ralph Bosville bought the mill. In 1592, Henry Bosville died, leaving his manor of Bradbourne, and a \"water grist mill\" in the tenure of Richard Phillipes and a \"Sythe Mill\" in the occupation of Chapman amongst his property.[http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the\\_bosville\\_boswell\\_family/ralph\\_bosville\\_1555\\_1580\\.htm](http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the_bosville_boswell_family/ralph_bosville_1555_1580.htm) {{dead link\\|date\\=July 2022}}<http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/documents_by_date/1545_doc.htm> {{dead link\\|date\\=July 2022}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/the\\_bosville\\_boswell\\_family/henry\\_bosville\\_1580\\_1592\\.htm \\|title\\=Henry Bosville owner of Bradbourne 1580 to 1592 \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 August 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808012620/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/the\\_bosville\\_boswell\\_family/henry\\_bosville\\_1580\\_1592\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rogersheldon.com/bradbourne/documents\\_by\\_date/1593\\_inq\\_post\\_mort.htm \\|title\\=I \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810015440/http://www.rogersheldon.com/Bradbourne/documents\\_by\\_date/1593\\_inq\\_post\\_mort.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Cranpit Stream", "#### Hall's Engineering Works, Dartford", "{{gbmappingsmall\\|TQ 542 745}}", "[Millwright](/wiki/Millwright \"Millwright\") John Hall built a cast iron waterwheel to replace a [windmill](/wiki/List_of_windmills_in_Kent \"List of windmills in Kent\") that powered some of the machinery at his workshops in Hythe Street, Dartford.", "" ]
History ------- {{Spacetime\|cTopic\=Types}} ### Complex Minkowski spacetime {{See also\|Four\-dimensional space}} In his second relativity paper in 1905, [Henri Poincaré](/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9 "Henri Poincaré") showed{{harvnb\|Poincaré\|1905–1906\|pp\=129–176}} Wikisource translation: [On the Dynamics of the Electron](/wiki/s:Translation:On_the_Dynamics_of_the_Electron_%28July%29 "Translation:On the Dynamics of the Electron (July)") how, by taking time to be an imaginary fourth [spacetime](/wiki/Spacetime "Spacetime") coordinate {{math\|''ict''}}, where {{math\|''c''}} is the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light "Speed of light") and {{math\|''i''}} is the [imaginary unit](/wiki/Imaginary_unit "Imaginary unit"), [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation "Lorentz transformation") can be visualized as ordinary rotations of the four\-dimensional Euclidean sphere. The four\-dimensional spacetime can be visualized as a four\-dimensional space, with each point representing an event in spacetime. The [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation "Lorentz transformation") can then be thought of as rotations in this four\-dimensional space, where the rotation axis corresponds to the direction of relative motion between the two observers and the rotation angle is related to their relative velocity. To understand this concept, one should consider the coordinates of an event in spacetime represented as a four\-vector {{math\|(''t'', ''x'', ''y'', ''z'')}}. A Lorentz transformation is represented by a [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 "Matrix (mathematics)") that acts on the four\-vector, changing its components. This matrix can be thought of as a rotation matrix in four\-dimensional space, which rotates the four\-vector around a particular axis.x^2 \+ y^2 \+ z^2 \+ (ict)^2 \= \\text{constant}. Rotations in planes spanned by two space unit vectors appear in coordinate space as well as in physical spacetime as Euclidean rotations and are interpreted in the ordinary sense. The "rotation" in a plane spanned by a space unit vector and a time unit vector, while formally still a rotation in coordinate space, is a [Lorentz boost](/wiki/Lorentz_boost "Lorentz boost") in physical spacetime with *real* inertial coordinates. The analogy with Euclidean rotations is only partial since the radius of the sphere is actually imaginary, which turns rotations into rotations in hyperbolic space (see [hyperbolic rotation](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation%23Hyperbolic_rotation_of_coordinates "Lorentz transformation#Hyperbolic rotation of coordinates")). This idea, which was mentioned only briefly by Poincaré, was elaborated by Minkowski in a paper in [German](/wiki/German_language "German language") published in 1908 called "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies".{{harvnb\|Minkowski\|1907–1908\|pp\=53–111}} \*Wikisource translation: [s:Translation:The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies](/wiki/s:Translation:The_Fundamental_Equations_for_Electromagnetic_Processes_in_Moving_Bodies "Translation:The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies") He reformulated [Maxwell equations](/wiki/Maxwell_equations "Maxwell equations") as a symmetrical set of equations in the four variables{{math\|(''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''ict'')}} combined with redefined vector variables for electromagnetic quantities, and he was able to show directly and very simply their invariance under Lorentz transformation. He also made other important contributions and used matrix notation for the first time in this context. From his reformulation, he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, and so arose his concept of events taking place in a unified four\-dimensional [spacetime continuum](/wiki/Spacetime_continuum "Spacetime continuum"). ### Real Minkowski spacetime In a further development in his 1908 "Space and Time" lecture,{{harvnb\|Minkowski\|1908–1909\|pp\=75–88}} Various English translations on Wikisource: "[Space and Time](/wiki/s:Translation:Space_and_Time "Translation:Space and Time")" Minkowski gave an alternative formulation of this idea that used a real time coordinate instead of an imaginary one, representing the four variables {{math\|(''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''t'')}} of space and time in the coordinate form in a four\-dimensional real [vector space](/wiki/Vector_space "Vector space"). Points in this space correspond to events in spacetime. In this space, there is a defined [light\-cone](/wiki/Light-cone "Light-cone") associated with each point, and events not on the light cone are classified by their relation to the apex as *spacelike* or *timelike*. It is principally this view of spacetime that is current nowadays, although the older view involving imaginary time has also influenced special relativity. In the English translation of Minkowski's paper, the Minkowski metric, as defined below, is referred to as the *line element*. The Minkowski inner product below appears unnamed when referring to [orthogonality](/wiki/Orthogonality_%28mathematics%29 "Orthogonality (mathematics)") (which he calls *normality*) of certain vectors, and the Minkowski norm squared is referred to (somewhat cryptically, perhaps this is a translation dependent) as "sum". Minkowski's principal tool is the [Minkowski diagram](/wiki/Minkowski_diagram "Minkowski diagram"), and he uses it to define concepts and demonstrate properties of Lorentz transformations (e.g., [proper time](/wiki/Proper_time "Proper time") and [length contraction](/wiki/Length_contraction "Length contraction")) and to provide geometrical interpretation to the generalization of Newtonian mechanics to [relativistic mechanics](/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics "Relativistic mechanics"). For these special topics, see the referenced articles, as the presentation below will be principally confined to the mathematical structure (Minkowski metric and from it derived quantities and the [Poincaré group](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group "Poincaré group") as symmetry group of spacetime) *following* from the invariance of the spacetime interval on the spacetime manifold as consequences of the postulates of special relativity, not to specific application or *derivation* of the invariance of the spacetime interval. This structure provides the background setting of all present relativistic theories, barring general relativity for which [flat](/wiki/Flat_%28geometry%29 "Flat (geometry)") Minkowski spacetime still provides a springboard as curved spacetime is locally Lorentzian. Minkowski, aware of the fundamental restatement of the theory which he had made, said {{blockquote\|The views of space and time which I wish to lay before you have sprung from the soil of experimental physics, and therein lies their strength. They are radical. Henceforth, space by itself and time by itself are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of union of the two will preserve an independent reality.\| Hermann Minkowski, 1908, 1909}} Though Minkowski took an important step for physics, [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein") saw its limitation: {{blockquote\|At a time when Minkowski was giving the geometrical interpretation of special relativity by extending the Euclidean three\-space to a \[\[pseudo\-Euclidean space\|quasi\-Euclidean]] four\-space that included time, Einstein was already aware that this is not valid, because it excludes the phenomenon of \[\[gravitation]]. He was still far from the study of \[\[curvilinear coordinates]] and \[\[Riemannian geometry]], and the heavy mathematical apparatus entailed.\[\[Cornelius Lanczos]] (1972\) "Einstein's Path from Special to General Relativity", pages 5–19 of ''General Relativity: Papers in Honour of J. L. Synge'', L. O'Raifeartaigh editor, \[\[Clarendon Press]], see page 11}} For further historical information see references {{harvtxt\|Galison\|1979}}, {{harvtxt\|Corry\|1997}} and {{harvtxt\|Walter\|1999}}.
[ "History\n-------", "{{Spacetime\\|cTopic\\=Types}}", "### Complex Minkowski spacetime", "{{See also\\|Four\\-dimensional space}}\nIn his second relativity paper in 1905, [Henri Poincaré](/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9 \"Henri Poincaré\") showed{{harvnb\\|Poincaré\\|1905–1906\\|pp\\=129–176}} Wikisource translation: [On the Dynamics of the Electron](/wiki/s:Translation:On_the_Dynamics_of_the_Electron_%28July%29 \"Translation:On the Dynamics of the Electron (July)\") how, by taking time to be an imaginary fourth [spacetime](/wiki/Spacetime \"Spacetime\") coordinate {{math\\|''ict''}}, where {{math\\|''c''}} is the [speed of light](/wiki/Speed_of_light \"Speed of light\") and {{math\\|''i''}} is the [imaginary unit](/wiki/Imaginary_unit \"Imaginary unit\"), [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation \"Lorentz transformation\") can be visualized as ordinary rotations of the four\\-dimensional Euclidean sphere. The four\\-dimensional spacetime can be visualized as a four\\-dimensional space, with each point representing an event in spacetime. The [Lorentz transformations](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation \"Lorentz transformation\") can then be thought of as rotations in this four\\-dimensional space, where the rotation axis corresponds to the direction of relative motion between the two observers and the rotation angle is related to their relative velocity.", "To understand this concept, one should consider the coordinates of an event in spacetime represented as a four\\-vector {{math\\|(''t'', ''x'', ''y'', ''z'')}}. A Lorentz transformation is represented by a [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 \"Matrix (mathematics)\") that acts on the four\\-vector, changing its components. This matrix can be thought of as a rotation matrix in four\\-dimensional space, which rotates the four\\-vector around a particular axis.x^2 \\+ y^2 \\+ z^2 \\+ (ict)^2 \\= \\\\text{constant}.", "Rotations in planes spanned by two space unit vectors appear in coordinate space as well as in physical spacetime as Euclidean rotations and are interpreted in the ordinary sense. The \"rotation\" in a plane spanned by a space unit vector and a time unit vector, while formally still a rotation in coordinate space, is a [Lorentz boost](/wiki/Lorentz_boost \"Lorentz boost\") in physical spacetime with *real* inertial coordinates. The analogy with Euclidean rotations is only partial since the radius of the sphere is actually imaginary, which turns rotations into rotations in hyperbolic space (see [hyperbolic rotation](/wiki/Lorentz_transformation%23Hyperbolic_rotation_of_coordinates \"Lorentz transformation#Hyperbolic rotation of coordinates\")).", "This idea, which was mentioned only briefly by Poincaré, was elaborated by Minkowski in a paper in [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") published in 1908 called \"The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies\".{{harvnb\\|Minkowski\\|1907–1908\\|pp\\=53–111}} \\*Wikisource translation: [s:Translation:The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies](/wiki/s:Translation:The_Fundamental_Equations_for_Electromagnetic_Processes_in_Moving_Bodies \"Translation:The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies\") He reformulated [Maxwell equations](/wiki/Maxwell_equations \"Maxwell equations\") as a symmetrical set of equations in the four variables{{math\\|(''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''ict'')}} combined with redefined vector variables for electromagnetic quantities, and he was able to show directly and very simply their invariance under Lorentz transformation. He also made other important contributions and used matrix notation for the first time in this context.\nFrom his reformulation, he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, and so arose his concept of events taking place in a unified four\\-dimensional [spacetime continuum](/wiki/Spacetime_continuum \"Spacetime continuum\").", "### Real Minkowski spacetime", "In a further development in his 1908 \"Space and Time\" lecture,{{harvnb\\|Minkowski\\|1908–1909\\|pp\\=75–88}} Various English translations on Wikisource: \"[Space and Time](/wiki/s:Translation:Space_and_Time \"Translation:Space and Time\")\" Minkowski gave an alternative formulation of this idea that used a real time coordinate instead of an imaginary one, representing the four variables {{math\\|(''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''t'')}} of space and time in the coordinate form in a four\\-dimensional real [vector space](/wiki/Vector_space \"Vector space\"). Points in this space correspond to events in spacetime. In this space, there is a defined [light\\-cone](/wiki/Light-cone \"Light-cone\") associated with each point, and events not on the light cone are classified by their relation to the apex as *spacelike* or *timelike*. It is principally this view of spacetime that is current nowadays, although the older view involving imaginary time has also influenced special relativity.", "In the English translation of Minkowski's paper, the Minkowski metric, as defined below, is referred to as the *line element*. The Minkowski inner product below appears unnamed when referring to [orthogonality](/wiki/Orthogonality_%28mathematics%29 \"Orthogonality (mathematics)\") (which he calls *normality*) of certain vectors, and the Minkowski norm squared is referred to (somewhat cryptically, perhaps this is a translation dependent) as \"sum\".", "Minkowski's principal tool is the [Minkowski diagram](/wiki/Minkowski_diagram \"Minkowski diagram\"), and he uses it to define concepts and demonstrate properties of Lorentz transformations (e.g., [proper time](/wiki/Proper_time \"Proper time\") and [length contraction](/wiki/Length_contraction \"Length contraction\")) and to provide geometrical interpretation to the generalization of Newtonian mechanics to [relativistic mechanics](/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics \"Relativistic mechanics\"). For these special topics, see the referenced articles, as the presentation below will be principally confined to the mathematical structure (Minkowski metric and from it derived quantities and the [Poincaré group](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Poincaré group\") as symmetry group of spacetime) *following* from the invariance of the spacetime interval on the spacetime manifold as consequences of the postulates of special relativity, not to specific application or *derivation* of the invariance of the spacetime interval. This structure provides the background setting of all present relativistic theories, barring general relativity for which [flat](/wiki/Flat_%28geometry%29 \"Flat (geometry)\") Minkowski spacetime still provides a springboard as curved spacetime is locally Lorentzian.", "Minkowski, aware of the fundamental restatement of the theory which he had made, said\n{{blockquote\\|The views of space and time which I wish to lay before you have sprung from the soil of experimental physics, and therein lies their strength. They are radical. Henceforth, space by itself and time by itself are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of union of the two will preserve an independent reality.\\| Hermann Minkowski, 1908, 1909}}", "Though Minkowski took an important step for physics, [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\") saw its limitation:\n{{blockquote\\|At a time when Minkowski was giving the geometrical interpretation of special relativity by extending the Euclidean three\\-space to a \\[\\[pseudo\\-Euclidean space\\|quasi\\-Euclidean]] four\\-space that included time, Einstein was already aware that this is not valid, because it excludes the phenomenon of \\[\\[gravitation]]. He was still far from the study of \\[\\[curvilinear coordinates]] and \\[\\[Riemannian geometry]], and the heavy mathematical apparatus entailed.\\[\\[Cornelius Lanczos]] (1972\\) \"Einstein's Path from Special to General Relativity\", pages 5–19 of ''General Relativity: Papers in Honour of J. L. Synge'', L. O'Raifeartaigh editor, \\[\\[Clarendon Press]], see page 11}}", "For further historical information see references {{harvtxt\\|Galison\\|1979}}, {{harvtxt\\|Corry\\|1997}} and {{harvtxt\\|Walter\\|1999}}.", "" ]
Mathematical structure ---------------------- It is assumed below that spacetime is endowed with a coordinate system corresponding to an [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame "Inertial frame"). This provides an *origin*, which is necessary for spacetime to be modeled as a vector space. This addition is not required, and more complex treatments analogous to an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space "Affine space") can remove the extra structure. However, this is not the introductory convention and is not covered here. For an overview, Minkowski space is a {{math\|4}}\-dimensional [real](/wiki/Real_number "Real number") [vector space](/wiki/Vector_space "Vector space") equipped with a non\-degenerate, [symmetric bilinear form](/wiki/Symmetric_bilinear_form "Symmetric bilinear form") on the [tangent space](/wiki/Tangent_space "Tangent space") at each point in spacetime, here simply called the *Minkowski inner product*, with [metric signature](/wiki/Metric_signature "Metric signature") either {{math\|(\+ − − −)}} or {{math\|(− \+ \+ \+)}}. The tangent space at each event is a vector space of the same dimension as spacetime, {{math\|4}}. ### Tangent vectors [thumb\|A pictorial representation of the tangent space at a point, {{mvar\|x}}, on a [sphere](/wiki/Sphere "Sphere"). This vector space can be thought of as a subspace of {{math\|'''R'''3}} itself. Then vectors in it would be called *geometrical tangent vectors*. By the same principle, the tangent space at a point in flat spacetime can be thought of as a subspace of spacetime, which happens to be *all* of spacetime.](/wiki/Image:Image_Tangent-plane.svg "Image Tangent-plane.svg") In practice, one need not be concerned with the tangent spaces. The vector space structure of Minkowski space allows for the canonical identification of vectors in tangent spaces at points (events) with vectors (points, events) in Minkowski space itself. See e.g. {{harvtxt\|Lee\|2003\|loc\=Proposition 3\.8\.}} or {{harvtxt\|Lee\|2012\|loc\=Proposition 3\.13\.}} These identifications are routinely done in mathematics. They can be expressed formally in Cartesian coordinates as{{harvnb\|Lee\|1997\|p\=15}} \\begin{align} ``` \left(x^0,\, x^1,\, x^2,\, x^3\right) \ &\leftrightarrow\ \left. x^0 \mathbf e_0 \right|_p + \left. x^1 \mathbf e_1 \right|_p + \left. x^2 \mathbf e_2 \right|_p + \left. x^3 \mathbf e_3 \right|_p \\ &\leftrightarrow\ \left. x^0 \mathbf e_0 \right|_q + \left. x^1 \mathbf e_1 \right|_q + \left. x^2 \mathbf e_2 \right|_q + \left. x^3 \mathbf e_3 \right|_q ``` \\end{align} with basis vectors in the tangent spaces defined by ``` \left.\mathbf e_\mu\right|_p = \left.\frac{\partial}{\partial x^\mu}\right|_p \text{ or } \mathbf e_0|_p = \left(\begin{matrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ 0\end{matrix}\right) \text{, etc}. ``` Here, {{math\|''p''}} and {{math\|''q''}} are any two events, and the second basis vector identification is referred to as [parallel transport](/wiki/Parallel_transport "Parallel transport"). The first identification is the canonical identification of vectors in the tangent space at any point with vectors in the space itself. The appearance of basis vectors in tangent spaces as first\-order differential operators is due to this identification. It is motivated by the observation that a geometrical tangent vector can be associated in a one\-to\-one manner with a [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative "Directional derivative") operator on the set of smooth functions. This is promoted to a *definition* of tangent vectors in manifolds *not* necessarily being embedded in {{math\|'''R'''''n''}}. This definition of tangent vectors is not the only possible one, as ordinary *n*\-tuples can be used as well. {{hidden begin \|titlestyle \= color:green; background:lightgrey;\| title\=Definitions of tangent vectors as ordinary vectors}} A tangent vector at a point {{math\|''p''}} may be defined, here specialized to Cartesian coordinates in Lorentz frames, as {{math\|4 × 1}} column vectors {{math\|''v''}} associated to *each* Lorentz frame related by Lorentz transformation {{math\|Λ}} such that the vector {{math\|''v''}} in a frame related to some frame by {{math\|Λ}} transforms according to {{math\|''v'' → Λ''v''}}. This is the *same* way in which the coordinates {{math\|''x''''μ''}} transform. Explicitly, \\begin{align} ``` x'^\mu &= {\Lambda^\mu}_\nu x^\nu, \\ v'^\mu &= {\Lambda^\mu}_\nu v^\nu. ``` \\end{align} This definition is equivalent to the definition given above under a canonical isomorphism. {{hidden end}} For some purposes, it is desirable to identify tangent vectors at a point {{mvar\|p}} with *displacement vectors* at {{mvar\|p}}, which is, of course, admissible by essentially the same canonical identification.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003\|loc\=See Lee's discussion on geometric tangent vectors early in chapter 3\.}} The identifications of vectors referred to above in the mathematical setting can correspondingly be found in a more physical and explicitly geometrical setting in {{harvtxt\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973}}. They offer various degrees of sophistication (and rigor) depending on which part of the material one chooses to read. ### Metric signature The metric signature refers to which sign the Minkowski inner product yields when given space (*spacelike* to be specific, defined further down) and time basis vectors (*timelike*) as arguments. Further discussion about this theoretically inconsequential but practically necessary choice for purposes of internal consistency and convenience is deferred to the hide box below. See also the page treating [sign convention](/wiki/Sign_convention%23Relativity "Sign convention#Relativity") in Relativity. {{Hidden begin\| titlestyle \= color:green;background:lightgrey;\|title\=The choice of metric signature}} In general, but with several exceptions, mathematicians and general relativists prefer spacelike vectors to yield a positive sign, {{math\|(− \+ \+ \+)}}, while particle physicists tend to prefer timelike vectors to yield a positive sign, {{math\|(\+ − − −)}}. Authors covering several areas of physics, e.g. [Steven Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg "Steven Weinberg") and [Landau and Lifshitz](/wiki/Course_of_Theoretical_Physics "Course of Theoretical Physics") ({{math\|(− \+ \+ \+)}} and {{math\|(\+ − − −)}} respectively) stick to one choice regardless of topic. Arguments for the former convention include "continuity" from the Euclidean case corresponding to the non\-relativistic limit {{math\|''c'' → ∞}}. Arguments for the latter include that minus signs, otherwise ubiquitous in particle physics, go away. Yet other authors, especially of introductory texts, e.g. {{harvtxt\|Kleppner\|Kolenkow\|1978}}, do *not* choose a signature at all, but instead, opt to coordinatize spacetime such that the time *coordinate* (but not time itself!) is imaginary. This removes the need for the *explicit* introduction of a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor "Metric tensor") (which may seem like an extra burden in an introductory course), and one needs *not* be concerned with [covariant vectors](/wiki/Covariant_vector "Covariant vector") and [contravariant vectors](/wiki/Contravariant_vector "Contravariant vector") (or raising and lowering indices) to be described below. The inner product is instead affected by a straightforward extension of the [dot product](/wiki/Dot_product "Dot product") in {{math\|'''R'''3}} to {{math\|'''R'''3 × '''C'''}}. This works in the flat spacetime of special relativity, but not in the curved spacetime of general relativity, see {{harvtxt\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973\| loc\=Box 2\.1, Farewell to ''ict''}} (who, by the way use {{math\|(− \+ \+ \+)}}). MTW also argues that it hides the true *indefinite* nature of the metric and the true nature of Lorentz boosts, which are not rotations. It also needlessly complicates the use of tools of [differential geometry](/wiki/Differential_geometry "Differential geometry") that are otherwise immediately available and useful for geometrical description and calculation – even in the flat spacetime of special relativity, e.g. of the electromagnetic field. {{Hidden end}} ### Terminology Mathematically associated with the bilinear form is a [tensor](/wiki/Tensor "Tensor") of type {{math\|(0,2\)}} at each point in spacetime, called the *Minkowski metric*.For comparison and motivation of terminology, take a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric "Riemannian metric"), which provides a positive definite symmetric bilinear form, i. e. an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product") proper at each point on a manifold. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two (contravariant) vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the {{math\|4×4}} matrix representing the bilinear form. For comparison, in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"), a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold "Lorentzian manifold") {{math\|''L''}} is likewise equipped with a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 "Metric tensor (general relativity)") {{math\|''g''}}, which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space {{math\|''T''''p''''L''}} at each point {{mvar\|p}} of {{math\|''L''}}. In coordinates, it may be represented by a {{math\|4×4}} matrix *depending on spacetime position*. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold "Lorentzian manifold"). Its metric tensor is in coordinates with the same symmetric matrix at every point of {{math\|''M''}}, and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself. Introducing more terminology (but not more structure), Minkowski space is thus a [pseudo\-Euclidean space](/wiki/Pseudo-Euclidean_space "Pseudo-Euclidean space") with total dimension {{math\|1\=''n'' \= 4}} and [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28quadratic_form%29 "Signature (quadratic form)") {{math\|(1, 3\)}} or {{math\|(3, 1\)}}. Elements of Minkowski space are called [events](/wiki/Event_%28relativity%29 "Event (relativity)"). Minkowski space is often denoted {{math\|'''R'''1,3}} or {{math\|'''R'''3,1}} to emphasize the chosen signature, or just {{math\|''M''}}. It is an example of a [pseudo\-Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold "Pseudo-Riemannian manifold"). Then mathematically, the metric is a bilinear form on an abstract four\-dimensional real vector space {{math\|''V''}}, that is, \\eta:V\\times V\\rightarrow \\mathbf{R} where {{math\|''η''}} has signature {{math\|(\+, \-, \-, \-)}}, and signature is a coordinate\-invariant property of {{math\|''η''}}. The space of bilinear maps forms a vector space which can be identified with M^\*\\otimes M^\*, and {{math\|''η''}} may be equivalently viewed as an element of this space. By making a choice of orthonormal basis \\{e\_\\mu\\}, M:\=(V,\\eta) can be identified with the space \\mathbf{R}^{1,3}:\=(\\mathbf{R}^{4},\\eta\_{\\mu\\nu}). The notation is meant to emphasize the fact that {{math\|''M''}} and \\mathbf{R}^{1,3} are not just vector spaces but have added structure. \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} \= \\text{diag}(\+1, \-1, \-1, \-1\). An interesting example of non\-inertial coordinates for (part of) Minkowski spacetime is the [Born coordinates](/wiki/Born_coordinates "Born coordinates"). Another useful set of coordinates is the [light\-cone coordinates](/wiki/Light-cone_coordinates "Light-cone coordinates"). ### Pseudo\-Euclidean metrics {{main\|Pseudo\-Euclidean space\|Lorentzian manifolds}} The Minkowski inner product is not an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product"), since it is not [positive\-definite](/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form "Definite bilinear form"), i.e. the [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form "Quadratic form") {{math\|''η''(''v'', ''v'')}} need not be positive for nonzero {{mvar\|v}}. The positive\-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non\-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be *indefinite*. The Minkowski metric {{mvar\|η}} is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo\-Euclidean metric, or more generally, a *constant* pseudo\-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such, it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type {{math\|(0, 2\)}} tensor. It accepts two arguments {{math\|''u''''p'', ''v''''p''}}, vectors in {{math\|''T''''p''''M'', ''p'' ∈ ''M''}}, the tangent space at {{math\|''p''}} in {{math\|''M''}}. Due to the above\-mentioned canonical identification of {{math\|''T''''p''''M''}} with {{math\|''M''}} itself, it accepts arguments {{math\|''u'', ''v''}} with both {{mvar\|u}} and {{mvar\|v}} in {{mvar\|M}}. As a notational convention, vectors {{mvar\|v}} in {{mvar\|M}}, called [4\-vectors](/wiki/4-vector "4-vector"), are denoted in italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface {{math\|'''v'''}}. The latter is generally reserved for the {{math\|3}}\-vector part (to be introduced below) of a {{math\|4}}\-vector. The definition Giulini 2008 pp. 5, 6 u \\cdot v \= \\eta(u,\\, v) yields an inner product\-like structure on {{math\|''M''}}, previously and also henceforth, called the *Minkowski inner product*, similar to the Euclidean [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product"), but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the *relativistic dot product*. If the two arguments are the same, u \\cdot u \= \\eta(u, u) \\equiv \\\|u\\\|^2 \\equiv u^2, the resulting quantity will be called the *Minkowski norm squared*. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties. Linearity in the first argument \\eta(au \+ v,\\, w) \= a\\eta(u,\\, w) \+ \\eta(v,\\, w),\\quad \\forall u,\\, v \\in M,\\; \\forall a \\in \\R Symmetry \\eta(u,\\, v) \= \\eta(v,\\, u) Non\-degeneracy \\eta(u,\\, v) \= 0,\\; \\forall v \\in M\\ \\Rightarrow\\ u \= 0 The first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining *difference* between a pseudo\-inner product and an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product") proper is that the former is *not* required to be positive definite, that is, {{math\|''η''(''u'', ''u'') \< 0}} is allowed. The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that *these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations*. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation in that it preserves the inner product (i.e. the value of the corresponding bilinear form on two vectors). This approach is taken more generally for *all* classical groups definable this way in [classical group](/wiki/Classical_group "Classical group"). There, the matrix {{math\|Φ}} is identical in the case {{math\|O(3, 1\)}} (the Lorentz group) to the matrix {{math\|''η''}} to be displayed below. Two vectors {{math\|''v''}} and {{math\|''w''}} are said to be [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonal "Orthogonal") if {{math\|1\=''η''(''v'', ''w'') \= 0}}. For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case, when {{math\|''η''(''v'', ''v'') ≤ 0}} and {{math\|''η''(''w'', ''w'') ≥ 0}} (or vice versa), see [hyperbolic orthogonality](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality "Hyperbolic orthogonality"). A vector {{mvar\|e}} is called a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector "Unit vector") if {{math\|1\=''η''(''e'', ''e'') \= ±1}}. A [basis](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 "Basis (linear algebra)") for {{mvar\|M}} consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an [orthonormal basis](/wiki/Orthonormal_basis "Orthonormal basis").{{cite book \|title\=The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime: An Introduction to the Mathematics of the Special Theory of Relativity \|author1\=Gregory L. Naber \|edition\=illustrated \|publisher\=Courier Corporation \|year\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-0\-486\-43235\-9 \|page\=8 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-26 \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231018/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \|url\-status\=live }} [Extract of page 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNfRHzwdVZ0C&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231020/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C\&pg\=PA8 \|date\=2022\-12\-26 }} For a given [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame "Inertial frame"), an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is [Sylvester's law of inertia](/wiki/Sylvester%27s_law_of_inertia "Sylvester's law of inertia"). More terminology (but not more structure): The Minkowski metric is a [pseudo\-Riemannian metric](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_metric "Pseudo-Riemannian metric"), more specifically, a [Lorentzian metric](/wiki/Lorentzian_metric "Lorentzian metric"), even more specifically, *the* Lorentz metric, reserved for {{math\|4}}\-dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention. ### Minkowski metric {{Distinguish\|text\=\[\[Minkowski distance]] which is also called Minkowski metric}} From the [second postulate of special relativity](/wiki/Postulates_of_special_relativity "Postulates of special relativity"), together with homogeneity of spacetime and isotropy of space, it follows that the [spacetime interval](/wiki/Spacetime_interval "Spacetime interval") between two arbitrary events called {{math\|1}} and {{math\|2}} is:{{cite book \|title\=Spacetime and Geometry \|author1\=Sean M. Carroll \|edition\=illustrated, herdruk \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2019 \|isbn\=978\-1\-108\-48839\-6 \|page\=7 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PTGdDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA7}} c^2\\left(t\_1 \- t\_2\\right)^2 \- \\left(x\_1 \- x\_2\\right)^2 \- \\left(y\_1 \- y\_2\\right)^2 \- \\left(z\_1 \- z\_2\\right)^2\. This quantity is not consistently named in the literature. The interval is sometimes referred to as the square root of the interval as defined here.{{harvnb\|Sard\|1970\|p\=71}}Minkowski, {{harvnb\|Landau\|Lifshitz\|2002\|p\=4}} The invariance of the interval under coordinate transformations between inertial frames follows from the invariance of c^2 t^2 \- x^2 \- y^2 \- z^2 provided the transformations are linear. This [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form "Quadratic form") can be used to define a bilinear form u \\cdot v \= c^2 t\_1 t\_2 \- x\_1 x\_2 \- y\_1 y\_2 \- z\_1 z\_2 via the [polarization identity](/wiki/Polarization_identity "Polarization identity"). This bilinear form can in turn be written as u \\cdot v \= u^\\textsf{T} \\, \[\\eta] \\, v, where {{math\|\[''η'']}} is a 4\\times 4 matrix associated with {{mvar\|η}}. While possibly confusing, it is common practice to denote {{math\|\[''η'']}} with just {{mvar\|η}}. The matrix is read off from the explicit bilinear form as \\eta \= \\left(\\begin{array}{r} ``` 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 ``` \\end{array}\\right)\\!, and the bilinear form u \\cdot v \= \\eta(u, v), with which this section started by assuming its existence, is now identified. For definiteness and shorter presentation, the signature {{math\|(− \+ \+ \+)}} is adopted below. This choice (or the other possible choice) has no (known) physical implications. The symmetry group preserving the bilinear form with one choice of signature is isomorphic (under the map given [here](/wiki/Classical_group%23O%28p%2C_q%29_and_O%28n%29_%E2%80%93_the_orthogonal_groups "Classical group#O(p, q) and O(n) – the orthogonal groups")) with the symmetry group preserving the other choice of signature. This means that both choices are in accord with the two postulates of relativity. Switching between the two conventions is straightforward. If the metric tensor {{math\|''η''}} has been used in a derivation, go back to the earliest point where it was used, substitute {{math\|''η''}} for {{math\|−''η''}}, and retrace forward to the desired formula with the desired metric signature. ### Standard basis A standard or orthonormal basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors {{math\|{{mset\|''e''0, ''e''1, ''e''2, ''e''3}}}} such that \\eta(e\_0, e\_0\) \= \-\\eta(e\_1, e\_1\) \= \-\\eta(e\_2, e\_2\) \= \-\\eta(e\_3, e\_3\) \= 1 and for which \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= 0 when \\mu \\neq \\nu\\,. These conditions can be written compactly in the form \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}. Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector {{math\|''v''}} are written {{math\|(''v''0, ''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}} where the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation "Einstein notation") is used to write {{math\|1\=''v'' \= ''v''''μ'' ''e''''μ''}}. The component {{math\|''v''0}} is called the **timelike component** of {{mvar\|v}} while the other three components are called the **spatial components**. The spatial components of a {{math\|4}}\-vector {{mvar\|v}} may be identified with a {{math\|3}}\-vector {{math\|1\='''v''' \= (''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}}. In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors {{mvar\|v}} and {{mvar\|w}} is given by \\eta(v, w) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu} v^\\mu w^\\nu \= v^0 w\_0 \+ v^1 w\_1 \+ v^2 w\_2 \+ v^3 w\_3 \= v^\\mu w\_\\mu \= v\_\\mu w^\\mu, and \\eta(v, v) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu} v^\\mu v^\\nu \= v^0v\_0 \+ v^1 v\_1 \+ v^2 v\_2 \+ v^3 v\_3 \= v^\\mu v\_\\mu. Here **lowering of an index** with the metric was used. There are many possible choices of standard basis obeying the condition \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}. Any two such bases are related in some sense by a Lorentz transformation, either by a change\-of\-basis matrix \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\nu, a real {{math\|4 × 4}} matrix satisfying \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\rho\\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\sigma \= \\eta\_{\\rho \\sigma}. or {{math\|Λ}}, a linear map on the abstract vector space satisfying, for any pair of vectors {{math\|''u''}}, {{math\|''v''}}, \\eta(\\Lambda u, \\Lambda v) \= \\eta(u, v). Then if two different bases exist, {{math\|{{mset\|''e''{{sub\|0}}, ''e''{{sub\|1}}, ''e''{{sub\|2}}, ''e''{{sub\|3}}}}}} and {{math\|{{mset\|''e''′{{sub\|0}}, ''e''′{{sub\|1}}, ''e''′{{sub\|2}}, ''e''′{{sub\|3}}}}}}, e\_\\mu' \= e\_\\nu\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\mu can be represented as e\_\\mu' \= e\_\\nu\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\mu or e\_\\mu' \= \\Lambda e\_\\mu. While it might be tempting to think of \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\nu and {{math\|Λ}} as the same thing, mathematically, they are elements of different spaces, and act on the space of standard bases from different sides. #### Raising and lowering of indices {{main\|Raising and lowering indices\|tensor contraction}} [thumb\|400px\|Linear functionals (1\-forms) {{math\|'''α'''}}, {{math\|'''β'''}} and their sum {{math\|'''σ'''}} and vectors {{math\|'''u'''}}, {{math\|'''v'''}}, {{math\|'''w'''}}, in [3d](/wiki/Three-dimensional_space "Three-dimensional space") [Euclidean space](/wiki/Euclidean_space "Euclidean space"). The number of (1\-form) [hyperplanes](/wiki/Hyperplane "Hyperplane") intersected by a vector equals the [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product").{{harvnb\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973}}](/wiki/File:1-form_linear_functional.svg "1-form linear functional.svg") Technically, a non\-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual; in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of {{mvar\|M}} and the [cotangent spaces](/wiki/Cotangent_space "Cotangent space") of {{mvar\|M}}. At a point in {{mvar\|M}}, the tangent and cotangent spaces are [dual vector spaces](/wiki/Dual_vector_space "Dual vector space") (so the dimension of the cotangent space at an event is also {{math\|4}}). Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by [Riesz representation theorem](/wiki/Riesz_representation_theorem "Riesz representation theorem"), may be expressed as the action of a [linear functional](/wiki/Linear_functional "Linear functional") on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003}}. One point in Lee's proof of the existence of this map needs modification (Lee deals with [Riemannian metrics](/wiki/Riemannian_metric "Riemannian metric").). Where Lee refers to positive definiteness to show the injectivity of the map, one needs instead appeal to non\-degeneracy. Thus if {{math\|''v''''μ''}} are the components of a vector in tangent space, then {{math\|1\=''η''''μν'' ''v''''μ'' \= ''v''''ν''}} are the components of a vector in the cotangent space (a linear functional). Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in {{math\|''M''}} itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as **covariant vectors**. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are (almost always implicitly) identified with vectors (linear functionals) in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are **contravariant vectors**. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of {{math\|''η''}} in matrix representation, can be used to define **raising of an index**. The components of this inverse are denoted {{math\|''η''''μν''}}. It happens that {{math\|1\=''η''''μν'' \= ''η''''μν''}}. These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted {{math\|''η''♭}} (eta\-flat) and {{math\|''η''♯}} (eta\-sharp) by the musical analogy.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003\|loc\=The tangent\-cotangent isomorphism p. 282}} Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear function can be characterized by two objects: its [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28linear_algebra%29 "Kernel (linear algebra)"), which is a [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane "Hyperplane") passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm (bigger \= smaller spacing), with one of them (the kernel) passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1\-covector or [1\-form](/wiki/1-form "1-form") (though the latter is usually reserved for covector *fields*). One quantum mechanical analogy explored in the literature is that of a [de Broglie wave](/wiki/De_Broglie_wave "De Broglie wave") (scaled by a factor of Planck's reduced constant) associated with a [momentum four\-vector](/wiki/Momentum_four-vector "Momentum four-vector") to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many times the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference, {{harvtxt\|Lee\|2003}}, offers the same geometrical view of these objects (but mentions no piercing). The [electromagnetic field tensor](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_tensor "Electromagnetic field tensor") is a [differential 2\-form](/wiki/2-form "2-form"), which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW. One may, of course, ignore geometrical views altogether (as is the style in e.g. {{harvtxt\|Weinberg\|2002}} and {{harvnb\|Landau\|Lifshitz\|2002}}) and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time\-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as [index gymnastics](/wiki/Index_gymnastics "Index gymnastics"), ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa (as well as higher order tensors) is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly. #### Coordinate free raising and lowering Given a bilinear form \\eta:M\\times M\\rightarrow \\mathbf{R}, the lowered version of a vector can be thought of as the partial evaluation of \\eta, that is, there is an associated partial evaluation map \\eta(\\cdot, \-):M\\rightarrow M^\*; v \\mapsto \\eta(v,\\cdot). The lowered vector \\eta(v,\\cdot)\\in M^\* is then the dual map u\\mapsto\\eta(v,u). Note it does not matter which argument is partially evaluated due to the symmetry of \\eta. Non\-degeneracy is then equivalent to injectivity of the partial evaluation map, or equivalently non\-degeneracy indicates that the kernel of the map is trivial. In finite dimension, as is the case here, and noting that the dimension of a finite\-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the dual, this is enough to conclude the partial evaluation map is a linear isomorphism from M to M^\*. This then allows the definition of the inverse partial evaluation map, \\eta^{\-1}:M^\*\\rightarrow M, which allows the inverse metric to be defined as \\eta^{\-1}:M^\*\\times M^\* \\rightarrow \\mathbf{R}, \\eta^{\-1}(\\alpha,\\beta) \= \\eta(\\eta^{\-1}(\\alpha),\\eta^{\-1}(\\beta)) where the two different usages of \\eta^{\-1} can be told apart by the argument each is evaluated on. This can then be used to raise indices. If a coordinate basis is used, the metric {{math\|''η''{{sup\|−1}}}} is indeed the matrix inverse to {{math\|''η''}}. #### Formalism of the Minkowski metric The present purpose is to show semi\-rigorously how *formally* one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced. {{hidden begin \|titlestyle\=color:green;background:lightgrey; \|title\=A formal approach to the Minkowski metric }} A full\-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\otimes dx^\\nu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\odot dx^\\nu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu dx^\\nu. Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1\-form fields. They are defined as the [exterior derivative](/wiki/Exterior_derivative "Exterior derivative") of the coordinate functions {{math\|''x''''μ''}}. These quantities evaluated at a point {{mvar\|p}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at {{mvar\|p}}. The [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product "Tensor product") (denoted by the symbol {{math\|⊗}}) yields a tensor field of type {{math\|(0, 2\)}}, i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right\-hand side, the [symmetric product](/wiki/Symmetric_tensor%23Symmetric_part_of_a_tensor "Symmetric tensor#Symmetric part of a tensor") (denoted by the symbol {{math\|⊙}} or by juxtaposition) has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003}} The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, [line element](/wiki/Line_element "Line element"). It is *not* a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see {{harvtxt\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973\|loc\=Box 3\.2 and section 13\.2\.}} *Tangent* vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order, \\left.\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\mu}\\right\|\_p, where {{mvar\|p}} is an event. This operator applied to a function {{mvar\|f}} gives the [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative "Directional derivative") of {{mvar\|f}} at {{mvar\|p}} in the direction of increasing {{math\|''x''''μ''}} with {{math\|''x''''ν'', ''ν'' ≠ ''μ''}} fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at {{mvar\|p}}. The exterior derivative {{math\|''df''}} of a function {{mvar\|f}} is a **covector field**, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point {{math\|p}}, by definition such that df(X) \= Xf, for each [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field") {{mvar\|X}}. A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point {{math\|p}}. In coordinates {{mvar\|X}} can be expanded at each point {{mvar\|p}} in the basis given by the {{math\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}}. Applying this with {{math\|1\=''f'' \= ''x''''μ''}}, the coordinate function itself, and {{math\|1\=''X'' \= ∂/∂''x''''ν''}}, called a *coordinate vector field*, one obtains dx^\\mu\\left(\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\nu}\\right) \= \\frac{\\partial x^\\mu}{\\partial x^\\nu} \= \\delta\_\\nu^\\mu. Since this relation holds at each point {{mvar\|p}}, the {{math\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at each {{mvar\|p}} and the bases {{math\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} and {{math\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}} are [dual](/wiki/Dual_basis "Dual basis") to each other, \\left. dx^\\mu \\right\|\_p \\left(\\left.\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\nu}\\right\|\_p\\right) \= \\delta^\\mu\_\\nu. at each {{mvar\|p}}. Furthermore, one has \\alpha \\otimes \\beta(a, b) \= \\alpha(a)\\beta(b) for general one\-forms on a tangent space {{math\|''α'', ''β''}} and general tangent vectors {{math\|''a'', ''b''}}. (This can be taken as a definition, but may also be proved in a more general setting.) Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields {{math\|''a''}}, {{math\|''b''}}, both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\otimes dx^\\nu(a, b) \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} a^\\mu b^\\nu, where {{math\|''a''''μ''}}, {{math\|''b''''ν''}} are the *component functions* of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point {{mvar\|p}}, and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at {{mvar\|p}} applied to two tangent vectors at {{mvar\|p}}. As mentioned, in a vector space, such as modeling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right\-hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to the spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where (which tangent space) the vectors come from. This situation changes in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"). There one has g(p)\_{\\mu\\nu} \\left. dx^\\mu \\right\|\_p \\left. dx^\\nu \\right\|\_p(a, b) \= g(p)\_{\\mu\\nu} a^\\mu b^\\nu, where now {{math\|''η'' → ''g''(''p'')}}, i.e., {{mvar\|g}} is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of [Einstein's field equations](/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equation "Einstein's field equation"). Moreover, {{math\|''a'', ''b''}} *must* be tangent vectors at spacetime point {{mvar\|p}} and can no longer be moved around freely. {{Hidden end}} ### Chronological and causality relations Let {{math\|''x'', ''y'' ∈ ''M''}}. Here, 1. {{math\|''x''}} **chronologically precedes** {{math\|''y''}} if {{math\|''y'' − ''x''}} is future\-directed timelike. This relation has the [transitive property](/wiki/Transitive_property "Transitive property") and so can be written {{math\|''x'' \< ''y''}}. 2. {{math\|''x''}} **causally precedes** {{math\|''y''}} if {{math\|''y'' − ''x''}} is future\-directed null or future\-directed timelike. It gives a [partial ordering](/wiki/Partial_ordering "Partial ordering") of spacetime and so can be written {{math\|''x'' ≤ ''y''}}. Suppose {{math\|''x'' ∈ ''M''}} is timelike. Then the **simultaneous hyperplane** for {{math\|''x''}} is {{math\|{{mset\|1\=''y'' : ''η''(''x'', ''y'') \= 0}}}}. Since this [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane "Hyperplane") varies as {{math\|''x''}} varies, there is a [relativity of simultaneity](/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity "Relativity of simultaneity") in Minkowski space.
[ "Mathematical structure\n----------------------", "It is assumed below that spacetime is endowed with a coordinate system corresponding to an [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame \"Inertial frame\"). This provides an *origin*, which is necessary for spacetime to be modeled as a vector space. This addition is not required, and more complex treatments analogous to an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\") can remove the extra structure. However, this is not the introductory convention and is not covered here.", "For an overview, Minkowski space is a {{math\\|4}}\\-dimensional [real](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") [vector space](/wiki/Vector_space \"Vector space\") equipped with a non\\-degenerate, [symmetric bilinear form](/wiki/Symmetric_bilinear_form \"Symmetric bilinear form\") on the [tangent space](/wiki/Tangent_space \"Tangent space\") at each point in spacetime, here simply called the *Minkowski inner product*, with [metric signature](/wiki/Metric_signature \"Metric signature\") either {{math\\|(\\+ − − −)}} or {{math\\|(− \\+ \\+ \\+)}}. The tangent space at each event is a vector space of the same dimension as spacetime, {{math\\|4}}.", "### Tangent vectors", "[thumb\\|A pictorial representation of the tangent space at a point, {{mvar\\|x}}, on a [sphere](/wiki/Sphere \"Sphere\"). This vector space can be thought of as a subspace of {{math\\|'''R'''3}} itself. Then vectors in it would be called *geometrical tangent vectors*. By the same principle, the tangent space at a point in flat spacetime can be thought of as a subspace of spacetime, which happens to be *all* of spacetime.](/wiki/Image:Image_Tangent-plane.svg \"Image Tangent-plane.svg\")\nIn practice, one need not be concerned with the tangent spaces. The vector space structure of Minkowski space allows for the canonical identification of vectors in tangent spaces at points (events) with vectors (points, events) in Minkowski space itself. See e.g. {{harvtxt\\|Lee\\|2003\\|loc\\=Proposition 3\\.8\\.}} or {{harvtxt\\|Lee\\|2012\\|loc\\=Proposition 3\\.13\\.}} These identifications are routinely done in mathematics. They can be expressed formally in Cartesian coordinates as{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|1997\\|p\\=15}}\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n \\left(x^0,\\, x^1,\\, x^2,\\, x^3\\right)\n \\ &\\leftrightarrow\\ \\left. x^0 \\mathbf e_0 \\right|_p + \\left. x^1 \\mathbf e_1 \\right|_p + \\left. x^2 \\mathbf e_2 \\right|_p + \\left. x^3 \\mathbf e_3 \\right|_p \\\\\n&\\leftrightarrow\\ \\left. x^0 \\mathbf e_0 \\right|_q + \\left. x^1 \\mathbf e_1 \\right|_q + \\left. x^2 \\mathbf e_2 \\right|_q + \\left. x^3 \\mathbf e_3 \\right|_q", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nwith basis vectors in the tangent spaces defined by", "```\n \\left.\\mathbf e_\\mu\\right|_p = \\left.\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\mu}\\right|_p \\text{ or }\n \\mathbf e_0|_p = \\left(\\begin{matrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\\\ 0 \\\\ 0\\end{matrix}\\right) \\text{, etc}.", "```", "", "Here, {{math\\|''p''}} and {{math\\|''q''}} are any two events, and the second basis vector identification is referred to as [parallel transport](/wiki/Parallel_transport \"Parallel transport\"). The first identification is the canonical identification of vectors in the tangent space at any point with vectors in the space itself. The appearance of basis vectors in tangent spaces as first\\-order differential operators is due to this identification. It is motivated by the observation that a geometrical tangent vector can be associated in a one\\-to\\-one manner with a [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative \"Directional derivative\") operator on the set of smooth functions. This is promoted to a *definition* of tangent vectors in manifolds *not* necessarily being embedded in {{math\\|'''R'''''n''}}. This definition of tangent vectors is not the only possible one, as ordinary *n*\\-tuples can be used as well.", "{{hidden begin \\|titlestyle \\= color:green; background:lightgrey;\\| title\\=Definitions of tangent vectors as ordinary vectors}}\nA tangent vector at a point {{math\\|''p''}} may be defined, here specialized to Cartesian coordinates in Lorentz frames, as {{math\\|4 × 1}} column vectors {{math\\|''v''}} associated to *each* Lorentz frame related by Lorentz transformation {{math\\|Λ}} such that the vector {{math\\|''v''}} in a frame related to some frame by {{math\\|Λ}} transforms according to {{math\\|''v'' → Λ''v''}}. This is the *same* way in which the coordinates {{math\\|''x''''μ''}} transform. Explicitly,\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n x'^\\mu &= {\\Lambda^\\mu}_\\nu x^\\nu, \\\\\n v'^\\mu &= {\\Lambda^\\mu}_\\nu v^\\nu.", "```\n\\\\end{align}", "This definition is equivalent to the definition given above under a canonical isomorphism.\n{{hidden end}}", "For some purposes, it is desirable to identify tangent vectors at a point {{mvar\\|p}} with *displacement vectors* at {{mvar\\|p}}, which is, of course, admissible by essentially the same canonical identification.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003\\|loc\\=See Lee's discussion on geometric tangent vectors early in chapter 3\\.}} The identifications of vectors referred to above in the mathematical setting can correspondingly be found in a more physical and explicitly geometrical setting in {{harvtxt\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973}}. They offer various degrees of sophistication (and rigor) depending on which part of the material one chooses to read.", "### Metric signature", "The metric signature refers to which sign the Minkowski inner product yields when given space (*spacelike* to be specific, defined further down) and time basis vectors (*timelike*) as arguments. Further discussion about this theoretically inconsequential but practically necessary choice for purposes of internal consistency and convenience is deferred to the hide box below. See also the page treating [sign convention](/wiki/Sign_convention%23Relativity \"Sign convention#Relativity\") in Relativity.", "{{Hidden begin\\| titlestyle \\= color:green;background:lightgrey;\\|title\\=The choice of metric signature}}\nIn general, but with several exceptions, mathematicians and general relativists prefer spacelike vectors to yield a positive sign, {{math\\|(− \\+ \\+ \\+)}}, while particle physicists tend to prefer timelike vectors to yield a positive sign, {{math\\|(\\+ − − −)}}. Authors covering several areas of physics, e.g. [Steven Weinberg](/wiki/Steven_Weinberg \"Steven Weinberg\") and [Landau and Lifshitz](/wiki/Course_of_Theoretical_Physics \"Course of Theoretical Physics\") ({{math\\|(− \\+ \\+ \\+)}} and {{math\\|(\\+ − − −)}} respectively) stick to one choice regardless of topic. Arguments for the former convention include \"continuity\" from the Euclidean case corresponding to the non\\-relativistic limit {{math\\|''c'' → ∞}}. Arguments for the latter include that minus signs, otherwise ubiquitous in particle physics, go away. Yet other authors, especially of introductory texts, e.g. {{harvtxt\\|Kleppner\\|Kolenkow\\|1978}}, do *not* choose a signature at all, but instead, opt to coordinatize spacetime such that the time *coordinate* (but not time itself!) is imaginary. This removes the need for the *explicit* introduction of a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor \"Metric tensor\") (which may seem like an extra burden in an introductory course), and one needs *not* be concerned with [covariant vectors](/wiki/Covariant_vector \"Covariant vector\") and [contravariant vectors](/wiki/Contravariant_vector \"Contravariant vector\") (or raising and lowering indices) to be described below. The inner product is instead affected by a straightforward extension of the [dot product](/wiki/Dot_product \"Dot product\") in {{math\\|'''R'''3}} to {{math\\|'''R'''3 × '''C'''}}. This works in the flat spacetime of special relativity, but not in the curved spacetime of general relativity, see {{harvtxt\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973\\| loc\\=Box 2\\.1, Farewell to ''ict''}} (who, by the way use {{math\\|(− \\+ \\+ \\+)}}). MTW also argues that it hides the true *indefinite* nature of the metric and the true nature of Lorentz boosts, which are not rotations. It also needlessly complicates the use of tools of [differential geometry](/wiki/Differential_geometry \"Differential geometry\") that are otherwise immediately available and useful for geometrical description and calculation – even in the flat spacetime of special relativity, e.g. of the electromagnetic field.\n{{Hidden end}}", "### Terminology", "Mathematically associated with the bilinear form is a [tensor](/wiki/Tensor \"Tensor\") of type {{math\\|(0,2\\)}} at each point in spacetime, called the *Minkowski metric*.For comparison and motivation of terminology, take a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric \"Riemannian metric\"), which provides a positive definite symmetric bilinear form, i. e. an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\") proper at each point on a manifold. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two (contravariant) vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the {{math\\|4×4}} matrix representing the bilinear form.", "For comparison, in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"), a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold \"Lorentzian manifold\") {{math\\|''L''}} is likewise equipped with a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 \"Metric tensor (general relativity)\") {{math\\|''g''}}, which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space {{math\\|''T''''p''''L''}} at each point {{mvar\\|p}} of {{math\\|''L''}}. In coordinates, it may be represented by a {{math\\|4×4}} matrix *depending on spacetime position*. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold \"Lorentzian manifold\"). Its metric tensor is in coordinates with the same symmetric matrix at every point of {{math\\|''M''}}, and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself.", "Introducing more terminology (but not more structure), Minkowski space is thus a [pseudo\\-Euclidean space](/wiki/Pseudo-Euclidean_space \"Pseudo-Euclidean space\") with total dimension {{math\\|1\\=''n'' \\= 4}} and [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28quadratic_form%29 \"Signature (quadratic form)\") {{math\\|(1, 3\\)}} or {{math\\|(3, 1\\)}}. Elements of Minkowski space are called [events](/wiki/Event_%28relativity%29 \"Event (relativity)\"). Minkowski space is often denoted {{math\\|'''R'''1,3}} or {{math\\|'''R'''3,1}} to emphasize the chosen signature, or just {{math\\|''M''}}. It is an example of a [pseudo\\-Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold \"Pseudo-Riemannian manifold\").", "Then mathematically, the metric is a bilinear form on an abstract four\\-dimensional real vector space {{math\\|''V''}}, that is,\n\\\\eta:V\\\\times V\\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}\nwhere {{math\\|''η''}} has signature {{math\\|(\\+, \\-, \\-, \\-)}}, and signature is a coordinate\\-invariant property of {{math\\|''η''}}. The space of bilinear maps forms a vector space which can be identified with M^\\*\\\\otimes M^\\*, and {{math\\|''η''}} may be equivalently viewed as an element of this space. By making a choice of orthonormal basis \\\\{e\\_\\\\mu\\\\}, M:\\=(V,\\\\eta) can be identified with the space \\\\mathbf{R}^{1,3}:\\=(\\\\mathbf{R}^{4},\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}). The notation is meant to emphasize the fact that {{math\\|''M''}} and \\\\mathbf{R}^{1,3} are not just vector spaces but have added structure. \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\= \\\\text{diag}(\\+1, \\-1, \\-1, \\-1\\).", "An interesting example of non\\-inertial coordinates for (part of) Minkowski spacetime is the [Born coordinates](/wiki/Born_coordinates \"Born coordinates\"). Another useful set of coordinates is the [light\\-cone coordinates](/wiki/Light-cone_coordinates \"Light-cone coordinates\").", "### Pseudo\\-Euclidean metrics", "{{main\\|Pseudo\\-Euclidean space\\|Lorentzian manifolds}}\nThe Minkowski inner product is not an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\"), since it is not [positive\\-definite](/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form \"Definite bilinear form\"), i.e. the [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form \"Quadratic form\") {{math\\|''η''(''v'', ''v'')}} need not be positive for nonzero {{mvar\\|v}}. The positive\\-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non\\-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be *indefinite*.\nThe Minkowski metric {{mvar\\|η}} is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo\\-Euclidean metric, or more generally, a *constant* pseudo\\-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such, it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type {{math\\|(0, 2\\)}} tensor. It accepts two arguments {{math\\|''u''''p'', ''v''''p''}}, vectors in {{math\\|''T''''p''''M'', ''p'' ∈ ''M''}}, the tangent space at {{math\\|''p''}} in {{math\\|''M''}}. Due to the above\\-mentioned canonical identification of {{math\\|''T''''p''''M''}} with {{math\\|''M''}} itself, it accepts arguments {{math\\|''u'', ''v''}} with both {{mvar\\|u}} and {{mvar\\|v}} in {{mvar\\|M}}.", "As a notational convention, vectors {{mvar\\|v}} in {{mvar\\|M}}, called [4\\-vectors](/wiki/4-vector \"4-vector\"), are denoted in italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface {{math\\|'''v'''}}. The latter is generally reserved for the {{math\\|3}}\\-vector part (to be introduced below) of a {{math\\|4}}\\-vector.", "The definition Giulini 2008 pp. 5, 6\nu \\\\cdot v \\= \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v)\nyields an inner product\\-like structure on {{math\\|''M''}}, previously and also henceforth, called the *Minkowski inner product*, similar to the Euclidean [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\"), but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the *relativistic dot product*. If the two arguments are the same,\nu \\\\cdot u \\= \\\\eta(u, u) \\\\equiv \\\\\\|u\\\\\\|^2 \\\\equiv u^2,\nthe resulting quantity will be called the *Minkowski norm squared*. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties.", "Linearity in the first argument\n \\\\eta(au \\+ v,\\\\, w) \\= a\\\\eta(u,\\\\, w) \\+ \\\\eta(v,\\\\, w),\\\\quad \\\\forall u,\\\\, v \\\\in M,\\\\; \\\\forall a \\\\in \\\\R\n Symmetry\n \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v) \\= \\\\eta(v,\\\\, u)\n Non\\-degeneracy\n \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v) \\= 0,\\\\; \\\\forall v \\\\in M\\\\ \\\\Rightarrow\\\\ u \\= 0\nThe first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining *difference* between a pseudo\\-inner product and an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\") proper is that the former is *not* required to be positive definite, that is, {{math\\|''η''(''u'', ''u'') \\< 0}} is allowed.", "The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that *these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations*. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation in that it preserves the inner product (i.e. the value of the corresponding bilinear form on two vectors). This approach is taken more generally for *all* classical groups definable this way in [classical group](/wiki/Classical_group \"Classical group\"). There, the matrix {{math\\|Φ}} is identical in the case {{math\\|O(3, 1\\)}} (the Lorentz group) to the matrix {{math\\|''η''}} to be displayed below.", "Two vectors {{math\\|''v''}} and {{math\\|''w''}} are said to be [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonal \"Orthogonal\") if {{math\\|1\\=''η''(''v'', ''w'') \\= 0}}. For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case, when {{math\\|''η''(''v'', ''v'') ≤ 0}} and {{math\\|''η''(''w'', ''w'') ≥ 0}} (or vice versa), see [hyperbolic orthogonality](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality \"Hyperbolic orthogonality\").", "A vector {{mvar\\|e}} is called a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector \"Unit vector\") if {{math\\|1\\=''η''(''e'', ''e'') \\= ±1}}. A [basis](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Basis (linear algebra)\") for {{mvar\\|M}} consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an [orthonormal basis](/wiki/Orthonormal_basis \"Orthonormal basis\").{{cite book \\|title\\=The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime: An Introduction to the Mathematics of the Special Theory of Relativity \\|author1\\=Gregory L. Naber \\|edition\\=illustrated \\|publisher\\=Courier Corporation \\|year\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-486\\-43235\\-9 \\|page\\=8 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231018/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Extract of page 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNfRHzwdVZ0C&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231020/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C\\&pg\\=PA8 \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 }}", "For a given [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame \"Inertial frame\"), an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is [Sylvester's law of inertia](/wiki/Sylvester%27s_law_of_inertia \"Sylvester's law of inertia\").", "More terminology (but not more structure): The Minkowski metric is a [pseudo\\-Riemannian metric](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_metric \"Pseudo-Riemannian metric\"), more specifically, a [Lorentzian metric](/wiki/Lorentzian_metric \"Lorentzian metric\"), even more specifically, *the* Lorentz metric, reserved for {{math\\|4}}\\-dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention.", "### Minkowski metric", "{{Distinguish\\|text\\=\\[\\[Minkowski distance]] which is also called Minkowski metric}}\nFrom the [second postulate of special relativity](/wiki/Postulates_of_special_relativity \"Postulates of special relativity\"), together with homogeneity of spacetime and isotropy of space, it follows that the [spacetime interval](/wiki/Spacetime_interval \"Spacetime interval\") between two arbitrary events called {{math\\|1}} and {{math\\|2}} is:{{cite book \\|title\\=Spacetime and Geometry \\|author1\\=Sean M. Carroll \\|edition\\=illustrated, herdruk \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-108\\-48839\\-6 \\|page\\=7 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PTGdDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA7}}\nc^2\\\\left(t\\_1 \\- t\\_2\\\\right)^2 \\- \\\\left(x\\_1 \\- x\\_2\\\\right)^2 \\- \\\\left(y\\_1 \\- y\\_2\\\\right)^2 \\- \\\\left(z\\_1 \\- z\\_2\\\\right)^2\\.\nThis quantity is not consistently named in the literature. The interval is sometimes referred to as the square root of the interval as defined here.{{harvnb\\|Sard\\|1970\\|p\\=71}}Minkowski, {{harvnb\\|Landau\\|Lifshitz\\|2002\\|p\\=4}}", "The invariance of the interval under coordinate transformations between inertial frames follows from the invariance of\nc^2 t^2 \\- x^2 \\- y^2 \\- z^2\nprovided the transformations are linear. This [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form \"Quadratic form\") can be used to define a bilinear form\nu \\\\cdot v \\= c^2 t\\_1 t\\_2 \\- x\\_1 x\\_2 \\- y\\_1 y\\_2 \\- z\\_1 z\\_2\nvia the [polarization identity](/wiki/Polarization_identity \"Polarization identity\"). This bilinear form can in turn be written as\nu \\\\cdot v \\= u^\\\\textsf{T} \\\\, \\[\\\\eta] \\\\, v,\nwhere {{math\\|\\[''η'']}} is a 4\\\\times 4 matrix associated with {{mvar\\|η}}. While possibly confusing, it is common practice to denote {{math\\|\\[''η'']}} with just {{mvar\\|η}}. The matrix is read off from the explicit bilinear form as\n\\\\eta \\= \\\\left(\\\\begin{array}{r}", "```\n1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & -1", "```\n\\\\end{array}\\\\right)\\\\!,\nand the bilinear form\nu \\\\cdot v \\= \\\\eta(u, v),\nwith which this section started by assuming its existence, is now identified.", "For definiteness and shorter presentation, the signature {{math\\|(− \\+ \\+ \\+)}} is adopted below. This choice (or the other possible choice) has no (known) physical implications. The symmetry group preserving the bilinear form with one choice of signature is isomorphic (under the map given [here](/wiki/Classical_group%23O%28p%2C_q%29_and_O%28n%29_%E2%80%93_the_orthogonal_groups \"Classical group#O(p, q) and O(n) – the orthogonal groups\")) with the symmetry group preserving the other choice of signature. This means that both choices are in accord with the two postulates of relativity. Switching between the two conventions is straightforward. If the metric tensor {{math\\|''η''}} has been used in a derivation, go back to the earliest point where it was used, substitute {{math\\|''η''}} for {{math\\|−''η''}}, and retrace forward to the desired formula with the desired metric signature.", "### Standard basis", "A standard or orthonormal basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''0, ''e''1, ''e''2, ''e''3}}}} such that\n\\\\eta(e\\_0, e\\_0\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_1, e\\_1\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_2, e\\_2\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_3, e\\_3\\) \\= 1\nand for which \\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= 0 when \\\\mu \\\\neq \\\\nu\\\\,.", "These conditions can be written compactly in the form\n\\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}.", "Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector {{math\\|''v''}} are written {{math\\|(''v''0, ''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}} where the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation \"Einstein notation\") is used to write {{math\\|1\\=''v'' \\= ''v''''μ'' ''e''''μ''}}. The component {{math\\|''v''0}} is called the **timelike component** of {{mvar\\|v}} while the other three components are called the **spatial components**. The spatial components of a {{math\\|4}}\\-vector {{mvar\\|v}} may be identified with a {{math\\|3}}\\-vector {{math\\|1\\='''v''' \\= (''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}}.", "In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors {{mvar\\|v}} and {{mvar\\|w}} is given by", "\\\\eta(v, w) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu} v^\\\\mu w^\\\\nu \\= v^0 w\\_0 \\+ v^1 w\\_1 \\+ v^2 w\\_2 \\+ v^3 w\\_3 \\= v^\\\\mu w\\_\\\\mu \\= v\\_\\\\mu w^\\\\mu,\nand\n\\\\eta(v, v) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu} v^\\\\mu v^\\\\nu \\= v^0v\\_0 \\+ v^1 v\\_1 \\+ v^2 v\\_2 \\+ v^3 v\\_3 \\= v^\\\\mu v\\_\\\\mu.", "Here **lowering of an index** with the metric was used.", "There are many possible choices of standard basis obeying the condition \\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}. Any two such bases are related in some sense by a Lorentz transformation, either by a change\\-of\\-basis matrix \\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu, a real {{math\\|4 × 4}} matrix satisfying\n\\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\rho\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\sigma \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\rho \\\\sigma}.\nor {{math\\|Λ}}, a linear map on the abstract vector space satisfying, for any pair of vectors {{math\\|''u''}}, {{math\\|''v''}},\n\\\\eta(\\\\Lambda u, \\\\Lambda v) \\= \\\\eta(u, v).", "Then if two different bases exist, {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''{{sub\\|0}}, ''e''{{sub\\|1}}, ''e''{{sub\\|2}}, ''e''{{sub\\|3}}}}}} and {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''′{{sub\\|0}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|1}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|2}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|3}}}}}}, e\\_\\\\mu' \\= e\\_\\\\nu\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\mu can be represented as e\\_\\\\mu' \\= e\\_\\\\nu\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\mu or e\\_\\\\mu' \\= \\\\Lambda e\\_\\\\mu. While it might be tempting to think of \\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu and {{math\\|Λ}} as the same thing, mathematically, they are elements of different spaces, and act on the space of standard bases from different sides.", "#### Raising and lowering of indices", "{{main\\|Raising and lowering indices\\|tensor contraction}}\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Linear functionals (1\\-forms) {{math\\|'''α'''}}, {{math\\|'''β'''}} and their sum {{math\\|'''σ'''}} and vectors {{math\\|'''u'''}}, {{math\\|'''v'''}}, {{math\\|'''w'''}}, in [3d](/wiki/Three-dimensional_space \"Three-dimensional space\") [Euclidean space](/wiki/Euclidean_space \"Euclidean space\"). The number of (1\\-form) [hyperplanes](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") intersected by a vector equals the [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\").{{harvnb\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973}}](/wiki/File:1-form_linear_functional.svg \"1-form linear functional.svg\")\nTechnically, a non\\-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual; in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of {{mvar\\|M}} and the [cotangent spaces](/wiki/Cotangent_space \"Cotangent space\") of {{mvar\\|M}}. At a point in {{mvar\\|M}}, the tangent and cotangent spaces are [dual vector spaces](/wiki/Dual_vector_space \"Dual vector space\") (so the dimension of the cotangent space at an event is also {{math\\|4}}). Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by [Riesz representation theorem](/wiki/Riesz_representation_theorem \"Riesz representation theorem\"), may be expressed as the action of a [linear functional](/wiki/Linear_functional \"Linear functional\") on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003}}. One point in Lee's proof of the existence of this map needs modification (Lee deals with [Riemannian metrics](/wiki/Riemannian_metric \"Riemannian metric\").). Where Lee refers to positive definiteness to show the injectivity of the map, one needs instead appeal to non\\-degeneracy.", "Thus if {{math\\|''v''''μ''}} are the components of a vector in tangent space, then {{math\\|1\\=''η''''μν'' ''v''''μ'' \\= ''v''''ν''}} are the components of a vector in the cotangent space (a linear functional). Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in {{math\\|''M''}} itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as **covariant vectors**. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are (almost always implicitly) identified with vectors (linear functionals) in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are **contravariant vectors**. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of {{math\\|''η''}} in matrix representation, can be used to define **raising of an index**. The components of this inverse are denoted {{math\\|''η''''μν''}}. It happens that {{math\\|1\\=''η''''μν'' \\= ''η''''μν''}}. These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted {{math\\|''η''♭}} (eta\\-flat) and {{math\\|''η''♯}} (eta\\-sharp) by the musical analogy.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003\\|loc\\=The tangent\\-cotangent isomorphism p. 282}}", "Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear function can be characterized by two objects: its [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Kernel (linear algebra)\"), which is a [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm (bigger \\= smaller spacing), with one of them (the kernel) passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1\\-covector or [1\\-form](/wiki/1-form \"1-form\") (though the latter is usually reserved for covector *fields*).", "One quantum mechanical analogy explored in the literature is that of a [de Broglie wave](/wiki/De_Broglie_wave \"De Broglie wave\") (scaled by a factor of Planck's reduced constant) associated with a [momentum four\\-vector](/wiki/Momentum_four-vector \"Momentum four-vector\") to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many times the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference, {{harvtxt\\|Lee\\|2003}}, offers the same geometrical view of these objects (but mentions no piercing).", "The [electromagnetic field tensor](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_tensor \"Electromagnetic field tensor\") is a [differential 2\\-form](/wiki/2-form \"2-form\"), which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW.", "One may, of course, ignore geometrical views altogether (as is the style in e.g. {{harvtxt\\|Weinberg\\|2002}} and {{harvnb\\|Landau\\|Lifshitz\\|2002}}) and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time\\-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as [index gymnastics](/wiki/Index_gymnastics \"Index gymnastics\"), ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa (as well as higher order tensors) is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly.", "#### Coordinate free raising and lowering", "Given a bilinear form \\\\eta:M\\\\times M\\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}, the lowered version of a vector can be thought of as the partial evaluation of \\\\eta, that is, there is an associated partial evaluation map\n\\\\eta(\\\\cdot, \\-):M\\\\rightarrow M^\\*; v \\\\mapsto \\\\eta(v,\\\\cdot).", "The lowered vector \\\\eta(v,\\\\cdot)\\\\in M^\\* is then the dual map u\\\\mapsto\\\\eta(v,u). Note it does not matter which argument is partially evaluated due to the symmetry of \\\\eta.", "Non\\-degeneracy is then equivalent to injectivity of the partial evaluation map, or equivalently non\\-degeneracy indicates that the kernel of the map is trivial. In finite dimension, as is the case here, and noting that the dimension of a finite\\-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the dual, this is enough to conclude the partial evaluation map is a linear isomorphism from M to M^\\*. This then allows the definition of the inverse partial evaluation map,\n\\\\eta^{\\-1}:M^\\*\\\\rightarrow M,\nwhich allows the inverse metric to be defined as\n\\\\eta^{\\-1}:M^\\*\\\\times M^\\* \\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}, \\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\alpha,\\\\beta) \\= \\\\eta(\\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\alpha),\\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\beta))\nwhere the two different usages of \\\\eta^{\\-1} can be told apart by the argument each is evaluated on. This can then be used to raise indices. If a coordinate basis is used, the metric {{math\\|''η''{{sup\\|−1}}}} is indeed the matrix inverse to {{math\\|''η''}}.", "#### Formalism of the Minkowski metric", "The present purpose is to show semi\\-rigorously how *formally* one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced.", "{{hidden begin\n\\|titlestyle\\=color:green;background:lightgrey;\n\\|title\\=A formal approach to the Minkowski metric\n}}\nA full\\-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance\n\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\otimes dx^\\\\nu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\odot dx^\\\\nu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu dx^\\\\nu.", "Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1\\-form fields. They are defined as the [exterior derivative](/wiki/Exterior_derivative \"Exterior derivative\") of the coordinate functions {{math\\|''x''''μ''}}. These quantities evaluated at a point {{mvar\\|p}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at {{mvar\\|p}}. The [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product \"Tensor product\") (denoted by the symbol {{math\\|⊗}}) yields a tensor field of type {{math\\|(0, 2\\)}}, i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right\\-hand side, the [symmetric product](/wiki/Symmetric_tensor%23Symmetric_part_of_a_tensor \"Symmetric tensor#Symmetric part of a tensor\") (denoted by the symbol {{math\\|⊙}} or by juxtaposition) has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003}} The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, [line element](/wiki/Line_element \"Line element\"). It is *not* a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see {{harvtxt\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973\\|loc\\=Box 3\\.2 and section 13\\.2\\.}}", "*Tangent* vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order,\n\\\\left.\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\mu}\\\\right\\|\\_p,\nwhere {{mvar\\|p}} is an event. This operator applied to a function {{mvar\\|f}} gives the [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative \"Directional derivative\") of {{mvar\\|f}} at {{mvar\\|p}} in the direction of increasing {{math\\|''x''''μ''}} with {{math\\|''x''''ν'', ''ν'' ≠ ''μ''}} fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at {{mvar\\|p}}.", "The exterior derivative {{math\\|''df''}} of a function {{mvar\\|f}} is a **covector field**, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point {{math\\|p}}, by definition such that\ndf(X) \\= Xf,\nfor each [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\") {{mvar\\|X}}. A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point {{math\\|p}}. In coordinates {{mvar\\|X}} can be expanded at each point {{mvar\\|p}} in the basis given by the {{math\\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}}. Applying this with {{math\\|1\\=''f'' \\= ''x''''μ''}}, the coordinate function itself, and {{math\\|1\\=''X'' \\= ∂/∂''x''''ν''}}, called a *coordinate vector field*, one obtains\ndx^\\\\mu\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu}\\\\right) \\= \\\\frac{\\\\partial x^\\\\mu}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu} \\= \\\\delta\\_\\\\nu^\\\\mu.", "Since this relation holds at each point {{mvar\\|p}}, the {{math\\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at each {{mvar\\|p}} and the bases {{math\\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} and {{math\\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}} are [dual](/wiki/Dual_basis \"Dual basis\") to each other,\n\\\\left. dx^\\\\mu \\\\right\\|\\_p \\\\left(\\\\left.\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu}\\\\right\\|\\_p\\\\right) \\= \\\\delta^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu.\nat each {{mvar\\|p}}. Furthermore, one has\n\\\\alpha \\\\otimes \\\\beta(a, b) \\= \\\\alpha(a)\\\\beta(b)\nfor general one\\-forms on a tangent space {{math\\|''α'', ''β''}} and general tangent vectors {{math\\|''a'', ''b''}}. (This can be taken as a definition, but may also be proved in a more general setting.)", "Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields {{math\\|''a''}}, {{math\\|''b''}}, both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is\n\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\otimes dx^\\\\nu(a, b) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} a^\\\\mu b^\\\\nu,\nwhere {{math\\|''a''''μ''}}, {{math\\|''b''''ν''}} are the *component functions* of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point {{mvar\\|p}}, and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at {{mvar\\|p}} applied to two tangent vectors at {{mvar\\|p}}.", "As mentioned, in a vector space, such as modeling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right\\-hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to the spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where (which tangent space) the vectors come from.", "This situation changes in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"). There one has\ng(p)\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\\\left. dx^\\\\mu \\\\right\\|\\_p \\\\left. dx^\\\\nu \\\\right\\|\\_p(a, b) \\= g(p)\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} a^\\\\mu b^\\\\nu,\nwhere now {{math\\|''η'' → ''g''(''p'')}}, i.e., {{mvar\\|g}} is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of [Einstein's field equations](/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equation \"Einstein's field equation\"). Moreover, {{math\\|''a'', ''b''}} *must* be tangent vectors at spacetime point {{mvar\\|p}} and can no longer be moved around freely.\n{{Hidden end}}", "### Chronological and causality relations", "Let {{math\\|''x'', ''y'' ∈ ''M''}}. Here,\n1. {{math\\|''x''}} **chronologically precedes** {{math\\|''y''}} if {{math\\|''y'' − ''x''}} is future\\-directed timelike. This relation has the [transitive property](/wiki/Transitive_property \"Transitive property\") and so can be written {{math\\|''x'' \\< ''y''}}.\n2. {{math\\|''x''}} **causally precedes** {{math\\|''y''}} if {{math\\|''y'' − ''x''}} is future\\-directed null or future\\-directed timelike. It gives a [partial ordering](/wiki/Partial_ordering \"Partial ordering\") of spacetime and so can be written {{math\\|''x'' ≤ ''y''}}.", "Suppose {{math\\|''x'' ∈ ''M''}} is timelike. Then the **simultaneous hyperplane** for {{math\\|''x''}} is {{math\\|{{mset\\|1\\=''y'' : ''η''(''x'', ''y'') \\= 0}}}}. Since this [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") varies as {{math\\|''x''}} varies, there is a [relativity of simultaneity](/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity \"Relativity of simultaneity\") in Minkowski space.", "" ]
### Terminology Mathematically associated with the bilinear form is a [tensor](/wiki/Tensor "Tensor") of type {{math\|(0,2\)}} at each point in spacetime, called the *Minkowski metric*.For comparison and motivation of terminology, take a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric "Riemannian metric"), which provides a positive definite symmetric bilinear form, i. e. an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product") proper at each point on a manifold. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two (contravariant) vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the {{math\|4×4}} matrix representing the bilinear form. For comparison, in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"), a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold "Lorentzian manifold") {{math\|''L''}} is likewise equipped with a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 "Metric tensor (general relativity)") {{math\|''g''}}, which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space {{math\|''T''''p''''L''}} at each point {{mvar\|p}} of {{math\|''L''}}. In coordinates, it may be represented by a {{math\|4×4}} matrix *depending on spacetime position*. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold "Lorentzian manifold"). Its metric tensor is in coordinates with the same symmetric matrix at every point of {{math\|''M''}}, and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself. Introducing more terminology (but not more structure), Minkowski space is thus a [pseudo\-Euclidean space](/wiki/Pseudo-Euclidean_space "Pseudo-Euclidean space") with total dimension {{math\|1\=''n'' \= 4}} and [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28quadratic_form%29 "Signature (quadratic form)") {{math\|(1, 3\)}} or {{math\|(3, 1\)}}. Elements of Minkowski space are called [events](/wiki/Event_%28relativity%29 "Event (relativity)"). Minkowski space is often denoted {{math\|'''R'''1,3}} or {{math\|'''R'''3,1}} to emphasize the chosen signature, or just {{math\|''M''}}. It is an example of a [pseudo\-Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold "Pseudo-Riemannian manifold"). Then mathematically, the metric is a bilinear form on an abstract four\-dimensional real vector space {{math\|''V''}}, that is, \\eta:V\\times V\\rightarrow \\mathbf{R} where {{math\|''η''}} has signature {{math\|(\+, \-, \-, \-)}}, and signature is a coordinate\-invariant property of {{math\|''η''}}. The space of bilinear maps forms a vector space which can be identified with M^\*\\otimes M^\*, and {{math\|''η''}} may be equivalently viewed as an element of this space. By making a choice of orthonormal basis \\{e\_\\mu\\}, M:\=(V,\\eta) can be identified with the space \\mathbf{R}^{1,3}:\=(\\mathbf{R}^{4},\\eta\_{\\mu\\nu}). The notation is meant to emphasize the fact that {{math\|''M''}} and \\mathbf{R}^{1,3} are not just vector spaces but have added structure. \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} \= \\text{diag}(\+1, \-1, \-1, \-1\). An interesting example of non\-inertial coordinates for (part of) Minkowski spacetime is the [Born coordinates](/wiki/Born_coordinates "Born coordinates"). Another useful set of coordinates is the [light\-cone coordinates](/wiki/Light-cone_coordinates "Light-cone coordinates").
[ "### Terminology", "Mathematically associated with the bilinear form is a [tensor](/wiki/Tensor \"Tensor\") of type {{math\\|(0,2\\)}} at each point in spacetime, called the *Minkowski metric*.For comparison and motivation of terminology, take a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric \"Riemannian metric\"), which provides a positive definite symmetric bilinear form, i. e. an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\") proper at each point on a manifold. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two (contravariant) vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the {{math\\|4×4}} matrix representing the bilinear form.", "For comparison, in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"), a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold \"Lorentzian manifold\") {{math\\|''L''}} is likewise equipped with a [metric tensor](/wiki/Metric_tensor_%28general_relativity%29 \"Metric tensor (general relativity)\") {{math\\|''g''}}, which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space {{math\\|''T''''p''''L''}} at each point {{mvar\\|p}} of {{math\\|''L''}}. In coordinates, it may be represented by a {{math\\|4×4}} matrix *depending on spacetime position*. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a [Lorentzian manifold](/wiki/Lorentzian_manifold \"Lorentzian manifold\"). Its metric tensor is in coordinates with the same symmetric matrix at every point of {{math\\|''M''}}, and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself.", "Introducing more terminology (but not more structure), Minkowski space is thus a [pseudo\\-Euclidean space](/wiki/Pseudo-Euclidean_space \"Pseudo-Euclidean space\") with total dimension {{math\\|1\\=''n'' \\= 4}} and [signature](/wiki/Signature_%28quadratic_form%29 \"Signature (quadratic form)\") {{math\\|(1, 3\\)}} or {{math\\|(3, 1\\)}}. Elements of Minkowski space are called [events](/wiki/Event_%28relativity%29 \"Event (relativity)\"). Minkowski space is often denoted {{math\\|'''R'''1,3}} or {{math\\|'''R'''3,1}} to emphasize the chosen signature, or just {{math\\|''M''}}. It is an example of a [pseudo\\-Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold \"Pseudo-Riemannian manifold\").", "Then mathematically, the metric is a bilinear form on an abstract four\\-dimensional real vector space {{math\\|''V''}}, that is,\n\\\\eta:V\\\\times V\\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}\nwhere {{math\\|''η''}} has signature {{math\\|(\\+, \\-, \\-, \\-)}}, and signature is a coordinate\\-invariant property of {{math\\|''η''}}. The space of bilinear maps forms a vector space which can be identified with M^\\*\\\\otimes M^\\*, and {{math\\|''η''}} may be equivalently viewed as an element of this space. By making a choice of orthonormal basis \\\\{e\\_\\\\mu\\\\}, M:\\=(V,\\\\eta) can be identified with the space \\\\mathbf{R}^{1,3}:\\=(\\\\mathbf{R}^{4},\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu}). The notation is meant to emphasize the fact that {{math\\|''M''}} and \\\\mathbf{R}^{1,3} are not just vector spaces but have added structure. \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\= \\\\text{diag}(\\+1, \\-1, \\-1, \\-1\\).", "An interesting example of non\\-inertial coordinates for (part of) Minkowski spacetime is the [Born coordinates](/wiki/Born_coordinates \"Born coordinates\"). Another useful set of coordinates is the [light\\-cone coordinates](/wiki/Light-cone_coordinates \"Light-cone coordinates\").", "" ]
### Pseudo\-Euclidean metrics {{main\|Pseudo\-Euclidean space\|Lorentzian manifolds}} The Minkowski inner product is not an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product"), since it is not [positive\-definite](/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form "Definite bilinear form"), i.e. the [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form "Quadratic form") {{math\|''η''(''v'', ''v'')}} need not be positive for nonzero {{mvar\|v}}. The positive\-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non\-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be *indefinite*. The Minkowski metric {{mvar\|η}} is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo\-Euclidean metric, or more generally, a *constant* pseudo\-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such, it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type {{math\|(0, 2\)}} tensor. It accepts two arguments {{math\|''u''''p'', ''v''''p''}}, vectors in {{math\|''T''''p''''M'', ''p'' ∈ ''M''}}, the tangent space at {{math\|''p''}} in {{math\|''M''}}. Due to the above\-mentioned canonical identification of {{math\|''T''''p''''M''}} with {{math\|''M''}} itself, it accepts arguments {{math\|''u'', ''v''}} with both {{mvar\|u}} and {{mvar\|v}} in {{mvar\|M}}. As a notational convention, vectors {{mvar\|v}} in {{mvar\|M}}, called [4\-vectors](/wiki/4-vector "4-vector"), are denoted in italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface {{math\|'''v'''}}. The latter is generally reserved for the {{math\|3}}\-vector part (to be introduced below) of a {{math\|4}}\-vector. The definition Giulini 2008 pp. 5, 6 u \\cdot v \= \\eta(u,\\, v) yields an inner product\-like structure on {{math\|''M''}}, previously and also henceforth, called the *Minkowski inner product*, similar to the Euclidean [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product"), but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the *relativistic dot product*. If the two arguments are the same, u \\cdot u \= \\eta(u, u) \\equiv \\\|u\\\|^2 \\equiv u^2, the resulting quantity will be called the *Minkowski norm squared*. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties. Linearity in the first argument \\eta(au \+ v,\\, w) \= a\\eta(u,\\, w) \+ \\eta(v,\\, w),\\quad \\forall u,\\, v \\in M,\\; \\forall a \\in \\R Symmetry \\eta(u,\\, v) \= \\eta(v,\\, u) Non\-degeneracy \\eta(u,\\, v) \= 0,\\; \\forall v \\in M\\ \\Rightarrow\\ u \= 0 The first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining *difference* between a pseudo\-inner product and an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product") proper is that the former is *not* required to be positive definite, that is, {{math\|''η''(''u'', ''u'') \< 0}} is allowed. The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that *these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations*. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation in that it preserves the inner product (i.e. the value of the corresponding bilinear form on two vectors). This approach is taken more generally for *all* classical groups definable this way in [classical group](/wiki/Classical_group "Classical group"). There, the matrix {{math\|Φ}} is identical in the case {{math\|O(3, 1\)}} (the Lorentz group) to the matrix {{math\|''η''}} to be displayed below. Two vectors {{math\|''v''}} and {{math\|''w''}} are said to be [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonal "Orthogonal") if {{math\|1\=''η''(''v'', ''w'') \= 0}}. For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case, when {{math\|''η''(''v'', ''v'') ≤ 0}} and {{math\|''η''(''w'', ''w'') ≥ 0}} (or vice versa), see [hyperbolic orthogonality](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality "Hyperbolic orthogonality"). A vector {{mvar\|e}} is called a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector "Unit vector") if {{math\|1\=''η''(''e'', ''e'') \= ±1}}. A [basis](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 "Basis (linear algebra)") for {{mvar\|M}} consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an [orthonormal basis](/wiki/Orthonormal_basis "Orthonormal basis").{{cite book \|title\=The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime: An Introduction to the Mathematics of the Special Theory of Relativity \|author1\=Gregory L. Naber \|edition\=illustrated \|publisher\=Courier Corporation \|year\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-0\-486\-43235\-9 \|page\=8 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-26 \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231018/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \|url\-status\=live }} [Extract of page 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNfRHzwdVZ0C&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231020/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C\&pg\=PA8 \|date\=2022\-12\-26 }} For a given [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame "Inertial frame"), an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is [Sylvester's law of inertia](/wiki/Sylvester%27s_law_of_inertia "Sylvester's law of inertia"). More terminology (but not more structure): The Minkowski metric is a [pseudo\-Riemannian metric](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_metric "Pseudo-Riemannian metric"), more specifically, a [Lorentzian metric](/wiki/Lorentzian_metric "Lorentzian metric"), even more specifically, *the* Lorentz metric, reserved for {{math\|4}}\-dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention.
[ "### Pseudo\\-Euclidean metrics", "{{main\\|Pseudo\\-Euclidean space\\|Lorentzian manifolds}}\nThe Minkowski inner product is not an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\"), since it is not [positive\\-definite](/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form \"Definite bilinear form\"), i.e. the [quadratic form](/wiki/Quadratic_form \"Quadratic form\") {{math\\|''η''(''v'', ''v'')}} need not be positive for nonzero {{mvar\\|v}}. The positive\\-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non\\-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be *indefinite*.\nThe Minkowski metric {{mvar\\|η}} is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo\\-Euclidean metric, or more generally, a *constant* pseudo\\-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such, it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type {{math\\|(0, 2\\)}} tensor. It accepts two arguments {{math\\|''u''''p'', ''v''''p''}}, vectors in {{math\\|''T''''p''''M'', ''p'' ∈ ''M''}}, the tangent space at {{math\\|''p''}} in {{math\\|''M''}}. Due to the above\\-mentioned canonical identification of {{math\\|''T''''p''''M''}} with {{math\\|''M''}} itself, it accepts arguments {{math\\|''u'', ''v''}} with both {{mvar\\|u}} and {{mvar\\|v}} in {{mvar\\|M}}.", "As a notational convention, vectors {{mvar\\|v}} in {{mvar\\|M}}, called [4\\-vectors](/wiki/4-vector \"4-vector\"), are denoted in italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface {{math\\|'''v'''}}. The latter is generally reserved for the {{math\\|3}}\\-vector part (to be introduced below) of a {{math\\|4}}\\-vector.", "The definition Giulini 2008 pp. 5, 6\nu \\\\cdot v \\= \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v)\nyields an inner product\\-like structure on {{math\\|''M''}}, previously and also henceforth, called the *Minkowski inner product*, similar to the Euclidean [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\"), but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the *relativistic dot product*. If the two arguments are the same,\nu \\\\cdot u \\= \\\\eta(u, u) \\\\equiv \\\\\\|u\\\\\\|^2 \\\\equiv u^2,\nthe resulting quantity will be called the *Minkowski norm squared*. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties.", "Linearity in the first argument\n \\\\eta(au \\+ v,\\\\, w) \\= a\\\\eta(u,\\\\, w) \\+ \\\\eta(v,\\\\, w),\\\\quad \\\\forall u,\\\\, v \\\\in M,\\\\; \\\\forall a \\\\in \\\\R\n Symmetry\n \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v) \\= \\\\eta(v,\\\\, u)\n Non\\-degeneracy\n \\\\eta(u,\\\\, v) \\= 0,\\\\; \\\\forall v \\\\in M\\\\ \\\\Rightarrow\\\\ u \\= 0\nThe first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining *difference* between a pseudo\\-inner product and an [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\") proper is that the former is *not* required to be positive definite, that is, {{math\\|''η''(''u'', ''u'') \\< 0}} is allowed.", "The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that *these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations*. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation in that it preserves the inner product (i.e. the value of the corresponding bilinear form on two vectors). This approach is taken more generally for *all* classical groups definable this way in [classical group](/wiki/Classical_group \"Classical group\"). There, the matrix {{math\\|Φ}} is identical in the case {{math\\|O(3, 1\\)}} (the Lorentz group) to the matrix {{math\\|''η''}} to be displayed below.", "Two vectors {{math\\|''v''}} and {{math\\|''w''}} are said to be [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonal \"Orthogonal\") if {{math\\|1\\=''η''(''v'', ''w'') \\= 0}}. For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case, when {{math\\|''η''(''v'', ''v'') ≤ 0}} and {{math\\|''η''(''w'', ''w'') ≥ 0}} (or vice versa), see [hyperbolic orthogonality](/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality \"Hyperbolic orthogonality\").", "A vector {{mvar\\|e}} is called a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector \"Unit vector\") if {{math\\|1\\=''η''(''e'', ''e'') \\= ±1}}. A [basis](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Basis (linear algebra)\") for {{mvar\\|M}} consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an [orthonormal basis](/wiki/Orthonormal_basis \"Orthonormal basis\").{{cite book \\|title\\=The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime: An Introduction to the Mathematics of the Special Theory of Relativity \\|author1\\=Gregory L. Naber \\|edition\\=illustrated \\|publisher\\=Courier Corporation \\|year\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-486\\-43235\\-9 \\|page\\=8 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231018/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Extract of page 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNfRHzwdVZ0C&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226231020/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pNfRHzwdVZ0C\\&pg\\=PA8 \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-26 }}", "For a given [inertial frame](/wiki/Inertial_frame \"Inertial frame\"), an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is [Sylvester's law of inertia](/wiki/Sylvester%27s_law_of_inertia \"Sylvester's law of inertia\").", "More terminology (but not more structure): The Minkowski metric is a [pseudo\\-Riemannian metric](/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_metric \"Pseudo-Riemannian metric\"), more specifically, a [Lorentzian metric](/wiki/Lorentzian_metric \"Lorentzian metric\"), even more specifically, *the* Lorentz metric, reserved for {{math\\|4}}\\-dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention.", "" ]
### Standard basis A standard or orthonormal basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors {{math\|{{mset\|''e''0, ''e''1, ''e''2, ''e''3}}}} such that \\eta(e\_0, e\_0\) \= \-\\eta(e\_1, e\_1\) \= \-\\eta(e\_2, e\_2\) \= \-\\eta(e\_3, e\_3\) \= 1 and for which \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= 0 when \\mu \\neq \\nu\\,. These conditions can be written compactly in the form \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}. Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector {{math\|''v''}} are written {{math\|(''v''0, ''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}} where the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation "Einstein notation") is used to write {{math\|1\=''v'' \= ''v''''μ'' ''e''''μ''}}. The component {{math\|''v''0}} is called the **timelike component** of {{mvar\|v}} while the other three components are called the **spatial components**. The spatial components of a {{math\|4}}\-vector {{mvar\|v}} may be identified with a {{math\|3}}\-vector {{math\|1\='''v''' \= (''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}}. In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors {{mvar\|v}} and {{mvar\|w}} is given by \\eta(v, w) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu} v^\\mu w^\\nu \= v^0 w\_0 \+ v^1 w\_1 \+ v^2 w\_2 \+ v^3 w\_3 \= v^\\mu w\_\\mu \= v\_\\mu w^\\mu, and \\eta(v, v) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu} v^\\mu v^\\nu \= v^0v\_0 \+ v^1 v\_1 \+ v^2 v\_2 \+ v^3 v\_3 \= v^\\mu v\_\\mu. Here **lowering of an index** with the metric was used. There are many possible choices of standard basis obeying the condition \\eta(e\_\\mu, e\_\\nu) \= \\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}. Any two such bases are related in some sense by a Lorentz transformation, either by a change\-of\-basis matrix \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\nu, a real {{math\|4 × 4}} matrix satisfying \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\rho\\eta\_{\\mu \\nu}\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\sigma \= \\eta\_{\\rho \\sigma}. or {{math\|Λ}}, a linear map on the abstract vector space satisfying, for any pair of vectors {{math\|''u''}}, {{math\|''v''}}, \\eta(\\Lambda u, \\Lambda v) \= \\eta(u, v). Then if two different bases exist, {{math\|{{mset\|''e''{{sub\|0}}, ''e''{{sub\|1}}, ''e''{{sub\|2}}, ''e''{{sub\|3}}}}}} and {{math\|{{mset\|''e''′{{sub\|0}}, ''e''′{{sub\|1}}, ''e''′{{sub\|2}}, ''e''′{{sub\|3}}}}}}, e\_\\mu' \= e\_\\nu\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\mu can be represented as e\_\\mu' \= e\_\\nu\\Lambda^\\nu\_\\mu or e\_\\mu' \= \\Lambda e\_\\mu. While it might be tempting to think of \\Lambda^\\mu\_\\nu and {{math\|Λ}} as the same thing, mathematically, they are elements of different spaces, and act on the space of standard bases from different sides. #### Raising and lowering of indices {{main\|Raising and lowering indices\|tensor contraction}} [thumb\|400px\|Linear functionals (1\-forms) {{math\|'''α'''}}, {{math\|'''β'''}} and their sum {{math\|'''σ'''}} and vectors {{math\|'''u'''}}, {{math\|'''v'''}}, {{math\|'''w'''}}, in [3d](/wiki/Three-dimensional_space "Three-dimensional space") [Euclidean space](/wiki/Euclidean_space "Euclidean space"). The number of (1\-form) [hyperplanes](/wiki/Hyperplane "Hyperplane") intersected by a vector equals the [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product").{{harvnb\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973}}](/wiki/File:1-form_linear_functional.svg "1-form linear functional.svg") Technically, a non\-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual; in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of {{mvar\|M}} and the [cotangent spaces](/wiki/Cotangent_space "Cotangent space") of {{mvar\|M}}. At a point in {{mvar\|M}}, the tangent and cotangent spaces are [dual vector spaces](/wiki/Dual_vector_space "Dual vector space") (so the dimension of the cotangent space at an event is also {{math\|4}}). Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by [Riesz representation theorem](/wiki/Riesz_representation_theorem "Riesz representation theorem"), may be expressed as the action of a [linear functional](/wiki/Linear_functional "Linear functional") on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003}}. One point in Lee's proof of the existence of this map needs modification (Lee deals with [Riemannian metrics](/wiki/Riemannian_metric "Riemannian metric").). Where Lee refers to positive definiteness to show the injectivity of the map, one needs instead appeal to non\-degeneracy. Thus if {{math\|''v''''μ''}} are the components of a vector in tangent space, then {{math\|1\=''η''''μν'' ''v''''μ'' \= ''v''''ν''}} are the components of a vector in the cotangent space (a linear functional). Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in {{math\|''M''}} itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as **covariant vectors**. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are (almost always implicitly) identified with vectors (linear functionals) in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are **contravariant vectors**. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of {{math\|''η''}} in matrix representation, can be used to define **raising of an index**. The components of this inverse are denoted {{math\|''η''''μν''}}. It happens that {{math\|1\=''η''''μν'' \= ''η''''μν''}}. These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted {{math\|''η''♭}} (eta\-flat) and {{math\|''η''♯}} (eta\-sharp) by the musical analogy.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003\|loc\=The tangent\-cotangent isomorphism p. 282}} Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear function can be characterized by two objects: its [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28linear_algebra%29 "Kernel (linear algebra)"), which is a [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane "Hyperplane") passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm (bigger \= smaller spacing), with one of them (the kernel) passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1\-covector or [1\-form](/wiki/1-form "1-form") (though the latter is usually reserved for covector *fields*). One quantum mechanical analogy explored in the literature is that of a [de Broglie wave](/wiki/De_Broglie_wave "De Broglie wave") (scaled by a factor of Planck's reduced constant) associated with a [momentum four\-vector](/wiki/Momentum_four-vector "Momentum four-vector") to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many times the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference, {{harvtxt\|Lee\|2003}}, offers the same geometrical view of these objects (but mentions no piercing). The [electromagnetic field tensor](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_tensor "Electromagnetic field tensor") is a [differential 2\-form](/wiki/2-form "2-form"), which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW. One may, of course, ignore geometrical views altogether (as is the style in e.g. {{harvtxt\|Weinberg\|2002}} and {{harvnb\|Landau\|Lifshitz\|2002}}) and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time\-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as [index gymnastics](/wiki/Index_gymnastics "Index gymnastics"), ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa (as well as higher order tensors) is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly. #### Coordinate free raising and lowering Given a bilinear form \\eta:M\\times M\\rightarrow \\mathbf{R}, the lowered version of a vector can be thought of as the partial evaluation of \\eta, that is, there is an associated partial evaluation map \\eta(\\cdot, \-):M\\rightarrow M^\*; v \\mapsto \\eta(v,\\cdot). The lowered vector \\eta(v,\\cdot)\\in M^\* is then the dual map u\\mapsto\\eta(v,u). Note it does not matter which argument is partially evaluated due to the symmetry of \\eta. Non\-degeneracy is then equivalent to injectivity of the partial evaluation map, or equivalently non\-degeneracy indicates that the kernel of the map is trivial. In finite dimension, as is the case here, and noting that the dimension of a finite\-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the dual, this is enough to conclude the partial evaluation map is a linear isomorphism from M to M^\*. This then allows the definition of the inverse partial evaluation map, \\eta^{\-1}:M^\*\\rightarrow M, which allows the inverse metric to be defined as \\eta^{\-1}:M^\*\\times M^\* \\rightarrow \\mathbf{R}, \\eta^{\-1}(\\alpha,\\beta) \= \\eta(\\eta^{\-1}(\\alpha),\\eta^{\-1}(\\beta)) where the two different usages of \\eta^{\-1} can be told apart by the argument each is evaluated on. This can then be used to raise indices. If a coordinate basis is used, the metric {{math\|''η''{{sup\|−1}}}} is indeed the matrix inverse to {{math\|''η''}}. #### Formalism of the Minkowski metric The present purpose is to show semi\-rigorously how *formally* one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced. {{hidden begin \|titlestyle\=color:green;background:lightgrey; \|title\=A formal approach to the Minkowski metric }} A full\-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\otimes dx^\\nu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\odot dx^\\nu \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu dx^\\nu. Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1\-form fields. They are defined as the [exterior derivative](/wiki/Exterior_derivative "Exterior derivative") of the coordinate functions {{math\|''x''''μ''}}. These quantities evaluated at a point {{mvar\|p}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at {{mvar\|p}}. The [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product "Tensor product") (denoted by the symbol {{math\|⊗}}) yields a tensor field of type {{math\|(0, 2\)}}, i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right\-hand side, the [symmetric product](/wiki/Symmetric_tensor%23Symmetric_part_of_a_tensor "Symmetric tensor#Symmetric part of a tensor") (denoted by the symbol {{math\|⊙}} or by juxtaposition) has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric.{{harvnb\|Lee\|2003}} The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, [line element](/wiki/Line_element "Line element"). It is *not* a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see {{harvtxt\|Misner\|Thorne\|Wheeler\|1973\|loc\=Box 3\.2 and section 13\.2\.}} *Tangent* vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order, \\left.\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\mu}\\right\|\_p, where {{mvar\|p}} is an event. This operator applied to a function {{mvar\|f}} gives the [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative "Directional derivative") of {{mvar\|f}} at {{mvar\|p}} in the direction of increasing {{math\|''x''''μ''}} with {{math\|''x''''ν'', ''ν'' ≠ ''μ''}} fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at {{mvar\|p}}. The exterior derivative {{math\|''df''}} of a function {{mvar\|f}} is a **covector field**, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point {{math\|p}}, by definition such that df(X) \= Xf, for each [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field "Vector field") {{mvar\|X}}. A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point {{math\|p}}. In coordinates {{mvar\|X}} can be expanded at each point {{mvar\|p}} in the basis given by the {{math\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}}. Applying this with {{math\|1\=''f'' \= ''x''''μ''}}, the coordinate function itself, and {{math\|1\=''X'' \= ∂/∂''x''''ν''}}, called a *coordinate vector field*, one obtains dx^\\mu\\left(\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\nu}\\right) \= \\frac{\\partial x^\\mu}{\\partial x^\\nu} \= \\delta\_\\nu^\\mu. Since this relation holds at each point {{mvar\|p}}, the {{math\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at each {{mvar\|p}} and the bases {{math\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} and {{math\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}} are [dual](/wiki/Dual_basis "Dual basis") to each other, \\left. dx^\\mu \\right\|\_p \\left(\\left.\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^\\nu}\\right\|\_p\\right) \= \\delta^\\mu\_\\nu. at each {{mvar\|p}}. Furthermore, one has \\alpha \\otimes \\beta(a, b) \= \\alpha(a)\\beta(b) for general one\-forms on a tangent space {{math\|''α'', ''β''}} and general tangent vectors {{math\|''a'', ''b''}}. (This can be taken as a definition, but may also be proved in a more general setting.) Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields {{math\|''a''}}, {{math\|''b''}}, both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} dx^\\mu \\otimes dx^\\nu(a, b) \= \\eta\_{\\mu\\nu} a^\\mu b^\\nu, where {{math\|''a''''μ''}}, {{math\|''b''''ν''}} are the *component functions* of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point {{mvar\|p}}, and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at {{mvar\|p}} applied to two tangent vectors at {{mvar\|p}}. As mentioned, in a vector space, such as modeling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right\-hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to the spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where (which tangent space) the vectors come from. This situation changes in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"). There one has g(p)\_{\\mu\\nu} \\left. dx^\\mu \\right\|\_p \\left. dx^\\nu \\right\|\_p(a, b) \= g(p)\_{\\mu\\nu} a^\\mu b^\\nu, where now {{math\|''η'' → ''g''(''p'')}}, i.e., {{mvar\|g}} is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of [Einstein's field equations](/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equation "Einstein's field equation"). Moreover, {{math\|''a'', ''b''}} *must* be tangent vectors at spacetime point {{mvar\|p}} and can no longer be moved around freely. {{Hidden end}}
[ "### Standard basis", "A standard or orthonormal basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''0, ''e''1, ''e''2, ''e''3}}}} such that\n\\\\eta(e\\_0, e\\_0\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_1, e\\_1\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_2, e\\_2\\) \\= \\-\\\\eta(e\\_3, e\\_3\\) \\= 1\nand for which \\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= 0 when \\\\mu \\\\neq \\\\nu\\\\,.", "These conditions can be written compactly in the form\n\\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}.", "Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector {{math\\|''v''}} are written {{math\\|(''v''0, ''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}} where the [Einstein notation](/wiki/Einstein_notation \"Einstein notation\") is used to write {{math\\|1\\=''v'' \\= ''v''''μ'' ''e''''μ''}}. The component {{math\\|''v''0}} is called the **timelike component** of {{mvar\\|v}} while the other three components are called the **spatial components**. The spatial components of a {{math\\|4}}\\-vector {{mvar\\|v}} may be identified with a {{math\\|3}}\\-vector {{math\\|1\\='''v''' \\= (''v''1, ''v''2, ''v''3)}}.", "In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors {{mvar\\|v}} and {{mvar\\|w}} is given by", "\\\\eta(v, w) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu} v^\\\\mu w^\\\\nu \\= v^0 w\\_0 \\+ v^1 w\\_1 \\+ v^2 w\\_2 \\+ v^3 w\\_3 \\= v^\\\\mu w\\_\\\\mu \\= v\\_\\\\mu w^\\\\mu,\nand\n\\\\eta(v, v) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu} v^\\\\mu v^\\\\nu \\= v^0v\\_0 \\+ v^1 v\\_1 \\+ v^2 v\\_2 \\+ v^3 v\\_3 \\= v^\\\\mu v\\_\\\\mu.", "Here **lowering of an index** with the metric was used.", "There are many possible choices of standard basis obeying the condition \\\\eta(e\\_\\\\mu, e\\_\\\\nu) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}. Any two such bases are related in some sense by a Lorentz transformation, either by a change\\-of\\-basis matrix \\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu, a real {{math\\|4 × 4}} matrix satisfying\n\\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\rho\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu \\\\nu}\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\sigma \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\rho \\\\sigma}.\nor {{math\\|Λ}}, a linear map on the abstract vector space satisfying, for any pair of vectors {{math\\|''u''}}, {{math\\|''v''}},\n\\\\eta(\\\\Lambda u, \\\\Lambda v) \\= \\\\eta(u, v).", "Then if two different bases exist, {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''{{sub\\|0}}, ''e''{{sub\\|1}}, ''e''{{sub\\|2}}, ''e''{{sub\\|3}}}}}} and {{math\\|{{mset\\|''e''′{{sub\\|0}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|1}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|2}}, ''e''′{{sub\\|3}}}}}}, e\\_\\\\mu' \\= e\\_\\\\nu\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\mu can be represented as e\\_\\\\mu' \\= e\\_\\\\nu\\\\Lambda^\\\\nu\\_\\\\mu or e\\_\\\\mu' \\= \\\\Lambda e\\_\\\\mu. While it might be tempting to think of \\\\Lambda^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu and {{math\\|Λ}} as the same thing, mathematically, they are elements of different spaces, and act on the space of standard bases from different sides.", "#### Raising and lowering of indices", "{{main\\|Raising and lowering indices\\|tensor contraction}}\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Linear functionals (1\\-forms) {{math\\|'''α'''}}, {{math\\|'''β'''}} and their sum {{math\\|'''σ'''}} and vectors {{math\\|'''u'''}}, {{math\\|'''v'''}}, {{math\\|'''w'''}}, in [3d](/wiki/Three-dimensional_space \"Three-dimensional space\") [Euclidean space](/wiki/Euclidean_space \"Euclidean space\"). The number of (1\\-form) [hyperplanes](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") intersected by a vector equals the [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\").{{harvnb\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973}}](/wiki/File:1-form_linear_functional.svg \"1-form linear functional.svg\")\nTechnically, a non\\-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual; in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of {{mvar\\|M}} and the [cotangent spaces](/wiki/Cotangent_space \"Cotangent space\") of {{mvar\\|M}}. At a point in {{mvar\\|M}}, the tangent and cotangent spaces are [dual vector spaces](/wiki/Dual_vector_space \"Dual vector space\") (so the dimension of the cotangent space at an event is also {{math\\|4}}). Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by [Riesz representation theorem](/wiki/Riesz_representation_theorem \"Riesz representation theorem\"), may be expressed as the action of a [linear functional](/wiki/Linear_functional \"Linear functional\") on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003}}. One point in Lee's proof of the existence of this map needs modification (Lee deals with [Riemannian metrics](/wiki/Riemannian_metric \"Riemannian metric\").). Where Lee refers to positive definiteness to show the injectivity of the map, one needs instead appeal to non\\-degeneracy.", "Thus if {{math\\|''v''''μ''}} are the components of a vector in tangent space, then {{math\\|1\\=''η''''μν'' ''v''''μ'' \\= ''v''''ν''}} are the components of a vector in the cotangent space (a linear functional). Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in {{math\\|''M''}} itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as **covariant vectors**. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are (almost always implicitly) identified with vectors (linear functionals) in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are **contravariant vectors**. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of {{math\\|''η''}} in matrix representation, can be used to define **raising of an index**. The components of this inverse are denoted {{math\\|''η''''μν''}}. It happens that {{math\\|1\\=''η''''μν'' \\= ''η''''μν''}}. These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted {{math\\|''η''♭}} (eta\\-flat) and {{math\\|''η''♯}} (eta\\-sharp) by the musical analogy.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003\\|loc\\=The tangent\\-cotangent isomorphism p. 282}}", "Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear function can be characterized by two objects: its [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Kernel (linear algebra)\"), which is a [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm (bigger \\= smaller spacing), with one of them (the kernel) passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1\\-covector or [1\\-form](/wiki/1-form \"1-form\") (though the latter is usually reserved for covector *fields*).", "One quantum mechanical analogy explored in the literature is that of a [de Broglie wave](/wiki/De_Broglie_wave \"De Broglie wave\") (scaled by a factor of Planck's reduced constant) associated with a [momentum four\\-vector](/wiki/Momentum_four-vector \"Momentum four-vector\") to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many times the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference, {{harvtxt\\|Lee\\|2003}}, offers the same geometrical view of these objects (but mentions no piercing).", "The [electromagnetic field tensor](/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_tensor \"Electromagnetic field tensor\") is a [differential 2\\-form](/wiki/2-form \"2-form\"), which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW.", "One may, of course, ignore geometrical views altogether (as is the style in e.g. {{harvtxt\\|Weinberg\\|2002}} and {{harvnb\\|Landau\\|Lifshitz\\|2002}}) and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time\\-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as [index gymnastics](/wiki/Index_gymnastics \"Index gymnastics\"), ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa (as well as higher order tensors) is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly.", "#### Coordinate free raising and lowering", "Given a bilinear form \\\\eta:M\\\\times M\\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}, the lowered version of a vector can be thought of as the partial evaluation of \\\\eta, that is, there is an associated partial evaluation map\n\\\\eta(\\\\cdot, \\-):M\\\\rightarrow M^\\*; v \\\\mapsto \\\\eta(v,\\\\cdot).", "The lowered vector \\\\eta(v,\\\\cdot)\\\\in M^\\* is then the dual map u\\\\mapsto\\\\eta(v,u). Note it does not matter which argument is partially evaluated due to the symmetry of \\\\eta.", "Non\\-degeneracy is then equivalent to injectivity of the partial evaluation map, or equivalently non\\-degeneracy indicates that the kernel of the map is trivial. In finite dimension, as is the case here, and noting that the dimension of a finite\\-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the dual, this is enough to conclude the partial evaluation map is a linear isomorphism from M to M^\\*. This then allows the definition of the inverse partial evaluation map,\n\\\\eta^{\\-1}:M^\\*\\\\rightarrow M,\nwhich allows the inverse metric to be defined as\n\\\\eta^{\\-1}:M^\\*\\\\times M^\\* \\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{R}, \\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\alpha,\\\\beta) \\= \\\\eta(\\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\alpha),\\\\eta^{\\-1}(\\\\beta))\nwhere the two different usages of \\\\eta^{\\-1} can be told apart by the argument each is evaluated on. This can then be used to raise indices. If a coordinate basis is used, the metric {{math\\|''η''{{sup\\|−1}}}} is indeed the matrix inverse to {{math\\|''η''}}.", "#### Formalism of the Minkowski metric", "The present purpose is to show semi\\-rigorously how *formally* one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced.", "{{hidden begin\n\\|titlestyle\\=color:green;background:lightgrey;\n\\|title\\=A formal approach to the Minkowski metric\n}}\nA full\\-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance\n\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\otimes dx^\\\\nu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\odot dx^\\\\nu \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu dx^\\\\nu.", "Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1\\-form fields. They are defined as the [exterior derivative](/wiki/Exterior_derivative \"Exterior derivative\") of the coordinate functions {{math\\|''x''''μ''}}. These quantities evaluated at a point {{mvar\\|p}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at {{mvar\\|p}}. The [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product \"Tensor product\") (denoted by the symbol {{math\\|⊗}}) yields a tensor field of type {{math\\|(0, 2\\)}}, i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right\\-hand side, the [symmetric product](/wiki/Symmetric_tensor%23Symmetric_part_of_a_tensor \"Symmetric tensor#Symmetric part of a tensor\") (denoted by the symbol {{math\\|⊙}} or by juxtaposition) has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|2003}} The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, [line element](/wiki/Line_element \"Line element\"). It is *not* a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see {{harvtxt\\|Misner\\|Thorne\\|Wheeler\\|1973\\|loc\\=Box 3\\.2 and section 13\\.2\\.}}", "*Tangent* vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order,\n\\\\left.\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\mu}\\\\right\\|\\_p,\nwhere {{mvar\\|p}} is an event. This operator applied to a function {{mvar\\|f}} gives the [directional derivative](/wiki/Directional_derivative \"Directional derivative\") of {{mvar\\|f}} at {{mvar\\|p}} in the direction of increasing {{math\\|''x''''μ''}} with {{math\\|''x''''ν'', ''ν'' ≠ ''μ''}} fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at {{mvar\\|p}}.", "The exterior derivative {{math\\|''df''}} of a function {{mvar\\|f}} is a **covector field**, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point {{math\\|p}}, by definition such that\ndf(X) \\= Xf,\nfor each [vector field](/wiki/Vector_field \"Vector field\") {{mvar\\|X}}. A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point {{math\\|p}}. In coordinates {{mvar\\|X}} can be expanded at each point {{mvar\\|p}} in the basis given by the {{math\\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}}. Applying this with {{math\\|1\\=''f'' \\= ''x''''μ''}}, the coordinate function itself, and {{math\\|1\\=''X'' \\= ∂/∂''x''''ν''}}, called a *coordinate vector field*, one obtains\ndx^\\\\mu\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu}\\\\right) \\= \\\\frac{\\\\partial x^\\\\mu}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu} \\= \\\\delta\\_\\\\nu^\\\\mu.", "Since this relation holds at each point {{mvar\\|p}}, the {{math\\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} provide a basis for the cotangent space at each {{mvar\\|p}} and the bases {{math\\|''dx''''μ''{{!}}''p''}} and {{math\\|∂/∂''x''''ν''{{!}}''p''}} are [dual](/wiki/Dual_basis \"Dual basis\") to each other,\n\\\\left. dx^\\\\mu \\\\right\\|\\_p \\\\left(\\\\left.\\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial x^\\\\nu}\\\\right\\|\\_p\\\\right) \\= \\\\delta^\\\\mu\\_\\\\nu.\nat each {{mvar\\|p}}. Furthermore, one has\n\\\\alpha \\\\otimes \\\\beta(a, b) \\= \\\\alpha(a)\\\\beta(b)\nfor general one\\-forms on a tangent space {{math\\|''α'', ''β''}} and general tangent vectors {{math\\|''a'', ''b''}}. (This can be taken as a definition, but may also be proved in a more general setting.)", "Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields {{math\\|''a''}}, {{math\\|''b''}}, both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is\n\\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} dx^\\\\mu \\\\otimes dx^\\\\nu(a, b) \\= \\\\eta\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} a^\\\\mu b^\\\\nu,\nwhere {{math\\|''a''''μ''}}, {{math\\|''b''''ν''}} are the *component functions* of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point {{mvar\\|p}}, and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at {{mvar\\|p}} applied to two tangent vectors at {{mvar\\|p}}.", "As mentioned, in a vector space, such as modeling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right\\-hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to the spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where (which tangent space) the vectors come from.", "This situation changes in [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"). There one has\ng(p)\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} \\\\left. dx^\\\\mu \\\\right\\|\\_p \\\\left. dx^\\\\nu \\\\right\\|\\_p(a, b) \\= g(p)\\_{\\\\mu\\\\nu} a^\\\\mu b^\\\\nu,\nwhere now {{math\\|''η'' → ''g''(''p'')}}, i.e., {{mvar\\|g}} is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of [Einstein's field equations](/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equation \"Einstein's field equation\"). Moreover, {{math\\|''a'', ''b''}} *must* be tangent vectors at spacetime point {{mvar\\|p}} and can no longer be moved around freely.\n{{Hidden end}}", "" ]
Generalizations --------------- {{main\|Lorentzian manifold\|Super Minkowski space}} A Lorentzian manifold is a generalization of Minkowski space in two ways. The total number of spacetime dimensions is not restricted to be {{math\|4}} ({{math\|2}} or more) and a Lorentzian manifold need not be flat, i.e. it allows for curvature. ### Complexified Minkowski space Complexified Minkowski space is defined as {{math\|1\=''M''c \= ''M'' ⊕ ''iM'' }}.Y. Friedman, A Physically Meaningful Relativistic Description of the Spin State of an Electron, Symmetry 2021, 13(10\), 1853; [https://doi.org/10\.3390/sym13101853](https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13101853) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813114023/https://www.mdpi.com/2073\-8994/13/10/1853 \|date\=2023\-08\-13 }} Its real part is the Minkowski space of [four\-vectors](/wiki/Four-vectors "Four-vectors"), such as the [four\-velocity](/wiki/Four-velocity "Four-velocity") and the [four\-momentum](/wiki/Four-momentum "Four-momentum"), which are independent of the choice of [orientation](/wiki/Orientation_%28geometry%29 "Orientation (geometry)") of the space. The imaginary part, on the other hand, may consist of four pseudovectors, such as [angular velocity](/wiki/Angular_velocity "Angular velocity") and [magnetic moment](/wiki/Magnetic_moment "Magnetic moment"), which change their direction with a change of orientation. A [pseudoscalar](/wiki/Pseudoscalar "Pseudoscalar") {{math\|''i''}} is introduced, which also changes sign with a change of orientation. Thus, elements of {{math\|''M''c}} are independent of the choice of the orientation. The [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product "Inner product")\-like structure on {{math\|''M''c}} is defined as {{math\|1\=''u'' ⋅ ''v'' \= ''η''(''u'', ''v'')}} for any {{math\|''u'',''v'' ∈ ''M''c}}. A relativistic pure [spin](/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29 "Spin (physics)") of an [electron](/wiki/Electron "Electron") or any half spin particle is described by {{math\|''ρ'' ∈ '' M''c}} as {{math\|1\=''ρ'' \= ''u'' \+ ''is''}}, where {{math\|''u''}} is the four\-velocity of the particle, satisfying {{math\|1\=''u''2 \= 1}} and {{mvar\|s}} is the 4D spin vector,Jackson, J.D., Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed.; John Wiley \\\& Sons: Hoboken, NJ, US, 1998 which is also the [Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector](/wiki/Pauli%E2%80%93Lubanski_pseudovector "Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector") satisfying {{math\|1\=''s''2 \= −1}} and {{math\|1\=''u'' ⋅ ''s'' \= 0}}. ### Generalized Minkowski space Minkowski space refers to a mathematical formulation in four dimensions. However, the mathematics can easily be extended or simplified to create an analogous generalized Minkowski space in any number of dimensions. If {{math\|''n'' ≥ 2}}, {{math\|''n''}}\-dimensional Minkowski space is a vector space of real dimension {{math\|''n''}} on which there is a constant Minkowski metric of signature {{math\|(''n'' − 1, 1\)}} or {{math\|(1, ''n'' − 1\)}}. These generalizations are used in theories where spacetime is assumed to have more or less than {{math\|4}} dimensions. [String theory](/wiki/String_theory "String theory") and [M\-theory](/wiki/M-theory "M-theory") are two examples where {{math\|''n'' \> 4}}. In string theory, there appears [conformal field theories](/wiki/Conformal_field_theory "Conformal field theory") with {{math\|1 \+ 1}} spacetime dimensions. [de Sitter space](/wiki/De_Sitter_space "De Sitter space") can be formulated as a submanifold of generalized Minkowski space as can the model spaces of [hyperbolic geometry](/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry "Hyperbolic geometry") (see below). ### Curvature As a **flat spacetime**, the three spatial components of Minkowski spacetime always obey the [Pythagorean Theorem](/wiki/Pythagorean_Theorem "Pythagorean Theorem"). Minkowski space is a suitable basis for special relativity, a good description of physical systems over finite distances in systems without significant [gravitation](/wiki/Gravitation "Gravitation"). However, in order to take gravity into account, physicists use the theory of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity "General relativity"), which is formulated in the mathematics of a [non\-Euclidean geometry](/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry "Non-Euclidean geometry"). When this geometry is used as a model of physical space, it is known as *[curved space](/wiki/Curved_space "Curved space")*. Even in curved space, Minkowski space is still a good description in an [infinitesimal region](/wiki/Local_reference_frame "Local reference frame") surrounding any point (barring gravitational singularities).This similarity between [flat space](/wiki/Flat_space "Flat space") and curved space at infinitesimally small distance scales is foundational to the definition of a [manifold](/wiki/Manifold "Manifold") in general. More abstractly, it can be said that in the presence of gravity spacetime is described by a curved 4\-dimensional [manifold](/wiki/Manifold "Manifold") for which the [tangent space](/wiki/Tangent_space "Tangent space") to any point is a 4\-dimensional Minkowski space. Thus, the structure of Minkowski space is still essential in the description of general relativity.
[ "Generalizations\n---------------", "{{main\\|Lorentzian manifold\\|Super Minkowski space}}\nA Lorentzian manifold is a generalization of Minkowski space in two ways. The total number of spacetime dimensions is not restricted to be {{math\\|4}} ({{math\\|2}} or more) and a Lorentzian manifold need not be flat, i.e. it allows for curvature.", "### Complexified Minkowski space", "Complexified Minkowski space is defined as {{math\\|1\\=''M''c \\= ''M'' ⊕ ''iM'' }}.Y. Friedman, A Physically Meaningful Relativistic Description of the Spin State of an Electron, Symmetry 2021, 13(10\\), 1853; [https://doi.org/10\\.3390/sym13101853](https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13101853) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813114023/https://www.mdpi.com/2073\\-8994/13/10/1853 \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-13 }} Its real part is the Minkowski space of [four\\-vectors](/wiki/Four-vectors \"Four-vectors\"), such as the [four\\-velocity](/wiki/Four-velocity \"Four-velocity\") and the [four\\-momentum](/wiki/Four-momentum \"Four-momentum\"), which are independent of the choice of [orientation](/wiki/Orientation_%28geometry%29 \"Orientation (geometry)\") of the space. The imaginary part, on the other hand, may consist of four pseudovectors, such as [angular velocity](/wiki/Angular_velocity \"Angular velocity\") and [magnetic moment](/wiki/Magnetic_moment \"Magnetic moment\"), which change their direction with a change of orientation. A [pseudoscalar](/wiki/Pseudoscalar \"Pseudoscalar\") {{math\\|''i''}} is introduced, which also changes sign with a change of orientation. Thus, elements of {{math\\|''M''c}} are independent of the choice of the orientation.", "The [inner product](/wiki/Inner_product \"Inner product\")\\-like structure on {{math\\|''M''c}} is defined as {{math\\|1\\=''u'' ⋅ ''v'' \\= ''η''(''u'', ''v'')}} for any {{math\\|''u'',''v'' ∈ ''M''c}}. A relativistic pure [spin](/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29 \"Spin (physics)\") of an [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") or any half spin particle is described by {{math\\|''ρ'' ∈ '' M''c}} as {{math\\|1\\=''ρ'' \\= ''u'' \\+ ''is''}}, where {{math\\|''u''}} is the four\\-velocity of the particle, satisfying {{math\\|1\\=''u''2 \\= 1}} and {{mvar\\|s}} is the 4D spin vector,Jackson, J.D., Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed.; John Wiley \\\\\\& Sons: Hoboken, NJ, US, 1998 which is also the [Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector](/wiki/Pauli%E2%80%93Lubanski_pseudovector \"Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector\") satisfying {{math\\|1\\=''s''2 \\= −1}} and {{math\\|1\\=''u'' ⋅ ''s'' \\= 0}}.", "### Generalized Minkowski space", "Minkowski space refers to a mathematical formulation in four dimensions. However, the mathematics can easily be extended or simplified to create an analogous generalized Minkowski space in any number of dimensions. If {{math\\|''n'' ≥ 2}}, {{math\\|''n''}}\\-dimensional Minkowski space is a vector space of real dimension {{math\\|''n''}} on which there is a constant Minkowski metric of signature {{math\\|(''n'' − 1, 1\\)}} or {{math\\|(1, ''n'' − 1\\)}}. These generalizations are used in theories where spacetime is assumed to have more or less than {{math\\|4}} dimensions. [String theory](/wiki/String_theory \"String theory\") and [M\\-theory](/wiki/M-theory \"M-theory\") are two examples where {{math\\|''n'' \\> 4}}. In string theory, there appears [conformal field theories](/wiki/Conformal_field_theory \"Conformal field theory\") with {{math\\|1 \\+ 1}} spacetime dimensions.", "[de Sitter space](/wiki/De_Sitter_space \"De Sitter space\") can be formulated as a submanifold of generalized Minkowski space as can the model spaces of [hyperbolic geometry](/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry \"Hyperbolic geometry\") (see below).", "### Curvature", "As a **flat spacetime**, the three spatial components of Minkowski spacetime always obey the [Pythagorean Theorem](/wiki/Pythagorean_Theorem \"Pythagorean Theorem\"). Minkowski space is a suitable basis for special relativity, a good description of physical systems over finite distances in systems without significant [gravitation](/wiki/Gravitation \"Gravitation\"). However, in order to take gravity into account, physicists use the theory of [general relativity](/wiki/General_relativity \"General relativity\"), which is formulated in the mathematics of a [non\\-Euclidean geometry](/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry \"Non-Euclidean geometry\"). When this geometry is used as a model of physical space, it is known as *[curved space](/wiki/Curved_space \"Curved space\")*.", "Even in curved space, Minkowski space is still a good description in an [infinitesimal region](/wiki/Local_reference_frame \"Local reference frame\") surrounding any point (barring gravitational singularities).This similarity between [flat space](/wiki/Flat_space \"Flat space\") and curved space at infinitesimally small distance scales is foundational to the definition of a [manifold](/wiki/Manifold \"Manifold\") in general. More abstractly, it can be said that in the presence of gravity spacetime is described by a curved 4\\-dimensional [manifold](/wiki/Manifold \"Manifold\") for which the [tangent space](/wiki/Tangent_space \"Tangent space\") to any point is a 4\\-dimensional Minkowski space. Thus, the structure of Minkowski space is still essential in the description of general relativity.", "" ]
Geometry -------- {{main\|Hyperboloid model}} The meaning of the term *geometry* for the Minkowski space depends heavily on the context. Minkowski space is not endowed with Euclidean geometry, and not with any of the generalized Riemannian geometries with intrinsic curvature, those exposed by the *model spaces* in [hyperbolic geometry](/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry "Hyperbolic geometry") (negative curvature) and the geometry modeled by the [sphere](/wiki/Sphere "Sphere") (positive curvature). The reason is the indefiniteness of the Minkowski metric. Minkowski space is, in particular, not a [metric space](/wiki/Metric_space "Metric space") and not a Riemannian manifold with a Riemannian metric. However, Minkowski space contains [submanifolds](/wiki/Submanifold "Submanifold") endowed with a Riemannian metric yielding hyperbolic geometry. Model spaces of hyperbolic geometry of low dimension, say 2 or 3, *cannot* be isometrically embedded in Euclidean space with one more dimension, i.e. \\mathbf{R}^3 or \\mathbf{R}^4 respectively, with the Euclidean metric \\overline{g}, preventing easy visualization.There *is* an isometric embedding into {{math\|ℝ''n''}} according to the [Nash embedding theorem](/wiki/Nash_embedding_theorem "Nash embedding theorem") ({{harvtxt\|Nash\|1956}}), but the embedding dimension is much higher, {{math\|''n'' {{\=}} (''m''/2\)(''m'' \+ 1\)(3''m'' \+ 11\)}} for a Riemannian manifold of dimension {{mvar\|m}}.{{harvnb\|Lee\|1997\|p\=66}} By comparison, model spaces with positive curvature are just spheres in Euclidean space of one higher dimension.{{harvnb\|Lee\|1997\|p\=33}} Hyperbolic spaces *can* be isometrically embedded in spaces of one more dimension when the embedding space is endowed with the Minkowski metric \\eta. Define \\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\_R \\subset \\mathbf{M}^{n\+1}to be the upper sheet (ct \> 0) of the [hyperboloid](/wiki/Hyperboloid "Hyperboloid") \\mathbf H\_R^{1(n)} \= \\left\\{\\left(ct, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\in \\mathbf M^n: c^2 t^2 \- \\left(x^1\\right)^2 \- \\cdots \- \\left(x^n\\right)^2 \= R^2, ct \> 0\\right\\} in generalized Minkowski space \\mathbf{M}^{n\+1} of spacetime dimension n \+ 1\. This is one of the [surfaces of transitivity](/wiki/Lorentz_group%23Restricted_Lorentz_group "Lorentz group#Restricted Lorentz group") of the generalized Lorentz group. The [induced metric](/wiki/Induced_metric "Induced metric") on this submanifold, h\_R^{1(n)} \= \\iota^\* \\eta, the [pullback](/wiki/Pullback_%28differential_geometry%29 "Pullback (differential geometry)") of the Minkowski metric \\eta under inclusion, is a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric "Riemannian metric"). With this metric \\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\_R is a [Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Riemannian_manifold "Riemannian manifold"). It is one of the model spaces of Riemannian geometry, the [hyperboloid model](/wiki/Hyperboloid_model "Hyperboloid model") of [hyperbolic space](/wiki/Hyperbolic_space "Hyperbolic space"). It is a space of constant negative curvature \-1/R^2.{{harvnb\|Lee\|1997}} The 1 in the upper index refers to an enumeration of the different model spaces of hyperbolic geometry, and the {{math\|''n''}} for its dimension. A 2(2\) corresponds to the [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model "Poincaré disk model"), while 3(n) corresponds to the [Poincaré half\-space model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_half-plane_model "Poincaré half-plane model") of dimension n. ### Preliminaries In the definition above \\iota: \\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\_R \\rightarrow \\mathbf{M}^{n\+1} is the [inclusion map](/wiki/Inclusion_map "Inclusion map") and the superscript star denotes the [pullback](/wiki/Pullback_%28differential_geometry%29 "Pullback (differential geometry)"). The present purpose is to describe this and similar operations as a preparation for the actual demonstration that \\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\_R actually is a hyperbolic space. | Behavior of tensors under inclusion, pullback of covariant tensors under general maps and pushforward of vectors under general maps | | --- | | **Behavior of tensors under inclusion:** For inclusion maps from a submanifold {{mvar\|S}} into {{mvar\|M}} and a covariant tensor {{mvar\|α}} of order {{mvar\|k}} on {{mvar\|M}} it holds that \\iota^\*\\alpha\\left(X\_1,\\, X\_2,\\, \\ldots,\\, X\_k\\right) \= \\alpha\\left(\\iota\_\* X\_1,\\, \\iota\_\*X\_2,\\, \\ldots,\\, \\iota\_\* X\_k\\right) \= \\alpha\\left(X\_1,\\, X\_2,\\, \\ldots,\\, X\_k\\right), where {{math\|''X''1, ''X''1, …, ''X''k}} are vector fields on {{mvar\|S}}. The subscript star denotes the pushforward (to be introduced later), and it is in this special case simply the identity map (as is the inclusion map). The latter equality holds because a tangent space to a submanifold at a point is in a canonical way a subspace of the tangent space of the manifold itself at the point in question. One may simply write \\iota^\*\\alpha \= \\alpha\|\_S, meaning (with slight [abuse of notation](/wiki/Abuse_of_notation "Abuse of notation")) the restriction of {{mvar\|α}} to accept as input vectors tangent to some {{math\|''s'' ∈ ''S''}} only. | **Pullback of tensors under general maps:** The pullback of a covariant {{mvar\|k}}\-tensor {{mvar\|α}} (one taking only contravariant vectors as arguments) under a map {{math\|''F'': ''M'' → ''N''}} is a linear map F^\*\\colon T\_{F(p)}^k N \\rightarrow T\_p^k M, where for any vector space {{mvar\|V}}, T^k V \= \\underbrace{V^\* \\otimes V^\* \\otimes \\cdots \\otimes V^\*}\_{k\\text{ times}}. It is defined by F^\*(\\alpha)\\left(X\_1,\\, X\_2,\\, \\ldots,\\, X\_k\\right) \= \\alpha\\left(F\_\* X\_1,\\, F\_\*X\_2,\\, \\ldots,\\, F\_\* X\_k\\right), where the subscript star denotes the [pushforward](/wiki/Pushforward_%28differential%29 "Pushforward (differential)") of the map {{mvar\|F}}, and {{math\|''X''1, ''X''2, …, X''k''}} are vectors in {{math\|''T''''p''''M''}}. (This is in accord with what was detailed about the pullback of the inclusion map. In the general case here, one cannot proceed as simply because {{math\|''F''∗''X''1 ≠ ''X''1}} in general.) **The pushforward of vectors under general maps:** Heuristically, pulling back a tensor to {{math\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} from {{math\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}} feeding it vectors residing at {{math\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} is by definition the same as pushing forward the vectors from {{math\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} to {{math\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}} feeding them to the tensor residing at {{math\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}}. Further unwinding the definitions, the pushforward {{math\|F∗: ''TM''''p'' → ''TN''''F''(''p'')}} of a vector field under a map {{math\|''F'': ''M'' → ''N''}} between manifolds is defined by F\_\*(X)f \= X(f \\circ F), where {{mvar\|f}} is a function on {{mvar\|N}}. When {{math\|''M'' {{\=}} '''R'''''m'', ''N''{{\=}} '''R'''''n''}} the pushforward of {{mvar\|F}} reduces to {{math\|''DF'': '''R'''''m'' → '''R'''''n''}}, the ordinary [differential](/wiki/Total_derivative%23The_total_derivative_as_a_linear_map "Total derivative#The total derivative as a linear map"), which is given by the [Jacobian matrix](/wiki/Jacobian_matrix "Jacobian matrix") of partial derivatives of the component functions. The differential is the best linear approximation of a function {{mvar\|F}} from {{math\|'''R'''''m''}} to {{math\|'''R'''''n''}}. The pushforward is the smooth manifold version of this. It acts between tangent spaces, and is in coordinates represented by the Jacobian matrix of the *coordinate representation* of the function. The corresponding pullback is the [dual map](/wiki/Transpose_of_a_linear_map "Transpose of a linear map") from the dual of the range tangent space to the dual of the domain tangent space, i.e. it is a linear map, F^\*\\colon T^\*\_{F(p)}N \\rightarrow T^\*\_p M. ### Hyperbolic stereographic projection [thumb\|right\|Red circular arc is geodesic in [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model "Poincaré disk model"); it projects to the brown geodesic on the green hyperboloid.](/wiki/File:HyperboloidProjection.png "HyperboloidProjection.png") In order to exhibit the metric, it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable *parametrization*. A parametrization of a submanifold {{mvar\|S}} of a manifold {{mvar\|M}} is a map {{math\|''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m'' → ''M''}} whose range is an open subset of {{math\|''S''}}. If {{mvar\|S}} has the same dimension as {{math\|''M''}}, a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map {{math\|''φ'': ''M'' → ''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m''}}. The parametrization to be used is the inverse of *hyperbolic stereographic projection*. This is illustrated in the figure to the right for {{math\|1\=''n'' \= 2}}. It is instructive to compare to [stereographic projection](/wiki/Stereographic_projection "Stereographic projection") for spheres. Stereographic projection {{math\|''σ'': '''H'''{{su\|p\=''n''\|b\=''R''}} → '''R'''''n''}} and its inverse {{math\|''σ''−1: '''R'''''n'' → '''H'''{{su\|p\=''n''\|b\=''R''}}}} are given by \\begin{align} ``` \sigma(\tau, \mathbf x) = \mathbf u &= \frac{R\mathbf x}{R + \tau},\\ \sigma^{-1}(\mathbf u) = (\tau, \mathbf x) &= \left(R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}, \frac{2R^2\mathbf u}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right), ``` \\end{align} where, for simplicity, {{math\|''τ'' ≡ ''ct''}}. The {{math\|(''τ'', '''x''')}} are coordinates on {{math\|'''M'''''n''\+1}} and the {{math\|'''u'''}} are coordinates on {{math\|'''R'''n}}. {{Clear}} {{math proof \| title \= Detailed derivation \| proof \= Let \\mathbf H\_R^n \= \\left\\{\\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\subset \\mathbf M: \-\\tau^2 \+ \\left(x^1\\right)^2 \+ \\cdots \+ \\left(x^n\\right)^2 \= \-R^2, \\tau \> 0\\right\\} and let S \= (\-R, 0, \\ldots, 0\) . If P \= \\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\in \\mathbf H\_R^n, then it is geometrically clear that the vector \\overrightarrow{PS} intersects the hyperplane \\left\\{\\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\in M: \\tau \= 0\\right\\} once in point denoted U \= \\left(0, u^1(P), \\ldots, u^n(P)\\right) \\equiv (0, \\mathbf u). One has \\begin{align} S \+ \\overrightarrow{SU} \&\= U \\Rightarrow \\overrightarrow{SU} \= U \- S,\\\\ S \+ \\overrightarrow{SP} \&\= P \\Rightarrow \\overrightarrow{SP} \= P \- S \\end{align} or \\begin{align} \\overrightarrow{SU} \&\= (0, \\mathbf u) \- (\-R,\\mathbf 0\) \= (R, \\mathbf u),\\\\ \\overrightarrow{SP} \&\= (\\tau, \\mathbf x) \- (\-R,\\mathbf 0\) \= (\\tau \+ R, \\mathbf x). \\end{align}. By construction of stereographic projection one has \\overrightarrow{SU} \= \\lambda(\\tau)\\overrightarrow{SP}. This leads to the system of equations \\begin{align} R \&\= \\lambda(\\tau \+ R),\\\\ \\mathbf u \&\= \\lambda \\mathbf x. \\end{align} The first of these is solved for {{math\|''λ''}} and one obtains for stereographic projection \\sigma(\\tau, \\mathbf x) \= \\mathbf u \= \\frac{R\\mathbf x}{R \+ \\tau}. Next, the inverse {{math\|1\=''σ''{{sup\|−1}}(''u'') \= (''τ'', '''x''')}} must be calculated. Use the same considerations as before, but now with \\begin{align} U \&\= (0, \\mathbf u)\\\\ P \&\= (\\tau(\\mathbf u), \\mathbf x(\\mathbf u)). \\end{align} , one gets \\begin{align} \\tau \&\= \\frac{R(1 \- \\lambda)}{\\lambda},\\\\ \\mathbf x \&\= \\frac{\\mathbf u}{\\lambda}, \\end{align} but now with {{math\|''λ''}} depending on {{math\|'''u'''}}. The condition for {{math\|''P''}} lying in the hyperboloid is \-\\tau^2 \+ \|\\mathbf x\|^2 \= \-R^2, or \-\\frac{R^2(1 \- \\lambda)^2}{\\lambda^2}\+\\frac{\|\\mathbf u\|^2}{\\lambda^2}\=\-R^2, leading to \\lambda \= \\frac{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}{2R^2}. With this {{math\|''λ''}}, one obtains \\sigma^{\-1}(\\mathbf u) \= (\\tau, \\mathbf x) \= \\left(R\\frac{R^2 \+ \|u\|^2}{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}, \\frac{2R^2\\mathbf u}{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}\\right). }} ### Pulling back the metric One has h\_R^{1(n)} \= \\eta\|\_{\\mathbf H\_R^{1(n)}} \= \\left(dx^1\\right)^2 \+ \\cdots \+ \\left(dx^n\\right)^2 \- d\\tau^2 and the map ``` \sigma^{-1}:\mathbf{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbf{H}_R^{1(n)};\quad \sigma^{-1}(\mathbf{u}) = (\tau(\mathbf{u}),\, \mathbf{x}(\mathbf{u})) = \left(R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2},\, \frac{2R^2\mathbf{u}}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right). ``` The pulled back metric can be obtained by straightforward methods of calculus; ``` \left.\left(\sigma^{-1}\right)^* \eta\right|_{\mathbf H_R^{1(n)}} = \left(dx^1(\mathbf u)\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(dx^n(\mathbf u)\right)^2 - \left(d\tau(\mathbf u)\right)^2. ``` One computes according to the standard rules for computing differentials (though one is really computing the rigorously defined exterior derivatives), \\begin{align} ``` dx^1(\mathbf u) &= d\left(\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right) = \frac{\partial}{\partial u^1}\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^1 + \cdots + \frac{\partial}{\partial u^n}\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^n + \frac{\partial}{\partial\tau}\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}d\tau,\\ &\ \ \vdots\\ dx^n(\mathbf u) &= d\left(\frac{2R^2 u^n}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right) = \cdots,\\ d\tau(\mathbf u) &= d\left(R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right) = \cdots, ``` \\end{align} and substitutes the results into the right hand side. This yields ``` \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)^* h_R^{1(n)} = \frac{4R^2 \left[\left(du^1\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(du^n\right)^2\right]}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2} \equiv h_R^{2(n)}. ``` | Detailed outline of computation | | --- | | One has \\begin{align} ``` \frac{\partial}{\partial u^1}\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^1 &= \frac{2\left(R^2 -|u|^2\right) + 4R^2 \left(u^1\right)^2}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2}du^1, \\ \frac{\partial}{\partial u^2}\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^2 &= \frac{4R^2 u^1 u^2}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2}du^2, ``` \\end{align} and \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\tau}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}d\\tau^2 \= 0\. | With this one may write dx^1(\\mathbf u) \= \\frac{2R^2 \\left(R^2 \- \|u\|^2\\right)du^1 \+ 4R^2 u^1(\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u)}{\\left(R^2 \- \|u\|^2\\right)^2}, from which ``` \left(dx^1(\mathbf{u})\right)^2 = \frac{4R^2 \left(r^2 - |u|^2\right)^2 \left(du^1\right)^2 + 16R^4 \left(R^2 - |u|^2\right) \left(\mathbf{u} \cdot d\mathbf{u}\right) u^1 du^1 + 16R^4 \left(u^1\right)^2 \left(\mathbf{u} \cdot d\mathbf{u}\right)^2} {\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^4}. ``` Summing this formula one obtains \\begin{align} ``` &\left(dx^1(\mathbf u)\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(dx^n(\mathbf u)\right)^2 \\ ={} &\frac{4R^2 \left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2 \left[\left(du^1\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(du^n\right)^2\right] + 16R^4 \left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)(\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u)(\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u) + 16R^4 |u|^2 (\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u)^2} {\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^4} \\ ={} &\frac{4R^2 \left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2 \left[\left(du^1\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(du^n\right)^2\right]}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^4} + R^2 \frac{16R^4 (\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u)}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^4}. ``` \\end{align} Similarly, for {{mvar\|τ}} one gets ``` d\tau = \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{\partial}{\partial u^i} R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 + |u|^2}du^i + \frac{\partial}{\partial\tau}R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 + |u|^2}d\tau = \sum_{i=1}^n R^4\frac{4R^2 u^idu^i}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)}, ``` yielding ``` -d\tau^2 = -\left(R\frac{4R^4\left(\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u\right)}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2}\right)^2 = -R^2\frac{16R^4(\mathbf u \cdot d\mathbf u)^2}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^4}. ``` Now add this contribution to finally get \\left(\\sigma^{\-1}\\right)^\* h\_R^{1(n)} \= \\frac{4R^2\\left\[\\left(du^1\\right)^2 \+ \\cdots \+ \\left(du^n\\right)^2\\right]}{\\left(R^2 \- \|u\|^2\\right)^2} \\equiv h\_R^{2(n)}. This last equation shows that the metric on the ball is identical to the Riemannian metric {{math\|''h''{{su\|p\=2(''n'')\|b\=''R''}}}} in the [Poincaré ball model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_ball_model "Poincaré ball model"), another standard model of hyperbolic geometry. | Alternative calculation using the pushforward | | --- | | The pullback can be computed in a different fashion. By definition, ``` \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)^* h_R^{1(n)}(V,\, V) = h_R^{1(n)}\left(\left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V,\, \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V\right) = \eta|_{\mathbf H_R^{1(n)}} \left(\left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V,\, \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V\right). ``` | In coordinates, ``` \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V = \left(\sigma^{-1}\right)_* V^i\frac{\partial}{\partial u^i} = V^i\frac{\partial x^j}{\partial u^i}\frac{\partial}{\partial x^j} + V^i\frac{\partial\tau}{\partial u^i}\frac{\partial}{\partial\tau} = V^i\frac{\partial}x^j{\partial u^i}\frac{\partial}{\partial x^j} + V^i\frac{\partial}\tau{\partial u^i}\frac{\partial}{\partial\tau} = Vx^j\frac{\partial}{\partial x^j} + V\tau\frac{\partial}{\partial\tau}. ``` One has from the formula for {{math\|''σ''–1}} \\begin{align} ``` Vx^j &= V^i\frac{\partial}{\partial u^i}\left(\frac{2R^2 u^j}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right) = \frac{2R^2 V^j}{R^2 - |u|^2} - \frac{4R^2 u^j\langle\mathbf{V},\, \mathbf{u}\rangle}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2},\quad \left(\text{here } V|u|^2 = 2\sum_{k=1}^n V^k u^k \equiv 2\langle\mathbf{V},\, \mathbf{u}\rangle\right) \\ V\tau &= V\left(R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right) = \frac{4R^3\langle\mathbf{V},\, \mathbf{u}\rangle}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2}. ``` \\end{align} Lastly, ``` \eta\left(\sigma_*^{-1}V,\, \sigma_*^{-1}V\right) = \sum_{j=1}^n\left(Vx^j\right)^2 - (V\tau)^2 = \frac{4R^4 |V|^2}{\left(R^2 - |u|^2\right)^2} = h_R^{2(n)}(V,z, V), ``` and the same conclusion is reached.
[ "Geometry\n--------", "{{main\\|Hyperboloid model}}\nThe meaning of the term *geometry* for the Minkowski space depends heavily on the context. Minkowski space is not endowed with Euclidean geometry, and not with any of the generalized Riemannian geometries with intrinsic curvature, those exposed by the *model spaces* in [hyperbolic geometry](/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry \"Hyperbolic geometry\") (negative curvature) and the geometry modeled by the [sphere](/wiki/Sphere \"Sphere\") (positive curvature). The reason is the indefiniteness of the Minkowski metric. Minkowski space is, in particular, not a [metric space](/wiki/Metric_space \"Metric space\") and not a Riemannian manifold with a Riemannian metric. However, Minkowski space contains [submanifolds](/wiki/Submanifold \"Submanifold\") endowed with a Riemannian metric yielding hyperbolic geometry.", "Model spaces of hyperbolic geometry of low dimension, say 2 or 3, *cannot* be isometrically embedded in Euclidean space with one more dimension, i.e. \\\\mathbf{R}^3 or \\\\mathbf{R}^4 respectively, with the Euclidean metric \\\\overline{g}, preventing easy visualization.There *is* an isometric embedding into {{math\\|ℝ''n''}} according to the [Nash embedding theorem](/wiki/Nash_embedding_theorem \"Nash embedding theorem\") ({{harvtxt\\|Nash\\|1956}}), but the embedding dimension is much higher, {{math\\|''n'' {{\\=}} (''m''/2\\)(''m'' \\+ 1\\)(3''m'' \\+ 11\\)}} for a Riemannian manifold of dimension {{mvar\\|m}}.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|1997\\|p\\=66}} By comparison, model spaces with positive curvature are just spheres in Euclidean space of one higher dimension.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|1997\\|p\\=33}} Hyperbolic spaces *can* be isometrically embedded in spaces of one more dimension when the embedding space is endowed with the Minkowski metric \\\\eta.", "Define \\\\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\\_R \\\\subset \\\\mathbf{M}^{n\\+1}to be the upper sheet (ct \\> 0) of the [hyperboloid](/wiki/Hyperboloid \"Hyperboloid\")\n\\\\mathbf H\\_R^{1(n)} \\= \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(ct, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\in \\\\mathbf M^n: c^2 t^2 \\- \\\\left(x^1\\\\right)^2 \\- \\\\cdots \\- \\\\left(x^n\\\\right)^2 \\= R^2, ct \\> 0\\\\right\\\\}\nin generalized Minkowski space \\\\mathbf{M}^{n\\+1} of spacetime dimension n \\+ 1\\. This is one of the [surfaces of transitivity](/wiki/Lorentz_group%23Restricted_Lorentz_group \"Lorentz group#Restricted Lorentz group\") of the generalized Lorentz group. The [induced metric](/wiki/Induced_metric \"Induced metric\") on this submanifold,\nh\\_R^{1(n)} \\= \\\\iota^\\* \\\\eta,\nthe [pullback](/wiki/Pullback_%28differential_geometry%29 \"Pullback (differential geometry)\") of the Minkowski metric \\\\eta under inclusion, is a [Riemannian metric](/wiki/Riemannian_metric \"Riemannian metric\"). With this metric \\\\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\\_R is a [Riemannian manifold](/wiki/Riemannian_manifold \"Riemannian manifold\"). It is one of the model spaces of Riemannian geometry, the [hyperboloid model](/wiki/Hyperboloid_model \"Hyperboloid model\") of [hyperbolic space](/wiki/Hyperbolic_space \"Hyperbolic space\"). It is a space of constant negative curvature \\-1/R^2.{{harvnb\\|Lee\\|1997}} The 1 in the upper index refers to an enumeration of the different model spaces of hyperbolic geometry, and the {{math\\|''n''}} for its dimension. A 2(2\\) corresponds to the [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model \"Poincaré disk model\"), while 3(n) corresponds to the [Poincaré half\\-space model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_half-plane_model \"Poincaré half-plane model\") of dimension n.", "### Preliminaries", "In the definition above \\\\iota: \\\\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\\_R \\\\rightarrow \\\\mathbf{M}^{n\\+1} is the [inclusion map](/wiki/Inclusion_map \"Inclusion map\") and the superscript star denotes the [pullback](/wiki/Pullback_%28differential_geometry%29 \"Pullback (differential geometry)\"). The present purpose is to describe this and similar operations as a preparation for the actual demonstration that \\\\mathbf{H}^{1(n)}\\_R actually is a hyperbolic space.", "", "| Behavior of tensors under inclusion, pullback of covariant tensors under general maps and pushforward of vectors under general maps |\n| --- |\n| **Behavior of tensors under inclusion:** For inclusion maps from a submanifold {{mvar\\|S}} into {{mvar\\|M}} and a covariant tensor {{mvar\\|α}} of order {{mvar\\|k}} on {{mvar\\|M}} it holds that \\\\iota^\\*\\\\alpha\\\\left(X\\_1,\\\\, X\\_2,\\\\, \\\\ldots,\\\\, X\\_k\\\\right) \\= \\\\alpha\\\\left(\\\\iota\\_\\* X\\_1,\\\\, \\\\iota\\_\\*X\\_2,\\\\, \\\\ldots,\\\\, \\\\iota\\_\\* X\\_k\\\\right) \\= \\\\alpha\\\\left(X\\_1,\\\\, X\\_2,\\\\, \\\\ldots,\\\\, X\\_k\\\\right), where {{math\\|''X''1, ''X''1, …, ''X''k}} are vector fields on {{mvar\\|S}}. The subscript star denotes the pushforward (to be introduced later), and it is in this special case simply the identity map (as is the inclusion map). The latter equality holds because a tangent space to a submanifold at a point is in a canonical way a subspace of the tangent space of the manifold itself at the point in question. One may simply write \\\\iota^\\*\\\\alpha \\= \\\\alpha\\|\\_S, meaning (with slight [abuse of notation](/wiki/Abuse_of_notation \"Abuse of notation\")) the restriction of {{mvar\\|α}} to accept as input vectors tangent to some {{math\\|''s'' ∈ ''S''}} only. |", "**Pullback of tensors under general maps:**", "The pullback of a covariant {{mvar\\|k}}\\-tensor {{mvar\\|α}} (one taking only contravariant vectors as arguments) under a map {{math\\|''F'': ''M'' → ''N''}} is a linear map\nF^\\*\\\\colon T\\_{F(p)}^k N \\\\rightarrow T\\_p^k M,\nwhere for any vector space {{mvar\\|V}},\nT^k V \\= \\\\underbrace{V^\\* \\\\otimes V^\\* \\\\otimes \\\\cdots \\\\otimes V^\\*}\\_{k\\\\text{ times}}.\nIt is defined by\nF^\\*(\\\\alpha)\\\\left(X\\_1,\\\\, X\\_2,\\\\, \\\\ldots,\\\\, X\\_k\\\\right) \\= \\\\alpha\\\\left(F\\_\\* X\\_1,\\\\, F\\_\\*X\\_2,\\\\, \\\\ldots,\\\\, F\\_\\* X\\_k\\\\right),\nwhere the subscript star denotes the [pushforward](/wiki/Pushforward_%28differential%29 \"Pushforward (differential)\") of the map {{mvar\\|F}}, and {{math\\|''X''1, ''X''2, …, X''k''}} are vectors in {{math\\|''T''''p''''M''}}. (This is in accord with what was detailed about the pullback of the inclusion map. In the general case here, one cannot proceed as simply because {{math\\|''F''∗''X''1 ≠ ''X''1}} in general.)\n**The pushforward of vectors under general maps:**", "Heuristically, pulling back a tensor to {{math\\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} from {{math\\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}} feeding it vectors residing at {{math\\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} is by definition the same as pushing forward the vectors from {{math\\|''p'' ∈ ''M''}} to {{math\\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}} feeding them to the tensor residing at {{math\\|''F''(''p'') ∈ ''N''}}.\nFurther unwinding the definitions, the pushforward {{math\\|F∗: ''TM''''p'' → ''TN''''F''(''p'')}} of a vector field under a map {{math\\|''F'': ''M'' → ''N''}} between manifolds is defined by\nF\\_\\*(X)f \\= X(f \\\\circ F),\nwhere {{mvar\\|f}} is a function on {{mvar\\|N}}. When {{math\\|''M'' {{\\=}} '''R'''''m'', ''N''{{\\=}} '''R'''''n''}} the pushforward of {{mvar\\|F}} reduces to {{math\\|''DF'': '''R'''''m'' → '''R'''''n''}}, the ordinary [differential](/wiki/Total_derivative%23The_total_derivative_as_a_linear_map \"Total derivative#The total derivative as a linear map\"), which is given by the [Jacobian matrix](/wiki/Jacobian_matrix \"Jacobian matrix\") of partial derivatives of the component functions. The differential is the best linear approximation of a function {{mvar\\|F}} from {{math\\|'''R'''''m''}} to {{math\\|'''R'''''n''}}. The pushforward is the smooth manifold version of this. It acts between tangent spaces, and is in coordinates represented by the Jacobian matrix of the *coordinate representation* of the function.\nThe corresponding pullback is the [dual map](/wiki/Transpose_of_a_linear_map \"Transpose of a linear map\") from the dual of the range tangent space to the dual of the domain tangent space, i.e. it is a linear map,\nF^\\*\\\\colon T^\\*\\_{F(p)}N \\\\rightarrow T^\\*\\_p M.\n### Hyperbolic stereographic projection", "[thumb\\|right\\|Red circular arc is geodesic in [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model \"Poincaré disk model\"); it projects to the brown geodesic on the green hyperboloid.](/wiki/File:HyperboloidProjection.png \"HyperboloidProjection.png\")\nIn order to exhibit the metric, it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable *parametrization*. A parametrization of a submanifold {{mvar\\|S}} of a manifold {{mvar\\|M}} is a map {{math\\|''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m'' → ''M''}} whose range is an open subset of {{math\\|''S''}}. If {{mvar\\|S}} has the same dimension as {{math\\|''M''}}, a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map {{math\\|''φ'': ''M'' → ''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m''}}. The parametrization to be used is the inverse of *hyperbolic stereographic projection*. This is illustrated in the figure to the right for {{math\\|1\\=''n'' \\= 2}}. It is instructive to compare to [stereographic projection](/wiki/Stereographic_projection \"Stereographic projection\") for spheres.", "Stereographic projection {{math\\|''σ'': '''H'''{{su\\|p\\=''n''\\|b\\=''R''}} → '''R'''''n''}} and its inverse {{math\\|''σ''−1: '''R'''''n'' → '''H'''{{su\\|p\\=''n''\\|b\\=''R''}}}} are given by\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n\\sigma(\\tau, \\mathbf x) = \\mathbf u &= \\frac{R\\mathbf x}{R + \\tau},\\\\\n \\sigma^{-1}(\\mathbf u) = (\\tau, \\mathbf x) &= \\left(R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}, \\frac{2R^2\\mathbf u}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right),", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nwhere, for simplicity, {{math\\|''τ'' ≡ ''ct''}}. The {{math\\|(''τ'', '''x''')}} are coordinates on {{math\\|'''M'''''n''\\+1}} and the {{math\\|'''u'''}} are coordinates on {{math\\|'''R'''n}}.\n{{Clear}}", "{{math proof\n\\| title \\= Detailed derivation\n\\| proof \\= Let\n\\\\mathbf H\\_R^n \\= \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\subset \\\\mathbf M: \\-\\\\tau^2 \\+ \\\\left(x^1\\\\right)^2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\left(x^n\\\\right)^2 \\= \\-R^2, \\\\tau \\> 0\\\\right\\\\}\nand let\nS \\= (\\-R, 0, \\\\ldots, 0\\) .", "If\nP \\= \\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\in \\\\mathbf H\\_R^n,\nthen it is geometrically clear that the vector\n\\\\overrightarrow{PS}\nintersects the hyperplane\n\\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\in M: \\\\tau \\= 0\\\\right\\\\}\nonce in point denoted\nU \\= \\\\left(0, u^1(P), \\\\ldots, u^n(P)\\\\right) \\\\equiv (0, \\\\mathbf u).", "One has\n\\\\begin{align}\n S \\+ \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\&\\= U \\\\Rightarrow \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\= U \\- S,\\\\\\\\\n S \\+ \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\&\\= P \\\\Rightarrow \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\= P \\- S\n\\\\end{align}\nor\n\\\\begin{align}\n \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\&\\= (0, \\\\mathbf u) \\- (\\-R,\\\\mathbf 0\\) \\= (R, \\\\mathbf u),\\\\\\\\\n \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\&\\= (\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\- (\\-R,\\\\mathbf 0\\) \\= (\\\\tau \\+ R, \\\\mathbf x).\n\\\\end{align}.", "By construction of stereographic projection one has\n\\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\= \\\\lambda(\\\\tau)\\\\overrightarrow{SP}.", "This leads to the system of equations\n\\\\begin{align}\n R \\&\\= \\\\lambda(\\\\tau \\+ R),\\\\\\\\\n \\\\mathbf u \\&\\= \\\\lambda \\\\mathbf x.\n\\\\end{align}", "The first of these is solved for {{math\\|''λ''}} and one obtains for stereographic projection\n\\\\sigma(\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\= \\\\mathbf u \\= \\\\frac{R\\\\mathbf x}{R \\+ \\\\tau}.", "Next, the inverse {{math\\|1\\=''σ''{{sup\\|−1}}(''u'') \\= (''τ'', '''x''')}} must be calculated. Use the same considerations as before, but now with\n\\\\begin{align}\n U \\&\\= (0, \\\\mathbf u)\\\\\\\\\n P \\&\\= (\\\\tau(\\\\mathbf u), \\\\mathbf x(\\\\mathbf u)).\n\\\\end{align} ,\none gets\n\\\\begin{align}\n \\\\tau \\&\\= \\\\frac{R(1 \\- \\\\lambda)}{\\\\lambda},\\\\\\\\\n \\\\mathbf x \\&\\= \\\\frac{\\\\mathbf u}{\\\\lambda},\n\\\\end{align}\nbut now with {{math\\|''λ''}} depending on {{math\\|'''u'''}}. The condition for {{math\\|''P''}} lying in the hyperboloid is\n\\-\\\\tau^2 \\+ \\|\\\\mathbf x\\|^2 \\= \\-R^2,\nor\n\\-\\\\frac{R^2(1 \\- \\\\lambda)^2}{\\\\lambda^2}\\+\\\\frac{\\|\\\\mathbf u\\|^2}{\\\\lambda^2}\\=\\-R^2,\nleading to\n\\\\lambda \\= \\\\frac{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}{2R^2}.", "With this {{math\\|''λ''}}, one obtains\n\\\\sigma^{\\-1}(\\\\mathbf u) \\= (\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\= \\\\left(R\\\\frac{R^2 \\+ \\|u\\|^2}{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}, \\\\frac{2R^2\\\\mathbf u}{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}\\\\right).\n}}", "### Pulling back the metric", "One has\nh\\_R^{1(n)} \\= \\\\eta\\|\\_{\\\\mathbf H\\_R^{1(n)}} \\= \\\\left(dx^1\\\\right)^2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\left(dx^n\\\\right)^2 \\- d\\\\tau^2\nand the map", "```\n \\sigma^{-1}:\\mathbf{R}^n \\rightarrow \\mathbf{H}_R^{1(n)};\\quad\n \\sigma^{-1}(\\mathbf{u}) = (\\tau(\\mathbf{u}),\\, \\mathbf{x}(\\mathbf{u})) = \\left(R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2},\\, \\frac{2R^2\\mathbf{u}}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right).\n```", "", "The pulled back metric can be obtained by straightforward methods of calculus;", "```\n \\left.\\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)^* \\eta\\right|_{\\mathbf H_R^{1(n)}} =\n \\left(dx^1(\\mathbf u)\\right)^2 + \\cdots + \\left(dx^n(\\mathbf u)\\right)^2 - \\left(d\\tau(\\mathbf u)\\right)^2.", "```", "", "One computes according to the standard rules for computing differentials (though one is really computing the rigorously defined exterior derivatives),\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n dx^1(\\mathbf u) &= d\\left(\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right)\n = \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^1}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^1 + \\cdots +\n \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^n}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^n +\n \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\\tau}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}d\\tau,\\\\\n &\\ \\ \\vdots\\\\\n dx^n(\\mathbf u) &= d\\left(\\frac{2R^2 u^n}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right) = \\cdots,\\\\\n d\\tau(\\mathbf u) &= d\\left(R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right) = \\cdots,", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nand substitutes the results into the right hand side. This yields", "```\n \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)^* h_R^{1(n)} =\n \\frac{4R^2 \\left[\\left(du^1\\right)^2 + \\cdots + \\left(du^n\\right)^2\\right]}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2} \\equiv\n h_R^{2(n)}.", "```", "", "", "| Detailed outline of computation |\n| --- |\n| One has \\\\begin{align} ``` \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^1}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^1 &= \\frac{2\\left(R^2 -|u|^2\\right) + 4R^2 \\left(u^1\\right)^2}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2}du^1, \\\\ \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^2}\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 - |u|^2}du^2 &= \\frac{4R^2 u^1 u^2}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2}du^2, ``` \\\\end{align} and \\\\frac{\\\\partial}{\\\\partial \\\\tau}\\\\frac{2R^2 u^1}{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}d\\\\tau^2 \\= 0\\. |", "With this one may write\ndx^1(\\\\mathbf u) \\= \\\\frac{2R^2 \\\\left(R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2\\\\right)du^1 \\+ 4R^2 u^1(\\\\mathbf u \\\\cdot d\\\\mathbf u)}{\\\\left(R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2\\\\right)^2},\nfrom which", "```\n \\left(dx^1(\\mathbf{u})\\right)^2 =\n \\frac{4R^2 \\left(r^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2 \\left(du^1\\right)^2 +\n 16R^4 \\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right) \\left(\\mathbf{u} \\cdot d\\mathbf{u}\\right) u^1 du^1 +\n 16R^4 \\left(u^1\\right)^2 \\left(\\mathbf{u} \\cdot d\\mathbf{u}\\right)^2}\n {\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^4}.", "```", "Summing this formula one obtains\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n &\\left(dx^1(\\mathbf u)\\right)^2 + \\cdots + \\left(dx^n(\\mathbf u)\\right)^2 \\\\\n ={} &\\frac{4R^2 \\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2 \\left[\\left(du^1\\right)^2 + \\cdots + \\left(du^n\\right)^2\\right] +\n 16R^4 \\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)(\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u)(\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u) +\n 16R^4 |u|^2 (\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u)^2}\n {\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^4} \\\\\n ={} &\\frac{4R^2 \\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2 \\left[\\left(du^1\\right)^2 + \\cdots + \\left(du^n\\right)^2\\right]}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^4} +\n R^2 \\frac{16R^4 (\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u)}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^4}.", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nSimilarly, for {{mvar\\|τ}} one gets", "```\n d\\tau = \\sum_{i=1}^n \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^i} R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 + |u|^2}du^i + \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\\tau}R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 + |u|^2}d\\tau\n = \\sum_{i=1}^n R^4\\frac{4R^2 u^idu^i}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)},", "```", "yielding", "```\n -d\\tau^2 = -\\left(R\\frac{4R^4\\left(\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u\\right)}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2}\\right)^2\n = -R^2\\frac{16R^4(\\mathbf u \\cdot d\\mathbf u)^2}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^4}.", "```", "Now add this contribution to finally get\n\\\\left(\\\\sigma^{\\-1}\\\\right)^\\* h\\_R^{1(n)} \\= \\\\frac{4R^2\\\\left\\[\\\\left(du^1\\\\right)^2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\left(du^n\\\\right)^2\\\\right]}{\\\\left(R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2\\\\right)^2} \\\\equiv h\\_R^{2(n)}.\nThis last equation shows that the metric on the ball is identical to the Riemannian metric {{math\\|''h''{{su\\|p\\=2(''n'')\\|b\\=''R''}}}} in the [Poincaré ball model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_ball_model \"Poincaré ball model\"), another standard model of hyperbolic geometry.", "| Alternative calculation using the pushforward |\n| --- |\n| The pullback can be computed in a different fashion. By definition, ``` \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)^* h_R^{1(n)}(V,\\, V) = h_R^{1(n)}\\left(\\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V,\\, \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V\\right) = \\eta|_{\\mathbf H_R^{1(n)}} \\left(\\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V,\\, \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V\\right). ``` |", "", "In coordinates,", "```\n \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V\n = \\left(\\sigma^{-1}\\right)_* V^i\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^i}\n = V^i\\frac{\\partial x^j}{\\partial u^i}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^j} +\n V^i\\frac{\\partial\\tau}{\\partial u^i}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\\tau}\n = V^i\\frac{\\partial}x^j{\\partial u^i}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^j} +\n V^i\\frac{\\partial}\\tau{\\partial u^i}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\\tau}\n = Vx^j\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x^j} + V\\tau\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\\tau}.", "```", "One has from the formula for {{math\\|''σ''–1}}\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n Vx^j &= V^i\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial u^i}\\left(\\frac{2R^2 u^j}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right)\n = \\frac{2R^2 V^j}{R^2 - |u|^2} - \\frac{4R^2 u^j\\langle\\mathbf{V},\\, \\mathbf{u}\\rangle}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2},\\quad\n \\left(\\text{here } V|u|^2 = 2\\sum_{k=1}^n V^k u^k \\equiv 2\\langle\\mathbf{V},\\, \\mathbf{u}\\rangle\\right) \\\\\n V\\tau &= V\\left(R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right)\n = \\frac{4R^3\\langle\\mathbf{V},\\, \\mathbf{u}\\rangle}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2}.", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nLastly,", "```\n \\eta\\left(\\sigma_*^{-1}V,\\, \\sigma_*^{-1}V\\right) =\n \\sum_{j=1}^n\\left(Vx^j\\right)^2 - (V\\tau)^2 =\n \\frac{4R^4 |V|^2}{\\left(R^2 - |u|^2\\right)^2} =\n h_R^{2(n)}(V,z, V),", "```", "and the same conclusion is reached." ]
### Hyperbolic stereographic projection [thumb\|right\|Red circular arc is geodesic in [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model "Poincaré disk model"); it projects to the brown geodesic on the green hyperboloid.](/wiki/File:HyperboloidProjection.png "HyperboloidProjection.png") In order to exhibit the metric, it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable *parametrization*. A parametrization of a submanifold {{mvar\|S}} of a manifold {{mvar\|M}} is a map {{math\|''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m'' → ''M''}} whose range is an open subset of {{math\|''S''}}. If {{mvar\|S}} has the same dimension as {{math\|''M''}}, a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map {{math\|''φ'': ''M'' → ''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m''}}. The parametrization to be used is the inverse of *hyperbolic stereographic projection*. This is illustrated in the figure to the right for {{math\|1\=''n'' \= 2}}. It is instructive to compare to [stereographic projection](/wiki/Stereographic_projection "Stereographic projection") for spheres. Stereographic projection {{math\|''σ'': '''H'''{{su\|p\=''n''\|b\=''R''}} → '''R'''''n''}} and its inverse {{math\|''σ''−1: '''R'''''n'' → '''H'''{{su\|p\=''n''\|b\=''R''}}}} are given by \\begin{align} ``` \sigma(\tau, \mathbf x) = \mathbf u &= \frac{R\mathbf x}{R + \tau},\\ \sigma^{-1}(\mathbf u) = (\tau, \mathbf x) &= \left(R\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}, \frac{2R^2\mathbf u}{R^2 - |u|^2}\right), ``` \\end{align} where, for simplicity, {{math\|''τ'' ≡ ''ct''}}. The {{math\|(''τ'', '''x''')}} are coordinates on {{math\|'''M'''''n''\+1}} and the {{math\|'''u'''}} are coordinates on {{math\|'''R'''n}}. {{Clear}} {{math proof \| title \= Detailed derivation \| proof \= Let \\mathbf H\_R^n \= \\left\\{\\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\subset \\mathbf M: \-\\tau^2 \+ \\left(x^1\\right)^2 \+ \\cdots \+ \\left(x^n\\right)^2 \= \-R^2, \\tau \> 0\\right\\} and let S \= (\-R, 0, \\ldots, 0\) . If P \= \\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\in \\mathbf H\_R^n, then it is geometrically clear that the vector \\overrightarrow{PS} intersects the hyperplane \\left\\{\\left(\\tau, x^1, \\ldots, x^n\\right) \\in M: \\tau \= 0\\right\\} once in point denoted U \= \\left(0, u^1(P), \\ldots, u^n(P)\\right) \\equiv (0, \\mathbf u). One has \\begin{align} S \+ \\overrightarrow{SU} \&\= U \\Rightarrow \\overrightarrow{SU} \= U \- S,\\\\ S \+ \\overrightarrow{SP} \&\= P \\Rightarrow \\overrightarrow{SP} \= P \- S \\end{align} or \\begin{align} \\overrightarrow{SU} \&\= (0, \\mathbf u) \- (\-R,\\mathbf 0\) \= (R, \\mathbf u),\\\\ \\overrightarrow{SP} \&\= (\\tau, \\mathbf x) \- (\-R,\\mathbf 0\) \= (\\tau \+ R, \\mathbf x). \\end{align}. By construction of stereographic projection one has \\overrightarrow{SU} \= \\lambda(\\tau)\\overrightarrow{SP}. This leads to the system of equations \\begin{align} R \&\= \\lambda(\\tau \+ R),\\\\ \\mathbf u \&\= \\lambda \\mathbf x. \\end{align} The first of these is solved for {{math\|''λ''}} and one obtains for stereographic projection \\sigma(\\tau, \\mathbf x) \= \\mathbf u \= \\frac{R\\mathbf x}{R \+ \\tau}. Next, the inverse {{math\|1\=''σ''{{sup\|−1}}(''u'') \= (''τ'', '''x''')}} must be calculated. Use the same considerations as before, but now with \\begin{align} U \&\= (0, \\mathbf u)\\\\ P \&\= (\\tau(\\mathbf u), \\mathbf x(\\mathbf u)). \\end{align} , one gets \\begin{align} \\tau \&\= \\frac{R(1 \- \\lambda)}{\\lambda},\\\\ \\mathbf x \&\= \\frac{\\mathbf u}{\\lambda}, \\end{align} but now with {{math\|''λ''}} depending on {{math\|'''u'''}}. The condition for {{math\|''P''}} lying in the hyperboloid is \-\\tau^2 \+ \|\\mathbf x\|^2 \= \-R^2, or \-\\frac{R^2(1 \- \\lambda)^2}{\\lambda^2}\+\\frac{\|\\mathbf u\|^2}{\\lambda^2}\=\-R^2, leading to \\lambda \= \\frac{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}{2R^2}. With this {{math\|''λ''}}, one obtains \\sigma^{\-1}(\\mathbf u) \= (\\tau, \\mathbf x) \= \\left(R\\frac{R^2 \+ \|u\|^2}{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}, \\frac{2R^2\\mathbf u}{R^2 \- \|u\|^2}\\right). }}
[ "### Hyperbolic stereographic projection", "[thumb\\|right\\|Red circular arc is geodesic in [Poincaré disk model](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model \"Poincaré disk model\"); it projects to the brown geodesic on the green hyperboloid.](/wiki/File:HyperboloidProjection.png \"HyperboloidProjection.png\")\nIn order to exhibit the metric, it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable *parametrization*. A parametrization of a submanifold {{mvar\\|S}} of a manifold {{mvar\\|M}} is a map {{math\\|''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m'' → ''M''}} whose range is an open subset of {{math\\|''S''}}. If {{mvar\\|S}} has the same dimension as {{math\\|''M''}}, a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map {{math\\|''φ'': ''M'' → ''U'' ⊂ '''R'''''m''}}. The parametrization to be used is the inverse of *hyperbolic stereographic projection*. This is illustrated in the figure to the right for {{math\\|1\\=''n'' \\= 2}}. It is instructive to compare to [stereographic projection](/wiki/Stereographic_projection \"Stereographic projection\") for spheres.", "Stereographic projection {{math\\|''σ'': '''H'''{{su\\|p\\=''n''\\|b\\=''R''}} → '''R'''''n''}} and its inverse {{math\\|''σ''−1: '''R'''''n'' → '''H'''{{su\\|p\\=''n''\\|b\\=''R''}}}} are given by\n\\\\begin{align}", "```\n\\sigma(\\tau, \\mathbf x) = \\mathbf u &= \\frac{R\\mathbf x}{R + \\tau},\\\\\n \\sigma^{-1}(\\mathbf u) = (\\tau, \\mathbf x) &= \\left(R\\frac{R^2 + |u|^2}{R^2 - |u|^2}, \\frac{2R^2\\mathbf u}{R^2 - |u|^2}\\right),", "```\n\\\\end{align}\nwhere, for simplicity, {{math\\|''τ'' ≡ ''ct''}}. The {{math\\|(''τ'', '''x''')}} are coordinates on {{math\\|'''M'''''n''\\+1}} and the {{math\\|'''u'''}} are coordinates on {{math\\|'''R'''n}}.\n{{Clear}}", "{{math proof\n\\| title \\= Detailed derivation\n\\| proof \\= Let\n\\\\mathbf H\\_R^n \\= \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\subset \\\\mathbf M: \\-\\\\tau^2 \\+ \\\\left(x^1\\\\right)^2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\left(x^n\\\\right)^2 \\= \\-R^2, \\\\tau \\> 0\\\\right\\\\}\nand let\nS \\= (\\-R, 0, \\\\ldots, 0\\) .", "If\nP \\= \\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\in \\\\mathbf H\\_R^n,\nthen it is geometrically clear that the vector\n\\\\overrightarrow{PS}\nintersects the hyperplane\n\\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(\\\\tau, x^1, \\\\ldots, x^n\\\\right) \\\\in M: \\\\tau \\= 0\\\\right\\\\}\nonce in point denoted\nU \\= \\\\left(0, u^1(P), \\\\ldots, u^n(P)\\\\right) \\\\equiv (0, \\\\mathbf u).", "One has\n\\\\begin{align}\n S \\+ \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\&\\= U \\\\Rightarrow \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\= U \\- S,\\\\\\\\\n S \\+ \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\&\\= P \\\\Rightarrow \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\= P \\- S\n\\\\end{align}\nor\n\\\\begin{align}\n \\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\&\\= (0, \\\\mathbf u) \\- (\\-R,\\\\mathbf 0\\) \\= (R, \\\\mathbf u),\\\\\\\\\n \\\\overrightarrow{SP} \\&\\= (\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\- (\\-R,\\\\mathbf 0\\) \\= (\\\\tau \\+ R, \\\\mathbf x).\n\\\\end{align}.", "By construction of stereographic projection one has\n\\\\overrightarrow{SU} \\= \\\\lambda(\\\\tau)\\\\overrightarrow{SP}.", "This leads to the system of equations\n\\\\begin{align}\n R \\&\\= \\\\lambda(\\\\tau \\+ R),\\\\\\\\\n \\\\mathbf u \\&\\= \\\\lambda \\\\mathbf x.\n\\\\end{align}", "The first of these is solved for {{math\\|''λ''}} and one obtains for stereographic projection\n\\\\sigma(\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\= \\\\mathbf u \\= \\\\frac{R\\\\mathbf x}{R \\+ \\\\tau}.", "Next, the inverse {{math\\|1\\=''σ''{{sup\\|−1}}(''u'') \\= (''τ'', '''x''')}} must be calculated. Use the same considerations as before, but now with\n\\\\begin{align}\n U \\&\\= (0, \\\\mathbf u)\\\\\\\\\n P \\&\\= (\\\\tau(\\\\mathbf u), \\\\mathbf x(\\\\mathbf u)).\n\\\\end{align} ,\none gets\n\\\\begin{align}\n \\\\tau \\&\\= \\\\frac{R(1 \\- \\\\lambda)}{\\\\lambda},\\\\\\\\\n \\\\mathbf x \\&\\= \\\\frac{\\\\mathbf u}{\\\\lambda},\n\\\\end{align}\nbut now with {{math\\|''λ''}} depending on {{math\\|'''u'''}}. The condition for {{math\\|''P''}} lying in the hyperboloid is\n\\-\\\\tau^2 \\+ \\|\\\\mathbf x\\|^2 \\= \\-R^2,\nor\n\\-\\\\frac{R^2(1 \\- \\\\lambda)^2}{\\\\lambda^2}\\+\\\\frac{\\|\\\\mathbf u\\|^2}{\\\\lambda^2}\\=\\-R^2,\nleading to\n\\\\lambda \\= \\\\frac{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}{2R^2}.", "With this {{math\\|''λ''}}, one obtains\n\\\\sigma^{\\-1}(\\\\mathbf u) \\= (\\\\tau, \\\\mathbf x) \\= \\\\left(R\\\\frac{R^2 \\+ \\|u\\|^2}{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}, \\\\frac{2R^2\\\\mathbf u}{R^2 \\- \\|u\\|^2}\\\\right).\n}}", "" ]
Biography --------- Benjamin Smith Lyman was born in [Northampton, Massachusetts](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts "Northampton, Massachusetts"). He graduated from [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") in 1855\. After working briefly as a school teacher, he worked as an assistant to his wife's uncle on a topographical and geological survey of [Broad Top Mountain](/wiki/Broad_Top_Mountain "Broad Top Mountain") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), which spurred his interest in [geology](/wiki/Geology "Geology") and [mining engineering](/wiki/Mining_engineering "Mining engineering"). He studied for a year at the [Ecole Imperiale des Mines](/wiki/Ecole_Imperiale_des_Mines "Ecole Imperiale des Mines") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") (1859–60\), then took a practical course at the [Freiberg Mining Academy](/wiki/Freiberg_Mining_Academy "Freiberg Mining Academy") in [Freiberg, Saxony](/wiki/Freiberg%2C_Saxony "Freiberg, Saxony") (1861–62\). Upon returning to the United States, Lyman opened an office as a consulting mining engineer in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and worked on surveys from [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania") to [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia "Nova Scotia"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona") and [California](/wiki/California "California"). In 1870, Lyman surveyed oil fields in the [Punjab region](/wiki/Punjab_region "Punjab region") for the Public Works Department of the government of [British India](/wiki/British_India "British India"), during which he developed an interest in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East"). In 1872 he was [hired by the Japanese government](/wiki/Oyatoi_gaikokujin "Oyatoi gaikokujin") to survey the [coal](/wiki/Coal "Coal") and oil deposits of [Hokkaidō](/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D "Hokkaidō") and along the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan "Sea of Japan") coastline of [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu "Honshu").{{cite book \|last1\=Campbell \|first1\=Allen \|last2\=Nobel \|first2\=David S \|title\=Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia \|publisher\=Kodansha \|date\=1993 \|page\=903 \|isbn\=406205938X}} His survey identified the most promising coal fields for Hokkaidō's eventually successful [coal industry](/wiki/Coal_industry "Coal industry") as well as reporting on progress in the [reclamation of waste land](/wiki/Land_reclamation "Land reclamation"); the nature of the soil in various districts; the customs, physique, and folklore of the [Ainu people](/wiki/Ainu_people "Ainu people"); useful ores and stones; the development of hydraulic power; importation of foreign capital; and the advantage of cooperation with foreign concerns in the mining industry. He stayed on in Japan from 1873 to 1879 as chief geologist and mining engineer to the [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government "Meiji government"). While in Japan, he educated many Japanese in western techniques for natural resource surveys, and published the first geological map of Hokkaidō in 1876\. Many of Lyman's Japanese assistants became proficient surveyors and some of them distinguished geologists, although his relations with the [Hokkaidō Colonization Office](/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_%28Japan%29 "Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)") were often strained. Before leaving Japan, he encouraged his assistants to form the Geological Society of Japan and to publish a journal. He donated his house to the new society for use as its headquarters. In his study of the [Japanese language](/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language"), Lyman noticed that a necessary condition for the voicing (technically *[rendaku](/wiki/Rendaku "Rendaku")*) of the initial [obstruent](/wiki/Obstruent "Obstruent") of the second word in a compound is that the word contain no voiced obstruent in a later syllable. (A sufficient condition for predicting *rendaku* is not known.) This constraint has come to be known as "Lyman's Law". After Lyman returned to Northampton, he spent the next several years working on his reports, which he published at his own expense. He attended meetings of technical and scientific societies as well as the [Oriental Club of Philadelphia](/wiki/Oriental_Club_of_Philadelphia "Oriental Club of Philadelphia"), and held a reception each year on the birthday of the [Emperor of Japan](/wiki/Emperor_Meiji "Emperor Meiji"). Although he officially retired in 1895, Lyman made a journey (1906–07\) to survey the coal lands near [Mount Lantauan](/wiki/Mount_Lantauan "Mount Lantauan") on [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu "Cebu") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), for a [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") company that was building a [railroad](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad") there. On the way, he visited his former assistants in Japan. He hoped to re\-visit Japan on his return trip, but was prevented by a long bout with [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery "Dysentery"). He died 30 August 1920, aged 84, in [Cheltenham, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Cheltenham%2C_Pennsylvania "Cheltenham, Pennsylvania"). Many of his personal journals, books, maps and papers are preserved in the “Benjamin Smith Lyman Collection” at the [University of Massachusetts Amherst](/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst "University of Massachusetts Amherst") and the "Benjamin Smith Lyman papers" (call number Mss.B.L982\) at the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society "American Philosophical Society"). He was elected to the APS in 1869\.{{Cite web\|title\=APS Member History\|url\=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year\=1869;year\-max\=1869;smode\=advanced;startDoc\=1\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-26\|website\=search.amphilsoc.org}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Benjamin Smith Lyman was born in [Northampton, Massachusetts](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts \"Northampton, Massachusetts\"). He graduated from [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") in 1855\\. After working briefly as a school teacher, he worked as an assistant to his wife's uncle on a topographical and geological survey of [Broad Top Mountain](/wiki/Broad_Top_Mountain \"Broad Top Mountain\") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), which spurred his interest in [geology](/wiki/Geology \"Geology\") and [mining engineering](/wiki/Mining_engineering \"Mining engineering\"). He studied for a year at the [Ecole Imperiale des Mines](/wiki/Ecole_Imperiale_des_Mines \"Ecole Imperiale des Mines\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") (1859–60\\), then took a practical course at the [Freiberg Mining Academy](/wiki/Freiberg_Mining_Academy \"Freiberg Mining Academy\") in [Freiberg, Saxony](/wiki/Freiberg%2C_Saxony \"Freiberg, Saxony\") (1861–62\\). Upon returning to the United States, Lyman opened an office as a consulting mining engineer in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and worked on surveys from [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\") to [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia \"Nova Scotia\"), [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\") and [California](/wiki/California \"California\").", "In 1870, Lyman surveyed oil fields in the [Punjab region](/wiki/Punjab_region \"Punjab region\") for the Public Works Department of the government of [British India](/wiki/British_India \"British India\"), during which he developed an interest in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\").", "In 1872 he was [hired by the Japanese government](/wiki/Oyatoi_gaikokujin \"Oyatoi gaikokujin\") to survey the [coal](/wiki/Coal \"Coal\") and oil deposits of [Hokkaidō](/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D \"Hokkaidō\") and along the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan \"Sea of Japan\") coastline of [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Campbell \\|first1\\=Allen \\|last2\\=Nobel \\|first2\\=David S \\|title\\=Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia \\|publisher\\=Kodansha \\|date\\=1993 \\|page\\=903 \\|isbn\\=406205938X}} His survey identified the most promising coal fields for Hokkaidō's eventually successful [coal industry](/wiki/Coal_industry \"Coal industry\") as well as reporting on progress in the [reclamation of waste land](/wiki/Land_reclamation \"Land reclamation\"); the nature of the soil in various districts; the customs, physique, and folklore of the [Ainu people](/wiki/Ainu_people \"Ainu people\"); useful ores and stones; the development of hydraulic power; importation of foreign capital; and the advantage of cooperation with foreign concerns in the mining industry. He stayed on in Japan from 1873 to 1879 as chief geologist and mining engineer to the [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government \"Meiji government\"). While in Japan, he educated many Japanese in western techniques for natural resource surveys, and published the first geological map of Hokkaidō in 1876\\. Many of Lyman's Japanese assistants became proficient surveyors and some of them distinguished geologists, although his relations with the [Hokkaidō Colonization Office](/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_%28Japan%29 \"Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)\") were often strained. Before leaving Japan, he encouraged his assistants to form the Geological Society of Japan and to publish a journal. He donated his house to the new society for use as its headquarters.", "In his study of the [Japanese language](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\"), Lyman noticed that a necessary condition for the voicing (technically *[rendaku](/wiki/Rendaku \"Rendaku\")*) of the initial [obstruent](/wiki/Obstruent \"Obstruent\") of the second word in a compound is that the word contain no voiced obstruent in a later syllable. (A sufficient condition for predicting *rendaku* is not known.) This constraint has come to be known as \"Lyman's Law\".", "After Lyman returned to Northampton, he spent the next several years working on his reports, which he published at his own expense. He attended meetings of technical and scientific societies as well as the [Oriental Club of Philadelphia](/wiki/Oriental_Club_of_Philadelphia \"Oriental Club of Philadelphia\"), and held a reception each year on the birthday of the [Emperor of Japan](/wiki/Emperor_Meiji \"Emperor Meiji\"). Although he officially retired in 1895, Lyman made a journey (1906–07\\) to survey the coal lands near [Mount Lantauan](/wiki/Mount_Lantauan \"Mount Lantauan\") on [Cebu](/wiki/Cebu \"Cebu\") in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), for a [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") company that was building a [railroad](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\") there. On the way, he visited his former assistants in Japan. He hoped to re\\-visit Japan on his return trip, but was prevented by a long bout with [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery \"Dysentery\").", "He died 30 August 1920, aged 84, in [Cheltenham, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Cheltenham%2C_Pennsylvania \"Cheltenham, Pennsylvania\").", "Many of his personal journals, books, maps and papers are preserved in the “Benjamin Smith Lyman Collection” at the [University of Massachusetts Amherst](/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst \"University of Massachusetts Amherst\") and the \"Benjamin Smith Lyman papers\" (call number Mss.B.L982\\) at the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society \"American Philosophical Society\"). He was elected to the APS in 1869\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=APS Member History\\|url\\=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year\\=1869;year\\-max\\=1869;smode\\=advanced;startDoc\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-26\\|website\\=search.amphilsoc.org}}", "" ]
Plot ---- Bobby Taylor is a young black man aspiring to become an actor. His younger brother Stevie watches him prepare to audition for a part in *Jivetime Jimmy's Revenge*, a movie about street gangs which is so full of stereotypes that the light\-skinned black actors who audition are cast as [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") gang members and have to speak with cartoonish [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language") accents. Bobby's grandmother overhears the "[jive talk](/wiki/Jive_talk "Jive talk")" of Bobby's lines and expresses disapproval. His mother is more supportive, but Bobby's grandmother says that if he desires a respectable job, there is honest work at the post office. Bobby assures his mother that if he lands the part, their lives will change for the better. After the audition, Bobby talks to Mr. Jones, who questions Bobby's dedication to his job at Jones's restaurant, Winky Dinky Dog, because Bobby frequently misses work so he can attend auditions and casting calls. A limousine arrives, and its passenger is B. B. Sanders, a famous actor who plays a stereotypical black comedy character, Batty Boy, in the popular television sitcom *There's a Bat in My House*. Ecstatic to meet a potential role model, Bobby asks Sanders how to determine if a role is worth taking. Sanders says if Bobby's character does not die, then "it's a good script." He tells Bobby that acting is not about art, but making money through [sequels](/wiki/Sequel "Sequel"), merchandising, etc. Bobby's agent calls to say his audition went well, and he got a [callback](/wiki/Audition%23Musical_theatre "Audition#Musical theatre"), but the producers want an "[Eddie Murphy](/wiki/Eddie_Murphy "Eddie Murphy")\-type". That night, he has a nightmare in which the director, writer, and casting director hound him to become Eddie Murphy. Waiting in line with a group of Eddie Murphy clones, Bobby also starts turning into Eddie Murphy, then wakes up in shock. The next day, Bobby's restaurant co\-workers, Donald and Tiny, tell him he will never succeed as an actor, so Bobby quits Winky Dinky Dog. Later that night, he visits his uncle Ray, a singer who gave up a chance at stardom to take a "real" job and provide for his family. Bobby expresses doubts about pursuing acting, but Ray encourages Bobby to follow his dreams. During his callback, the director, writer, and casting director are thrilled at Bobby's performance, and he wins the lead role. After getting the part, Bobby begins to experience attacks of conscience that manifest as daydreams based on what people around him are saying or doing, including one ("Black Acting School") where white coaches teach black performers how to act "more black", and one ("Sneaking Into the Movies") where two young black men gain entry to a theater without paying and review films that spoof popular titles à la *[At the Movies](/wiki/At_the_Movies_%281986_TV_program%29 "At the Movies (1986 TV program)")*, including *Amadeus Meets Salieri*, *Chicago Jones and the Temple of Doom*, *Dirty Larry*, and *Attack of the Street Pimps*. At home, Bobby is celebrating with his girlfriend Lydia when his grandmother arrives. The three of them watch a [film noir](/wiki/Film_noir "Film noir"), which causes Bobby to fantasize about playing the lead in his own film noir, *Death of a [Breakdancer](/wiki/Breakdancing "Breakdancing")*. That night, Bobby dreams of the roles that he wants to play, from a [Shakespearean](/wiki/Shakespearean "Shakespearean") king, to a black superhero, to a black version of [Rambo](/wiki/John_Rambo "John Rambo") ("Rambro"). His final dream depicts him winning his fifth [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards"). The next day, Bobby starts filming *Jivetime Jimmy's Revenge* with his family in attendance. His guilt about playing a stereotypical character finally overwhelms him, and Bobby quits. Another cast member who previously complained about the stereotypical film hypocritically takes over Bobby's part, but Bobby and his family leave the set with their pride intact. In the closing scene, Bobby is completing preparations on a different set for an on\-camera scene that is about to begin. In an echo of his grandmother's earlier admonition, *Hollywood Shuffle* ends with Bobby filming a TV [PSA](/wiki/Public_service_announcement "Public service announcement") for the [US Postal Service](/wiki/US_Postal_Service "US Postal Service").
[ "Plot\n----", "Bobby Taylor is a young black man aspiring to become an actor. His younger brother Stevie watches him prepare to audition for a part in *Jivetime Jimmy's Revenge*, a movie about street gangs which is so full of stereotypes that the light\\-skinned black actors who audition are cast as [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") gang members and have to speak with cartoonish [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\") accents. Bobby's grandmother overhears the \"[jive talk](/wiki/Jive_talk \"Jive talk\")\" of Bobby's lines and expresses disapproval. His mother is more supportive, but Bobby's grandmother says that if he desires a respectable job, there is honest work at the post office. Bobby assures his mother that if he lands the part, their lives will change for the better.", "After the audition, Bobby talks to Mr. Jones, who questions Bobby's dedication to his job at Jones's restaurant, Winky Dinky Dog, because Bobby frequently misses work so he can attend auditions and casting calls. A limousine arrives, and its passenger is B. B. Sanders, a famous actor who plays a stereotypical black comedy character, Batty Boy, in the popular television sitcom *There's a Bat in My House*. Ecstatic to meet a potential role model, Bobby asks Sanders how to determine if a role is worth taking. Sanders says if Bobby's character does not die, then \"it's a good script.\" He tells Bobby that acting is not about art, but making money through [sequels](/wiki/Sequel \"Sequel\"), merchandising, etc.", "Bobby's agent calls to say his audition went well, and he got a [callback](/wiki/Audition%23Musical_theatre \"Audition#Musical theatre\"), but the producers want an \"[Eddie Murphy](/wiki/Eddie_Murphy \"Eddie Murphy\")\\-type\". That night, he has a nightmare in which the director, writer, and casting director hound him to become Eddie Murphy. Waiting in line with a group of Eddie Murphy clones, Bobby also starts turning into Eddie Murphy, then wakes up in shock.", "The next day, Bobby's restaurant co\\-workers, Donald and Tiny, tell him he will never succeed as an actor, so Bobby quits Winky Dinky Dog. Later that night, he visits his uncle Ray, a singer who gave up a chance at stardom to take a \"real\" job and provide for his family. Bobby expresses doubts about pursuing acting, but Ray encourages Bobby to follow his dreams. During his callback, the director, writer, and casting director are thrilled at Bobby's performance, and he wins the lead role.", "After getting the part, Bobby begins to experience attacks of conscience that manifest as daydreams based on what people around him are saying or doing, including one (\"Black Acting School\") where white coaches teach black performers how to act \"more black\", and one (\"Sneaking Into the Movies\") where two young black men gain entry to a theater without paying and review films that spoof popular titles à la *[At the Movies](/wiki/At_the_Movies_%281986_TV_program%29 \"At the Movies (1986 TV program)\")*, including *Amadeus Meets Salieri*, *Chicago Jones and the Temple of Doom*, *Dirty Larry*, and *Attack of the Street Pimps*.", "At home, Bobby is celebrating with his girlfriend Lydia when his grandmother arrives. The three of them watch a [film noir](/wiki/Film_noir \"Film noir\"), which causes Bobby to fantasize about playing the lead in his own film noir, *Death of a [Breakdancer](/wiki/Breakdancing \"Breakdancing\")*. That night, Bobby dreams of the roles that he wants to play, from a [Shakespearean](/wiki/Shakespearean \"Shakespearean\") king, to a black superhero, to a black version of [Rambo](/wiki/John_Rambo \"John Rambo\") (\"Rambro\"). His final dream depicts him winning his fifth [Oscar](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\"). The next day, Bobby starts filming *Jivetime Jimmy's Revenge* with his family in attendance. His guilt about playing a stereotypical character finally overwhelms him, and Bobby quits. Another cast member who previously complained about the stereotypical film hypocritically takes over Bobby's part, but Bobby and his family leave the set with their pride intact.", "In the closing scene, Bobby is completing preparations on a different set for an on\\-camera scene that is about to begin. In an echo of his grandmother's earlier admonition, *Hollywood Shuffle* ends with Bobby filming a TV [PSA](/wiki/Public_service_announcement \"Public service announcement\") for the [US Postal Service](/wiki/US_Postal_Service \"US Postal Service\").", "" ]
History ------- WINA was granted its license to broadcast on October 10, 1949; the station signed on soon afterwards as a 1,000\-watt [daytimer](/wiki/Daytimer "Daytimer") on 1280 kHz with a [full service](/wiki/Full_service_%28radio_format%29 "Full service (radio format)") format. Behind [WCHV](/wiki/WCHV_%28AM%29 "WCHV (AM)"), it was the city's second radio station. It was owned by Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp. and had studios at 4th and East Main Streets in downtown Charlottesville.{{cite web\|title\=WINA History Card (Facility Record 1949\-1968\)\|url\=https://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\-bin/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getimportletter\_exh.cgi?import\_letter\_id\=60812\|publisher\=Federal Communications Commission}} In the earliest advertisements, the station was branded as "The WINA!", implying a pronunciation as the word "winner". In modern times, the station's callsign is pronounced phonetically.{{cite news\|title\=WINA Sample Schedule\|url\=http://fedoraproxy.lib.virginia.edu/fedora/objects/uva\-lib:2794785/methods/djatoka:StaticSDef/getScaled?maxWidth\=1200\&maxHeight\=1200\|work\=Charlottesville Daily Progress\|date\=October 17, 1949\|ref\=DP\|page\=2}} – From University of Virginia Library. WINA schedule first appears in the Daily Progress on Monday, October 17, 1949\. Network radio was still dominant in 1949, but there were no available networks with which to affiliate, and so WINA was to start entirely reliant on local programming. WCHV was affiliated with [ABC](/wiki/Cumulus_Media_Networks "Cumulus Media Networks"), [WJMA](/wiki/WVCV "WVCV") [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_Virginia "Orange, Virginia") was affiliated with [Mutual](/wiki/Mutual_Broadcasting_System "Mutual Broadcasting System"), and [CBS](/wiki/CBS_Radio_Network "CBS Radio Network") and [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Radio "NBC Radio") were available to some from [WRVA](/wiki/WRVA_%28AM%29 "WRVA (AM)") and [WMBG](/wiki/WBTK "WBTK") in Richmond, respectively. In 1951, it obtained a short\-lived affiliation with the [Liberty Broadcasting System](/wiki/Liberty_Broadcasting_System "Liberty Broadcasting System").{{cite book\|title\=Broadcasting and Telecasting Yearbook 1951\|page\=311\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC\-YB/1951/Radio%20NE%20Ter%20BC%20YB%201951%20B\&W\-9\.pdf}} After LBS went under in 1952, WINA gained affiliations with Mutual and the Keystone Broadcasting System, a [radio transcription](/wiki/Electrical_transcription "Electrical transcription") network rebroadcasting major\-network scripted programs to areas that lacked local affiliates.{{cite book\|last1\=Cox\|first1\=Jim\|title\=American Radio Networks: A History\|date\=2009\|publisher\=McFarland and Co.\|location\=Jefferson, N.C.\|pages\=194–195\|isbn\=9780786454242\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tpxGeViyuPwC\&pg\=PA195}} By then, the station had settled into a format of [middle\-of\-the\-road](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 "Middle of the road (music)") music, news, and scripted network programs.{{cite book\|title\=Broadcasting and Telecasting Yearbook 1953\|page\=302\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC\-YB/1953/Radio%20N%20Ter%20BC%20YB%201953\.pdf}} WINA changed frequencies twice during this period. In 1954, it moved to 1450 kHz and gained permission to commence night operation at 250 watts, reducing daytime power to match. Two years later, it moved to 1400 kHz in order to increase back to 1 kW during the day. In May 1957, Charlottesville Broadcasting merged with the James Madison Broadcasting Corporation, owners of WJMA. The combined entity was still known as Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp., and the stations were managed independently. The two stations joined [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Radio_Network "NBC Radio Network") together on October 1, 1958\.{{cite news\|last1\=Staff\|title\=Two Virginia Outlets Join NBC\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1958/1958\-09\-15\-BC.pdf\|work\=Broadcasting\|date\=September 15, 1958\|page\=38}} WJMA was sold off in April 1961\. After eight years with NBC, WINA switched to [CBS](/wiki/CBS_Radio_Network "CBS Radio Network") on October 30, 1966, an affiliation that lasts to the present day. This was concurrent with a change to 1070 kHz and another power upgrade to the current 5 kW day and night.{{cite news\|title\=CBS Radio's 243d\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1966/1966\-08\-15\-BC.pdf\|work\=Broadcasting\|date\=August 15, 1966\|page\=65}} Laurence E. Richardson, former president of [Post\-Newsweek Stations](/wiki/Graham_Media_Group "Graham Media Group"), bought Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp. from Don Heyne in 1969\.{{cite news\|title\=Sale of WINA stations is approved by FCC\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1969/1969\-12\-15\-BC.pdf\|work\=Broadcasting\|date\=December 15, 1969\|page\=50}} In 1970, farm director Bill Ray began syndicating regional farm news reports in a network known as Agrinet. In the mid\-1970s, this involved into the full\-fledged Virginia News Network, carrying news bulletins and [Virginia Cavaliers](/wiki/Virginia_Cavaliers "Virginia Cavaliers") sports. The network news operation was spun off and relocated to [WRVA](/wiki/WRVA_%28AM%29 "WRVA (AM)") in Richmond in 1982, but WINA remains the flagship of the [Virginia Sports Radio Network](/wiki/Virginia_Cavaliers%23Radio_network_affiliates "Virginia Cavaliers#Radio network affiliates").{{cite news\|title\=Radio Executive Laurence Richardson Dies\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1999/05/21/radio\-executive\-laurence\-richardson\-dies/e43e08c4\-bddd\-4d0e\-92ea\-91e459607215/\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|date\=21 May 1999}} As late as 1991, WINA's full service format (with the music having evolved to modern [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary")) was still the top rated station in Charlottesville, despite having multiple FM competitors.{{cite book\|title\=The M Street Radio Directory 1991 Edition\|pages\=591\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-M\-Street/1991/Markets\-M\-Street\-3\-1991\.pdf}} \-\- Format recorded as AC. Starting in 1992, the station added satellite\-fed talk in addition to some remaining adult contemporary programming. Around 1995, WINA eliminated its remaining music\-formatted blocks and transitioned to a full news/talk format.{{cite book\|title\=The M Street Radio Directory 1992\-93\|page\=618\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-M\-Street/1992/Markets\-M\-Street\-4\-1992\-1993\.pdf}} \-\- Starting in 1992, format recorded as AC/satellite\-fed talk. The station now runs news in morning drive and locally produced talk in afternoon drive, with satellite\-fed talk and [CBS news](/wiki/CBS_Radio_News "CBS Radio News") bulletins filling the rest of the time.{{cite book\|title\=The M Street Radio Directory 1996\|page\=587\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-M\-Street/1996/Markets\-M\-Street\-7\-1996\.pdf}} \-\- 1996 M Street is the first to record format as news/talk. Charlottesville Broadcasting concluded a merger deal with Eure Communications, owners of ratings rival [WWWV](/wiki/WWWV "WWWV") (97\.5 MHz) and [WCHV](/wiki/WCHV_%28AM%29 "WCHV (AM)") (1260 kHz), in 1997\.{{cite news\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=Sara\|title\=Changing hands\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1997/BC\-1997\-11\-10\.pdf\|work\=Broadcasting \& Cable\|date\=November 10, 1997\|page\=133}} The FCC scrutinized the sale, as it would have resulted in common ownership of five stations – which it saw as a potential competition\-killer in the small market. The sale proceeded after the new company was forced to spin off the two least\-valuable properties, WCHV and [WKAV](/wiki/WKAV "WKAV") (1400 kHz), to [Clear Channel](/wiki/IHeartMedia "IHeartMedia").{{cite news\|last1\=Spencer\|first1\=Hawes\|title\=MIXed message: Will FCC "clear" WUMX sale?\|url\=http://www.readthehook.com/93179/news\-mixed\-message\-will\-fcc\-quotclearquot\-wumx\-sale?quicktabs\_1\=0\|work\=The Hook\|issue\=210\|date\=March 13, 2003}} Saga Communications bought Eure's three stations in 2004\. WINA added an FM translator on 98\.9 MHz in November 2015\. This translator is fed by an HD subchannel of co\-owned [WCNR](/wiki/WCNR "WCNR") (106\.1 MHz). The translator augments WINA's reception in the city, as AM signals become increasingly difficult to receive due to electrical interference. ### FM and television {{see\|WQMZ}} In 1954, WINA began simulcasting on the city's first [FM](/wiki/Frequency_modulation "Frequency modulation") station, **WINA\-FM** on 95\.3 MHz. Like many early AM\-FM combinations, the FM station was merely a relay for the AM station. In order to encourage unique FM programming, the FCC limited simulcasting on a co\-owned AM\-FM pair to twelve hours per day in 1964\.{{cite web\|last1\=Felsenthal\|first1\=Norman\|title\=Simulcasting\|url\=http://www.museum.tv/eotv/simulcasting.htm\|website\=Museum of Broadcasting}} WINA\-FM was initially exempt because the rule only applied to large markets, but the FCC made programming separation a condition of Richardson's purchase of Charlottesville Broadcasting. The FM station began airing a separate day (except for a morning drive simulcast) in 1971, followed quickly by a callsign change to WQMC.{{cite news\|last1\=Staff\|title\=Changing formats\|url\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1971/1971\-04\-19\-BC.pdf\|work\=Broadcasting\|date\=April 19, 1971\|page\=27}}{{cite web\|last1\=Lasar\|first1\=Matthew\|title\=1965: the year the FCC helped FM radio take off\|url\=http://www.radiosurvivor.com/2015/11/03/1965\-the\-year\-the\-fcc\-helped\-fm\-radio\-take\-off/\|website\=Radio Survivor\|date\=3 November 2015}} This station is now [WQMZ](/wiki/WQMZ "WQMZ") on 95\.1 MHz. In 1961, Charlottesville Broadcasting attempted to add a channel 11 television allocation to [Staunton](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia "Staunton, Virginia"), with a proposed 3,000\-foot tower on Little North Mountain near the [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta_County%2C_Virginia "Augusta County, Virginia")\-[Rockbridge](/wiki/Rockbridge_County%2C_Virginia "Rockbridge County, Virginia") county line.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-daily\-progress\-tv\-tower\-is\-planned\-i/127185575/\|date\=June 10, 1961\|page\=9\|title\=TV Tower Is Planned In Augusta\|newspaper\=The Daily Progress\|via\=Newspapers.com\|access\-date\=June 29, 2023\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629171500/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-daily\-progress\-tv\-tower\-is\-planned\-i/127185575/\|url\-status\=live}} The corporation claimed its proposed tower was high enough to provide "better reception than is now available" to Charlottesville (i.e., from [WHSV\-TV](/wiki/WHSV-TV "WHSV-TV") and stations in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia")), but a tower any closer to the city proper was precluded by short\-spacing to [WBAL\-TV](/wiki/WBAL-TV "WBAL-TV") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland "Baltimore, Maryland"). The allocation request was denied after the [Naval Research Laboratory](/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory "Naval Research Laboratory") insisted on continued protection for its under\-construction [Sugar Grove Station](/wiki/Sugar_Grove_Station "Sugar Grove Station").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-daily\-progress\-fcc\-denies\-tv\-channel/127185638/\|date\=December 24, 1964\|page\=21\|title\=FCC Denies TV Channel In This Area\|newspaper\=The Daily Progress\|via\=Newspapers.com\|access\-date\=June 29, 2023\|archive\-date\=June 29, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629183025/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-daily\-progress\-fcc\-denies\-tv\-channel/127185638/\|url\-status\=live}} The prospects of UHF television were still difficult in the years after Congress mandated new televisions include UHF tuners with the [All\-Channel Receiver Act](/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act "All-Channel Receiver Act") of 1964\. Nevertheless, Charlottesville Broadcasting became the first permittee of the city's channel 29 allocation, which was duly given the callsign **WINA\-TV**.{{cite book\|title\=1967 Television Factbook\|pages\=142–a\|edition\=37th\|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\-Business/Annuals/Archive\-Television\-Factbook\-IDX/IDX/Factbook/67/1967\-TV\-Factbook\-II\-OCR\-Page\-0144\.pdf}} The construction permit was issued on July 13, 1965, and no further actions besides two extensions are recorded. During the company's 1969 sale, then\-owner Don Heyne indicated he no longer wanted to build out the permit and could not find a buyer. Richardson also indicated that he did not want to purchase it, but was required to by the purchase agreement. As FCC rules only allow the sale of a permit to an entity that intends to build, the board ordered the permit cancelled and the $55,000 Charlottesville Broadcasting invested into it deducted from the sale price.{{cite book\|title\=FCC Reports, October 24, 1969 to January 30, 1970\|publisher\=United States Government Printing Office\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|pages\=808–809\|series\=2\|year\=1970\|volume\=20\|url\=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc306601/m1/808/}} [WVIR](/wiki/WVIR "WVIR"), which was to occupy channel 64, then moved to channel 29 and signed on in 1973\.
[ "History\n-------", "WINA was granted its license to broadcast on October 10, 1949; the station signed on soon afterwards as a 1,000\\-watt [daytimer](/wiki/Daytimer \"Daytimer\") on 1280 kHz with a [full service](/wiki/Full_service_%28radio_format%29 \"Full service (radio format)\") format. Behind [WCHV](/wiki/WCHV_%28AM%29 \"WCHV (AM)\"), it was the city's second radio station. It was owned by Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp. and had studios at 4th and East Main Streets in downtown Charlottesville.{{cite web\\|title\\=WINA History Card (Facility Record 1949\\-1968\\)\\|url\\=https://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\\-bin/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getimportletter\\_exh.cgi?import\\_letter\\_id\\=60812\\|publisher\\=Federal Communications Commission}} In the earliest advertisements, the station was branded as \"The WINA!\", implying a pronunciation as the word \"winner\". In modern times, the station's callsign is pronounced phonetically.{{cite news\\|title\\=WINA Sample Schedule\\|url\\=http://fedoraproxy.lib.virginia.edu/fedora/objects/uva\\-lib:2794785/methods/djatoka:StaticSDef/getScaled?maxWidth\\=1200\\&maxHeight\\=1200\\|work\\=Charlottesville Daily Progress\\|date\\=October 17, 1949\\|ref\\=DP\\|page\\=2}} – From University of Virginia Library. WINA schedule first appears in the Daily Progress on Monday, October 17, 1949\\.", "Network radio was still dominant in 1949, but there were no available networks with which to affiliate, and so WINA was to start entirely reliant on local programming. WCHV was affiliated with [ABC](/wiki/Cumulus_Media_Networks \"Cumulus Media Networks\"), [WJMA](/wiki/WVCV \"WVCV\") [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_Virginia \"Orange, Virginia\") was affiliated with [Mutual](/wiki/Mutual_Broadcasting_System \"Mutual Broadcasting System\"), and [CBS](/wiki/CBS_Radio_Network \"CBS Radio Network\") and [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Radio \"NBC Radio\") were available to some from [WRVA](/wiki/WRVA_%28AM%29 \"WRVA (AM)\") and [WMBG](/wiki/WBTK \"WBTK\") in Richmond, respectively. In 1951, it obtained a short\\-lived affiliation with the [Liberty Broadcasting System](/wiki/Liberty_Broadcasting_System \"Liberty Broadcasting System\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Broadcasting and Telecasting Yearbook 1951\\|page\\=311\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC\\-YB/1951/Radio%20NE%20Ter%20BC%20YB%201951%20B\\&W\\-9\\.pdf}} After LBS went under in 1952, WINA gained affiliations with Mutual and the Keystone Broadcasting System, a [radio transcription](/wiki/Electrical_transcription \"Electrical transcription\") network rebroadcasting major\\-network scripted programs to areas that lacked local affiliates.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Cox\\|first1\\=Jim\\|title\\=American Radio Networks: A History\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=McFarland and Co.\\|location\\=Jefferson, N.C.\\|pages\\=194–195\\|isbn\\=9780786454242\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tpxGeViyuPwC\\&pg\\=PA195}} By then, the station had settled into a format of [middle\\-of\\-the\\-road](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 \"Middle of the road (music)\") music, news, and scripted network programs.{{cite book\\|title\\=Broadcasting and Telecasting Yearbook 1953\\|page\\=302\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC\\-YB/1953/Radio%20N%20Ter%20BC%20YB%201953\\.pdf}}", "WINA changed frequencies twice during this period. In 1954, it moved to 1450 kHz and gained permission to commence night operation at 250 watts, reducing daytime power to match. Two years later, it moved to 1400 kHz in order to increase back to 1 kW during the day.", "In May 1957, Charlottesville Broadcasting merged with the James Madison Broadcasting Corporation, owners of WJMA. The combined entity was still known as Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp., and the stations were managed independently. The two stations joined [NBC](/wiki/NBC_Radio_Network \"NBC Radio Network\") together on October 1, 1958\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Staff\\|title\\=Two Virginia Outlets Join NBC\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1958/1958\\-09\\-15\\-BC.pdf\\|work\\=Broadcasting\\|date\\=September 15, 1958\\|page\\=38}} WJMA was sold off in April 1961\\.", "After eight years with NBC, WINA switched to [CBS](/wiki/CBS_Radio_Network \"CBS Radio Network\") on October 30, 1966, an affiliation that lasts to the present day. This was concurrent with a change to 1070 kHz and another power upgrade to the current 5 kW day and night.{{cite news\\|title\\=CBS Radio's 243d\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1966/1966\\-08\\-15\\-BC.pdf\\|work\\=Broadcasting\\|date\\=August 15, 1966\\|page\\=65}}", "Laurence E. Richardson, former president of [Post\\-Newsweek Stations](/wiki/Graham_Media_Group \"Graham Media Group\"), bought Charlottesville Broadcasting Corp. from Don Heyne in 1969\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Sale of WINA stations is approved by FCC\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1969/1969\\-12\\-15\\-BC.pdf\\|work\\=Broadcasting\\|date\\=December 15, 1969\\|page\\=50}}", "In 1970, farm director Bill Ray began syndicating regional farm news reports in a network known as Agrinet. In the mid\\-1970s, this involved into the full\\-fledged Virginia News Network, carrying news bulletins and [Virginia Cavaliers](/wiki/Virginia_Cavaliers \"Virginia Cavaliers\") sports. The network news operation was spun off and relocated to [WRVA](/wiki/WRVA_%28AM%29 \"WRVA (AM)\") in Richmond in 1982, but WINA remains the flagship of the [Virginia Sports Radio Network](/wiki/Virginia_Cavaliers%23Radio_network_affiliates \"Virginia Cavaliers#Radio network affiliates\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Radio Executive Laurence Richardson Dies\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1999/05/21/radio\\-executive\\-laurence\\-richardson\\-dies/e43e08c4\\-bddd\\-4d0e\\-92ea\\-91e459607215/\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|date\\=21 May 1999}}", "As late as 1991, WINA's full service format (with the music having evolved to modern [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\")) was still the top rated station in Charlottesville, despite having multiple FM competitors.{{cite book\\|title\\=The M Street Radio Directory 1991 Edition\\|pages\\=591\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-M\\-Street/1991/Markets\\-M\\-Street\\-3\\-1991\\.pdf}} \\-\\- Format recorded as AC. Starting in 1992, the station added satellite\\-fed talk in addition to some remaining adult contemporary programming. Around 1995, WINA eliminated its remaining music\\-formatted blocks and transitioned to a full news/talk format.{{cite book\\|title\\=The M Street Radio Directory 1992\\-93\\|page\\=618\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-M\\-Street/1992/Markets\\-M\\-Street\\-4\\-1992\\-1993\\.pdf}} \\-\\- Starting in 1992, format recorded as AC/satellite\\-fed talk. The station now runs news in morning drive and locally produced talk in afternoon drive, with satellite\\-fed talk and [CBS news](/wiki/CBS_Radio_News \"CBS Radio News\") bulletins filling the rest of the time.{{cite book\\|title\\=The M Street Radio Directory 1996\\|page\\=587\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-M\\-Street/1996/Markets\\-M\\-Street\\-7\\-1996\\.pdf}} \\-\\- 1996 M Street is the first to record format as news/talk.", "Charlottesville Broadcasting concluded a merger deal with Eure Communications, owners of ratings rival [WWWV](/wiki/WWWV \"WWWV\") (97\\.5 MHz) and [WCHV](/wiki/WCHV_%28AM%29 \"WCHV (AM)\") (1260 kHz), in 1997\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=Sara\\|title\\=Changing hands\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1997/BC\\-1997\\-11\\-10\\.pdf\\|work\\=Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|date\\=November 10, 1997\\|page\\=133}} The FCC scrutinized the sale, as it would have resulted in common ownership of five stations – which it saw as a potential competition\\-killer in the small market. The sale proceeded after the new company was forced to spin off the two least\\-valuable properties, WCHV and [WKAV](/wiki/WKAV \"WKAV\") (1400 kHz), to [Clear Channel](/wiki/IHeartMedia \"IHeartMedia\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Spencer\\|first1\\=Hawes\\|title\\=MIXed message: Will FCC \"clear\" WUMX sale?\\|url\\=http://www.readthehook.com/93179/news\\-mixed\\-message\\-will\\-fcc\\-quotclearquot\\-wumx\\-sale?quicktabs\\_1\\=0\\|work\\=The Hook\\|issue\\=210\\|date\\=March 13, 2003}} Saga Communications bought Eure's three stations in 2004\\.", "WINA added an FM translator on 98\\.9 MHz in November 2015\\. This translator is fed by an HD subchannel of co\\-owned [WCNR](/wiki/WCNR \"WCNR\") (106\\.1 MHz). The translator augments WINA's reception in the city, as AM signals become increasingly difficult to receive due to electrical interference.", "### FM and television", "{{see\\|WQMZ}}\nIn 1954, WINA began simulcasting on the city's first [FM](/wiki/Frequency_modulation \"Frequency modulation\") station, **WINA\\-FM** on 95\\.3 MHz. Like many early AM\\-FM combinations, the FM station was merely a relay for the AM station. In order to encourage unique FM programming, the FCC limited simulcasting on a co\\-owned AM\\-FM pair to twelve hours per day in 1964\\.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Felsenthal\\|first1\\=Norman\\|title\\=Simulcasting\\|url\\=http://www.museum.tv/eotv/simulcasting.htm\\|website\\=Museum of Broadcasting}} WINA\\-FM was initially exempt because the rule only applied to large markets, but the FCC made programming separation a condition of Richardson's purchase of Charlottesville Broadcasting. The FM station began airing a separate day (except for a morning drive simulcast) in 1971, followed quickly by a callsign change to WQMC.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Staff\\|title\\=Changing formats\\|url\\=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1971/1971\\-04\\-19\\-BC.pdf\\|work\\=Broadcasting\\|date\\=April 19, 1971\\|page\\=27}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Lasar\\|first1\\=Matthew\\|title\\=1965: the year the FCC helped FM radio take off\\|url\\=http://www.radiosurvivor.com/2015/11/03/1965\\-the\\-year\\-the\\-fcc\\-helped\\-fm\\-radio\\-take\\-off/\\|website\\=Radio Survivor\\|date\\=3 November 2015}} This station is now [WQMZ](/wiki/WQMZ \"WQMZ\") on 95\\.1 MHz.", "In 1961, Charlottesville Broadcasting attempted to add a channel 11 television allocation to [Staunton](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia \"Staunton, Virginia\"), with a proposed 3,000\\-foot tower on Little North Mountain near the [Augusta](/wiki/Augusta_County%2C_Virginia \"Augusta County, Virginia\")\\-[Rockbridge](/wiki/Rockbridge_County%2C_Virginia \"Rockbridge County, Virginia\") county line.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-daily\\-progress\\-tv\\-tower\\-is\\-planned\\-i/127185575/\\|date\\=June 10, 1961\\|page\\=9\\|title\\=TV Tower Is Planned In Augusta\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Progress\\|via\\=Newspapers.com\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629171500/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-daily\\-progress\\-tv\\-tower\\-is\\-planned\\-i/127185575/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The corporation claimed its proposed tower was high enough to provide \"better reception than is now available\" to Charlottesville (i.e., from [WHSV\\-TV](/wiki/WHSV-TV \"WHSV-TV\") and stations in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\")), but a tower any closer to the city proper was precluded by short\\-spacing to [WBAL\\-TV](/wiki/WBAL-TV \"WBAL-TV\") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore, Maryland\"). The allocation request was denied after the [Naval Research Laboratory](/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory \"Naval Research Laboratory\") insisted on continued protection for its under\\-construction [Sugar Grove Station](/wiki/Sugar_Grove_Station \"Sugar Grove Station\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-daily\\-progress\\-fcc\\-denies\\-tv\\-channel/127185638/\\|date\\=December 24, 1964\\|page\\=21\\|title\\=FCC Denies TV Channel In This Area\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Progress\\|via\\=Newspapers.com\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629183025/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-daily\\-progress\\-fcc\\-denies\\-tv\\-channel/127185638/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The prospects of UHF television were still difficult in the years after Congress mandated new televisions include UHF tuners with the [All\\-Channel Receiver Act](/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act \"All-Channel Receiver Act\") of 1964\\. Nevertheless, Charlottesville Broadcasting became the first permittee of the city's channel 29 allocation, which was duly given the callsign **WINA\\-TV**.{{cite book\\|title\\=1967 Television Factbook\\|pages\\=142–a\\|edition\\=37th\\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX\\-Business/Annuals/Archive\\-Television\\-Factbook\\-IDX/IDX/Factbook/67/1967\\-TV\\-Factbook\\-II\\-OCR\\-Page\\-0144\\.pdf}} The construction permit was issued on July 13, 1965, and no further actions besides two extensions are recorded.", "During the company's 1969 sale, then\\-owner Don Heyne indicated he no longer wanted to build out the permit and could not find a buyer. Richardson also indicated that he did not want to purchase it, but was required to by the purchase agreement. As FCC rules only allow the sale of a permit to an entity that intends to build, the board ordered the permit cancelled and the $55,000 Charlottesville Broadcasting invested into it deducted from the sale price.{{cite book\\|title\\=FCC Reports, October 24, 1969 to January 30, 1970\\|publisher\\=United States Government Printing Office\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|pages\\=808–809\\|series\\=2\\|year\\=1970\\|volume\\=20\\|url\\=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc306601/m1/808/}} [WVIR](/wiki/WVIR \"WVIR\"), which was to occupy channel 64, then moved to channel 29 and signed on in 1973\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- In [Queens](/wiki/Queens "Queens"), teenage orphan El works in his late mother's shoe store "Laces", now run by his stepfather Trey, who overworks El instead of his stepbrothers Zelly and Stacy. El closes the store early to join his best friend and fellow [sneakerhead](/wiki/Sneaker_collecting "Sneaker collecting") Sami at the release of a new sneaker, where they meet a girl named Kira, who is impressed by El's insight into people from looking at their shoes. They miss the drop, but El shows Kira around his neighborhood, losing track of time as they fall for each other. El is forced to rush back the store without a way to contact Kira, and is grounded by Trey, to his stepbrothers’ delight. Kira returns home, and is revealed to be the daughter of sneaker mogul and former basketball star Darius King. Inspired by El, Kira suggests that her older sister Liv's shoe design is too “basic” and convinces their father to let her look for another original design before the upcoming SneakerCon. Learning Kira's identity, Sami and El plan to sneak into King's charity gala to find her. Overwhelmed by running the business alone, Trey has decided to sell the store, leading El to draw on memories of his mother and create a unique shoe design, with inspiration and help from the neighborhood. The night of the gala, Zelly and Stacy trap El in the stockroom, but he is rescued by Gustavo, the community garden's [magical](/wiki/Fairy_godmother "Fairy godmother") caretaker. He provides El and Sami with outfits, tickets, and a classic convertible to reach the gala, but warns that they must leave by midnight. At the event, El's custom\-made shoes become the talk of the crowd, as Sami inadvertently spreads rumors that El is a sought\-after independent designer. El reunites with Kira, who prepares to introduce him to her father as the designer everyone is talking about, but he and Sami are forced to flee at midnight. El loses one of his shoes on an escalator, which is found by Kira. Determined to track down the young mystery designer, Kira and Liv launch a viral campaign to find her “prince”. El is unsure how to explain the truth to Kira, but Sami convinces him to reach out to her and arrange a meeting with her father. Realizing El's plan, Zelly and Stacy steal his other shoe, and El arrives just after his stepbrothers have informed Darius that El is merely a stock boy. El tries to explain himself, but Darius and Kira rebuke him for lying to them and send him away. As Trey prepares to close the store and move the family back to [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"), El throws away his designs, which are found by Gustavo. Kira's mother suggests that her disappointment in El comes from trying too hard to meet her father's expectations, leading her to realize that she put just as much pressure on El herself. El wakes up to find a pair of sneakers from Gustavo, created from his design inspired by Kira. While Sami distracts his stepbrothers, El races to the King brand sneaker drop, where he and Kira apologize to each other. Zelly and Stacy take off in the moving truck to confront El, and Sami urges Trey to see how unfairly he has been treating El since his mother's death. El convinces Darius of his good intentions, his talent, and his feelings for Kira, but is interrupted by his stepbrothers. Trey arrives, reining in his sons. He apologizes for being so hard on El, and asks for a second chance to be a real father to El, while Darius declares El his new designer. One year later, El is in a relationship with Kira, and has transformed Laces into “El\-evate”, his own sneaker store pushing new and creative designs for all of Queens.
[ "Plot\n----", "In [Queens](/wiki/Queens \"Queens\"), teenage orphan El works in his late mother's shoe store \"Laces\", now run by his stepfather Trey, who overworks El instead of his stepbrothers Zelly and Stacy. El closes the store early to join his best friend and fellow [sneakerhead](/wiki/Sneaker_collecting \"Sneaker collecting\") Sami at the release of a new sneaker, where they meet a girl named Kira, who is impressed by El's insight into people from looking at their shoes. They miss the drop, but El shows Kira around his neighborhood, losing track of time as they fall for each other.", "El is forced to rush back the store without a way to contact Kira, and is grounded by Trey, to his stepbrothers’ delight. Kira returns home, and is revealed to be the daughter of sneaker mogul and former basketball star Darius King. Inspired by El, Kira suggests that her older sister Liv's shoe design is too “basic” and convinces their father to let her look for another original design before the upcoming SneakerCon.", "Learning Kira's identity, Sami and El plan to sneak into King's charity gala to find her. Overwhelmed by running the business alone, Trey has decided to sell the store, leading El to draw on memories of his mother and create a unique shoe design, with inspiration and help from the neighborhood. The night of the gala, Zelly and Stacy trap El in the stockroom, but he is rescued by Gustavo, the community garden's [magical](/wiki/Fairy_godmother \"Fairy godmother\") caretaker. He provides El and Sami with outfits, tickets, and a classic convertible to reach the gala, but warns that they must leave by midnight.", "At the event, El's custom\\-made shoes become the talk of the crowd, as Sami inadvertently spreads rumors that El is a sought\\-after independent designer. El reunites with Kira, who prepares to introduce him to her father as the designer everyone is talking about, but he and Sami are forced to flee at midnight. El loses one of his shoes on an escalator, which is found by Kira. Determined to track down the young mystery designer, Kira and Liv launch a viral campaign to find her “prince”.", "El is unsure how to explain the truth to Kira, but Sami convinces him to reach out to her and arrange a meeting with her father. Realizing El's plan, Zelly and Stacy steal his other shoe, and El arrives just after his stepbrothers have informed Darius that El is merely a stock boy. El tries to explain himself, but Darius and Kira rebuke him for lying to them and send him away. As Trey prepares to close the store and move the family back to [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"), El throws away his designs, which are found by Gustavo.", "Kira's mother suggests that her disappointment in El comes from trying too hard to meet her father's expectations, leading her to realize that she put just as much pressure on El herself. El wakes up to find a pair of sneakers from Gustavo, created from his design inspired by Kira. While Sami distracts his stepbrothers, El races to the King brand sneaker drop, where he and Kira apologize to each other.", "Zelly and Stacy take off in the moving truck to confront El, and Sami urges Trey to see how unfairly he has been treating El since his mother's death. El convinces Darius of his good intentions, his talent, and his feelings for Kira, but is interrupted by his stepbrothers. Trey arrives, reining in his sons. He apologizes for being so hard on El, and asks for a second chance to be a real father to El, while Darius declares El his new designer.", "One year later, El is in a relationship with Kira, and has transformed Laces into “El\\-evate”, his own sneaker store pushing new and creative designs for all of Queens.", "" ]
RNA Editing ----------- The pre\-mRNA of this protein is subject to RNA editing. The two editing sites were previously recorded as single nucleotide polymorphisms in dbSNP.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Levanon EY, Hallegger M, Kinar Y, Shemesh R, Djinovic\-Carugo K, Rechavi G, Jantsch MF, Eisenberg E \| title \= Evolutionarily conserved human targets of adenosine to inosine RNA editing \| journal \= Nucleic Acids Res. \| volume \= 33 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 1162–8 \| year \= 2005 \| pmid \= 15731336 \| pmc \= 549564 \| doi \= 10\.1093/nar/gki239 \| bibcode \= 2005q.bio.....2045L \| arxiv \= q\-bio/0502045 }} ### Editing type **A to I** RNA editing is catalyzed by a family of adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) that specifically recognize adenosines within double\-stranded regions of pre\-mRNAs and deaminate them to inosine. Inosines are recognised as guanosine by the cell's translational machinery. There are three members of the ADAR family ADARs 1\-3 with ADAR 1 and ADAR 2 being the only enzymatically active members. ADAR3 is thought to have a regulatory role in the brain. ADAR1 and ADAR 2 are widely expressed in tissues while ADAR 3 is restricted to the brain. The double stranded regions of RNA are formed by base\-pairing between residues in the close to region of the editing site with residues usually in a neighboring intron but can be an exonic sequence. The region that base pairs with the editing region is known as an Editing Complentary Sequence (ECS). It is thought that the pre\-mRNA of IGFBP7 is a substrate for ADAR1 based on the expression spectrum of the editing enzyme.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hartner JC, Schmittwolf C, Kispert A, Müller AM, Higuchi M, Seeburg PH \| title \= Liver disintegration in the mouse embryo caused by deficiency in the RNA\-editing enzyme ADAR1 \| journal \= J. Biol. Chem. \| volume \= 279 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 4894–902 \| date \= February 2004 \| pmid \= 14615479 \| doi \= 10\.1074/jbc.M311347200 \| doi\-access \= free }} ### Editing sites The pre\-mRNA of this protein is edited at two positions. These editing sites occur within the insulin growth factor domain. #### R/G site There is an Arginine (R) to a Glycine (G) substitution at amino acid position 78 of the final protein. #### K/R site There is a K to R substitution at amino acid position 95\. The editing complementary sequence (ECS) is located in a region within the coding sequence about 200 base pairs upstream from the editing sites. The ECS forms 140 bp duplex structure. The A to G discrepancies for these two editing sites were confirmed experimentally to be RNA editing by analyzing matched cDNA and genomic dna sequences from the same tissue sample. Intriguingly, those RNAs that do not need an intron sequence to pair with could, in theory, continue to undergo editing as mature mRNA. A third candidate editing site did not show evidence of RNA editing in sequence analysis, which may be an indication that either the RNA editing process is tissue specific, or editing occurs at a low frequency. One other possible explanation is that these edits are related to specific genomic polymorphisms. The editing site also overlaps with an antisense transcript which could also form a double stranded RNA structure creating a suitable substrate for ADARs. ### Editing regulation Editing is observed in a wide range of tissues. Editing at the K/R site at amino acid position 95 is very high in the human brain. ### Consequences #### Structural The edited sites are found within the insulin growth factor binding domain of IGFBP7 and also [Heparin](/wiki/Heparin "Heparin") binding domain. This region is also a site for proteolytic cleavage. Structural analysis of the edited sites determined that the two amino acids that corresponded to the edited sites are not directly involved in binding to IGF\-1 but are found in regions flanking them.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kuang Z, Yao S, Keizer DW, Wang CC, Bach LA, Forbes BE, Wallace JC, Norton RS \| title \= Structure, dynamics and heparin binding of the C\-terminal domain of insulin\-like growth factor\-binding protein\-2 (IGFBP\-2\) \| journal \= J. Mol. Biol. \| volume \= 364 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 690–704 \| date \= December 2006 \| pmid \= 17020769 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jmb.2006\.09\.006 }} At position 78 in unedited version of the transcript there is an Arginine close to residue valine\-49\.This Valine is important in hydrophobic interaction of Phenylalanine of IGF\-1\. A substitution to a Glycine at this position is thought to introduce additional flexibility leading to a change of loop conformation, thereby disrupting the hydrophobic interaction that stabilises the complex. At amino acid position 98 the unedited transcript contains a lysine. This residue makes some non specific interactions via the aliphatic part of the side chain with Glu\-38 of IGF\-1\. In the edited version the position is an arginine. The long side chain of which is thought to be able to maintain these weak interactions. #### Function The edited region contains a proposed heparin binding site and is also part of the recognition sequence for proteolytic cleavage. Heparin binding inhibits cell binding and cell adhesion functions of the protein.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kishibe J, Yamada S, Okada Y, Sato J, Ito A, Miyazaki K, Sugahara K \| title \= Structural requirements of heparan sulfate for the binding to the tumor\-derived adhesion factor/angiomodulin that induces cord\-like structures to ECV\-304 human carcinoma cells \| journal \= J. Biol. Chem. \| volume \= 275 \| issue \= 20 \| pages \= 15321–9 \| date \= May 2000 \| pmid \= 10809767 \| doi \= 10\.1074/jbc.275\.20\.15321 \| doi\-access \= free }} Cleavage which occurs at amino acid position 97 reduces heparin binding but modulates the growth stimulatory activity of the protein. Since the editing site occurs within this proposed heparin binding region the effects of editing may have implications for heparin binding and proteolytic cleavage and therefore have other affects downstream. Since the protein has been implicated in these processes it is believed editing might effect apoptosis, regulation of cell growth and angiogenesis. #### Functions in Learning and Memory A study at the European Neuroscience Institute\-Goettingen (Germany) found that fear extinction\-induced [IGF2](/wiki/IGF2 "IGF2")/IGFBP7 signalling promotes the survival of 17\- to 19\-day\-old newborn hippocampal neurons. This suggests that therapeutic strategies that enhance IGF2 signalling and adult [neurogenesis](/wiki/Neurogenesis "Neurogenesis") might be suitable to treat diseases linked to excessive fear memory such as [PTSD](/wiki/PTSD "PTSD").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Agis\-Balboa RC, Arcos\-Diaz D, Wittnam J, Govindarajan N, Blom K, Burkhardt S, Haladyniak U, Agbemenyah HY, Zovoilis A, Salinas\-Riester G, Opitz L, Sananbenesi F, Fischer A \| title \= A hippocampal insulin\-growth factor 2 pathway regulates the extinction of fear memories \| journal \= EMBO J \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 19 \| pages \= 4071–83 \| date \= August 2011 \| pmid \= 21873981 \| pmc \= 3209781 \| doi \= 10\.1038/emboj.2011\.293 }} The same group has found that IGFBP7 levels are increased in [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease") and regulated via [DNA methylation](/wiki/DNA_methylation "DNA methylation"). Elevation of IGFBP7 in wild type mice causes memory impairment. Blocking IGFBP7 function in mice that develop Alzheimer's disease\-like memory impairment restores memory function. These data suggest that IGFBP7 is a critical regulator of memory consolidation and might be used as biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Targeting IGFBP7 could be a novel therapeutic avenue for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease patients.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Agbemenyah HY, Agis\-Balboa RC, Burkhardt S, Delalle I, Fischer A \| title \= Insulin growth factor binding protein 7 is a novel target to treat dementia \| journal \= Neurobiol Dis \| volume \= 62 \| pages \= 135–43 \| year \= 2013 \| pmid \= 24075854 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.nbd.2013\.09\.011 \| s2cid \= 38244657 }}
[ "RNA Editing\n-----------", "The pre\\-mRNA of this protein is subject to RNA editing.\nThe two editing sites were previously recorded as single nucleotide polymorphisms in dbSNP.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Levanon EY, Hallegger M, Kinar Y, Shemesh R, Djinovic\\-Carugo K, Rechavi G, Jantsch MF, Eisenberg E \\| title \\= Evolutionarily conserved human targets of adenosine to inosine RNA editing \\| journal \\= Nucleic Acids Res. \\| volume \\= 33 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 1162–8 \\| year \\= 2005 \\| pmid \\= 15731336 \\| pmc \\= 549564 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/nar/gki239 \\| bibcode \\= 2005q.bio.....2045L \\| arxiv \\= q\\-bio/0502045 }}", "### Editing type", "**A to I** RNA editing is catalyzed by a family of adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) that specifically recognize adenosines within double\\-stranded regions of pre\\-mRNAs and deaminate them to inosine. Inosines are recognised as guanosine by the cell's translational machinery. There are three members of the ADAR family ADARs 1\\-3 with ADAR 1 and ADAR 2 being the only enzymatically active members. ADAR3 is thought to have a regulatory role in the brain. ADAR1 and ADAR 2 are widely expressed in tissues while ADAR 3 is restricted to the brain. The double stranded regions of RNA are formed by base\\-pairing between residues in the close to region of the editing site with residues usually in a neighboring intron but can be an exonic sequence. The region that base pairs with the editing region is known as an Editing Complentary Sequence (ECS). It is thought that the pre\\-mRNA of IGFBP7 is a substrate for ADAR1 based on the expression spectrum of the editing enzyme.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hartner JC, Schmittwolf C, Kispert A, Müller AM, Higuchi M, Seeburg PH \\| title \\= Liver disintegration in the mouse embryo caused by deficiency in the RNA\\-editing enzyme ADAR1 \\| journal \\= J. Biol. Chem. \\| volume \\= 279 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 4894–902 \\| date \\= February 2004 \\| pmid \\= 14615479 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1074/jbc.M311347200 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "### Editing sites", "The pre\\-mRNA of this protein is edited at two positions. These editing sites occur within the insulin growth factor domain.", "#### R/G site", "There is an Arginine (R) to a Glycine (G) substitution at amino acid position 78 of the final protein.", "#### K/R site", "There is a K to R substitution at amino acid position 95\\.", "The editing complementary sequence (ECS) is located in a region within the coding sequence about 200 base pairs upstream from the editing sites. The ECS forms 140 bp duplex structure.\nThe A to G discrepancies for these two editing sites were confirmed experimentally to be RNA editing by analyzing matched cDNA and genomic dna sequences from the same tissue sample. Intriguingly, those RNAs that do not need an intron sequence to pair with could, in theory, continue to undergo editing as mature mRNA. A third candidate editing site did not show evidence of RNA editing in sequence analysis, which may be an indication that either the RNA editing process is tissue specific, or editing occurs at a low frequency. One other possible explanation is that these edits are related to specific genomic polymorphisms. The editing site also overlaps with an antisense transcript which could also form a double stranded RNA structure creating a suitable substrate for ADARs.", "### Editing regulation", "Editing is observed in a wide range of tissues. Editing at the K/R site at amino acid position 95 is very high in the human brain.", "### Consequences", "#### Structural", "The edited sites are found within the insulin growth factor binding domain of IGFBP7 and also [Heparin](/wiki/Heparin \"Heparin\") binding domain. This region is also a site for proteolytic cleavage. Structural analysis of the edited sites determined that the two amino acids that corresponded to the edited sites are not directly involved in binding to IGF\\-1 but are found in regions flanking them.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kuang Z, Yao S, Keizer DW, Wang CC, Bach LA, Forbes BE, Wallace JC, Norton RS \\| title \\= Structure, dynamics and heparin binding of the C\\-terminal domain of insulin\\-like growth factor\\-binding protein\\-2 (IGFBP\\-2\\) \\| journal \\= J. Mol. Biol. \\| volume \\= 364 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 690–704 \\| date \\= December 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17020769 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jmb.2006\\.09\\.006 }} At position 78 in unedited version of the transcript there is an Arginine close to residue valine\\-49\\.This Valine is important in hydrophobic interaction of Phenylalanine of IGF\\-1\\. A substitution to a Glycine at this position is thought to introduce additional flexibility leading to a change of loop conformation, thereby disrupting the hydrophobic interaction that stabilises the complex. At amino acid position 98 the unedited transcript contains a lysine. This residue makes some non specific interactions via the aliphatic part of the side chain with Glu\\-38 of IGF\\-1\\. In the edited version the position is an arginine. The long side chain of which is thought to be able to maintain these weak interactions.", "#### Function", "The edited region contains a proposed heparin binding site and is also part of the recognition sequence for proteolytic cleavage. Heparin binding inhibits cell binding and cell adhesion functions of the protein.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kishibe J, Yamada S, Okada Y, Sato J, Ito A, Miyazaki K, Sugahara K \\| title \\= Structural requirements of heparan sulfate for the binding to the tumor\\-derived adhesion factor/angiomodulin that induces cord\\-like structures to ECV\\-304 human carcinoma cells \\| journal \\= J. Biol. Chem. \\| volume \\= 275 \\| issue \\= 20 \\| pages \\= 15321–9 \\| date \\= May 2000 \\| pmid \\= 10809767 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1074/jbc.275\\.20\\.15321 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Cleavage which occurs at amino acid position 97 reduces heparin binding but modulates the growth stimulatory activity of the protein. Since the editing site occurs within this proposed heparin binding region the effects of editing may have implications for heparin binding and proteolytic cleavage and therefore have other affects downstream. Since the protein has been implicated in these processes it is believed editing might effect apoptosis, regulation of cell growth and angiogenesis.", "#### Functions in Learning and Memory", "A study at the European Neuroscience Institute\\-Goettingen (Germany) found that fear extinction\\-induced [IGF2](/wiki/IGF2 \"IGF2\")/IGFBP7 signalling promotes the survival of 17\\- to 19\\-day\\-old newborn hippocampal neurons. This suggests that therapeutic strategies that enhance IGF2 signalling and adult [neurogenesis](/wiki/Neurogenesis \"Neurogenesis\") might be suitable to treat diseases linked to excessive fear memory such as [PTSD](/wiki/PTSD \"PTSD\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Agis\\-Balboa RC, Arcos\\-Diaz D, Wittnam J, Govindarajan N, Blom K, Burkhardt S, Haladyniak U, Agbemenyah HY, Zovoilis A, Salinas\\-Riester G, Opitz L, Sananbenesi F, Fischer A \\| title \\= A hippocampal insulin\\-growth factor 2 pathway regulates the extinction of fear memories \\| journal \\= EMBO J \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 19 \\| pages \\= 4071–83 \\| date \\= August 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21873981 \\| pmc \\= 3209781 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/emboj.2011\\.293 }} The same group has found that IGFBP7 levels are increased in [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\") and regulated via [DNA methylation](/wiki/DNA_methylation \"DNA methylation\"). Elevation of IGFBP7 in wild type mice causes memory impairment. Blocking IGFBP7 function in mice that develop Alzheimer's disease\\-like memory impairment restores memory function. These data suggest that IGFBP7 is a critical regulator of memory consolidation and might be used as biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Targeting IGFBP7 could be a novel therapeutic avenue for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease patients.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Agbemenyah HY, Agis\\-Balboa RC, Burkhardt S, Delalle I, Fischer A \\| title \\= Insulin growth factor binding protein 7 is a novel target to treat dementia \\| journal \\= Neurobiol Dis \\| volume \\= 62 \\| pages \\= 135–43 \\| year \\= 2013 \\| pmid \\= 24075854 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.nbd.2013\\.09\\.011 \\| s2cid \\= 38244657 }}", "" ]
History ------- The [Pequot](/wiki/Pequot "Pequot") people used the area now called Bluff Point as a source of seafood. *Pequot* means "people of the shallow water," and Pequot ancestors lived along the coast of Connecticut in villages near cleared land (called *poquonnock*), where they planted corn, squash, and beans.{{cite sign \| location \= Bluff Point State Park \| type \= informational sign \| title \= Bluff Point State Park \| publisher \= CT Blue Heritage Trail \| date \= 2022\-09\-25}} They ate fish and shellfish from the estuaries. Pequot people also made [wampum](/wiki/Wampum "Wampum") (beads) from [quahog](/wiki/Quahog "Quahog") and [shelk](/wiki/Shelk "Shelk") shells, which were valuable for trading with other tribes in the region. [European colonists](/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas "European colonization of the Americas") arrived in the 1630s. After the 1637 [Pequot War](/wiki/Pequot_War "Pequot War"), the Pequot tribal lands around Bluff Point were claimed and colonized by the English. In 1649, the [Town of New London](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut "New London, Connecticut") granted [John Winthrop the Younger](/wiki/John_Winthrop_the_Younger "John Winthrop the Younger") a plot of land that became the plantation called Winthrop's Neck. It included present day Bluff Point State Park, [Haley Farm State Park](/wiki/Haley_Farm_State_Park "Haley Farm State Park"), [Poquonnock Bridge](/wiki/Poquonock_Bridge%2C_Connecticut "Poquonock Bridge, Connecticut"), [Mumford Cove](/wiki/Mumford_Cove "Mumford Cove"), and [Groton Long Point](/wiki/Groton_Long_Point "Groton Long Point"). The property was subsequently divided into Great Farm, also known as Bluff Point, and the Fort Hill Farm. The farm building called Winthrop House was constructed on Bluff Point circa 1712 by Edward Yeomans on land leased from the Winthrop family. When it burned down in 1962, it left only a chimney standing that would later be used to reconstruct the [Ebenezer Avery House](/wiki/Ebenezer_Avery_House "Ebenezer Avery House")'s chimney after its relocation to [Fort Griswold](/wiki/Fort_Griswold "Fort Griswold"). The foundations of the farmhouse are still visible. The farm's crops included blackberry bushes and apple trees which continue to thrive. In the early 20th century, Bluff Point was part of an area known as Poquonnock Farm that was leased for potato farming by John Abbott Ackley. In 1892, Walter Denison opened a summer resort on Bushy Point. As interest in camping rose in the 1910s, Bluff Point became a popular destination by the 1920s. Tents and shacks grew into a small community of summer cottages by the 1930s. The owner of the property decided to stop subleasing the property in June 1938, with the termination in October 1 and the removal of the structures by November 1\. Leary writes, "\[b]efore a legal protest could be mounted, nature adjudicated the issue. On September 21, 1938, a massive hurricane came ashore at high tide. Except for the old Winthrop place, it destroyed nearly every building on the site." Some 106 homes were lost. The [New London and Stonington Railroad](/wiki/New_London_and_Stonington_Railroad "New London and Stonington Railroad") opened in 1858, running across the northern part of Bluff Point. In 1889, successor [New York, Providence and Boston Railroad](/wiki/New_York%2C_Providence_and_Boston_Railroad "New York, Providence and Boston Railroad") opened the [a bridge over the Thames River](/wiki/Thames_River_Bridge_%28Amtrak%29 "Thames River Bridge (Amtrak)") to the west. The new mainline split from the original line near Mumford Cove and ran further north; the old line became a branch line. In 1904, the [New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_Haven_and_Hartford_Railroad "New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad") built a large rail yard called Midway Yard at Bluff Point. A freight yard bracketed the mainline, while a [roundhouse](/wiki/Railway_roundhouse "Railway roundhouse") was built off the branch line. The yard declined beginning in the late 1920s and was abandoned in 1939\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-day/136621645/ \|title\=Midway Railroad Yard Now in Hands of Wreckers \|newspaper\=The Day \|date\=February 4, 1939 \|page\=9 \|via\=Newspapers.com}} The branch line was relocated off Bluff Point in 1942 due to expansion of [Trumbull Airport](/wiki/Groton%E2%80%93New_London_Airport "Groton–New London Airport"), while the mainline is now the [Northeast Corridor](/wiki/Northeast_Corridor "Northeast Corridor").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-day/136625296/ \|title\=Big Area Cleared For Expansion of Groton Airport \|newspaper\=The Day \|date\=October 20, 1942 \|page\=7 \|via\=Newspapers.com}} The turntable pit and the roundhouse foundation remain extant inside the park.{{cite magazine \|title\=Midway \|first\=Edward J. \|last\=Ozog \|pages\=15–23 \|magazine\=Shoreliner \|date\=1981 \|volume\=12 \|issue\=2 \|lccn\=78\-641543 \|publisher\=New Haven Railroad Historical and Technical Association}} Bluff Point was proposed as a state recreation facility as early as 1914\. The state acquired the western one\-third of Bluff Point from Henry A. Gardiner III in 1963\. During that time, the State sought to acquire the land because Bluff Point was the "last remaining significant portion of undeveloped shoreline in Connecticut" and that its "rocky bluffs standing behind narrow beaches typified the Connecticut coast." The Bluff Point Advisory Council, a committee formed of local citizen groups and government representatives, successfully petitioned the state to acquire the land and protect it. The Connecticut legislature established Bluff Point as a Coastal Reserve in 1975\. The act gave Bluff Point State Park the highest possible protection in the State Park system and serves to protect the high number of endangered and threatened species that are found within the park. According to legend, a boulder on the beach, known as Split Rock, suddenly split with "the sound of a cannon shot" in January 1780\. Leary notes that it was likely split by freezing water that expanded in a crack in the rock. Sunset Rock was used by residents of the summer community for meetings and religious services; the sunset can no longer be seen from the rock.
[ "History\n-------", "The [Pequot](/wiki/Pequot \"Pequot\") people used the area now called Bluff Point as a source of seafood. *Pequot* means \"people of the shallow water,\" and Pequot ancestors lived along the coast of Connecticut in villages near cleared land (called *poquonnock*), where they planted corn, squash, and beans.{{cite sign \\| location \\= Bluff Point State Park \\| type \\= informational sign \\| title \\= Bluff Point State Park \\| publisher \\= CT Blue Heritage Trail \\| date \\= 2022\\-09\\-25}} They ate fish and shellfish from the estuaries. Pequot people also made [wampum](/wiki/Wampum \"Wampum\") (beads) from [quahog](/wiki/Quahog \"Quahog\") and [shelk](/wiki/Shelk \"Shelk\") shells, which were valuable for trading with other tribes in the region.", "[European colonists](/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas \"European colonization of the Americas\") arrived in the 1630s. After the 1637 [Pequot War](/wiki/Pequot_War \"Pequot War\"), the Pequot tribal lands around Bluff Point were claimed and colonized by the English.", "In 1649, the [Town of New London](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut \"New London, Connecticut\") granted [John Winthrop the Younger](/wiki/John_Winthrop_the_Younger \"John Winthrop the Younger\") a plot of land that became the plantation called Winthrop's Neck. It included present day Bluff Point State Park, [Haley Farm State Park](/wiki/Haley_Farm_State_Park \"Haley Farm State Park\"), [Poquonnock Bridge](/wiki/Poquonock_Bridge%2C_Connecticut \"Poquonock Bridge, Connecticut\"), [Mumford Cove](/wiki/Mumford_Cove \"Mumford Cove\"), and [Groton Long Point](/wiki/Groton_Long_Point \"Groton Long Point\"). The property was subsequently divided into Great Farm, also known as Bluff Point, and the Fort Hill Farm.", "The farm building called Winthrop House was constructed on Bluff Point circa 1712 by Edward Yeomans on land leased from the Winthrop family. When it burned down in 1962, it left only a chimney standing that would later be used to reconstruct the [Ebenezer Avery House](/wiki/Ebenezer_Avery_House \"Ebenezer Avery House\")'s chimney after its relocation to [Fort Griswold](/wiki/Fort_Griswold \"Fort Griswold\"). The foundations of the farmhouse are still visible. The farm's crops included blackberry bushes and apple trees which continue to thrive. In the early 20th century, Bluff Point was part of an area known as Poquonnock Farm that was leased for potato farming by John Abbott Ackley.", "In 1892, Walter Denison opened a summer resort on Bushy Point. As interest in camping rose in the 1910s, Bluff Point became a popular destination by the 1920s. Tents and shacks grew into a small community of summer cottages by the 1930s. The owner of the property decided to stop subleasing the property in June 1938, with the termination in October 1 and the removal of the structures by November 1\\. Leary writes, \"\\[b]efore a legal protest could be mounted, nature adjudicated the issue. On September 21, 1938, a massive hurricane came ashore at high tide. Except for the old Winthrop place, it destroyed nearly every building on the site.\" Some 106 homes were lost.\n \nThe [New London and Stonington Railroad](/wiki/New_London_and_Stonington_Railroad \"New London and Stonington Railroad\") opened in 1858, running across the northern part of Bluff Point. In 1889, successor [New York, Providence and Boston Railroad](/wiki/New_York%2C_Providence_and_Boston_Railroad \"New York, Providence and Boston Railroad\") opened the [a bridge over the Thames River](/wiki/Thames_River_Bridge_%28Amtrak%29 \"Thames River Bridge (Amtrak)\") to the west. The new mainline split from the original line near Mumford Cove and ran further north; the old line became a branch line. In 1904, the [New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_Haven_and_Hartford_Railroad \"New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad\") built a large rail yard called Midway Yard at Bluff Point. A freight yard bracketed the mainline, while a [roundhouse](/wiki/Railway_roundhouse \"Railway roundhouse\") was built off the branch line. The yard declined beginning in the late 1920s and was abandoned in 1939\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-day/136621645/ \\|title\\=Midway Railroad Yard Now in Hands of Wreckers \\|newspaper\\=The Day \\|date\\=February 4, 1939 \\|page\\=9 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com}} The branch line was relocated off Bluff Point in 1942 due to expansion of [Trumbull Airport](/wiki/Groton%E2%80%93New_London_Airport \"Groton–New London Airport\"), while the mainline is now the [Northeast Corridor](/wiki/Northeast_Corridor \"Northeast Corridor\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-day/136625296/ \\|title\\=Big Area Cleared For Expansion of Groton Airport \\|newspaper\\=The Day \\|date\\=October 20, 1942 \\|page\\=7 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com}} The turntable pit and the roundhouse foundation remain extant inside the park.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Midway \\|first\\=Edward J. \\|last\\=Ozog \\|pages\\=15–23 \\|magazine\\=Shoreliner \\|date\\=1981 \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=2 \\|lccn\\=78\\-641543 \\|publisher\\=New Haven Railroad Historical and Technical Association}}", "Bluff Point was proposed as a state recreation facility as early as 1914\\. The state acquired the western one\\-third of Bluff Point from Henry A. Gardiner III in 1963\\. During that time, the State sought to acquire the land because Bluff Point was the \"last remaining significant portion of undeveloped shoreline in Connecticut\" and that its \"rocky bluffs standing behind narrow beaches typified the Connecticut coast.\" The Bluff Point Advisory Council, a committee formed of local citizen groups and government representatives, successfully petitioned the state to acquire the land and protect it. The Connecticut legislature established Bluff Point as a Coastal Reserve in 1975\\. The act gave Bluff Point State Park the highest possible protection in the State Park system and serves to protect the high number of endangered and threatened species that are found within the park.", "According to legend, a boulder on the beach, known as Split Rock, suddenly split with \"the sound of a cannon shot\" in January 1780\\. Leary notes that it was likely split by freezing water that expanded in a crack in the rock. Sunset Rock was used by residents of the summer community for meetings and religious services; the sunset can no longer be seen from the rock.", "" ]
Career ------ Toms took up refereeing in the late 1980s,[Referee since late 1980s](http://archive.thisishampshire.net/2004/9/23/22358.html), plus other career information: *ThisIsHampshire.net* website. and progressed to become a reserve (now "[fourth](/wiki/Fourth_official "Fourth official")") official in [the Football League](/wiki/The_Football_League "The Football League") in 1991 for the [AFC Bournemouth](/wiki/AFC_Bournemouth "AFC Bournemouth") versus [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. "Reading F.C.") match in the old [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division"), which was then unique for a female. She was the first woman to be included on the list of Football League assistant referees when she was chosen for the [1994–95 season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_in_English_football "1994–95 in English football"), and became a referee in the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference "Football Conference") two seasons later,[Date of first Conference match as referee](http://web.ukonline.co.uk/m.gratton/Names/Wendy.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818095715/http://web.ukonline.co.uk/m.gratton/Names/Wendy.htm \|date\=18 August 2007 }}, 31 August 1996 (also list of her other "firsts"): M. Gratton's *Ladies First* website. creating another precedent when she took charge of the game between [Kidderminster](/wiki/Kidderminster_Harriers_F.C. "Kidderminster Harriers F.C.") and [Nuneaton Borough](/wiki/Nuneaton_Borough_A.F.C. "Nuneaton Borough A.F.C.") her first Conference match as referee. Almost a year after that, she operated as an [assistant referee](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 "Assistant referee (association football)") in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), again, the first female ever to do so. Two years after her debut in that league, and having 'run the line' for referee [Steve Dunn](/wiki/Steve_Dunn_%28referee%29 "Steve Dunn (referee)") during [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C.")'s 4–3 Premiership away win at [Coventry City](/wiki/Coventry_City_F.C. "Coventry City F.C.") on 11 September 1999,[Match details](http://www.soccerbase.com/results3.sd?gameid=269084), Coventry v. Leeds, 1999: [soccerbase](/wiki/Soccerbase "Soccerbase").com website. she was roundly criticised by the then Coventry manager, [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan "Gordon Strachan"), who said in an interview with *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")* newspaper: "We are getting [PC](/wiki/Political_correctness "Political correctness") decisions about promoting ladies. It does not matter if they are ladies, men or Alsatian dogs. If they are not good enough to run the line they should not get the job. Saturday's was the worst assistant refereeing decision I have seen this season by far and I've said that in my report. The fourth Leeds goal was offside by at least four yards and there were numerous other bad decisions in the game. My message is don't be politically correct and promote people just for the sake of it." However, the president of the Referees' Association at the time, [Peter Willis](/wiki/Peter_Willis "Peter Willis"), replied: "She's a very good official...I think the situation is very sad. As a manager of a football club, Strachan is responsible for his players and he is entitled to his opinion on the performance of the officials, but to talk about the sex of the official is irrelevant."[Gordon Strachan's criticism of Toms](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19990916/ai_n14252223), also FIFA status confirmation: article at [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent") website, via the *FindArticles* service. Toms' highest domestic honour was being appointed as an assistant for the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") Final between [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. "Leicester City F.C.") and [Tranmere](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. "Tranmere Rovers F.C.") at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_%281923%29 "Wembley Stadium (1923)") on 27 February 2000,[League Cup Final 2000](https://archive.today/20120912165155/http://www.soccerbase.com/results3.sd?gameid=276696), match details: soccerbase.com website. when the referee was [Alan Wilkie](/wiki/Alan_Wilkie_%28referee%29 "Alan Wilkie (referee)"). Leicester won this 2–1, with Toms indicating offside at one point to cause the Tranmere (and former Leicester) player [David Kelly](/wiki/David_Kelly_%28association_footballer%29 "David Kelly (association footballer)")'s "equalising goal" to be disallowed.[League Cup Final 2000](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20000228/ai_n14292506), detailed report: article from The Independent website, via the *FindArticles* service. She was also an assistant referee in two matches at the [2000 Olympic Games](/wiki/Football_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics%23Match_Officials_2 "Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics#Match Officials 2"), having been selected by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") to operate on their women's international list. She took charge of the [UEFA Women's Cup quarter\-final](/wiki/UEFA_Women%27s_Cup_2003-04%23Quarter-Finals "UEFA Women's Cup 2003-04#Quarter-Finals") first leg on 30 October 2003 between [Brøndby IF](/wiki/Br%C3%B8ndby_IF_%28women%29 "Brøndby IF (women)") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and [Gomrukçu Baku](/wiki/Standard_Baku "Standard Baku") of [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan"), with the Danish side running out 9–0 winners.[UEFA Women's Club Championship](https://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec-wom04det.html), referee for a quarter\-final in 2003: *RSSSF.com* statistical website. Toms refereed one match at the 2005 [UEFA Women's Championship](/wiki/UEFA_Women%27s_Championship "UEFA Women's Championship") in England. This was the Group B match at [Deepdale](/wiki/Deepdale_%28stadium%29 "Deepdale (stadium)") in [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire "Preston, Lancashire") on 6 June 2005, between [France](/wiki/France_women%27s_national_football_team "France women's national football team") and [Italy](/wiki/Italy_women%27s_national_football_team "Italy women's national football team"), which finished 3–1 to the French.[Women's Euro 2005](http://www.zerozero.eu/uk/jogo.php?id=183762), referee for France v. Italy: *zerozero.eu* website. Although no longer officiating at the highest level, Toms still referees in the Football Conference.[Still refereeing](http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,2070518,00.html) (Football Conference 2007\): [Guardian Unlimited](/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited "Guardian Unlimited") website. Wendy Toms was also named in derogatory fashion during the Richard Keys and Andy Gray rant regarding women officiating elite football matches in late 2010, which cost the two broadcasters their jobs.[Sky Sports' Keys and Gray, naming Wendy Toms on air](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/premier-league/8277518/Sky-Sports-presenters-Andy-Gray-and-Richard-Keys-say-sorry-after-mocking-lineswoman-during-Liverpool-victory.html): [Telegraph.co.uk](/wiki/Telegraph.co.uk "Telegraph.co.uk").
[ "Career\n------", "Toms took up refereeing in the late 1980s,[Referee since late 1980s](http://archive.thisishampshire.net/2004/9/23/22358.html), plus other career information: *ThisIsHampshire.net* website. and progressed to become a reserve (now \"[fourth](/wiki/Fourth_official \"Fourth official\")\") official in [the Football League](/wiki/The_Football_League \"The Football League\") in 1991 for the [AFC Bournemouth](/wiki/AFC_Bournemouth \"AFC Bournemouth\") versus [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. \"Reading F.C.\") match in the old [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\"), which was then unique for a female. She was the first woman to be included on the list of Football League assistant referees when she was chosen for the [1994–95 season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_in_English_football \"1994–95 in English football\"), and became a referee in the [Football Conference](/wiki/Football_Conference \"Football Conference\") two seasons later,[Date of first Conference match as referee](http://web.ukonline.co.uk/m.gratton/Names/Wendy.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818095715/http://web.ukonline.co.uk/m.gratton/Names/Wendy.htm \\|date\\=18 August 2007 }}, 31 August 1996 (also list of her other \"firsts\"): M. Gratton's *Ladies First* website. creating another precedent when she took charge of the game between [Kidderminster](/wiki/Kidderminster_Harriers_F.C. \"Kidderminster Harriers F.C.\") and [Nuneaton Borough](/wiki/Nuneaton_Borough_A.F.C. \"Nuneaton Borough A.F.C.\") her first Conference match as referee. Almost a year after that, she operated as an [assistant referee](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 \"Assistant referee (association football)\") in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), again, the first female ever to do so.", "Two years after her debut in that league, and having 'run the line' for referee [Steve Dunn](/wiki/Steve_Dunn_%28referee%29 \"Steve Dunn (referee)\") during [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\")'s 4–3 Premiership away win at [Coventry City](/wiki/Coventry_City_F.C. \"Coventry City F.C.\") on 11 September 1999,[Match details](http://www.soccerbase.com/results3.sd?gameid=269084), Coventry v. Leeds, 1999: [soccerbase](/wiki/Soccerbase \"Soccerbase\").com website. she was roundly criticised by the then Coventry manager, [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan \"Gordon Strachan\"), who said in an interview with *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")* newspaper: \"We are getting [PC](/wiki/Political_correctness \"Political correctness\") decisions about promoting ladies. It does not matter if they are ladies, men or Alsatian dogs. If they are not good enough to run the line they should not get the job. Saturday's was the worst assistant refereeing decision I have seen this season by far and I've said that in my report. The fourth Leeds goal was offside by at least four yards and there were numerous other bad decisions in the game. My message is don't be politically correct and promote people just for the sake of it.\" However, the president of the Referees' Association at the time, [Peter Willis](/wiki/Peter_Willis \"Peter Willis\"), replied: \"She's a very good official...I think the situation is very sad. As a manager of a football club, Strachan is responsible for his players and he is entitled to his opinion on the performance of the officials, but to talk about the sex of the official is irrelevant.\"[Gordon Strachan's criticism of Toms](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19990916/ai_n14252223), also FIFA status confirmation: article at [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\") website, via the *FindArticles* service.", "Toms' highest domestic honour was being appointed as an assistant for the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") Final between [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. \"Leicester City F.C.\") and [Tranmere](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. \"Tranmere Rovers F.C.\") at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_%281923%29 \"Wembley Stadium (1923)\") on 27 February 2000,[League Cup Final 2000](https://archive.today/20120912165155/http://www.soccerbase.com/results3.sd?gameid=276696), match details: soccerbase.com website. when the referee was [Alan Wilkie](/wiki/Alan_Wilkie_%28referee%29 \"Alan Wilkie (referee)\"). Leicester won this 2–1, with Toms indicating offside at one point to cause the Tranmere (and former Leicester) player [David Kelly](/wiki/David_Kelly_%28association_footballer%29 \"David Kelly (association footballer)\")'s \"equalising goal\" to be disallowed.[League Cup Final 2000](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20000228/ai_n14292506), detailed report: article from The Independent website, via the *FindArticles* service. She was also an assistant referee in two matches at the [2000 Olympic Games](/wiki/Football_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics%23Match_Officials_2 \"Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics#Match Officials 2\"), having been selected by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") to operate on their women's international list.", "She took charge of the [UEFA Women's Cup quarter\\-final](/wiki/UEFA_Women%27s_Cup_2003-04%23Quarter-Finals \"UEFA Women's Cup 2003-04#Quarter-Finals\") first leg on 30 October 2003 between [Brøndby IF](/wiki/Br%C3%B8ndby_IF_%28women%29 \"Brøndby IF (women)\") of [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") and [Gomrukçu Baku](/wiki/Standard_Baku \"Standard Baku\") of [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\"), with the Danish side running out 9–0 winners.[UEFA Women's Club Championship](https://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec-wom04det.html), referee for a quarter\\-final in 2003: *RSSSF.com* statistical website.", "Toms refereed one match at the 2005 [UEFA Women's Championship](/wiki/UEFA_Women%27s_Championship \"UEFA Women's Championship\") in England. This was the Group B match at [Deepdale](/wiki/Deepdale_%28stadium%29 \"Deepdale (stadium)\") in [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire \"Preston, Lancashire\") on 6 June 2005, between [France](/wiki/France_women%27s_national_football_team \"France women's national football team\") and [Italy](/wiki/Italy_women%27s_national_football_team \"Italy women's national football team\"), which finished 3–1 to the French.[Women's Euro 2005](http://www.zerozero.eu/uk/jogo.php?id=183762), referee for France v. Italy: *zerozero.eu* website.", "Although no longer officiating at the highest level, Toms still referees in the Football Conference.[Still refereeing](http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,2070518,00.html) (Football Conference 2007\\): [Guardian Unlimited](/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited \"Guardian Unlimited\") website.", "Wendy Toms was also named in derogatory fashion during the Richard Keys and Andy Gray rant regarding women officiating elite football matches in late 2010, which cost the two broadcasters their jobs.[Sky Sports' Keys and Gray, naming Wendy Toms on air](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/premier-league/8277518/Sky-Sports-presenters-Andy-Gray-and-Richard-Keys-say-sorry-after-mocking-lineswoman-during-Liverpool-victory.html): [Telegraph.co.uk](/wiki/Telegraph.co.uk \"Telegraph.co.uk\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Dittrich was born in [Biala, Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)") (modern [Bielsko\-Biała](/wiki/Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a "Bielsko-Biała"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland")). He attended the [Vienna Conservatory](/wiki/University_of_Music_and_Performing_Arts%2C_Vienna "University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna"), where he specialized in violin, piano, organ, and music composition. His teachers included [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner "Anton Bruckner"), who later became one of his sponsors. In November 1886, Dittrich married a singer named Petronella Josefine Leopoldine Lammer (15 September 1860 \- 4 January 1891\). Dittrich was hired by the [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government "Meiji government") of [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") as a [foreign advisor](/wiki/Oyatoi_gaikokujin "Oyatoi gaikokujin") on a three\-year contract and arrived in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") in 1888 as the first Art Director of the Tokyo School of Music (now the [Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music](/wiki/Tokyo_National_University_of_Fine_Arts_and_Music "Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music")). Dittrich and his wife both worked at the school, and also gave performances at the *[Rokumeikan](/wiki/Rokumeikan "Rokumeikan")*. Dittrich was fluent in [English](/wiki/English_language "English language"), and also taught his students English conversation along with violin, piano, organ, theory, and composition. However, he was known as a very severe teacher, and at one point his students marched out on strike against him. However, many of his students went on to distinguished careers. Near the end of Dittrich's first term in 1891, his wife died from a [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism "Pulmonary embolism"). Furthermore, the school faced financial difficulties as the government withdrew its support to divert funds for the upcoming [First Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War "First Sino-Japanese War"). In spite of his school's difficulties, Dittrich's contract was renewed in 1891 for another three\-year period. Sometime in 1891 or 1892, Dittrich formed a relationship with a Japanese *[shamisen](/wiki/Shamisen "Shamisen")* performer and instructor, Mori Kiku, with whom he had a son out of wedlock named Otto Mori. Mori Kiku also assisted Dittrich in translating the lyrics and transposing the music for the Japanese songs which appeared in his 1894 and 1895 publications. Dittrich left Japan one month before the expiration of his contract in August 1894, abandoning his common\-law family, but leaving provisions to provide financial support for his son, who later became a professional violinist. His grandson was the movie actor [Jun Negami](/wiki/Jun_Negami "Jun Negami"). After returning to [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") in 1894, Dittrich had to struggle to find a position. In the first years after his return he performed as a [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") violinist and violist. In 1901, he was appointed as one of three [Habsburg court](/wiki/Habsburg_dynasty "Habsburg dynasty") organists, succeeding his mentor Anton Bruckner. In 1906 Dittrich became a professor at the Vienna Conservatory, and wrote for the organ in the [Musikverein](/wiki/Musikverein "Musikverein") auditorium, where the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic "Vienna Philharmonic") plays its New Year's concerts. On 10 July 1900 Dittrich married his second wife, Katharina Kriegle, who bore him two sons. Dittrich collapsed while performing in a concert on 18 October 1916, and never fully recovered. He died in Vienna on 16 January 1919\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Dittrich was born in [Biala, Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\") (modern [Bielsko\\-Biała](/wiki/Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a \"Bielsko-Biała\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\")). He attended the [Vienna Conservatory](/wiki/University_of_Music_and_Performing_Arts%2C_Vienna \"University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna\"), where he specialized in violin, piano, organ, and music composition. His teachers included [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner \"Anton Bruckner\"), who later became one of his sponsors.", "In November 1886, Dittrich married a singer named Petronella Josefine Leopoldine Lammer (15 September 1860 \\- 4 January 1891\\).", "Dittrich was hired by the [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government \"Meiji government\") of [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") as a [foreign advisor](/wiki/Oyatoi_gaikokujin \"Oyatoi gaikokujin\") on a three\\-year contract and arrived in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") in 1888 as the first Art Director of the Tokyo School of Music (now the [Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music](/wiki/Tokyo_National_University_of_Fine_Arts_and_Music \"Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music\")). Dittrich and his wife both worked at the school, and also gave performances at the *[Rokumeikan](/wiki/Rokumeikan \"Rokumeikan\")*. Dittrich was fluent in [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\"), and also taught his students English conversation along with violin, piano, organ, theory, and composition. However, he was known as a very severe teacher, and at one point his students marched out on strike against him. However, many of his students went on to distinguished careers.", "Near the end of Dittrich's first term in 1891, his wife died from a [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism \"Pulmonary embolism\"). Furthermore, the school faced financial difficulties as the government withdrew its support to divert funds for the upcoming [First Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War \"First Sino-Japanese War\"). In spite of his school's difficulties, Dittrich's contract was renewed in 1891 for another three\\-year period.", "Sometime in 1891 or 1892, Dittrich formed a relationship with a Japanese *[shamisen](/wiki/Shamisen \"Shamisen\")* performer and instructor, Mori Kiku, with whom he had a son out of wedlock named Otto Mori. Mori Kiku also assisted Dittrich in translating the lyrics and transposing the music for the Japanese songs which appeared in his 1894 and 1895 publications.", "Dittrich left Japan one month before the expiration of his contract in August 1894, abandoning his common\\-law family, but leaving provisions to provide financial support for his son, who later became a professional violinist. His grandson was the movie actor [Jun Negami](/wiki/Jun_Negami \"Jun Negami\").", "After returning to [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") in 1894, Dittrich had to struggle to find a position. In the first years after his return he performed as a [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") violinist and violist. In 1901, he was appointed as one of three [Habsburg court](/wiki/Habsburg_dynasty \"Habsburg dynasty\") organists, succeeding his mentor Anton Bruckner. In 1906 Dittrich became a professor at the Vienna Conservatory, and wrote for the organ in the [Musikverein](/wiki/Musikverein \"Musikverein\") auditorium, where the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic \"Vienna Philharmonic\") plays its New Year's concerts.", "On 10 July 1900 Dittrich married his second wife, Katharina Kriegle, who bore him two sons.", "Dittrich collapsed while performing in a concert on 18 October 1916, and never fully recovered. He died in Vienna on 16 January 1919\\.", "" ]
History ------- The program debuted under its current title in 1997, concurrently with the network's rebranding from "CBC Radio" to "CBC Radio One".Peter Goddard, "New names, new shows for CBC Radio Both networks on FM dial: One for news, Two for entertainment". *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*, August 20, 1997\. Its first host was slated to be [Maureen Taylor](/wiki/Maureen_Taylor "Maureen Taylor"), but she left the network for [TVOntario](/wiki/TVOntario "TVOntario") before the program's launch, and the program debuted with Joan Melanson as host. Melanson took a maternity leave in 1998, and [Erika Ritter](/wiki/Erika_Ritter "Erika Ritter") took over the program as a guest host.Peter Goddard, "Benoit to host Here \& Now". *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*, August 5, 1999\. The program was hosted by [Avril Benoît](/wiki/Avril_Beno%C3%AEt "Avril Benoît") from 1999 to 2004"Benoit to host afternoon radio show". *[Saskatoon StarPhoenix](/wiki/Saskatoon_StarPhoenix "Saskatoon StarPhoenix")*, August 6, 1999\. and by [Matt Galloway](/wiki/Matt_Galloway "Matt Galloway") from 2004 until February 8, 2010; Galloway moved to hosting *[Metro Morning](/wiki/Metro_Morning "Metro Morning")* effective March 1, 2010\.["Matt Galloway to replace Andy Barrie as host of CBC Radio's Metro Morning"](http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/toronto/archive/2010/02/08/matt-galloway-to-replace-andy-barrie-as-host-of-cbc-radio-s-metro-morning.aspx){{dead link\|date\=November 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post "National Post")*, February 8, 2010\. From February 2010 through December 2010, interim hosts included [Robin Brown](/wiki/Robin_Brown_%28journalist%29 "Robin Brown (journalist)"), [Jane Hawtin](/wiki/Jane_Hawtin "Jane Hawtin"), Karen Horsman, and [Kevin Sylvester](/wiki/Kevin_Sylvester_%28Canadian_broadcaster%29 "Kevin Sylvester (Canadian broadcaster)"). On December 16, 2010, broadcaster Laura Di Battista was announced as the new host starting January 3, 2011\.["Laura DiBattista to host CBC’s Here and Now"](https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/article/908294--laura-dibattista-to-host-cbc-s-here-and-now). *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*, December 16, 2010\. Her tenure lasted until November 2012, when CBC spokesperson Chuck Thompson announced that Battista was out. At the time, no successor was made public;{{cite news\|last\=DeMara\|first\=Bruce\|title\=CBC axes Laura DiBattista as host of Here and Now\|url\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/1281766\-\-cbc\-axes\-laura\-dibattista\-as\-host\-of\-here\-and\-now\|access\-date\=3 November 2012\|newspaper\=The Toronto Star\|date\=2 November 2012}} in the interim, Brown, Hawtin, Horsman, Sylvester, [Gill Deacon](/wiki/Gill_Deacon "Gill Deacon") and [Mary Ito](/wiki/Mary_Ito "Mary Ito") served as guest hosts. On May 31, 2013, the CBC announced Deacon as the new permanent host, starting September 2, 2013\.["Gill Deacon named host of Here and Now"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/gill-deacon-named-host-of-here-and-now-1.1308874). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News "CBC News"), May 31, 2013\. Deacon spent a year away from the show beginning in fall 2018 after being diagnosed with breast cancer; the show was guest\-hosted through much of 2019 by Reshmi Nair, [Saroja Coelho](/wiki/Saroja_Coelho "Saroja Coelho"), [Nana aba Duncan](/wiki/Nana_aba_Duncan "Nana aba Duncan") or [Angeline Tetteh\-Wayoe](/wiki/Angeline_Tetteh-Wayoe "Angeline Tetteh-Wayoe"), and Deacon returned to the show in early September 2019\. She stepped away from the show again in December 2022 due to [long COVID](/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID"),Gill Deacon, ["'What I want are recovery narratives': CBC Radio host Gill Deacon on life with long COVID"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/gill-deacon-long-covid-recovery-narratives-1.7046731). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News "CBC News"), December 2, 2023\. with guest hosts filling in until Deacon announced in September 2024 that she was stepping away from the program permanently.["CBC Radio host Gill Deacon on leaving Here and Now"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/community/gill-deacon-stepping-down-1.7312844). CBC Toronto, September 4, 2024\. Ramraajh Sharvendiran, the last guest host before Deacon announced her departure, is now the permanent host of the program. He was previously the host of *North Country* on [CBWK\-FM](/wiki/CBWK-FM "CBWK-FM") in [Thompson](/wiki/Thompson%2C_Manitoba "Thompson, Manitoba") from 2018 to 2020,Eric Westhaver, ["New host, new look for North Country"](https://www.thereminder.ca/local-arts/new-host-new-look-for-north-country-4126013). *[The Reminder](/wiki/The_Reminder_%28Flin_Flon%29 "The Reminder (Flin Flon)")*, October 27, 2018\. the *St. John's Morning Show* on [CBN](/wiki/CBN_%28AM%29 "CBN (AM)") in [St. John's](/wiki/St._John%27s%2C_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador") from 2020 to 2022, and *[Ontario Morning](/wiki/Ontario_Morning "Ontario Morning")* on non\-metropolitan transmitters in [Southern Ontario](/wiki/Southern_Ontario "Southern Ontario") from 2022 to 2024\. Personalities associated with the show include Trevor Dunn with local news reports, Colette Kennedy covering weather and Khalil Hassanali with traffic updates.
[ "History\n-------", "The program debuted under its current title in 1997, concurrently with the network's rebranding from \"CBC Radio\" to \"CBC Radio One\".Peter Goddard, \"New names, new shows for CBC Radio Both networks on FM dial: One for news, Two for entertainment\". *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*, August 20, 1997\\. Its first host was slated to be [Maureen Taylor](/wiki/Maureen_Taylor \"Maureen Taylor\"), but she left the network for [TVOntario](/wiki/TVOntario \"TVOntario\") before the program's launch, and the program debuted with Joan Melanson as host. Melanson took a maternity leave in 1998, and [Erika Ritter](/wiki/Erika_Ritter \"Erika Ritter\") took over the program as a guest host.Peter Goddard, \"Benoit to host Here \\& Now\". *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*, August 5, 1999\\.", "The program was hosted by [Avril Benoît](/wiki/Avril_Beno%C3%AEt \"Avril Benoît\") from 1999 to 2004\"Benoit to host afternoon radio show\". *[Saskatoon StarPhoenix](/wiki/Saskatoon_StarPhoenix \"Saskatoon StarPhoenix\")*, August 6, 1999\\. and by [Matt Galloway](/wiki/Matt_Galloway \"Matt Galloway\") from 2004 until February 8, 2010; Galloway moved to hosting *[Metro Morning](/wiki/Metro_Morning \"Metro Morning\")* effective March 1, 2010\\.[\"Matt Galloway to replace Andy Barrie as host of CBC Radio's Metro Morning\"](http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/toronto/archive/2010/02/08/matt-galloway-to-replace-andy-barrie-as-host-of-cbc-radio-s-metro-morning.aspx){{dead link\\|date\\=November 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post \"National Post\")*, February 8, 2010\\. From February 2010 through December 2010, interim hosts included [Robin Brown](/wiki/Robin_Brown_%28journalist%29 \"Robin Brown (journalist)\"), [Jane Hawtin](/wiki/Jane_Hawtin \"Jane Hawtin\"), Karen Horsman, and [Kevin Sylvester](/wiki/Kevin_Sylvester_%28Canadian_broadcaster%29 \"Kevin Sylvester (Canadian broadcaster)\").", "On December 16, 2010, broadcaster Laura Di Battista was announced as the new host starting January 3, 2011\\.[\"Laura DiBattista to host CBC’s Here and Now\"](https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/article/908294--laura-dibattista-to-host-cbc-s-here-and-now). *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*, December 16, 2010\\. Her tenure lasted until November 2012, when CBC spokesperson Chuck Thompson announced that Battista was out. At the time, no successor was made public;{{cite news\\|last\\=DeMara\\|first\\=Bruce\\|title\\=CBC axes Laura DiBattista as host of Here and Now\\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/1281766\\-\\-cbc\\-axes\\-laura\\-dibattista\\-as\\-host\\-of\\-here\\-and\\-now\\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2012\\|newspaper\\=The Toronto Star\\|date\\=2 November 2012}} in the interim, Brown, Hawtin, Horsman, Sylvester, [Gill Deacon](/wiki/Gill_Deacon \"Gill Deacon\") and [Mary Ito](/wiki/Mary_Ito \"Mary Ito\") served as guest hosts. On May 31, 2013, the CBC announced Deacon as the new permanent host, starting September 2, 2013\\.[\"Gill Deacon named host of Here and Now\"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/gill-deacon-named-host-of-here-and-now-1.1308874). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News \"CBC News\"), May 31, 2013\\. Deacon spent a year away from the show beginning in fall 2018 after being diagnosed with breast cancer; the show was guest\\-hosted through much of 2019 by Reshmi Nair, [Saroja Coelho](/wiki/Saroja_Coelho \"Saroja Coelho\"), [Nana aba Duncan](/wiki/Nana_aba_Duncan \"Nana aba Duncan\") or [Angeline Tetteh\\-Wayoe](/wiki/Angeline_Tetteh-Wayoe \"Angeline Tetteh-Wayoe\"), and Deacon returned to the show in early September 2019\\. She stepped away from the show again in December 2022 due to [long COVID](/wiki/Long_COVID \"Long COVID\"),Gill Deacon, [\"'What I want are recovery narratives': CBC Radio host Gill Deacon on life with long COVID\"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/gill-deacon-long-covid-recovery-narratives-1.7046731). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News \"CBC News\"), December 2, 2023\\. with guest hosts filling in until Deacon announced in September 2024 that she was stepping away from the program permanently.[\"CBC Radio host Gill Deacon on leaving Here and Now\"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/community/gill-deacon-stepping-down-1.7312844). CBC Toronto, September 4, 2024\\.", "Ramraajh Sharvendiran, the last guest host before Deacon announced her departure, is now the permanent host of the program. He was previously the host of *North Country* on [CBWK\\-FM](/wiki/CBWK-FM \"CBWK-FM\") in [Thompson](/wiki/Thompson%2C_Manitoba \"Thompson, Manitoba\") from 2018 to 2020,Eric Westhaver, [\"New host, new look for North Country\"](https://www.thereminder.ca/local-arts/new-host-new-look-for-north-country-4126013). *[The Reminder](/wiki/The_Reminder_%28Flin_Flon%29 \"The Reminder (Flin Flon)\")*, October 27, 2018\\. the *St. John's Morning Show* on [CBN](/wiki/CBN_%28AM%29 \"CBN (AM)\") in [St. John's](/wiki/St._John%27s%2C_Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador\") from 2020 to 2022, and *[Ontario Morning](/wiki/Ontario_Morning \"Ontario Morning\")* on non\\-metropolitan transmitters in [Southern Ontario](/wiki/Southern_Ontario \"Southern Ontario\") from 2022 to 2024\\.", "Personalities associated with the show include Trevor Dunn with local news reports, Colette Kennedy covering weather and Khalil Hassanali with traffic updates.", "" ]
Plot ---- [thumb\|An illustration of Morrison's Hotel, Dublin from 1821\.](/wiki/File:Morrisons_Hotel%2C_Dawson_Street.png "Morrisons Hotel, Dawson Street.png") Albert Nobbs is an English [butler](/wiki/Butler "Butler") at the Morrison Hotel in late\-19th\-century Dublin, Ireland; his boss is Mrs. Baker. Although born female, Albert has spent the last 30 years living as a man. He has also been secretly saving money to buy a [tobacconist](/wiki/Tobacconist "Tobacconist") shop to gain some measure of freedom and independence. Recently unemployed Joe Mackins arrives at the hotel and cons his way into a boilerman job. He and a maid there, Helen Dawes, become lovers. Hubert Page, tasked with painting at the hotel, discovers Albert's secret. He reveals to Albert that he is keeping the same secret about himself, living as a man after escaping an abusive husband. Albert visits Hubert at his home and meets Cathleen, Hubert's wife. Albert tells Hubert the story of his life: born illegitimate and then abandoned, Albert was adopted by a Mrs. Nobbs and educated in a convent before being expelled after his mother died. One night, aged 14 and still living as a girl, Albert was brutally [gang\-raped](/wiki/Gang_rape "Gang rape") and beaten by a group of men. After hearing there was a need for waiters, Albert bought a suit, was interviewed and hired, and began his life with a male identity. Believing Helen may be the ideal wife to run a shop with, Albert asks her out on a date. She refuses, but Joe, believing that Albert will give Helen money that could help the pair emigrate to America, encourages her to lead Albert on. She agrees to this approach, allowing Albert to buy her gifts. Helen is uncomfortable with Albert and the arrangement that Joe has persuaded her to make. Albert also tells Helen about his plan to buy a shop. Typhoid fever ravages Ireland and many, including Albert, get ill. Helen eventually discovers she is pregnant with Joe's child. Joe is terrified, fearing he will become like his abusive father. Meanwhile, Albert goes to Hubert's home one day and learns that Cathleen has died of typhoid, leaving Hubert devastated. Albert and Hubert put on dresses made by Cathleen. Though both at first are extremely uncomfortable, they eventually spend a fun day together dressed as women. A stumble and fall by Albert on the beach brings them back to reality. The pair return to Hubert's, change back into their men's clothing, and go back to their lives as before. Back at the hotel, Albert learns Helen is pregnant and offers to marry her. She refuses, saying Albert does not love her, though Albert voices a fear that Joe will leave by himself for America and not take her and the child. Later that evening, Joe and Helen get into a loud fight after Joe reveals he is indeed going to America alone. Albert attacks Joe when he gets physical with Helen, and Joe throws Albert against a wall, giving him a head injury. Albert retires to bed, forgotten in the commotion, bleeding from one ear. Helen angrily tells Joe she no longer wants to be with him anyway, and he leaves. Helen finds Albert dead in his bed the next morning. Helen eventually gives birth to a son, Albert Joseph. It is implied Mrs. Baker found Albert's savings, and hires Hubert again to make improvements to the hotel. When Helen sees Hubert, she breaks down and reveals she earns nothing working for Mrs. Baker, but if she objects she will be separated from her son and thrown out into the street. Hubert looks knowingly at her and says, "We can't let that happen, can we?"
[ "Plot\n----", "[thumb\\|An illustration of Morrison's Hotel, Dublin from 1821\\.](/wiki/File:Morrisons_Hotel%2C_Dawson_Street.png \"Morrisons Hotel, Dawson Street.png\")", "Albert Nobbs is an English [butler](/wiki/Butler \"Butler\") at the Morrison Hotel in late\\-19th\\-century Dublin, Ireland; his boss is Mrs. Baker. Although born female, Albert has spent the last 30 years living as a man. He has also been secretly saving money to buy a [tobacconist](/wiki/Tobacconist \"Tobacconist\") shop to gain some measure of freedom and independence.", "Recently unemployed Joe Mackins arrives at the hotel and cons his way into a boilerman job. He and a maid there, Helen Dawes, become lovers. Hubert Page, tasked with painting at the hotel, discovers Albert's secret. He reveals to Albert that he is keeping the same secret about himself, living as a man after escaping an abusive husband.", "Albert visits Hubert at his home and meets Cathleen, Hubert's wife. Albert tells Hubert the story of his life: born illegitimate and then abandoned, Albert was adopted by a Mrs. Nobbs and educated in a convent before being expelled after his mother died. One night, aged 14 and still living as a girl, Albert was brutally [gang\\-raped](/wiki/Gang_rape \"Gang rape\") and beaten by a group of men. After hearing there was a need for waiters, Albert bought a suit, was interviewed and hired, and began his life with a male identity.", "Believing Helen may be the ideal wife to run a shop with, Albert asks her out on a date. She refuses, but Joe, believing that Albert will give Helen money that could help the pair emigrate to America, encourages her to lead Albert on. She agrees to this approach, allowing Albert to buy her gifts. Helen is uncomfortable with Albert and the arrangement that Joe has persuaded her to make. Albert also tells Helen about his plan to buy a shop. Typhoid fever ravages Ireland and many, including Albert, get ill.", "Helen eventually discovers she is pregnant with Joe's child. Joe is terrified, fearing he will become like his abusive father. Meanwhile, Albert goes to Hubert's home one day and learns that Cathleen has died of typhoid, leaving Hubert devastated. Albert and Hubert put on dresses made by Cathleen. Though both at first are extremely uncomfortable, they eventually spend a fun day together dressed as women. A stumble and fall by Albert on the beach brings them back to reality. The pair return to Hubert's, change back into their men's clothing, and go back to their lives as before.", "Back at the hotel, Albert learns Helen is pregnant and offers to marry her. She refuses, saying Albert does not love her, though Albert voices a fear that Joe will leave by himself for America and not take her and the child. Later that evening, Joe and Helen get into a loud fight after Joe reveals he is indeed going to America alone. Albert attacks Joe when he gets physical with Helen, and Joe throws Albert against a wall, giving him a head injury. Albert retires to bed, forgotten in the commotion, bleeding from one ear. Helen angrily tells Joe she no longer wants to be with him anyway, and he leaves. Helen finds Albert dead in his bed the next morning.", "Helen eventually gives birth to a son, Albert Joseph. It is implied Mrs. Baker found Albert's savings, and hires Hubert again to make improvements to the hotel. When Helen sees Hubert, she breaks down and reveals she earns nothing working for Mrs. Baker, but if she objects she will be separated from her son and thrown out into the street. Hubert looks knowingly at her and says, \"We can't let that happen, can we?\"", "" ]
Mature life ----------- [thumb\|250px\| James Boswell by [George Willison](/wiki/George_Willison_%28artist%29 "George Willison (artist)") in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") in 1765\. [Scottish National Gallery](/wiki/Scottish_National_Gallery "Scottish National Gallery"), Edinburgh](/wiki/File:George_Willison_-_James_Boswell%2C_1740_-_1795._Diarist_and_biographer_of_Dr_Samuel_Johnson_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg "George Willison - James Boswell, 1740 - 1795. Diarist and biographer of Dr Samuel Johnson - Google Art Project.jpg") Boswell returned to London in February 1766 accompanied by Rousseau's mistress [Thérèse Levasseur](/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Levasseur "Thérèse Levasseur"), with whom he had a brief affair on the journey home.*Correspondence of James Boswell and William Johnson Temple, Edinburgh 1997, page 140 footnote 4 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC\&pg\=PA140](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC&pg=PA140)* After spending a few weeks in the capital, he returned to Scotland, buying (or perhaps renting) the former house of [David Hume](/wiki/David_Hume "David Hume") on James Court on the [Lawnmarket](/wiki/Lawnmarket "Lawnmarket").Grant's Old and New Edinburgh vol. 1, p. 97 He studied for his final law exam at [Edinburgh University](/wiki/Edinburgh_University "Edinburgh University"). He passed the exam and became an [advocate](/wiki/Advocate "Advocate"). He practised the law in Edinburgh for over a decade, and most years spent his annual break in London, mingling with Johnson and many other London\-based writers, editors, and printers, and furthering his literary ambitions. He contributed a great many items to newspapers and magazines, in London and Edinburgh.{{Cite book \|last\=Tankard \|first\=Paul \|title\=Facts and Inventions: Selections from the Journalism of James Boswell \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|year\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-0\-300\-14126\-9 \|location\=New Haven \|pages\=xxiv}} He found enjoyment in playing the intellectual rhyming game [crambo](/wiki/Crambo "Crambo") with his peers. In 1768 he published *An account of Corsica, the journal of a tour to that island, and memoirs of Pascal Paoli.* The book contained both a history and description of Corsica, as well as an account of his visit. Boswell was a major supporter of the [Corsican Republic](/wiki/Corsican_Republic "Corsican Republic"). Following the island's [invasion by France](/wiki/French_conquest_of_Corsica "French conquest of Corsica") in 1768, Boswell attempted to raise public awareness and rally support for the Corsicans. He sent arms and money to the Corsican fighters, who were ultimately defeated at the [Battle of Ponte Novu](/wiki/Battle_of_Ponte_Novu "Battle of Ponte Novu") in 1769\. Boswell attended the [masquerade](/wiki/Masquerade_ball "Masquerade ball") held at the [Shakespeare Jubilee](/wiki/Shakespeare_Jubilee "Shakespeare Jubilee") in [Stratford\-upon\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon "Stratford-upon-Avon") in September 1769 dressed as a Corsican Chief.Pierce pp. 9–10 He was also, much to the chagrin of his friend Johnson, a strong defender of the American Revolution. Zachary Brown,"'A High Tory and an American upon my own Principles': James Boswell, the American Revolution, and Royalist Constitutionalism, 1775–1783\."*Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History* (2022\). [Online](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2022.2118989) Some of his journal entries and letters from this period describe his amatory exploits. Thus, in 1767, in a letter to [William Johnson Temple](/wiki/William_Johnson_Temple "William Johnson Temple"), he wrote, "I got myself quite intoxicated, went to a Bawdy\-house and past a whole night in the arms of a Whore. She indeed was a fine strong spirited Girl, a Whore worthy of Boswell if Boswell must have a whore."{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC\&pg\=PA192 \|title\=Boswell Correspondence, letter of 26 June 1767 \|access\-date\=2 May 2011\|isbn\=9780748607587 \|last1\=Boswell \|first1\=James \|last2\=Temple \|first2\=William Johnston \|year\=1997 }} A few years earlier, he wrote that during a night with an actress named Louisa, "five times was I fairly lost in supreme rapture. Louisa was madly fond of me; she declared I was a prodigy and asked me if this was not extraordinary for human nature."{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ICpJV0LfVkkC\&q\=%22she\+declared\+I\+was\+a\+prodigy%22\+Boswell\&pg\=PA64 \|title\=''Tis Nature's Fault: Unauthorized Sexuality during the Enlightenment'' by R. P. Macubbin, page 64 \|access\-date\=2 May 2011\|isbn\=9780521347686 \|last1\=MacCubbin \|first1\=Robert Purks \|year\=1987 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press }} Though he sometimes used a condom for protection,{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Xe2tjI\-4180C\&q\=Boswell\+%22venereal\+disease%22\&pg\=PA141 \|title\=''Privacy: concealing the eighteenth\-century self'' by P Spacks page 141 \|date\= June 2003\|access\-date\=2 May 2011\|isbn\=9780226768601 \|last1\=Spacks \|first1\=Patricia Meyer \|publisher\=University of Chicago Press }} he contracted venereal disease at least seventeen times.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=8mACZIDfZEUC\&q\=Boswell\+%22venereal\+disease%22\&pg\=PA381 \|title\=''Glimpses of Glory'' by R. L Greaves page 381 \|access\-date\=2 May 2011\|isbn\=9780804745307 \|last1\=Greaves \|first1\=Richard L. \|year\=2002 \|publisher\=Stanford University Press }} Boswell married his cousin, [Margaret Montgomerie](/wiki/Margaret_Montgomerie "Margaret Montgomerie"), on 25 November 1769\.{{Cite ODNB\|title\=Boswell, Margaret Montgomerie \[Peggie] (1738?–1789\), wife of James Boswell\|url\=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10\.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128\.001\.0001/odnb\-9780198614128\-e\-65003\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-16\|year \= 2004\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1093/ref:odnb/65003}} She remained faithful to Boswell, despite his frequent liaisons with prostitutes, until her death from [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") in 1789\. After his infidelities, he would deliver tearful apologies to her and beg her forgiveness, before again promising her, and himself, that he would reform. James and Margaret had four sons and three daughters. Two sons died in infancy; the other two were [Alexander](/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Boswell%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Alexander Boswell, 1st Baronet") (1775–1822\) and [James](/wiki/James_Boswell_%281778%E2%80%931822%29 "James Boswell (1778–1822)") (1778–1822\). Their daughters were Veronica (1773–1795\), Euphemia (1774 – c. 1834\) and Elizabeth, known as 'Betsy', (1780–1814\). Boswell also had at least two extramarital children, Charles (1762–1764\) and Sally (1767 – c. 1768\). [thumb\|250px\|right\|A commemorative plaque to Boswell at his former home at James Court, [Lawnmarket](/wiki/Royal_Mile%23Lawnmarket "Royal Mile#Lawnmarket"), Edinburgh](/wiki/image:JamesBoswellPlaque.png "JamesBoswellPlaque.png") Despite his relative literary success with accounts of his European travels, Boswell was only a moderately successful advocate, with the exception of the [copyright infringement](/wiki/Copyright_infringement "Copyright infringement") case of *[Donaldson v Beckett](/wiki/Donaldson_v_Beckett "Donaldson v Beckett")*, where Boswell represented the Scottish bookseller [Alexander Donaldson](/wiki/Alexander_Donaldson_%28bookseller%29 "Alexander Donaldson (bookseller)"). By the late 1770s, Boswell descended further and further into alcoholism and gambling addiction. Throughout his life, from childhood until death, he was beset by severe swings of mood. His depressions frequently encouraged and were exacerbated by his various vices. His happier periods usually saw him relatively vice\-free. His character mixed a superficial [Enlightenment](/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment "Age of Enlightenment") sensibility for reason and taste with a genuine and somewhat romantic love of the sublime and a propensity for occasionally puerile whimsy. The latter, along with his tendency for drink and other vices, caused many contemporaries and later observers to regard him as being too lightweight to be an equal in the literary crowd that he wanted to be a part of. However, his humour and innocent good nature won him many lifelong friends. In 1773 Boswell bought the house of [David Hume](/wiki/David_Hume "David Hume") (who moved to a new house on South St David Street/St Andrew Square) on the south east corner of James Court.Williamson's Edinburgh Street Directory 1773Edinburgh and District: Ward Lock Travel Guide 1930 He lived there until 1786\.Plaque to Boswell on James Court Boswell's residency at James Court has been well established, but not the exact location. For example, a later edition of *Traditions of Edinburgh* by Robert Chambers suggests that Boswell's residence at James Court was actually in the Western wing. His James Court flat was notable for having two levels, and although a modern renovation in the Eastern section reveals such a possibility, it is likely that Boswell's residence was a similarly equipped one in the Western section that no longer exists, having burned down in the mid 1800s. ### Earl of Dumfries Boswell became quite friendly with the [6th Earl of Dumfries](/wiki/Patrick_McDouall-Crichton%2C_6th_Earl_of_Dumfries "Patrick McDouall-Crichton, 6th Earl of Dumfries"), as well as seeing him in Scotland he also visited him in Rosemount, London in 1787 and 1788\. In Boswell's of November 2, 1778 journal he writes, "\[The Earl of Dumfries] was exceedingly attentive to me \[...] I was upon my guard, as I well knew that he and his Countess flattered themselves that they would get from me that road through our estate which my father had refused, and which in truth I was still more positive for refusing". He saw the Earl as *“very attentive”*. Having hosted the Earl, Boswell and his wife also decide to visit [Dumfries House](/wiki/Dumfries_House "Dumfries House") "\[o]ur visit was a little awkward, as there had been no communication between the families for several of the last years of my father's life \[...] I, however, wished to live on civil terms with such near neighbours". On October 27, 1782, Boswell writes, "we looked at Lord Dumfries's gate and the famous road. \[...] I showed him that granting it would make the Auchinleck improvements appear part of the Earl of Dumfries's domains. \[...] If Lord Eglinton – if my Earl – were Earl of Dumfries and living at Dumfries House, he should have the road, but not to him and his heirs." ### Later life Boswell was a frequent guest of [Lord Monboddo](/wiki/James_Burnett%2C_Lord_Monboddo "James Burnett, Lord Monboddo") at [Monboddo House](/wiki/Monboddo_House "Monboddo House"), a setting where he gathered significant observations for his writings by association with [Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Samuel_Johnson "Samuel Johnson"), [Lord Kames](/wiki/Henry_Home%2C_Lord_Kames "Henry Home, Lord Kames") and other notable attendees. After Johnson's death in 1784, Boswell moved to London to try his luck at the English [Bar](/wiki/Bar_%28law%29 "Bar (law)"), which proved even less successful than his career in Scotland. In 1792 Boswell lobbied the Home Secretary to help gain royal pardons for four [Botany Bay](/wiki/Botany_Bay "Botany Bay") escapees, including [Mary Bryant](/wiki/Mary_Bryant "Mary Bryant"). He also offered to stand for Parliament but failed to get the necessary support, and he spent the final years of his life writing his *[Life of Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Life_of_Samuel_Johnson "Life of Samuel Johnson")*. During this time his health began to fail due to [venereal disease](/wiki/Venereal_disease "Venereal disease") and his years of drinking. Boswell died in London in 1795\. Close to the end of his life he became strongly convinced that the "[Shakespeare papers](/wiki/Ireland_Shakespeare_forgeries "Ireland Shakespeare forgeries")", including two previously unknown plays *[Vortigern and Rowena](/wiki/Vortigern_and_Rowena "Vortigern and Rowena")* and *Henry II*, allegedly discovered by [William Henry Ireland](/wiki/William_Henry_Ireland "William Henry Ireland"), were genuine. After Boswell's death they proved to be forgeries created by Ireland himself.Pierce pp. 92–93 Boswell's remains were interred in the [crypt](/wiki/Crypt "Crypt") of the Boswell family [mausoleum](/wiki/Mausoleum "Mausoleum") in what is now the old [Auchinleck](/wiki/Auchinleck "Auchinleck") [Kirkyard](/wiki/Kirkyard "Kirkyard") in [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire "Ayrshire"). The mausoleum is attached to the old Auchinleck [kirk](/wiki/Kirk "Kirk").
[ "Mature life\n-----------", "[thumb\\|250px\\| James Boswell by [George Willison](/wiki/George_Willison_%28artist%29 \"George Willison (artist)\") in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") in 1765\\. [Scottish National Gallery](/wiki/Scottish_National_Gallery \"Scottish National Gallery\"), Edinburgh](/wiki/File:George_Willison_-_James_Boswell%2C_1740_-_1795._Diarist_and_biographer_of_Dr_Samuel_Johnson_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg \"George Willison - James Boswell, 1740 - 1795. Diarist and biographer of Dr Samuel Johnson - Google Art Project.jpg\")\nBoswell returned to London in February 1766 accompanied by Rousseau's mistress [Thérèse Levasseur](/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Levasseur \"Thérèse Levasseur\"), with whom he had a brief affair on the journey home.*Correspondence of James Boswell and William Johnson Temple, Edinburgh 1997, page 140 footnote 4 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC\\&pg\\=PA140](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC&pg=PA140)* After spending a few weeks in the capital, he returned to Scotland, buying (or perhaps renting) the former house of [David Hume](/wiki/David_Hume \"David Hume\") on James Court on the [Lawnmarket](/wiki/Lawnmarket \"Lawnmarket\").Grant's Old and New Edinburgh vol. 1, p. 97 He studied for his final law exam at [Edinburgh University](/wiki/Edinburgh_University \"Edinburgh University\"). He passed the exam and became an [advocate](/wiki/Advocate \"Advocate\"). He practised the law in Edinburgh for over a decade, and most years spent his annual break in London, mingling with Johnson and many other London\\-based writers, editors, and printers, and furthering his literary ambitions. He contributed a great many items to newspapers and magazines, in London and Edinburgh.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Tankard \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=Facts and Inventions: Selections from the Journalism of James Boswell \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|year\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-300\\-14126\\-9 \\|location\\=New Haven \\|pages\\=xxiv}} He found enjoyment in playing the intellectual rhyming game [crambo](/wiki/Crambo \"Crambo\") with his peers.", "In 1768 he published *An account of Corsica, the journal of a tour to that island, and memoirs of Pascal Paoli.* The book contained both a history and description of Corsica, as well as an account of his visit. Boswell was a major supporter of the [Corsican Republic](/wiki/Corsican_Republic \"Corsican Republic\"). Following the island's [invasion by France](/wiki/French_conquest_of_Corsica \"French conquest of Corsica\") in 1768, Boswell attempted to raise public awareness and rally support for the Corsicans. He sent arms and money to the Corsican fighters, who were ultimately defeated at the [Battle of Ponte Novu](/wiki/Battle_of_Ponte_Novu \"Battle of Ponte Novu\") in 1769\\. Boswell attended the [masquerade](/wiki/Masquerade_ball \"Masquerade ball\") held at the [Shakespeare Jubilee](/wiki/Shakespeare_Jubilee \"Shakespeare Jubilee\") in [Stratford\\-upon\\-Avon](/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon \"Stratford-upon-Avon\") in September 1769 dressed as a Corsican Chief.Pierce pp. 9–10 He was also, much to the chagrin of his friend Johnson, a strong defender of the American Revolution. Zachary Brown,\"'A High Tory and an American upon my own Principles': James Boswell, the American Revolution, and Royalist Constitutionalism, 1775–1783\\.\"*Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History* (2022\\). [Online](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03086534.2022.2118989)", "Some of his journal entries and letters from this period describe his amatory exploits. Thus, in 1767, in a letter to [William Johnson Temple](/wiki/William_Johnson_Temple \"William Johnson Temple\"), he wrote, \"I got myself quite intoxicated, went to a Bawdy\\-house and past a whole night in the arms of a Whore. She indeed was a fine strong spirited Girl, a Whore worthy of Boswell if Boswell must have a whore.\"{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Fu7lQ2wF8DYC\\&pg\\=PA192 \\|title\\=Boswell Correspondence, letter of 26 June 1767 \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2011\\|isbn\\=9780748607587 \\|last1\\=Boswell \\|first1\\=James \\|last2\\=Temple \\|first2\\=William Johnston \\|year\\=1997 }} A few years earlier, he wrote that during a night with an actress named Louisa, \"five times was I fairly lost in supreme rapture. Louisa was madly fond of me; she declared I was a prodigy and asked me if this was not extraordinary for human nature.\"{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ICpJV0LfVkkC\\&q\\=%22she\\+declared\\+I\\+was\\+a\\+prodigy%22\\+Boswell\\&pg\\=PA64 \\|title\\=''Tis Nature's Fault: Unauthorized Sexuality during the Enlightenment'' by R. P. Macubbin, page 64 \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2011\\|isbn\\=9780521347686 \\|last1\\=MacCubbin \\|first1\\=Robert Purks \\|year\\=1987 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press }} Though he sometimes used a condom for protection,{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Xe2tjI\\-4180C\\&q\\=Boswell\\+%22venereal\\+disease%22\\&pg\\=PA141 \\|title\\=''Privacy: concealing the eighteenth\\-century self'' by P Spacks page 141 \\|date\\= June 2003\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2011\\|isbn\\=9780226768601 \\|last1\\=Spacks \\|first1\\=Patricia Meyer \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press }} he contracted venereal disease at least seventeen times.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=8mACZIDfZEUC\\&q\\=Boswell\\+%22venereal\\+disease%22\\&pg\\=PA381 \\|title\\=''Glimpses of Glory'' by R. L Greaves page 381 \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2011\\|isbn\\=9780804745307 \\|last1\\=Greaves \\|first1\\=Richard L. \\|year\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press }}", "Boswell married his cousin, [Margaret Montgomerie](/wiki/Margaret_Montgomerie \"Margaret Montgomerie\"), on 25 November 1769\\.{{Cite ODNB\\|title\\=Boswell, Margaret Montgomerie \\[Peggie] (1738?–1789\\), wife of James Boswell\\|url\\=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10\\.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128\\.001\\.0001/odnb\\-9780198614128\\-e\\-65003\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-16\\|year \\= 2004\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/ref:odnb/65003}} She remained faithful to Boswell, despite his frequent liaisons with prostitutes, until her death from [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") in 1789\\. After his infidelities, he would deliver tearful apologies to her and beg her forgiveness, before again promising her, and himself, that he would reform. James and Margaret had four sons and three daughters. Two sons died in infancy; the other two were [Alexander](/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Boswell%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Alexander Boswell, 1st Baronet\") (1775–1822\\) and [James](/wiki/James_Boswell_%281778%E2%80%931822%29 \"James Boswell (1778–1822)\") (1778–1822\\). Their daughters were Veronica (1773–1795\\), Euphemia (1774 – c. 1834\\) and Elizabeth, known as 'Betsy', (1780–1814\\). Boswell also had at least two extramarital children, Charles (1762–1764\\) and Sally (1767 – c. 1768\\).\n[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|A commemorative plaque to Boswell at his former home at James Court, [Lawnmarket](/wiki/Royal_Mile%23Lawnmarket \"Royal Mile#Lawnmarket\"), Edinburgh](/wiki/image:JamesBoswellPlaque.png \"JamesBoswellPlaque.png\")\nDespite his relative literary success with accounts of his European travels, Boswell was only a moderately successful advocate, with the exception of the [copyright infringement](/wiki/Copyright_infringement \"Copyright infringement\") case of *[Donaldson v Beckett](/wiki/Donaldson_v_Beckett \"Donaldson v Beckett\")*, where Boswell represented the Scottish bookseller [Alexander Donaldson](/wiki/Alexander_Donaldson_%28bookseller%29 \"Alexander Donaldson (bookseller)\"). By the late 1770s, Boswell descended further and further into alcoholism and gambling addiction. Throughout his life, from childhood until death, he was beset by severe swings of mood. His depressions frequently encouraged and were exacerbated by his various vices. His happier periods usually saw him relatively vice\\-free. His character mixed a superficial [Enlightenment](/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment \"Age of Enlightenment\") sensibility for reason and taste with a genuine and somewhat romantic love of the sublime and a propensity for occasionally puerile whimsy. The latter, along with his tendency for drink and other vices, caused many contemporaries and later observers to regard him as being too lightweight to be an equal in the literary crowd that he wanted to be a part of. However, his humour and innocent good nature won him many lifelong friends.", "In 1773 Boswell bought the house of [David Hume](/wiki/David_Hume \"David Hume\") (who moved to a new house on South St David Street/St Andrew Square) on the south east corner of James Court.Williamson's Edinburgh Street Directory 1773Edinburgh and District: Ward Lock Travel Guide 1930 He lived there until 1786\\.Plaque to Boswell on James Court Boswell's residency at James Court has been well established, but not the exact location. For example, a later edition of *Traditions of Edinburgh* by Robert Chambers suggests that Boswell's residence at James Court was actually in the Western wing. His James Court flat was notable for having two levels, and although a modern renovation in the Eastern section reveals such a possibility, it is likely that Boswell's residence was a similarly equipped one in the Western section that no longer exists, having burned down in the mid 1800s.", "### Earl of Dumfries", "Boswell became quite friendly with the [6th Earl of Dumfries](/wiki/Patrick_McDouall-Crichton%2C_6th_Earl_of_Dumfries \"Patrick McDouall-Crichton, 6th Earl of Dumfries\"), as well as seeing him in Scotland he also visited him in Rosemount, London in 1787 and 1788\\.\nIn Boswell's of November 2, 1778 journal he writes, \"\\[The Earl of Dumfries] was exceedingly attentive to me \\[...] I was upon my guard, as I well knew that he and his Countess flattered themselves that they would get from me that road through our estate which my father had refused, and which in truth I was still more positive for refusing\". He saw the Earl as *“very attentive”*.", "Having hosted the Earl, Boswell and his wife also decide to visit [Dumfries House](/wiki/Dumfries_House \"Dumfries House\") \"\\[o]ur visit was a little awkward, as there had been no communication between the families for several of the last years of my father's life \\[...] I, however, wished to live on civil terms with such near neighbours\".", "On October 27, 1782, Boswell writes, \"we looked at Lord Dumfries's gate and the famous road. \\[...] I showed him that granting it would make the Auchinleck improvements appear part of the Earl of Dumfries's domains. \\[...] If Lord Eglinton – if my Earl – were Earl of Dumfries and living at Dumfries House, he should have the road, but not to him and his heirs.\"", "### Later life", "Boswell was a frequent guest of [Lord Monboddo](/wiki/James_Burnett%2C_Lord_Monboddo \"James Burnett, Lord Monboddo\") at [Monboddo House](/wiki/Monboddo_House \"Monboddo House\"), a setting where he gathered significant observations for his writings by association with [Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Samuel_Johnson \"Samuel Johnson\"), [Lord Kames](/wiki/Henry_Home%2C_Lord_Kames \"Henry Home, Lord Kames\") and other notable attendees.", "After Johnson's death in 1784, Boswell moved to London to try his luck at the English [Bar](/wiki/Bar_%28law%29 \"Bar (law)\"), which proved even less successful than his career in Scotland. In 1792 Boswell lobbied the Home Secretary to help gain royal pardons for four [Botany Bay](/wiki/Botany_Bay \"Botany Bay\") escapees, including [Mary Bryant](/wiki/Mary_Bryant \"Mary Bryant\"). He also offered to stand for Parliament but failed to get the necessary support, and he spent the final years of his life writing his *[Life of Samuel Johnson](/wiki/Life_of_Samuel_Johnson \"Life of Samuel Johnson\")*.", "During this time his health began to fail due to [venereal disease](/wiki/Venereal_disease \"Venereal disease\") and his years of drinking. Boswell died in London in 1795\\. Close to the end of his life he became strongly convinced that the \"[Shakespeare papers](/wiki/Ireland_Shakespeare_forgeries \"Ireland Shakespeare forgeries\")\", including two previously unknown plays *[Vortigern and Rowena](/wiki/Vortigern_and_Rowena \"Vortigern and Rowena\")* and *Henry II*, allegedly discovered by [William Henry Ireland](/wiki/William_Henry_Ireland \"William Henry Ireland\"), were genuine. After Boswell's death they proved to be forgeries created by Ireland himself.Pierce pp. 92–93 Boswell's remains were interred in the [crypt](/wiki/Crypt \"Crypt\") of the Boswell family [mausoleum](/wiki/Mausoleum \"Mausoleum\") in what is now the old [Auchinleck](/wiki/Auchinleck \"Auchinleck\") [Kirkyard](/wiki/Kirkyard \"Kirkyard\") in [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire \"Ayrshire\"). The mausoleum is attached to the old Auchinleck [kirk](/wiki/Kirk \"Kirk\").", "" ]
Education and academic career ----------------------------- Jean\-Marc Jézéquel received an engineering degree from [Telecom Bretagne](/wiki/Telecom_Bretagne "Telecom Bretagne") in 1986 and a [PhD](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") from the [University of Rennes 1](/wiki/University_of_Rennes_1 "University of Rennes 1") in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes "Rennes") in 1989\. He then worked for the [Transpac (network)](/wiki/Transpac_%28network%29 "Transpac (network)") company on an Intelligent Network project. In 1991, he became a researcher (Chargé de recherche) at the [CNRS](/wiki/CNRS "CNRS") (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique). During most of 1996, he has been an invited researcher in Pr. Yonezawa's lab, in the [University of Tokyo](/wiki/University_of_Tokyo "University of Tokyo"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). Since October 2000, he has been Professor of Software Engineering at [University of Rennes](/wiki/University_of_Rennes "University of Rennes"), where he pursued research on the foundations of [Model Driven Engineering](/wiki/Model_Driven_Engineering "Model Driven Engineering"). From 2000 to 2012 he headed an [Inria](/wiki/Inria "Inria") research team called Triskell. From January 2012 to December 2020, he was Director of [IRISA](/wiki/IRISA "IRISA"), a 800 people public research lab in informatics. From January 2021 to December 2023, he was Vice President of [Informatics Europe](/wiki/Informatics_Europe "Informatics Europe"), before becoming its President since 2024\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.informatics\-europe.org/about/board.html \| title\=Board (2022\-2023\) }} In 2016 he received the Silver Medal from CNRS.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cnrs.fr/fr/recherche/prix/medaillesargent.htm \|title\=CNRS \- Médailles d'argent \- Lauréats 2014 \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-14 \|archive\-date\=2014\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327052853/http://www.cnrs.fr/fr/recherche/prix/medaillesargent.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} In 2020, he received the Career Award from the IEEE/ACM Model Driven Engineering Languages and Systems conference, which recognizes his long\-standing scientific contributions to the MDE community and his exemplary activity for the younger members of the MODELS community. From January 2022 to April 2022, he was a visiting professor at [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University "McGill University"). In 2023 he has been appointed as a fellow of the [Institut Universitaire de France](/wiki/Institut_Universitaire_de_France "Institut Universitaire de France").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.iufrance.fr/les\-membres\-de\-liuf/membre/2521\-jean\-marc\-jezequel.html \| title\=Les membres }}
[ "Education and academic career\n-----------------------------", "Jean\\-Marc Jézéquel received an engineering degree from [Telecom Bretagne](/wiki/Telecom_Bretagne \"Telecom Bretagne\") in 1986 and a [PhD](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") from the [University of Rennes 1](/wiki/University_of_Rennes_1 \"University of Rennes 1\") in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes \"Rennes\") in 1989\\. \nHe then worked for the [Transpac (network)](/wiki/Transpac_%28network%29 \"Transpac (network)\") company on an Intelligent Network project. In 1991, he became a researcher (Chargé de recherche) at the [CNRS](/wiki/CNRS \"CNRS\") (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique). During most of 1996, he has been an invited researcher in Pr. Yonezawa's lab, in the [University of Tokyo](/wiki/University_of_Tokyo \"University of Tokyo\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\").", "Since October 2000, he has been Professor of Software Engineering at [University of Rennes](/wiki/University_of_Rennes \"University of Rennes\"), where he pursued research on the foundations of [Model Driven Engineering](/wiki/Model_Driven_Engineering \"Model Driven Engineering\"). From 2000 to 2012 he headed an [Inria](/wiki/Inria \"Inria\") research team called Triskell.", "From January 2012 to December 2020, he was Director of [IRISA](/wiki/IRISA \"IRISA\"), a 800 people public research lab in informatics.", "From January 2021 to December 2023, he was Vice President of [Informatics Europe](/wiki/Informatics_Europe \"Informatics Europe\"), before becoming its President since 2024\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.informatics\\-europe.org/about/board.html \\| title\\=Board (2022\\-2023\\) }}", "In 2016 he received the Silver Medal from CNRS.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cnrs.fr/fr/recherche/prix/medaillesargent.htm \\|title\\=CNRS \\- Médailles d'argent \\- Lauréats 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327052853/http://www.cnrs.fr/fr/recherche/prix/medaillesargent.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "In 2020, he received the Career Award from the IEEE/ACM Model Driven Engineering Languages and Systems conference, which recognizes his long\\-standing scientific contributions to the MDE community and his exemplary activity for the younger members of the MODELS community.", "From January 2022 to April 2022, he was a visiting professor at [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University \"McGill University\").", "In 2023 he has been appointed as a fellow of the [Institut Universitaire de France](/wiki/Institut_Universitaire_de_France \"Institut Universitaire de France\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.iufrance.fr/les\\-membres\\-de\\-liuf/membre/2521\\-jean\\-marc\\-jezequel.html \\| title\\=Les membres }}", "" ]
Variants -------- ### Indonesia #### Princess Gulungi\-luri In a tale from the [Loda language](/wiki/Loloda_language "Loloda language") titled *Ngo Pitiri\-Gulungi\-luri* (Dutch: *Prinses Gulungi\-luri*, English: "Princess Gulungi\-luri"), a wellkeeper goes to fetch water by the sea and finds an iguana she brings home in a box. Back home, she prepares dishes for herself; the iguana crawls out of the box, removes its reptile skin and becomes a handsome youth. Nearby in a flying palace, lives the king of the Rising of the Sun (or "of the East") with his seven daughters. The iguana asks the wellkeeper to court one of the princesses for him. She goes to the palace and asks each of the princess which will be the iguana's bride: the six elders refuse, save for the youngest. The wellkeeper reports back to the iguana, who goes to take an evening bath as a human being: his toenails are of a golden colour, his fingernails of silver; and his finger and toes are like gemstones. When he is not bathing, he visits the seventh princess at night. Seven days later, he says he is going on a journey on a ship named IJzer for seven nights. After he leaves, the six elder princesses put a plan in motion: they invite their cadette to cut some bamboos with them, and shove her into a pit. The king learns of this and rescues his youngest daughter. Next, the princesses take her to a swing and push her so hard she flies off into the ocean. Fortunately, the princess has on her sarong an areca nut and an egg the Iguana, her husband, gave her: the areca nut becomes an areca tree and a rooster hatches out of the egg. The princess climbs on top of the tree and stays under the rooster's wings. The rooster crows seven times about how princess Gulungi\-luri has drowned, which is seen by the Iguana in the distance. The rooster crows seven times again and flies to Iguana's boat to alert him. The Iguana approaches the tree and rescues his wife, then hides her in a golden basket. He then docks his boat on the seashore and finds his six sisters\-in\-law waiting for him, thinking their brother\-in\-law is free to choose one of them. The Iguana, in human form, asks the princesses to lie down on the beach and stay still, while the brings the ship to shore. The Iguana carries his boat over their bodies and crushes his sisters\-in\-law. Princess Gulungi\-luri then disembarks.{{cite journal \|last\=VAN BAARDA \|first\=M. J. \|title\=HET LÒDA'SCH, in Vergelijking Met Het Galėla'sch Dialect Op Halmaheira. GEVOLGD: DOOR: LÒDA'SCHE TEKSTEN EN VERHALEN \|journal\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\-, Land\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\-Indië \|volume\=56 \|issue\=3/4 \|date\=1904 \|pages\=453–454 \|language\=nl \|jstor\=20769407}} Accessed 28 July 2023\. #### Molek In an Indonesian tale from [Riau Province](/wiki/Riau_Province "Riau Province") titled *Molek* (in the original, *Si Molek dan Tanara*), a couple have seven daughters of marriageable age, the youngest and seventh, Molek, the most beautiful. Many have come to court and marry them, but the girls reject them. One day, however, a fish named Jerawan appears to propose marriage to one of the girls. Their parents ask them which will choose the fish: the six elders refuse him, but Molek agrees to go with the fish, thus they marry. Although she is mocked for marrying a fish, she loves her husband, but, some time later, decides to discover where her husband does all day, so she follows the fish one day to the forest. The fish goes behind a bush, and out emerges a handsome youth; he goes to the beach, joins a crew on a sailboat and goes to fish in the ocean. Molek discovers her husband's true form and true profession, and decides to keep it a secret, until one day she goes behind the bush and takes the fish skin to hide it. She stays in the bush waiting for Jerawan, and he returns at night, finding his human wife with his fish skin. Molek asks him not to hide himself behind a fish skin anymore, and, although theirs is a happy marriage, she is endlessly mocked by her sisters, so she would like to show them his true form. The man agrees to live as human for now on, and says his name is Tanara. Some time later, after Tanara remains human, Molek's elder sisters nurture jealousy towards their cadette, since they wished to marry him. One day, Tanara goes on a long journey, and Molek's elder sisters plot the perfect moment to get rid of her. Years later, when Tanara is ready to come back, Molek's sisters pay her a visit and suggest they sail on small boats to wait for Tanara out in the open sea. After playing and splashing in the water, the girls abandon Molek on a small boat and make their way to the shore. Molek, adrift at sea, tries to paddle her small boat somewhere, but she faints, exhausted from her efforts. Meanwhile, Tanara's ships, filled with gold, silver and jewels, are nearing the shore, when they sight a small boat with a woman inside. They rescue the castaway and bring her up to Tanara's quarters. Tanara recognizes the castaway as his wife, Molek, and she reveals her sisters' ploy against her. After listening to her tale, he plans to teach a lesson to his sisters\-in\-law: he asks some men to hide Molek in a box, to keep her survival a secret, then comes to port. He is greeted by people, and goes up to his sisters\-in\-law's house, where they are expecting him with their best dresses and the best food, hoping to draw his attentions. Tanara takes a seat and tells his adventures to them, and, lastly, about a woman he found adrift at sea, then bids his wife enter and sit beside him. The girls look at the woman and realize she is their sister Molek, safe after all. The girls feel ashamed for their deed, and Tanara swears he will not pursue any revenge against them.{{cite book \|first\=Murti \|last\=Bunanta \|editor\-last\=MacDonald \|editor\-first\=Margaret Read \|title\=Indonesian Folktales \|publisher\=\[\[Libraries Unlimited]] \|date\=2003 \|pages\=37–40 (text); 120 (source) \|isbn\=9781563089091}} #### King *Baung* In a [South Kalimantan](/wiki/South_Kalimantan "South Kalimantan") tale sourced from the [Banjar people](/wiki/Banjar_people "Banjar people") with the title *Raja Baung* ("King Baung"), a poor old widow has a *{{ill\|baung\|id\|Baung}}* (a kind of freshwater fish) for a son. One day, the baung fish asks his mother to court one of the local king's daughters on his behalf. The widow goes to the king's court to fulfill her son's request. The elder princesses refuse to marry the fish, save for the youngest, Putri Bungsu. Still, the king does not agree to their marriage at first, and sets tasks for the baung to fulfill before their marriage is celebrated. The baung does as ordered and marries Putri Bungsu. Eventually, the princess discovers the baung is, actually, a man under the fish scale disguise, and, one day, after he took off his fish disguise, the princess burns the scales to keep him human permanently. Some time later, the elder princesses learn of their brother\-in\-law's true appearance, and decide to get rid of Putri Bungsu to have the now human baung for themselves. The now human baung decides to go on a journey to earn a living, and leaves his wife, pregnant at the time, unprotected. After he departs, the elder princesses decide to invite their cadette for some playing in a swing. However, the elder sisters shove her so hard she flies off the swing and into the sea. Putri Bungsu survives and finds a hollowed out trunk to hold on to. She gives birth to a son and waits there adrift until her husband appears on a ship to rescue them. He hides his wife and son in a chest, then sails back home. He docks his ship, then asks his sisters\-in\-law what happened to Putri Bungsu. The princesses lie that she was devoured by some animal, and the human baung opens up the chest, revealing a still alive Putri Bungsu and her child. The king then punishes his daughters.*[Cerita rakyat Nusantara: analisis struktur dan fungsi penjelmaan dalam cerita](https://books.google.com/books?id=S6vfAAAAMAAJ&q=%22baung%22)*. Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1994\. pp. 39\-40\. #### The cat who turned into a man Researcher Edwin M. Loeb collected and published a tale from the [Mentawei Islands](/wiki/Mentawai_Islands "Mentawai Islands") with the [Mentewai](/wiki/Mentawai_language "Mentawai language") title *Mao ibailiu sirimanua*, translated as *The cat who turned into a man*, which he considered to be a "Malay importation" into the island. In this tale, a Mentawei youth marries a wife, but he dies when she is pregnant. Some months later, she gives birth to a cat. He grows up and asks his widowed mother (*teteu*) to fetch a *simaingo* flower and find him a bride. The woman finds the flower and goes to a village where three sisters live together in a *rusuk* (a house without altar). The woman offers the flower to the elder sister, who refuses the cat's marriage promise. The woman returns to tell her cat son about the eldest's refusal, and the animal sends her again: the second time she asks the middle sister, who refuses; lastly, she asks the youngest sister, who accepts the cat's proposal. They marry, move out to another house and make *punen*. The cat changes into a handsome youth and joins his wife in the *punen* fields. When they return home on a boat to their village, his sisters\-in\-law sight him from a distance and deduce the man *is* the cat, but in another form. Some time later, Cat (the husband's name) is set to go fishing in the sea, and warns his wife not to accept her sisters' invitation to go swinging. The man goes fishing in the sea, and his wife, back home, forgets his warnings and joins her sisters for some swinging. However, as the girl is playing in the swing, the rope cuts off and she is flung away into the sea. When she emerges, she swims to a deserted island (*padarai*). There, she wishes for her house to appear next to her, and it happens so. She then wishes for her furniture and food to come to her, which also happens. Back to Cat, the husband, he sights some smoke on the deserted island and sails there. He finds his wife, who explains she went swinging with her sisters, and ended up there. Cat places a rain hat (*turok*) on his wife to hide her face, and both sail back home. After they dock, the sisters\-in\-law approach them to unload the goods into their home. After they finish the task, Cat and his wife whip the duo and expel them from their home.{{cite journal \|last\=Loeb \|first\=Edwin \|title\=Mentawei Myths \|journal\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\-, Land\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\-Indië \|volume\=85 \|issue\=1 \|date\=1929 \|pages\=96–98 (Mentawei text), 99–101 (English translation) \|jstor\=20770271}} Accessed 25 July 2023\. #### Ringkitan and the Cuscus In a tale from [Sulawesi](/wiki/Sulawesi "Sulawesi") with the title *Si Ringkitan dan Kusoi*, translated as *Ringkitan and the [Cuscus](/wiki/Cuscus "Cuscus")* or *Ringkitan and Kusoi*,{{cite book \|last\=Kratz \|first\=Ernst Ulrich \|date\=1973 \|title\=Indonesische Märchen \|trans\-title\=Indonesian Fairy Tales \|location\=Köln \|publisher\=Eugen Diederichs Verlag \|pages\=227–237 \|isbn\=9783424004809 \|language\=DE\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gADkAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22ringkitan\+und\+kusoi%22}} a fisherman lives in [Minahasa](/wiki/Minahasa "Minahasa") with his nine daughters, Ringkitan the youngest and the most beautiful. The girls' parents want to see them married to suitable husbands, but no person seems good enough. One day, however, an animal called cuscus appears to court the girls: the eight elders refuse to marry it, save for Ringkitan. The girl and the cuscus marry, despite the endless mocking by her sisters and their village. Ringkitan's marriage is still a happy one, although she does not know what her husband does for a living, since he leaves in the morning and returns at night. One morning, she decides to trail behind him and follows him to the forest. The cuscus hides behind some bushes, takes off his animal skin and hides it under some bushes, becomes a human male and joins with other men on a fishing boat. Ringkitan is happy to learn her husband's secret, and, after assuring he is indeed a human underneath the cuscus skin, decides to release him from his disguise. Some days later, while he goes to the fishing trip, Ringkitan hides the cuscus skin and waits for her husband's return to fetch his skin. He notices that Ringkitan is in the bushes with his skin, and she reveals she wants to have him human at all times, which he agrees to. He also tells her his real name: Kusoi. Ringkitan is even happier than before, but her elder sisters, after learning their brother\-in\-law is human after all, decide to get rid of Ringkitan. Later, Kusoi departs on a long business trip, and Ringkitan's sisters wait for the perfect moment to put their plan into action. After news of Kusoi's return reach their ears, the elder sisters invite their cadette to come play with them and swing in some tree branches near the seashore. The sisters, with evil intent, push her so hard she swings over the tree branches and her hair entangles between the branches. Ringkitan pleads for her sisters to help her, but they abandon her to her fate. The girl then notices a line of ships (a wooden boat, a more ornate wooden boat, a copper boat, a silver boat, and finally a golden boat) sailing nearby and sings some verses to draw their attention. Each of them replies that Kusoi is coming, and the man himself appears on the golden boat. He stops by the tree and rescues her down from it, and asks her how she ended up there. Ringkitan is glad to see her husband again and explains her elder sisters tried to kill her. Kusoi then plans to teach his sisters\-in\-law a lesson: he hides Ringkitan in a trunk and arrives home, where he asks where his wife is. The sisters pretend they saw her at the seashore. Kusoi then invites people to tell about his adventures on the open sea, and tells them he rescued a woman atop a tree near the seashore. The sisters start to fidget, fearing for their brother\-in\-law's story, until he bids some servants bring Ringkitan in, dresses in fine garments. He introduces the newcomer as his wife Ringkitan, and says he will not punish her pursuers. At the end of the tale, Ringkitan forgives her elder sisters for their misdeeds.{{cite book \|title\=The magic crocodile and other folktales from Indonesia \|last\=Terada \|first\=Alice M. \|date\=1994 \|location\=Honolulu, HI \|publisher\=University of Hawaii Press \|pages\=116–122}} The tale was originally published by missionary N. P. Wilken with the Dutch title *De negen zusters* ("The jealous sisters"), in 1886\.{{cite journal \|last\=Wilken \|first\=N. P. \|title\=Alfoersche Vertelsels en Raadsels \|journal\=Mededeelingen: Tijdschrift voor Zendingswetenschap \|date\=1886 \|volume\=30 \|pages\=295–298 \|language\=NL \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=74KyigMN\-tIC\&dq\=%22alfoersche\+vertelsels%22\&pg\=PA291}} #### The tale about the Monkey Author J. A. T. Schwarz collected from a [Tomtenboan](/wiki/Tontemboan_language "Tontemboan language") source named Thomas Dien a tale titled *Kakua an doro' i Wolai*, translated into Dutch as *Verhaal van den Aap* (English: "The tale of the Monkey"). Folklorist [Paul Hambruch](/wiki/Paul_Hambruch "Paul Hambruch") translated it into German as *Die Geschichte vom Affen* ("The Tale about the Monkey").{{cite book \|last\=Hambruch \|first\=Paul \|title\=Malaiische Märchen aus Madagaskar und Insulinde \|location\=Jena \|publisher\=Eugen Diederich \|date\=1922 \|pages\=94–98 \|language\=German}} In this tale, an old woman has a monkey for a son. One day, the monkey asks his mother to give him a sleeping mat so he can sunbathe. Despite warning him about standing so close to people, she attends his request. He spends his days on the mat on his porch, when he sights the eldest princess passing by to bathe, then an idea forms in his head: he will marry the princess. The monkey asks his mother to woo the eldest princess for him, but she questions how a girl can marry an animal. After some insistence, the woman goes to the palace and tells the king about her son's proposal. The king calls his eldest daughter to ask her about a possible marriage to a monkey. The girl refuses, and so do the other princesses, save the youngest, who accepts the proposal. The woman reports back to her son, and the monkey asks to be taken to the princess's palace so they can bathe together. It happens so: as soon as the monkey meets his fiancée, he takes off the monkey skin, becomes a handsome prince, then utters an incantation to summon fine garments for themselves, so they can present themselves before the king. The royal couple is impressed by their appearance, and the king asks his future son\-in\-law where the wedding will take place. The monkey replies it will happen soon, after he provides a house for themselves. He summons a large house with a spell and marries the princess. Some time later, the monkey, now in human form, is set to go on a journey, and warns his wife not to go swinging with her elder sisters, then gives her a [betel](/wiki/Betel "Betel") nut and a rooster's egg, for her to place one on the other, so that a rooster will hatch and alert the prince with its crowing. After he departs, the princess's elder sisters conspire to kill her, and invite her to play on a swing by the beach. As the princess is swinging, her elder sisters push her so hard she falls into the ocean. Realizing she is in danger, she cracks open the egg and places the rooster on the betel nut. The rooster begins to crow and alerts the prince, who hears the noise and makes a turn to rescue his wife. He finds her with the rooster and the betel nut, hides her in a basket, then sails back home. After arriving, he sees that his eldest sister\-in\-law is there instead of his wife, and asks his father\-in\-law if his wife is really in the house. The king answers that the monkey's wife is indeed there (despite it being a lie), and the youngest princess rises out of the basket. The monkey prince then assumes the throne and makes his family\-in\-law his slaves.{{Cite book \|last\=Schwarz \|first\=J. A. T. \|title\=Tontemboansche Teksten \|date\=1907a \|publisher\=Martinus Nijhoff \|volume\=1 \|location\='s Gravenhage \|language\=nl \|pages\=23–26 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet01schwgoog/page/n44/mode/1up}}{{Cite book \|last\=Schwarz \|first\=J. A. T. \|title\=Tontemboansche Teksten \|date\=1907b \|publisher\=E. J. Brill \|volume\=2 \|location\=Leiden \|language\=nl \|pages\=40–44 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet02schwgoog/page/40/mode/1up}} #### The Tale of the Torso In another Totemboan tale collected by Schwarz titled *Kukua an doro' i Pokol* (Dutch: *Verhaal van het Stompje*; English: "The Tale of the Torso"), a couple have a son that is only a legless, armless torso. People, rich and poor, come to see the torso child, and give him gifts. One day, the son tells his mother he wants to go sailing. Despite her concerns, her son insists on his wish and the woman takes him to the shore to the ships, in a basket filled with pumpkin and cucumber seeds, a cleaver, an axe and a machete. The sailors are a bit afraid at his presence, for they have never seen someone as him, but agree to take him as part of the crew. After they sail the sea, the torso asks to be left on a certain island, and departs. After his request is fulfilled, the torso takes off his disguise and becomes an able\-bodied European man, his true form. In this new shape, the youth cultivates the land, plants the pumpkins and cucumbers, and builds a house. At one time, he meets a talking mouse and takes three whiskers from its body, then returns home to his mother still in his torso form, but brings gold to her. Later, he summons the mouse with the whiskers, and asks it and its mice to build him a better house, made of gold. The next day, the torse asks his mother to go woo one of the daughters of the local king on his behalf, starting with the eldest. The woman goes to the king's house and makes her case. The king agrees, but the princesses are to be asked in order of birth, the eldest first. The torso brings with him a pinang box and whoever chooses him shall be given it. The eight elder princesses decline the torso's marriage proposal, save for the youngest. The torso prepares his wedding to the princess, and summons food and drinks for the guests with a magic while no one is looking, then takes off the torsoe disguise to appear as a human. The eight elder princesses see his true form, and cry in their rooms, since they reject him at first. Three days after their marriage, the now human torso his wife with his mother and departs on a sea voyage. Meanwhile, the eight princess conspire to kill their cadette: they invite her to go swinging near the beach, and, when the girl is on the swing, they push her so hard she is flung off into the ocean, where the princesses hope she drowns. However, the youngest princess saves herself by swimming to a deserted island. She then climbs up a tree and shouts for her husband Koesoi to hear it that her eldest sister Rintjitan shoved her in the ocean. She sights a ship and repeats her words. On the ship is her husband, Pokol, who hears her pleas and docks on the island. They renuite, and the princess explains the situation to him. Pokol them places her inside a basket with breathing holes, then sails back home. He goes to his mother's home and asks where his wife is; his mother only says that her sisters invited her to go with them and she has not been seen since. He then asks his father\-in\-law where the princess is, but the king does not know either. Lastly, Pokol invites his sisters\-in\-law for a meal, when the elder princesses insist they did not see their cadette, so Pokol utters a spell to glue their mouths to their plates, as punishment for their lie, and leaves them in that state. He sails again for three days, then returns home. The king, his father\-in\-law, offers to make him king, and begs for Pokol to release the eight princesses from the spell. Pokol agrees and is made king after his father\-in\-law, and reigns with his wife.{{Cite book \|last\=Schwarz \|first\=J. A. T. \|title\=Tontemboansche Teksten \|date\=1907a \|publisher\=Martinus Nijhoff \|volume\=1 \|location\='s Gravenhage \|language\=nl \|pages\=41–52 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet01schwgoog/page/n44/mode/1up}}{{Cite book \|last\=Schwarz \|first\=J. A. T. \|title\=Tontemboansche Teksten \|date\=1907b \|publisher\=E. J. Brill \|volume\=2 \|location\=Leiden \|language\=nl \|pages\=61–71 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet02schwgoog/page/40/mode/1up}} #### The girl who married the Moon Ethnographer and missionary [Albert Christian Kruyt](/wiki/Albert_Christian_Kruyt "Albert Christian Kruyt") collected a [Torajan](/wiki/Torajan_people "Torajan people") tale he translated as *Het meisje dat met de maan trouwt* ("The girl who married the moon"). In this tale, a woman gives birth to a girl, and dies in childbirth. She grows up and lives on Earth, until one day she decides to have the Moon as her husband. She climbs a rainbow and ascends to the Heavens. She meets the Moon and asks him to be her husband. The Moon agrees and goes down to Earth to live with her, and they have a son: a [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut"). Unaware of what to do with such a fruit, the couple try to sell it to a group of seven sisters that lived on a mountain. The elder six sister refuse to buy the fruit, save for the youngest, who purchases it and places it on a table. After she goes for bathing and returns, she notices there are signs in her house that someone has been there. The same thing happens the next day, so she decides to investigate: she lies in hiding and sees a handsome youth in the house, and notices that the coconut has vanished. She goes out of hiding and asks the man about the fruit, and the man says he is the coconut. She cooks food for him, and they eat together. The man then states the girl is his wife, and that his name is "Mangkaloekoe" (meaning 'coconut'). Later, the girl's elder sisters pay them a visit and, on seeing the handsome brother\-in\-law, decide to kill their cadette. After a while, Mangkaloekoe is ready to go on a trip, and warns his wife not to leave their house, since her sisters will try to kill her. After he leaves, and despite the warnings, the girl goes to play with her sisters by the water, and the others try to drown her in a deeper part of the river, then go back home. The girl stays underwater for seven months, until Mangkaloekoe's ships with slaves are sailing nearby. The girl asks the ships, in the form of verses, if her husband is nearby, and the slaves answer that he is coming behind them. After seven ships pass her by, she sings again, and her husband, listening to the verses, recognizes his wife's voice, and rescues her from the water. They dock the ship, return home, found a village and have many descendants.{{cite book \|last\=Kruyt \|first\=Albertus Christiaan \|date\=1938 \|title\=De West\-Toradjas op Midden\-Celebes \|volume\=II \|location\=Amsterdam \|publisher\=N.V. Noord\-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij \|pages\=396–397 \|language\=NL \|url\=https://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file\=digital/20379131\-De\-west%20toradjas%20of%20midden\-colebes%20deel%20II,%201938\.pdf%20selesai.pdf}} #### The Story of the Coconut Shell In a tale in the [Tobelo language](/wiki/Tobelo_language "Tobelo language") with the title *Ngàdje\-ngàdje mòi ài ròmănga o kabėlànga* (Dutch: *Een vertelling (van iemand) geheeten "[Klapperdop](/wiki/wikt:Klapperdop "Klapperdop")"*; English: "The Story (about one) called Coconut Shell"), a woman drinks water from a hollow coconut shell and gives birth to a coconut shell. Years laters, the coconut son asks his mother to woo one of the daughters of the King of the East as his bride. The woman does as asked and meets the eldest princess. One by one, they reject him as a potential suitor, and the woman reports back each time. Finally, the youngest princess agrees to marry him, and sends him a token of affection, then moves out to the old woman's house. For this the youngest princess is mocked by her elder sisters. Some time later, the princess and the coconut shell go to the fields, him as a human being, his upper half like the Sun (of a gold colour) and the lower half like the moon (of a silver colour), then return home. The elder princesses pay her cadette a visit and invite her for a bath. When the group goes near the water, they shove the youngest princess in the water and a crocodile swallows her. Coconut Shell, still human, asks his sisters\-in\-law if they saw his wife, and they answer she was devoured by the crocodile. Coconut Shell dives to rescue his wife from the crocodile's maw, asking the reptile to return her to him, and takes her home. Next, the elder sisters invite her to pick palm fronds, and shove her into a serpent's lair. Again, Coconut Shell goes to talk with the serpent to release his wife. Lastly, he tells her he will sail around for a year and gives her a *pinang* (Areca nut) and a hen's egg, to be kept in her sarong. After he departs, the elder sisters invite the princess to play on a swing near the beach. As she plays in the swing, the princess is pushed with such force she flies off the swing and falls into the sea. The elder sisters return home, believing their plan worked. Back to the princess, the pinang sprouts into a tree and a rooster comes out of the egg and begins to crow. After a year, Coconut Shell is coming back with a fleet of seven ships, himself on the seventh. The rooster flies off to the top of the village and begins to crow after the seventh ship passes him by to alert Coconut Shell. He hears the crowing and asks where it is coming from; the rooster crows again and points to the princess, stranded on the tree. Coconut Shell rescues his wife and hides her in a box, then makes his way home. After he reaches home, his sisters\-in\-law approach him quite solicitous, asking is they can prepare plum for him and rub coconut oil on his body. Coconut Shell asks them to gather around, takes out a needle, and blinds them in their eyes. At the end of the tale, he takes out his true wife, the princess, from the box, and they live together.{{cite journal \|last\=HUETING \|first\=A. \|title\=O Tobèlohòka Mànga Totoade. VERHALEN EN VERTELLINGEN IN DE TO BELOREESCHE TAAL. MET VERTALINGEN. Bewerkt En van Aanteekeningen Voorzien \|journal\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\-, Land\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\-Indië \|volume\=61 \|issue\=1/2 \|date\=1908 \|pages\=263\-266 (Tobelo text), 266\-270 (Dutch translation for tale nr. 88\) \|jstor\=20769537}} Accessed 28 July 2023\. #### The Gourd In an Indonesian tale from [Menado](/wiki/Menado "Menado"), [North Sulawesi](/wiki/North_Sulawesi "North Sulawesi"), translated as *Kürbis* ("The Gourd"), a poor couple have a son they call "Kapitu", since he looks like a gourd. The parents look after the boy, who also helps them in daily chores. Years later, Kapitu grows up and becomes a skilled and peerless flute player. One day, Kapitu tells his mother he wants to marry, but his mother is worried about it. Kapitu insists so much she relents and promises to fulfill his request: to marry one of the seven daughters of the local ruler. The woman is astonished at this information, and Kapitu threatens to kill himself by jumping into a river full of crocodiles. With heavy concern, she goes to the king to court one of the princesses for her son. The king hears the woman's plea, and summons the queen, who sends for her seven daughters: the six elders (Roun, Ili, Purut, Imes, Tombene and Kaes) all refuse to marry Kapitu \- which his mother expected would happen. However, the seventh princess, Ingkan, accepts Kapitu's proposal even before the woman has a chance to finish the question. Kapitu's mother is touched by the princess's good heart, but worries about affording their marriage ceremony. Meanwhile, Kapitu himself simply plays on his flute as a sign of his great happiness. The next day, the king goes for a walk around the village (*kampong*) and finds a finely sturdied house near a pond, of mysterious provenance. Seven days later, their wedding happens: the guests are astonished by the food, and Kapitu himself, instead of a lame\-looking person, appears as a divine\-looking hero to meet his bride, to everyone's surprise. The man guides the guests to his marital home, the same one located near the edge of the *kampong*, and they marvel at its beauty. The elder princesses, however, notice the happiness and beauty of the marrying couple, curse their previous decisions, and begin to plot a way to ruin Ingkan's fortune. One day, when Kapitu is not home, the princesses invite Ingkan for some playing on a swing. The girl agrees and joins them by the swing near the lake shore. Each of the princesses play on the swing, but, when it is Ingkan's turn, they shove her so hard she flies off the swing to the other side of the lake. Kapitu goes home and, not finding Ingkan, takes a boat and decides to look for her. As his boat sails near an island, he sights his wife sitting on a stone and goes to meet her. They embrace. Despite his sisters\-in\-law's betrayal, Kapitu's love wins over his hatred, and he goes back home with Ingkan. At the end of the tale, he becomes leader of the village.{{cite book \|last\=Kratz \|first\=Ernst Ulrich \|date\=1973 \|title\=Indonesische Märchen \|trans\-title\=Indonesian Fairy Tales \|location\=Köln \|publisher\=Eugen Diederichs Verlag \|pages\=217–220 (Tale nr. 45\); 283, 286 (source) \|language\=DE}} The tale was also translated to Russian with the title "Капиту" ("Kapitu"), and sourced from the [Minahasan](/wiki/Minahasan_people "Minahasan people").{{cite book \|title\=Волшебный жезл: Сказки народов Индонезии и Малайзии \|trans\-title\=Tales from the Peoples of Indonesia and Malaysia \|editor\=В. Брагинский \|location\=Мoskva \|publisher\=Художественная литература \|date\=1972 \|pages\=91\-94 \|lang\=RU}} #### Three Daughters of a Monarch In a [Rotinese](/wiki/Rotinese_language "Rotinese language") tale translated into Dutch with the title *Er wordt verhaald van drie dochters van den vorst* ("It is said about three daughters of a monarch"), a crow (*kraai*, in the Dutch translation) sends his servants to propose to three princesses: the elder two refuse. The story then explains that the elder princesses take a bath downstream in a river, after the crow flaps its wings to clean the dirty on it, which they complain about. The crow returns the other day, this time as a man clad in gold, and places a stick on the ground and hangs his bag on it. The man then asks for each of the princesses to fetch the bag: the elder two fail, but the youngest accomplishes the task, and marries the now human crow. Later, the elder princesses invite their cadette to join them in some activities: first, to gather firewood in the forest; next, to come fetch water. On each occasion, the princesses kill their youngest sister, then return home and find her safe and sound. After these two events, the human crow tells his wife he is going to [Koepang](/wiki/Koepang "Koepang"), but gives her a hen egg to be held in her clothes, and to have it with her the next time her sisters invite her to go fish in the sea. After he departs, the princess's elder sisters take her to fish in the sea, then shove her in the water. In the sea, the girl grabs a rock and notices the egg she had with her hatched a rooster that begins to crow to alert its master. The human crow hears the crowing and goes to fetch his wife in the sea. He places needles in her hands and hides her inside a box, then sails back home. When he docks, he finds his sisters\-in\-law there and they lie that their sister is dead. In response, the human crow tells them he brought a box with purchases from Koepang, and the greedy sisters\-in\-law go to open it. As soon as they lift the lid, the girl springs out of the box then sticks the needles in her sisters' eyes to blind them. The elder sisters then die. The now human crow goes to live with his wife.{{cite book \|title\=Rottineesche teksten: met vertaling \|first\=Johann Christoph Gerhard \|last\=Jonker \|publisher\=E.J. Brill \|date\=1911 \|pages\=22–23 (Tale nr. 15a) \|language\=NL}} #### A Titibholo In a tale from a [Muna](/wiki/Muna_language "Muna language") source from Mabodu ({{ill\|Katobu\|id\|Katobu, Muna}}) with the title *A Titibholo*, translated as *Titibholo*, orphaned Titibholo lives with his grandmother. He earns his living by sailing to Java and returns home after earning lots of money. One day, he asks his grandmother to find a wife for him, and he sets his sights on one of the seven daughters of the village chief, preferably the eldest. The grandmother goes to the village chief's house with a bag of money to propose on his grandson's behalf: the elder daughter refuses; the king asks every other daughter, who also refuse, save for the youngest, named Wa Ndaipitu. Wa Ndaipitu accepts Titibholo's proposal and the youth's grandmother goes back to inform him. Since his future bride is not grown up yet, he says he will go away to earn money, then return to her. Titibholo goes on a journey for six months, then returns with gifts for his intended: jewels and garments, to her elder sisters' jealousy. He sails away again and again brings gifts for her, garments, pitchers and plates, earning her even more jealousy from her sisters. After three journeys, Titibholo marries Wa Ndaipitu and they move out to his mother's house, where they live until their own home is built. Time passes, and Titibholo has to go on another journey. Before he departs, he warns his wife not to leave their home and to refuse her sisters' invitation to go swinging by the *dhangki* mango tree. After he leaves, her six sisters come to invite her to go swinging, but she refuses it at first. At another time, one sister appears alone and manages to invite her. Wa Ndaipitu accepts their invitation and accompanies them to the swing by the dhangki mango. Her sisters push the swing so hard and, after the third time, Wa Ndaipitu flies over to a tree on a cliff. She climbs the trees until she reaches a mountain, and lives there for some time. After some 40 days, Wa Ndaipitu sights some ships passing by the sea, and asks each of them if her husband Titibholo is with them. From the ship, they answer that Titibholo is coming just behind them. Wa Ndaipitu waves to her husband's ship, he recognizes his wife and rescues her from the mountain, hides her in a box, then makes his way home. He docks his ship, unloads his goods, and enters his house, where his sisters\-in\-law are waiting for him. Suddenly, a cock crows, alerting Titibholo about Wa Ndaipitu's sisters throwing her in the Sampuru sea. The elder sisters try to deceive Titibholo, but the cock crows twice more about their deed. He leaves to look for a place to drink [palm wine](/wiki/Palm_wine "Palm wine"), then returns home later at night. He then opens the box so Wa Ndaipitu can leave and they cook and eat something. Her sisters discover their cadette is alive, and everyone flees through the windows.{{Cite book \|title\=A Grammar of the Muna Language \|first\=René \|last\=van den Berg \|publisher\=Foris Publications \|date\=1989 \|pages\=356\-362 (Muna text for tale nr. 5\), 362\-363 (English translation)}} #### Other tales In an untitled tale collected in the [Ternate language](/wiki/Ternate_language "Ternate language"), an old woman lives with a goat. One day, the goat asks his human mother to go and court one of the local king's daughters on his behalf. The king agrees to a prospective marriage, but asks the goat on some tasks: first, he is to build a golden house, then, to build a golden bridge. After fulfilling the king's tasks, the king summons his ministers and councilman to ask his daughter which will accept the goat's proposal: the elders decline it, save for the youngest, who assures the goat is no animal. The king then asks for a dowry of thirty thousand coins. The goat opens its mouth and produces the requested dowry. The youngest princess marries the goat and ties him to their house. Some time later, his sisters\-in\-law invite him for a feast with some ball playing activity. The goat simply bleats as his answer. However, a prince on a golden horse appears at the feast and expertly plays a ball game with the guests. Back home, the princess gives her husband a plate with [jackfruit](/wiki/Jackfruit "Jackfruit"). The next day, the same mysterious prince appears at the festivities again, makes merry with the guests, then vanishes. One day, however, the princess goes to bring food for her husband, and finds only a goatskin hanging on the wall. She takes it and throws it in the fire. When her husband returns home, for the prince is the goat, he says his belongings have been destroyed, and he is now poor and will not leave the house for anything. After seven days, the princess hears a gong and goes to divine how her husband was a person in goat form. Later, the now human goat says he wants to travel for a while, and gives his wife a *pinang* and an egg, telling her to have them in her sarong at all times. After he departs, the elder princesses commission a swing to be made near the water and invite their cadette to come swinging with them. As she is swinging, her sisters cut off the rope and the princess falls into the ocean. Suddenly, the pinang sprouts into a pinang tree and a rooster hatches out of the egg. Atop the tree, the rooster crows to the some passing ships about the "prince of goats" (the princess's husband). The first sailors say he is coming after them by water, the second batch that he is already on land, and the third and last that he is there. The goat prince then plucks some ma noere flowers, wraps them in a white clothe, places the arrangement on a basin, then inside a box. He them docks his ship and is asked by the people to disembark, but he refuses since his wife has now been given to another man. The tale ends.{{cite journal \|last\=RIEDEL \|first\=L. G. F. \|title\=De Namo Leo en andere Tahinatesche Vertellingen \|journal\=Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië \|series\=3 \|volume\=5 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=437–439 \|date\=1871 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=VpYKAAAAYAAJ\&dq\=%22de\+namo\+leo\+en\+andere%22\&pg\=PA431 \|language\=NL}} ### Southeast Asia #### Jarai language French linguist {{ill\|Jacques Dournes\|vi\|Jacques Dournes}} collected a [Jarai language](/wiki/Jarai_language "Jarai language") tale titled *akhan jaˀ pum* (French: *Conte de Mère Brousse*; English: "Tale of Mother Bush"): Mother Bush scavenges the forest for yams; a python on a tree branch utters a spell for rain so Mother Bush can take a shelter with him. It happens thus. Mother Bush returns home and asks her granddaughters which will go with the python: the elder, H'Bia, refuses, but the younger, H'Luiˀ, agrees, and marries the python. The couple go for a bath in the river, and the python takes off the snakeskin to become a youth. After a swimming accident with H'Luiˀ, the python, in human form, resurrects her and brings her back home. H'Luiˀ's eldest sisters, H'Kruah and H'Bia, see their brother\-in\-law's beauty and H'Bia asks him for a similar python to be brought as her spouse. Her wish is granted, but the second python is a real animal that swallows her, then escapes. The human python goes after the animal and finds it. He fools the animal by saying he will look for lice, cuts off its belly and releases his sister\-in\-law.{{efn\|name\=fn1\|This sequence (heroine's sister tries to imitate heroine's successful marriage to snake, with disastrous results) is classified as its own tale type in the Aarne\-Thompson Index: AaTh 433C, "The Serpent Husband and The Jealous Girl".Aarne, Antti; Thompson, Stith. ''The types of the folktale: a classification and bibliography''. Folklore Fellows Communications FFC no. 184\. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1961\. p. 148\. However, in his own revision of the folk type index, published in 2004, German folklorist \[\[Hans\-Jörg Uther]] subsumed type 433C under a new type: ATU 433B, "\[\[King Lindworm]]".{{cite book \|last1\=Uther \|first1\=Hans\-Jörg \|title\=The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography, Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Academia Scientiarum Fennica \|isbn\=978\-951\-41\-0963\-8 \|pages\=259–261 }}}} Later, the human python tells his wife he will travel along the country of the Yuan people, and warns her not to leave the house for any reason. After he leaves, H'Bia invites her cadette to go swinging near the river. The girl agrees to go, despite her husband's warnings, and is shoved into the water, where a crocodile swallows her. Inside the crocodile's belly, she gives birth to a son. The crocodile reaches a beach, H'Luiˀ's son cuts open the crocodile and he and his mother make landfall. The son then summons a house for them and a rooster, whose crowing summons an orange tree and alerts the boy's father. The human python sails to the beach and recognizes his wife.{{cite journal \|last\=Dournes \|first\=Jacques \|date\=1977 \|url\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\=fr \|title\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \|journal\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \|volume\=2 \|pages\=134 (title), 108–109 (French translation) \|language\=FR}} Jacques Dournes collected another Jarai language tale titled *akhan jaˀ dɔn\-duŋ haŋ hluiˀ tom rit* (French: *Conte de Mère\-grand et H’Luiˀ avec Rit*; English: "Tale of Grandmother and H’Luiˀ with Rit"){{cite journal \|last\=Dournes \|first\=Jacques \|date\=1977 \|url\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\=fr \|title\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \|journal\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \|volume\=2 \|pages\=134 (title), 109–110 (French translation) \|language\=FR}} which he translated into French and published with the title *L’Aînée* ("The Elder Sister"). In this tale, an old woman lives with her younger granddaughter Louite. One day, she leaves home to find food for them, since the land is ravaged by a great drought. She utters an invocation to summon rain and it pours down from the skies. She ventures into the deep forest until she reaches a lush garden full of sugarcane and banana trees, and says she would give Louite in marriage to the person that owns the garden. A python\-lové interrupts her thoughts and says he owns the garden. The woman relents and repeats her words to the python, which agrees to a marriage with the girl. The python worries about being a reptile, but says he will accompany the woman to her village and wait by the forest. The woman goes back home with sugarcanes and bananas, and tells her granddaughter about the marriage promise to the serpent. Louite agrees to marry the python, and goes to meet him at the edge of the village. Louite and python\-lové move out to a distant house with the previous garden and herds of chickens, swine, horses and buffalos. They spend time together, until Python\-lové says he will visit his mother. He leaves his wife in their garden for 10 days, then takes off the snakeskin and returns as a human on a horse. Meanwhile, Louite has not eaten nor drunk anything while her husband is absent, and sees the newcomer. The youth introduces himself as python\-lové, but Louite does not believe it at first, until he enumerates their herds of cattle, and shows her the discarded snakeskin. Three months later, Python\-lové says he will go on a voyage to the country of the [Cham](/wiki/Cham_people "Cham people"), and asks his wife to stay home until his return. After he departs, L'Aînée ("Elder Sister") decides to visit Louite to kill her, so she could be Python\-lové's wife. Elder Sister tries to convince a pregnant Louite to come see the pigs, the buffalos \- which she declines \-, and to play on a swing \- which she accepts. Louite goes with Elder Sister to play on the swing just overlooking a deep river, and fetches a chicken egg on the way. Elder Sister plays on the swing, then Louite does, and the former cuts off the rope, which throws Louite into the river. Elder Sister utters a curse to summon a crocodile that devours Louite, then makes her way to Python\-lové's home. Back to Louite, the egg hatches a rooster named Clarté ("Clarity"). The rooster beaks the crocodile's belly, and eventually the bird and the girl escape the reptile's stomach and make landfall on a Cham beach. The Cham people find them and build them a house, so they can listen to the rooster's crow. Back to Python\-lové, he feels his ring press into his finger and suspects something happened to Louite. He arrives home and finds his sister\-in\-law, Elder Sister, then goes to his mother\-in\-law's house, but none have seen Louite. Python\-lové wanders off until he reaches the beach where Louite is living with the rooster, and meets her. They relate each other their stories, recognizing each other, then go back home to kill Elder Sister.{{cite book \|last\=Dournes \|first\=Jacques \|date\=1977 \|title\=Akhan: Contes oraux de la forêt indochinoise \|location\=Paris \|publisher\=Payot \|pages\=216–222 \|language\=FR}} #### Sre language In a [Vietnamese](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") tale from the [Koho people](/wiki/Koho_people "Koho people") (Sre), translated into Russian as "Властитель вод" ("The Lord of Waters"), a man has two daughters, Nga and Nzi. One day, the man finds a snake in the forest, which demands one of the man's daughters in marriage. The man offer Nga, but the snake rejects it. The man then offers Nzi, and the animal accepts it. The man returns home and tells Nzi of the incident, and the girl decides to offer herself to the snake to protect the village. Nzi goes to the shore to wait for the snake, secretly followed by her sister Nga. Nga sees the snake and runs back home. The snake turns into a young man, Trachanlan, the lord of the waters, and spends the night with his bride. The next day, Nzi wakes up first, sees her husband's snakeskin, and buries it in the sand. Trachanlan wakes up next and ask Nzi about the snakeskin, but the girl feigns ignorance. Later, he asks the animals about it, and discovers Nzi hid out of fear he may devour her. He promises he will not do such a thing. One day, Nzi and Trachanlan visit her father, Zobuo; Nga notices her brother\-in\-law's beauty, and intends to get rid of her sister. Trachanlan asks his father\-in\-law to not allow Nzi out of the house, for he is going on a journey to the country of the tyams. While he is away. Nga convinces her sister to go for a walk on the beach, despite Zobuo's orders against it. Nzi takes an orange and an egg with her, and is murdered by Nga, who goes home to pass herself off as Trachanlan's wife. The Sun, a relative of Trachanlan, witnesses the murders and orders two fishes to come fetch Nzi's body. Nzi revives and, after four days, goes back to the shore with a son in tow (since she was pregnant), and plants the orange in the ground. A large orange tree sprouts. The egg she carried with her hatched and produced a rooster. Later, Trachanlan oars around and comes to buy some oranges from a boy (not knowing the boy is his son). They recognize each other and sail together back home \- after Trachanlan, in serpent form, fought a sea deity \- and rejoin with their family. The boy hits Nga on the head with a plate, but Trachanlan asks his son to forgive her, and go to the orange tree to call out for Nzi to come down the tree. The tale continues as Trachanlan goes away on another journey, and Nga tries to kill Nzi in two other occasions. After two more foiled attempts, she decides to find a snake for her to marry, hoping to repeat her sister's success. However, Nga finds a snake that devours her. Trachanlan learns of this and rescues his sister\-in\-law, despite her previous behaviour. Nga comes out of the snake's stomach alive, but scarred all over her body. Trachanlan warns her not to go out in the midday sun, but Nga does and turns into a lizard."Сказки народов Вьетнама" \[Fairy Tales from Vietnamese Peoples]. Составитель: Н. Никулин. Moskva: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1970\. pp. 263\-273\.{{efn\|name\=fn1}} Linguist Jacques Dournes collected a tale in the [Sre language](/wiki/Sre_language "Sre language") with the title *jaljaw trah traŋ lan* (French: *Conte de Trah Trang Lan*, English: "Tale of Trah Trang Lan"). In this tale, a human hunter is preparing snares for prey, when a large snake named Trah Trang Lan blocks his away and demands one of his daughters in marriage. The hunter, however, offers one of his three sisters: Ngi, Nga, and Nai Töluiˀ, the latter already married to a Cham man. The snake asks for Nai Töluiˀ, lest he devours the hunter's entire village. The hunter goes home and relates the situation to his sisters. Nai Töluiˀ offers to go with the snake to protect the village, and marries him. To her relief, the snake becomes a human man. After some time, Nai Töluiˀ invites her husband, Trah Trang Lan, to visit her family. Later, Trah Trang Lan says he will journey to the Cham country, and asks his brother\-in\-law, the hunter, to not let Nai Töluiˀ out of the house on any reason. After he departs, Nga, the middle sister, envying her cadette's good fortune, invites her for a walk near the beach and cuts her throat. A crocodile appears and swallows Nai Töluiˀ whole. Inside the crocodile, Nai Töluiˀ gives birth to a son, who takes a knife his mother had with her and cuts open the reptile, then makes landfall with his mother to a beach. Once there, he plants an orange his mother had with her on the ground and a large tree sprouts, carrying his mother up to the heavens, and an egg Nai Töluiˀ also had with her hatches, releasing a rooster. On the road back from Cham country, Trah Trang Lan meets his son en route and recognizes him with the help of the Sun, a relative of his. After fighting a serpent lord of waters, Trah Trang Lan returns home with his son, but his sister\-in\-law Nga tries to pass herself off as Nai Töluiˀ, who finally descends from the heavens back to her husband. Defeated, Nga leaves them be and procures a serpent spouse for herself. She finds a baby snake in the forest and brings it with her. The snake grows large in time and eventually swallows Nga whole, then slithers off. Trah Trang Lan is asked by his wife to rescue Nga, and searches for the serpent in the bottom of a river. Trah Trang Lan dons the snakeskin once again to meet the animal underwater and tricks him with a large bridle, which is pulled by heavy elephants. The second snake is dragged back to land and Trah Trang Lan cuts open its belly to release Nga. Despite saving her, he still warns her not to stay in the sun. Nga disobeys his orders and stays under the sun rays, becoming a [termite mound](/wiki/Termite_mound "Termite mound").{{efn\|name\=fn1}}{{cite journal \|last\=Dournes \|first\=Jacques \|date\=1977 \|url\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\=fr \|title\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \|journal\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \|volume\=2 \|pages\=135 (title), 113–114 (French translation) \|language\=FR}} #### Myanmar In a [Burmese](/wiki/Burma "Burma") tale titled *The Snake Prince*, a widow lives in a cottage by the river with her three daughters, and earns her living by gathering firewood. She also tries to fetch fruits in the woods whenever she can. One day, she tries to find some fallen figs from a [fig tree](/wiki/Fig_tree "Fig tree") and, not finding any, insults the tree. Suddenly, a snake appears to her, with figs in its coils. The widow sees the figs and offers one of her daughters in marriage to the snake (whom she calls Lord [Nāga](/wiki/N%C4%81ga "Nāga")): Ma U (the eldest), Ma Lat (the middle one) and Ma Htwe (the youngest). The snake releases the figs after it hears the proposition, and the widow seizes the opportunity to fetch the figs in a basket. On the road home, the woman passes by a tree stump, a hillock and a boulder, to which she gives a fig if they lies to the snake that she passes by them. The snake, a Naga, follows the widow to her cottage, and passes by the tree stump, the hillock and the boulder, and creeps into a rice pot. The widow opens up the lid and the snake coils itself around her arm, chastising her for trying to trick it. The widow repeats her offer for the snake to release her arm, and goes to talk to her daughters: the elder two refuse to marry the snake, but Ma Htwe agrees to be with the reptile, gives some milk and rice to ti and takes it in a basket to her room. The next morning, Ma Htwe has a dream that a man came in and embraced her. Her mother says she will check into the matter and, that same night, sees a human youth coming out of the snake's basket and embracing her youngest daughter. She takes the snakeskin and throws it in the fire. The human snake begins to writhe in pain; Ma Htwe wakes up and goes to the kitchen to fetch some cool water and pours it on the youth's skin. After curing his burning, the youth explains he is a Naga Prince, and, without his snakeskin, shall live as a mortal beside her. Ma Htwe and the Naga Prince move out to a cottage and have a son they name Kin Shwe (Prince Golden). The Naga Prince decides to find work with a merchant, and sails away, leaving his family alone to deal with the elder sisters' envy, who plot to get rid of Ma Htwe. They approach her and try to draw her out of her house, but she stays home. One day, they convince her to accompany them for a picnic near a mango tree, for old times' sake, so they could play at a swing. Ma Htwe climbs onto the swing and is shoved by her sisters into the sea, but she and her child are rescued by a large [stork](/wiki/Stork "Stork"). Meanwhile, the Naga Prince is coming back from his journey, and listens to his wife's voice, finding her in the stork's nest. He makes a deal with the large bird and rescues his wife. The Naga Prince wants to punish his sisters\-in\-law with death, but Ma Htwe decides they must be publicly shamed, so he places his wife in an empty chest. When he disembarks, he asks his sisters\-in\-law to carry the heavy chest to the village. They open the chest, and out comes Ma Htwe and her son.{{cite book \|last\=Ledgard \|first\=Edna \|title\=The snake prince and other stories: Burmese folk tales \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[Interlink Books]] \|date\=2000 \|pages\=84–96}} The tale was originally published by Burmese scholar [Maung Htin Aung](/wiki/Maung_Htin_Aung "Maung Htin Aung"), and this sequence represents the "happy ending" of the story.Aung, Maung Htin. *Burmese Folk\-Tales*. Oxford University Press. 1948\. pp. 124\-128, 130\-136\. Likewise, Maung Htin Aung stated that the stork helper is the "large Burmese stork", that is, the [adjutant bird](/wiki/Leptoptilos "Leptoptilos"), and suggested that the tale's "happy ending" was a separate tale at first.Aung, Maung Htin. *Burmese Folk\-Tales*. Oxford University Press. 1948\. p. xxii. In addition, according to researchers Gerry Abbott and Khin Thant Han, the tale is "widely known" in Burma, with either ending ([the tragic one](/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Hamadryad%23The_Snake_Prince_%28Burma%29 "The Story of the Hamadryad#The Snake Prince (Burma)") or the happy one).{{cite book \|last1\=Abbott \|first1\=Gerry \|first2\=Khin Thant \|last2\=Han \|title\=The Folk\-Tales of Burma \|location\=Leiden, The Netherlands \|publisher\=Brill \|date\=2000 \|page\=129 \|doi\=10\.1163/9789004392052\_012}} In a Burmese tale titled *The Snake\-Prince and the Three Sisters*, a widow lives with her three daughters in a village by the sea: the elder two named Ma Pu and Ma Tin, and the youngest called Aye Aye ('the gentle one'), the most beautiful and kind of the three. Whenever she goes to the market, she passes by a [mango tree](/wiki/Mango_tree "Mango tree") and fetches fruits from the ground. However, one time, she cannot find mangoes on the ground and sighs. Suddenly, she hears a hiss on the tree: a snake is there. The widow offers to marry one of her daughters to the reptile: the snake drops a single mango each time in response to the woman's mention of her elder daughters, but releases several more mangoes when it hears the youngest's name. The widow takes the mangoes in her basket and returns home, but passes by a monkey, a river and a little child, whom she bribes with a mango to lie to the snake if it passes by that same road. As the woman goes home, the snake follows her and passes by the monkey, the river and the child, whom he threatens to devour if they do not guide him to the widow's house. After he reaches her house, he enters through an open window and slithers to the widow's bed. The woman hears a noise and wakes up, only to find the same snake coiling around her legs. The widow then asks her three daughters which one will fulfill her mother's proposal: Ma Pu and Ma Tin refuse, while Aye Aye agrees. The snake releases its grasp on the woman, and joins his bride. Aye Aye marries the snake the next day, feeds him with milk and rice and makes him a basket to sleep in. A week later, the widow asks Aye Aye about her marital life, and the girl says she has dreams about a young prince that comes to her bed and tells stories to her. The widow investigates into the matter and, that same night, spies on a prince coming out of the basket. The widow takes the snakeskin from the basket and burns it, keeping her son\-in\-law human forever. As her elder daughters realize their cadette married a prince, they begin to nurture jealousy against her. One day, the snake\-prince (as Aye Aye's husband starts to be called) says he has to go on a long voyage, and warns Aye Aye not to trust her sisters. After he departs, Ma Pu and Ma Tin try to trick Aye Aye: first, they invite her to stay with them; next, they invite her to go to the market to buy some essentials; lastly, to play a bit near the beach on a boat. Aye Aye falls for their tricks and takes her son to play with them. Ma Pu and Ma Tin abandon Aye Aye and her son on a boat adrift on the sea, but a large [crane](/wiki/Crane_%28bird%29 "Crane (bird)") sent by the gods guides the boat with its beak to a desert island, where mother and son feed on roots and fishes brought by the crane. Some time later, Aye Aye sees a coming ship she recognizes as her husband's, and pleads for the crane to guide the snake prince to the island. It happens thus, and the snake prince rescues his wife and son, and, after learning of his sisters\-in\-law's ploy, decides to punish them. The snake\-prince goes back home and is greeted by Ma Pu and Ma Tin, who lie that Aye Aye went missing in the sea. In response, the snake\-prince says he brought his blood sister with him, and takes a veiled girl from the boat. The girl lifts her veil and shows Ma Pu and Ma Tin her true face: Aye Aye, safe and sound, despite their murder attempt. The village banishes the jealous sisters, and Aye Aye lives in peace with her husband and their son.{{Cite book \|title\=Favourite Stories from Burma \|first\=Marguerite \|last\=Siek \|publisher\=Heinemann Asia \|date\=1975 \|pages\=51–59 \|url\=https://www.google.com.br/search?tbm\=bks\&hl\=pt\-BR\&q\=%22the\+snake\-prince\+an\+the\+three\+sisters%22}} In an untitled Burmese tale translated by Reginald Burton Dennis and published in the *[Journal of the Burma Research Society](/wiki/Journal_of_the_Burma_Research_Society "Journal of the Burma Research Society")*, a king has two sons. When the monarch dies, the younger son turns the elder into a [King Cobra](/wiki/King_Cobra "King Cobra"), making him alternate between human and serpentine shapes every sunrise and sunset, and usurps the throne. The King Cobra wanders through the land and creeps into an earthenware jar that a widow uses to store rice. One day, the woman goes to fetch some rice, and the King Cobra coils around her arm. In order to release the cobra's grip, she promises to marry one of her three daughters: the cobra coils even harder when it hears the elder daughters' names, but uncoils when it hears the youngest's. The widow calls for her daughters, and her youngest complies with her decision, marrying the cobra. Some days later, the youngest daughter tells her mother the king cobra husband becomes a man at night and goes back to being a snake by daylight, so the widow suggests a course of action. That same night, the girl feigns illness, takes a brazier and lights a fire to burn her husband's snakeskin. While her husband goes to fetch her some water, the she throws the snakeskin in the fire. The next morning, the man tries to find his snakeskin, and his wife says she destroyed it. The man explains that now he is human, he must return and fight for his throne. One day, he leaves his wife in her mother's care, since she is pregnant, and departs. The girl's elder sisters, realizing their cadette married a prince and is set to become a queen, decide to get rid of her: they invite her to play on a swing by the river bank. The girl declines at first, but eventually agrees. While she is on the swing, the elder sisters shove her so hard she is flung off to a bush near the shore, and leave her for dead. Fortunately for her, a huge [pelican](/wiki/Pelican "Pelican") finds her and brings her to its nest atop a silk\-cotton tree (which Reginald Burton Dennis stated is the tree species *[Bombax malabaricum](/wiki/Bombax_malabaricum "Bombax malabaricum")*),Dennis, Reginald Burton (R.B.D.). "Twenty Burmese songs: translation and notes". In: *Journal of the Burma Research Society* 33 (1950\): 191 (note nr. 4\). where she is cared for and gives birth to her son. The girl (at this point, her name is given: Me Dwe) rocks her son with a song, calling him the "Snake King's son" and referring to his father as "Great Royal Serpent". The pelican is irritated and threatens to beak them, so Me Dwe alters the song to call her baby the pelican's son. After the prince deposes his brother and crowns himself king, he returns home to his wife, but cannot find her there. He wanders off until he reaches the river bank, when he hears his wife's voice singing a song to their son atop the tree. He waits until the pelican has flown away, then rescues his wife and son and brings them to his kingdom.Dennis, Reginald Burton (R.B.D.). "Twenty Burmese songs: translation and notes". In: *Journal of the Burma Research Society* 33 (1950\): 187\-189 (translation). #### Moken people Austrian anthropologist [Hugo Bernatzik](/wiki/Hugo_Bernatzik "Hugo Bernatzik") collected a tale from the [Moken](/wiki/Moken "Moken") people with the title *The frog and the maiden*, which he considered to have "Malay influence". In this tale, three sisters live together and the youngest has a frog as a lover. After the frog leaves on a boat, the sisters quarrel and the eldest tosses the youngest into the ocean. The girl swims for her life, but her strength gives out. Fortunately for her, a tree emerges from the water and she climbs it. Atop the tree, the girl, who is pregnant, prays for her lover to come, and two days later the frog appears on a boat to rescue her from the tree. The frog hides her in a basket, then sails home to his sisters\-in\-law, asking them about his lover. The elder sisters try to deceive him, and go on the boat. They bump into the basket, and the girl inside "made water". Seeing the liquid, the frog tells the sisters\-in\-law it is oil, and the girls smear the liquid on their skin. Suddenly, their youngest sister springs out of the basket, to the elders' horror, who die on the spot. The frog becomes a human male and lives with his wife.{{cite book \|last\=Bernatzik \|first\=Hugo \|title\=The Spirits of the Yellow Leaves \|location\=London \|publisher\=R. Hale \|date\=1956 \|orig\-year\=1938 \|page\=45}}
[ "Variants\n--------", "### Indonesia", "#### Princess Gulungi\\-luri", "In a tale from the [Loda language](/wiki/Loloda_language \"Loloda language\") titled *Ngo Pitiri\\-Gulungi\\-luri* (Dutch: *Prinses Gulungi\\-luri*, English: \"Princess Gulungi\\-luri\"), a wellkeeper goes to fetch water by the sea and finds an iguana she brings home in a box. Back home, she prepares dishes for herself; the iguana crawls out of the box, removes its reptile skin and becomes a handsome youth. Nearby in a flying palace, lives the king of the Rising of the Sun (or \"of the East\") with his seven daughters. The iguana asks the wellkeeper to court one of the princesses for him. She goes to the palace and asks each of the princess which will be the iguana's bride: the six elders refuse, save for the youngest. The wellkeeper reports back to the iguana, who goes to take an evening bath as a human being: his toenails are of a golden colour, his fingernails of silver; and his finger and toes are like gemstones. When he is not bathing, he visits the seventh princess at night. Seven days later, he says he is going on a journey on a ship named IJzer for seven nights. After he leaves, the six elder princesses put a plan in motion: they invite their cadette to cut some bamboos with them, and shove her into a pit. The king learns of this and rescues his youngest daughter. Next, the princesses take her to a swing and push her so hard she flies off into the ocean. Fortunately, the princess has on her sarong an areca nut and an egg the Iguana, her husband, gave her: the areca nut becomes an areca tree and a rooster hatches out of the egg. The princess climbs on top of the tree and stays under the rooster's wings. The rooster crows seven times about how princess Gulungi\\-luri has drowned, which is seen by the Iguana in the distance. The rooster crows seven times again and flies to Iguana's boat to alert him. The Iguana approaches the tree and rescues his wife, then hides her in a golden basket. He then docks his boat on the seashore and finds his six sisters\\-in\\-law waiting for him, thinking their brother\\-in\\-law is free to choose one of them. The Iguana, in human form, asks the princesses to lie down on the beach and stay still, while the brings the ship to shore. The Iguana carries his boat over their bodies and crushes his sisters\\-in\\-law. Princess Gulungi\\-luri then disembarks.{{cite journal \\|last\\=VAN BAARDA \\|first\\=M. J. \\|title\\=HET LÒDA'SCH, in Vergelijking Met Het Galėla'sch Dialect Op Halmaheira. GEVOLGD: DOOR: LÒDA'SCHE TEKSTEN EN VERHALEN \\|journal\\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\\-, Land\\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\\-Indië \\|volume\\=56 \\|issue\\=3/4 \\|date\\=1904 \\|pages\\=453–454 \\|language\\=nl \\|jstor\\=20769407}} Accessed 28 July 2023\\.", "#### Molek", "In an Indonesian tale from [Riau Province](/wiki/Riau_Province \"Riau Province\") titled *Molek* (in the original, *Si Molek dan Tanara*), a couple have seven daughters of marriageable age, the youngest and seventh, Molek, the most beautiful. Many have come to court and marry them, but the girls reject them. One day, however, a fish named Jerawan appears to propose marriage to one of the girls. Their parents ask them which will choose the fish: the six elders refuse him, but Molek agrees to go with the fish, thus they marry. Although she is mocked for marrying a fish, she loves her husband, but, some time later, decides to discover where her husband does all day, so she follows the fish one day to the forest. The fish goes behind a bush, and out emerges a handsome youth; he goes to the beach, joins a crew on a sailboat and goes to fish in the ocean. Molek discovers her husband's true form and true profession, and decides to keep it a secret, until one day she goes behind the bush and takes the fish skin to hide it. She stays in the bush waiting for Jerawan, and he returns at night, finding his human wife with his fish skin. Molek asks him not to hide himself behind a fish skin anymore, and, although theirs is a happy marriage, she is endlessly mocked by her sisters, so she would like to show them his true form. The man agrees to live as human for now on, and says his name is Tanara. Some time later, after Tanara remains human, Molek's elder sisters nurture jealousy towards their cadette, since they wished to marry him. One day, Tanara goes on a long journey, and Molek's elder sisters plot the perfect moment to get rid of her. Years later, when Tanara is ready to come back, Molek's sisters pay her a visit and suggest they sail on small boats to wait for Tanara out in the open sea. After playing and splashing in the water, the girls abandon Molek on a small boat and make their way to the shore. Molek, adrift at sea, tries to paddle her small boat somewhere, but she faints, exhausted from her efforts. Meanwhile, Tanara's ships, filled with gold, silver and jewels, are nearing the shore, when they sight a small boat with a woman inside. They rescue the castaway and bring her up to Tanara's quarters. Tanara recognizes the castaway as his wife, Molek, and she reveals her sisters' ploy against her. After listening to her tale, he plans to teach a lesson to his sisters\\-in\\-law: he asks some men to hide Molek in a box, to keep her survival a secret, then comes to port. He is greeted by people, and goes up to his sisters\\-in\\-law's house, where they are expecting him with their best dresses and the best food, hoping to draw his attentions. Tanara takes a seat and tells his adventures to them, and, lastly, about a woman he found adrift at sea, then bids his wife enter and sit beside him. The girls look at the woman and realize she is their sister Molek, safe after all. The girls feel ashamed for their deed, and Tanara swears he will not pursue any revenge against them.{{cite book \\|first\\=Murti \\|last\\=Bunanta \\|editor\\-last\\=MacDonald \\|editor\\-first\\=Margaret Read \\|title\\=Indonesian Folktales \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Libraries Unlimited]] \\|date\\=2003 \\|pages\\=37–40 (text); 120 (source) \\|isbn\\=9781563089091}}", "#### King *Baung*", "In a [South Kalimantan](/wiki/South_Kalimantan \"South Kalimantan\") tale sourced from the [Banjar people](/wiki/Banjar_people \"Banjar people\") with the title *Raja Baung* (\"King Baung\"), a poor old widow has a *{{ill\\|baung\\|id\\|Baung}}* (a kind of freshwater fish) for a son. One day, the baung fish asks his mother to court one of the local king's daughters on his behalf. The widow goes to the king's court to fulfill her son's request. The elder princesses refuse to marry the fish, save for the youngest, Putri Bungsu. Still, the king does not agree to their marriage at first, and sets tasks for the baung to fulfill before their marriage is celebrated. The baung does as ordered and marries Putri Bungsu. Eventually, the princess discovers the baung is, actually, a man under the fish scale disguise, and, one day, after he took off his fish disguise, the princess burns the scales to keep him human permanently. Some time later, the elder princesses learn of their brother\\-in\\-law's true appearance, and decide to get rid of Putri Bungsu to have the now human baung for themselves. The now human baung decides to go on a journey to earn a living, and leaves his wife, pregnant at the time, unprotected. After he departs, the elder princesses decide to invite their cadette for some playing in a swing. However, the elder sisters shove her so hard she flies off the swing and into the sea. Putri Bungsu survives and finds a hollowed out trunk to hold on to. She gives birth to a son and waits there adrift until her husband appears on a ship to rescue them. He hides his wife and son in a chest, then sails back home. He docks his ship, then asks his sisters\\-in\\-law what happened to Putri Bungsu. The princesses lie that she was devoured by some animal, and the human baung opens up the chest, revealing a still alive Putri Bungsu and her child. The king then punishes his daughters.*[Cerita rakyat Nusantara: analisis struktur dan fungsi penjelmaan dalam cerita](https://books.google.com/books?id=S6vfAAAAMAAJ&q=%22baung%22)*. Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1994\\. pp. 39\\-40\\.", "#### The cat who turned into a man", "Researcher Edwin M. Loeb collected and published a tale from the [Mentawei Islands](/wiki/Mentawai_Islands \"Mentawai Islands\") with the [Mentewai](/wiki/Mentawai_language \"Mentawai language\") title *Mao ibailiu sirimanua*, translated as *The cat who turned into a man*, which he considered to be a \"Malay importation\" into the island. In this tale, a Mentawei youth marries a wife, but he dies when she is pregnant. Some months later, she gives birth to a cat. He grows up and asks his widowed mother (*teteu*) to fetch a *simaingo* flower and find him a bride. The woman finds the flower and goes to a village where three sisters live together in a *rusuk* (a house without altar). The woman offers the flower to the elder sister, who refuses the cat's marriage promise. The woman returns to tell her cat son about the eldest's refusal, and the animal sends her again: the second time she asks the middle sister, who refuses; lastly, she asks the youngest sister, who accepts the cat's proposal. They marry, move out to another house and make *punen*. The cat changes into a handsome youth and joins his wife in the *punen* fields. When they return home on a boat to their village, his sisters\\-in\\-law sight him from a distance and deduce the man *is* the cat, but in another form. Some time later, Cat (the husband's name) is set to go fishing in the sea, and warns his wife not to accept her sisters' invitation to go swinging. The man goes fishing in the sea, and his wife, back home, forgets his warnings and joins her sisters for some swinging. However, as the girl is playing in the swing, the rope cuts off and she is flung away into the sea. When she emerges, she swims to a deserted island (*padarai*). There, she wishes for her house to appear next to her, and it happens so. She then wishes for her furniture and food to come to her, which also happens. Back to Cat, the husband, he sights some smoke on the deserted island and sails there. He finds his wife, who explains she went swinging with her sisters, and ended up there. Cat places a rain hat (*turok*) on his wife to hide her face, and both sail back home. After they dock, the sisters\\-in\\-law approach them to unload the goods into their home. After they finish the task, Cat and his wife whip the duo and expel them from their home.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Loeb \\|first\\=Edwin \\|title\\=Mentawei Myths \\|journal\\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\\-, Land\\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\\-Indië \\|volume\\=85 \\|issue\\=1 \\|date\\=1929 \\|pages\\=96–98 (Mentawei text), 99–101 (English translation) \\|jstor\\=20770271}} Accessed 25 July 2023\\.", "#### Ringkitan and the Cuscus", "In a tale from [Sulawesi](/wiki/Sulawesi \"Sulawesi\") with the title *Si Ringkitan dan Kusoi*, translated as *Ringkitan and the [Cuscus](/wiki/Cuscus \"Cuscus\")* or *Ringkitan and Kusoi*,{{cite book \\|last\\=Kratz \\|first\\=Ernst Ulrich \\|date\\=1973 \\|title\\=Indonesische Märchen \\|trans\\-title\\=Indonesian Fairy Tales \\|location\\=Köln \\|publisher\\=Eugen Diederichs Verlag \\|pages\\=227–237 \\|isbn\\=9783424004809 \\|language\\=DE\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gADkAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22ringkitan\\+und\\+kusoi%22}} a fisherman lives in [Minahasa](/wiki/Minahasa \"Minahasa\") with his nine daughters, Ringkitan the youngest and the most beautiful. The girls' parents want to see them married to suitable husbands, but no person seems good enough. One day, however, an animal called cuscus appears to court the girls: the eight elders refuse to marry it, save for Ringkitan. The girl and the cuscus marry, despite the endless mocking by her sisters and their village. Ringkitan's marriage is still a happy one, although she does not know what her husband does for a living, since he leaves in the morning and returns at night. One morning, she decides to trail behind him and follows him to the forest. The cuscus hides behind some bushes, takes off his animal skin and hides it under some bushes, becomes a human male and joins with other men on a fishing boat. Ringkitan is happy to learn her husband's secret, and, after assuring he is indeed a human underneath the cuscus skin, decides to release him from his disguise. Some days later, while he goes to the fishing trip, Ringkitan hides the cuscus skin and waits for her husband's return to fetch his skin. He notices that Ringkitan is in the bushes with his skin, and she reveals she wants to have him human at all times, which he agrees to. He also tells her his real name: Kusoi. Ringkitan is even happier than before, but her elder sisters, after learning their brother\\-in\\-law is human after all, decide to get rid of Ringkitan. Later, Kusoi departs on a long business trip, and Ringkitan's sisters wait for the perfect moment to put their plan into action. After news of Kusoi's return reach their ears, the elder sisters invite their cadette to come play with them and swing in some tree branches near the seashore. The sisters, with evil intent, push her so hard she swings over the tree branches and her hair entangles between the branches. Ringkitan pleads for her sisters to help her, but they abandon her to her fate. The girl then notices a line of ships (a wooden boat, a more ornate wooden boat, a copper boat, a silver boat, and finally a golden boat) sailing nearby and sings some verses to draw their attention. Each of them replies that Kusoi is coming, and the man himself appears on the golden boat. He stops by the tree and rescues her down from it, and asks her how she ended up there. Ringkitan is glad to see her husband again and explains her elder sisters tried to kill her. Kusoi then plans to teach his sisters\\-in\\-law a lesson: he hides Ringkitan in a trunk and arrives home, where he asks where his wife is. The sisters pretend they saw her at the seashore. Kusoi then invites people to tell about his adventures on the open sea, and tells them he rescued a woman atop a tree near the seashore. The sisters start to fidget, fearing for their brother\\-in\\-law's story, until he bids some servants bring Ringkitan in, dresses in fine garments. He introduces the newcomer as his wife Ringkitan, and says he will not punish her pursuers. At the end of the tale, Ringkitan forgives her elder sisters for their misdeeds.{{cite book \\|title\\=The magic crocodile and other folktales from Indonesia \\|last\\=Terada \\|first\\=Alice M. \\|date\\=1994 \\|location\\=Honolulu, HI \\|publisher\\=University of Hawaii Press \\|pages\\=116–122}} The tale was originally published by missionary N. P. Wilken with the Dutch title *De negen zusters* (\"The jealous sisters\"), in 1886\\.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Wilken \\|first\\=N. P. \\|title\\=Alfoersche Vertelsels en Raadsels \\|journal\\=Mededeelingen: Tijdschrift voor Zendingswetenschap \\|date\\=1886 \\|volume\\=30 \\|pages\\=295–298 \\|language\\=NL \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=74KyigMN\\-tIC\\&dq\\=%22alfoersche\\+vertelsels%22\\&pg\\=PA291}}", "#### The tale about the Monkey", "Author J. A. T. Schwarz collected from a [Tomtenboan](/wiki/Tontemboan_language \"Tontemboan language\") source named Thomas Dien a tale titled *Kakua an doro' i Wolai*, translated into Dutch as *Verhaal van den Aap* (English: \"The tale of the Monkey\"). Folklorist [Paul Hambruch](/wiki/Paul_Hambruch \"Paul Hambruch\") translated it into German as *Die Geschichte vom Affen* (\"The Tale about the Monkey\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Hambruch \\|first\\=Paul \\|title\\=Malaiische Märchen aus Madagaskar und Insulinde \\|location\\=Jena \\|publisher\\=Eugen Diederich \\|date\\=1922 \\|pages\\=94–98 \\|language\\=German}} In this tale, an old woman has a monkey for a son. One day, the monkey asks his mother to give him a sleeping mat so he can sunbathe. Despite warning him about standing so close to people, she attends his request. He spends his days on the mat on his porch, when he sights the eldest princess passing by to bathe, then an idea forms in his head: he will marry the princess. The monkey asks his mother to woo the eldest princess for him, but she questions how a girl can marry an animal. After some insistence, the woman goes to the palace and tells the king about her son's proposal. The king calls his eldest daughter to ask her about a possible marriage to a monkey. The girl refuses, and so do the other princesses, save the youngest, who accepts the proposal. The woman reports back to her son, and the monkey asks to be taken to the princess's palace so they can bathe together. It happens so: as soon as the monkey meets his fiancée, he takes off the monkey skin, becomes a handsome prince, then utters an incantation to summon fine garments for themselves, so they can present themselves before the king. The royal couple is impressed by their appearance, and the king asks his future son\\-in\\-law where the wedding will take place. The monkey replies it will happen soon, after he provides a house for themselves. He summons a large house with a spell and marries the princess. Some time later, the monkey, now in human form, is set to go on a journey, and warns his wife not to go swinging with her elder sisters, then gives her a [betel](/wiki/Betel \"Betel\") nut and a rooster's egg, for her to place one on the other, so that a rooster will hatch and alert the prince with its crowing. After he departs, the princess's elder sisters conspire to kill her, and invite her to play on a swing by the beach. As the princess is swinging, her elder sisters push her so hard she falls into the ocean. Realizing she is in danger, she cracks open the egg and places the rooster on the betel nut. The rooster begins to crow and alerts the prince, who hears the noise and makes a turn to rescue his wife. He finds her with the rooster and the betel nut, hides her in a basket, then sails back home. After arriving, he sees that his eldest sister\\-in\\-law is there instead of his wife, and asks his father\\-in\\-law if his wife is really in the house. The king answers that the monkey's wife is indeed there (despite it being a lie), and the youngest princess rises out of the basket. The monkey prince then assumes the throne and makes his family\\-in\\-law his slaves.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwarz \\|first\\=J. A. T. \\|title\\=Tontemboansche Teksten \\|date\\=1907a \\|publisher\\=Martinus Nijhoff \\|volume\\=1 \\|location\\='s Gravenhage \\|language\\=nl \\|pages\\=23–26 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet01schwgoog/page/n44/mode/1up}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwarz \\|first\\=J. A. T. \\|title\\=Tontemboansche Teksten \\|date\\=1907b \\|publisher\\=E. J. Brill \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=Leiden \\|language\\=nl \\|pages\\=40–44 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet02schwgoog/page/40/mode/1up}}", "#### The Tale of the Torso", "In another Totemboan tale collected by Schwarz titled *Kukua an doro' i Pokol* (Dutch: *Verhaal van het Stompje*; English: \"The Tale of the Torso\"), a couple have a son that is only a legless, armless torso. People, rich and poor, come to see the torso child, and give him gifts. One day, the son tells his mother he wants to go sailing. Despite her concerns, her son insists on his wish and the woman takes him to the shore to the ships, in a basket filled with pumpkin and cucumber seeds, a cleaver, an axe and a machete. The sailors are a bit afraid at his presence, for they have never seen someone as him, but agree to take him as part of the crew. After they sail the sea, the torso asks to be left on a certain island, and departs. After his request is fulfilled, the torso takes off his disguise and becomes an able\\-bodied European man, his true form. In this new shape, the youth cultivates the land, plants the pumpkins and cucumbers, and builds a house. At one time, he meets a talking mouse and takes three whiskers from its body, then returns home to his mother still in his torso form, but brings gold to her. Later, he summons the mouse with the whiskers, and asks it and its mice to build him a better house, made of gold. The next day, the torse asks his mother to go woo one of the daughters of the local king on his behalf, starting with the eldest. The woman goes to the king's house and makes her case. The king agrees, but the princesses are to be asked in order of birth, the eldest first. The torso brings with him a pinang box and whoever chooses him shall be given it. The eight elder princesses decline the torso's marriage proposal, save for the youngest. The torso prepares his wedding to the princess, and summons food and drinks for the guests with a magic while no one is looking, then takes off the torsoe disguise to appear as a human. The eight elder princesses see his true form, and cry in their rooms, since they reject him at first. Three days after their marriage, the now human torso his wife with his mother and departs on a sea voyage. Meanwhile, the eight princess conspire to kill their cadette: they invite her to go swinging near the beach, and, when the girl is on the swing, they push her so hard she is flung off into the ocean, where the princesses hope she drowns. However, the youngest princess saves herself by swimming to a deserted island. She then climbs up a tree and shouts for her husband Koesoi to hear it that her eldest sister Rintjitan shoved her in the ocean. She sights a ship and repeats her words. On the ship is her husband, Pokol, who hears her pleas and docks on the island. They renuite, and the princess explains the situation to him. Pokol them places her inside a basket with breathing holes, then sails back home. He goes to his mother's home and asks where his wife is; his mother only says that her sisters invited her to go with them and she has not been seen since. He then asks his father\\-in\\-law where the princess is, but the king does not know either. Lastly, Pokol invites his sisters\\-in\\-law for a meal, when the elder princesses insist they did not see their cadette, so Pokol utters a spell to glue their mouths to their plates, as punishment for their lie, and leaves them in that state. He sails again for three days, then returns home. The king, his father\\-in\\-law, offers to make him king, and begs for Pokol to release the eight princesses from the spell. Pokol agrees and is made king after his father\\-in\\-law, and reigns with his wife.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwarz \\|first\\=J. A. T. \\|title\\=Tontemboansche Teksten \\|date\\=1907a \\|publisher\\=Martinus Nijhoff \\|volume\\=1 \\|location\\='s Gravenhage \\|language\\=nl \\|pages\\=41–52 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet01schwgoog/page/n44/mode/1up}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schwarz \\|first\\=J. A. T. \\|title\\=Tontemboansche Teksten \\|date\\=1907b \\|publisher\\=E. J. Brill \\|volume\\=2 \\|location\\=Leiden \\|language\\=nl \\|pages\\=61–71 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tontemboanschet02schwgoog/page/40/mode/1up}}", "#### The girl who married the Moon", "Ethnographer and missionary [Albert Christian Kruyt](/wiki/Albert_Christian_Kruyt \"Albert Christian Kruyt\") collected a [Torajan](/wiki/Torajan_people \"Torajan people\") tale he translated as *Het meisje dat met de maan trouwt* (\"The girl who married the moon\"). In this tale, a woman gives birth to a girl, and dies in childbirth. She grows up and lives on Earth, until one day she decides to have the Moon as her husband. She climbs a rainbow and ascends to the Heavens. She meets the Moon and asks him to be her husband. The Moon agrees and goes down to Earth to live with her, and they have a son: a [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\"). Unaware of what to do with such a fruit, the couple try to sell it to a group of seven sisters that lived on a mountain. The elder six sister refuse to buy the fruit, save for the youngest, who purchases it and places it on a table. After she goes for bathing and returns, she notices there are signs in her house that someone has been there. The same thing happens the next day, so she decides to investigate: she lies in hiding and sees a handsome youth in the house, and notices that the coconut has vanished. She goes out of hiding and asks the man about the fruit, and the man says he is the coconut. She cooks food for him, and they eat together. The man then states the girl is his wife, and that his name is \"Mangkaloekoe\" (meaning 'coconut'). Later, the girl's elder sisters pay them a visit and, on seeing the handsome brother\\-in\\-law, decide to kill their cadette. After a while, Mangkaloekoe is ready to go on a trip, and warns his wife not to leave their house, since her sisters will try to kill her. After he leaves, and despite the warnings, the girl goes to play with her sisters by the water, and the others try to drown her in a deeper part of the river, then go back home. The girl stays underwater for seven months, until Mangkaloekoe's ships with slaves are sailing nearby. The girl asks the ships, in the form of verses, if her husband is nearby, and the slaves answer that he is coming behind them. After seven ships pass her by, she sings again, and her husband, listening to the verses, recognizes his wife's voice, and rescues her from the water. They dock the ship, return home, found a village and have many descendants.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kruyt \\|first\\=Albertus Christiaan \\|date\\=1938 \\|title\\=De West\\-Toradjas op Midden\\-Celebes \\|volume\\=II \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|publisher\\=N.V. Noord\\-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij \\|pages\\=396–397 \\|language\\=NL \\|url\\=https://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file\\=digital/20379131\\-De\\-west%20toradjas%20of%20midden\\-colebes%20deel%20II,%201938\\.pdf%20selesai.pdf}}", "#### The Story of the Coconut Shell", "In a tale in the [Tobelo language](/wiki/Tobelo_language \"Tobelo language\") with the title *Ngàdje\\-ngàdje mòi ài ròmănga o kabėlànga* (Dutch: *Een vertelling (van iemand) geheeten \"[Klapperdop](/wiki/wikt:Klapperdop \"Klapperdop\")\"*; English: \"The Story (about one) called Coconut Shell\"), a woman drinks water from a hollow coconut shell and gives birth to a coconut shell. Years laters, the coconut son asks his mother to woo one of the daughters of the King of the East as his bride. The woman does as asked and meets the eldest princess. One by one, they reject him as a potential suitor, and the woman reports back each time. Finally, the youngest princess agrees to marry him, and sends him a token of affection, then moves out to the old woman's house. For this the youngest princess is mocked by her elder sisters. Some time later, the princess and the coconut shell go to the fields, him as a human being, his upper half like the Sun (of a gold colour) and the lower half like the moon (of a silver colour), then return home. The elder princesses pay her cadette a visit and invite her for a bath. When the group goes near the water, they shove the youngest princess in the water and a crocodile swallows her. Coconut Shell, still human, asks his sisters\\-in\\-law if they saw his wife, and they answer she was devoured by the crocodile. Coconut Shell dives to rescue his wife from the crocodile's maw, asking the reptile to return her to him, and takes her home. Next, the elder sisters invite her to pick palm fronds, and shove her into a serpent's lair. Again, Coconut Shell goes to talk with the serpent to release his wife. Lastly, he tells her he will sail around for a year and gives her a *pinang* (Areca nut) and a hen's egg, to be kept in her sarong. After he departs, the elder sisters invite the princess to play on a swing near the beach. As she plays in the swing, the princess is pushed with such force she flies off the swing and falls into the sea. The elder sisters return home, believing their plan worked. Back to the princess, the pinang sprouts into a tree and a rooster comes out of the egg and begins to crow. After a year, Coconut Shell is coming back with a fleet of seven ships, himself on the seventh. The rooster flies off to the top of the village and begins to crow after the seventh ship passes him by to alert Coconut Shell. He hears the crowing and asks where it is coming from; the rooster crows again and points to the princess, stranded on the tree. Coconut Shell rescues his wife and hides her in a box, then makes his way home. After he reaches home, his sisters\\-in\\-law approach him quite solicitous, asking is they can prepare plum for him and rub coconut oil on his body. Coconut Shell asks them to gather around, takes out a needle, and blinds them in their eyes. At the end of the tale, he takes out his true wife, the princess, from the box, and they live together.{{cite journal \\|last\\=HUETING \\|first\\=A. \\|title\\=O Tobèlohòka Mànga Totoade. VERHALEN EN VERTELLINGEN IN DE TO BELOREESCHE TAAL. MET VERTALINGEN. Bewerkt En van Aanteekeningen Voorzien \\|journal\\=Bijdragen tot de Taal\\-, Land\\- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch\\-Indië \\|volume\\=61 \\|issue\\=1/2 \\|date\\=1908 \\|pages\\=263\\-266 (Tobelo text), 266\\-270 (Dutch translation for tale nr. 88\\) \\|jstor\\=20769537}} Accessed 28 July 2023\\.", "#### The Gourd", "In an Indonesian tale from [Menado](/wiki/Menado \"Menado\"), [North Sulawesi](/wiki/North_Sulawesi \"North Sulawesi\"), translated as *Kürbis* (\"The Gourd\"), a poor couple have a son they call \"Kapitu\", since he looks like a gourd. The parents look after the boy, who also helps them in daily chores. Years later, Kapitu grows up and becomes a skilled and peerless flute player. One day, Kapitu tells his mother he wants to marry, but his mother is worried about it. Kapitu insists so much she relents and promises to fulfill his request: to marry one of the seven daughters of the local ruler. The woman is astonished at this information, and Kapitu threatens to kill himself by jumping into a river full of crocodiles. With heavy concern, she goes to the king to court one of the princesses for her son. The king hears the woman's plea, and summons the queen, who sends for her seven daughters: the six elders (Roun, Ili, Purut, Imes, Tombene and Kaes) all refuse to marry Kapitu \\- which his mother expected would happen. However, the seventh princess, Ingkan, accepts Kapitu's proposal even before the woman has a chance to finish the question. Kapitu's mother is touched by the princess's good heart, but worries about affording their marriage ceremony. Meanwhile, Kapitu himself simply plays on his flute as a sign of his great happiness. The next day, the king goes for a walk around the village (*kampong*) and finds a finely sturdied house near a pond, of mysterious provenance. Seven days later, their wedding happens: the guests are astonished by the food, and Kapitu himself, instead of a lame\\-looking person, appears as a divine\\-looking hero to meet his bride, to everyone's surprise. The man guides the guests to his marital home, the same one located near the edge of the *kampong*, and they marvel at its beauty. The elder princesses, however, notice the happiness and beauty of the marrying couple, curse their previous decisions, and begin to plot a way to ruin Ingkan's fortune. One day, when Kapitu is not home, the princesses invite Ingkan for some playing on a swing. The girl agrees and joins them by the swing near the lake shore. Each of the princesses play on the swing, but, when it is Ingkan's turn, they shove her so hard she flies off the swing to the other side of the lake. Kapitu goes home and, not finding Ingkan, takes a boat and decides to look for her. As his boat sails near an island, he sights his wife sitting on a stone and goes to meet her. They embrace. Despite his sisters\\-in\\-law's betrayal, Kapitu's love wins over his hatred, and he goes back home with Ingkan. At the end of the tale, he becomes leader of the village.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kratz \\|first\\=Ernst Ulrich \\|date\\=1973 \\|title\\=Indonesische Märchen \\|trans\\-title\\=Indonesian Fairy Tales \\|location\\=Köln \\|publisher\\=Eugen Diederichs Verlag \\|pages\\=217–220 (Tale nr. 45\\); 283, 286 (source) \\|language\\=DE}} The tale was also translated to Russian with the title \"Капиту\" (\"Kapitu\"), and sourced from the [Minahasan](/wiki/Minahasan_people \"Minahasan people\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Волшебный жезл: Сказки народов Индонезии и Малайзии \\|trans\\-title\\=Tales from the Peoples of Indonesia and Malaysia \\|editor\\=В. Брагинский \\|location\\=Мoskva \\|publisher\\=Художественная литература \\|date\\=1972 \\|pages\\=91\\-94 \\|lang\\=RU}}", "#### Three Daughters of a Monarch", "In a [Rotinese](/wiki/Rotinese_language \"Rotinese language\") tale translated into Dutch with the title *Er wordt verhaald van drie dochters van den vorst* (\"It is said about three daughters of a monarch\"), a crow (*kraai*, in the Dutch translation) sends his servants to propose to three princesses: the elder two refuse. The story then explains that the elder princesses take a bath downstream in a river, after the crow flaps its wings to clean the dirty on it, which they complain about. The crow returns the other day, this time as a man clad in gold, and places a stick on the ground and hangs his bag on it. The man then asks for each of the princesses to fetch the bag: the elder two fail, but the youngest accomplishes the task, and marries the now human crow. Later, the elder princesses invite their cadette to join them in some activities: first, to gather firewood in the forest; next, to come fetch water. On each occasion, the princesses kill their youngest sister, then return home and find her safe and sound. After these two events, the human crow tells his wife he is going to [Koepang](/wiki/Koepang \"Koepang\"), but gives her a hen egg to be held in her clothes, and to have it with her the next time her sisters invite her to go fish in the sea. After he departs, the princess's elder sisters take her to fish in the sea, then shove her in the water. In the sea, the girl grabs a rock and notices the egg she had with her hatched a rooster that begins to crow to alert its master. The human crow hears the crowing and goes to fetch his wife in the sea. He places needles in her hands and hides her inside a box, then sails back home. When he docks, he finds his sisters\\-in\\-law there and they lie that their sister is dead. In response, the human crow tells them he brought a box with purchases from Koepang, and the greedy sisters\\-in\\-law go to open it. As soon as they lift the lid, the girl springs out of the box then sticks the needles in her sisters' eyes to blind them. The elder sisters then die. The now human crow goes to live with his wife.{{cite book \\|title\\=Rottineesche teksten: met vertaling \\|first\\=Johann Christoph Gerhard \\|last\\=Jonker \\|publisher\\=E.J. Brill \\|date\\=1911 \\|pages\\=22–23 (Tale nr. 15a) \\|language\\=NL}}", "#### A Titibholo", "In a tale from a [Muna](/wiki/Muna_language \"Muna language\") source from Mabodu ({{ill\\|Katobu\\|id\\|Katobu, Muna}}) with the title *A Titibholo*, translated as *Titibholo*, orphaned Titibholo lives with his grandmother. He earns his living by sailing to Java and returns home after earning lots of money. One day, he asks his grandmother to find a wife for him, and he sets his sights on one of the seven daughters of the village chief, preferably the eldest. The grandmother goes to the village chief's house with a bag of money to propose on his grandson's behalf: the elder daughter refuses; the king asks every other daughter, who also refuse, save for the youngest, named Wa Ndaipitu. Wa Ndaipitu accepts Titibholo's proposal and the youth's grandmother goes back to inform him. Since his future bride is not grown up yet, he says he will go away to earn money, then return to her. Titibholo goes on a journey for six months, then returns with gifts for his intended: jewels and garments, to her elder sisters' jealousy. He sails away again and again brings gifts for her, garments, pitchers and plates, earning her even more jealousy from her sisters. After three journeys, Titibholo marries Wa Ndaipitu and they move out to his mother's house, where they live until their own home is built. Time passes, and Titibholo has to go on another journey. Before he departs, he warns his wife not to leave their home and to refuse her sisters' invitation to go swinging by the *dhangki* mango tree. After he leaves, her six sisters come to invite her to go swinging, but she refuses it at first. At another time, one sister appears alone and manages to invite her. Wa Ndaipitu accepts their invitation and accompanies them to the swing by the dhangki mango. Her sisters push the swing so hard and, after the third time, Wa Ndaipitu flies over to a tree on a cliff. She climbs the trees until she reaches a mountain, and lives there for some time. After some 40 days, Wa Ndaipitu sights some ships passing by the sea, and asks each of them if her husband Titibholo is with them. From the ship, they answer that Titibholo is coming just behind them. Wa Ndaipitu waves to her husband's ship, he recognizes his wife and rescues her from the mountain, hides her in a box, then makes his way home. He docks his ship, unloads his goods, and enters his house, where his sisters\\-in\\-law are waiting for him. Suddenly, a cock crows, alerting Titibholo about Wa Ndaipitu's sisters throwing her in the Sampuru sea. The elder sisters try to deceive Titibholo, but the cock crows twice more about their deed. He leaves to look for a place to drink [palm wine](/wiki/Palm_wine \"Palm wine\"), then returns home later at night. He then opens the box so Wa Ndaipitu can leave and they cook and eat something. Her sisters discover their cadette is alive, and everyone flees through the windows.{{Cite book \\|title\\=A Grammar of the Muna Language \\|first\\=René \\|last\\=van den Berg \\|publisher\\=Foris Publications \\|date\\=1989 \\|pages\\=356\\-362 (Muna text for tale nr. 5\\), 362\\-363 (English translation)}}", "#### Other tales", "In an untitled tale collected in the [Ternate language](/wiki/Ternate_language \"Ternate language\"), an old woman lives with a goat. One day, the goat asks his human mother to go and court one of the local king's daughters on his behalf. The king agrees to a prospective marriage, but asks the goat on some tasks: first, he is to build a golden house, then, to build a golden bridge. After fulfilling the king's tasks, the king summons his ministers and councilman to ask his daughter which will accept the goat's proposal: the elders decline it, save for the youngest, who assures the goat is no animal. The king then asks for a dowry of thirty thousand coins. The goat opens its mouth and produces the requested dowry. The youngest princess marries the goat and ties him to their house. Some time later, his sisters\\-in\\-law invite him for a feast with some ball playing activity. The goat simply bleats as his answer. However, a prince on a golden horse appears at the feast and expertly plays a ball game with the guests. Back home, the princess gives her husband a plate with [jackfruit](/wiki/Jackfruit \"Jackfruit\"). The next day, the same mysterious prince appears at the festivities again, makes merry with the guests, then vanishes. One day, however, the princess goes to bring food for her husband, and finds only a goatskin hanging on the wall. She takes it and throws it in the fire. When her husband returns home, for the prince is the goat, he says his belongings have been destroyed, and he is now poor and will not leave the house for anything. After seven days, the princess hears a gong and goes to divine how her husband was a person in goat form. Later, the now human goat says he wants to travel for a while, and gives his wife a *pinang* and an egg, telling her to have them in her sarong at all times. After he departs, the elder princesses commission a swing to be made near the water and invite their cadette to come swinging with them. As she is swinging, her sisters cut off the rope and the princess falls into the ocean. Suddenly, the pinang sprouts into a pinang tree and a rooster hatches out of the egg. Atop the tree, the rooster crows to the some passing ships about the \"prince of goats\" (the princess's husband). The first sailors say he is coming after them by water, the second batch that he is already on land, and the third and last that he is there. The goat prince then plucks some ma noere flowers, wraps them in a white clothe, places the arrangement on a basin, then inside a box. He them docks his ship and is asked by the people to disembark, but he refuses since his wife has now been given to another man. The tale ends.{{cite journal \\|last\\=RIEDEL \\|first\\=L. G. F. \\|title\\=De Namo Leo en andere Tahinatesche Vertellingen \\|journal\\=Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië \\|series\\=3 \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=437–439 \\|date\\=1871 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VpYKAAAAYAAJ\\&dq\\=%22de\\+namo\\+leo\\+en\\+andere%22\\&pg\\=PA431 \\|language\\=NL}}", "### Southeast Asia", "#### Jarai language", "French linguist {{ill\\|Jacques Dournes\\|vi\\|Jacques Dournes}} collected a [Jarai language](/wiki/Jarai_language \"Jarai language\") tale titled *akhan jaˀ pum* (French: *Conte de Mère Brousse*; English: \"Tale of Mother Bush\"): Mother Bush scavenges the forest for yams; a python on a tree branch utters a spell for rain so Mother Bush can take a shelter with him. It happens thus. Mother Bush returns home and asks her granddaughters which will go with the python: the elder, H'Bia, refuses, but the younger, H'Luiˀ, agrees, and marries the python. The couple go for a bath in the river, and the python takes off the snakeskin to become a youth. After a swimming accident with H'Luiˀ, the python, in human form, resurrects her and brings her back home. H'Luiˀ's eldest sisters, H'Kruah and H'Bia, see their brother\\-in\\-law's beauty and H'Bia asks him for a similar python to be brought as her spouse. Her wish is granted, but the second python is a real animal that swallows her, then escapes. The human python goes after the animal and finds it. He fools the animal by saying he will look for lice, cuts off its belly and releases his sister\\-in\\-law.{{efn\\|name\\=fn1\\|This sequence (heroine's sister tries to imitate heroine's successful marriage to snake, with disastrous results) is classified as its own tale type in the Aarne\\-Thompson Index: AaTh 433C, \"The Serpent Husband and The Jealous Girl\".Aarne, Antti; Thompson, Stith. ''The types of the folktale: a classification and bibliography''. Folklore Fellows Communications FFC no. 184\\. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1961\\. p. 148\\. However, in his own revision of the folk type index, published in 2004, German folklorist \\[\\[Hans\\-Jörg Uther]] subsumed type 433C under a new type: ATU 433B, \"\\[\\[King Lindworm]]\".{{cite book \\|last1\\=Uther \\|first1\\=Hans\\-Jörg \\|title\\=The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography, Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Academia Scientiarum Fennica \\|isbn\\=978\\-951\\-41\\-0963\\-8 \\|pages\\=259–261 }}}} Later, the human python tells his wife he will travel along the country of the Yuan people, and warns her not to leave the house for any reason. After he leaves, H'Bia invites her cadette to go swinging near the river. The girl agrees to go, despite her husband's warnings, and is shoved into the water, where a crocodile swallows her. Inside the crocodile's belly, she gives birth to a son. The crocodile reaches a beach, H'Luiˀ's son cuts open the crocodile and he and his mother make landfall. The son then summons a house for them and a rooster, whose crowing summons an orange tree and alerts the boy's father. The human python sails to the beach and recognizes his wife.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Dournes \\|first\\=Jacques \\|date\\=1977 \\|url\\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\\=fr \\|title\\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \\|journal\\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=134 (title), 108–109 (French translation) \\|language\\=FR}}", "Jacques Dournes collected another Jarai language tale titled *akhan jaˀ dɔn\\-duŋ haŋ hluiˀ tom rit* (French: *Conte de Mère\\-grand et H’Luiˀ avec Rit*; English: \"Tale of Grandmother and H’Luiˀ with Rit\"){{cite journal \\|last\\=Dournes \\|first\\=Jacques \\|date\\=1977 \\|url\\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\\=fr \\|title\\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \\|journal\\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=134 (title), 109–110 (French translation) \\|language\\=FR}} which he translated into French and published with the title *L’Aînée* (\"The Elder Sister\"). In this tale, an old woman lives with her younger granddaughter Louite. One day, she leaves home to find food for them, since the land is ravaged by a great drought. She utters an invocation to summon rain and it pours down from the skies. She ventures into the deep forest until she reaches a lush garden full of sugarcane and banana trees, and says she would give Louite in marriage to the person that owns the garden. A python\\-lové interrupts her thoughts and says he owns the garden. The woman relents and repeats her words to the python, which agrees to a marriage with the girl. The python worries about being a reptile, but says he will accompany the woman to her village and wait by the forest. The woman goes back home with sugarcanes and bananas, and tells her granddaughter about the marriage promise to the serpent. Louite agrees to marry the python, and goes to meet him at the edge of the village. Louite and python\\-lové move out to a distant house with the previous garden and herds of chickens, swine, horses and buffalos. They spend time together, until Python\\-lové says he will visit his mother. He leaves his wife in their garden for 10 days, then takes off the snakeskin and returns as a human on a horse. Meanwhile, Louite has not eaten nor drunk anything while her husband is absent, and sees the newcomer. The youth introduces himself as python\\-lové, but Louite does not believe it at first, until he enumerates their herds of cattle, and shows her the discarded snakeskin. Three months later, Python\\-lové says he will go on a voyage to the country of the [Cham](/wiki/Cham_people \"Cham people\"), and asks his wife to stay home until his return. After he departs, L'Aînée (\"Elder Sister\") decides to visit Louite to kill her, so she could be Python\\-lové's wife. Elder Sister tries to convince a pregnant Louite to come see the pigs, the buffalos \\- which she declines \\-, and to play on a swing \\- which she accepts. Louite goes with Elder Sister to play on the swing just overlooking a deep river, and fetches a chicken egg on the way. Elder Sister plays on the swing, then Louite does, and the former cuts off the rope, which throws Louite into the river. Elder Sister utters a curse to summon a crocodile that devours Louite, then makes her way to Python\\-lové's home. Back to Louite, the egg hatches a rooster named Clarté (\"Clarity\"). The rooster beaks the crocodile's belly, and eventually the bird and the girl escape the reptile's stomach and make landfall on a Cham beach. The Cham people find them and build them a house, so they can listen to the rooster's crow. Back to Python\\-lové, he feels his ring press into his finger and suspects something happened to Louite. He arrives home and finds his sister\\-in\\-law, Elder Sister, then goes to his mother\\-in\\-law's house, but none have seen Louite. Python\\-lové wanders off until he reaches the beach where Louite is living with the rooster, and meets her. They relate each other their stories, recognizing each other, then go back home to kill Elder Sister.{{cite book \\|last\\=Dournes \\|first\\=Jacques \\|date\\=1977 \\|title\\=Akhan: Contes oraux de la forêt indochinoise \\|location\\=Paris \\|publisher\\=Payot \\|pages\\=216–222 \\|language\\=FR}}", "#### Sre language", "In a [Vietnamese](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\") tale from the [Koho people](/wiki/Koho_people \"Koho people\") (Sre), translated into Russian as \"Властитель вод\" (\"The Lord of Waters\"), a man has two daughters, Nga and Nzi. One day, the man finds a snake in the forest, which demands one of the man's daughters in marriage. The man offer Nga, but the snake rejects it. The man then offers Nzi, and the animal accepts it. The man returns home and tells Nzi of the incident, and the girl decides to offer herself to the snake to protect the village. Nzi goes to the shore to wait for the snake, secretly followed by her sister Nga. Nga sees the snake and runs back home. The snake turns into a young man, Trachanlan, the lord of the waters, and spends the night with his bride. The next day, Nzi wakes up first, sees her husband's snakeskin, and buries it in the sand. Trachanlan wakes up next and ask Nzi about the snakeskin, but the girl feigns ignorance. Later, he asks the animals about it, and discovers Nzi hid out of fear he may devour her. He promises he will not do such a thing. One day, Nzi and Trachanlan visit her father, Zobuo; Nga notices her brother\\-in\\-law's beauty, and intends to get rid of her sister. Trachanlan asks his father\\-in\\-law to not allow Nzi out of the house, for he is going on a journey to the country of the tyams. While he is away. Nga convinces her sister to go for a walk on the beach, despite Zobuo's orders against it. Nzi takes an orange and an egg with her, and is murdered by Nga, who goes home to pass herself off as Trachanlan's wife. The Sun, a relative of Trachanlan, witnesses the murders and orders two fishes to come fetch Nzi's body. Nzi revives and, after four days, goes back to the shore with a son in tow (since she was pregnant), and plants the orange in the ground. A large orange tree sprouts. The egg she carried with her hatched and produced a rooster. Later, Trachanlan oars around and comes to buy some oranges from a boy (not knowing the boy is his son). They recognize each other and sail together back home \\- after Trachanlan, in serpent form, fought a sea deity \\- and rejoin with their family. The boy hits Nga on the head with a plate, but Trachanlan asks his son to forgive her, and go to the orange tree to call out for Nzi to come down the tree. The tale continues as Trachanlan goes away on another journey, and Nga tries to kill Nzi in two other occasions. After two more foiled attempts, she decides to find a snake for her to marry, hoping to repeat her sister's success. However, Nga finds a snake that devours her. Trachanlan learns of this and rescues his sister\\-in\\-law, despite her previous behaviour. Nga comes out of the snake's stomach alive, but scarred all over her body. Trachanlan warns her not to go out in the midday sun, but Nga does and turns into a lizard.\"Сказки народов Вьетнама\" \\[Fairy Tales from Vietnamese Peoples]. Составитель: Н. Никулин. Moskva: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1970\\. pp. 263\\-273\\.{{efn\\|name\\=fn1}}", "Linguist Jacques Dournes collected a tale in the [Sre language](/wiki/Sre_language \"Sre language\") with the title *jaljaw trah traŋ lan* (French: *Conte de Trah Trang Lan*, English: \"Tale of Trah Trang Lan\"). In this tale, a human hunter is preparing snares for prey, when a large snake named Trah Trang Lan blocks his away and demands one of his daughters in marriage. The hunter, however, offers one of his three sisters: Ngi, Nga, and Nai Töluiˀ, the latter already married to a Cham man. The snake asks for Nai Töluiˀ, lest he devours the hunter's entire village. The hunter goes home and relates the situation to his sisters. Nai Töluiˀ offers to go with the snake to protect the village, and marries him. To her relief, the snake becomes a human man. After some time, Nai Töluiˀ invites her husband, Trah Trang Lan, to visit her family. Later, Trah Trang Lan says he will journey to the Cham country, and asks his brother\\-in\\-law, the hunter, to not let Nai Töluiˀ out of the house on any reason. After he departs, Nga, the middle sister, envying her cadette's good fortune, invites her for a walk near the beach and cuts her throat. A crocodile appears and swallows Nai Töluiˀ whole. Inside the crocodile, Nai Töluiˀ gives birth to a son, who takes a knife his mother had with her and cuts open the reptile, then makes landfall with his mother to a beach. Once there, he plants an orange his mother had with her on the ground and a large tree sprouts, carrying his mother up to the heavens, and an egg Nai Töluiˀ also had with her hatches, releasing a rooster. On the road back from Cham country, Trah Trang Lan meets his son en route and recognizes him with the help of the Sun, a relative of his. After fighting a serpent lord of waters, Trah Trang Lan returns home with his son, but his sister\\-in\\-law Nga tries to pass herself off as Nai Töluiˀ, who finally descends from the heavens back to her husband. Defeated, Nga leaves them be and procures a serpent spouse for herself. She finds a baby snake in the forest and brings it with her. The snake grows large in time and eventually swallows Nga whole, then slithers off. Trah Trang Lan is asked by his wife to rescue Nga, and searches for the serpent in the bottom of a river. Trah Trang Lan dons the snakeskin once again to meet the animal underwater and tricks him with a large bridle, which is pulled by heavy elephants. The second snake is dragged back to land and Trah Trang Lan cuts open its belly to release Nga. Despite saving her, he still warns her not to stay in the sun. Nga disobeys his orders and stays under the sun rays, becoming a [termite mound](/wiki/Termite_mound \"Termite mound\").{{efn\\|name\\=fn1}}{{cite journal \\|last\\=Dournes \\|first\\=Jacques \\|date\\=1977 \\|url\\=https://journals.openedition.org/clo/631?lang\\=fr \\|title\\=Un Amour de serpent: Analyse de contes à travers quatre ethnies indochinoises \\|journal\\=Cahiers de Littérature orale \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=135 (title), 113–114 (French translation) \\|language\\=FR}}", "#### Myanmar", "In a [Burmese](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\") tale titled *The Snake Prince*, a widow lives in a cottage by the river with her three daughters, and earns her living by gathering firewood. She also tries to fetch fruits in the woods whenever she can. One day, she tries to find some fallen figs from a [fig tree](/wiki/Fig_tree \"Fig tree\") and, not finding any, insults the tree. Suddenly, a snake appears to her, with figs in its coils. The widow sees the figs and offers one of her daughters in marriage to the snake (whom she calls Lord [Nāga](/wiki/N%C4%81ga \"Nāga\")): Ma U (the eldest), Ma Lat (the middle one) and Ma Htwe (the youngest). The snake releases the figs after it hears the proposition, and the widow seizes the opportunity to fetch the figs in a basket. On the road home, the woman passes by a tree stump, a hillock and a boulder, to which she gives a fig if they lies to the snake that she passes by them. The snake, a Naga, follows the widow to her cottage, and passes by the tree stump, the hillock and the boulder, and creeps into a rice pot. The widow opens up the lid and the snake coils itself around her arm, chastising her for trying to trick it. The widow repeats her offer for the snake to release her arm, and goes to talk to her daughters: the elder two refuse to marry the snake, but Ma Htwe agrees to be with the reptile, gives some milk and rice to ti and takes it in a basket to her room. The next morning, Ma Htwe has a dream that a man came in and embraced her. Her mother says she will check into the matter and, that same night, sees a human youth coming out of the snake's basket and embracing her youngest daughter. She takes the snakeskin and throws it in the fire. The human snake begins to writhe in pain; Ma Htwe wakes up and goes to the kitchen to fetch some cool water and pours it on the youth's skin. After curing his burning, the youth explains he is a Naga Prince, and, without his snakeskin, shall live as a mortal beside her. Ma Htwe and the Naga Prince move out to a cottage and have a son they name Kin Shwe (Prince Golden). The Naga Prince decides to find work with a merchant, and sails away, leaving his family alone to deal with the elder sisters' envy, who plot to get rid of Ma Htwe. They approach her and try to draw her out of her house, but she stays home. One day, they convince her to accompany them for a picnic near a mango tree, for old times' sake, so they could play at a swing. Ma Htwe climbs onto the swing and is shoved by her sisters into the sea, but she and her child are rescued by a large [stork](/wiki/Stork \"Stork\"). Meanwhile, the Naga Prince is coming back from his journey, and listens to his wife's voice, finding her in the stork's nest. He makes a deal with the large bird and rescues his wife. The Naga Prince wants to punish his sisters\\-in\\-law with death, but Ma Htwe decides they must be publicly shamed, so he places his wife in an empty chest. When he disembarks, he asks his sisters\\-in\\-law to carry the heavy chest to the village. They open the chest, and out comes Ma Htwe and her son.{{cite book \\|last\\=Ledgard \\|first\\=Edna \\|title\\=The snake prince and other stories: Burmese folk tales \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Interlink Books]] \\|date\\=2000 \\|pages\\=84–96}} The tale was originally published by Burmese scholar [Maung Htin Aung](/wiki/Maung_Htin_Aung \"Maung Htin Aung\"), and this sequence represents the \"happy ending\" of the story.Aung, Maung Htin. *Burmese Folk\\-Tales*. Oxford University Press. 1948\\. pp. 124\\-128, 130\\-136\\. Likewise, Maung Htin Aung stated that the stork helper is the \"large Burmese stork\", that is, the [adjutant bird](/wiki/Leptoptilos \"Leptoptilos\"), and suggested that the tale's \"happy ending\" was a separate tale at first.Aung, Maung Htin. *Burmese Folk\\-Tales*. Oxford University Press. 1948\\. p. xxii. In addition, according to researchers Gerry Abbott and Khin Thant Han, the tale is \"widely known\" in Burma, with either ending ([the tragic one](/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Hamadryad%23The_Snake_Prince_%28Burma%29 \"The Story of the Hamadryad#The Snake Prince (Burma)\") or the happy one).{{cite book \\|last1\\=Abbott \\|first1\\=Gerry \\|first2\\=Khin Thant \\|last2\\=Han \\|title\\=The Folk\\-Tales of Burma \\|location\\=Leiden, The Netherlands \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|date\\=2000 \\|page\\=129 \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/9789004392052\\_012}}", "In a Burmese tale titled *The Snake\\-Prince and the Three Sisters*, a widow lives with her three daughters in a village by the sea: the elder two named Ma Pu and Ma Tin, and the youngest called Aye Aye ('the gentle one'), the most beautiful and kind of the three. Whenever she goes to the market, she passes by a [mango tree](/wiki/Mango_tree \"Mango tree\") and fetches fruits from the ground. However, one time, she cannot find mangoes on the ground and sighs. Suddenly, she hears a hiss on the tree: a snake is there. The widow offers to marry one of her daughters to the reptile: the snake drops a single mango each time in response to the woman's mention of her elder daughters, but releases several more mangoes when it hears the youngest's name. The widow takes the mangoes in her basket and returns home, but passes by a monkey, a river and a little child, whom she bribes with a mango to lie to the snake if it passes by that same road. As the woman goes home, the snake follows her and passes by the monkey, the river and the child, whom he threatens to devour if they do not guide him to the widow's house. After he reaches her house, he enters through an open window and slithers to the widow's bed. The woman hears a noise and wakes up, only to find the same snake coiling around her legs. The widow then asks her three daughters which one will fulfill her mother's proposal: Ma Pu and Ma Tin refuse, while Aye Aye agrees. The snake releases its grasp on the woman, and joins his bride. Aye Aye marries the snake the next day, feeds him with milk and rice and makes him a basket to sleep in. A week later, the widow asks Aye Aye about her marital life, and the girl says she has dreams about a young prince that comes to her bed and tells stories to her. The widow investigates into the matter and, that same night, spies on a prince coming out of the basket. The widow takes the snakeskin from the basket and burns it, keeping her son\\-in\\-law human forever. As her elder daughters realize their cadette married a prince, they begin to nurture jealousy against her. One day, the snake\\-prince (as Aye Aye's husband starts to be called) says he has to go on a long voyage, and warns Aye Aye not to trust her sisters. After he departs, Ma Pu and Ma Tin try to trick Aye Aye: first, they invite her to stay with them; next, they invite her to go to the market to buy some essentials; lastly, to play a bit near the beach on a boat. Aye Aye falls for their tricks and takes her son to play with them. Ma Pu and Ma Tin abandon Aye Aye and her son on a boat adrift on the sea, but a large [crane](/wiki/Crane_%28bird%29 \"Crane (bird)\") sent by the gods guides the boat with its beak to a desert island, where mother and son feed on roots and fishes brought by the crane. Some time later, Aye Aye sees a coming ship she recognizes as her husband's, and pleads for the crane to guide the snake prince to the island. It happens thus, and the snake prince rescues his wife and son, and, after learning of his sisters\\-in\\-law's ploy, decides to punish them. The snake\\-prince goes back home and is greeted by Ma Pu and Ma Tin, who lie that Aye Aye went missing in the sea. In response, the snake\\-prince says he brought his blood sister with him, and takes a veiled girl from the boat. The girl lifts her veil and shows Ma Pu and Ma Tin her true face: Aye Aye, safe and sound, despite their murder attempt. The village banishes the jealous sisters, and Aye Aye lives in peace with her husband and their son.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Favourite Stories from Burma \\|first\\=Marguerite \\|last\\=Siek \\|publisher\\=Heinemann Asia \\|date\\=1975 \\|pages\\=51–59 \\|url\\=https://www.google.com.br/search?tbm\\=bks\\&hl\\=pt\\-BR\\&q\\=%22the\\+snake\\-prince\\+an\\+the\\+three\\+sisters%22}}", "In an untitled Burmese tale translated by Reginald Burton Dennis and published in the *[Journal of the Burma Research Society](/wiki/Journal_of_the_Burma_Research_Society \"Journal of the Burma Research Society\")*, a king has two sons. When the monarch dies, the younger son turns the elder into a [King Cobra](/wiki/King_Cobra \"King Cobra\"), making him alternate between human and serpentine shapes every sunrise and sunset, and usurps the throne. The King Cobra wanders through the land and creeps into an earthenware jar that a widow uses to store rice. One day, the woman goes to fetch some rice, and the King Cobra coils around her arm. In order to release the cobra's grip, she promises to marry one of her three daughters: the cobra coils even harder when it hears the elder daughters' names, but uncoils when it hears the youngest's. The widow calls for her daughters, and her youngest complies with her decision, marrying the cobra. Some days later, the youngest daughter tells her mother the king cobra husband becomes a man at night and goes back to being a snake by daylight, so the widow suggests a course of action. That same night, the girl feigns illness, takes a brazier and lights a fire to burn her husband's snakeskin. While her husband goes to fetch her some water, the she throws the snakeskin in the fire. The next morning, the man tries to find his snakeskin, and his wife says she destroyed it. The man explains that now he is human, he must return and fight for his throne. One day, he leaves his wife in her mother's care, since she is pregnant, and departs. The girl's elder sisters, realizing their cadette married a prince and is set to become a queen, decide to get rid of her: they invite her to play on a swing by the river bank. The girl declines at first, but eventually agrees. While she is on the swing, the elder sisters shove her so hard she is flung off to a bush near the shore, and leave her for dead. Fortunately for her, a huge [pelican](/wiki/Pelican \"Pelican\") finds her and brings her to its nest atop a silk\\-cotton tree (which Reginald Burton Dennis stated is the tree species *[Bombax malabaricum](/wiki/Bombax_malabaricum \"Bombax malabaricum\")*),Dennis, Reginald Burton (R.B.D.). \"Twenty Burmese songs: translation and notes\". In: *Journal of the Burma Research Society* 33 (1950\\): 191 (note nr. 4\\). where she is cared for and gives birth to her son. The girl (at this point, her name is given: Me Dwe) rocks her son with a song, calling him the \"Snake King's son\" and referring to his father as \"Great Royal Serpent\". The pelican is irritated and threatens to beak them, so Me Dwe alters the song to call her baby the pelican's son. After the prince deposes his brother and crowns himself king, he returns home to his wife, but cannot find her there. He wanders off until he reaches the river bank, when he hears his wife's voice singing a song to their son atop the tree. He waits until the pelican has flown away, then rescues his wife and son and brings them to his kingdom.Dennis, Reginald Burton (R.B.D.). \"Twenty Burmese songs: translation and notes\". In: *Journal of the Burma Research Society* 33 (1950\\): 187\\-189 (translation).", "#### Moken people", "Austrian anthropologist [Hugo Bernatzik](/wiki/Hugo_Bernatzik \"Hugo Bernatzik\") collected a tale from the [Moken](/wiki/Moken \"Moken\") people with the title *The frog and the maiden*, which he considered to have \"Malay influence\". In this tale, three sisters live together and the youngest has a frog as a lover. After the frog leaves on a boat, the sisters quarrel and the eldest tosses the youngest into the ocean. The girl swims for her life, but her strength gives out. Fortunately for her, a tree emerges from the water and she climbs it. Atop the tree, the girl, who is pregnant, prays for her lover to come, and two days later the frog appears on a boat to rescue her from the tree. The frog hides her in a basket, then sails home to his sisters\\-in\\-law, asking them about his lover. The elder sisters try to deceive him, and go on the boat. They bump into the basket, and the girl inside \"made water\". Seeing the liquid, the frog tells the sisters\\-in\\-law it is oil, and the girls smear the liquid on their skin. Suddenly, their youngest sister springs out of the basket, to the elders' horror, who die on the spot. The frog becomes a human male and lives with his wife.{{cite book \\|last\\=Bernatzik \\|first\\=Hugo \\|title\\=The Spirits of the Yellow Leaves \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=R. Hale \\|date\\=1956 \\|orig\\-year\\=1938 \\|page\\=45}}", "" ]
Political career ---------------- Ramotar joined the PPP in 1967 and was first elected to the PPP Central Committee in 1979; he joined the PPP Executive Committee in 1983\. He received a certificate from the Government Technical Institute (GTI) in welding. From 1988 to 1993, he was International Secretary of the [Guyana Agricultural Workers' Union](/wiki/Guyana_Agricultural_Workers%27_Union "Guyana Agricultural Workers' Union"). In the [1992 election](/wiki/1992_Guyanese_general_election "1992 Guyanese general election"), in which the PPP under [Cheddi Jagan](/wiki/Cheddi_Jagan "Cheddi Jagan") won power for first time in decades, Ramotar was elected to the [National Assembly of Guyana](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28Guyana%29 "National Assembly (Guyana)"); he was continuously re\-elected thereafter. He was designated as the PPP's Executive Secretary in 1993\.{{cite web \| first\=Kwesi \| last\=Isles \| url\=http://www.demerarawaves.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2896:pppcs\-ramotar\-declared\-guyanas\-president\&catid\=1 \| title\=PPP/C's Ramotar declared Guyana's new president \| work\=Demerara Waves \| date\=1 December 2011 \| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203180654/http://www.demerarawaves.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2896%3Apppcs\-ramotar\-declared\-guyanas\-president\&catid\=1 \|archivedate\=3 December 2011 }} Following Jagan's death in March 1997, Ramotar was unanimously elected to succeed him as the PPP's General Secretary on March 29, 1997\.["History of PPP"](http://www.ppp-civic.org/history/historyppp.htm), PPP website. At the PPP's 29th Congress, he was re\-elected to its Central Committee on August 2, 2008, receiving the fourth\-highest number of votes (637\).[Press release on Central Committee election](http://www.ppp-civic.org/releases/The%20People%20Progressive%20Party%20PPP%20at%20its%2029%20th%20Congress.html), August 3, 2008\.["Donald Ramotar re\-elected General Secretary of PPP"](http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/news/news/84-news/412-donald-ramotar-re-elected-general-secretary-of-ppp.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820230348/http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/news/news/84\-news/412\-donald\-ramotar\-re\-elected\-general\-secretary\-of\-ppp.html \|date\=August 20, 2008 }}, *Guyana Times*, August 13, 2008\. Following the Congress, he was re\-elected by the Central Committee as General Secretary on August 12, 2008, without opposition;["PPP General Secretary, Executive Committee elected"](http://www.ppp-civic.org/releases/PPP%20GENERAL%20SECRETARY%20EXECUTIVE%20COMMITTEE%20ELECTED.html), PPP press statement, August 12, 2008\. he was also elected to the editorial board of the PPP paper *Thunder* on this occasion. On 4 April 2011, the PPP Central Committee chose Ramotar as the party's presidential candidate for the [November 2011 election](/wiki/2011_Guyanese_general_election "2011 Guyanese general election"). On April 4, the Central Committee of the ruling People’s Progressive Party announced a unanimous selection{{Cite web\|title\=DONALD RAMOTAR\|url\=https://guyanachronicle.com/2011/04/05/donald\-ramotar/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-17\|website\=Guyana Chronicle\|language\=en\-US}} of Ramotar, the PPP front\-runner. There was considerable debate over the selection, as it was made by open vote and not a secret ballot, and [Ralph Ramkarran](/wiki/Ralph_Ramkarran "Ralph Ramkarran"), one of the other contenders, posted an ad in the Stabroek Times in opposition to the open vote.{{Cite web\|date\=2011\-02\-06\|title\=Process to select PPP presidential candidate to start this week\|url\=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2011/02/06/news/guyana/process\-to\-select\-ppp\-presidential\-candidate\-to\-start\-this\-week/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-17\|website\=Stabroek News\|language\=en\-US}} The government announced on 28 April 2011 that Ramotar had been appointed to the post of Political Adviser to President [Bharrat Jagdeo](/wiki/Bharrat_Jagdeo "Bharrat Jagdeo"); previously Ramotar had held no official position in the administration. The opposition criticized the appointment; it argued that the government was merely reacting to criticism that it effectively sponsored Ramotar's candidacy by including him on official trips, and therefore, was giving him an official job in order to legitimize the situation. The government argued that Ramotar's inclusion on official trips was acceptable because the government was implementing the policies of the ruling party, led by Ramotar.["Ramotar's presidential advisor appointment is back\-door campaign financing \- opposition"](http://demerarawaves.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1618:dr-doobay-not-being-treated-as-a-suspect-in-wifes-murder-lawyer&catid=14&Itemid=122), *Demerara Waves*, 28 April 2011\. The election was held on 28 November 2011, and he was declared the winner when results were announced on 1 December. However, the PPP fell one seat short of a parliamentary majority, winning 32 out of 65 seats, meaning that Ramotar would serve as President while two opposition parties would together hold a majority of seats in the National Assembly.{{cite web \| first\=Denis \| last\=Chabrol \| url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225092803/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gBrx0ANfJdmz17g4TfNwTzuXmkKw?docId\=CNG.6b9bdfd8a7780dfe67a072dc90f22150\.d1 \| title\=Ethnic Indian candidate wins presidency in Guyana \| agency\=\[\[Agence France\-Presse]] \| date\=1 December 2011}} Ramotar expressed disappointment with his party's failure to win a majority, but he said that "the electorate has spoken and we have to work with what we have". He was sworn in as President on 3 December 2011\.["Ramotar sworn in as seventh Executive President"](http://www.stabroeknews.com/2011/news/stories/12/03/ramotar-sworn-in-as-seventh-executive-president/), *[Stabroek News](/wiki/Stabroek_News "Stabroek News")*, 3 December 2011\. During his first two years as President, Ramotar remained in his post as General Secretary of the PPP, but eventually he stepped aside from the party leadership, citing the heavy workload. The PPP Central Committee elected [Clement Rohee](/wiki/Clement_Rohee "Clement Rohee") to succeed Ramotar as General Secretary on 19 August 2013; Ramotar nominated Rohee for the post.["Clement Rohee elected as new General Secretary of PPP"](http://www.inewsguyana.com/breaking-news-clement-rohee-elected-as-new-general-secretary-of-ppp/), INEWS Guyana, 19 August 2013\. Ramotar said that [Bashar al\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad")'s win in the [2014 Syrian presidential election](/wiki/2014_Syrian_presidential_election "2014 Syrian presidential election") was a great victory for Syria.{{cite web\|url\=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372\.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=21 June 2014\|title\=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء \- Syrian Arab News Agency\|access\-date\=20 April 2015}} Donald Ramotar and the PPP lost the [11 May 2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Guyanese_general_election "2015 Guyanese general election") to the opposition [APNU](/wiki/A_Partnership_for_National_Unity "A Partnership for National Unity") – [AFC](/wiki/Alliance_for_Change_%28Guyana%29 "Alliance for Change (Guyana)") coalition led by [David A. Granger](/wiki/David_A._Granger "David A. Granger"), which won by a slim margin. ["Ex\-general David Granger wins Guyana election"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32747514), BBC News, 15 May 2015\. President Ramotar left office on 16 May 2015, when Granger was sworn in.["Granger sworn in as President"](http://newsnow.gy/politics/granger-sworn-in-as-president/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518002139/http://newsnow.gy/politics/granger\-sworn\-in\-as\-president/ \|date\=2015\-05\-18 }}, Newsnow Guyana, 16 May 2015\. Ramotar was not included in the list of the PPP's 32 MPs in July 2015\.["Jagdeo on PPP/C Parliament list"](http://www.stabroeknews.com/2015/news/stories/07/07/jagdeo-on-pppc-parliament-list/), *Stabroek News*, 7 July 2015\.
[ "Political career\n----------------", "Ramotar joined the PPP in 1967 and was first elected to the PPP Central Committee in 1979; he joined the PPP Executive Committee in 1983\\. He received a certificate from the Government Technical Institute (GTI) in welding. From 1988 to 1993, he was International Secretary of the [Guyana Agricultural Workers' Union](/wiki/Guyana_Agricultural_Workers%27_Union \"Guyana Agricultural Workers' Union\"). In the [1992 election](/wiki/1992_Guyanese_general_election \"1992 Guyanese general election\"), in which the PPP under [Cheddi Jagan](/wiki/Cheddi_Jagan \"Cheddi Jagan\") won power for first time in decades, Ramotar was elected to the [National Assembly of Guyana](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28Guyana%29 \"National Assembly (Guyana)\"); he was continuously re\\-elected thereafter. He was designated as the PPP's Executive Secretary in 1993\\.{{cite web \\| first\\=Kwesi \\| last\\=Isles \\| url\\=http://www.demerarawaves.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2896:pppcs\\-ramotar\\-declared\\-guyanas\\-president\\&catid\\=1 \\| title\\=PPP/C's Ramotar declared Guyana's new president \\| work\\=Demerara Waves \\| date\\=1 December 2011 \\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203180654/http://www.demerarawaves.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2896%3Apppcs\\-ramotar\\-declared\\-guyanas\\-president\\&catid\\=1 \\|archivedate\\=3 December 2011 }} Following Jagan's death in March 1997, Ramotar was unanimously elected to succeed him as the PPP's General Secretary on March 29, 1997\\.[\"History of PPP\"](http://www.ppp-civic.org/history/historyppp.htm), PPP website.", "At the PPP's 29th Congress, he was re\\-elected to its Central Committee on August 2, 2008, receiving the fourth\\-highest number of votes (637\\).[Press release on Central Committee election](http://www.ppp-civic.org/releases/The%20People%20Progressive%20Party%20PPP%20at%20its%2029%20th%20Congress.html), August 3, 2008\\.[\"Donald Ramotar re\\-elected General Secretary of PPP\"](http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/news/news/84-news/412-donald-ramotar-re-elected-general-secretary-of-ppp.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820230348/http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/news/news/84\\-news/412\\-donald\\-ramotar\\-re\\-elected\\-general\\-secretary\\-of\\-ppp.html \\|date\\=August 20, 2008 }}, *Guyana Times*, August 13, 2008\\. Following the Congress, he was re\\-elected by the Central Committee as General Secretary on August 12, 2008, without opposition;[\"PPP General Secretary, Executive Committee elected\"](http://www.ppp-civic.org/releases/PPP%20GENERAL%20SECRETARY%20EXECUTIVE%20COMMITTEE%20ELECTED.html), PPP press statement, August 12, 2008\\. he was also elected to the editorial board of the PPP paper *Thunder* on this occasion.", "On 4 April 2011, the PPP Central Committee chose Ramotar as the party's presidential candidate for the [November 2011 election](/wiki/2011_Guyanese_general_election \"2011 Guyanese general election\"). On April 4, the Central Committee of the ruling People’s Progressive Party announced a unanimous selection{{Cite web\\|title\\=DONALD RAMOTAR\\|url\\=https://guyanachronicle.com/2011/04/05/donald\\-ramotar/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-17\\|website\\=Guyana Chronicle\\|language\\=en\\-US}} of Ramotar, the PPP front\\-runner. There was considerable debate over the selection, as it was made by open vote and not a secret ballot, and [Ralph Ramkarran](/wiki/Ralph_Ramkarran \"Ralph Ramkarran\"), one of the other contenders, posted an ad in the Stabroek Times in opposition to the open vote.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-06\\|title\\=Process to select PPP presidential candidate to start this week\\|url\\=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2011/02/06/news/guyana/process\\-to\\-select\\-ppp\\-presidential\\-candidate\\-to\\-start\\-this\\-week/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-17\\|website\\=Stabroek News\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "The government announced on 28 April 2011 that Ramotar had been appointed to the post of Political Adviser to President [Bharrat Jagdeo](/wiki/Bharrat_Jagdeo \"Bharrat Jagdeo\"); previously Ramotar had held no official position in the administration. The opposition criticized the appointment; it argued that the government was merely reacting to criticism that it effectively sponsored Ramotar's candidacy by including him on official trips, and therefore, was giving him an official job in order to legitimize the situation. The government argued that Ramotar's inclusion on official trips was acceptable because the government was implementing the policies of the ruling party, led by Ramotar.[\"Ramotar's presidential advisor appointment is back\\-door campaign financing \\- opposition\"](http://demerarawaves.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1618:dr-doobay-not-being-treated-as-a-suspect-in-wifes-murder-lawyer&catid=14&Itemid=122), *Demerara Waves*, 28 April 2011\\.", "The election was held on 28 November 2011, and he was declared the winner when results were announced on 1 December. However, the PPP fell one seat short of a parliamentary majority, winning 32 out of 65 seats, meaning that Ramotar would serve as President while two opposition parties would together hold a majority of seats in the National Assembly.{{cite web \\| first\\=Denis \\| last\\=Chabrol \\| url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225092803/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gBrx0ANfJdmz17g4TfNwTzuXmkKw?docId\\=CNG.6b9bdfd8a7780dfe67a072dc90f22150\\.d1 \\| title\\=Ethnic Indian candidate wins presidency in Guyana \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]] \\| date\\=1 December 2011}} Ramotar expressed disappointment with his party's failure to win a majority, but he said that \"the electorate has spoken and we have to work with what we have\". He was sworn in as President on 3 December 2011\\.[\"Ramotar sworn in as seventh Executive President\"](http://www.stabroeknews.com/2011/news/stories/12/03/ramotar-sworn-in-as-seventh-executive-president/), *[Stabroek News](/wiki/Stabroek_News \"Stabroek News\")*, 3 December 2011\\.", "During his first two years as President, Ramotar remained in his post as General Secretary of the PPP, but eventually he stepped aside from the party leadership, citing the heavy workload. The PPP Central Committee elected [Clement Rohee](/wiki/Clement_Rohee \"Clement Rohee\") to succeed Ramotar as General Secretary on 19 August 2013; Ramotar nominated Rohee for the post.[\"Clement Rohee elected as new General Secretary of PPP\"](http://www.inewsguyana.com/breaking-news-clement-rohee-elected-as-new-general-secretary-of-ppp/), INEWS Guyana, 19 August 2013\\.", "Ramotar said that [Bashar al\\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad \"Bashar al-Assad\")'s win in the [2014 Syrian presidential election](/wiki/2014_Syrian_presidential_election \"2014 Syrian presidential election\") was a great victory for Syria.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2014\\|title\\=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء \\- Syrian Arab News Agency\\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2015}}", "Donald Ramotar and the PPP lost the [11 May 2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Guyanese_general_election \"2015 Guyanese general election\") to the opposition [APNU](/wiki/A_Partnership_for_National_Unity \"A Partnership for National Unity\") – [AFC](/wiki/Alliance_for_Change_%28Guyana%29 \"Alliance for Change (Guyana)\") coalition led by [David A. Granger](/wiki/David_A._Granger \"David A. Granger\"), which won by a slim margin.\n[\"Ex\\-general David Granger wins Guyana election\"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32747514), BBC News, 15 May 2015\\. President Ramotar left office on 16 May 2015, when Granger was sworn in.[\"Granger sworn in as President\"](http://newsnow.gy/politics/granger-sworn-in-as-president/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518002139/http://newsnow.gy/politics/granger\\-sworn\\-in\\-as\\-president/ \\|date\\=2015\\-05\\-18 }}, Newsnow Guyana, 16 May 2015\\. Ramotar was not included in the list of the PPP's 32 MPs in July 2015\\.[\"Jagdeo on PPP/C Parliament list\"](http://www.stabroeknews.com/2015/news/stories/07/07/jagdeo-on-pppc-parliament-list/), *Stabroek News*, 7 July 2015\\.", "" ]
Arts ---- {{see also\|Central Asian art}} Various art forms were popularized during the Seljuk period, as evidenced by the vast amount of surviving artifacts.{{Citation\|last1\=Bloom\|first1\=Jonathan M. \|title\=Saljuq\|date\=2009\|url\=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10\.1093/acref/9780195309911\.001\.0001/acref\-9780195309911\-e\-807\| url\-access\=subscription \|encyclopedia\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture \|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1093/acref/9780195309911\.001\.0001\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-530991\-1\|access\-date\=2023\-01\-01\|last2\=Blair\|first2\=Sheila S.}} Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern\-day Iran.{{Cite web\|title\=Saljuq family \|url\=https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/display/10\.1093/gao/9781884446054\.001\.0001/oao\-9781884446054\-e\-7000075354 \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-01\|website\=Grove Art Online \|year\=2003 \|language\=en \|url\-access\=subscription \|doi\=10\.1093/gao/9781884446054\.article.T075354 \|last1\=Hillenbrand \|first1\=Robert }} However, the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of a recolonization and reconstruction process of several cities.Özcan, Koray. "The Anatolian Seljuk City: An Analysis of Early Turkish Urban Models in Anatolia". *Central Asiatic Journal* 54, no. 2 (January 2010\): 273–290\). <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262096804_The_Anatolian_Seljuk_City_An_Analysis_on_Early_Turkish_Urban_Models_in_Anatolia> Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century. In this regard, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not entirely match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall. Nonetheless, relatively little art can be correctly dated and ascribed to a Great Seljuk context. Much of the material deemed to be Seljuk in world museums in fact belongs to the period A.D. 1150–1250, after the fall of the Great Seljuk Empire, when there seems to have been a sudden burst in artistic production, apparently to a great extent unrelated to court patronage.{{sfn\|Peacock\|2015\|p\=187}} ### Ceramics {{main\|Mina'i ware\|Lusterware}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|A *[Mina'i](/wiki/Mina%27i "Mina'i")* bowl, dated 1187 CE ([Muharram](/wiki/Muharram "Muharram") 583 [A.H.](/wiki/Anno_Hegirae "Anno Hegirae")), a few years before the end of the Seljuk Empire in 1194\. Scene of poetic recitation, with poetic verses inscribed on the rim: "If the beloved leaves me, what am I to do? If s/he does not see the wisdom of our union, what am I to do?". [Kashan](/wiki/Kashan "Kashan"), Iran. ([Los Angeles County Museum of Art](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art "Los Angeles County Museum of Art").){{cite web \|title\=Bowl, LACMA Collections \|url\=https://collections.lacma.org/node/228685 \|website\=collections.lacma.org}}Among](/wiki/File:Mina%27i_bowl%2C_dated_1187_CE_-_Muharram%2C_583_A.H._Iran%2C_Kashan%2C_LACMA.jpg "Mina'i bowl, dated 1187 CE - Muharram, 583 A.H. Iran, Kashan, LACMA.jpg") other ceramics, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, often used as decor in architecture, were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty.Oktay, Aslanapa. "Turkish Ceramic Art". *Archeology* 24, no. 3 (June 1971\): 209–219\.Ceken, Muharrem. "Materials, Techniques, and Kilns Used in the Production of Seljuk and Beylik Period Glazed Tiles". In *Tiles: Treasures of Anatolian Soil*. Istanbul: Kale Group Cultural Publications, 2008\. The Seljuks pioneered the use of the *[Mina'i](/wiki/Mina%27i_ware "Mina'i ware")* technique, a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics. The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue. The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule. The Seljuks also created ceramic house models, while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of them children's toys.{{Cite journal\|last\=Graves\|first\=Margaret S.\|title\=Ceramic House Models from Medieval Persia: Domestic Architecture and Concealed Activities \|date\=2008\|journal\=Iran\|volume\=46\|pages\=227–251\|doi\=10\.1080/05786967\.2008\.11864746 \|jstor\=25651444 \|s2cid\=192268010 \|issn\=0578\-6967}} File:Bowl with Majlis Scene by a Pond, Abu Zayd, Iran, 1186, MMA.jpg\|Bowl with ''Majlis'' scene by a pond, by \[\[Abū Zayd ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Zayd\|Abu Zayd]], Iran, dated 1186, MMA.{{sfn\|Canby\|Beyazit\|Rugiadi\|Peacock \|2016\|p\=112, object 40}} File:Iran, kashan, grande bacile lustrato, 1191\.jpg\|\[\[Lustreware]] great basin signed by Abu Zayd al\-Kashani in 1191, Kashan, Iran.\<ref\>{{cite web \|title\=Large Luster Bowl \|url\=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/34351/large\-luster\-bowl \|date\=1186–1196}}\</ref\> File:Bowl with Enthroned Figure and Horsemen (Late 12th, early 13th centuries, Iran).jpg\|Bowl with enthroned figure and horsemen (Late 12th, early 13th centuries, Iran).\<ref name\="metmuseum.org"\>{{cite web \|title\=Bowl with Enthroned Figure and Horsemen \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451378 \|website\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \|language\=en}}\</ref\> ### Book arts [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Pages from a Seven\-part Quran, Iran, late 11th cen. Khalili Collection](/wiki/File:Pages_from_a_Seven-part_Quran%2C_Iran%2C_late_11th_cen._Khalili_Collection.jpg "Pages from a Seven-part Quran, Iran, late 11th cen. Khalili Collection.jpg") Both secular and non\-secular [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript "Manuscript") were produced during the Seljuk period. These pieces are now limited in availability, considering their ultimate susceptibility to damage overtime.Hillenbrand, Robert. "The Relationship Between Book Painting and Luxury Ceramics in 13th\-Century Iran". In *The Art of the Seljuqs in Iran and Anatolia*. edited by Robert Hillenbrand, 134–139\. Costa mesa: Mazda Publishers, 1994\. But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk's involvement in the arts of the book. [Calligraphers](/wiki/Calligraphy "Calligraphy") and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration.[Farhad, Massumeh](/wiki/Massumeh_Farhad "Massumeh Farhad") and Simon Rettig. *The Art of the Qur'an: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.* District of Columbia: Smithsonian Books, 2016\. By the end of the 10th century, both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors, styles, and writing techniques in the realm of the book arts. The [Qur'an](/wiki/Quran "Quran")'s produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided. Uniquely, calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur'an, such as [Kufic](/wiki/Kufic "Kufic") and New Style. In addition to these changes in the text, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for [parchment](/wiki/Parchment "Parchment") in the Islamic world.{{Cite journal\|last\=Ekhtiyar\|first\=Maryam\|title\=The Arabic Script\|journal\=How to Read Islamic Calligraphy\|pages\=25–34}} The use of durable paper increased the production of compact, single\-volume Qur'an's, whereas parchment codexes often contained multiple volumes of Qur'anic text.Allan, James. "Manuscript Illumination: A Source for Metalwork Motifs in Saljuq Times". In *The Art of the Saljuqs in Iran and Anatolia: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Edinburgh in 1982,* edited by Robert Hillenbrand, 119–126\. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh press, 1994\. Despite this development, parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur'an's, and multi\-volume pieces continued to be produced. Illuminated borders continued to distinguish the Qur'ans produced during the Seljuk period and relative consistency was maintained with regard to their structure. [thumb\|[Early world map](/wiki/Early_world_map "Early world map") from *[Dīwān Lughāt al\-Turk](/wiki/D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk")* ("Compendium of the languages of the Turks"), a Turkish\-Arab dictionary by the [Kara\-Khanid](/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate "Kara-Khanid Khanate") author [Mahmud al\-Kashgari](/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari "Mahmud al-Kashgari"), written in Seljuk Baghdad in 1072–74 CE (1266 copy).{{cite book \|last1\=Yong \|first1\=Heming \|last2\=Peng \|first2\=Jing \|title\=Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911 \|date\=14 August 2008 \|publisher\=OUP Oxford \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-156167\-2 \|pages\=379–380 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NYFBtTUZFxEC\&pg\=PA379 \|language\=en}}](/wiki/File:D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk_%28original%29.jpg "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk (original).jpg") One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty\-volume ([juz](/wiki/Juz%27 "Juz'")) Qur'an created c. 1050, produced by only one calligrapher and illuminator (Freer Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, F2001\.16a\-b). As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world, this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript. This Qur'an is bound in brown leather, dyed in pink, decorated with gold, and offers an intricate [frontispiece](/wiki/Book_frontispiece "Book frontispiece"). These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text and indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated. It is primarily written in the vertical "New\-Style" [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic") script, a sharp, vertical script. The dominant use of New Style in this [folio](/wiki/Folio "Folio"), also referred to as "new [Abbasid](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate") Script", attests to the shift from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style, which occurred in the 10th century. Scattered remnants of Kufic, used primarily to indicate volume and page number, also appear in the text. The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans, also a 10th\-century development. Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the *Qarmathian Qur'an* (dispersed folio, Arthur M. Stackler Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, S1986\.65a\-b). This manuscript's folios are illuminated with a gold border and thin, spiraled illustration, featuring vegetal motifs. Despite the generous illumination, the four lines of Qur'anic text on the folio are exceptionally legible. Created between the years 1170–1200, this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Style, as both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of the script. Only during the 13th century would New Style be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use. [thumb\|A Seljuk manuscript on astrological figures: *[Book of Fixed Stars](/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars "Book of Fixed Stars")* (Kitāb suwar al\-kawākib al\-ṯābita), by ‛Abd al\-Rahman ibn ‛Umar al\-Ṣūfī, dated 1125 CE, Baghdad (controlled by the Seljuks from 1055 to 1135\).{{cite book \|last1\=Falk \|first1\=Avner \|title\=Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades \|date\=8 May 2018 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-0\-429\-89969\-0 \|page\=76 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oUVaDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA76 \|language\=en}} Doha Museum of Islamic Art [MS 2\.1998](/wiki/Category:Kit%C4%81b_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_%28al-th%C4%81bitah%29_%28DMIA%2C_MS_2.1198%29 "Kitāb Ṣuwar al-kawākib (al-thābitah) (DMIA, MS 2.1198)").{{sfn\|Canby\|Beyazit\|Rugiadi\|Peacock \|2016\|p\=196, Fig.78}}](/wiki/File:Book_of_Fixed_Stars_%28Kit%C4%81b_suwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_al-%E1%B9%AF%C4%81bita%29_by_%E2%80%9BAbd_al-Rahman_ibn_%E2%80%9BUmar_al-%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABf%C4%AB%2C_dated_1125_AD_-_manuscript_Doha_Museum_of_Islamic_Art_MS.2.1998_Orion_1.jpg "Book of Fixed Stars (Kitāb suwar al-kawākib al-ṯābita) by ‛Abd al-Rahman ibn ‛Umar al-Ṣūfī, dated 1125 AD - manuscript Doha Museum of Islamic Art MS.2.1998 Orion 1.jpg") A final example of a Seljuk Qur'an that has entered into scholarship is a manuscript studied in\-depth by the late art historian [Richard Ettinghausen](/wiki/Richard_Ettinghausen "Richard Ettinghausen").{{Cite journal\|last\=Ettinghausen\|first\=Richard\|title\=A Signed and Dated Seljuq Qur'an \|date\=1935\|journal\=Bulletin of the American Institute for Persian Art and Archaeology\|volume\=4\|issue\=2\|pages\=92–102\|jstor\=44240425 \|issn\=2573\-6159}} This piece was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al\-Husayn and contains the entirety of the Qur'an (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, NEP27\). Unlike the two Seljuk Qur'ans discussed prior, this manuscript primarily contains [Naskh](/wiki/Naskh_%28script%29 "Naskh (script)") script, another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic.Massoudy, Hassan. "The Calligrapher's Art". *UNESCO Courier*, vol. 48, no. 4, Apr. 1995, p. 19\+. *Gale General OneFile*, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A16920765/ITOF?u\=mlin\_m\_wellcol\&sid\=ITOF\&xid\=4ee5f15f. Retrieved 3 May 2021\. However, some Kufic calligraphy is embedded in the chapter headings. This aspect speaks to how the inclusion of Kufic in Qur'ans became more of a decorative element overtime, often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text. The manuscript is large, with seventeen lines of text per two\-hundred and fifteen sheets of paper. Though not all of the Qur'an is illuminated, both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration, with blue, gold, and white hues. Ettinghausen describes the subsequent visual effect as "brilliant". The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes, vines, medallions, and [arabesques](/wiki/Arabesque "Arabesque"), some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur'anic text. Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts. Beyond these religious manuscripts, scientific, literary, and historical pieces were created. One example of a secular manuscript is the *Nusrat al\-fatrah*, a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imād al\-Dīn (Al\-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London).Peacock, Andrew. "Nusrat al\-fatrah wa\-usrat al\-fitrah" \[The History of the Seljuks]. *Journal of Islamic Studies* 32, no.1 (2021\): 125–127\. Meanwhile, the scientific manuscripts produced during the Seljuk period oftentimes pertained to geography, physics, mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy. The former Seljuk city of [Isfahan](/wiki/Isfahan "Isfahan") not only boasted twelve libraries that contained a total of twelve thousand volumes, but also had an observatory where scholars could record their astrological findings. Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire bear illuminations that often relate to the alignment of planets and the [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac"), a couple examples of common themes. Whether secular or non\-secular, Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms, such as brass or bronze metal objects. For example, the large *Qarmathian Qur'an* influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares. Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia") during the Seljuk period would often bear [occult](/wiki/Occult "Occult") astrological images inspired by manuscripts.Peacock, A. C. S. "A Seljuq Occult Manuscript and its World". In *The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture, and History,* edited by Sheila R. Canby, D. Beyazit, and Martina Rugiadi, 163–176\. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020\. Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk's political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia. [left\|thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|The first known illustrated manuscript of *[Kitâb al\-Diryâq](/wiki/Kit%C3%A2b_al-Diry%C3%A2q "Kitâb al-Diryâq")*, is dated 1198, around the end of the Seljuk dynasty, and is generally attributed to the [Jazira](/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia "Upper Mesopotamia") (northern [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") or Northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq")).{{cite journal \|last1\=Pancaroǧlu \|first1\=Oya \|title\=Socializing Medicine: Illustrations of the Kitāb al\-diryāq \|journal\=Muqarnas \|date\=2001 \|volume\=18 \|pages\=155–172 \|doi\=10\.2307/1523306 \|jstor\=1523306 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523306 \|issn\=0732\-2992}}](/wiki/File:Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_24_%28royal_court_detail%29.jpg "Kitab al-Dariyaq, folio 24 (royal court detail).jpg") Historian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia's focus on occult themes and its manifestation in the book arts. Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the "pious defenders of Islam" when it came to larger systems of belief. Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included [geomancy](/wiki/Geomancy "Geomancy"), [astrology](/wiki/Astrology "Astrology"), [alchemy](/wiki/Alchemy "Alchemy"). A relevant occult manuscript from a later period of Seljuk influence in the 13th century is the *Dustur al\-Munajjimin*, otherwise known as the "Rules of Astrologers", while another is the *[Daqa'iq al\-Haqa'iq](/wiki/Category:Daq%C4%81%CA%BEiq_al-%E1%B8%A4aq%C4%81%CA%BEiq%3B_Kit%C4%81b-i_M%C5%AB%CA%BEnis_al-%CA%BFAv%C4%81rif_%28BNF_Persan_174%29 "Daqāʾiq al-Ḥaqāʾiq; Kitāb-i Mūʾnis al-ʿAvārif (BNF Persan 174)")*, or the "Fine Points of Eternal Truths", dating to the [Sultanate of Rum](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum "Sultanate of Rum") in 1272\. The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells, with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic acts (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, Persan 174\). The text was written by a man who wrote under a pen name, "Nasiri". Interestingly, Nasiri's *Daqa'iq al\-Haqa'iq* challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both [Sufi](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism") terms and themes. For example, while incorporating a Sufi poem, the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God. #### Illustrated manuscripts The western area of the Seljuk realm including Syria, [Jazira](/wiki/Jazira_region "Jazira region") and Iraq saw an "explosion of figural art" from the 12th to 13th centuries, particularly in the areas of decorative art and illustrated manuscripts.{{sfn\|Snelders\|2010\|p\=3}} This occurred despite religious condemnations against the depiction of living creatures, on the grounds that "it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God".{{cite journal \|last1\=George \|first1\=Alain \|title\=Orality, Writing and the Image in the Maqamat : Arabic Illustrated Books in Context \|journal\=Art History \|date\=February 2012 \|volume\=35 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=10–37 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-8365\.2011\.00881\.x \|quote\=The Islamic world witnessed, in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, an explosion of figural art. (...) The making of it is forbidden under every circumstance, because it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God}} The origins of this new pictorial tradition are uncertain, but Arabic illustrated manuscripts such as the *[Maqamat al\-Hariri](/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri "Maqamat al-Hariri")* shared many characteristics with Christian [Syriac](/wiki/Syriac_Christianity "Syriac Christianity") illustrated manuscripts, such as [Syriac Gospels (British Library, Add. 7170\)](/wiki/Syriac_Gospels%2C_British_Library%2C_Add._7170 "Syriac Gospels, British Library, Add. 7170"). This synthesis seems to point to a common pictorial tradition which developed from circa 1180 CE in the region, which was highly influenced by [Byzantine art](/wiki/Byzantine_art "Byzantine art").{{cite book \|title\=The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843–1261 \|date\=1997 \|publisher\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \|isbn\=978\-0\-87099\-777\-8 \|pages\=384–385 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Caqa12aj55wC\&pg\=PA384 \|language\=en}}{{sfn\|Snelders\|2010\|pp\=1–2}} ### Metalwork [thumb\|Seljuk celestial globe with stand, Iran, 1144–45, [Louvre Museum](/wiki/Louvre_Museum "Louvre Museum"). The globe mentions: "This globe includes all the stars mentioned in the book of the *[Almagest](/wiki/Almagest "Almagest")* after modifying them in proportion with the interval between the calculations of [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") and the year \[A.H.] 540, i.e. 1144\. \[It is t]he work of (san‘at) Yunis b. al\-Husayn al\-Asturlabi \[in the] year 539".{{sfn\|Canby\|Beyazit\|Rugiadi\|Peacock \|2016\|p\=195, object 116}}](/wiki/File:Celestial_Globe_with_Stand%2C_Iran%2C_1144-45%2C_Louvre.jpg "Celestial Globe with Stand, Iran, 1144-45, Louvre.jpg") Starting around the middle of the 12th century, there appears to have been a major increase in the number of artistic metalwork objects produced in the eastern Islamic world (roughly Iran and Central Asia).{{sfn\|Ettinghausen\|Grabar\|Jenkins\-Madina\|2001\|p\=\|pp\=166–167}} More of these objects have survived from after the 1140s than from before this period.{{Cite book \|last\= \|first\= \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=un4WcfEASZwC \|title\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2009 \|isbn\=9780195309911 \|editor\-last\=Bloom \|editor\-first\=Jonathan M. \|location\= \|pages\= \|language\=en \|chapter\=Metalwork; III. c. 1100–c. 1500\. \|editor\-last2\=Blair \|editor\-first2\=Sheila S.}} The major centers of production were initially concentrated in the Khorasan region, including [Nishapur](/wiki/Nishapur "Nishapur"), [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat"), and [Ghazna](/wiki/Ghazni "Ghazni"). There is some scholarly debate about the patronage of these objects, with some suggesting that the growth in production is explainable by the growth of a bourgeoisie in Khorasan which had the means to afford such costly craftsmanship.{{sfn\|Ettinghausen\|Grabar\|Jenkins\-Madina\|2001\|p\=\|pp\=166–167}} This is attested in part by inscriptions naming merchant owners, but most surviving objects are nonetheless attributed by their inscriptions to sultans, royal household members, or state officials. In the early 13th century, this expansion of metalwork art and patronage also occurred further west, in the Levant and Mesopotamia, under the successors of the Great Seljuks (the Zengids, the Artuqids, and the Anatolian Seljuks), spurred in part by the immigration of metalworkers from Iran.{{sfn\|Ettinghausen\|Grabar\|Jenkins\-Madina\|2001\|p\=244}} Made of bronze or brass, objects could also be [inlaid](/wiki/Inlay "Inlay") with copper and silver. This latter technique had fallen out of fashion in previous centuries but it underwent a revival that probably originated in Khorasan during this period. The forms produced include both traditional Khorasani types, such as fluted [ewers](/wiki/Pitcher_%28container%29 "Pitcher (container)") and hooded [incense burners](/wiki/Censer "Censer"), and newe shapes, such as penboxes with rounded ends and candlesticks with drum\-like bodies. Many metal vessels also featured [zoomorphic](/wiki/Zoomorphism "Zoomorphism") forms. The most sophisticated works were created by [raising](/wiki/Raising_%28metalworking%29 "Raising (metalworking)") and [sinking](/wiki/Sinking_%28metalworking%29 "Sinking (metalworking)"), with decoration executed in [*repoussé*](/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing "Repoussé and chasing"). To create some shapes, multiple metal sheets were carefully soldered together, with the seams made invisible by various means, such as by camouflaging them under decorative friezes. The wide range of ornamental motifs include [arabesques](/wiki/Arabesque "Arabesque"), [geometric designs](/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns "Islamic geometric patterns"), real and mythological animals, and even scenes of human figures such as musicians and horsemen. Arabic inscriptions are found on almost all metalwork art objects.{{sfn\|Ettinghausen\|Grabar\|Jenkins\-Madina\|2001\|p\=167}} An innovation of this period, almost exclusive to metalwork, is the rendering of Arabic script into figurative forms. The earliest example of this is found on the so\-called [Bobrinsky Bucket](/wiki/Bobrinski_Bucket "Bobrinski Bucket"). File:Feline incense\-burner MET.jpg\|"A demonstration of the excellence achieved in metalwork under the Seljuqs": bronze incense burner shaped like lion, with removable head, dated 1181–82 CE, \[\[Taybad]], Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)\<ref\>{{Cite web \|title\=Incense Burner of Amir Saif al\-Dunya wa'l\-Din ibn Muhammad al\-Mawardi \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451042 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-05 \|website\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \|language\=en}}\</ref\>\<ref\>{{cite book \|last1\=Ekhtiar \|first1\=Maryam \|title\=Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \|isbn\=978\-1\-58839\-434\-7 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vO761l9dgZwC\&pg\=PA129 \|language\=en}}\</ref\> File:Roundel, 11th century Iran.jpg\|Gold roundel, 11th century Iran. It "exemplifies the refinement of Seljuq goldsmithing".\<ref\>{{cite web \|title\=Roundel \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452991 \|website\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \|language\=en}}\</ref\>\<ref\>{{cite book \|title\=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs – MetPublications \|publisher\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \|page\=94 \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Court\_and\_Cosmos \|language\=en}}\</ref\> File:Necklace, 11th century Iran, Seljuk.jpg\|Seljuk gold necklace, 11th century Iran.\<ref\>{{cite web \|title\=Necklace \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452414 \|website\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \|language\=en}}\</ref\>\<ref\>{{cite book \|title\=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs – MetPublications \|date\=2016 \|publisher\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \|pages\=99–100 \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Court\_and\_Cosmos \|language\=en}}\</ref\> File:Bobrinsky Bronzekessel.jpg\|\[\[Bobrinski Bucket\|Bobrinsky Bucket]], a bronze cauldron decorated with human figures. From 1163 CE, Herat, Afghanistan. (\[\[Hermitage Museum]])\<ref\>{{Cite web \|title\=Cauldron \|url\=https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital\-collection/!ut/p/z0/fYxBDoIwEAC\_0gtXd4st8dpgYsJBDCfYC9komgK2hTbq88UPeJzJZICgBXL8sg9O1jueN\-6o6GtjCrkvsapLfURTNxfdlOcTSgUV0P9gO9hxWcgAXb1LwydBO\_HTxn5wGb79OkXh74LXlCEedoJDmO1w\-4mYocyVzhWEibovg8XxJg!!/ \|access\-date\=4 January 2023 \|website\=The State Hermitage Museum}}\</ref\> File:Candlestick, Afghanistan, Saljuq period, 2nd half of 12th century AD, brass inlaid with copper, silver, gold \- Freer Gallery of Art \- DSC04671\.jpg\|Brass candlestick with ''\[\[Repoussé and chasing\|repoussé]]'' work. Inlaid with silver, copper, and black bitumen. Late 12th century, Afghanistan. (\[\[Freer Gallery of Art]])\<ref\>{{Cite web \|title\=Candlestick \|url\=https://asia.si.edu/explore\-art\-culture/collections/search/edanmdm:fsg\_F1951\.17/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-05 \|website\=National Museum of Asian Art}}\</ref\> ### Textiles and clothing {{multiple image\|perrow\=2/1\|total\_width\=350\|caption\_align\=center \| align \= right \| direction \=horizontal \| image1 \= Kitab al\-Diryaq BNF View 11 (detail).jpg \| caption1 \= Seljuk period figures in Turkic dress, with ''\[\[Qaba\|aqbiya turkiyya]]'' coat, ''\[\[tiraz]]'' armbands, boots and ''\[\[sharbush]]'' hat. ''\[\[Kitāb al\-Diryāq]]'', \[\[Jazira region\|Jazira]], 1198 CE.{{cite web \|last1\=Shahbazi \|first1\=Shapur \|title\=Clothing \|url\=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\-iranica\-online/clothing\-COM\_7759?lang\=en \|website\=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online \|publisher\=Brill \|language\=en \|date\=30 August 2020 \|quote\=Nevertheless, the most distinctive feature of late Saljuq and post\-Saljuq male dress was the popularity of patterned textiles for these garments. (...) That these patterns do not merely represent ceramic conventions is clear from the rendering of garments in fragmentary wall paintings and in illustrations from the copy of Varqa wa Golšāh already mentioned, as well as in frontispieces to the volumes of Abu’l\-Faraj Eṣfahānī’s Ketāb al\-aḡānī dated 614–16/1217–19 and to two copies of Ketāb al\-deryāq (Book of antidotes) by Pseudo\-Galen, dated 596/1199 and ascribed to the second quarter of the 7th/13th century respectively (Survey of Persian Art V, pl. 554A\-B; Ateş, pls. 1/3, 6/16, 18; D. S. Rice, 1953, figs. 14\-19; Ettinghausen, 1962, pp. 65, 85, 91\). The last three manuscripts, all of them attributed to northern Mesopotamia, show that the stiff coat with diagonal closing and arm bands was also worn in that region from the end of the 6th/12th century.}} \| image2 \= Seljuk silk robe (11th\-12th century).jpg \| caption2 \= Seljuk period silk robe in Persian style, with birds motifs in medallions (11th–12th century).{{sfn\|Canby\|Beyazit\|Rugiadi\|Peacock \|2016\|pp\=95\-96, object 24}} \| image3\= Kitab al\-Diryaq reading books (detail).jpg \| caption3\=Figures in Arab dress, with long robes, turbans and bare or sandalled feet, reading books. ''\[\[Kitāb al\-Diryāq]]'', \[\[Jazira region\|Jazira]], 1198 CE. \| footer\= }} The general clothing style attributed to the Seljuks is that of the *[aqbiya turkiyya](/wiki/Qaba "Qaba")*, or long robe or decorated caftan with “Turkish” cut, with a front opening closing diagonally from right to left.{{harvnb\|Canby\|Beyazit\|Rugiadi\|Peacock \|2016\|p\=98}}: "Paradoxically, however, while the style commonly attributed to the Seljuqs is that of the left\-buttoning aqbiya turkiyya, or “Turkish” cut, and although this is the prevailing style of robe in illustrations from contemporary manuscripts, there is perhaps only a single complete robe attributed to the Seljuq period that closes (...) Taken within the context of adab, however, it becomes possible that the adoption of the “Tatar\-style” coat was a conscious decision on the part of the affluent sedentary Persian population, as it was less identifiable with the Seljuq Turks. These associations would have been increasingly acute toward the end of the Seljuq period, as a result of the Khwarazm Shah invasions and perhaps exacerbated by the westward migrations of nomadic groups at the start of the Mongol invasion." Patterned textiles were used, together with *[tiraz](/wiki/Tiraz "Tiraz")* bands on the upper sleeves. Clothing included tall boots, as well as various hats of the *[sharbush](/wiki/Sharbush "Sharbush")* type, often including a fur lining.{{cite book \|last1\=Peck \|first1\=Elsie H. \|title\=Clothing viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion \|publisher\=Encyclopaedia Iranica \|pages\=760–778 \|url\=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing\-viii}} These styles continued during the 13th century in the smaller Turkic successor states, such as the [Zengids](/wiki/Zengids "Zengids") or [Artuqids](/wiki/Artuqids "Artuqids"), where many more illustrations are available, especially in manuscripts. On the other hand, the affluent sedentary Persian population seems to have adopted different robe styles, with a front opening closing diagonally from left to right, called the *aqbiya tatariyya* or "Tatar style", but actually also characteristic of Persian caftans from the last decades of the Sasanian dynasty. The fabrics represent what could be called a "[Sasanian](/wiki/Sasanian_Empire "Sasanian Empire") renaissance", with styles going back to the Sasanian or Sogdian period.{{Cite journal\|last\=Weibel\|first\=Adèle Coulin\|year\=1935\|title\=Seljuk Fabrics\|journal\=Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts of the City of Detroit\|volume\=15\|issue\=3\|pages\=41–43\|doi\=10\.1086/BULLDETINST41501410\|jstor\=41501410\|s2cid\=222813497}} Seljuk fabrics are often distinguished by the representation of nature, by minimal ornamental details, and by the combination of colorful linens giving an interchangeable color effect to the fabric. Many realistic natural elements characterize the composition of the fabrics, such as animals and plants, forming patterns consisting of arabesque elements. In many manuscripts of the period, great care is taken to distinghuish the clothing of figures of power and authority in Seljuk style, from that of the otherwise omnipresent figures in Arabic or local style with their long robes, turbans and bare or sandalled feet.{{cite journal \|last1\=McSweeney \|first1\=Anna \|title\=The Maqamat of al\-Hariri. Two Illustrated Mamluk Manuscripts at the British Library MS Or.9718 and Ms.Add.22114\.pdf (MA Thesis, SOAS) \|journal\=SOAS Dept. Art and Archaeology \|pages\=29–30 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/29232459}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Flood \|first1\=Finbarr Barry \|title\=A Turk in the Dukhang? Comparative Perspectives on Elite Dress in Medieval Ladakh and the Caucasus \|journal\=Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia \|year\=2017 \|publisher\=Austrian Academy of Science Press \|page\=232 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/35061254}} According to Snelders: {{blockquote\|In a number of these manuscripts a careful distinction is made between royal and non\-royal figures, both in terms of physical appearance and dress. Whereas princes and governors are commonly represented with the same ‘Asiatic’ or ‘Oriental’ facial features, and dressed in Turkish military garments like fur\-trimmed caps (''\[\[sharbush]]'') and short close\-fitting tunics, most other figures are depicted with ‘Arab’ or ‘Semitic’ facial features, and dressed in long robes and turbans. Apparently in keeping with the contemporary political and social makeup of the region in which these manuscripts were produced, a visual distinction was made along ethnic and social lines, between the non\-Arab Turkish ruling elite and the indigenous Arab bourgeoisie.\|Snelders ''Identity and Christian\-Muslim interaction : medieval art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul area''.{{sfn\|Snelders\|2010\|loc\=Paragraph 4\.7}}}}
[ "Arts\n----", "{{see also\\|Central Asian art}}\nVarious art forms were popularized during the Seljuk period, as evidenced by the vast amount of surviving artifacts.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Bloom\\|first1\\=Jonathan M. \\|title\\=Saljuq\\|date\\=2009\\|url\\=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10\\.1093/acref/9780195309911\\.001\\.0001/acref\\-9780195309911\\-e\\-807\\| url\\-access\\=subscription \\|encyclopedia\\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/acref/9780195309911\\.001\\.0001\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-530991\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-01\\|last2\\=Blair\\|first2\\=Sheila S.}} Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern\\-day Iran.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Saljuq family \\|url\\=https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/display/10\\.1093/gao/9781884446054\\.001\\.0001/oao\\-9781884446054\\-e\\-7000075354 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-01\\|website\\=Grove Art Online \\|year\\=2003 \\|language\\=en \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/gao/9781884446054\\.article.T075354 \\|last1\\=Hillenbrand \\|first1\\=Robert }} However, the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of a recolonization and reconstruction process of several cities.Özcan, Koray. \"The Anatolian Seljuk City: An Analysis of Early Turkish Urban Models in Anatolia\". *Central Asiatic Journal* 54, no. 2 (January 2010\\): 273–290\\). <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262096804_The_Anatolian_Seljuk_City_An_Analysis_on_Early_Turkish_Urban_Models_in_Anatolia> Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century. In this regard, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not entirely match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall. Nonetheless, relatively little art can be correctly dated and ascribed to a Great Seljuk context. Much of the material deemed to be Seljuk in world museums in fact belongs to the period A.D. 1150–1250, after the fall of the Great Seljuk Empire, when there seems to have been a sudden burst in artistic production, apparently to a great extent unrelated to court patronage.{{sfn\\|Peacock\\|2015\\|p\\=187}}", "### Ceramics", "{{main\\|Mina'i ware\\|Lusterware}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|A *[Mina'i](/wiki/Mina%27i \"Mina'i\")* bowl, dated 1187 CE ([Muharram](/wiki/Muharram \"Muharram\") 583 [A.H.](/wiki/Anno_Hegirae \"Anno Hegirae\")), a few years before the end of the Seljuk Empire in 1194\\. Scene of poetic recitation, with poetic verses inscribed on the rim: \"If the beloved leaves me, what am I to do? If s/he does not see the wisdom of our union, what am I to do?\". [Kashan](/wiki/Kashan \"Kashan\"), Iran. ([Los Angeles County Museum of Art](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art \"Los Angeles County Museum of Art\").){{cite web \\|title\\=Bowl, LACMA Collections \\|url\\=https://collections.lacma.org/node/228685 \\|website\\=collections.lacma.org}}Among](/wiki/File:Mina%27i_bowl%2C_dated_1187_CE_-_Muharram%2C_583_A.H._Iran%2C_Kashan%2C_LACMA.jpg \"Mina'i bowl, dated 1187 CE - Muharram, 583 A.H. Iran, Kashan, LACMA.jpg\") other ceramics, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, often used as decor in architecture, were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty.Oktay, Aslanapa. \"Turkish Ceramic Art\". *Archeology* 24, no. 3 (June 1971\\): 209–219\\.Ceken, Muharrem. \"Materials, Techniques, and Kilns Used in the Production of Seljuk and Beylik Period Glazed Tiles\". In *Tiles: Treasures of Anatolian Soil*. Istanbul: Kale Group Cultural Publications, 2008\\. The Seljuks pioneered the use of the *[Mina'i](/wiki/Mina%27i_ware \"Mina'i ware\")* technique, a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics. The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue. The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule. The Seljuks also created ceramic house models, while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of them children's toys.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Graves\\|first\\=Margaret S.\\|title\\=Ceramic House Models from Medieval Persia: Domestic Architecture and Concealed Activities \\|date\\=2008\\|journal\\=Iran\\|volume\\=46\\|pages\\=227–251\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/05786967\\.2008\\.11864746 \\|jstor\\=25651444 \\|s2cid\\=192268010 \\|issn\\=0578\\-6967}}", "File:Bowl with Majlis Scene by a Pond, Abu Zayd, Iran, 1186, MMA.jpg\\|Bowl with ''Majlis'' scene by a pond, by \\[\\[Abū Zayd ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Zayd\\|Abu Zayd]], Iran, dated 1186, MMA.{{sfn\\|Canby\\|Beyazit\\|Rugiadi\\|Peacock \\|2016\\|p\\=112, object 40}}\nFile:Iran, kashan, grande bacile lustrato, 1191\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Lustreware]] great basin signed by Abu Zayd al\\-Kashani in 1191, Kashan, Iran.\\<ref\\>{{cite web \\|title\\=Large Luster Bowl \\|url\\=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/34351/large\\-luster\\-bowl \\|date\\=1186–1196}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Bowl with Enthroned Figure and Horsemen (Late 12th, early 13th centuries, Iran).jpg\\|Bowl with enthroned figure and horsemen (Late 12th, early 13th centuries, Iran).\\<ref name\\=\"metmuseum.org\"\\>{{cite web \\|title\\=Bowl with Enthroned Figure and Horsemen \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451378 \\|website\\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>", "", "### Book arts", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Pages from a Seven\\-part Quran, Iran, late 11th cen. Khalili Collection](/wiki/File:Pages_from_a_Seven-part_Quran%2C_Iran%2C_late_11th_cen._Khalili_Collection.jpg \"Pages from a Seven-part Quran, Iran, late 11th cen. Khalili Collection.jpg\")\nBoth secular and non\\-secular [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript \"Manuscript\") were produced during the Seljuk period. These pieces are now limited in availability, considering their ultimate susceptibility to damage overtime.Hillenbrand, Robert. \"The Relationship Between Book Painting and Luxury Ceramics in 13th\\-Century Iran\". In *The Art of the Seljuqs in Iran and Anatolia*. edited by Robert Hillenbrand, 134–139\\. Costa mesa: Mazda Publishers, 1994\\. But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk's involvement in the arts of the book. [Calligraphers](/wiki/Calligraphy \"Calligraphy\") and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration.[Farhad, Massumeh](/wiki/Massumeh_Farhad \"Massumeh Farhad\") and Simon Rettig. *The Art of the Qur'an: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.* District of Columbia: Smithsonian Books, 2016\\. By the end of the 10th century, both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors, styles, and writing techniques in the realm of the book arts.", "The [Qur'an](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\")'s produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided. Uniquely, calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur'an, such as [Kufic](/wiki/Kufic \"Kufic\") and New Style. In addition to these changes in the text, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for [parchment](/wiki/Parchment \"Parchment\") in the Islamic world.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ekhtiyar\\|first\\=Maryam\\|title\\=The Arabic Script\\|journal\\=How to Read Islamic Calligraphy\\|pages\\=25–34}} The use of durable paper increased the production of compact, single\\-volume Qur'an's, whereas parchment codexes often contained multiple volumes of Qur'anic text.Allan, James. \"Manuscript Illumination: A Source for Metalwork Motifs in Saljuq Times\". In *The Art of the Saljuqs in Iran and Anatolia: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Edinburgh in 1982,* edited by Robert Hillenbrand, 119–126\\. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh press, 1994\\. Despite this development, parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur'an's, and multi\\-volume pieces continued to be produced. Illuminated borders continued to distinguish the Qur'ans produced during the Seljuk period and relative consistency was maintained with regard to their structure.", "[thumb\\|[Early world map](/wiki/Early_world_map \"Early world map\") from *[Dīwān Lughāt al\\-Turk](/wiki/D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk \"Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk\")* (\"Compendium of the languages of the Turks\"), a Turkish\\-Arab dictionary by the [Kara\\-Khanid](/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate \"Kara-Khanid Khanate\") author [Mahmud al\\-Kashgari](/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari \"Mahmud al-Kashgari\"), written in Seljuk Baghdad in 1072–74 CE (1266 copy).{{cite book \\|last1\\=Yong \\|first1\\=Heming \\|last2\\=Peng \\|first2\\=Jing \\|title\\=Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911 \\|date\\=14 August 2008 \\|publisher\\=OUP Oxford \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-156167\\-2 \\|pages\\=379–380 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NYFBtTUZFxEC\\&pg\\=PA379 \\|language\\=en}}](/wiki/File:D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk_%28original%29.jpg \"Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk (original).jpg\")\nOne example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty\\-volume ([juz](/wiki/Juz%27 \"Juz'\")) Qur'an created c. 1050, produced by only one calligrapher and illuminator (Freer Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, F2001\\.16a\\-b). As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world, this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript. This Qur'an is bound in brown leather, dyed in pink, decorated with gold, and offers an intricate [frontispiece](/wiki/Book_frontispiece \"Book frontispiece\"). These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text and indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated. It is primarily written in the vertical \"New\\-Style\" [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\") script, a sharp, vertical script. The dominant use of New Style in this [folio](/wiki/Folio \"Folio\"), also referred to as \"new [Abbasid](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\") Script\", attests to the shift from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style, which occurred in the 10th century. Scattered remnants of Kufic, used primarily to indicate volume and page number, also appear in the text. The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans, also a 10th\\-century development.", "Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the *Qarmathian Qur'an* (dispersed folio, Arthur M. Stackler Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, S1986\\.65a\\-b). This manuscript's folios are illuminated with a gold border and thin, spiraled illustration, featuring vegetal motifs. Despite the generous illumination, the four lines of Qur'anic text on the folio are exceptionally legible. Created between the years 1170–1200, this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Style, as both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of the script. Only during the 13th century would New Style be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use.", "[thumb\\|A Seljuk manuscript on astrological figures: *[Book of Fixed Stars](/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars \"Book of Fixed Stars\")* (Kitāb suwar al\\-kawākib al\\-ṯābita), by ‛Abd al\\-Rahman ibn ‛Umar al\\-Ṣūfī, dated 1125 CE, Baghdad (controlled by the Seljuks from 1055 to 1135\\).{{cite book \\|last1\\=Falk \\|first1\\=Avner \\|title\\=Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades \\|date\\=8 May 2018 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-429\\-89969\\-0 \\|page\\=76 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oUVaDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA76 \\|language\\=en}} Doha Museum of Islamic Art [MS 2\\.1998](/wiki/Category:Kit%C4%81b_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_%28al-th%C4%81bitah%29_%28DMIA%2C_MS_2.1198%29 \"Kitāb Ṣuwar al-kawākib (al-thābitah) (DMIA, MS 2.1198)\").{{sfn\\|Canby\\|Beyazit\\|Rugiadi\\|Peacock \\|2016\\|p\\=196, Fig.78}}](/wiki/File:Book_of_Fixed_Stars_%28Kit%C4%81b_suwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_al-%E1%B9%AF%C4%81bita%29_by_%E2%80%9BAbd_al-Rahman_ibn_%E2%80%9BUmar_al-%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABf%C4%AB%2C_dated_1125_AD_-_manuscript_Doha_Museum_of_Islamic_Art_MS.2.1998_Orion_1.jpg \"Book of Fixed Stars (Kitāb suwar al-kawākib al-ṯābita) by ‛Abd al-Rahman ibn ‛Umar al-Ṣūfī, dated 1125 AD - manuscript Doha Museum of Islamic Art MS.2.1998 Orion 1.jpg\")\nA final example of a Seljuk Qur'an that has entered into scholarship is a manuscript studied in\\-depth by the late art historian [Richard Ettinghausen](/wiki/Richard_Ettinghausen \"Richard Ettinghausen\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ettinghausen\\|first\\=Richard\\|title\\=A Signed and Dated Seljuq Qur'an \\|date\\=1935\\|journal\\=Bulletin of the American Institute for Persian Art and Archaeology\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=92–102\\|jstor\\=44240425 \\|issn\\=2573\\-6159}} This piece was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al\\-Husayn and contains the entirety of the Qur'an (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, NEP27\\). Unlike the two Seljuk Qur'ans discussed prior, this manuscript primarily contains [Naskh](/wiki/Naskh_%28script%29 \"Naskh (script)\") script, another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic.Massoudy, Hassan. \"The Calligrapher's Art\". *UNESCO Courier*, vol. 48, no. 4, Apr. 1995, p. 19\\+. *Gale General OneFile*, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A16920765/ITOF?u\\=mlin\\_m\\_wellcol\\&sid\\=ITOF\\&xid\\=4ee5f15f. Retrieved 3 May 2021\\. However, some Kufic calligraphy is embedded in the chapter headings. This aspect speaks to how the inclusion of Kufic in Qur'ans became more of a decorative element overtime, often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text. The manuscript is large, with seventeen lines of text per two\\-hundred and fifteen sheets of paper. Though not all of the Qur'an is illuminated, both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration, with blue, gold, and white hues. Ettinghausen describes the subsequent visual effect as \"brilliant\". The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes, vines, medallions, and [arabesques](/wiki/Arabesque \"Arabesque\"), some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur'anic text.", "Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts. Beyond these religious manuscripts, scientific, literary, and historical pieces were created. One example of a secular manuscript is the *Nusrat al\\-fatrah*, a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imād al\\-Dīn (Al\\-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London).Peacock, Andrew. \"Nusrat al\\-fatrah wa\\-usrat al\\-fitrah\" \\[The History of the Seljuks]. *Journal of Islamic Studies* 32, no.1 (2021\\): 125–127\\. Meanwhile, the scientific manuscripts produced during the Seljuk period oftentimes pertained to geography, physics, mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy. The former Seljuk city of [Isfahan](/wiki/Isfahan \"Isfahan\") not only boasted twelve libraries that contained a total of twelve thousand volumes, but also had an observatory where scholars could record their astrological findings. Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire bear illuminations that often relate to the alignment of planets and the [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\"), a couple examples of common themes.", "Whether secular or non\\-secular, Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms, such as brass or bronze metal objects. For example, the large *Qarmathian Qur'an* influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares. Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\") during the Seljuk period would often bear [occult](/wiki/Occult \"Occult\") astrological images inspired by manuscripts.Peacock, A. C. S. \"A Seljuq Occult Manuscript and its World\". In *The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture, and History,* edited by Sheila R. Canby, D. Beyazit, and Martina Rugiadi, 163–176\\. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020\\. Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk's political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia.", "[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|The first known illustrated manuscript of *[Kitâb al\\-Diryâq](/wiki/Kit%C3%A2b_al-Diry%C3%A2q \"Kitâb al-Diryâq\")*, is dated 1198, around the end of the Seljuk dynasty, and is generally attributed to the [Jazira](/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia \"Upper Mesopotamia\") (northern [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") or Northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\")).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pancaroǧlu \\|first1\\=Oya \\|title\\=Socializing Medicine: Illustrations of the Kitāb al\\-diryāq \\|journal\\=Muqarnas \\|date\\=2001 \\|volume\\=18 \\|pages\\=155–172 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1523306 \\|jstor\\=1523306 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523306 \\|issn\\=0732\\-2992}}](/wiki/File:Kitab_al-Dariyaq%2C_folio_24_%28royal_court_detail%29.jpg \"Kitab al-Dariyaq, folio 24 (royal court detail).jpg\")\nHistorian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia's focus on occult themes and its manifestation in the book arts. Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the \"pious defenders of Islam\" when it came to larger systems of belief. Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included [geomancy](/wiki/Geomancy \"Geomancy\"), [astrology](/wiki/Astrology \"Astrology\"), [alchemy](/wiki/Alchemy \"Alchemy\"). A relevant occult manuscript from a later period of Seljuk influence in the 13th century is the *Dustur al\\-Munajjimin*, otherwise known as the \"Rules of Astrologers\", while another is the *[Daqa'iq al\\-Haqa'iq](/wiki/Category:Daq%C4%81%CA%BEiq_al-%E1%B8%A4aq%C4%81%CA%BEiq%3B_Kit%C4%81b-i_M%C5%AB%CA%BEnis_al-%CA%BFAv%C4%81rif_%28BNF_Persan_174%29 \"Daqāʾiq al-Ḥaqāʾiq; Kitāb-i Mūʾnis al-ʿAvārif (BNF Persan 174)\")*, or the \"Fine Points of Eternal Truths\", dating to the [Sultanate of Rum](/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum \"Sultanate of Rum\") in 1272\\. The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells, with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic acts (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, Persan 174\\). The text was written by a man who wrote under a pen name, \"Nasiri\". Interestingly, Nasiri's *Daqa'iq al\\-Haqa'iq* challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both [Sufi](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\") terms and themes. For example, while incorporating a Sufi poem, the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God.", "#### Illustrated manuscripts", "The western area of the Seljuk realm including Syria, [Jazira](/wiki/Jazira_region \"Jazira region\") and Iraq saw an \"explosion of figural art\" from the 12th to 13th centuries, particularly in the areas of decorative art and illustrated manuscripts.{{sfn\\|Snelders\\|2010\\|p\\=3}} This occurred despite religious condemnations against the depiction of living creatures, on the grounds that \"it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=George \\|first1\\=Alain \\|title\\=Orality, Writing and the Image in the Maqamat : Arabic Illustrated Books in Context \\|journal\\=Art History \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=10–37 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-8365\\.2011\\.00881\\.x \\|quote\\=The Islamic world witnessed, in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, an explosion of figural art. (...) The making of it is forbidden under every circumstance, because it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God}} The origins of this new pictorial tradition are uncertain, but Arabic illustrated manuscripts such as the *[Maqamat al\\-Hariri](/wiki/Maqamat_al-Hariri \"Maqamat al-Hariri\")* shared many characteristics with Christian [Syriac](/wiki/Syriac_Christianity \"Syriac Christianity\") illustrated manuscripts, such as [Syriac Gospels (British Library, Add. 7170\\)](/wiki/Syriac_Gospels%2C_British_Library%2C_Add._7170 \"Syriac Gospels, British Library, Add. 7170\"). This synthesis seems to point to a common pictorial tradition which developed from circa 1180 CE in the region, which was highly influenced by [Byzantine art](/wiki/Byzantine_art \"Byzantine art\").{{cite book \\|title\\=The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843–1261 \\|date\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87099\\-777\\-8 \\|pages\\=384–385 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Caqa12aj55wC\\&pg\\=PA384 \\|language\\=en}}{{sfn\\|Snelders\\|2010\\|pp\\=1–2}}", "### Metalwork", "[thumb\\|Seljuk celestial globe with stand, Iran, 1144–45, [Louvre Museum](/wiki/Louvre_Museum \"Louvre Museum\"). The globe mentions: \"This globe includes all the stars mentioned in the book of the *[Almagest](/wiki/Almagest \"Almagest\")* after modifying them in proportion with the interval between the calculations of [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") and the year \\[A.H.] 540, i.e. 1144\\. \\[It is t]he work of (san‘at) Yunis b. al\\-Husayn al\\-Asturlabi \\[in the] year 539\".{{sfn\\|Canby\\|Beyazit\\|Rugiadi\\|Peacock \\|2016\\|p\\=195, object 116}}](/wiki/File:Celestial_Globe_with_Stand%2C_Iran%2C_1144-45%2C_Louvre.jpg \"Celestial Globe with Stand, Iran, 1144-45, Louvre.jpg\")\nStarting around the middle of the 12th century, there appears to have been a major increase in the number of artistic metalwork objects produced in the eastern Islamic world (roughly Iran and Central Asia).{{sfn\\|Ettinghausen\\|Grabar\\|Jenkins\\-Madina\\|2001\\|p\\=\\|pp\\=166–167}} More of these objects have survived from after the 1140s than from before this period.{{Cite book \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=un4WcfEASZwC \\|title\\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2009 \\|isbn\\=9780195309911 \\|editor\\-last\\=Bloom \\|editor\\-first\\=Jonathan M. \\|location\\= \\|pages\\= \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Metalwork; III. c. 1100–c. 1500\\. \\|editor\\-last2\\=Blair \\|editor\\-first2\\=Sheila S.}} The major centers of production were initially concentrated in the Khorasan region, including [Nishapur](/wiki/Nishapur \"Nishapur\"), [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\"), and [Ghazna](/wiki/Ghazni \"Ghazni\"). There is some scholarly debate about the patronage of these objects, with some suggesting that the growth in production is explainable by the growth of a bourgeoisie in Khorasan which had the means to afford such costly craftsmanship.{{sfn\\|Ettinghausen\\|Grabar\\|Jenkins\\-Madina\\|2001\\|p\\=\\|pp\\=166–167}} This is attested in part by inscriptions naming merchant owners, but most surviving objects are nonetheless attributed by their inscriptions to sultans, royal household members, or state officials. In the early 13th century, this expansion of metalwork art and patronage also occurred further west, in the Levant and Mesopotamia, under the successors of the Great Seljuks (the Zengids, the Artuqids, and the Anatolian Seljuks), spurred in part by the immigration of metalworkers from Iran.{{sfn\\|Ettinghausen\\|Grabar\\|Jenkins\\-Madina\\|2001\\|p\\=244}}", "Made of bronze or brass, objects could also be [inlaid](/wiki/Inlay \"Inlay\") with copper and silver. This latter technique had fallen out of fashion in previous centuries but it underwent a revival that probably originated in Khorasan during this period. The forms produced include both traditional Khorasani types, such as fluted [ewers](/wiki/Pitcher_%28container%29 \"Pitcher (container)\") and hooded [incense burners](/wiki/Censer \"Censer\"), and newe shapes, such as penboxes with rounded ends and candlesticks with drum\\-like bodies. Many metal vessels also featured [zoomorphic](/wiki/Zoomorphism \"Zoomorphism\") forms. The most sophisticated works were created by [raising](/wiki/Raising_%28metalworking%29 \"Raising (metalworking)\") and [sinking](/wiki/Sinking_%28metalworking%29 \"Sinking (metalworking)\"), with decoration executed in [*repoussé*](/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing \"Repoussé and chasing\"). To create some shapes, multiple metal sheets were carefully soldered together, with the seams made invisible by various means, such as by camouflaging them under decorative friezes. The wide range of ornamental motifs include [arabesques](/wiki/Arabesque \"Arabesque\"), [geometric designs](/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns \"Islamic geometric patterns\"), real and mythological animals, and even scenes of human figures such as musicians and horsemen. Arabic inscriptions are found on almost all metalwork art objects.{{sfn\\|Ettinghausen\\|Grabar\\|Jenkins\\-Madina\\|2001\\|p\\=167}} An innovation of this period, almost exclusive to metalwork, is the rendering of Arabic script into figurative forms. The earliest example of this is found on the so\\-called [Bobrinsky Bucket](/wiki/Bobrinski_Bucket \"Bobrinski Bucket\").", "File:Feline incense\\-burner MET.jpg\\|\"A demonstration of the excellence achieved in metalwork under the Seljuqs\": bronze incense burner shaped like lion, with removable head, dated 1181–82 CE, \\[\\[Taybad]], Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)\\<ref\\>{{Cite web \\|title\\=Incense Burner of Amir Saif al\\-Dunya wa'l\\-Din ibn Muhammad al\\-Mawardi \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451042 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-05 \\|website\\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\\<ref\\>{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ekhtiar \\|first1\\=Maryam \\|title\\=Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58839\\-434\\-7 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vO761l9dgZwC\\&pg\\=PA129 \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Roundel, 11th century Iran.jpg\\|Gold roundel, 11th century Iran. It \"exemplifies the refinement of Seljuq goldsmithing\".\\<ref\\>{{cite web \\|title\\=Roundel \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452991 \\|website\\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\\<ref\\>{{cite book \\|title\\=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs – MetPublications \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|page\\=94 \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Court\\_and\\_Cosmos \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Necklace, 11th century Iran, Seljuk.jpg\\|Seljuk gold necklace, 11th century Iran.\\<ref\\>{{cite web \\|title\\=Necklace \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452414 \\|website\\=The Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\\<ref\\>{{cite book \\|title\\=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs – MetPublications \\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Museum of Art \\|pages\\=99–100 \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Court\\_and\\_Cosmos \\|language\\=en}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Bobrinsky Bronzekessel.jpg\\|\\[\\[Bobrinski Bucket\\|Bobrinsky Bucket]], a bronze cauldron decorated with human figures. From 1163 CE, Herat, Afghanistan. (\\[\\[Hermitage Museum]])\\<ref\\>{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cauldron \\|url\\=https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital\\-collection/!ut/p/z0/fYxBDoIwEAC\\_0gtXd4st8dpgYsJBDCfYC9komgK2hTbq88UPeJzJZICgBXL8sg9O1jueN\\-6o6GtjCrkvsapLfURTNxfdlOcTSgUV0P9gO9hxWcgAXb1LwydBO\\_HTxn5wGb79OkXh74LXlCEedoJDmO1w\\-4mYocyVzhWEibovg8XxJg!!/ \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2023 \\|website\\=The State Hermitage Museum}}\\</ref\\>\nFile:Candlestick, Afghanistan, Saljuq period, 2nd half of 12th century AD, brass inlaid with copper, silver, gold \\- Freer Gallery of Art \\- DSC04671\\.jpg\\|Brass candlestick with ''\\[\\[Repoussé and chasing\\|repoussé]]'' work. Inlaid with silver, copper, and black bitumen. Late 12th century, Afghanistan. (\\[\\[Freer Gallery of Art]])\\<ref\\>{{Cite web \\|title\\=Candlestick \\|url\\=https://asia.si.edu/explore\\-art\\-culture/collections/search/edanmdm:fsg\\_F1951\\.17/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-05 \\|website\\=National Museum of Asian Art}}\\</ref\\>", "", "### Textiles and clothing", "{{multiple image\\|perrow\\=2/1\\|total\\_width\\=350\\|caption\\_align\\=center\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\=horizontal\n\\| image1 \\= Kitab al\\-Diryaq BNF View 11 (detail).jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Seljuk period figures in Turkic dress, with ''\\[\\[Qaba\\|aqbiya turkiyya]]'' coat, ''\\[\\[tiraz]]'' armbands, boots and ''\\[\\[sharbush]]'' hat. ''\\[\\[Kitāb al\\-Diryāq]]'', \\[\\[Jazira region\\|Jazira]], 1198 CE.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Shahbazi \\|first1\\=Shapur \\|title\\=Clothing \\|url\\=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia\\-iranica\\-online/clothing\\-COM\\_7759?lang\\=en \\|website\\=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=30 August 2020 \\|quote\\=Nevertheless, the most distinctive feature of late Saljuq and post\\-Saljuq male dress was the popularity of patterned textiles for these garments. (...) That these patterns do not merely represent ceramic conventions is clear from the rendering of garments in fragmentary wall paintings and in illustrations from the copy of Varqa wa Golšāh already mentioned, as well as in frontispieces to the volumes of Abu’l\\-Faraj Eṣfahānī’s Ketāb al\\-aḡānī dated 614–16/1217–19 and to two copies of Ketāb al\\-deryāq (Book of antidotes) by Pseudo\\-Galen, dated 596/1199 and ascribed to the second quarter of the 7th/13th century respectively (Survey of Persian Art V, pl. 554A\\-B; Ateş, pls. 1/3, 6/16, 18; D. S. Rice, 1953, figs. 14\\-19; Ettinghausen, 1962, pp. 65, 85, 91\\). The last three manuscripts, all of them attributed to northern Mesopotamia, show that the stiff coat with diagonal closing and arm bands was also worn in that region from the end of the 6th/12th century.}}\n\\| image2 \\= Seljuk silk robe (11th\\-12th century).jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Seljuk period silk robe in Persian style, with birds motifs in medallions (11th–12th century).{{sfn\\|Canby\\|Beyazit\\|Rugiadi\\|Peacock \\|2016\\|pp\\=95\\-96, object 24}}\n\\| image3\\= Kitab al\\-Diryaq reading books (detail).jpg\n\\| caption3\\=Figures in Arab dress, with long robes, turbans and bare or sandalled feet, reading books. ''\\[\\[Kitāb al\\-Diryāq]]'', \\[\\[Jazira region\\|Jazira]], 1198 CE.\n\\| footer\\=\n}}\nThe general clothing style attributed to the Seljuks is that of the *[aqbiya turkiyya](/wiki/Qaba \"Qaba\")*, or long robe or decorated caftan with “Turkish” cut, with a front opening closing diagonally from right to left.{{harvnb\\|Canby\\|Beyazit\\|Rugiadi\\|Peacock \\|2016\\|p\\=98}}: \"Paradoxically, however, while the style commonly attributed to the Seljuqs is that of the left\\-buttoning aqbiya turkiyya, or “Turkish” cut, and although this is the prevailing style of robe in illustrations from contemporary manuscripts, there is perhaps only a single complete robe attributed to the Seljuq period that closes (...) Taken within the context of adab, however, it becomes possible that the adoption of the “Tatar\\-style” coat was a conscious decision on the part of the affluent sedentary Persian population, as it was less identifiable with the Seljuq Turks. These associations would have been increasingly acute toward the end of the Seljuq period, as a result of the Khwarazm Shah invasions and perhaps exacerbated by the westward migrations of nomadic groups at the start of the Mongol invasion.\" Patterned textiles were used, together with *[tiraz](/wiki/Tiraz \"Tiraz\")* bands on the upper sleeves. Clothing included tall boots, as well as various hats of the *[sharbush](/wiki/Sharbush \"Sharbush\")* type, often including a fur lining.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Peck \\|first1\\=Elsie H. \\|title\\=Clothing viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion \\|publisher\\=Encyclopaedia Iranica \\|pages\\=760–778 \\|url\\=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing\\-viii}} These styles continued during the 13th century in the smaller Turkic successor states, such as the [Zengids](/wiki/Zengids \"Zengids\") or [Artuqids](/wiki/Artuqids \"Artuqids\"), where many more illustrations are available, especially in manuscripts.", "On the other hand, the affluent sedentary Persian population seems to have adopted different robe styles, with a front opening closing diagonally from left to right, called the *aqbiya tatariyya* or \"Tatar style\", but actually also characteristic of Persian caftans from the last decades of the Sasanian dynasty. The fabrics represent what could be called a \"[Sasanian](/wiki/Sasanian_Empire \"Sasanian Empire\") renaissance\", with styles going back to the Sasanian or Sogdian period.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Weibel\\|first\\=Adèle Coulin\\|year\\=1935\\|title\\=Seljuk Fabrics\\|journal\\=Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts of the City of Detroit\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=41–43\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/BULLDETINST41501410\\|jstor\\=41501410\\|s2cid\\=222813497}} Seljuk fabrics are often distinguished by the representation of nature, by minimal ornamental details, and by the combination of colorful linens giving an interchangeable color effect to the fabric. Many realistic natural elements characterize the composition of the fabrics, such as animals and plants, forming patterns consisting of arabesque elements.", "In many manuscripts of the period, great care is taken to distinghuish the clothing of figures of power and authority in Seljuk style, from that of the otherwise omnipresent figures in Arabic or local style with their long robes, turbans and bare or sandalled feet.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=McSweeney \\|first1\\=Anna \\|title\\=The Maqamat of al\\-Hariri. Two Illustrated Mamluk Manuscripts at the British Library MS Or.9718 and Ms.Add.22114\\.pdf (MA Thesis, SOAS) \\|journal\\=SOAS Dept. Art and Archaeology \\|pages\\=29–30 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/29232459}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Flood \\|first1\\=Finbarr Barry \\|title\\=A Turk in the Dukhang? Comparative Perspectives on Elite Dress in Medieval Ladakh and the Caucasus \\|journal\\=Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia \\|year\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=Austrian Academy of Science Press \\|page\\=232 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/35061254}} According to Snelders:", "{{blockquote\\|In a number of these manuscripts a careful distinction is made between royal and non\\-royal figures, both in terms of physical appearance and dress. Whereas princes and governors are commonly represented with the same ‘Asiatic’ or ‘Oriental’ facial features, and dressed in Turkish military garments like fur\\-trimmed caps (''\\[\\[sharbush]]'') and short close\\-fitting tunics, most other figures are depicted with ‘Arab’ or ‘Semitic’ facial features, and dressed in long robes and turbans. Apparently in keeping with the contemporary political and social makeup of the region in which these manuscripts were produced, a visual distinction was made along ethnic and social lines, between the non\\-Arab Turkish ruling elite and the indigenous Arab bourgeoisie.\\|Snelders ''Identity and Christian\\-Muslim interaction : medieval art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul area''.{{sfn\\|Snelders\\|2010\\|loc\\=Paragraph 4\\.7}}}}", "" ]
Conservation and threats ------------------------ ### Conservation groups There have been numerous initiatives to address and educate the public about the issues that threaten the Coquitlam River. These began in 1996 with the Coquitlam River Watershed Community Initiative, and continue today with others, such as the Coquitlam River Watershed Society established in 1998\. ### Salmon To rejuvenate the salmonid species in the river, the Port Coquitlam \& District Hunting and Fishing Club has operated the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery through the [Department of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada "Fisheries and Oceans Canada") (DFO) Salmonid Enhancement Program (SEP). At the hatchery, tens of thousands of [juvenile fish](/wiki/Juvenile_fish "Juvenile fish") are released each spring. These efforts has led to a rebound in [coho](/wiki/Coho_salmon "Coho salmon"), [chum](/wiki/Chum_salmon "Chum salmon") and [pink salmon](/wiki/Pink_salmon "Pink salmon") populations, with approximately 4 times the amount of salmon returning compared to their lowest numbers. However, other species such as sockeye salmon and [steelhead trout](/wiki/Steelhead_trout "Steelhead trout") are either not returning at all or in very low numbers. This is likely due to long\-lasting impacts from the Coquitlam Lake dam, logging upstream, and gravel removal. Since the dam's installation, salmon have been cut off from the valuable rearing habitat of the upper Coquitlam River. To attempt to reverse this, [Fisheries and Oceans Canada](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada "Fisheries and Oceans Canada") plan to transport up to 100 returning coho salmon. This plan was presented in 2020 and will likely occur over a 5\-year trial period. This transportation will also be managed by the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery. ### Threatened species management There is a protected [Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Wildlife_management_area "Wildlife management area") found on the north side of the Coquitlam and Fraser Rivers confluence. This land is managed by the BC's Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resources Operations and Rural Developments (FLNRORD). The great blue herons found on this reserve are blue\-listed species under the BC Species at Risk Act (SARA) and are listed as a "special concern" under [COSEWIC](/wiki/COSEWIC "COSEWIC"). In 2014, a Species at Risk project was completed and both the [great blue heron](/wiki/Great_blue_heron "Great blue heron") as well as the blue\-listed [red\-legged frog](/wiki/Red-legged_frog "Red-legged frog") were identified along the Coquitlam River. Red\-legged frogs were observed in the upper reaches, however possible breeding habitat was also identified and recommended as a viable location for restoration. Due to the sensitive nature of this [amphibian](/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian"), it was also recommended to avoid pond draining and ditch cleaning during breeding times.
[ "Conservation and threats\n------------------------", "### Conservation groups", "There have been numerous initiatives to address and educate the public about the issues that threaten the Coquitlam River. These began in 1996 with the Coquitlam River Watershed Community Initiative, and continue today with others, such as the Coquitlam River Watershed Society established in 1998\\.", "### Salmon", "To rejuvenate the salmonid species in the river, the Port Coquitlam \\& District Hunting and Fishing Club has operated the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery through the [Department of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada \"Fisheries and Oceans Canada\") (DFO) Salmonid Enhancement Program (SEP). At the hatchery, tens of thousands of [juvenile fish](/wiki/Juvenile_fish \"Juvenile fish\") are released each spring. These efforts has led to a rebound in [coho](/wiki/Coho_salmon \"Coho salmon\"), [chum](/wiki/Chum_salmon \"Chum salmon\") and [pink salmon](/wiki/Pink_salmon \"Pink salmon\") populations, with approximately 4 times the amount of salmon returning compared to their lowest numbers. However, other species such as sockeye salmon and [steelhead trout](/wiki/Steelhead_trout \"Steelhead trout\") are either not returning at all or in very low numbers. This is likely due to long\\-lasting impacts from the Coquitlam Lake dam, logging upstream, and gravel removal.", "Since the dam's installation, salmon have been cut off from the valuable rearing habitat of the upper Coquitlam River. To attempt to reverse this, [Fisheries and Oceans Canada](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada \"Fisheries and Oceans Canada\") plan to transport up to 100 returning coho salmon. This plan was presented in 2020 and will likely occur over a 5\\-year trial period. This transportation will also be managed by the Grist Goeson Memorial Hatchery.", "### Threatened species management", "There is a protected [Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Wildlife_management_area \"Wildlife management area\") found on the north side of the Coquitlam and Fraser Rivers confluence. This land is managed by the BC's Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resources Operations and Rural Developments (FLNRORD). The great blue herons found on this reserve are blue\\-listed species under the BC Species at Risk Act (SARA) and are listed as a \"special concern\" under [COSEWIC](/wiki/COSEWIC \"COSEWIC\").", "In 2014, a Species at Risk project was completed and both the [great blue heron](/wiki/Great_blue_heron \"Great blue heron\") as well as the blue\\-listed [red\\-legged frog](/wiki/Red-legged_frog \"Red-legged frog\") were identified along the Coquitlam River. Red\\-legged frogs were observed in the upper reaches, however possible breeding habitat was also identified and recommended as a viable location for restoration. Due to the sensitive nature of this [amphibian](/wiki/Amphibian \"Amphibian\"), it was also recommended to avoid pond draining and ditch cleaning during breeding times.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ ### Historical Historically, Briarcliff Manor's racial composition has not changed significantly. The village has seen a decrease in its non\-Hispanic white population to 86 percent in 2010, down from 92 percent in 1990\. The mid\- to late\-20th century saw an increase in the African\-American population from 2\.1 to 3\.4 percent. The village has experienced significant population growth, with it and neighboring communities undergoing more rapid growth than Westchester County overall. The period from 1950 to 1970 saw the greatest increase in population, with growth leveling off since then. ### Modern Briarcliff Manor is primarily non\-commercial, with over 80 percent of village land residential.{{rp\|page\=1}} Approximately 99% of the buildings are residential; of these, 85\.3% are single\-family units.{{rp\|page\=10}} In the [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") there were 7,867 people, 2,647 households, and 2,037 families living in 2,753 housing units. Of the 2,647 households, 39\.7 percent had children under age 18 living with them; 68\.5 percent were married couples living together, 6\.6 percent were headed by women, 1\.9 percent were single males and 23 percent were non\-families. Twenty\-one percent of all households were individuals, with 14\.1 percent age 65 or older. Average household size was 2\.71; average family size was 3\.16, with a median age of 43\.4 years. The 2015 [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") (ACS) reported an estimated 2,636 households, 50 of which were held by unmarried partners. 34 of these were female householder and male partner households and 16 were male householder and male partner households. No male\-female or female\-female unmarried partner households were reported.{{cite web\|title\=Unmarried\-Partner Households by Sex of Partner: Briarcliff Manor village, New York\|work\=American FactFinder, 2011\-2015 American Community Survey 5\-Year Estimates\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|url\=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/ACS/15\_5YR/B11009/0100000US%7C1600000US3608103\|access\-date\=July 16, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200214004516/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/ACS/15\_5YR/B11009/0100000US%7C1600000US3608103\|archive\-date\=February 14, 2020\|url\-status\=dead}} The village's population density was {{convert\|1319\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/sqkm}}. In 2010, its racial composition was 82\.7 percent [white](/wiki/White_American "White American"), 3\.3 percent African American, 0\.1 percent Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 8\.5 percent Asian American, and 3\.1 percent from two (or more) races. [Hispanic and Latino Americans](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") made up 8\.2 percent of the population. The 2015 ACS estimated median household income at $141,170 and median family income was $183,047\. Males had a median income of $124,000, with $82,660 for females; per capita income was $76,256\. About 1\.3 percent of families and 2\.2 percent of the overall population were below the poverty line, along with 0\.9 percent for those under 18 and 4\.8 percent for those 65 or over. The 2015 ACS also reported English as the primary language spoken at home, with 84\.8 percent only speaking the language, followed by Spanish at 4\.9 percent, and 10\.3 percent primarily speaking other languages. Ancestry is primarily Italian and Irish, at 18\.1 and 12\.9 percents respectively, followed by American at 8\.8, Russian at 8\.5 and German at 8\.4 percent. Exact numbers on religious denominations in Briarcliff Manor are not readily available. Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its [decennial census](/wiki/United_States_Census "United States Census"). It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics, but these are not representative of a municipality the size of Briarcliff Manor. One report from 2010 offers religious affiliations for Westchester County. According to the data, 59\.3% of county residents identified as [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"): 50\.9% are [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States "Catholic Church in the United States"), 5\.9% are [mainline Protestants](/wiki/Mainline_Protestant "Mainline Protestant"), 2% are [Evangelical Protestants](/wiki/Evangelicalism "Evangelicalism"), and .5% are [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church") or [Oriental](/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy "Oriental Orthodoxy") Orthodox Christians. Residents who practice [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") make up 10\.1% of the population and practitioners of other faiths represent .9%. Note that these values are county\-wide; municipal values could be significantly different. {{Historical populations \|title \= Population growth since 1902 \|direction \= horizontal \|align \= none \|pop\_name \= Population \|1902\|331 \|1910\|950 \|1920\|1027 \|1930\|1794 \|1940\|1830 \|1950\|2494 \|1960\|5105 \|1970\|6521 \|1980\|7115 \|1990\|7070 \|2000\|7696 \|2010\|7867 \|2019\|8094 \|2020\|7569 \|source\=1902 to 1940{{rp\|pages\=11–31}} {{•}} 1950 to 2000 {{•}} 2010 {{•}} 2020{{cite web\|title\=QuickFacts: Briarcliff Manor village, New York\|work\=United States Census Bureau\|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/briarcliffmanorvillagenewyork/POP010210\#POP010210\|access\-date\=September 20, 2022}} }}
[ "Demographics\n------------", "### Historical", "Historically, Briarcliff Manor's racial composition has not changed significantly. The village has seen a decrease in its non\\-Hispanic white population to 86 percent in 2010, down from 92 percent in 1990\\. The mid\\- to late\\-20th century saw an increase in the African\\-American population from 2\\.1 to 3\\.4 percent.", "The village has experienced significant population growth, with it and neighboring communities undergoing more rapid growth than Westchester County overall. The period from 1950 to 1970 saw the greatest increase in population, with growth leveling off since then.", "### Modern", "Briarcliff Manor is primarily non\\-commercial, with over 80 percent of village land residential.{{rp\\|page\\=1}} Approximately 99% of the buildings are residential; of these, 85\\.3% are single\\-family units.{{rp\\|page\\=10}} In the [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") there were 7,867 people, 2,647 households, and 2,037 families living in 2,753 housing units. Of the 2,647 households, 39\\.7 percent had children under age 18 living with them; 68\\.5 percent were married couples living together, 6\\.6 percent were headed by women, 1\\.9 percent were single males and 23 percent were non\\-families. Twenty\\-one percent of all households were individuals, with 14\\.1 percent age 65 or older. Average household size was 2\\.71; average family size was 3\\.16, with a median age of 43\\.4 years. The 2015 [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") (ACS) reported an estimated 2,636 households, 50 of which were held by unmarried partners. 34 of these were female householder and male partner households and 16 were male householder and male partner households. No male\\-female or female\\-female unmarried partner households were reported.{{cite web\\|title\\=Unmarried\\-Partner Households by Sex of Partner: Briarcliff Manor village, New York\\|work\\=American FactFinder, 2011\\-2015 American Community Survey 5\\-Year Estimates\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|url\\=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/ACS/15\\_5YR/B11009/0100000US%7C1600000US3608103\\|access\\-date\\=July 16, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200214004516/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/ACS/15\\_5YR/B11009/0100000US%7C1600000US3608103\\|archive\\-date\\=February 14, 2020\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The village's population density was {{convert\\|1319\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/sqkm}}. In 2010, its racial composition was 82\\.7 percent [white](/wiki/White_American \"White American\"), 3\\.3 percent African American, 0\\.1 percent Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 8\\.5 percent Asian American, and 3\\.1 percent from two (or more) races. [Hispanic and Latino Americans](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") made up 8\\.2 percent of the population.", "The 2015 ACS estimated median household income at $141,170 and median family income was $183,047\\. Males had a median income of $124,000, with $82,660 for females; per capita income was $76,256\\. About 1\\.3 percent of families and 2\\.2 percent of the overall population were below the poverty line, along with 0\\.9 percent for those under 18 and 4\\.8 percent for those 65 or over.", "The 2015 ACS also reported English as the primary language spoken at home, with 84\\.8 percent only speaking the language, followed by Spanish at 4\\.9 percent, and 10\\.3 percent primarily speaking other languages. Ancestry is primarily Italian and Irish, at 18\\.1 and 12\\.9 percents respectively, followed by American at 8\\.8, Russian at 8\\.5 and German at 8\\.4 percent.", "Exact numbers on religious denominations in Briarcliff Manor are not readily available. Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its [decennial census](/wiki/United_States_Census \"United States Census\"). It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics, but these are not representative of a municipality the size of Briarcliff Manor. One report from 2010 offers religious affiliations for Westchester County. According to the data, 59\\.3% of county residents identified as [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"): 50\\.9% are [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States \"Catholic Church in the United States\"), 5\\.9% are [mainline Protestants](/wiki/Mainline_Protestant \"Mainline Protestant\"), 2% are [Evangelical Protestants](/wiki/Evangelicalism \"Evangelicalism\"), and .5% are [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\") or [Oriental](/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy \"Oriental Orthodoxy\") Orthodox Christians. Residents who practice [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") make up 10\\.1% of the population and practitioners of other faiths represent .9%. Note that these values are county\\-wide; municipal values could be significantly different.", "{{Historical populations\n\\|title \\= Population growth since 1902\n\\|direction \\= horizontal\n\\|align \\= none\n\\|pop\\_name \\= Population\n\\|1902\\|331\n\\|1910\\|950\n\\|1920\\|1027\n\\|1930\\|1794\n\\|1940\\|1830\n\\|1950\\|2494\n\\|1960\\|5105\n\\|1970\\|6521\n\\|1980\\|7115\n\\|1990\\|7070\n\\|2000\\|7696\n\\|2010\\|7867\n\\|2019\\|8094\n\\|2020\\|7569\n\\|source\\=1902 to 1940{{rp\\|pages\\=11–31}} {{•}} 1950 to 2000 {{•}} 2010 {{•}} 2020{{cite web\\|title\\=QuickFacts: Briarcliff Manor village, New York\\|work\\=United States Census Bureau\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/briarcliffmanorvillagenewyork/POP010210\\#POP010210\\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2022}}\n}}", "" ]
Arts and culture ---------------- [thumb\|left\|alt\=Uniformed men and civilians standing before a memorial at a park\|American Legion and [BMFD](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor_Fire_Department "Briarcliff Manor Fire Department") members alongside village residents at the annual Memorial Day ceremony](/wiki/File:Memorial_Day_in_Briarcliff_Manor.jpg "Memorial Day in Briarcliff Manor.jpg") The village symbol is the [Briarcliff Rose](/wiki/Briarcliff_Rose "Briarcliff Rose"), a more brightly colored offshoot of the [American Beauty rose](/wiki/American_Beauty_rose "American Beauty rose"). Since 2006, the Briarcliff Rose has been used on village street signs. The Briarcliff Manor Garden Club, which also uses the Briarcliff rose as their symbol, was established in 1956\.{{rp\|page\=151}} One of its primary functions is in planting, maintaining, and improving public gardens and grounds. Briarcliff Manor has groups in several [Scouting](/wiki/Scouting_in_the_United_States "Scouting in the United States") organizations, including [Cub Scout](/wiki/Cub_Scouting_%28Boy_Scouts_of_America%29 "Cub Scouting (Boy Scouts of America)") Pack 6 and [Boy Scout](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America "Boy Scouts of America") Troop 18\. Pack 6 became the first Cub Scout pack in the village at its establishment in 1968; by 2002 it had over 70 cubs in 12 dens.{{rp\|page\=42}} The village's first Boy Scout troop was Troop 1 Briarcliff, founded before 1919\. Sources cite Bill Buffman as the first Scoutmaster and [John Hersey](/wiki/John_Hersey "John Hersey") as the troop's first [Eagle Scout](/wiki/Eagle_Scout_%28Boy_Scouts_of_America%29 "Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)"). The first Girl Scout troop in the village was founded in 1917 by Louise Miller and Mrs. Alfred Jones, and the first [Brownie](/wiki/Membership_levels_of_the_Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA%23History "Membership levels of the Girl Scouts of the USA#History") troop was founded in 1929\.{{rp\|page\=77}} The Briarcliff Manor Community Bonfire is a winter holiday event at Law Park, hosted by the village and the Briarcliff Friends of the Arts, involving live music (primarily seasonal and holiday songs), refreshments, and craft projects for children. Another annual community event is the Memorial Day parade, a tradition in Briarcliff Manor for more than fifty years. Before the parade begins, the Municipal Building's bell is rung to commemorate firefighters who have died in the previous year; the parade ends at the village's war memorial in Law Park, where wreaths are laid on the monument. The holiday has been celebrated in the village since the early 1900s, though initially involving large family picnics, with parades reserved for the [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July "Fourth of July"). ### Historical society {{multiple image \|total\_width\=350\|footer\=The \[\[Briarcliff Manor Public Library]] is home to the \[\[Briarcliff Manor\-Scarborough Historical Society]] \|image1\=Library Sign in Briarcliff Manor.png\|alt1\=A rock wall and trees behind a large signpost \|image2\=Briarcliff\_Manor\_Public\_Library.png\|alt2\=A wooden Tudor Revival\-style building }} {{Listen\|type\=music\|filename\=07 At The Briarcliff Lodge.ogg\|title\=''At The Briarcliff Lodge''\|description\=A song performed at the Centennial Variety Show, by \[\[Carmino Ravosa]]}} Briarcliff Manor maintains strong ties to its history and traditions. During Briarcliff Manor's 1952 semicentennial, nine people served on the Historical Committee and published a village history book. In March 1974, after the mayor appointed twelve people for a 75th anniversary committee, the committee began by forming the [Briarcliff Manor\-Scarborough Historical Society](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor-Scarborough_Historical_Society "Briarcliff Manor-Scarborough Historical Society") (BMSHS). The historical society published an updated village history (*A Village Between Two Rivers: Briarcliff Manor*) in 1977, marking the 75th anniversary of the village. The historical society was initially located at the since\-demolished Briarcliff Middle School building; it later moved to the second floor of a realty building on Pleasantville Road, and moved back to the school building after it was leased by Pace University.{{rp\|page\=195}} On March 21, 2010, the BMSHS was given a permanent location at the Eileen O'Connor Weber Historical Center, established as part of the expanded Briarcliff Manor Public Library. Members of the historical society joined the nine\-member Centennial Committee in 2002 to organize events for Briarcliff Manor's centennial. The Centennial Committee and BMSHS helped organize several events for the village's 2002 centennial celebration, including the Centennial Variety Show at the Briarcliff High School auditorium in a sold\-out two\-night run on April 26–27, 2002\.{{rp\|page\=62}} The two\-act show consisted of interpretations of village life by village organizations and a [revue](/wiki/Revue "Revue") of Briarcliff Manor history in skits and songs. Other society\-sponsored events have included tours of homes and churches, bus tours, Hudson River cruises on historic boats such as the [M/V *Commander*](/wiki/MV_Commander "MV Commander") (built in 1917 and listed on the national and state registers of historic places), dances, antique\-car exhibits, day trips to historic points of interest, art exhibits, and events with authors and elected officials. ### Historic sites {{Hatnote\|Further information: \[\[National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester County, New York\|National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester]]}} [thumb\|left\|alt\=A three\-story beige Renaissance Revival mansion\|The 1895 [McKim, Mead \& White](/wiki/McKim%2C_Mead_%26_White "McKim, Mead & White")–designed mansion [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea "Woodlea")](/wiki/File:Woodlea_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff "Woodlea in Briarcliff Manor.tiff") Briarcliff Manor is home to a number of historic buildings and districts. Buildings on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") include [All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 "All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)") (added May 14, 2002\), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt "Carrie Chapman Catt")'s house [Juniper Ledge](/wiki/Juniper_Ledge "Juniper Ledge") (added March 4, 2006\) and several structures in the {{convert\|376\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} [Scarborough Historic District](/wiki/Scarborough_Historic_District "Scarborough Historic District") (added September 7, 1984\). Part of the [Old Croton Aqueduct State Historic Park](/wiki/Croton_Aqueduct%23Old_Croton_Trail "Croton Aqueduct#Old Croton Trail"), controlled by the [New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation](/wiki/New_York_State_Office_of_Parks%2C_Recreation_and_Historic_Preservation "New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation"), lies within the village. The Old Croton Aqueduct is on the National Register and is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_New_York "List of National Historic Landmarks in New York"). Although Catt's house Juniper Ledge is within Briarcliff Manor's postal boundaries, the property is located within the municipal boundaries of the nearby town of [New Castle](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_New_York "New Castle, New York"). Briarcliff Manor composer and historian [Carmino Ravosa](/wiki/Carmino_Ravosa "Carmino Ravosa") initiated the house's preservation by researching and initiating the nomination of Juniper Ledge to the National Register. {{Clear}} ### Houses of worship [thumb\|alt\=Stone English Gothic–style church with red door\|[All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 "All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)")](/wiki/File:AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg "AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg") Briarcliff Manor is home to seven Christian churches and two synagogues; three churches (Holy Innocents Anglican Church, Saint Mary's Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church) are in Scarborough. Other churches in the village are All Saints' Episcopal Church, St. Theresa's Catholic Church, Faith Lutheran Brethren Church, and Briarcliff Congregational Church ([United Church of Christ](/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ "United Church of Christ")). Jewish synagogues Congregation Sons of Israel and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch "Chabad Lubavitch") of Briarcliff Manor \& Ossining are in Chilmark. Saint Mary's Episcopal Church, founded in 1839 by William Creighton as Saint Mary's Church, Beechwood, is Briarcliff Manor's oldest church; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary's Church of Scarborough.{{rp\|page\=28}} The granite church was built by local stonemasons and paid for by Creighton's wealthy neighbors, including [Commodore Matthew Perry](/wiki/Commodore_Matthew_Perry "Commodore Matthew Perry"), [James Watson Webb](/wiki/James_Watson_Webb "James Watson Webb"), [William Aspinwall](/wiki/William_Aspinwall "William Aspinwall"), and [Ambrose Kingsland](/wiki/Ambrose_Kingsland "Ambrose Kingsland").{{rp\|page\=19}} The church is in near\-original condition, with a design based on the 14th\-century [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") St. Mary's parish church in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire "Scarborough, North Yorkshire"), England and the only church with a complete set of [William Jay Bolton](/wiki/William_Jay_Bolton "William Jay Bolton") stained\-glass windows. The church, built in 1851, is a contributing property to the National Register\-listed Scarborough Historic District. The {{convert\|338\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} [Sleepy Hollow Country Club](/wiki/Sleepy_Hollow_Country_Club "Sleepy Hollow Country Club") surrounds the church grounds on three sides. Notable parishioners included Commodore [Matthew C. Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry "Matthew C. Perry") and [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving "Washington Irving"). Irving, author of "[Rip Van Winkle](/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle "Rip Van Winkle")" and "[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow")", brought the ivy surrounding the church from [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford_House "Abbotsford House") (home of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott "Walter Scott")). On July 5, 2015, Saint Mary's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation; the [Church of South India](/wiki/Church_of_South_India "Church of South India")'s Congregation of the Hudson Valley moved in that November. Scarborough Presbyterian Church, given to the community by [Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard](/wiki/Margaret_Louisa_Vanderbilt_Shepard "Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard") and her husband Colonel [Elliott Fitch Shepard](/wiki/Elliott_Fitch_Shepard "Elliott Fitch Shepard") (who lived on the nearby [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea "Woodlea") estate), was the first church in the United States with an electric organ. Built in 1895 and designed by Augustus Haydel (a nephew of [Stanford White](/wiki/Stanford_White "Stanford White")) and Shepard (a nephew of Elliott Shepard)—who designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan—the {{convert\|3\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} church property is also part of the Scarborough Historic District. All Saints' Episcopal Church is a stone church also on the National Register of Historic Places. It was founded in 1854 by John David Ogilby, whose summer estate and family home in Ireland were the namesakes of Briarcliff Manor. The [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival "Gothic Revival") church, built on Ogilby's summer estate, was designed by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn "Richard Upjohn") and modeled on Saint Andrew's in [Bemerton](/wiki/Bemerton "Bemerton"), England.{{rp\|page\=21}} The church, with an 1883 [Stick style](/wiki/Stick_style "Stick style") rectory and 1904 [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts "Arts and Crafts")\-style parish hall, is an example of the modest English Gothic parish church popular in the region during the mid\-19th century. [thumb\|left\|alt\=A large stone church\|St. Theresa's Catholic Church](/wiki/File:St.Theresa%27s_Church_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff "St.Theresa's Church in Briarcliff Manor.tiff") The parish of St. Theresa's Catholic Church was established in 1926 with thirty\-six families, and the present church was dedicated on September 23, 1928\. The [rectory](/wiki/Rectory "Rectory") of the church was the original farmhouse of Briarcliff Farms. Faith Lutheran Brethren Church had its 1959 beginning in a white chapel in [Scarsdale](/wiki/Scarsdale "Scarsdale"). Its congregation then sold the chapel and moved to its {{convert\|2\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on\|sigfig\=1}} current site in Briarcliff Manor. The church, built largely through volunteer labor by the congregation's twelve families, held its first service on October 8, 1967\. A nursery\-school program, the Little School, began in 1972 and the church also sponsors women's and youth groups.{{rp\|page\=75}} Briarcliff Congregational Church, built in 1896, has windows by [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany "Louis Comfort Tiffany"), [William Willet](/wiki/William_Willet "William Willet"), [J\&R Lamb Studios](/wiki/J%26R_Lamb_Studios "J&R Lamb Studios"), [Hardman \& Co.](/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co. "Hardman & Co."), and Woodhaven. The church began in a small, one\-room schoolhouse (known as the "white school"), built around 1865 and used as a school, a religious school, and a house of worship for up to 60 people. In 1896, George A. Todd Jr. asked Walter Law to support the construction of a new church. Law donated the church land, making his new church a Congregational one so the entire community (regardless of religious background) could attend. The [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") and a [Norman](/wiki/Norman_architecture "Norman architecture")\-style tower were built first, in an English\-parish style with Gothic windows. When the congregation outgrew the church, Law funded a northern section (including [transepts](/wiki/Transept "Transept") and [apse](/wiki/Apse "Apse")) which was dedicated in 1905\. He donated the church organ (replacing it in 1924\), four Tiffany windows, and the [manse](/wiki/Manse "Manse") across the street. The church housed a weekly indoor farmers' market at its parish house from 2008 to 2011, when the market was moved to Pace University's Briarcliff Campus. Congregation Sons of Israel, self\-described as [egalitarian](/wiki/Egalitarian "Egalitarian") [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism"), was the first synagogue in Briarcliff Manor. The congregation was formed in 1891 by eleven men in Ossining, and until 1902 services were held in homes and stores. That year, the congregation (now twenty\-three families) purchased a building on Durston Avenue; the Jewish Cemetery, established in 1900 on Dale Avenue, is still in use. In 1920, the synagogue, numbering forty\-five families, established a religious school. After outgrowing its facilities, it purchased a site on Waller Avenue and completed a new synagogue in 1922\. During the 1950s the congregation purchased the {{convert\|11\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} Mead Farm on Pleasantville Road, which it has used since 1960\.{{rp\|page\=101}} Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor \& Ossining was established around 2004, and is located on Orchard Road in Chilmark. On March 18, 2015, the organization purchased a building previously owned by the Ossining Heights United Methodist Church, on Campwoods Road in the village of Ossining. Chabad Lubavitch plans to renovate the building significantly before making it its first permanent synagogue.
[ "Arts and culture\n----------------", "[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Uniformed men and civilians standing before a memorial at a park\\|American Legion and [BMFD](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor_Fire_Department \"Briarcliff Manor Fire Department\") members alongside village residents at the annual Memorial Day ceremony](/wiki/File:Memorial_Day_in_Briarcliff_Manor.jpg \"Memorial Day in Briarcliff Manor.jpg\")\nThe village symbol is the [Briarcliff Rose](/wiki/Briarcliff_Rose \"Briarcliff Rose\"), a more brightly colored offshoot of the [American Beauty rose](/wiki/American_Beauty_rose \"American Beauty rose\"). Since 2006, the Briarcliff Rose has been used on village street signs. The Briarcliff Manor Garden Club, which also uses the Briarcliff rose as their symbol, was established in 1956\\.{{rp\\|page\\=151}} One of its primary functions is in planting, maintaining, and improving public gardens and grounds.", "Briarcliff Manor has groups in several [Scouting](/wiki/Scouting_in_the_United_States \"Scouting in the United States\") organizations, including [Cub Scout](/wiki/Cub_Scouting_%28Boy_Scouts_of_America%29 \"Cub Scouting (Boy Scouts of America)\") Pack 6 and [Boy Scout](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America \"Boy Scouts of America\") Troop 18\\. Pack 6 became the first Cub Scout pack in the village at its establishment in 1968; by 2002 it had over 70 cubs in 12 dens.{{rp\\|page\\=42}} The village's first Boy Scout troop was Troop 1 Briarcliff, founded before 1919\\. Sources cite Bill Buffman as the first Scoutmaster and [John Hersey](/wiki/John_Hersey \"John Hersey\") as the troop's first [Eagle Scout](/wiki/Eagle_Scout_%28Boy_Scouts_of_America%29 \"Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)\"). The first Girl Scout troop in the village was founded in 1917 by Louise Miller and Mrs. Alfred Jones, and the first [Brownie](/wiki/Membership_levels_of_the_Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA%23History \"Membership levels of the Girl Scouts of the USA#History\") troop was founded in 1929\\.{{rp\\|page\\=77}}", "The Briarcliff Manor Community Bonfire is a winter holiday event at Law Park, hosted by the village and the Briarcliff Friends of the Arts, involving live music (primarily seasonal and holiday songs), refreshments, and craft projects for children. Another annual community event is the Memorial Day parade, a tradition in Briarcliff Manor for more than fifty years. Before the parade begins, the Municipal Building's bell is rung to commemorate firefighters who have died in the previous year; the parade ends at the village's war memorial in Law Park, where wreaths are laid on the monument. The holiday has been celebrated in the village since the early 1900s, though initially involving large family picnics, with parades reserved for the [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July \"Fourth of July\").", "### Historical society", "{{multiple image\n\\|total\\_width\\=350\\|footer\\=The \\[\\[Briarcliff Manor Public Library]] is home to the \\[\\[Briarcliff Manor\\-Scarborough Historical Society]]\n\\|image1\\=Library Sign in Briarcliff Manor.png\\|alt1\\=A rock wall and trees behind a large signpost\n\\|image2\\=Briarcliff\\_Manor\\_Public\\_Library.png\\|alt2\\=A wooden Tudor Revival\\-style building\n}}\n{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=07 At The Briarcliff Lodge.ogg\\|title\\=''At The Briarcliff Lodge''\\|description\\=A song performed at the Centennial Variety Show, by \\[\\[Carmino Ravosa]]}}\nBriarcliff Manor maintains strong ties to its history and traditions. During Briarcliff Manor's 1952 semicentennial, nine people served on the Historical Committee and published a village history book. In March 1974, after the mayor appointed twelve people for a 75th anniversary committee, the committee began by forming the [Briarcliff Manor\\-Scarborough Historical Society](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor-Scarborough_Historical_Society \"Briarcliff Manor-Scarborough Historical Society\") (BMSHS). The historical society published an updated village history (*A Village Between Two Rivers: Briarcliff Manor*) in 1977, marking the 75th anniversary of the village. The historical society was initially located at the since\\-demolished Briarcliff Middle School building; it later moved to the second floor of a realty building on Pleasantville Road, and moved back to the school building after it was leased by Pace University.{{rp\\|page\\=195}} On March 21, 2010, the BMSHS was given a permanent location at the Eileen O'Connor Weber Historical Center, established as part of the expanded Briarcliff Manor Public Library. Members of the historical society joined the nine\\-member Centennial Committee in 2002 to organize events for Briarcliff Manor's centennial.", "The Centennial Committee and BMSHS helped organize several events for the village's 2002 centennial celebration, including the Centennial Variety Show at the Briarcliff High School auditorium in a sold\\-out two\\-night run on April 26–27, 2002\\.{{rp\\|page\\=62}} The two\\-act show consisted of interpretations of village life by village organizations and a [revue](/wiki/Revue \"Revue\") of Briarcliff Manor history in skits and songs. Other society\\-sponsored events have included tours of homes and churches, bus tours, Hudson River cruises on historic boats such as the [M/V *Commander*](/wiki/MV_Commander \"MV Commander\") (built in 1917 and listed on the national and state registers of historic places), dances, antique\\-car exhibits, day trips to historic points of interest, art exhibits, and events with authors and elected officials.", "### Historic sites", "{{Hatnote\\|Further information: \\[\\[National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester County, New York\\|National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester]]}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=A three\\-story beige Renaissance Revival mansion\\|The 1895 [McKim, Mead \\& White](/wiki/McKim%2C_Mead_%26_White \"McKim, Mead & White\")–designed mansion [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea \"Woodlea\")](/wiki/File:Woodlea_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff \"Woodlea in Briarcliff Manor.tiff\")", "Briarcliff Manor is home to a number of historic buildings and districts. Buildings on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") include [All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 \"All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)\") (added May 14, 2002\\), [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt \"Carrie Chapman Catt\")'s house [Juniper Ledge](/wiki/Juniper_Ledge \"Juniper Ledge\") (added March 4, 2006\\) and several structures in the {{convert\\|376\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} [Scarborough Historic District](/wiki/Scarborough_Historic_District \"Scarborough Historic District\") (added September 7, 1984\\). Part of the [Old Croton Aqueduct State Historic Park](/wiki/Croton_Aqueduct%23Old_Croton_Trail \"Croton Aqueduct#Old Croton Trail\"), controlled by the [New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation](/wiki/New_York_State_Office_of_Parks%2C_Recreation_and_Historic_Preservation \"New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation\"), lies within the village. The Old Croton Aqueduct is on the National Register and is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_New_York \"List of National Historic Landmarks in New York\").", "Although Catt's house Juniper Ledge is within Briarcliff Manor's postal boundaries, the property is located within the municipal boundaries of the nearby town of [New Castle](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_New_York \"New Castle, New York\"). Briarcliff Manor composer and historian [Carmino Ravosa](/wiki/Carmino_Ravosa \"Carmino Ravosa\") initiated the house's preservation by researching and initiating the nomination of Juniper Ledge to the National Register.\n{{Clear}}", "### Houses of worship", "[thumb\\|alt\\=Stone English Gothic–style church with red door\\|[All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 \"All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)\")](/wiki/File:AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg \"AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg\")", "Briarcliff Manor is home to seven Christian churches and two synagogues; three churches (Holy Innocents Anglican Church, Saint Mary's Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church) are in Scarborough. Other churches in the village are All Saints' Episcopal Church, St. Theresa's Catholic Church, Faith Lutheran Brethren Church, and Briarcliff Congregational Church ([United Church of Christ](/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ \"United Church of Christ\")). Jewish synagogues Congregation Sons of Israel and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch \"Chabad Lubavitch\") of Briarcliff Manor \\& Ossining are in Chilmark.", "Saint Mary's Episcopal Church, founded in 1839 by William Creighton as Saint Mary's Church, Beechwood, is Briarcliff Manor's oldest church; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary's Church of Scarborough.{{rp\\|page\\=28}} The granite church was built by local stonemasons and paid for by Creighton's wealthy neighbors, including [Commodore Matthew Perry](/wiki/Commodore_Matthew_Perry \"Commodore Matthew Perry\"), [James Watson Webb](/wiki/James_Watson_Webb \"James Watson Webb\"), [William Aspinwall](/wiki/William_Aspinwall \"William Aspinwall\"), and [Ambrose Kingsland](/wiki/Ambrose_Kingsland \"Ambrose Kingsland\").{{rp\\|page\\=19}} The church is in near\\-original condition, with a design based on the 14th\\-century [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") St. Mary's parish church in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire \"Scarborough, North Yorkshire\"), England and the only church with a complete set of [William Jay Bolton](/wiki/William_Jay_Bolton \"William Jay Bolton\") stained\\-glass windows. The church, built in 1851, is a contributing property to the National Register\\-listed Scarborough Historic District. The {{convert\\|338\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} [Sleepy Hollow Country Club](/wiki/Sleepy_Hollow_Country_Club \"Sleepy Hollow Country Club\") surrounds the church grounds on three sides. Notable parishioners included Commodore [Matthew C. Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry \"Matthew C. Perry\") and [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving \"Washington Irving\"). Irving, author of \"[Rip Van Winkle](/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle \"Rip Van Winkle\")\" and \"[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\")\", brought the ivy surrounding the church from [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford_House \"Abbotsford House\") (home of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott \"Walter Scott\")). On July 5, 2015, Saint Mary's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation; the [Church of South India](/wiki/Church_of_South_India \"Church of South India\")'s Congregation of the Hudson Valley moved in that November.", "Scarborough Presbyterian Church, given to the community by [Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard](/wiki/Margaret_Louisa_Vanderbilt_Shepard \"Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard\") and her husband Colonel [Elliott Fitch Shepard](/wiki/Elliott_Fitch_Shepard \"Elliott Fitch Shepard\") (who lived on the nearby [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea \"Woodlea\") estate), was the first church in the United States with an electric organ. Built in 1895 and designed by Augustus Haydel (a nephew of [Stanford White](/wiki/Stanford_White \"Stanford White\")) and Shepard (a nephew of Elliott Shepard)—who designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan—the {{convert\\|3\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} church property is also part of the Scarborough Historic District.", "All Saints' Episcopal Church is a stone church also on the National Register of Historic Places. It was founded in 1854 by John David Ogilby, whose summer estate and family home in Ireland were the namesakes of Briarcliff Manor. The [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival \"Gothic Revival\") church, built on Ogilby's summer estate, was designed by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn \"Richard Upjohn\") and modeled on Saint Andrew's in [Bemerton](/wiki/Bemerton \"Bemerton\"), England.{{rp\\|page\\=21}} The church, with an 1883 [Stick style](/wiki/Stick_style \"Stick style\") rectory and 1904 [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts \"Arts and Crafts\")\\-style parish hall, is an example of the modest English Gothic parish church popular in the region during the mid\\-19th century.\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=A large stone church\\|St. Theresa's Catholic Church](/wiki/File:St.Theresa%27s_Church_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff \"St.Theresa's Church in Briarcliff Manor.tiff\")\nThe parish of St. Theresa's Catholic Church was established in 1926 with thirty\\-six families, and the present church was dedicated on September 23, 1928\\. The [rectory](/wiki/Rectory \"Rectory\") of the church was the original farmhouse of Briarcliff Farms.", "Faith Lutheran Brethren Church had its 1959 beginning in a white chapel in [Scarsdale](/wiki/Scarsdale \"Scarsdale\"). Its congregation then sold the chapel and moved to its {{convert\\|2\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on\\|sigfig\\=1}} current site in Briarcliff Manor. The church, built largely through volunteer labor by the congregation's twelve families, held its first service on October 8, 1967\\. A nursery\\-school program, the Little School, began in 1972 and the church also sponsors women's and youth groups.{{rp\\|page\\=75}}", "Briarcliff Congregational Church, built in 1896, has windows by [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany \"Louis Comfort Tiffany\"), [William Willet](/wiki/William_Willet \"William Willet\"), [J\\&R Lamb Studios](/wiki/J%26R_Lamb_Studios \"J&R Lamb Studios\"), [Hardman \\& Co.](/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co. \"Hardman & Co.\"), and Woodhaven. The church began in a small, one\\-room schoolhouse (known as the \"white school\"), built around 1865 and used as a school, a religious school, and a house of worship for up to 60 people. In 1896, George A. Todd Jr. asked Walter Law to support the construction of a new church. Law donated the church land, making his new church a Congregational one so the entire community (regardless of religious background) could attend. The [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") and a [Norman](/wiki/Norman_architecture \"Norman architecture\")\\-style tower were built first, in an English\\-parish style with Gothic windows. When the congregation outgrew the church, Law funded a northern section (including [transepts](/wiki/Transept \"Transept\") and [apse](/wiki/Apse \"Apse\")) which was dedicated in 1905\\. He donated the church organ (replacing it in 1924\\), four Tiffany windows, and the [manse](/wiki/Manse \"Manse\") across the street. The church housed a weekly indoor farmers' market at its parish house from 2008 to 2011, when the market was moved to Pace University's Briarcliff Campus.", "Congregation Sons of Israel, self\\-described as [egalitarian](/wiki/Egalitarian \"Egalitarian\") [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\"), was the first synagogue in Briarcliff Manor. The congregation was formed in 1891 by eleven men in Ossining, and until 1902 services were held in homes and stores. That year, the congregation (now twenty\\-three families) purchased a building on Durston Avenue; the Jewish Cemetery, established in 1900 on Dale Avenue, is still in use. In 1920, the synagogue, numbering forty\\-five families, established a religious school. After outgrowing its facilities, it purchased a site on Waller Avenue and completed a new synagogue in 1922\\. During the 1950s the congregation purchased the {{convert\\|11\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} Mead Farm on Pleasantville Road, which it has used since 1960\\.{{rp\\|page\\=101}}", "Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor \\& Ossining was established around 2004, and is located on Orchard Road in Chilmark. On March 18, 2015, the organization purchased a building previously owned by the Ossining Heights United Methodist Church, on Campwoods Road in the village of Ossining. Chabad Lubavitch plans to renovate the building significantly before making it its first permanent synagogue.", "" ]
### Houses of worship [thumb\|alt\=Stone English Gothic–style church with red door\|[All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 "All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)")](/wiki/File:AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg "AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg") Briarcliff Manor is home to seven Christian churches and two synagogues; three churches (Holy Innocents Anglican Church, Saint Mary's Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church) are in Scarborough. Other churches in the village are All Saints' Episcopal Church, St. Theresa's Catholic Church, Faith Lutheran Brethren Church, and Briarcliff Congregational Church ([United Church of Christ](/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ "United Church of Christ")). Jewish synagogues Congregation Sons of Israel and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch "Chabad Lubavitch") of Briarcliff Manor \& Ossining are in Chilmark. Saint Mary's Episcopal Church, founded in 1839 by William Creighton as Saint Mary's Church, Beechwood, is Briarcliff Manor's oldest church; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary's Church of Scarborough.{{rp\|page\=28}} The granite church was built by local stonemasons and paid for by Creighton's wealthy neighbors, including [Commodore Matthew Perry](/wiki/Commodore_Matthew_Perry "Commodore Matthew Perry"), [James Watson Webb](/wiki/James_Watson_Webb "James Watson Webb"), [William Aspinwall](/wiki/William_Aspinwall "William Aspinwall"), and [Ambrose Kingsland](/wiki/Ambrose_Kingsland "Ambrose Kingsland").{{rp\|page\=19}} The church is in near\-original condition, with a design based on the 14th\-century [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") St. Mary's parish church in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire "Scarborough, North Yorkshire"), England and the only church with a complete set of [William Jay Bolton](/wiki/William_Jay_Bolton "William Jay Bolton") stained\-glass windows. The church, built in 1851, is a contributing property to the National Register\-listed Scarborough Historic District. The {{convert\|338\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} [Sleepy Hollow Country Club](/wiki/Sleepy_Hollow_Country_Club "Sleepy Hollow Country Club") surrounds the church grounds on three sides. Notable parishioners included Commodore [Matthew C. Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry "Matthew C. Perry") and [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving "Washington Irving"). Irving, author of "[Rip Van Winkle](/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle "Rip Van Winkle")" and "[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow")", brought the ivy surrounding the church from [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford_House "Abbotsford House") (home of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott "Walter Scott")). On July 5, 2015, Saint Mary's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation; the [Church of South India](/wiki/Church_of_South_India "Church of South India")'s Congregation of the Hudson Valley moved in that November. Scarborough Presbyterian Church, given to the community by [Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard](/wiki/Margaret_Louisa_Vanderbilt_Shepard "Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard") and her husband Colonel [Elliott Fitch Shepard](/wiki/Elliott_Fitch_Shepard "Elliott Fitch Shepard") (who lived on the nearby [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea "Woodlea") estate), was the first church in the United States with an electric organ. Built in 1895 and designed by Augustus Haydel (a nephew of [Stanford White](/wiki/Stanford_White "Stanford White")) and Shepard (a nephew of Elliott Shepard)—who designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan—the {{convert\|3\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} church property is also part of the Scarborough Historic District. All Saints' Episcopal Church is a stone church also on the National Register of Historic Places. It was founded in 1854 by John David Ogilby, whose summer estate and family home in Ireland were the namesakes of Briarcliff Manor. The [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival "Gothic Revival") church, built on Ogilby's summer estate, was designed by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn "Richard Upjohn") and modeled on Saint Andrew's in [Bemerton](/wiki/Bemerton "Bemerton"), England.{{rp\|page\=21}} The church, with an 1883 [Stick style](/wiki/Stick_style "Stick style") rectory and 1904 [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts "Arts and Crafts")\-style parish hall, is an example of the modest English Gothic parish church popular in the region during the mid\-19th century. [thumb\|left\|alt\=A large stone church\|St. Theresa's Catholic Church](/wiki/File:St.Theresa%27s_Church_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff "St.Theresa's Church in Briarcliff Manor.tiff") The parish of St. Theresa's Catholic Church was established in 1926 with thirty\-six families, and the present church was dedicated on September 23, 1928\. The [rectory](/wiki/Rectory "Rectory") of the church was the original farmhouse of Briarcliff Farms. Faith Lutheran Brethren Church had its 1959 beginning in a white chapel in [Scarsdale](/wiki/Scarsdale "Scarsdale"). Its congregation then sold the chapel and moved to its {{convert\|2\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on\|sigfig\=1}} current site in Briarcliff Manor. The church, built largely through volunteer labor by the congregation's twelve families, held its first service on October 8, 1967\. A nursery\-school program, the Little School, began in 1972 and the church also sponsors women's and youth groups.{{rp\|page\=75}} Briarcliff Congregational Church, built in 1896, has windows by [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany "Louis Comfort Tiffany"), [William Willet](/wiki/William_Willet "William Willet"), [J\&R Lamb Studios](/wiki/J%26R_Lamb_Studios "J&R Lamb Studios"), [Hardman \& Co.](/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co. "Hardman & Co."), and Woodhaven. The church began in a small, one\-room schoolhouse (known as the "white school"), built around 1865 and used as a school, a religious school, and a house of worship for up to 60 people. In 1896, George A. Todd Jr. asked Walter Law to support the construction of a new church. Law donated the church land, making his new church a Congregational one so the entire community (regardless of religious background) could attend. The [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") and a [Norman](/wiki/Norman_architecture "Norman architecture")\-style tower were built first, in an English\-parish style with Gothic windows. When the congregation outgrew the church, Law funded a northern section (including [transepts](/wiki/Transept "Transept") and [apse](/wiki/Apse "Apse")) which was dedicated in 1905\. He donated the church organ (replacing it in 1924\), four Tiffany windows, and the [manse](/wiki/Manse "Manse") across the street. The church housed a weekly indoor farmers' market at its parish house from 2008 to 2011, when the market was moved to Pace University's Briarcliff Campus. Congregation Sons of Israel, self\-described as [egalitarian](/wiki/Egalitarian "Egalitarian") [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism"), was the first synagogue in Briarcliff Manor. The congregation was formed in 1891 by eleven men in Ossining, and until 1902 services were held in homes and stores. That year, the congregation (now twenty\-three families) purchased a building on Durston Avenue; the Jewish Cemetery, established in 1900 on Dale Avenue, is still in use. In 1920, the synagogue, numbering forty\-five families, established a religious school. After outgrowing its facilities, it purchased a site on Waller Avenue and completed a new synagogue in 1922\. During the 1950s the congregation purchased the {{convert\|11\|acre\|ha\|adj\=on}} Mead Farm on Pleasantville Road, which it has used since 1960\.{{rp\|page\=101}} Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor \& Ossining was established around 2004, and is located on Orchard Road in Chilmark. On March 18, 2015, the organization purchased a building previously owned by the Ossining Heights United Methodist Church, on Campwoods Road in the village of Ossining. Chabad Lubavitch plans to renovate the building significantly before making it its first permanent synagogue.
[ "### Houses of worship", "[thumb\\|alt\\=Stone English Gothic–style church with red door\\|[All Saints' Episcopal Church](/wiki/All_Saints%27_Episcopal_Church_%28Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York%29 \"All Saints' Episcopal Church (Briarcliff Manor, New York)\")](/wiki/File:AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg \"AllSaintsBriarcliff.jpg\")", "Briarcliff Manor is home to seven Christian churches and two synagogues; three churches (Holy Innocents Anglican Church, Saint Mary's Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church) are in Scarborough. Other churches in the village are All Saints' Episcopal Church, St. Theresa's Catholic Church, Faith Lutheran Brethren Church, and Briarcliff Congregational Church ([United Church of Christ](/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ \"United Church of Christ\")). Jewish synagogues Congregation Sons of Israel and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch \"Chabad Lubavitch\") of Briarcliff Manor \\& Ossining are in Chilmark.", "Saint Mary's Episcopal Church, founded in 1839 by William Creighton as Saint Mary's Church, Beechwood, is Briarcliff Manor's oldest church; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary's Church of Scarborough.{{rp\\|page\\=28}} The granite church was built by local stonemasons and paid for by Creighton's wealthy neighbors, including [Commodore Matthew Perry](/wiki/Commodore_Matthew_Perry \"Commodore Matthew Perry\"), [James Watson Webb](/wiki/James_Watson_Webb \"James Watson Webb\"), [William Aspinwall](/wiki/William_Aspinwall \"William Aspinwall\"), and [Ambrose Kingsland](/wiki/Ambrose_Kingsland \"Ambrose Kingsland\").{{rp\\|page\\=19}} The church is in near\\-original condition, with a design based on the 14th\\-century [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") St. Mary's parish church in [Scarborough](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_North_Yorkshire \"Scarborough, North Yorkshire\"), England and the only church with a complete set of [William Jay Bolton](/wiki/William_Jay_Bolton \"William Jay Bolton\") stained\\-glass windows. The church, built in 1851, is a contributing property to the National Register\\-listed Scarborough Historic District. The {{convert\\|338\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} [Sleepy Hollow Country Club](/wiki/Sleepy_Hollow_Country_Club \"Sleepy Hollow Country Club\") surrounds the church grounds on three sides. Notable parishioners included Commodore [Matthew C. Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry \"Matthew C. Perry\") and [Washington Irving](/wiki/Washington_Irving \"Washington Irving\"). Irving, author of \"[Rip Van Winkle](/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle \"Rip Van Winkle\")\" and \"[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow](/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\")\", brought the ivy surrounding the church from [Abbotsford](/wiki/Abbotsford_House \"Abbotsford House\") (home of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott \"Walter Scott\")). On July 5, 2015, Saint Mary's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation; the [Church of South India](/wiki/Church_of_South_India \"Church of South India\")'s Congregation of the Hudson Valley moved in that November.", "Scarborough Presbyterian Church, given to the community by [Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard](/wiki/Margaret_Louisa_Vanderbilt_Shepard \"Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard\") and her husband Colonel [Elliott Fitch Shepard](/wiki/Elliott_Fitch_Shepard \"Elliott Fitch Shepard\") (who lived on the nearby [Woodlea](/wiki/Woodlea \"Woodlea\") estate), was the first church in the United States with an electric organ. Built in 1895 and designed by Augustus Haydel (a nephew of [Stanford White](/wiki/Stanford_White \"Stanford White\")) and Shepard (a nephew of Elliott Shepard)—who designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan—the {{convert\\|3\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} church property is also part of the Scarborough Historic District.", "All Saints' Episcopal Church is a stone church also on the National Register of Historic Places. It was founded in 1854 by John David Ogilby, whose summer estate and family home in Ireland were the namesakes of Briarcliff Manor. The [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival \"Gothic Revival\") church, built on Ogilby's summer estate, was designed by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn \"Richard Upjohn\") and modeled on Saint Andrew's in [Bemerton](/wiki/Bemerton \"Bemerton\"), England.{{rp\\|page\\=21}} The church, with an 1883 [Stick style](/wiki/Stick_style \"Stick style\") rectory and 1904 [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts \"Arts and Crafts\")\\-style parish hall, is an example of the modest English Gothic parish church popular in the region during the mid\\-19th century.\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=A large stone church\\|St. Theresa's Catholic Church](/wiki/File:St.Theresa%27s_Church_in_Briarcliff_Manor.tiff \"St.Theresa's Church in Briarcliff Manor.tiff\")\nThe parish of St. Theresa's Catholic Church was established in 1926 with thirty\\-six families, and the present church was dedicated on September 23, 1928\\. The [rectory](/wiki/Rectory \"Rectory\") of the church was the original farmhouse of Briarcliff Farms.", "Faith Lutheran Brethren Church had its 1959 beginning in a white chapel in [Scarsdale](/wiki/Scarsdale \"Scarsdale\"). Its congregation then sold the chapel and moved to its {{convert\\|2\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on\\|sigfig\\=1}} current site in Briarcliff Manor. The church, built largely through volunteer labor by the congregation's twelve families, held its first service on October 8, 1967\\. A nursery\\-school program, the Little School, began in 1972 and the church also sponsors women's and youth groups.{{rp\\|page\\=75}}", "Briarcliff Congregational Church, built in 1896, has windows by [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany \"Louis Comfort Tiffany\"), [William Willet](/wiki/William_Willet \"William Willet\"), [J\\&R Lamb Studios](/wiki/J%26R_Lamb_Studios \"J&R Lamb Studios\"), [Hardman \\& Co.](/wiki/Hardman_%26_Co. \"Hardman & Co.\"), and Woodhaven. The church began in a small, one\\-room schoolhouse (known as the \"white school\"), built around 1865 and used as a school, a religious school, and a house of worship for up to 60 people. In 1896, George A. Todd Jr. asked Walter Law to support the construction of a new church. Law donated the church land, making his new church a Congregational one so the entire community (regardless of religious background) could attend. The [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") and a [Norman](/wiki/Norman_architecture \"Norman architecture\")\\-style tower were built first, in an English\\-parish style with Gothic windows. When the congregation outgrew the church, Law funded a northern section (including [transepts](/wiki/Transept \"Transept\") and [apse](/wiki/Apse \"Apse\")) which was dedicated in 1905\\. He donated the church organ (replacing it in 1924\\), four Tiffany windows, and the [manse](/wiki/Manse \"Manse\") across the street. The church housed a weekly indoor farmers' market at its parish house from 2008 to 2011, when the market was moved to Pace University's Briarcliff Campus.", "Congregation Sons of Israel, self\\-described as [egalitarian](/wiki/Egalitarian \"Egalitarian\") [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\"), was the first synagogue in Briarcliff Manor. The congregation was formed in 1891 by eleven men in Ossining, and until 1902 services were held in homes and stores. That year, the congregation (now twenty\\-three families) purchased a building on Durston Avenue; the Jewish Cemetery, established in 1900 on Dale Avenue, is still in use. In 1920, the synagogue, numbering forty\\-five families, established a religious school. After outgrowing its facilities, it purchased a site on Waller Avenue and completed a new synagogue in 1922\\. During the 1950s the congregation purchased the {{convert\\|11\\|acre\\|ha\\|adj\\=on}} Mead Farm on Pleasantville Road, which it has used since 1960\\.{{rp\\|page\\=101}}", "Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor \\& Ossining was established around 2004, and is located on Orchard Road in Chilmark. On March 18, 2015, the organization purchased a building previously owned by the Ossining Heights United Methodist Church, on Campwoods Road in the village of Ossining. Chabad Lubavitch plans to renovate the building significantly before making it its first permanent synagogue.", "" ]
Devices ------- To denote battle participation and campaign credit, the World War I Victory Medal was authorized with a large variety of devices to denote specific accomplishments. In order of seniority, the devices authorized to the World War I Victory Medal were as follows: ### Citation Star The [Citation Star](/wiki/Citation_Star "Citation Star") to the World War I Victory Medal was authorized by the United States Congress on February 4, 1919\. A {{frac\|3\|16}} inch silver star was authorized to be worn on the ribbon of the Victory Medal for any member of the U.S. Army who had been cited for gallantry in action between 1917 and 1920\. In 1932, the Citation Star ("Silver Star") was redesigned and renamed the [Silver Star Medal](/wiki/Silver_Star_Medal "Silver Star Medal") and, upon application to the [United States War Department](/wiki/United_States_War_Department "United States War Department"), any holder of the Silver Star Citation could have it converted to a Silver Star medal. ### Navy Commendation Star The [Navy Commendation Star](/wiki/Navy_Commendation_Star "Navy Commendation Star") to the World War I Victory Medal was authorized to any person who had been commended by the Secretary of the Navy for performance of duty during the First World War. A {{frac\|3\|16}} inch silver star was worn on the World War I Victory Medal, identical in appearance to the Army's Citation Star. Unlike the Army's version, however, the Navy Commendation Star could not be upgraded to the Silver Star medal.*Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual*, NAVPERS 15,790 Rev. 1953\. ### Army Battle Clasps The following [battle clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp "Campaign clasp"), inscribed with a battle's name, were worn on the medal to denote participation in major ground conflicts. | Army Battle Clasps | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Major Ground Conflict | Start Date | End Date | | [Aisne](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Aisne_May_27_%E2%80%93_June_5%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Aisne May 27 – June 5, 1918") | May 27, 1918 | June 5, 1918 | | [Aisne\-Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne "Second Battle of the Marne") | July 18, 1918 | August 6, 1918 | | [Cambrai](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Cambrai%2C_November_20_%E2%80%93_December_4%2C_1917 "United States campaigns in World War I#Cambrai, November 20 – December 4, 1917") | May 12, 1917 | December 4, 1917 | | [Champagne\-Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne "Second Battle of the Marne") | July 15, 1918 | July 18, 1918 | | [Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)") | April 9, 1918 | April 27, 1918 | | [Meuse\-Argonne](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne_Offensive "Meuse-Argonne Offensive") | September 26, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Montdidier\-Noyon](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Montdidier-Noyon%2C_June_9_%E2%80%93_June_13%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Montdidier-Noyon, June 9 – June 13, 1918") | June 9, 1918 | June 13, 1918 | | [Oise\-Aisne](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Oise-Aisne%2C_August_18_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Oise-Aisne, August 18 – November 11, 1918") | August 18, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [St. Mihiel](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel "Battle of Saint-Mihiel") | September 12, 1918 | September 16, 1918 | | [Somme\-Defensive](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Somme_Defensive%2C_March_21_%E2%80%93_6_April_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Somme Defensive, March 21 – 6 April 1918") | March 21, 1918 | April 6, 1918 | | [Somme\-Offensive](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Somme_Offensive%2C_August_8_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Somme Offensive, August 8 – November 11, 1918") | August 8, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Vittorio\-Veneto](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Vittorio_Veneto%2C_October_24_%E2%80%93_November_4%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Vittorio Veneto, October 24 – November 4, 1918") | October 24, 1918 | November 4, 1918 | | [Ypres\-Lys](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Ypres-Lys_19_August_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 "United States campaigns in World War I#Ypres-Lys 19 August – November 11, 1918") | August 19, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | [thumb\|Four of the thirteen major ground conflicts](/wiki/File:WW1_Victory_Medal_Army_Battle_Clasps.jpg "WW1 Victory Medal Army Battle Clasps.jpg") For general defense service, not involving a specific battle, the "Defensive Sector" Battle Clasp was authorized. The clasp was also awarded for any battle which was not already recognized by its own battle clasp. The World War I Victory Medal bears the clasps of the battles the U.S. Army participated in across the ribbon. Not all battles are shown on the bar clasps. Only the battles designated as battles that would have bars issued were shown on the medal. The famous [Battle of Chateau Thierry](/wiki/Battle_of_Chateau_Thierry_%281918%29 "Battle of Chateau Thierry (1918)") to hold the Chateau and the bridge as a joint effort between the US Army and the US Marines against the German machine gunners did not get awarded clasps. As commander of the [American Expeditionary Forces](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces "American Expeditionary Forces"), General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing "John J. Pershing") received all 14 clasps. His medal is in the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History "National Museum of American History").[General Pershing's World War I Victory Medal](https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_445416) ### Navy Battle Clasps Navy battle clasps were issued for naval service in support of Army operations and had identical names to the Army battle clasps. There was a slight variation of the criteria dates for the Navy battle clasps, as listed below. | Navy Battle Clasps | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Major Ground Conflict | Start Date | End Date | | Aisne | June 1, 1918 | June 5, 1918 | | Aisne\-Marne | July 18, 1918 | July 20, 1918 | | Meuse\-Argonne | September 29, 1918 | October 10, 1918 | | Meuse\-Argonne | October 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | St. Mihiel | September 12, 1918 | September 16, 1918 | | Ypres\-Lys (Service in support of the Northern Bombing Group) | | | The Defensive Sector Clasp was also authorized for Navy personnel who had participated in naval combat but were not authorized a particular battle clasp.[right\|thumb\|Defensive Sector Clasp on Ribbon](/wiki/File:%27Defensive_Sector%27_clasp.jpg "'Defensive Sector' clasp.jpg") ### Navy Operational Clasps For sea\-related war duty, the Navy issued the following [operational clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp "Campaign clasp"), which were worn on the World War I Victory Medal and inscribed with the name of the duty type which had been performed. Clasps for Navy and Marine Corps personnel are rectangular bronze bars with a stylized rope border measuring 1/4 x 1 1/2 inches. | Navy Operational Clasps | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Operation | Start Date | End Date | | Armed Guard: Merchant personnel (freighters, tankers, and troop ship) | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Asiatic: Service on any vessel that visited a Siberian port | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Asiatic: Port visit must have exceeded ten days in length | November 12, 1918 | March 30, 1920 | | [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Forces_Command "United States Fleet Forces Command"): Service in the Atlantic Fleet | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Aviation](/wiki/Aviation "Aviation"): Service involving flying over the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer"): Service on destroyers on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Escort](/wiki/Escort_destroyer "Escort destroyer"): Personnel regularly attached to escort vessels on the North Atlantic | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Grand Fleet: Personnel assigned to any ship of the "United States Grand Fleet" | December 9, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [Mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine") Laying: Service in mine laying sea duty | May 26, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | Mine Sweeping: Service in mine sweeping sea duty | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Mobile Base: Service on tenders and repair vessels | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Naval Battery: Service as a member of a naval battery detachment | July 10, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | Overseas: Service on shore in allied or enemy countries of Europe | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [Patrol](/wiki/Patrol "Patrol"): War patrol service on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Salvage](/wiki/Marine_salvage "Marine salvage"): Salvage duty performed on the seas | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [Submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine"): Submarine duty performed on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25,1918 | November 11, 1918 | | Submarine Chaser: Anti\-submarine duty performed on the Atlantic Ocean | May 18, 1918 | November 11, 1918 | | [Transport](/wiki/Transport "Transport"): Personnel regularly attached to a transport or cargo vessel | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [White Sea](/wiki/White_Sea "White Sea"): Service on any vessel which visited a Russian port or war patrols in the White Sea not less than ten days | November 12, 1918 | July 31, 1919 | Unlike the army, the navy only allowed one clasp of any type to be worn on the ribbon. Members of the marine or medical corps who served in France but was not eligible for a battle clasp would receive a bronze [Maltese cross](/wiki/Maltese_cross "Maltese cross") on their ribbons. ### Army Service Clasps For non\-combat service with the army during the First World War, the following [service clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp "Campaign clasp") were authorized to be worn with the World War I Victory Medal. Each service clasp was inscribed with a country or region name where support service was performed. The U.S. Army issued the following service clasps: | Army Service Clasps | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Country or Region | Start Date | End Date | | [England](/wiki/England "England") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [France](/wiki/France "France") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | [Russia](/wiki/European_Russia "European Russia") | November 12, 1918 | August 5, 1919 | | [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") | November 23, 1918 | April 1, 1920 | ### Navy Service Clasps The U.S. Navy issued similar service clasps to the Army for service in the following regions during the following periods: | Navy Service Clasps | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Region | Start Date | End Date | | England | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | France | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Italy | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | | Russia | November 12, 1918 | July 31, 1919 | | Siberia | November 12, 1918 | March 30, 1920 | | [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 | ### Campaign Stars [right\|thumb\|Maltese Cross device](/wiki/File:Maltese_Cross_device.jpg "Maltese Cross device.jpg") Since battle and service clasps could only be worn on the full\-sized World War I Victory Medal, 3/16 inch bronze [service stars](/wiki/Service_stars "Service stars") were authorized for wear on the award ribbon. This was the common method of campaign and battle display when wearing the World War I Victory Medal as a ribbon on a military uniform. ### Maltese Cross Medals issued to [U.S. Marines](/wiki/U.S._Marines "U.S. Marines") were issued with a [Maltese cross](/wiki/Maltese_cross "Maltese cross") device affixed to the ribbon.
[ "Devices\n-------", "To denote battle participation and campaign credit, the World War I Victory Medal was authorized with a large variety of devices to denote specific accomplishments. In order of seniority, the devices authorized to the World War I Victory Medal were as follows:", "### Citation Star", "The [Citation Star](/wiki/Citation_Star \"Citation Star\") to the World War I Victory Medal was authorized by the United States Congress on February 4, 1919\\. A {{frac\\|3\\|16}} inch silver star was authorized to be worn on the ribbon of the Victory Medal for any member of the U.S. Army who had been cited for gallantry in action between 1917 and 1920\\. In 1932, the Citation Star (\"Silver Star\") was redesigned and renamed the [Silver Star Medal](/wiki/Silver_Star_Medal \"Silver Star Medal\") and, upon application to the [United States War Department](/wiki/United_States_War_Department \"United States War Department\"), any holder of the Silver Star Citation could have it converted to a Silver Star medal.", "### Navy Commendation Star", "The [Navy Commendation Star](/wiki/Navy_Commendation_Star \"Navy Commendation Star\") to the World War I Victory Medal was authorized to any person who had been commended by the Secretary of the Navy for performance of duty during the First World War. A {{frac\\|3\\|16}} inch silver star was worn on the World War I Victory Medal, identical in appearance to the Army's Citation Star. Unlike the Army's version, however, the Navy Commendation Star could not be upgraded to the Silver Star medal.*Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual*, NAVPERS 15,790 Rev. 1953\\.", "### Army Battle Clasps", "The following [battle clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp \"Campaign clasp\"), inscribed with a battle's name, were worn on the medal to denote participation in major ground conflicts.", "| Army Battle Clasps | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Major Ground Conflict | Start Date | End Date |\n| [Aisne](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Aisne_May_27_%E2%80%93_June_5%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Aisne May 27 – June 5, 1918\") | May 27, 1918 | June 5, 1918 |\n| [Aisne\\-Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne \"Second Battle of the Marne\") | July 18, 1918 | August 6, 1918 |\n| [Cambrai](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Cambrai%2C_November_20_%E2%80%93_December_4%2C_1917 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Cambrai, November 20 – December 4, 1917\") | May 12, 1917 | December 4, 1917 |\n| [Champagne\\-Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne \"Second Battle of the Marne\") | July 15, 1918 | July 18, 1918 |\n| [Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)\") | April 9, 1918 | April 27, 1918 |\n| [Meuse\\-Argonne](/wiki/Meuse-Argonne_Offensive \"Meuse-Argonne Offensive\") | September 26, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Montdidier\\-Noyon](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Montdidier-Noyon%2C_June_9_%E2%80%93_June_13%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Montdidier-Noyon, June 9 – June 13, 1918\") | June 9, 1918 | June 13, 1918 |\n| [Oise\\-Aisne](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Oise-Aisne%2C_August_18_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Oise-Aisne, August 18 – November 11, 1918\") | August 18, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [St. Mihiel](/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mihiel \"Battle of Saint-Mihiel\") | September 12, 1918 | September 16, 1918 |\n| [Somme\\-Defensive](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Somme_Defensive%2C_March_21_%E2%80%93_6_April_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Somme Defensive, March 21 – 6 April 1918\") | March 21, 1918 | April 6, 1918 |\n| [Somme\\-Offensive](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Somme_Offensive%2C_August_8_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Somme Offensive, August 8 – November 11, 1918\") | August 8, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Vittorio\\-Veneto](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Vittorio_Veneto%2C_October_24_%E2%80%93_November_4%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Vittorio Veneto, October 24 – November 4, 1918\") | October 24, 1918 | November 4, 1918 |\n| [Ypres\\-Lys](/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I%23Ypres-Lys_19_August_%E2%80%93_November_11%2C_1918 \"United States campaigns in World War I#Ypres-Lys 19 August – November 11, 1918\") | August 19, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |", "[thumb\\|Four of the thirteen major ground conflicts](/wiki/File:WW1_Victory_Medal_Army_Battle_Clasps.jpg \"WW1 Victory Medal Army Battle Clasps.jpg\") \nFor general defense service, not involving a specific battle, the \"Defensive Sector\" Battle Clasp was authorized. The clasp was also awarded for any battle which was not already recognized by its own battle clasp.", "The World War I Victory Medal bears the clasps of the battles the U.S. Army participated in across the ribbon. Not all battles are shown on the bar clasps. Only the battles designated as battles that would have bars issued were shown on the medal. The famous [Battle of Chateau Thierry](/wiki/Battle_of_Chateau_Thierry_%281918%29 \"Battle of Chateau Thierry (1918)\") to hold the Chateau and the bridge as a joint effort between the US Army and the US Marines against the German machine gunners did not get awarded clasps.", "As commander of the [American Expeditionary Forces](/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces \"American Expeditionary Forces\"), General [John J. Pershing](/wiki/John_J._Pershing \"John J. Pershing\") received all 14 clasps. His medal is in the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History \"National Museum of American History\").[General Pershing's World War I Victory Medal](https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_445416)", "### Navy Battle Clasps", "Navy battle clasps were issued for naval service in support of Army operations and had identical names to the Army battle clasps. There was a slight variation of the criteria dates for the Navy battle clasps, as listed below.", "| Navy Battle Clasps | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Major Ground Conflict | Start Date | End Date |\n| Aisne | June 1, 1918 | June 5, 1918 |\n| Aisne\\-Marne | July 18, 1918 | July 20, 1918 |\n| Meuse\\-Argonne | September 29, 1918 | October 10, 1918 |\n| Meuse\\-Argonne | October 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| St. Mihiel | September 12, 1918 | September 16, 1918 |\n| Ypres\\-Lys (Service in support of the Northern Bombing Group) | | |", "", "The Defensive Sector Clasp was also authorized for Navy personnel who had participated in naval combat but were not authorized a particular battle clasp.[right\\|thumb\\|Defensive Sector Clasp on Ribbon](/wiki/File:%27Defensive_Sector%27_clasp.jpg \"'Defensive Sector' clasp.jpg\")", "### Navy Operational Clasps", "For sea\\-related war duty, the Navy issued the following [operational clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp \"Campaign clasp\"), which were worn on the World War I Victory Medal and inscribed with the name of the duty type which had been performed. Clasps for Navy and Marine Corps personnel are rectangular bronze bars with a stylized rope border measuring 1/4 x 1 1/2 inches.", "| Navy Operational Clasps | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Operation | Start Date | End Date |\n| Armed Guard: Merchant personnel (freighters, tankers, and troop ship) | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Asiatic: Service on any vessel that visited a Siberian port | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Asiatic: Port visit must have exceeded ten days in length | November 12, 1918 | March 30, 1920 |\n| [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Forces_Command \"United States Fleet Forces Command\"): Service in the Atlantic Fleet | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Aviation](/wiki/Aviation \"Aviation\"): Service involving flying over the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\"): Service on destroyers on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Escort](/wiki/Escort_destroyer \"Escort destroyer\"): Personnel regularly attached to escort vessels on the North Atlantic | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Grand Fleet: Personnel assigned to any ship of the \"United States Grand Fleet\" | December 9, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\") Laying: Service in mine laying sea duty | May 26, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Mine Sweeping: Service in mine sweeping sea duty | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Mobile Base: Service on tenders and repair vessels | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Naval Battery: Service as a member of a naval battery detachment | July 10, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Overseas: Service on shore in allied or enemy countries of Europe | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Patrol](/wiki/Patrol \"Patrol\"): War patrol service on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Salvage](/wiki/Marine_salvage \"Marine salvage\"): Salvage duty performed on the seas | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\"): Submarine duty performed on the Atlantic Ocean | May 25,1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Submarine Chaser: Anti\\-submarine duty performed on the Atlantic Ocean | May 18, 1918 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Transport](/wiki/Transport \"Transport\"): Personnel regularly attached to a transport or cargo vessel | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [White Sea](/wiki/White_Sea \"White Sea\"): Service on any vessel which visited a Russian port or war patrols in the White Sea not less than ten days | November 12, 1918 | July 31, 1919 |", "", "Unlike the army, the navy only allowed one clasp of any type to be worn on the ribbon. Members of the marine or medical corps who served in France but was not eligible for a battle clasp would receive a bronze [Maltese cross](/wiki/Maltese_cross \"Maltese cross\") on their ribbons.", "### Army Service Clasps", "For non\\-combat service with the army during the First World War, the following [service clasps](/wiki/Campaign_clasp \"Campaign clasp\") were authorized to be worn with the World War I Victory Medal. Each service clasp was inscribed with a country or region name where support service was performed. The U.S. Army issued the following service clasps:", "| Army Service Clasps | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Country or Region | Start Date | End Date |\n| [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| [Russia](/wiki/European_Russia \"European Russia\") | November 12, 1918 | August 5, 1919 |\n| [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") | November 23, 1918 | April 1, 1920 |", "", "### Navy Service Clasps", "The U.S. Navy issued similar service clasps to the Army for service in the following regions during the following periods:", "| Navy Service Clasps | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Region | Start Date | End Date |\n| England | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| France | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Italy | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |\n| Russia | November 12, 1918 | July 31, 1919 |\n| Siberia | November 12, 1918 | March 30, 1920 |\n| [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\") | April 6, 1917 | November 11, 1918 |", "", "### Campaign Stars", "[right\\|thumb\\|Maltese Cross device](/wiki/File:Maltese_Cross_device.jpg \"Maltese Cross device.jpg\")\nSince battle and service clasps could only be worn on the full\\-sized World War I Victory Medal, 3/16 inch bronze [service stars](/wiki/Service_stars \"Service stars\") were authorized for wear on the award ribbon. This was the common method of campaign and battle display when wearing the World War I Victory Medal as a ribbon on a military uniform.", "### Maltese Cross", "Medals issued to [U.S. Marines](/wiki/U.S._Marines \"U.S. Marines\") were issued with a [Maltese cross](/wiki/Maltese_cross \"Maltese cross\") device affixed to the ribbon.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=left \|1880\= 796 \|1890\= 679 \|1900\= 1061 \|1910\= 1710 \|1920\= 2293 \|1930\= 4519 \|1940\= 6640 \|1950\= 6430 \|1960\= 13140 \|1970\= 12358 \|1980\= 13807 \|1990\= 14917 \|2000\= 15008 \|2010\= 14875 \|2020\= 14843 \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=June 7, 2014}} }} Alexander City first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as an incorporated city.{{cite web \|title\=Table III \- Population of Civil Divisions less than counties, in the aggregate at the Censuses of 1880 and 1870 \|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1880a\_v1\-09\.pdf \|website\=United States Census Bureau \|date\=1880}} At that time, it was the largest community in the county (though would lose the distinction to [Dadeville](/wiki/Dadeville%2C_Alabama "Dadeville, Alabama") for 1890–1900, reclaiming the title and holding it since 1910\). Alexander City was the principal city of the former [Alexander City Micropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Alexander_City%2C_AL_%CE%BCSA "Alexander City, AL μSA"), a [micropolitan area](/wiki/United_States_micropolitan_area "United States micropolitan area") that covered [Coosa](/wiki/Coosa_County%2C_Alabama "Coosa County, Alabama") and Tallapoosa counties[Micropolitan Statistical Areas and Components](https://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/metro_general/2006/List5.txt) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629011245/http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/metro\_general/2006/List5\.txt \|date\=June 29, 2007 }}, [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget "Office of Management and Budget"), May 11, 2007\. Retrieved July 27, 2008\. and had a combined population of 53,677 at the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=January 31, 2008 \|title\=U.S. Census website }} The micropolitan statistical area was removed in 2013 by the United States [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget "Office of Management and Budget").[OMB BULLETIN NO. 13\-01: Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/bulletins/2013/b13-01.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121004708/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/bulletins/2013/b13\-01\.pdf \|date\=January 21, 2017 }}. Office of Management and Budget. February 28, 2013\. ### 2010 census At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") there were 14,875 people in 6,064 households, including 4,050 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert\|383\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|adj\=off}}. There were 6,834 housing units at an average density of 176\.1 per square mile (68/km{{sup\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232010_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census") of the city was 62\.2% White, 32\.0% Black or African American, 0\.2% Native American, 0\.9% Asian, 0\.0% Pacific Islander, 3\.8% from other races, and 0\.9% from two or more races. 4\.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 6,064 households 27\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\.2% were married couples living together, 20\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.2% were non\-families. 29\.7% of households were one person and 13\.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.40 and the average family size was 2\.95\. The age distribution was 23\.5% under the age of 18, 8\.7% from 18 to 24, 24\.2% from 25 to 44, 26\.0% from 45 to 64, and 17\.5% 65 or older. The median age was 39\.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.8 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 90\.9 men. The median household income was $34,782 and the median family income was $44,455\. Males had a median income of $34,515 versus $31,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,097\. About 17\.0% of families and 20\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 30\.7% of those under age 18 and 14\.3% of those age 65 or over. ### 2020 census | \+Alexander City Racial Composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US0101132\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 6, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") | 8,587 | 57\.85% | | [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") | 4,886 | 32\.92% | | [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") | 25 | 0\.17% | | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") | 156 | 1\.05% | | [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") | 446 | 3\.0% | | [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") | 743 | 5\.01% | As of the [2020 United States Census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census "2020 United States Census"), there were 14,843 people, 5,710 households, and 3,872 families residing in the city.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|1880\\= 796\n\\|1890\\= 679\n\\|1900\\= 1061\n\\|1910\\= 1710\n\\|1920\\= 2293\n\\|1930\\= 4519\n\\|1940\\= 6640\n\\|1950\\= 6430\n\\|1960\\= 13140\n\\|1970\\= 12358\n\\|1980\\= 13807\n\\|1990\\= 14917\n\\|2000\\= 15008\n\\|2010\\= 14875\n\\|2020\\= 14843\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=June 7, 2014}}\n}}\nAlexander City first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as an incorporated city.{{cite web \\|title\\=Table III \\- Population of Civil Divisions less than counties, in the aggregate at the Censuses of 1880 and 1870 \\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1880a\\_v1\\-09\\.pdf \\|website\\=United States Census Bureau \\|date\\=1880}} At that time, it was the largest community in the county (though would lose the distinction to [Dadeville](/wiki/Dadeville%2C_Alabama \"Dadeville, Alabama\") for 1890–1900, reclaiming the title and holding it since 1910\\).", "Alexander City was the principal city of the former [Alexander City Micropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Alexander_City%2C_AL_%CE%BCSA \"Alexander City, AL μSA\"), a [micropolitan area](/wiki/United_States_micropolitan_area \"United States micropolitan area\") that covered [Coosa](/wiki/Coosa_County%2C_Alabama \"Coosa County, Alabama\") and Tallapoosa counties[Micropolitan Statistical Areas and Components](https://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/metro_general/2006/List5.txt) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629011245/http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/metro\\_general/2006/List5\\.txt \\|date\\=June 29, 2007 }}, [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget \"Office of Management and Budget\"), May 11, 2007\\. Retrieved July 27, 2008\\. and had a combined population of 53,677 at the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} The micropolitan statistical area was removed in 2013 by the United States [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget \"Office of Management and Budget\").[OMB BULLETIN NO. 13\\-01: Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/bulletins/2013/b13-01.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121004708/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/bulletins/2013/b13\\-01\\.pdf \\|date\\=January 21, 2017 }}. Office of Management and Budget. February 28, 2013\\.", "### 2010 census", "At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") there were 14,875 people in 6,064 households, including 4,050 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|383\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 6,834 housing units at an average density of 176\\.1 per square mile (68/km{{sup\\|2}}). The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232010_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census\") of the city was 62\\.2% White, 32\\.0% Black or African American, 0\\.2% Native American, 0\\.9% Asian, 0\\.0% Pacific Islander, 3\\.8% from other races, and 0\\.9% from two or more races. 4\\.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.\nOf the 6,064 households 27\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\\.2% were married couples living together, 20\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.2% were non\\-families. 29\\.7% of households were one person and 13\\.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.40 and the average family size was 2\\.95\\.", "The age distribution was 23\\.5% under the age of 18, 8\\.7% from 18 to 24, 24\\.2% from 25 to 44, 26\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.5% 65 or older. The median age was 39\\.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.8 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 90\\.9 men.", "The median household income was $34,782 and the median family income was $44,455\\. Males had a median income of $34,515 versus $31,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,097\\. About 17\\.0% of families and 20\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 30\\.7% of those under age 18 and 14\\.3% of those age 65 or over.", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+Alexander City Racial Composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US0101132\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") | 8,587 | 57\\.85% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") | 4,886 | 32\\.92% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") | 25 | 0\\.17% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") | 156 | 1\\.05% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") | 446 | 3\\.0% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 743 | 5\\.01% |", "As of the [2020 United States Census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census \"2020 United States Census\"), there were 14,843 people, 5,710 households, and 3,872 families residing in the city.", "" ]
List of members --------------- The name, size, and method of filling the body now known as the Regents of the University Michigan has changed several times in its history. ### Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania (1817–1821\) The Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania, was established by the Governor and Judges of [Michigan Territory](/wiki/Michigan_Territory "Michigan Territory") in 1817, following a plan devised by Chief Justice [Augustus Woodward](/wiki/Augustus_Woodward "Augustus Woodward"). The Catholepistemiad was self\-governed by the professors (or *Didactors*) that held its thirteen professorships (*didaxiim*). In fact, the thirteen didaxiim were divided up between just two men, who thus controlled the entire institution:{{harvnb\|Hinsdale\|1906\|pp\=11}} * [Rev. John Monteith](/wiki/Rev._John_Monteith "Rev. John Monteith"), President (and holder of seven professorships) * [Father Gabriel Richard](/wiki/Father_Gabriel_Richard "Father Gabriel Richard"), vice\-president (and holder of six professorships) ### Board of Trustees of the University of Michigan (1821–1837\) In 1821, the Governor and Judges of Michigan Territory renamed the Catholepistemiad to the University of Michigan, and placed control of the university in the hands of a board of trustees consisting of 20 citizens plus the Governor. Their previous positions abolished, Father Richard and Rev. Monteith were both appointed to the board of trustees; Monteith left that summer for a professorship at [Hamilton College](/wiki/Hamilton_College_%28New_York%29 "Hamilton College (New York)"), while Richard remained on the board until his death in 1832\. As it was common during this era for the Governor to be absent, the various men who served as Acting Governor are included in this list *in italics*, but no specific dates should be inferred as to when exactly they were Acting Governor. Also, no predecessor/successor relationship among specific Trustees should be inferred from their relative position in the table. Using the terms in office cited in the historical sources, at some points there are up to 22 simultaneous Trustees, even though only 20 were called for. | Year | Governor *(ex officio)* | | Appointed Trustees | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **1821** | [Lewis Cass](/wiki/Lewis_Cass "Lewis Cass") | *[William Woodbridge](/wiki/William_Woodbridge "William Woodbridge")* | {{Unbulleted list center \| \[\[John Biddle (Michigan)\|John Biddle]], \| \[\[Nicholas Boilvin]], \| \[\[Daniel LeRoy]], \| \[\[John Anderson (Michigan)\|John Anderson]], \| \[\[John R. Williams]], \| \[\[Solomon Sibley]], \| \[\[John L. Leib]], \| \[\[Peter J. Desnoyers]], \| \[\[Austin E. Wing]], \| \[\[William Woodbridge]], \| \[\[William Brown (Michigan)\|William Brown]] \| (all served 1821–1837\)}} | [Rev. John Monteith](/wiki/Rev._John_Monteith "Rev. John Monteith") | [Henry Jackson Hunt](/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt_%28Mayor_of_Detroit%29 "Henry Jackson Hunt (Mayor of Detroit)") | [John Hunt](/wiki/John_Hunt_%28Michigan_judge%29 "John Hunt (Michigan judge)") | [Charles Larned](/wiki/Charles_Larned "Charles Larned") | [Philip Lecuyer](/wiki/Philip_Lecuyer "Philip Lecuyer") | [Father Gabriel Richard](/wiki/Father_Gabriel_Richard "Father Gabriel Richard") | [Benjamin Stead](/wiki/Benjamin_Stead "Benjamin Stead")Appointed but declined to serve {{harv\|Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society\|1908\|p\=412}}. | [Christian Clemens](/wiki/Christian_Clemens_%28judge%29 "Christian Clemens (judge)") | [William H. Puthuff](/wiki/William_H._Puthuff "William H. Puthuff"){{harvnb\|Shaw\|1942\|pp\=59, 153}}, indicates William H. Puthoff of Michilimackinac served from 1821 to 1834, but William H. Puthuff, mayor of Michilimackinac, died in 1824 {{harv\|Journal of the Council\|1824}}. | | | **1822** | [Abraham Edwards](/wiki/Abraham_Edwards_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Abraham Edwards (Michigan politician)") | [Thomas Rowland](/wiki/Thomas_Rowland "Thomas Rowland") | | | **1823** | | **1824** | | **1825** | | | **1826** | | | | **1827** | | | [Jonathan Kearsley](/wiki/Jonathan_Kearsley "Jonathan Kearsley") | [Noah M. Wells](/wiki/Noah_M._Wells "Noah M. Wells") | [James Kingsley](/wiki/James_Kingsley "James Kingsley") | [L. Humphrey](/wiki/L._Humphrey "L. Humphrey") | [Richard Berry](/wiki/Richard_Berry_%28Michigan%29 "Richard Berry (Michigan)") | | **1828** | | **1829** | | **1830** | *[James Witherell](/wiki/James_Witherell "James Witherell")* | | *[John T. Mason](/wiki/John_Thomson_Mason_%281787%E2%80%931850%29 "John Thomson Mason (1787–1850)")* | | **1831** | | [George B. Porter](/wiki/George_B._Porter "George B. Porter") | *[Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason "Stevens T. Mason")* | | **1832** | | | | **1833** | | **1834** | [Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason "Stevens T. Mason") | | | | | | | | | **1835** | *[John S. Horner](/wiki/John_S._Horner "John S. Horner")* | [John McDonnell](/wiki/John_McDonell_%28American_politician%29 "John McDonell (American politician)") | | **1836** | | | **1837** | [Ross Wilkins](/wiki/Ross_Wilkins "Ross Wilkins") | [John Norvell](/wiki/John_Norvell "John Norvell") | Source: {{harv\|Shaw\|1942}} ### Appointed Regents of the University of Michigan (1837–1852\) The Organic Act of March 18, 1837, created the modern board of regents. In its original form, it consisted of 12 members appointed by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan "Governor of Michigan") with the consent of the [Senate](/wiki/Michigan_Senate "Michigan Senate"), along with the Governor himself, the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Michigan "Lieutenant Governor of Michigan"), the Justices of the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court "Michigan Supreme Court"), and the [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Michigan "Chancellor of Michigan") of the state. The act also created the office of chancellor of the university, who was to be appointed by the Regents and serve as *ex officio* President of the board. In fact, however, the Regents never appointed a chancellor, instead leaving administrative duties up to a rotating roster of professors, and the Governor chaired the board himself. Although the name of the institution they governed was the same, the Board of Regents was a distinct legal entity from the board of trustees. The Board of Trustees transferred all of their property to the new board of regents, but forgot to include the lot in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") where the Catholepistemiad had first been located. The court case involving the eventual recovery of this property led to the Michigan Supreme Court deciding in 1856 that the board of regents, the board of trustees, and the Didactors of the Catholepistemiad were a legally continuous entity. The Regents continued to treat 1837 as the founding year of the University of Michigan until 1929, when they reversed policy and adopted 1817 as the official founding date. That act makes the University of Michigan officially, if not actually, the oldest university in the Big Ten; in actuality, Indiana University, founded in 1820 and granting degrees before the University of Michigan was in existence, is the oldest Big Ten school. Note: Successorship is well\-defined for the *ex officio* Regents, but no specific predecessor/successor relationships is implied for the appointed Regents, except where specifically noted by an asterisk (\*) which denotes Regents explicitly named as a successor to the previous one. | Year | *Ex officio* Regents | | | | | | | | Appointed Regents | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Governor | Lt. Governor | Chancellor | Supreme Court Justices | | | | | | **1837** | [Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason "Stevens T. Mason") | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 "Edward Mundy (politician)") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 "Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)") | [William A. Fletcher](/wiki/William_A._Fletcher_%28Michigan_jurist%29 "William A. Fletcher (Michigan jurist)") | [George Morell](/wiki/George_Morell_%28Michigan_jurist%29 "George Morell (Michigan jurist)") | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom "Epaphroditus Ransom") | | | [Thomas Fitzgerald](/wiki/Thomas_Fitzgerald_%28American_politician%29 "Thomas Fitzgerald (American politician)")Resigned June 1, 1837, shortly before the Board held its first meeting {{harv\|Hinsdale\|1906\|p\=171}}. | [Ross Wilkins](/wiki/Ross_Wilkins "Ross Wilkins") | [John Norvell](/wiki/John_Norvell "John Norvell") | [Lucius Lyon](/wiki/Lucius_Lyon "Lucius Lyon") | [Isaac E. Crary](/wiki/Isaac_E._Crary "Isaac E. Crary") | [Samuel Denton](/wiki/Samuel_Denton "Samuel Denton") | [John J. Adam](/wiki/John_J._Adam "John J. Adam") | [Michael Hoffman](/wiki/Michael_Hoffman_%28congressman%29 "Michael Hoffman (congressman)") | [Zina Pitcher](/wiki/Zina_Pitcher "Zina Pitcher") | [Henry Rowe Schoolcraft](/wiki/Henry_Rowe_Schoolcraft "Henry Rowe Schoolcraft") | [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28American_politician%29 "Robert McClelland (American politician)") | [Gideon O. Whittemore](/wiki/Gideon_O._Whittemore "Gideon O. Whittemore") | | [John F. Porter](/wiki/John_F._Porter "John F. Porter")\* | [Seba Murphy](/wiki/Seba_Murphy "Seba Murphy")\* | | **1838** | | [Charles W. Whipple](/wiki/Charles_W._Whipple "Charles W. Whipple") | [Jonathan Kearsley](/wiki/Jonathan_Kearsley "Jonathan Kearsley")\* | [Gurdon C. Leech](/wiki/Gurdon_C._Leech "Gurdon C. Leech")\* | | **1839** | | [Charles C. Trowbridge](/wiki/Charles_C._Trowbridge "Charles C. Trowbridge")\* | [George Duffield](/wiki/George_Duffield_%28minister%2C_born_1794%29 "George Duffield (minister, born 1794)")\* | [Joseph W. Brown](/wiki/Joseph_W._Brown "Joseph W. Brown")\* | | **1840** | | [William Woodbridge](/wiki/William_Woodbridge "William Woodbridge") | [James Wright Gordon](/wiki/James_Wright_Gordon "James Wright Gordon") | [Samuel W. Dexter](/wiki/Samuel_W._Dexter "Samuel W. Dexter") | [Michael A. Patterson](/wiki/Michael_A._Patterson "Michael A. Patterson")\* | [Francis J. Higginson](/wiki/Francis_J._Higginson "Francis J. Higginson") | [Daniel Hudson](/wiki/Daniel_Hudson "Daniel Hudson")\* | [William Draper](/wiki/William_Draper_%28Michigan%29 "William Draper (Michigan)") | | **1841** | | *[James Wright Gordon](/wiki/James_Wright_Gordon "James Wright Gordon")* | *[Thomas J. Drake](/wiki/Thomas_J._Drake "Thomas J. Drake")?* | [Oliver C. Comstock](/wiki/Oliver_C._Comstock "Oliver C. Comstock")\* | [John Owen](/wiki/John_Owen_%28Michigan%29 "John Owen (Michigan)")\* | [Martin Kundig](/wiki/Martin_Kundig "Martin Kundig") | [George Goodman](/wiki/George_Goodman_%28Michigan%29 "George Goodman (Michigan)") | | **1842** | | [John S. Barry](/wiki/John_S._Barry "John S. Barry") | [Origen D. Richardson](/wiki/Origen_D._Richardson "Origen D. Richardson") | [Randolph Manning](/wiki/Randolph_Manning "Randolph Manning") | [Alpheus Felch](/wiki/Alpheus_Felch "Alpheus Felch") | | [Elisha Crane](/wiki/Elisha_Crane "Elisha Crane") | [Andrew M. Fitch](/wiki/Andrew_M._Fitch "Andrew M. Fitch") | [William A. Fletcher](/wiki/William_A._Fletcher_%28Michigan_jurist%29 "William A. Fletcher (Michigan jurist)") | | **1843** | | [Daniel Goodwin](/wiki/Daniel_Goodwin_%28Michigan%29 "Daniel Goodwin (Michigan)") | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom "Epaphroditus Ransom") | [Marvin Allen](/wiki/Marvin_Allen_%28minister%29 "Marvin Allen (minister)") | | [Lewis Cass](/wiki/Lewis_Cass "Lewis Cass")\* | [Dewitt C. Walker](/wiki/Dewitt_C._Walker "Dewitt C. Walker")\* | | **1844** | | [Alexander H. Redfield](/wiki/Alexander_H._Redfield "Alexander H. Redfield")\* | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 "Edward Mundy (politician)") | [Robert R. Kellogg](/wiki/Robert_R._Kellogg "Robert R. Kellogg")\* | [George Duffield](/wiki/George_Duffield_%28minister%2C_born_1794%29 "George Duffield (minister, born 1794)") | | **1845** | | [Warner Wing](/wiki/Warner_Wing "Warner Wing") | [Austin E. Wing](/wiki/Austin_E._Wing "Austin E. Wing") | [Minot Thayer Lane](/wiki/Minot_Thayer_Lane "Minot Thayer Lane") | | **1846** | | [Alpheus Felch](/wiki/Alpheus_Felch "Alpheus Felch") | [William L. Greenly](/wiki/William_L._Greenly "William L. Greenly") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 "Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)") | [George Miles](/wiki/George_Miles_%28Michigan_jurist%29 "George Miles (Michigan jurist)") | [Charles Coffin Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Coffin_Taylor "Charles Coffin Taylor") | [Elijah Holmes Pilcher](/wiki/Elijah_Holmes_Pilcher "Elijah Holmes Pilcher") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 "Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)") | | **1847** | *(office abolished)* | | [William L. Greenly](/wiki/William_L._Greenly "William L. Greenly") | *[Charles P. Bush](/wiki/Charles_P._Bush "Charles P. Bush")*Charles P. Bush, acting Lieutenant Governor 1847–1848, is listed as an *ex officio* Regent in {{harv\|Bentley Historical Library\|2006}}, but Thomas J. Drake, acting Lieutenant Governor 1841–1842, is not. It is not clear whether this is an omission or a change in treatment of the acting Lieutenant Governor between 1842 and 1847\. | | **1848** | | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom "Epaphroditus Ransom") | [William Matthew Fenton](/wiki/William_Matthew_Fenton "William Matthew Fenton") | [Sanford M. Green](/wiki/Sanford_M._Green "Sanford M. Green") | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 "Edward Mundy (politician)") | [John Guest Atterbury](/wiki/John_Guest_Atterbury "John Guest Atterbury") | [Justus Goodman](/wiki/Justus_Goodman "Justus Goodman") | [Benjamin F. H. Witherell](/wiki/Benjamin_F._H._Witherell "Benjamin F. H. Witherell") | | **1849** | | [Edwin M. Cust](/wiki/Edwin_M._Cust "Edwin M. Cust") | | **1850** | | | [John S. Barry](/wiki/John_S._Barry "John S. Barry") | [Abner Pratt](/wiki/Abner_Pratt "Abner Pratt") | [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28American_politician%29 "Robert McClelland (American politician)") | [Gustavus Lemuel Foster](/wiki/Gustavus_Lemuel_Foster "Gustavus Lemuel Foster")\* | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom "Epaphroditus Ransom")\* | | **1851** | | | [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin_%28Michigan_judge%29 "George Martin (Michigan judge)") | | Source: {{harv\|Bentley Historical Library\|2006}} ### Elected Regents of the University of Michigan (1852–present) The state constitution of 1850 made the Regents of the University of Michigan a statewide elected body, and also created the office of [President of the University of Michigan](/wiki/President_of_the_University_of_Michigan "President of the University of Michigan"), who was to be an *ex officio* member and preside over the Board without a vote. The first regents elected under the new system were elected in 1852\. Originally, one regent was elected from each of the eight judicial circuits in Michigan, for a six\-year term, with all regents up for election simultaneously. By the time of the next election, the number of circuits had grown to ten, so ten regents were elected for the term beginning in 1858\. This fluctuation in the size of the board, combined with the controversy over the regents' firing of President [Henry Philip Tappan](/wiki/Henry_Philip_Tappan "Henry Philip Tappan") just before the end of their term in 1863, led to a new law that fixed the size of the board at eight members, elected on a statewide basis to an eight\-year term, with terms staggered such that two are up for election every two years. The constitutional convention of 1908 added the Superintendent of Public Instruction as an *ex officio* member of the board, a move which was reversed by the constitutional convention of 1963\.{{harvnb\|Bentley Historical Library\|2007}} | Year | *Ex officio* Regents | | Elected Regents | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | President | Superintendent of Public Instruction | | 1852 | [Henry Philip Tappan](/wiki/Henry_Philip_Tappan "Henry Philip Tappan") | | [Andrew Parsons](/wiki/Andrew_Parsons_%28American_politician%29 "Andrew Parsons (American politician)") | [Elisha Ely](/wiki/Elisha_Ely "Elisha Ely")Elisha Ely died November 2, 1854, and his position was unfilled for the remainder of his term. {{harv\|Hinsdale\|1906\|p\=183}} | [James Kingsley](/wiki/James_Kingsley "James Kingsley") | [Edward S. Moore](/wiki/Edward_S._Moore "Edward S. Moore") | [Charles H. Palmer](/wiki/Charles_H._Palmer "Charles H. Palmer") | William Upjohn | [Michael A. Patterson](/wiki/Michael_A._Patterson "Michael A. Patterson") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 "Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)") | | | | 1853 | [Henry H. Northrop](/wiki/Henry_H._Northrop "Henry H. Northrop") | | 1854 | | 1855 | | 1856 | | 1857 | | 1858 | [George W. Pack](/wiki/George_W._Pack "George W. Pack") | [John Van Vleck](/wiki/John_Van_Vleck_%28Michigan%29 "John Van Vleck (Michigan)") | [Luke H. Parsons](/wiki/Luke_H._Parsons "Luke H. Parsons") | [Benjamin L. Baxter](/wiki/Benjamin_L._Baxter "Benjamin L. Baxter") | [Levi Bishop](/wiki/Levi_Bishop "Levi Bishop") | [George Bradley](/wiki/George_Bradley_%28Michigan%29 "George Bradley (Michigan)") | [Ebenezer Lakin Brown](/wiki/Ebenezer_Lakin_Brown "Ebenezer Lakin Brown") | [James E. Johnson](/wiki/James_E._Johnson_%28Michigan%29 "James E. Johnson (Michigan)") | [Donald McIntyre](/wiki/Donald_McIntyre_%28Michigan%29 "Donald McIntyre (Michigan)") | [William M. Ferry](/wiki/William_Montague_Ferry_Jr. "William Montague Ferry Jr.") | | [Henry Whiting](/wiki/Henry_Whiting_%28Michigan%29 "Henry Whiting (Michigan)") | [Oliver L. Spaulding](/wiki/Oliver_L._Spaulding "Oliver L. Spaulding") | | 1859 | | 1860 | | 1861 | | 1862 | | 1863 | [Erastus Otis Haven](/wiki/Erastus_Otis_Haven "Erastus Otis Haven") | | 1864 | [Alvah Sweetzer](/wiki/Alvah_Sweetzer "Alvah Sweetzer") | [James A. Sweezey](/wiki/James_A._Sweezey "James A. Sweezey") | [George Willard](/wiki/George_Willard "George Willard") | [Edward C. Walker](/wiki/Edward_Carey_Walker "Edward Carey Walker") | [Thomas J. Joslin](/wiki/Thomas_J._Joslin "Thomas J. Joslin") | [Thomas D. Gilbert](/wiki/Thomas_D._Gilbert "Thomas D. Gilbert") | [Henry C. Knight](/wiki/Henry_C._Knight "Henry C. Knight") | *seats eliminated* | | | 1865 | [Cyrus M. Stockwell](/wiki/Cyrus_M._Stockwell "Cyrus M. Stockwell") | | 1866 | | 1867 | [John M.B. Sill](/wiki/John_M.B._Sill "John M.B. Sill") | | 1868 | [Hiram A. Burt](/wiki/Hiram_A._Burt "Hiram A. Burt") | | 1869 | *[Henry Simmons Frieze](/wiki/Henry_Simmons_Frieze "Henry Simmons Frieze")* | | 1870 | [Joseph Estabrook](/wiki/Joseph_Estabrook_%28American%29 "Joseph Estabrook (American)") | [Jonas H. McGowan](/wiki/Jonas_H._McGowan "Jonas H. McGowan") | | 1871 | [James Burrill Angell](/wiki/James_Burrill_Angell "James Burrill Angell") | | 1872 | [Claudius B. Grant](/wiki/Claudius_B._Grant "Claudius B. Grant") | [Charles Rynd](/wiki/Charles_Rynd "Charles Rynd") | | 1873 | | 1874 | [Andrew Climie](/wiki/Andrew_Climie "Andrew Climie") | | 1875 | | 1876 | [Byron M. Cutcheon](/wiki/Byron_M._Cutcheon "Byron M. Cutcheon") | [Samuel S. Walker](/wiki/Samuel_S._Walker "Samuel S. Walker") | | 1877 | [Victory P. Collier](/wiki/Victory_P._Collier "Victory P. Collier") | | [George Duffield, Jr.](/wiki/George_Duffield%2C_Jr. "George Duffield, Jr.") | | 1878 | [George L. Maltz](/wiki/George_L._Maltz "George L. Maltz") | | 1879 | | 1880 | [Ebenezer O. Grosvenor](/wiki/Ebenezer_O._Grosvenor "Ebenezer O. Grosvenor") | [James Shearer](/wiki/James_Shearer_%28Regent%29 "James Shearer (Regent)") | [Jacob J. Van Riper](/wiki/Jacob_J._Van_Riper "Jacob J. Van Riper") | | 1881 | [Austin Blair](/wiki/Austin_Blair "Austin Blair") | | 1882 | [James F. Joy](/wiki/James_F._Joy "James F. Joy") | | 1883 | [Lyman D. Norris](/wiki/Lyman_D._Norris "Lyman D. Norris") | | 1884 | [Arthur M. Clark](/wiki/Arthur_M._Clark "Arthur M. Clark") | [Charles J. Willett](/wiki/Charles_J._Willett "Charles J. Willett") | | 1885 | | 1886 | [Charles S. Draper](/wiki/Charles_S._Draper_%28Michigan%29 "Charles S. Draper (Michigan)") | [Moses W. Field](/wiki/Moses_W._Field "Moses W. Field") | [Charles R. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_R._Whitman "Charles R. Whitman") | | 1887 | | 1888 | [Charles Hebard](/wiki/Charles_Hebard "Charles Hebard") | [Roger W. Butterfield](/wiki/Roger_W._Butterfield "Roger W. Butterfield") | | 1889 | [Hermann Kiefer](/wiki/Hermann_Kiefer "Hermann Kiefer") | | 1890 | [William J. Cocker](/wiki/William_J._Cocker "William J. Cocker") | | 1891 | | 1892 | [Levi L. Barbour](/wiki/Levi_L._Barbour "Levi L. Barbour") | [Henry Howard](/wiki/Henry_Howard_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Henry Howard (Michigan politician)") | [Peter N. Cook](/wiki/Peter_N._Cook "Peter N. Cook") | | 1893 | | 1894 | [Henry S. Dean](/wiki/Henry_S._Dean "Henry S. Dean") | [Frank W. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_W._Fletcher "Frank W. Fletcher") | | 1895 | | 1896 | [Charles H. Hackley](/wiki/Charles_H._Hackley "Charles H. Hackley") | | [George A. Farr](/wiki/George_A._Farr "George A. Farr") | | 1897 | *[Harry Burns Hutchins](/wiki/Harry_Burns_Hutchins "Harry Burns Hutchins")* | | 1898 | [James Burrill Angell](/wiki/James_Burrill_Angell "James Burrill Angell") | [Charles D. Lawton](/wiki/Charles_D._Lawton "Charles D. Lawton") | | 1899 | | 1900 | [Eli R. Sutton](/wiki/Eli_R._Sutton "Eli R. Sutton") | | 1901 | [Arthur Hill](/wiki/Arthur_Hill_%28Michigan%29 "Arthur Hill (Michigan)") | | 1902 | [Levi L. Barbour](/wiki/Levi_L._Barbour "Levi L. Barbour") | [Henry W. Carey](/wiki/Henry_W._Carey "Henry W. Carey") | | 1903 | | 1904 | [Peter White](/wiki/Peter_White_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Peter White (Michigan politician)") | [Loyal Edwin Knappen](/wiki/Loyal_Edwin_Knappen "Loyal Edwin Knappen") | | 1905 | | 1906 | [Walter H. Sawyer](/wiki/Walter_H._Sawyer "Walter H. Sawyer") | | 1907 | | 1908 | [Chase S. Osborn](/wiki/Chase_S._Osborn "Chase S. Osborn") | [Frank B. Leland](/wiki/Frank_B._Leland "Frank B. Leland") | [Junius E. Beal](/wiki/Junius_E._Beal "Junius E. Beal") | | 1909 | [Harry Burns Hutchins](/wiki/Harry_Burns_Hutchins "Harry Burns Hutchins") | [Luther L. Wright](/wiki/Luther_L._Wright "Luther L. Wright") | [John H. Grant](/wiki/John_H._Grant "John H. Grant") | | 1910 | [George P. Codd](/wiki/George_P._Codd "George P. Codd") | [William L. Clements](/wiki/William_L._Clements "William L. Clements") | | 1911 | [Lucius L. Hubbard](/wiki/Lucius_L._Hubbard "Lucius L. Hubbard") | [Benjamin S. Hanchett](/wiki/Benjamin_S._Hanchett "Benjamin S. Hanchett") | [Harry C. Bulkley](/wiki/Harry_C._Bulkley "Harry C. Bulkley") | | 1912 | | 1913 | [Fred L. Keeler](/wiki/Fred_L._Keeler "Fred L. Keeler") | [William A. Comstock](/wiki/William_A._Comstock "William A. Comstock") | | 1914 | [Victor M. Gore](/wiki/Victor_M._Gore "Victor M. Gore") | | 1915 | | 1916 | | 1917 | | 1918 | [James O. Murfin](/wiki/James_O._Murfin "James O. Murfin") | | 1919 | Thomas E. Johnson | | 1920 | [Marion LeRoy Burton](/wiki/Marion_LeRoy_Burton "Marion LeRoy Burton") | | 1921 | | 1922 | | 1923 | | 1924 | [Ralph Stone](/wiki/Ralph_Stone "Ralph Stone") | | 1925 | [Alfred Henry Lloyd](/wiki/Alfred_Henry_Lloyd "Alfred Henry Lloyd") | | [C. C. Little](/wiki/C._C._Little "C. C. Little") | | 1926 | [Wilford L. Coffey](/wiki/Wilford_L._Coffey "Wilford L. Coffey") | | 1927 | [Webster H. Pearce](/wiki/Webster_H._Pearce "Webster H. Pearce") | | 1928 | | 1929 | [Alexander Grant Ruthven](/wiki/Alexander_Grant_Ruthven "Alexander Grant Ruthven") | [Esther M. Cram](/wiki/Esther_M._Cram "Esther M. Cram") | | 1930 | [R. Perry Shorts](/wiki/R._Perry_Shorts "R. Perry Shorts") | | 1931 | [Richard R. Smith](/wiki/Richard_R._Smith "Richard R. Smith") | | 1932 | | 1933 | [Paul F. Voelker](/wiki/Paul_F._Voelker "Paul F. Voelker") | [Edmund C. Shields](/wiki/Edmund_C._Shields "Edmund C. Shields") | | 1934 | [James O. Murfin](/wiki/James_O._Murfin "James O. Murfin") | [Charles F. Hemans](/wiki/Charles_F._Hemans "Charles F. Hemans") | [Franklin M. Cook](/wiki/Franklin_M._Cook "Franklin M. Cook") | | 1935 | [Maurice R. Keyworth](/wiki/Maurice_R._Keyworth "Maurice R. Keyworth") | | [Eugene B. Elliott](/wiki/Eugene_B._Elliott "Eugene B. Elliott") | | 1936 | [David H. Crowley](/wiki/David_H._Crowley "David H. Crowley") | | 1937 | | 1938 | [Edmund C. Shields](/wiki/Edmund_C._Shields "Edmund C. Shields") | [John D. Lynch](/wiki/John_D._Lynch "John D. Lynch") | | 1939 | | 1940 | [Harry Kipke](/wiki/Harry_Kipke "Harry Kipke") | [J. Joseph Herbert](/wiki/J._Joseph_Herbert "J. Joseph Herbert") | | 1941 | | 1942 | [Earl L. Burhans](/wiki/Earl_L._Burhans "Earl L. Burhans") | [Alfred B. Connable](/wiki/Alfred_B._Connable "Alfred B. Connable") | | [Franklin M. Cook](/wiki/Franklin_M._Cook "Franklin M. Cook") | | 1943 | [Vera B. Baits](/wiki/Vera_Burridge_Baits "Vera Burridge Baits") | | 1944 | [Ralph A. Hayward](/wiki/Ralph_A._Hayward "Ralph A. Hayward") | [R. Spencer Bishop](/wiki/R._Spencer_Bishop "R. Spencer Bishop") | | 1945 | | 1946 | [Roscoe O. Bonisteel](/wiki/Roscoe_Bonisteel "Roscoe Bonisteel") | [Otto E. Eckert](/wiki/Otto_E._Eckert "Otto E. Eckert") | [Charles S. Kennedy](/wiki/Charles_S._Kennedy "Charles S. Kennedy") | | 1947 | | 1948 | [Kenneth M. Stevens](/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stevens "Kenneth M. Stevens") | | 1949 | [Lee M. Thurston](/wiki/Lee_M._Thurston "Lee M. Thurston") | | 1950 | | 1951 | [Harlan Hatcher](/wiki/Harlan_Hatcher "Harlan Hatcher") | [Murray D. Van Wagoner](/wiki/Murray_D._Van_Wagoner "Murray D. Van Wagoner") | | 1952 | [Leland I. Doan](/wiki/Leland_I._Doan "Leland I. Doan") | | 1953 | [Clair L. Taylor](/wiki/Clair_L._Taylor "Clair L. Taylor") | | 1954 | | 1955 | | 1956 | [Paul L. Adams](/wiki/Paul_L._Adams_%28Michigan_judge%29 "Paul L. Adams (Michigan judge)") | [Eugene B. Power](/wiki/Eugene_B._Power "Eugene B. Power") | | 1957 | [Lynn M. Bartlett](/wiki/Lynn_M._Bartlett "Lynn M. Bartlett") | | 1958 | [Donald M.D. Thurber](/wiki/Donald_M.D._Thurber "Donald M.D. Thurber") | [Carl Brablec](/wiki/Carl_Brablec "Carl Brablec") | [Irene Ellis Murphy](/wiki/Irene_Ellis_Murphy "Irene Ellis Murphy") | | 1959 | | 1960 | [Frederick C. Matthaei, Sr.](/wiki/Frederick_C._Matthaei%2C_Sr. "Frederick C. Matthaei, Sr.") | [William K. McInally](/wiki/William_K._McInally "William K. McInally") | | 1961 | | 1962 | [Allan R. Sorenson](/wiki/Allan_R._Sorenson "Allan R. Sorenson") | [Paul G. Goebel](/wiki/Paul_G._Goebel "Paul G. Goebel") | | 1963 | (no longer *ex officio* Regent) | | 1964 | [Robert P. Briggs](/wiki/Robert_P._Briggs "Robert P. Briggs") | [William B. Cudlip](/wiki/William_B._Cudlip "William B. Cudlip") | | 1965 | | 1966 | [Alvin M. Bentley](/wiki/Alvin_M._Bentley "Alvin M. Bentley") | | 1967 | [Frederick C. Matthaei, Jr.](/wiki/Frederick_C._Matthaei%2C_Jr. "Frederick C. Matthaei, Jr.") | [Otis M. Smith](/wiki/Otis_M._Smith "Otis M. Smith") | [Robert J. Brown](/wiki/Robert_J._Brown "Robert J. Brown") | [Gertrude V. Huebner](/wiki/Gertrude_V._Huebner "Gertrude V. Huebner") | | 1968 | [Robben Wright Fleming](/wiki/Robben_Wright_Fleming "Robben Wright Fleming") | [Lawrence B. Lindemer](/wiki/Lawrence_B._Lindemer "Lawrence B. Lindemer") | | 1969 | [Robert E. Nederlander](/wiki/Robert_E._Nederlander "Robert E. Nederlander") | [Gerald R. Dunn](/wiki/Gerald_R._Dunn "Gerald R. Dunn") | [Lawrence B. Lindemer](/wiki/Lawrence_B._Lindemer "Lawrence B. Lindemer") | | 1970 | | 1971 | [James L. Waters](/wiki/James_L._Waters "James L. Waters") | [Paul W. Brown](/wiki/Paul_Walker_Brown "Paul Walker Brown") | | 1972 | | 1973 | [Deane Baker](/wiki/Deane_Baker "Deane Baker") | | 1974 | | 1975 | [David Laro](/wiki/David_Laro "David Laro") | [Sarah Goddard Power](/wiki/Sarah_Goddard_Power "Sarah Goddard Power") | [Thomas A. Roach](/wiki/Thomas_A._Roach "Thomas A. Roach") | | 1976 | | 1977 | | 1978 | | 1979 | *[Allan F. Smith](/wiki/Allan_F._Smith "Allan F. Smith")* | | 1980 | [Harold Tafler Shapiro](/wiki/Harold_Tafler_Shapiro "Harold Tafler Shapiro") | | 1981 | [Nellie M. Varner](/wiki/Nellie_M._Varner "Nellie M. Varner") | | 1982 | | 1983 | | 1984 | | 1985 | [Veronica Latta Smith](/wiki/Veronica_Latta_Smith "Veronica Latta Smith") | [Neal D. Nielson](/wiki/Neal_D._Nielson "Neal D. Nielson") | | 1986 | | 1987 | [Philip H. Power](/wiki/Philip_H._Power "Philip H. Power") | | 1988 | [James Johnson Duderstadt](/wiki/James_Johnson_Duderstadt "James Johnson Duderstadt") | | 1989 | | 1990 | | 1991 | [Shirley M. McFee](/wiki/Shirley_M._McFee "Shirley M. McFee") | | 1992 | | 1993 | [Laurence B. Deitch](/wiki/Laurence_B._Deitch "Laurence B. Deitch") | [Rebecca McGowan](/wiki/Rebecca_McGowan "Rebecca McGowan") | | 1994 | | 1995 | [Andrea F. Newman](/wiki/Andrea_F._Newman "Andrea F. Newman") | [Daniel D. Horning](/wiki/Daniel_D._Horning "Daniel D. Horning") | | 1996 | *[Homer Neal](/wiki/Homer_Neal "Homer Neal")* | | [Lee C. Bollinger](/wiki/Lee_C._Bollinger "Lee C. Bollinger") | | 1997 | [Olivia P. Maynard](/wiki/Olivia_P._Maynard "Olivia P. Maynard") | [S. Martin Taylor](/wiki/S._Martin_Taylor "S. Martin Taylor") | | 1998 | | 1999 | [Dave Brandon](/wiki/Dave_Brandon "Dave Brandon") | Katherine E. White | | 2000 | | 2001 | | 2002 | *[B. Joseph White](/wiki/B._Joseph_White "B. Joseph White")* | | [Mary Sue Coleman](/wiki/Mary_Sue_Coleman "Mary Sue Coleman") | | 2003 | [Andrew Richner](/wiki/Andrew_Richner "Andrew Richner") | | 2004 | | 2005 | | 2006 | | 2007 | [Julia Donovan Darlow](/wiki/Julia_Donovan_Darlow "Julia Donovan Darlow") | | 2008 | | 2009 | [Denise Ilitch](/wiki/Denise_Ilitch "Denise Ilitch") | | 2010 | | 2011 | | 2012 | | 2013 | [Mark Bernstein](/wiki/Mark_Bernstein_%28University_of_Michigan%29 "Mark Bernstein (University of Michigan)") | Shauna Ryder\-Diggs | | 2014 | [Mark Schlissel](/wiki/Mark_Schlissel "Mark Schlissel") | | 2015 | Mike Behm | | 2016 | | 2017 | [Ron Weiser](/wiki/Ronald_Weiser "Ronald Weiser") | | 2018 | | 2019 | [Jordan B. Acker](/wiki/Jordan_B._Acker "Jordan B. Acker") | [Paul W. Brown](/wiki/Paul_W._Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Paul W. Brown (Michigan politician)") | | 2020 | | 2021 | [Sarah Hubbard](/wiki/Sarah_Hubbard "Sarah Hubbard") | | 2022 | [Santa Ono](/wiki/Santa_Ono "Santa Ono") | | 2023 | | *Next election* | *n/a* | | *2024* | | *2026* | | *2028* | | *2030* | | Source: Names and dates {{harv\|Bentley Historical Library\|2006}}, party affiliations {{harv\|Kestenbaum}}
[ "List of members\n---------------", "The name, size, and method of filling the body now known as the Regents of the University Michigan has changed several times in its history.", "### Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania (1817–1821\\)", "The Catholepistemiad, or University, of Michigania, was established by the Governor and Judges of [Michigan Territory](/wiki/Michigan_Territory \"Michigan Territory\") in 1817, following a plan devised by Chief Justice [Augustus Woodward](/wiki/Augustus_Woodward \"Augustus Woodward\"). The Catholepistemiad was self\\-governed by the professors (or *Didactors*) that held its thirteen professorships (*didaxiim*). In fact, the thirteen didaxiim were divided up between just two men, who thus controlled the entire institution:{{harvnb\\|Hinsdale\\|1906\\|pp\\=11}}\n* [Rev. John Monteith](/wiki/Rev._John_Monteith \"Rev. John Monteith\"), President (and holder of seven professorships)\n* [Father Gabriel Richard](/wiki/Father_Gabriel_Richard \"Father Gabriel Richard\"), vice\\-president (and holder of six professorships)", "### Board of Trustees of the University of Michigan (1821–1837\\)", "In 1821, the Governor and Judges of Michigan Territory renamed the Catholepistemiad to the University of Michigan, and placed control of the university in the hands of a board of trustees consisting of 20 citizens plus the Governor. Their previous positions abolished, Father Richard and Rev. Monteith were both appointed to the board of trustees; Monteith left that summer for a professorship at [Hamilton College](/wiki/Hamilton_College_%28New_York%29 \"Hamilton College (New York)\"), while Richard remained on the board until his death in 1832\\.", "As it was common during this era for the Governor to be absent, the various men who served as Acting Governor are included in this list *in italics*, but no specific dates should be inferred as to when exactly they were Acting Governor. Also, no predecessor/successor relationship among specific Trustees should be inferred from their relative position in the table. Using the terms in office cited in the historical sources, at some points there are up to 22 simultaneous Trustees, even though only 20 were called for.", "| Year | Governor *(ex officio)* | | Appointed Trustees | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **1821** | [Lewis Cass](/wiki/Lewis_Cass \"Lewis Cass\") | *[William Woodbridge](/wiki/William_Woodbridge \"William Woodbridge\")* | {{Unbulleted list center \\| \\[\\[John Biddle (Michigan)\\|John Biddle]], \\| \\[\\[Nicholas Boilvin]], \\| \\[\\[Daniel LeRoy]], \\| \\[\\[John Anderson (Michigan)\\|John Anderson]], \\| \\[\\[John R. Williams]], \\| \\[\\[Solomon Sibley]], \\| \\[\\[John L. Leib]], \\| \\[\\[Peter J. Desnoyers]], \\| \\[\\[Austin E. Wing]], \\| \\[\\[William Woodbridge]], \\| \\[\\[William Brown (Michigan)\\|William Brown]] \\| (all served 1821–1837\\)}} | [Rev. John Monteith](/wiki/Rev._John_Monteith \"Rev. John Monteith\") | [Henry Jackson Hunt](/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt_%28Mayor_of_Detroit%29 \"Henry Jackson Hunt (Mayor of Detroit)\") | [John Hunt](/wiki/John_Hunt_%28Michigan_judge%29 \"John Hunt (Michigan judge)\") | [Charles Larned](/wiki/Charles_Larned \"Charles Larned\") | [Philip Lecuyer](/wiki/Philip_Lecuyer \"Philip Lecuyer\") | [Father Gabriel Richard](/wiki/Father_Gabriel_Richard \"Father Gabriel Richard\") | [Benjamin Stead](/wiki/Benjamin_Stead \"Benjamin Stead\")Appointed but declined to serve {{harv\\|Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society\\|1908\\|p\\=412}}. | [Christian Clemens](/wiki/Christian_Clemens_%28judge%29 \"Christian Clemens (judge)\") | [William H. Puthuff](/wiki/William_H._Puthuff \"William H. Puthuff\"){{harvnb\\|Shaw\\|1942\\|pp\\=59, 153}}, indicates William H. Puthoff of Michilimackinac served from 1821 to 1834, but William H. Puthuff, mayor of Michilimackinac, died in 1824 {{harv\\|Journal of the Council\\|1824}}. | |\n| **1822** | [Abraham Edwards](/wiki/Abraham_Edwards_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Abraham Edwards (Michigan politician)\") | [Thomas Rowland](/wiki/Thomas_Rowland \"Thomas Rowland\") | |\n| **1823** |\n| **1824** |\n| **1825** | |\n| **1826** |\n| |\n| **1827** |\n| | [Jonathan Kearsley](/wiki/Jonathan_Kearsley \"Jonathan Kearsley\") | [Noah M. Wells](/wiki/Noah_M._Wells \"Noah M. Wells\") | [James Kingsley](/wiki/James_Kingsley \"James Kingsley\") | [L. Humphrey](/wiki/L._Humphrey \"L. Humphrey\") | [Richard Berry](/wiki/Richard_Berry_%28Michigan%29 \"Richard Berry (Michigan)\") |\n| **1828** |\n| **1829** |\n| **1830** | *[James Witherell](/wiki/James_Witherell \"James Witherell\")* |\n| *[John T. Mason](/wiki/John_Thomson_Mason_%281787%E2%80%931850%29 \"John Thomson Mason (1787–1850)\")* |\n| **1831** |\n| [George B. Porter](/wiki/George_B._Porter \"George B. Porter\") | *[Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason \"Stevens T. Mason\")* |\n| **1832** |\n| |\n| **1833** |\n| **1834** | [Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason \"Stevens T. Mason\") | | | | | | | |\n| **1835** | *[John S. Horner](/wiki/John_S._Horner \"John S. Horner\")* | [John McDonnell](/wiki/John_McDonell_%28American_politician%29 \"John McDonell (American politician)\") |\n| **1836** | |\n| **1837** | [Ross Wilkins](/wiki/Ross_Wilkins \"Ross Wilkins\") | [John Norvell](/wiki/John_Norvell \"John Norvell\") |", "Source: {{harv\\|Shaw\\|1942}}", "### Appointed Regents of the University of Michigan (1837–1852\\)", "The Organic Act of March 18, 1837, created the modern board of regents. In its original form, it consisted of 12 members appointed by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan \"Governor of Michigan\") with the consent of the [Senate](/wiki/Michigan_Senate \"Michigan Senate\"), along with the Governor himself, the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Michigan \"Lieutenant Governor of Michigan\"), the Justices of the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court \"Michigan Supreme Court\"), and the [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Michigan \"Chancellor of Michigan\") of the state. The act also created the office of chancellor of the university, who was to be appointed by the Regents and serve as *ex officio* President of the board. In fact, however, the Regents never appointed a chancellor, instead leaving administrative duties up to a rotating roster of professors, and the Governor chaired the board himself.", "Although the name of the institution they governed was the same, the Board of Regents was a distinct legal entity from the board of trustees. The Board of Trustees transferred all of their property to the new board of regents, but forgot to include the lot in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") where the Catholepistemiad had first been located. The court case involving the eventual recovery of this property led to the Michigan Supreme Court deciding in 1856 that the board of regents, the board of trustees, and the Didactors of the Catholepistemiad were a legally continuous entity. The Regents continued to treat 1837 as the founding year of the University of Michigan until 1929, when they reversed policy and adopted 1817 as the official founding date. That act makes the University of Michigan officially, if not actually, the oldest university in the Big Ten; in actuality, Indiana University, founded in 1820 and granting degrees before the University of Michigan was in existence, is the oldest Big Ten school.", "Note: Successorship is well\\-defined for the *ex officio* Regents, but no specific predecessor/successor relationships is implied for the appointed Regents, except where specifically noted by an asterisk (\\*) which denotes Regents explicitly named as a successor to the previous one.", "", "| Year | *Ex officio* Regents | | | | | | | | Appointed Regents | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|\n| Governor | Lt. Governor | Chancellor | Supreme Court Justices | | | | |\n| **1837** | [Stevens T. Mason](/wiki/Stevens_T._Mason \"Stevens T. Mason\") | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 \"Edward Mundy (politician)\") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 \"Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)\") | [William A. Fletcher](/wiki/William_A._Fletcher_%28Michigan_jurist%29 \"William A. Fletcher (Michigan jurist)\") | [George Morell](/wiki/George_Morell_%28Michigan_jurist%29 \"George Morell (Michigan jurist)\") | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom \"Epaphroditus Ransom\") | | | [Thomas Fitzgerald](/wiki/Thomas_Fitzgerald_%28American_politician%29 \"Thomas Fitzgerald (American politician)\")Resigned June 1, 1837, shortly before the Board held its first meeting {{harv\\|Hinsdale\\|1906\\|p\\=171}}. | [Ross Wilkins](/wiki/Ross_Wilkins \"Ross Wilkins\") | [John Norvell](/wiki/John_Norvell \"John Norvell\") | [Lucius Lyon](/wiki/Lucius_Lyon \"Lucius Lyon\") | [Isaac E. Crary](/wiki/Isaac_E._Crary \"Isaac E. Crary\") | [Samuel Denton](/wiki/Samuel_Denton \"Samuel Denton\") | [John J. Adam](/wiki/John_J._Adam \"John J. Adam\") | [Michael Hoffman](/wiki/Michael_Hoffman_%28congressman%29 \"Michael Hoffman (congressman)\") | [Zina Pitcher](/wiki/Zina_Pitcher \"Zina Pitcher\") | [Henry Rowe Schoolcraft](/wiki/Henry_Rowe_Schoolcraft \"Henry Rowe Schoolcraft\") | [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28American_politician%29 \"Robert McClelland (American politician)\") | [Gideon O. Whittemore](/wiki/Gideon_O._Whittemore \"Gideon O. Whittemore\") |\n| [John F. Porter](/wiki/John_F._Porter \"John F. Porter\")\\* | [Seba Murphy](/wiki/Seba_Murphy \"Seba Murphy\")\\* |\n| **1838** |\n| [Charles W. Whipple](/wiki/Charles_W._Whipple \"Charles W. Whipple\") | [Jonathan Kearsley](/wiki/Jonathan_Kearsley \"Jonathan Kearsley\")\\* | [Gurdon C. Leech](/wiki/Gurdon_C._Leech \"Gurdon C. Leech\")\\* |\n| **1839** |\n| [Charles C. Trowbridge](/wiki/Charles_C._Trowbridge \"Charles C. Trowbridge\")\\* | [George Duffield](/wiki/George_Duffield_%28minister%2C_born_1794%29 \"George Duffield (minister, born 1794)\")\\* | [Joseph W. Brown](/wiki/Joseph_W._Brown \"Joseph W. Brown\")\\* |\n| **1840** |\n| [William Woodbridge](/wiki/William_Woodbridge \"William Woodbridge\") | [James Wright Gordon](/wiki/James_Wright_Gordon \"James Wright Gordon\") | [Samuel W. Dexter](/wiki/Samuel_W._Dexter \"Samuel W. Dexter\") | [Michael A. Patterson](/wiki/Michael_A._Patterson \"Michael A. Patterson\")\\* | [Francis J. Higginson](/wiki/Francis_J._Higginson \"Francis J. Higginson\") | [Daniel Hudson](/wiki/Daniel_Hudson \"Daniel Hudson\")\\* | [William Draper](/wiki/William_Draper_%28Michigan%29 \"William Draper (Michigan)\") |\n| **1841** |\n| *[James Wright Gordon](/wiki/James_Wright_Gordon \"James Wright Gordon\")* | *[Thomas J. Drake](/wiki/Thomas_J._Drake \"Thomas J. Drake\")?* | [Oliver C. Comstock](/wiki/Oliver_C._Comstock \"Oliver C. Comstock\")\\* | [John Owen](/wiki/John_Owen_%28Michigan%29 \"John Owen (Michigan)\")\\* | [Martin Kundig](/wiki/Martin_Kundig \"Martin Kundig\") | [George Goodman](/wiki/George_Goodman_%28Michigan%29 \"George Goodman (Michigan)\") |\n| **1842** |\n| [John S. Barry](/wiki/John_S._Barry \"John S. Barry\") | [Origen D. Richardson](/wiki/Origen_D._Richardson \"Origen D. Richardson\") | [Randolph Manning](/wiki/Randolph_Manning \"Randolph Manning\") | [Alpheus Felch](/wiki/Alpheus_Felch \"Alpheus Felch\") | | [Elisha Crane](/wiki/Elisha_Crane \"Elisha Crane\") | [Andrew M. Fitch](/wiki/Andrew_M._Fitch \"Andrew M. Fitch\") | [William A. Fletcher](/wiki/William_A._Fletcher_%28Michigan_jurist%29 \"William A. Fletcher (Michigan jurist)\") |\n| **1843** |\n| [Daniel Goodwin](/wiki/Daniel_Goodwin_%28Michigan%29 \"Daniel Goodwin (Michigan)\") | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom \"Epaphroditus Ransom\") | [Marvin Allen](/wiki/Marvin_Allen_%28minister%29 \"Marvin Allen (minister)\") | | [Lewis Cass](/wiki/Lewis_Cass \"Lewis Cass\")\\* | [Dewitt C. Walker](/wiki/Dewitt_C._Walker \"Dewitt C. Walker\")\\* |\n| **1844** |\n| [Alexander H. Redfield](/wiki/Alexander_H._Redfield \"Alexander H. Redfield\")\\* | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 \"Edward Mundy (politician)\") | [Robert R. Kellogg](/wiki/Robert_R._Kellogg \"Robert R. Kellogg\")\\* | [George Duffield](/wiki/George_Duffield_%28minister%2C_born_1794%29 \"George Duffield (minister, born 1794)\") |\n| **1845** |\n| [Warner Wing](/wiki/Warner_Wing \"Warner Wing\") | [Austin E. Wing](/wiki/Austin_E._Wing \"Austin E. Wing\") | [Minot Thayer Lane](/wiki/Minot_Thayer_Lane \"Minot Thayer Lane\") |\n| **1846** |\n| [Alpheus Felch](/wiki/Alpheus_Felch \"Alpheus Felch\") | [William L. Greenly](/wiki/William_L._Greenly \"William L. Greenly\") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 \"Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)\") | [George Miles](/wiki/George_Miles_%28Michigan_jurist%29 \"George Miles (Michigan jurist)\") | [Charles Coffin Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Coffin_Taylor \"Charles Coffin Taylor\") | [Elijah Holmes Pilcher](/wiki/Elijah_Holmes_Pilcher \"Elijah Holmes Pilcher\") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 \"Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)\") |\n| **1847** | *(office abolished)* |\n| [William L. Greenly](/wiki/William_L._Greenly \"William L. Greenly\") | *[Charles P. Bush](/wiki/Charles_P._Bush \"Charles P. Bush\")*Charles P. Bush, acting Lieutenant Governor 1847–1848, is listed as an *ex officio* Regent in {{harv\\|Bentley Historical Library\\|2006}}, but Thomas J. Drake, acting Lieutenant Governor 1841–1842, is not. It is not clear whether this is an omission or a change in treatment of the acting Lieutenant Governor between 1842 and 1847\\. |\n| **1848** |\n| [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom \"Epaphroditus Ransom\") | [William Matthew Fenton](/wiki/William_Matthew_Fenton \"William Matthew Fenton\") | [Sanford M. Green](/wiki/Sanford_M._Green \"Sanford M. Green\") | [Edward Mundy](/wiki/Edward_Mundy_%28politician%29 \"Edward Mundy (politician)\") | [John Guest Atterbury](/wiki/John_Guest_Atterbury \"John Guest Atterbury\") | [Justus Goodman](/wiki/Justus_Goodman \"Justus Goodman\") | [Benjamin F. H. Witherell](/wiki/Benjamin_F._H._Witherell \"Benjamin F. H. Witherell\") |\n| **1849** |\n| [Edwin M. Cust](/wiki/Edwin_M._Cust \"Edwin M. Cust\") |\n| **1850** | |\n| [John S. Barry](/wiki/John_S._Barry \"John S. Barry\") | [Abner Pratt](/wiki/Abner_Pratt \"Abner Pratt\") | [Robert McClelland](/wiki/Robert_McClelland_%28American_politician%29 \"Robert McClelland (American politician)\") | [Gustavus Lemuel Foster](/wiki/Gustavus_Lemuel_Foster \"Gustavus Lemuel Foster\")\\* | [Epaphroditus Ransom](/wiki/Epaphroditus_Ransom \"Epaphroditus Ransom\")\\* |\n| **1851** |\n| | [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin_%28Michigan_judge%29 \"George Martin (Michigan judge)\") |\n|", "Source: {{harv\\|Bentley Historical Library\\|2006}}", "### Elected Regents of the University of Michigan (1852–present)", "The state constitution of 1850 made the Regents of the University of Michigan a statewide elected body, and also created the office of [President of the University of Michigan](/wiki/President_of_the_University_of_Michigan \"President of the University of Michigan\"), who was to be an *ex officio* member and preside over the Board without a vote. The first regents elected under the new system were elected in 1852\\.", "Originally, one regent was elected from each of the eight judicial circuits in Michigan, for a six\\-year term, with all regents up for election simultaneously. By the time of the next election, the number of circuits had grown to ten, so ten regents were elected for the term beginning in 1858\\. This fluctuation in the size of the board, combined with the controversy over the regents' firing of President [Henry Philip Tappan](/wiki/Henry_Philip_Tappan \"Henry Philip Tappan\") just before the end of their term in 1863, led to a new law that fixed the size of the board at eight members, elected on a statewide basis to an eight\\-year term, with terms staggered such that two are up for election every two years. The constitutional convention of 1908 added the Superintendent of Public Instruction as an *ex officio* member of the board, a move which was reversed by the constitutional convention of 1963\\.{{harvnb\\|Bentley Historical Library\\|2007}}", "", "| Year | *Ex officio* Regents | | Elected Regents | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|\n| President | Superintendent of Public Instruction |\n| 1852 | [Henry Philip Tappan](/wiki/Henry_Philip_Tappan \"Henry Philip Tappan\") | | [Andrew Parsons](/wiki/Andrew_Parsons_%28American_politician%29 \"Andrew Parsons (American politician)\") | [Elisha Ely](/wiki/Elisha_Ely \"Elisha Ely\")Elisha Ely died November 2, 1854, and his position was unfilled for the remainder of his term. {{harv\\|Hinsdale\\|1906\\|p\\=183}} | [James Kingsley](/wiki/James_Kingsley \"James Kingsley\") | [Edward S. Moore](/wiki/Edward_S._Moore \"Edward S. Moore\") | [Charles H. Palmer](/wiki/Charles_H._Palmer \"Charles H. Palmer\") | William Upjohn | [Michael A. Patterson](/wiki/Michael_A._Patterson \"Michael A. Patterson\") | [Elon Farnsworth](/wiki/Elon_Farnsworth_%28Michigan_Attorney_General%29 \"Elon Farnsworth (Michigan Attorney General)\") | | |\n| 1853 | [Henry H. Northrop](/wiki/Henry_H._Northrop \"Henry H. Northrop\") |\n| 1854 |\n| 1855 |\n| 1856 |\n| 1857 |\n| 1858 | [George W. Pack](/wiki/George_W._Pack \"George W. Pack\") | [John Van Vleck](/wiki/John_Van_Vleck_%28Michigan%29 \"John Van Vleck (Michigan)\") | [Luke H. Parsons](/wiki/Luke_H._Parsons \"Luke H. Parsons\") | [Benjamin L. Baxter](/wiki/Benjamin_L._Baxter \"Benjamin L. Baxter\") | [Levi Bishop](/wiki/Levi_Bishop \"Levi Bishop\") | [George Bradley](/wiki/George_Bradley_%28Michigan%29 \"George Bradley (Michigan)\") | [Ebenezer Lakin Brown](/wiki/Ebenezer_Lakin_Brown \"Ebenezer Lakin Brown\") | [James E. Johnson](/wiki/James_E._Johnson_%28Michigan%29 \"James E. Johnson (Michigan)\") | [Donald McIntyre](/wiki/Donald_McIntyre_%28Michigan%29 \"Donald McIntyre (Michigan)\") | [William M. Ferry](/wiki/William_Montague_Ferry_Jr. \"William Montague Ferry Jr.\") |\n| [Henry Whiting](/wiki/Henry_Whiting_%28Michigan%29 \"Henry Whiting (Michigan)\") | [Oliver L. Spaulding](/wiki/Oliver_L._Spaulding \"Oliver L. Spaulding\") |\n| 1859 |\n| 1860 |\n| 1861 |\n| 1862 |\n| 1863 | [Erastus Otis Haven](/wiki/Erastus_Otis_Haven \"Erastus Otis Haven\") |\n| 1864 | [Alvah Sweetzer](/wiki/Alvah_Sweetzer \"Alvah Sweetzer\") | [James A. Sweezey](/wiki/James_A._Sweezey \"James A. Sweezey\") | [George Willard](/wiki/George_Willard \"George Willard\") | [Edward C. Walker](/wiki/Edward_Carey_Walker \"Edward Carey Walker\") | [Thomas J. Joslin](/wiki/Thomas_J._Joslin \"Thomas J. Joslin\") | [Thomas D. Gilbert](/wiki/Thomas_D._Gilbert \"Thomas D. Gilbert\") | [Henry C. Knight](/wiki/Henry_C._Knight \"Henry C. Knight\") | *seats eliminated* | |\n| 1865 | [Cyrus M. Stockwell](/wiki/Cyrus_M._Stockwell \"Cyrus M. Stockwell\") |\n| 1866 |\n| 1867 | [John M.B. Sill](/wiki/John_M.B._Sill \"John M.B. Sill\") |\n| 1868 | [Hiram A. Burt](/wiki/Hiram_A._Burt \"Hiram A. Burt\") |\n| 1869 | *[Henry Simmons Frieze](/wiki/Henry_Simmons_Frieze \"Henry Simmons Frieze\")* |\n| 1870 | [Joseph Estabrook](/wiki/Joseph_Estabrook_%28American%29 \"Joseph Estabrook (American)\") | [Jonas H. McGowan](/wiki/Jonas_H._McGowan \"Jonas H. McGowan\") |\n| 1871 | [James Burrill Angell](/wiki/James_Burrill_Angell \"James Burrill Angell\") |\n| 1872 | [Claudius B. Grant](/wiki/Claudius_B._Grant \"Claudius B. Grant\") | [Charles Rynd](/wiki/Charles_Rynd \"Charles Rynd\") |\n| 1873 |\n| 1874 | [Andrew Climie](/wiki/Andrew_Climie \"Andrew Climie\") |\n| 1875 |\n| 1876 | [Byron M. Cutcheon](/wiki/Byron_M._Cutcheon \"Byron M. Cutcheon\") | [Samuel S. Walker](/wiki/Samuel_S._Walker \"Samuel S. Walker\") |\n| 1877 | [Victory P. Collier](/wiki/Victory_P._Collier \"Victory P. Collier\") |\n| [George Duffield, Jr.](/wiki/George_Duffield%2C_Jr. \"George Duffield, Jr.\") |\n| 1878 | [George L. Maltz](/wiki/George_L._Maltz \"George L. Maltz\") |\n| 1879 |\n| 1880 | [Ebenezer O. Grosvenor](/wiki/Ebenezer_O._Grosvenor \"Ebenezer O. Grosvenor\") | [James Shearer](/wiki/James_Shearer_%28Regent%29 \"James Shearer (Regent)\") | [Jacob J. Van Riper](/wiki/Jacob_J._Van_Riper \"Jacob J. Van Riper\") |\n| 1881 | [Austin Blair](/wiki/Austin_Blair \"Austin Blair\") |\n| 1882 | [James F. Joy](/wiki/James_F._Joy \"James F. Joy\") |\n| 1883 | [Lyman D. Norris](/wiki/Lyman_D._Norris \"Lyman D. Norris\") |\n| 1884 | [Arthur M. Clark](/wiki/Arthur_M._Clark \"Arthur M. Clark\") | [Charles J. Willett](/wiki/Charles_J._Willett \"Charles J. Willett\") |\n| 1885 |\n| 1886 | [Charles S. Draper](/wiki/Charles_S._Draper_%28Michigan%29 \"Charles S. Draper (Michigan)\") | [Moses W. Field](/wiki/Moses_W._Field \"Moses W. Field\") | [Charles R. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_R._Whitman \"Charles R. Whitman\") |\n| 1887 |\n| 1888 | [Charles Hebard](/wiki/Charles_Hebard \"Charles Hebard\") | [Roger W. Butterfield](/wiki/Roger_W._Butterfield \"Roger W. Butterfield\") |\n| 1889 | [Hermann Kiefer](/wiki/Hermann_Kiefer \"Hermann Kiefer\") |\n| 1890 | [William J. Cocker](/wiki/William_J._Cocker \"William J. Cocker\") |\n| 1891 |\n| 1892 | [Levi L. Barbour](/wiki/Levi_L._Barbour \"Levi L. Barbour\") | [Henry Howard](/wiki/Henry_Howard_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Henry Howard (Michigan politician)\") | [Peter N. Cook](/wiki/Peter_N._Cook \"Peter N. Cook\") |\n| 1893 |\n| 1894 | [Henry S. Dean](/wiki/Henry_S._Dean \"Henry S. Dean\") | [Frank W. Fletcher](/wiki/Frank_W._Fletcher \"Frank W. Fletcher\") |\n| 1895 |\n| 1896 | [Charles H. Hackley](/wiki/Charles_H._Hackley \"Charles H. Hackley\") |\n| [George A. Farr](/wiki/George_A._Farr \"George A. Farr\") |\n| 1897 | *[Harry Burns Hutchins](/wiki/Harry_Burns_Hutchins \"Harry Burns Hutchins\")* |\n| 1898 | [James Burrill Angell](/wiki/James_Burrill_Angell \"James Burrill Angell\") | [Charles D. Lawton](/wiki/Charles_D._Lawton \"Charles D. Lawton\") |\n| 1899 |\n| 1900 | [Eli R. Sutton](/wiki/Eli_R._Sutton \"Eli R. Sutton\") |\n| 1901 | [Arthur Hill](/wiki/Arthur_Hill_%28Michigan%29 \"Arthur Hill (Michigan)\") |\n| 1902 | [Levi L. Barbour](/wiki/Levi_L._Barbour \"Levi L. Barbour\") | [Henry W. Carey](/wiki/Henry_W._Carey \"Henry W. Carey\") |\n| 1903 |\n| 1904 | [Peter White](/wiki/Peter_White_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Peter White (Michigan politician)\") | [Loyal Edwin Knappen](/wiki/Loyal_Edwin_Knappen \"Loyal Edwin Knappen\") |\n| 1905 |\n| 1906 | [Walter H. Sawyer](/wiki/Walter_H._Sawyer \"Walter H. Sawyer\") |\n| 1907 |\n| 1908 | [Chase S. Osborn](/wiki/Chase_S._Osborn \"Chase S. Osborn\") | [Frank B. Leland](/wiki/Frank_B._Leland \"Frank B. Leland\") | [Junius E. Beal](/wiki/Junius_E._Beal \"Junius E. Beal\") |\n| 1909 | [Harry Burns Hutchins](/wiki/Harry_Burns_Hutchins \"Harry Burns Hutchins\") | [Luther L. Wright](/wiki/Luther_L._Wright \"Luther L. Wright\") | [John H. Grant](/wiki/John_H._Grant \"John H. Grant\") |\n| 1910 | [George P. Codd](/wiki/George_P._Codd \"George P. Codd\") | [William L. Clements](/wiki/William_L._Clements \"William L. Clements\") |\n| 1911 | [Lucius L. Hubbard](/wiki/Lucius_L._Hubbard \"Lucius L. Hubbard\") | [Benjamin S. Hanchett](/wiki/Benjamin_S._Hanchett \"Benjamin S. Hanchett\") | [Harry C. Bulkley](/wiki/Harry_C._Bulkley \"Harry C. Bulkley\") |\n| 1912 |\n| 1913 | [Fred L. Keeler](/wiki/Fred_L._Keeler \"Fred L. Keeler\") | [William A. Comstock](/wiki/William_A._Comstock \"William A. Comstock\") |\n| 1914 | [Victor M. Gore](/wiki/Victor_M._Gore \"Victor M. Gore\") |\n| 1915 |\n| 1916 |\n| 1917 |\n| 1918 | [James O. Murfin](/wiki/James_O._Murfin \"James O. Murfin\") |\n| 1919 | Thomas E. Johnson |\n| 1920 | [Marion LeRoy Burton](/wiki/Marion_LeRoy_Burton \"Marion LeRoy Burton\") |\n| 1921 |\n| 1922 |\n| 1923 |\n| 1924 | [Ralph Stone](/wiki/Ralph_Stone \"Ralph Stone\") |\n| 1925 | [Alfred Henry Lloyd](/wiki/Alfred_Henry_Lloyd \"Alfred Henry Lloyd\") |\n| [C. C. Little](/wiki/C._C._Little \"C. C. Little\") |\n| 1926 | [Wilford L. Coffey](/wiki/Wilford_L._Coffey \"Wilford L. Coffey\") |\n| 1927 | [Webster H. Pearce](/wiki/Webster_H._Pearce \"Webster H. Pearce\") |\n| 1928 |\n| 1929 | [Alexander Grant Ruthven](/wiki/Alexander_Grant_Ruthven \"Alexander Grant Ruthven\") | [Esther M. Cram](/wiki/Esther_M._Cram \"Esther M. Cram\") |\n| 1930 | [R. Perry Shorts](/wiki/R._Perry_Shorts \"R. Perry Shorts\") |\n| 1931 | [Richard R. Smith](/wiki/Richard_R._Smith \"Richard R. Smith\") |\n| 1932 |\n| 1933 | [Paul F. Voelker](/wiki/Paul_F._Voelker \"Paul F. Voelker\") | [Edmund C. Shields](/wiki/Edmund_C._Shields \"Edmund C. Shields\") |\n| 1934 | [James O. Murfin](/wiki/James_O._Murfin \"James O. Murfin\") | [Charles F. Hemans](/wiki/Charles_F._Hemans \"Charles F. Hemans\") | [Franklin M. Cook](/wiki/Franklin_M._Cook \"Franklin M. Cook\") |\n| 1935 | [Maurice R. Keyworth](/wiki/Maurice_R._Keyworth \"Maurice R. Keyworth\") |\n| [Eugene B. Elliott](/wiki/Eugene_B._Elliott \"Eugene B. Elliott\") |\n| 1936 | [David H. Crowley](/wiki/David_H._Crowley \"David H. Crowley\") |\n| 1937 |\n| 1938 | [Edmund C. Shields](/wiki/Edmund_C._Shields \"Edmund C. Shields\") | [John D. Lynch](/wiki/John_D._Lynch \"John D. Lynch\") |\n| 1939 |\n| 1940 | [Harry Kipke](/wiki/Harry_Kipke \"Harry Kipke\") | [J. Joseph Herbert](/wiki/J._Joseph_Herbert \"J. Joseph Herbert\") |\n| 1941 |\n| 1942 | [Earl L. Burhans](/wiki/Earl_L._Burhans \"Earl L. Burhans\") | [Alfred B. Connable](/wiki/Alfred_B._Connable \"Alfred B. Connable\") |\n| [Franklin M. Cook](/wiki/Franklin_M._Cook \"Franklin M. Cook\") |\n| 1943 | [Vera B. Baits](/wiki/Vera_Burridge_Baits \"Vera Burridge Baits\") |\n| 1944 | [Ralph A. Hayward](/wiki/Ralph_A._Hayward \"Ralph A. Hayward\") | [R. Spencer Bishop](/wiki/R._Spencer_Bishop \"R. Spencer Bishop\") |\n| 1945 |\n| 1946 | [Roscoe O. Bonisteel](/wiki/Roscoe_Bonisteel \"Roscoe Bonisteel\") | [Otto E. Eckert](/wiki/Otto_E._Eckert \"Otto E. Eckert\") | [Charles S. Kennedy](/wiki/Charles_S._Kennedy \"Charles S. Kennedy\") |\n| 1947 |\n| 1948 | [Kenneth M. Stevens](/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stevens \"Kenneth M. Stevens\") |\n| 1949 | [Lee M. Thurston](/wiki/Lee_M._Thurston \"Lee M. Thurston\") |\n| 1950 |\n| 1951 | [Harlan Hatcher](/wiki/Harlan_Hatcher \"Harlan Hatcher\") | [Murray D. Van Wagoner](/wiki/Murray_D._Van_Wagoner \"Murray D. Van Wagoner\") |\n| 1952 | [Leland I. Doan](/wiki/Leland_I._Doan \"Leland I. Doan\") |\n| 1953 | [Clair L. Taylor](/wiki/Clair_L._Taylor \"Clair L. Taylor\") |\n| 1954 |\n| 1955 |\n| 1956 | [Paul L. Adams](/wiki/Paul_L._Adams_%28Michigan_judge%29 \"Paul L. Adams (Michigan judge)\") | [Eugene B. Power](/wiki/Eugene_B._Power \"Eugene B. Power\") |\n| 1957 | [Lynn M. Bartlett](/wiki/Lynn_M._Bartlett \"Lynn M. Bartlett\") |\n| 1958 | [Donald M.D. Thurber](/wiki/Donald_M.D._Thurber \"Donald M.D. Thurber\") | [Carl Brablec](/wiki/Carl_Brablec \"Carl Brablec\") | [Irene Ellis Murphy](/wiki/Irene_Ellis_Murphy \"Irene Ellis Murphy\") |\n| 1959 |\n| 1960 | [Frederick C. Matthaei, Sr.](/wiki/Frederick_C._Matthaei%2C_Sr. \"Frederick C. Matthaei, Sr.\") | [William K. McInally](/wiki/William_K._McInally \"William K. McInally\") |\n| 1961 |\n| 1962 | [Allan R. Sorenson](/wiki/Allan_R._Sorenson \"Allan R. Sorenson\") | [Paul G. Goebel](/wiki/Paul_G._Goebel \"Paul G. Goebel\") |\n| 1963 | (no longer *ex officio* Regent) |\n| 1964 | [Robert P. Briggs](/wiki/Robert_P._Briggs \"Robert P. Briggs\") | [William B. Cudlip](/wiki/William_B._Cudlip \"William B. Cudlip\") |\n| 1965 |\n| 1966 | [Alvin M. Bentley](/wiki/Alvin_M._Bentley \"Alvin M. Bentley\") |\n| 1967 | [Frederick C. Matthaei, Jr.](/wiki/Frederick_C._Matthaei%2C_Jr. \"Frederick C. Matthaei, Jr.\") | [Otis M. Smith](/wiki/Otis_M._Smith \"Otis M. Smith\") | [Robert J. Brown](/wiki/Robert_J._Brown \"Robert J. Brown\") | [Gertrude V. Huebner](/wiki/Gertrude_V._Huebner \"Gertrude V. Huebner\") |\n| 1968 | [Robben Wright Fleming](/wiki/Robben_Wright_Fleming \"Robben Wright Fleming\") | [Lawrence B. Lindemer](/wiki/Lawrence_B._Lindemer \"Lawrence B. Lindemer\") |\n| 1969 | [Robert E. Nederlander](/wiki/Robert_E._Nederlander \"Robert E. Nederlander\") | [Gerald R. Dunn](/wiki/Gerald_R._Dunn \"Gerald R. Dunn\") | [Lawrence B. Lindemer](/wiki/Lawrence_B._Lindemer \"Lawrence B. Lindemer\") |\n| 1970 |\n| 1971 | [James L. Waters](/wiki/James_L._Waters \"James L. Waters\") | [Paul W. Brown](/wiki/Paul_Walker_Brown \"Paul Walker Brown\") |\n| 1972 |\n| 1973 | [Deane Baker](/wiki/Deane_Baker \"Deane Baker\") |\n| 1974 |\n| 1975 | [David Laro](/wiki/David_Laro \"David Laro\") | [Sarah Goddard Power](/wiki/Sarah_Goddard_Power \"Sarah Goddard Power\") | [Thomas A. Roach](/wiki/Thomas_A._Roach \"Thomas A. Roach\") |\n| 1976 |\n| 1977 |\n| 1978 |\n| 1979 | *[Allan F. Smith](/wiki/Allan_F._Smith \"Allan F. Smith\")* |\n| 1980 | [Harold Tafler Shapiro](/wiki/Harold_Tafler_Shapiro \"Harold Tafler Shapiro\") |\n| 1981 | [Nellie M. Varner](/wiki/Nellie_M._Varner \"Nellie M. Varner\") |\n| 1982 |\n| 1983 |\n| 1984 |\n| 1985 | [Veronica Latta Smith](/wiki/Veronica_Latta_Smith \"Veronica Latta Smith\") | [Neal D. Nielson](/wiki/Neal_D._Nielson \"Neal D. Nielson\") |\n| 1986 |\n| 1987 | [Philip H. Power](/wiki/Philip_H._Power \"Philip H. Power\") |\n| 1988 | [James Johnson Duderstadt](/wiki/James_Johnson_Duderstadt \"James Johnson Duderstadt\") |\n| 1989 |\n| 1990 |\n| 1991 | [Shirley M. McFee](/wiki/Shirley_M._McFee \"Shirley M. McFee\") |\n| 1992 |\n| 1993 | [Laurence B. Deitch](/wiki/Laurence_B._Deitch \"Laurence B. Deitch\") | [Rebecca McGowan](/wiki/Rebecca_McGowan \"Rebecca McGowan\") |\n| 1994 |\n| 1995 | [Andrea F. Newman](/wiki/Andrea_F._Newman \"Andrea F. Newman\") | [Daniel D. Horning](/wiki/Daniel_D._Horning \"Daniel D. Horning\") |\n| 1996 | *[Homer Neal](/wiki/Homer_Neal \"Homer Neal\")* |\n| [Lee C. Bollinger](/wiki/Lee_C._Bollinger \"Lee C. Bollinger\") |\n| 1997 | [Olivia P. Maynard](/wiki/Olivia_P._Maynard \"Olivia P. Maynard\") | [S. Martin Taylor](/wiki/S._Martin_Taylor \"S. Martin Taylor\") |\n| 1998 |\n| 1999 | [Dave Brandon](/wiki/Dave_Brandon \"Dave Brandon\") | Katherine E. White |\n| 2000 |\n| 2001 |\n| 2002 | *[B. Joseph White](/wiki/B._Joseph_White \"B. Joseph White\")* |\n| [Mary Sue Coleman](/wiki/Mary_Sue_Coleman \"Mary Sue Coleman\") |\n| 2003 | [Andrew Richner](/wiki/Andrew_Richner \"Andrew Richner\") |\n| 2004 |\n| 2005 |\n| 2006 |\n| 2007 | [Julia Donovan Darlow](/wiki/Julia_Donovan_Darlow \"Julia Donovan Darlow\") |\n| 2008 |\n| 2009 | [Denise Ilitch](/wiki/Denise_Ilitch \"Denise Ilitch\") |\n| 2010 |\n| 2011 |\n| 2012 |\n| 2013 | [Mark Bernstein](/wiki/Mark_Bernstein_%28University_of_Michigan%29 \"Mark Bernstein (University of Michigan)\") | Shauna Ryder\\-Diggs |\n| 2014 | [Mark Schlissel](/wiki/Mark_Schlissel \"Mark Schlissel\") |\n| 2015 | Mike Behm |\n| 2016 |\n| 2017 | [Ron Weiser](/wiki/Ronald_Weiser \"Ronald Weiser\") |\n| 2018 |\n| 2019 | [Jordan B. Acker](/wiki/Jordan_B._Acker \"Jordan B. Acker\") | [Paul W. Brown](/wiki/Paul_W._Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Paul W. Brown (Michigan politician)\") |\n| 2020 |\n| 2021 | [Sarah Hubbard](/wiki/Sarah_Hubbard \"Sarah Hubbard\") |\n| 2022 | [Santa Ono](/wiki/Santa_Ono \"Santa Ono\") |\n| 2023 |\n| *Next election* | *n/a* | | *2024* | | *2026* | | *2028* | | *2030* | |", "Source: Names and dates {{harv\\|Bentley Historical Library\\|2006}}, party affiliations {{harv\\|Kestenbaum}}", "" ]
Career ------ ### Painting Mary Pratt's work focused on her relationship with domestic life in rural Newfoundland and common household items: jars of jelly, apples, aluminum foil, brown paper bags. Using photographic projections while painting, Pratt's style was bold and flamboyant, rendering her subject vivid and realistic.{{Cite journal\|last\=Pearce\|first\=Martin\|title\=Mary Pratt\|journal\=Border Crossings\|volume\=32, 4}} Due to this transformation of the mundane into something aesthetic, "she may have had more influence on shaping the way we see things than any Canadian painter since the [Group of Seven](/wiki/Group_of_Seven_%28artists%29 "Group of Seven (artists)")".{{cite book\|last1\=Moray\|first1\=introduction by Sandra Gwyn ; critical essay by Gerta Moray\|title\=Mary Pratt\|date\=1989\|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill Ryerson\|location\=Toronto\|isbn\=0075499126}} Pratt arrived at her signature style in the late 1960s, after discovering that light was her central subject and deciding to incorporate photography into her artistic process. Her paintings *The Bed* (1968\) and *Supper Table* (1969\) are the earliest examples of her characteristic style. In 1978 Pratt's painting *Girl in a Wicker Chair*, created that year, was published on the cover of *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 "Saturday Night (magazine)")* magazine. This was the first of an extended series of paintings on Donna Meaney, who first served as a model for Pratt's artist husband, [Christopher Pratt](/wiki/Christopher_Pratt "Christopher Pratt") and with whom he reportedly had a brief affair. Some of Pratt's paintings of Donna were based on her husband's photographs. These works are markedly different from those composed and photographed by Pratt herself. Pratt's portraits of Meaney embody a noticeable tension that is absent in her husband's paintings of her. However, Pratt always regarded Meaney as a friend. In the 1980s Pratt continued exploring new subject matter and media. She created a series of paintings on weddings, including a portrait of her daughter Barbara, entitled *Barby in the Dress She Made Herself* (1986\). Another series consists of paintings and mixed\-media drawings of fires, which function as a metaphor for sacrifice. Using pastels and coloured pencils in this series enabled Pratt to work on a larger scale than she had previously done in oils. In the early 1990s Pratt and her husband separated, which lent her paintings of that period a darker, angry tone. For example, *Pomegranates in Glass on Glass* (1993\) depicts the fruit torn apart into pieces, exposing its blood\-red seeds. In a 2013 *Globe and Mail* article, responding to critics of her work as too commercial, she said, "People will find out that in each one of the paintings there is something that ought to disturb them, something upsetting. That is why I painted them."{{cite news \| access\-date\=March 28, 2015 \| url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/summer\-entertainment/st\-johns\-retrospective\-celebrates\-the\-subversive\-vision\-of\-mary\-pratt/article13258230/ \| title\=Retrospective celebrates the subversive vision of painter Mary Pratt \| work\=The Globe and Mail \| date\=July 16, 2013 \| last\=Pinchin \| first\=Karen}} ### Exhibitions Pratt's paintings have been exhibited in most major galleries in Canada, reproduced in magazines such as *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 "Saturday Night (magazine)")*, *[Chatelaine](/wiki/Chatelaine_%28magazine%29 "Chatelaine (magazine)")*, and *[Canadian Art](/wiki/Canadian_Art "Canadian Art")*. Her work is found in many prominent public, corporate, and private collections, including those of the [National Gallery of Canada](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Canada "National Gallery of Canada"), [The Rooms](/wiki/The_Rooms "The Rooms"), [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia "Art Gallery of Nova Scotia"), the [New Brunswick Museum](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Museum "New Brunswick Museum"), [Beaverbrook Art Gallery](/wiki/Beaverbrook_Art_Gallery "Beaverbrook Art Gallery"), [Vancouver Art Gallery](/wiki/Vancouver_Art_Gallery "Vancouver Art Gallery"), [Art Gallery of Ontario](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Ontario "Art Gallery of Ontario"), and [Canada House](/wiki/Canada_House "Canada House") in [England](/wiki/England "England"). Pratt's first solo exhibition was held at the [Memorial University Art Gallery](/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland "Memorial University of Newfoundland") in [St. John's](/wiki/St._John%27s%2C_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador") in 1967\. The first showing of her art outside Atlantic Canada was part of an exhibition at the Picture Loan Gallery in 1971 in Toronto. In 1973, Erindale College (Toronto) gave her a show of her own. The big breakthrough for wider notice of Pratt's work came when the National Gallery of Canada included many of her paintings and drawing in an exhibition in 1975 titled *Some Canadian Women Artists* curated by Mayo Graham. Her work also coincided with the upsurge of the women's movement ([International Women's Year](/wiki/International_Women%27s_Year "International Women's Year") was in 1975 as well). Several colleges and universities began incorporating discussions of her works in their women's studies programs. Public galleries began to show Pratt's work, holding [retrospectives](/wiki/Retrospective "Retrospective"), among them [Museum London](/wiki/Museum_London "Museum London") (1981\) and the [Robert McLaughlin Gallery](/wiki/Robert_McLaughlin_Gallery "Robert McLaughlin Gallery"), Oshawa (1983\). In 1995, the touring exhibition *The Art of Mary Pratt: The Substance of Light* was organized by the [Beaverbrook Art Gallery](/wiki/Beaverbrook_Art_Gallery "Beaverbrook Art Gallery") in [Fredericton, New Brunswick](/wiki/Fredericton%2C_New_Brunswick "Fredericton, New Brunswick"). The accompanying catalogue won numerous awards and was included in *Great Canadian Books of the Century*.{{cite book \|last\=Smart \|first\=Tom \|date\=1995 \|title\=The Art of Mary Pratt: The Substance of Light \|location\=\[Fredericton, New Brunswick] \|publisher\= Beaverbrook Art Gallery \|isbn\=9780864921901 \|oclc\=34831478 }} Other recent shows at commercial galleries include *Inside Light* at the [Equinox Gallery](http://www.equinoxgallery.com/artists/portfolio/mary-pratt) in Vancouver, Canada (May/June 2011\) and *[New Paintings and Works on Paper](http://www.godardgallery.com/MPRATTINST_01.htm)* at the Mira Godard Gallery in Toronto, Canada (May/June 2012\). The exhibition was curated by Tom Smart. The solo exhibition titled *Mary Pratt* toured throughout Canada from 2013 to January, 2015\. It was organized by [The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery](/wiki/The_Rooms "The Rooms") and [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia "Art Gallery of Nova Scotia") and curated by [Mireille Eagan](/wiki/Mireille_Eagan "Mireille Eagan"), Sarah Fillmore, and Caroline Stone. The accompanying catalogue was published by [Goose Lane Editions](/wiki/Goose_Lane_Editions "Goose Lane Editions").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.therooms.ca/mary\_pratt.asp \|title\=Mary Pratt \|author\= \|date\=2013 \|website\=www.therooms.ca \|publisher\=The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery \|access\-date\=March 28, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093803/http://www.therooms.ca/mary\_pratt.asp \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2015 }} The tour traveled to the [Art Gallery of Windsor](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Windsor "Art Gallery of Windsor") in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario "Windsor, Ontario"), Ontario; the [McMichael Canadian Art Collection](/wiki/McMichael_Canadian_Art_Collection "McMichael Canadian Art Collection") in [Kleinburg](/wiki/Kleinburg "Kleinburg"), Ontario; the [MacKenzie Art Gallery](/wiki/MacKenzie_Art_Gallery "MacKenzie Art Gallery") in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan "Regina, Saskatchewan"), Saskatchewan; and the [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia "Art Gallery of Nova Scotia") in [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_Nova_Scotia "Halifax, Nova Scotia"), Nova Scotia.{{cite web \| access\-date\=March 28, 2015 \| url\=http://www.ngcmagazine.ca/correspondents/mary\-pratt\-a\-50\-year\-retrospective \| title\=Mary Pratt: A 50\-Year Retrospective \| publisher\=National Gallery of Canada \| date\=November 14, 2013 \| last\=Rynor \| first\=Becky \| website\=ngcmagazine.ca}} The solo exhibition *Mary Pratt: This Little Painting* was on display at the National Gallery of Canada, running from April 4, 2015, to January 4, 2016\. It toured to the [Owens Art Gallery](/wiki/Owens_Art_Gallery "Owens Art Gallery") at [Mount Allison University](/wiki/Mount_Allison_University "Mount Allison University") from March 11 to May 22, 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mta.ca/owens/publications/catalogues/2016/marypratt.php\|title\=Mary Pratt: This Little Painting \- Owens Art Gallery\|website\=www.mta.ca\|accessdate\=16 August 2018}} The exhibition was co\-organized by the National Gallery of Canada and The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery. It was curated by [Jonathan Shaughnessy](/wiki/Jonathan_Shaughnessy "Jonathan Shaughnessy") and [Mireille Eagan](/wiki/Mireille_Eagan "Mireille Eagan").{{cite web \|title\=Masterpiece in Focus: Mary Pratt: This little painting \|url\=https://www.gallery.ca/for\-professionals/media/press\-releases/masterpiece\-in\-focus\-mary\-pratt\-this\-little\-painting \|website\=www.gallery.ca \|publisher\=National Gallery of Canada media release, 2015 \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-25}} ### Advisory/Public Duty Pratt served on the government Task Force for Education in Newfoundland in 1973, on the Fishery Industry Advisory Board from 1978 to 1979, and on the Board of Management of the Grace General Hospital in St. John's, Newfoundland. She also served on the Federal Cultural Policy Review Committee, which produced the Applebaum\-Hébert Report in 1981\. Pratt chaired a committee to advise on the creation of the School of Fine Arts at [Sir Wilfred Grenfell College](/wiki/Sir_Wilfred_Grenfell_College "Sir Wilfred Grenfell College") in [Corner Brook, Newfoundland](/wiki/Corner_Brook%2C_Newfoundland "Corner Brook, Newfoundland") in 1985\. Pratt held numerous other positions, including a seat on the [Canada Council](/wiki/Canada_Council "Canada Council") from 1987 to 1993, and on the Board of Regents of [Mount Allison University](/wiki/Mount_Allison_University "Mount Allison University") from 1983 to 1991\. In the 1980s, Pratt began giving addresses and published essays in periodicals such as *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")* and Glass Gazette.
[ "Career\n------", "### Painting", "Mary Pratt's work focused on her relationship with domestic life in rural Newfoundland and common household items: jars of jelly, apples, aluminum foil, brown paper bags. Using photographic projections while painting, Pratt's style was bold and flamboyant, rendering her subject vivid and realistic.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Pearce\\|first\\=Martin\\|title\\=Mary Pratt\\|journal\\=Border Crossings\\|volume\\=32, 4}} Due to this transformation of the mundane into something aesthetic, \"she may have had more influence on shaping the way we see things than any Canadian painter since the [Group of Seven](/wiki/Group_of_Seven_%28artists%29 \"Group of Seven (artists)\")\".{{cite book\\|last1\\=Moray\\|first1\\=introduction by Sandra Gwyn ; critical essay by Gerta Moray\\|title\\=Mary Pratt\\|date\\=1989\\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill Ryerson\\|location\\=Toronto\\|isbn\\=0075499126}} Pratt arrived at her signature style in the late 1960s, after discovering that light was her central subject and deciding to incorporate photography into her artistic process. Her paintings *The Bed* (1968\\) and *Supper Table* (1969\\) are the earliest examples of her characteristic style.", "In 1978 Pratt's painting *Girl in a Wicker Chair*, created that year, was published on the cover of *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 \"Saturday Night (magazine)\")* magazine. This was the first of an extended series of paintings on Donna Meaney, who first served as a model for Pratt's artist husband, [Christopher Pratt](/wiki/Christopher_Pratt \"Christopher Pratt\") and with whom he reportedly had a brief affair. Some of Pratt's paintings of Donna were based on her husband's photographs. These works are markedly different from those composed and photographed by Pratt herself. Pratt's portraits of Meaney embody a noticeable tension that is absent in her husband's paintings of her. However, Pratt always regarded Meaney as a friend.", "In the 1980s Pratt continued exploring new subject matter and media. She created a series of paintings on weddings, including a portrait of her daughter Barbara, entitled *Barby in the Dress She Made Herself* (1986\\). Another series consists of paintings and mixed\\-media drawings of fires, which function as a metaphor for sacrifice. Using pastels and coloured pencils in this series enabled Pratt to work on a larger scale than she had previously done in oils.", "In the early 1990s Pratt and her husband separated, which lent her paintings of that period a darker, angry tone. For example, *Pomegranates in Glass on Glass* (1993\\) depicts the fruit torn apart into pieces, exposing its blood\\-red seeds.", "In a 2013 *Globe and Mail* article, responding to critics of her work as too commercial, she said, \"People will find out that in each one of the paintings there is something that ought to disturb them, something upsetting. That is why I painted them.\"{{cite news \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2015 \\| url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/summer\\-entertainment/st\\-johns\\-retrospective\\-celebrates\\-the\\-subversive\\-vision\\-of\\-mary\\-pratt/article13258230/ \\| title\\=Retrospective celebrates the subversive vision of painter Mary Pratt \\| work\\=The Globe and Mail \\| date\\=July 16, 2013 \\| last\\=Pinchin \\| first\\=Karen}}", "### Exhibitions", "Pratt's paintings have been exhibited in most major galleries in Canada, reproduced in magazines such as *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 \"Saturday Night (magazine)\")*, *[Chatelaine](/wiki/Chatelaine_%28magazine%29 \"Chatelaine (magazine)\")*, and *[Canadian Art](/wiki/Canadian_Art \"Canadian Art\")*. Her work is found in many prominent public, corporate, and private collections, including those of the [National Gallery of Canada](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Canada \"National Gallery of Canada\"), [The Rooms](/wiki/The_Rooms \"The Rooms\"), [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia \"Art Gallery of Nova Scotia\"), the [New Brunswick Museum](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Museum \"New Brunswick Museum\"), [Beaverbrook Art Gallery](/wiki/Beaverbrook_Art_Gallery \"Beaverbrook Art Gallery\"), [Vancouver Art Gallery](/wiki/Vancouver_Art_Gallery \"Vancouver Art Gallery\"), [Art Gallery of Ontario](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Ontario \"Art Gallery of Ontario\"), and [Canada House](/wiki/Canada_House \"Canada House\") in [England](/wiki/England \"England\").", "Pratt's first solo exhibition was held at the [Memorial University Art Gallery](/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland \"Memorial University of Newfoundland\") in [St. John's](/wiki/St._John%27s%2C_Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador\") in 1967\\. The first showing of her art outside Atlantic Canada was part of an exhibition at the Picture Loan Gallery in 1971 in Toronto. In 1973, Erindale College (Toronto) gave her a show of her own.", "The big breakthrough for wider notice of Pratt's work came when the National Gallery of Canada included many of her paintings and drawing in an exhibition in 1975 titled *Some Canadian Women Artists* curated by Mayo Graham. Her work also coincided with the upsurge of the women's movement ([International Women's Year](/wiki/International_Women%27s_Year \"International Women's Year\") was in 1975 as well). Several colleges and universities began incorporating discussions of her works in their women's studies programs. Public galleries began to show Pratt's work, holding [retrospectives](/wiki/Retrospective \"Retrospective\"), among them [Museum London](/wiki/Museum_London \"Museum London\") (1981\\) and the [Robert McLaughlin Gallery](/wiki/Robert_McLaughlin_Gallery \"Robert McLaughlin Gallery\"), Oshawa (1983\\).", "In 1995, the touring exhibition *The Art of Mary Pratt: The Substance of Light* was organized by the [Beaverbrook Art Gallery](/wiki/Beaverbrook_Art_Gallery \"Beaverbrook Art Gallery\") in [Fredericton, New Brunswick](/wiki/Fredericton%2C_New_Brunswick \"Fredericton, New Brunswick\"). The accompanying catalogue won numerous awards and was included in *Great Canadian Books of the Century*.{{cite book \\|last\\=Smart \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=1995 \\|title\\=The Art of Mary Pratt: The Substance of Light \\|location\\=\\[Fredericton, New Brunswick] \\|publisher\\= Beaverbrook Art Gallery \\|isbn\\=9780864921901 \\|oclc\\=34831478 }} Other recent shows at commercial galleries include *Inside Light* at the [Equinox Gallery](http://www.equinoxgallery.com/artists/portfolio/mary-pratt) in Vancouver, Canada (May/June 2011\\) and *[New Paintings and Works on Paper](http://www.godardgallery.com/MPRATTINST_01.htm)* at the Mira Godard Gallery in Toronto, Canada (May/June 2012\\). The exhibition was curated by Tom Smart.", "The solo exhibition titled *Mary Pratt* toured throughout Canada from 2013 to January, 2015\\. It was organized by [The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery](/wiki/The_Rooms \"The Rooms\") and [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia \"Art Gallery of Nova Scotia\") and curated by [Mireille Eagan](/wiki/Mireille_Eagan \"Mireille Eagan\"), Sarah Fillmore, and Caroline Stone. The accompanying catalogue was published by [Goose Lane Editions](/wiki/Goose_Lane_Editions \"Goose Lane Editions\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.therooms.ca/mary\\_pratt.asp \\|title\\=Mary Pratt \\|author\\= \\|date\\=2013 \\|website\\=www.therooms.ca \\|publisher\\=The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery \\|access\\-date\\=March 28, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093803/http://www.therooms.ca/mary\\_pratt.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2015 }} The tour traveled to the [Art Gallery of Windsor](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Windsor \"Art Gallery of Windsor\") in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario \"Windsor, Ontario\"), Ontario; the [McMichael Canadian Art Collection](/wiki/McMichael_Canadian_Art_Collection \"McMichael Canadian Art Collection\") in [Kleinburg](/wiki/Kleinburg \"Kleinburg\"), Ontario; the [MacKenzie Art Gallery](/wiki/MacKenzie_Art_Gallery \"MacKenzie Art Gallery\") in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan \"Regina, Saskatchewan\"), Saskatchewan; and the [Art Gallery of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Nova_Scotia \"Art Gallery of Nova Scotia\") in [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_Nova_Scotia \"Halifax, Nova Scotia\"), Nova Scotia.{{cite web \\| access\\-date\\=March 28, 2015 \\| url\\=http://www.ngcmagazine.ca/correspondents/mary\\-pratt\\-a\\-50\\-year\\-retrospective \\| title\\=Mary Pratt: A 50\\-Year Retrospective \\| publisher\\=National Gallery of Canada \\| date\\=November 14, 2013 \\| last\\=Rynor \\| first\\=Becky \\| website\\=ngcmagazine.ca}}", "The solo exhibition *Mary Pratt: This Little Painting* was on display at the National Gallery of Canada, running from April 4, 2015, to January 4, 2016\\. It toured to the [Owens Art Gallery](/wiki/Owens_Art_Gallery \"Owens Art Gallery\") at [Mount Allison University](/wiki/Mount_Allison_University \"Mount Allison University\") from March 11 to May 22, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mta.ca/owens/publications/catalogues/2016/marypratt.php\\|title\\=Mary Pratt: This Little Painting \\- Owens Art Gallery\\|website\\=www.mta.ca\\|accessdate\\=16 August 2018}} The exhibition was co\\-organized by the National Gallery of Canada and The Rooms Provincial Art Gallery. It was curated by [Jonathan Shaughnessy](/wiki/Jonathan_Shaughnessy \"Jonathan Shaughnessy\") and [Mireille Eagan](/wiki/Mireille_Eagan \"Mireille Eagan\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Masterpiece in Focus: Mary Pratt: This little painting \\|url\\=https://www.gallery.ca/for\\-professionals/media/press\\-releases/masterpiece\\-in\\-focus\\-mary\\-pratt\\-this\\-little\\-painting \\|website\\=www.gallery.ca \\|publisher\\=National Gallery of Canada media release, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-25}}", "### Advisory/Public Duty", "Pratt served on the government Task Force for Education in Newfoundland in 1973, on the Fishery Industry Advisory Board from 1978 to 1979, and on the Board of Management of the Grace General Hospital in St. John's, Newfoundland. She also served on the Federal Cultural Policy Review Committee, which produced the Applebaum\\-Hébert Report in 1981\\. Pratt chaired a committee to advise on the creation of the School of Fine Arts at [Sir Wilfred Grenfell College](/wiki/Sir_Wilfred_Grenfell_College \"Sir Wilfred Grenfell College\") in [Corner Brook, Newfoundland](/wiki/Corner_Brook%2C_Newfoundland \"Corner Brook, Newfoundland\") in 1985\\. Pratt held numerous other positions, including a seat on the [Canada Council](/wiki/Canada_Council \"Canada Council\") from 1987 to 1993, and on the Board of Regents of [Mount Allison University](/wiki/Mount_Allison_University \"Mount Allison University\") from 1983 to 1991\\.", "In the 1980s, Pratt began giving addresses and published essays in periodicals such as *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")* and Glass Gazette.", "" ]
Historical context ------------------ ### History of English {{Main\|History of English}} English is a [West Germanic language](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages "West Germanic languages") that originated from the [Anglo\-Frisian](/wiki/Anglo-Frisian "Anglo-Frisian") [dialects](/wiki/Dialect "Dialect") brought by [Germanic invaders](/wiki/Germanic_tribes "Germanic tribes") into [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"). Initially, [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the [Anglo\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons "Anglo-Saxons") kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, [Late West Saxon](/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect_%28Old_English%29 "West Saxon dialect (Old English)"), came to dominate.Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993\). *A History of the English Language*. Routledge. The original [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the [Scandinavian branch](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages "North Germanic languages") of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the [Normans in the 11th century](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England "Norman conquest of England"), who spoke [Old Norman](/wiki/Old_Norman "Old Norman") and ultimately developed a Norman variety called [Anglo\-Norman](/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language "Anglo-Norman language"). For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, [French](/wiki/French_language "French language") became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual "Bilingual") character of England in this period was thus formed. During the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English "Middle English") period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War "Hundred Years' War"). By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change. During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"), patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the [Great Vowel Shift](/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift "Great Vowel Shift"), the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English "Middle English") period, becoming recognizably "[modern](/wiki/Early_Modern_English "Early Modern English")".Stockwell, R. (2002\). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert. *Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective*. Mouton de Gruyter. By the [18th century](/wiki/Modern_English "Modern English"), three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1\) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2\) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3\) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age. By the 19th century, the expansion of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"). ### Global spread of English #### First dispersal: English is transported to the New World The first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") involved relatively large\-scale [migrations](/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration") of mother\-tongue English speakers from [England](/wiki/England "England"), Scotland and Ireland predominantly to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean"), Australia, [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_English "New Zealand English") Englishes. In contrast to the [English of Great Britain](/wiki/British_English "British English"), the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous [Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas"), [Khoisan](/wiki/Khoisan "Khoisan") and [Bantu](/wiki/Bantu_languages "Bantu languages"), [Aboriginal](/wiki/Australian_Aborigines "Australian Aborigines") or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people "Māori people") populations in the colonies.[Jenkins, Jennifer](/wiki/Jenkins%2C_Jennifer "Jenkins, Jennifer"). (2003\). *World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.* London and New York: Routledge. #### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes "New Englishes")', the second\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa "Colonial Africa"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa "West Africa") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia "Gambia"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language "Creole language") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language "Krio language") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin "Cameroon Pidgin"), have large numbers of speakers now. As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi "Malawi"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language "Chewa language")). English was formally introduced to the sub\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\|author\=Frances Pritchett \|url\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\_minute\_education\_1835\.html \|title\=Minute on Education (1835\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \|publisher\=Columbia.edu \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 "Indianisation (British India)")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\-continent. British influence in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania "Oceania") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate "British protectorate"), exemplified the English\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") \- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin "Tok Pisin"). The Americans came late in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English "Philippine English"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\_Daniel\_Wong\_Gonzales?ev\=hdr\_xprf\&\_sg\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\_FFtSXL3\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\-unjgtlDoLAPc \|title\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \& Literature \|website\=ResearchGate \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \|title\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \|website\=ResearchGate \|last\=Gonzales \|first\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \|access\-date\=April 25, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\_Philippine\_Englishes\_A\_timely\_or\_premature\_call \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\|last\=Villanueva\|first\=Rey John Castro\|title\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \|date\=2016 \|url\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\-bin/koha/opac\-detail.pl?biblionumber\=2750\&shelfbrowse\_itemnumber\=6284}} Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea").
[ "Historical context\n------------------", "### History of English", "{{Main\\|History of English}}", "English is a [West Germanic language](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages \"West Germanic languages\") that originated from the [Anglo\\-Frisian](/wiki/Anglo-Frisian \"Anglo-Frisian\") [dialects](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\") brought by [Germanic invaders](/wiki/Germanic_tribes \"Germanic tribes\") into [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\"). Initially, [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the [Anglo\\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons \"Anglo-Saxons\") kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, [Late West Saxon](/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect_%28Old_English%29 \"West Saxon dialect (Old English)\"), came to dominate.Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993\\). *A History of the English Language*. Routledge.", "The original [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the [Scandinavian branch](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages \"North Germanic languages\") of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the [Normans in the 11th century](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England \"Norman conquest of England\"), who spoke [Old Norman](/wiki/Old_Norman \"Old Norman\") and ultimately developed a Norman variety called [Anglo\\-Norman](/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language \"Anglo-Norman language\"). For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual \"Bilingual\") character of England in this period was thus formed.", "During the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English \"Middle English\") period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War \"Hundred Years' War\"). By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.", "During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"), patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the [Great Vowel Shift](/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift \"Great Vowel Shift\"), the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English \"Middle English\") period, becoming recognizably \"[modern](/wiki/Early_Modern_English \"Early Modern English\")\".Stockwell, R. (2002\\). \"How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?\", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert. *Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective*. Mouton de Gruyter.", "By the [18th century](/wiki/Modern_English \"Modern English\"), three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1\\) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2\\) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3\\) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.", "By the 19th century, the expansion of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\").", "### Global spread of English", "#### First dispersal: English is transported to the New World", "The first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") involved relatively large\\-scale [migrations](/wiki/Human_migration \"Human migration\") of mother\\-tongue English speakers from [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), Scotland and Ireland predominantly to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"), Australia, [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_English \"New Zealand English\") Englishes. In contrast to the [English of Great Britain](/wiki/British_English \"British English\"), the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous [Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"), [Khoisan](/wiki/Khoisan \"Khoisan\") and [Bantu](/wiki/Bantu_languages \"Bantu languages\"), [Aboriginal](/wiki/Australian_Aborigines \"Australian Aborigines\") or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people \"Māori people\") populations in the colonies.[Jenkins, Jennifer](/wiki/Jenkins%2C_Jennifer \"Jenkins, Jennifer\"). (2003\\). *World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.* London and New York: Routledge.", "#### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa", "The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes \"New Englishes\")', the second\\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa \"Colonial Africa\"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa \"West Africa\") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia \"Gambia\"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon \"Cameroon\"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language \"Creole language\") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language \"Krio language\") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin \"Cameroon Pidgin\"), have large numbers of speakers now.", "As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi \"Malawi\"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia \"Zambia\") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language \"Chewa language\")).", "English was formally introduced to the sub\\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan \"Bhutan\")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\\|author\\=Frances Pritchett \\|url\\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\\_minute\\_education\\_1835\\.html \\|title\\=Minute on Education (1835\\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \\|publisher\\=Columbia.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 \"Indianisation (British India)\")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\\-continent.", "British influence in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania \"Oceania\") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate \"British protectorate\"), exemplified the English\\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") \\- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin \"Tok Pisin\").", "The Americans came late in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \\- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English \"Philippine English\"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\\_Daniel\\_Wong\\_Gonzales?ev\\=hdr\\_xprf\\&\\_sg\\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\\_FFtSXL3\\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\\-unjgtlDoLAPc \\|title\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \\& Literature \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \\|title\\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|last\\=Gonzales \\|first\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\\_Philippine\\_Englishes\\_A\\_timely\\_or\\_premature\\_call \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\\|last\\=Villanueva\\|first\\=Rey John Castro\\|title\\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \\|date\\=2016 \\|url\\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\\-bin/koha/opac\\-detail.pl?biblionumber\\=2750\\&shelfbrowse\\_itemnumber\\=6284}}", "Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\").", "" ]
### History of English {{Main\|History of English}} English is a [West Germanic language](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages "West Germanic languages") that originated from the [Anglo\-Frisian](/wiki/Anglo-Frisian "Anglo-Frisian") [dialects](/wiki/Dialect "Dialect") brought by [Germanic invaders](/wiki/Germanic_tribes "Germanic tribes") into [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"). Initially, [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the [Anglo\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons "Anglo-Saxons") kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, [Late West Saxon](/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect_%28Old_English%29 "West Saxon dialect (Old English)"), came to dominate.Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993\). *A History of the English Language*. Routledge. The original [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the [Scandinavian branch](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages "North Germanic languages") of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the [Normans in the 11th century](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England "Norman conquest of England"), who spoke [Old Norman](/wiki/Old_Norman "Old Norman") and ultimately developed a Norman variety called [Anglo\-Norman](/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language "Anglo-Norman language"). For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, [French](/wiki/French_language "French language") became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual "Bilingual") character of England in this period was thus formed. During the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English "Middle English") period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War "Hundred Years' War"). By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change. During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"), patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the [Great Vowel Shift](/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift "Great Vowel Shift"), the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English "Middle English") period, becoming recognizably "[modern](/wiki/Early_Modern_English "Early Modern English")".Stockwell, R. (2002\). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert. *Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective*. Mouton de Gruyter. By the [18th century](/wiki/Modern_English "Modern English"), three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1\) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2\) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3\) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age. By the 19th century, the expansion of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain").
[ "### History of English", "{{Main\\|History of English}}", "English is a [West Germanic language](/wiki/West_Germanic_languages \"West Germanic languages\") that originated from the [Anglo\\-Frisian](/wiki/Anglo-Frisian \"Anglo-Frisian\") [dialects](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\") brought by [Germanic invaders](/wiki/Germanic_tribes \"Germanic tribes\") into [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\"). Initially, [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the [Anglo\\-Saxon](/wiki/Anglo-Saxons \"Anglo-Saxons\") kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, [Late West Saxon](/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect_%28Old_English%29 \"West Saxon dialect (Old English)\"), came to dominate.Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993\\). *A History of the English Language*. Routledge.", "The original [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the [Scandinavian branch](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages \"North Germanic languages\") of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the [Normans in the 11th century](/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England \"Norman conquest of England\"), who spoke [Old Norman](/wiki/Old_Norman \"Old Norman\") and ultimately developed a Norman variety called [Anglo\\-Norman](/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language \"Anglo-Norman language\"). For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the [bilingual](/wiki/Bilingual \"Bilingual\") character of England in this period was thus formed.", "During the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English \"Middle English\") period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War \"Hundred Years' War\"). By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.", "During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"), patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the [Great Vowel Shift](/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift \"Great Vowel Shift\"), the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the [Middle English](/wiki/Middle_English \"Middle English\") period, becoming recognizably \"[modern](/wiki/Early_Modern_English \"Early Modern English\")\".Stockwell, R. (2002\\). \"How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?\", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert. *Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective*. Mouton de Gruyter.", "By the [18th century](/wiki/Modern_English \"Modern English\"), three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1\\) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2\\) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3\\) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.", "By the 19th century, the expansion of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\").", "" ]
### Global spread of English #### First dispersal: English is transported to the New World The first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") involved relatively large\-scale [migrations](/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration") of mother\-tongue English speakers from [England](/wiki/England "England"), Scotland and Ireland predominantly to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean"), Australia, [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_English "New Zealand English") Englishes. In contrast to the [English of Great Britain](/wiki/British_English "British English"), the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous [Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas"), [Khoisan](/wiki/Khoisan "Khoisan") and [Bantu](/wiki/Bantu_languages "Bantu languages"), [Aboriginal](/wiki/Australian_Aborigines "Australian Aborigines") or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people "Māori people") populations in the colonies.[Jenkins, Jennifer](/wiki/Jenkins%2C_Jennifer "Jenkins, Jennifer"). (2003\). *World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.* London and New York: Routledge. #### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes "New Englishes")', the second\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa "Colonial Africa"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa "West Africa") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia "Gambia"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language "Creole language") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language "Krio language") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin "Cameroon Pidgin"), have large numbers of speakers now. As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi "Malawi"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language "Chewa language")). English was formally introduced to the sub\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\|author\=Frances Pritchett \|url\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\_minute\_education\_1835\.html \|title\=Minute on Education (1835\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \|publisher\=Columbia.edu \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 "Indianisation (British India)")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\-continent. British influence in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania "Oceania") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate "British protectorate"), exemplified the English\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") \- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin "Tok Pisin"). The Americans came late in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English "Philippine English"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\_Daniel\_Wong\_Gonzales?ev\=hdr\_xprf\&\_sg\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\_FFtSXL3\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\-unjgtlDoLAPc \|title\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \& Literature \|website\=ResearchGate \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \|title\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \|website\=ResearchGate \|last\=Gonzales \|first\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \|access\-date\=April 25, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\_Philippine\_Englishes\_A\_timely\_or\_premature\_call \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\|last\=Villanueva\|first\=Rey John Castro\|title\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \|date\=2016 \|url\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\-bin/koha/opac\-detail.pl?biblionumber\=2750\&shelfbrowse\_itemnumber\=6284}} Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea").
[ "### Global spread of English", "#### First dispersal: English is transported to the New World", "The first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") involved relatively large\\-scale [migrations](/wiki/Human_migration \"Human migration\") of mother\\-tongue English speakers from [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), Scotland and Ireland predominantly to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"), Australia, [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_English \"New Zealand English\") Englishes. In contrast to the [English of Great Britain](/wiki/British_English \"British English\"), the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous [Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"), [Khoisan](/wiki/Khoisan \"Khoisan\") and [Bantu](/wiki/Bantu_languages \"Bantu languages\"), [Aboriginal](/wiki/Australian_Aborigines \"Australian Aborigines\") or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people \"Māori people\") populations in the colonies.[Jenkins, Jennifer](/wiki/Jenkins%2C_Jennifer \"Jenkins, Jennifer\"). (2003\\). *World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.* London and New York: Routledge.", "#### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa", "The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes \"New Englishes\")', the second\\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa \"Colonial Africa\"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa \"West Africa\") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia \"Gambia\"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon \"Cameroon\"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language \"Creole language\") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language \"Krio language\") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin \"Cameroon Pidgin\"), have large numbers of speakers now.", "As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi \"Malawi\"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia \"Zambia\") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language \"Chewa language\")).", "English was formally introduced to the sub\\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan \"Bhutan\")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\\|author\\=Frances Pritchett \\|url\\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\\_minute\\_education\\_1835\\.html \\|title\\=Minute on Education (1835\\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \\|publisher\\=Columbia.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 \"Indianisation (British India)\")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\\-continent.", "British influence in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania \"Oceania\") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate \"British protectorate\"), exemplified the English\\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") \\- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin \"Tok Pisin\").", "The Americans came late in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \\- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English \"Philippine English\"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\\_Daniel\\_Wong\\_Gonzales?ev\\=hdr\\_xprf\\&\\_sg\\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\\_FFtSXL3\\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\\-unjgtlDoLAPc \\|title\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \\& Literature \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \\|title\\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|last\\=Gonzales \\|first\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\\_Philippine\\_Englishes\\_A\\_timely\\_or\\_premature\\_call \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\\|last\\=Villanueva\\|first\\=Rey John Castro\\|title\\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \\|date\\=2016 \\|url\\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\\-bin/koha/opac\\-detail.pl?biblionumber\\=2750\\&shelfbrowse\\_itemnumber\\=6284}}", "Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\").", "" ]
#### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes "New Englishes")', the second\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa "Colonial Africa"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa "West Africa") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia "Gambia"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language "Creole language") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language "Krio language") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin "Cameroon Pidgin"), have large numbers of speakers now. As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi "Malawi"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language "Chewa language")). English was formally introduced to the sub\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\|author\=Frances Pritchett \|url\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\_minute\_education\_1835\.html \|title\=Minute on Education (1835\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \|publisher\=Columbia.edu \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 "Indianisation (British India)")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\-continent. British influence in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania "Oceania") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate "British protectorate"), exemplified the English\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin "Pidgin") \- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin "Tok Pisin"). The Americans came late in [South\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia "South-East Asia") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English "Philippine English"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\_Daniel\_Wong\_Gonzales?ev\=hdr\_xprf\&\_sg\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\_FFtSXL3\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\-unjgtlDoLAPc \|title\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \& Literature \|website\=ResearchGate \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \|title\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \|website\=ResearchGate \|last\=Gonzales \|first\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \|access\-date\=April 25, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\_Philippine\_Englishes\_A\_timely\_or\_premature\_call \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\|last\=Villanueva\|first\=Rey John Castro\|title\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \|date\=2016 \|url\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\-bin/koha/opac\-detail.pl?biblionumber\=2750\&shelfbrowse\_itemnumber\=6284}} Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea").
[ "#### Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa", "The second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[New Englishes](/wiki/New_Englishes \"New Englishes\")', the second\\-language varieties of English. In [colonial Africa](/wiki/Colonial_Africa \"Colonial Africa\"), the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa \"West Africa\") began with trade, particularly the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\"). English soon gained official status in what are today [Gambia](/wiki/Gambia \"Gambia\"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon \"Cameroon\"), and some of the [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") and [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language \"Creole language\") which developed from English contact, including [Krio](/wiki/Krio_language \"Krio language\") (Sierra Leone) and [Cameroon Pidgin](/wiki/Cameroon_Pidgin \"Cameroon Pidgin\"), have large numbers of speakers now.", "As for [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"), extensive British settlements were established in what are now [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\"), [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi \"Malawi\"), [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia \"Zambia\") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\"), where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [Chewa](/wiki/Chewa_language \"Chewa language\")).", "English was formally introduced to the sub\\-continent of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") (India, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") and [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan \"Bhutan\")) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.{{cite web\\|author\\=Frances Pritchett \\|url\\=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt\\_minute\\_education\\_1835\\.html \\|title\\=Minute on Education (1835\\) by Thomas Babington Macaulay \\|publisher\\=Columbia.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-17}} Over time, the process of '[Indianisation](/wiki/Indianisation_%28British_India%29 \"Indianisation (British India)\")' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub\\-continent.", "British influence in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") and the [South Pacific](/wiki/Oceania \"Oceania\") began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\"), also a [British protectorate](/wiki/British_protectorate \"British protectorate\"), exemplified the English\\-based [pidgin](/wiki/Pidgin \"Pidgin\") \\- [Tok Pisin](/wiki/Tok_Pisin \"Tok Pisin\").", "The Americans came late in [South\\-East Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia \"South-East Asia\") but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged \\- [Philippine English](/wiki/Philippine_English \"Philippine English\"). Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson\\_Daniel\\_Wong\\_Gonzales?ev\\=hdr\\_xprf\\&\\_sg\\=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb\\_FFtSXL3\\-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e\\-unjgtlDoLAPc \\|title\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language \\& Literature \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-25}} argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 \\|title\\=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? \\|website\\=ResearchGate \\|last\\=Gonzales \\|first\\=Wilkinson Daniel Wong \\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694\\_Philippine\\_Englishes\\_A\\_timely\\_or\\_premature\\_call \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2016}} paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.{{Cite thesis\\|last\\=Villanueva\\|first\\=Rey John Castro\\|title\\=The Features of Philippine English across Regions \\|date\\=2016 \\|url\\=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi\\-bin/koha/opac\\-detail.pl?biblionumber\\=2750\\&shelfbrowse\\_itemnumber\\=6284}}", "Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), Japan and [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\").", "" ]
Classification of Englishes --------------------------- The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:{{cite book\|last1\=Jenkins\|first1\=Jennifer\|title\=World englishes : a resource book for students\|date\=2006\|publisher\=Routledge\|location\=London\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-25806\-7\|pages\=14–15\|edition\=1\. edition, 3\. reprint}} 1. a [native language](/wiki/Native_language "Native language") (ENL); the [primary language](/wiki/Primary_language "Primary language") of the majority population of a country, such as in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia. 2. a [second language](/wiki/Second_language "Second language") (ESL); an additional language for *intra*national as well as *inter*national communication in communities that are [multilingual](/wiki/Multilingual "Multilingual"), such as in [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria"), and [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"). Most of these Englishes developed as a result of imperial expansion that brought the language to various parts of the world. 3. a [foreign language](/wiki/Foreign_language "Foreign language") (EFL); used almost exclusively for international communication, such as in Japan. ### Kachru's Three Circles of English [thumb\|alt\=Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English\|*Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English*](/wiki/File:Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg "Kachru's three circles of English.svg") The most influential model of the spread of English is [Braj Kachru](/wiki/Braj_Kachru "Braj Kachru")'s model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.Kachru, B. (1992\). *The Other Tongue: English across cultures*. University of Illinois Press. The ***Inner Circle*** refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora"). In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada. English is the [native language](/wiki/Native_language "Native language") or [mother tongue](/wiki/Mother_tongue "Mother tongue") of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States. The ***Outer Circle*** of English was produced by the second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora") of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") in [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"). In these regions, English is not the native tongue but serves as a useful [lingua franca](/wiki/Lingua_franca "Lingua franca") between [ethnic](/wiki/Ethnic "Ethnic") and language groups. Higher education, the [legislature](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature") and [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary "Judiciary"), national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria"), [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa"), the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") (colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.Kachru, Y. (2006\). *World Englishes in Asian Contexts*. (Larry E. Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see [Languages of Singapore](/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore "Languages of Singapore")), much as Ireland did earlier. The Outer Circle also includes countries where most people speak an [English\-based creole](/wiki/English-based_creole "English-based creole"), yet retain standard English for official purposes, such as [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago"), [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados "Barbados"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana "Guyana"), [Belize](/wiki/Belize "Belize") and [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea"). Finally, the ***Expanding Circle*** encompasses countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia, Japan, [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"), non\-Anglophone [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") (especially [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe "Central Europe") and [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries")), and Middle East. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion. The inner circle is 'norm\-providing'; that means that the English language [norms](/wiki/Norm_%28sociology%29 "Norm (sociology)") is developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly [New Commonwealth countries](/wiki/Commonwealth_countries "Commonwealth countries")) is 'norm\-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm\-dependent' because it relies on the standards set by [native speakers](/wiki/Native_speakers "Native speakers") in the inner circle.Kachru, B. (1992\). World Englishes: approaches, issues, and resources. *Language Teaching*, 25: 1\-14\. Cambridge UP. ### Schneider's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes {{Main\|Schneider's dynamic model}} [Edgar Werner Schneider](/wiki/Edgar_W._Schneider "Edgar W. Schneider") tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates [sociolinguistic concepts](/wiki/Sociolinguistic "Sociolinguistic") pertaining to acts of [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 "Identity (social science)").Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret\-Keller, A. (1985\). *Acts of identity: Creole\-based approaches to language and ethnicity*. New York: Cambridge University Press. His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region. The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity rewritings of the groups involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party's language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction), and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow. The model outlines five characteristic stages in the spread of English: ***Phase 1 – Foundation***: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a) [language contact](/wiki/Language_contact "Language contact") between English and [indigenous languages](/wiki/Indigenous_language "Indigenous language"); (b) contact between different [dialects of English](/wiki/Dialects_of_English "Dialects of English") of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable [dialect](/wiki/Dialect "Dialect") (see [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language "Koiné language")). At this stage, [bilingualism](/wiki/Bilingualism "Bilingualism") is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators, and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.Schneider, E. W. (2007\). *Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world*. Cambridge University Press. ***Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization***: At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the [colloquial](/wiki/Colloquial "Colloquial") English is a colonial [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language "Koiné language"), the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the [indigenous population](/wiki/Indigenous_population "Indigenous population") through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous [elite](/wiki/Elite "Elite") develops. ***Phase 3 – Nativisation***: According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 "Identity (social science)") based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an [L2](/wiki/Second_language "Second language") system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes, and features adopted from the settlers' [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language "Koiné language") English. [Neologisms](/wiki/Neologisms "Neologisms") stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices. ***Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization***: This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local [norms](/wiki/Norms_%28sociology%29 "Norms (sociology)"), supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self\-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of [nationhood](/wiki/Nation "Nation") independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 "Identity (social science)"). National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new [lexis](/wiki/Lexis_%28linguistics%29 "Lexis (linguistics)") (and not always for localized grammar). [Literary creativity](/wiki/Literary_genre "Literary genre") in local English begins to flourish.Mesthrie, Rajend and Bhatt, Rakesh M. (2008\). *World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties*. Cambridge University Press. ***Phase 5 – Differentiation***: At this stage, there is a change in the dynamics of [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 "Identity (social science)") as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the [former colonial power](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting [language change](/wiki/Language_change "Language change") (with the aid of [social differentiation](/wiki/Social_differentiation "Social differentiation")) the new English [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language "Koiné language") starts to show greater differentiation. ### Other models of classification #### Strevens's world map of English The oldest map of the spread of English is Strevens's world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.Strevens, P. (1980\). *Teaching English as an International Language*. Oxford: Pergamon Press. #### McArthur's Circle of World English [McArthur](/wiki/Tom_McArthur_%28linguist%29 "Tom McArthur (linguist)")'s "wheel model" has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English." The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards. Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL, [ESL](/wiki/ESL "ESL") and [EFL](/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_or_second_language "English as a foreign or second language"), are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes [pidgins](/wiki/Pidgins "Pidgins"), [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language "Creole language") and [L2](/wiki/Second_language "Second language") Englishes. Most scholars would argue that [English pidgins](/wiki/Pidgin_English "Pidgin English") and [creoles](/wiki/English_creoles "English creoles") do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.McArthur, A. (1987\). "The English Languages?" *English Today*: 11:9\-13\. #### Görlach's circle model of English Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include [EFLs](/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_or_second_language "English as a foreign or second language") at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties ([pidgins](/wiki/Pidgins "Pidgins"), [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language "Creole language"), and [mixed languages](/wiki/Mixed_language "Mixed language") involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.Görlach, M. (1990\).*Studies in the History of the English Language*. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. #### Modiano's model of English In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features that are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent [non\-native speakers](/wiki/Non-native_speakers "Non-native speakers") of English. The second circle consists of features that may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups ([American English](/wiki/American_English "American English"), [British English](/wiki/British_English "British English"), other major varieties, local varieties, and foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.Modiano, M. (1999\). "Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world's lingua franca". *English Today*: 15/4: 3\-13\.
[ "Classification of Englishes\n---------------------------", "The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:{{cite book\\|last1\\=Jenkins\\|first1\\=Jennifer\\|title\\=World englishes : a resource book for students\\|date\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-25806\\-7\\|pages\\=14–15\\|edition\\=1\\. edition, 3\\. reprint}}", "1. a [native language](/wiki/Native_language \"Native language\") (ENL); the [primary language](/wiki/Primary_language \"Primary language\") of the majority population of a country, such as in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia.\n2. a [second language](/wiki/Second_language \"Second language\") (ESL); an additional language for *intra*national as well as *inter*national communication in communities that are [multilingual](/wiki/Multilingual \"Multilingual\"), such as in [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\"), and [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"). Most of these Englishes developed as a result of imperial expansion that brought the language to various parts of the world.\n3. a [foreign language](/wiki/Foreign_language \"Foreign language\") (EFL); used almost exclusively for international communication, such as in Japan.", "### Kachru's Three Circles of English", "[thumb\\|alt\\=Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English\\|*Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English*](/wiki/File:Kachru%27s_three_circles_of_English.svg \"Kachru's three circles of English.svg\") The most influential model of the spread of English is [Braj Kachru](/wiki/Braj_Kachru \"Braj Kachru\")'s model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.Kachru, B. (1992\\). *The Other Tongue: English across cultures*. University of Illinois Press.", "The ***Inner Circle*** refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\"). In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada. English is the [native language](/wiki/Native_language \"Native language\") or [mother tongue](/wiki/Mother_tongue \"Mother tongue\") of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.", "The ***Outer Circle*** of English was produced by the second [diaspora](/wiki/Diaspora \"Diaspora\") of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") in [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"). In these regions, English is not the native tongue but serves as a useful [lingua franca](/wiki/Lingua_franca \"Lingua franca\") between [ethnic](/wiki/Ethnic \"Ethnic\") and language groups. Higher education, the [legislature](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\") and [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary \"Judiciary\"), national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\"), [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\"), the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") (colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.Kachru, Y. (2006\\). *World Englishes in Asian Contexts*. (Larry E. Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see [Languages of Singapore](/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore \"Languages of Singapore\")), much as Ireland did earlier. The Outer Circle also includes countries where most people speak an [English\\-based creole](/wiki/English-based_creole \"English-based creole\"), yet retain standard English for official purposes, such as [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica \"Jamaica\"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago \"Trinidad and Tobago\"), [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados \"Barbados\"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana \"Guyana\"), [Belize](/wiki/Belize \"Belize\") and [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\").", "Finally, the ***Expanding Circle*** encompasses countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia, Japan, [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"), non\\-Anglophone [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") (especially [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe \"Central Europe\") and [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries \"Nordic countries\")), and Middle East. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion.", "The inner circle is 'norm\\-providing'; that means that the English language [norms](/wiki/Norm_%28sociology%29 \"Norm (sociology)\") is developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly [New Commonwealth countries](/wiki/Commonwealth_countries \"Commonwealth countries\")) is 'norm\\-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm\\-dependent' because it relies on the standards set by [native speakers](/wiki/Native_speakers \"Native speakers\") in the inner circle.Kachru, B. (1992\\). World Englishes: approaches, issues, and resources. *Language Teaching*, 25: 1\\-14\\. Cambridge UP.", "### Schneider's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes", "{{Main\\|Schneider's dynamic model}}\n[Edgar Werner Schneider](/wiki/Edgar_W._Schneider \"Edgar W. Schneider\") tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates [sociolinguistic concepts](/wiki/Sociolinguistic \"Sociolinguistic\") pertaining to acts of [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 \"Identity (social science)\").Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret\\-Keller, A. (1985\\). *Acts of identity: Creole\\-based approaches to language and ethnicity*. New York: Cambridge University Press. His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region.", "The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity rewritings of the groups involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party's language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction), and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow.", "The model outlines five characteristic stages in the spread of English:", "***Phase 1 – Foundation***: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a) [language contact](/wiki/Language_contact \"Language contact\") between English and [indigenous languages](/wiki/Indigenous_language \"Indigenous language\"); (b) contact between different [dialects of English](/wiki/Dialects_of_English \"Dialects of English\") of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable [dialect](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\") (see [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language \"Koiné language\")). At this stage, [bilingualism](/wiki/Bilingualism \"Bilingualism\") is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators, and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.Schneider, E. W. (2007\\). *Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world*. Cambridge University Press.", "***Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization***: At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the [colloquial](/wiki/Colloquial \"Colloquial\") English is a colonial [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language \"Koiné language\"), the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the [indigenous population](/wiki/Indigenous_population \"Indigenous population\") through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous [elite](/wiki/Elite \"Elite\") develops.", "***Phase 3 – Nativisation***: According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 \"Identity (social science)\") based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an [L2](/wiki/Second_language \"Second language\") system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes, and features adopted from the settlers' [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language \"Koiné language\") English. [Neologisms](/wiki/Neologisms \"Neologisms\") stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.", "***Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization***: This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local [norms](/wiki/Norms_%28sociology%29 \"Norms (sociology)\"), supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self\\-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of [nationhood](/wiki/Nation \"Nation\") independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 \"Identity (social science)\"). National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new [lexis](/wiki/Lexis_%28linguistics%29 \"Lexis (linguistics)\") (and not always for localized grammar). [Literary creativity](/wiki/Literary_genre \"Literary genre\") in local English begins to flourish.Mesthrie, Rajend and Bhatt, Rakesh M. (2008\\). *World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties*. Cambridge University Press.", "***Phase 5 – Differentiation***: At this stage, there is a change in the dynamics of [identity](/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29 \"Identity (social science)\") as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the [former colonial power](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting [language change](/wiki/Language_change \"Language change\") (with the aid of [social differentiation](/wiki/Social_differentiation \"Social differentiation\")) the new English [koiné](/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language \"Koiné language\") starts to show greater differentiation.", "### Other models of classification", "#### Strevens's world map of English", "The oldest map of the spread of English is Strevens's world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.Strevens, P. (1980\\). *Teaching English as an International Language*. Oxford: Pergamon Press.", "#### McArthur's Circle of World English", "[McArthur](/wiki/Tom_McArthur_%28linguist%29 \"Tom McArthur (linguist)\")'s \"wheel model\" has an idealized central variety called \"World Standard English,\" which is best represented by \"written international English.\" The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards.", "Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL, [ESL](/wiki/ESL \"ESL\") and [EFL](/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_or_second_language \"English as a foreign or second language\"), are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes [pidgins](/wiki/Pidgins \"Pidgins\"), [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language \"Creole language\") and [L2](/wiki/Second_language \"Second language\") Englishes. Most scholars would argue that [English pidgins](/wiki/Pidgin_English \"Pidgin English\") and [creoles](/wiki/English_creoles \"English creoles\") do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.McArthur, A. (1987\\). \"The English Languages?\" *English Today*: 11:9\\-13\\.", "#### Görlach's circle model of English", "Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include [EFLs](/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_or_second_language \"English as a foreign or second language\") at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties ([pidgins](/wiki/Pidgins \"Pidgins\"), [creoles](/wiki/Creole_language \"Creole language\"), and [mixed languages](/wiki/Mixed_language \"Mixed language\") involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.Görlach, M. (1990\\).*Studies in the History of the English Language*. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.", "#### Modiano's model of English", "In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features that are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent [non\\-native speakers](/wiki/Non-native_speakers \"Non-native speakers\") of English. The second circle consists of features that may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups ([American English](/wiki/American_English \"American English\"), [British English](/wiki/British_English \"British English\"), other major varieties, local varieties, and foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.Modiano, M. (1999\\). \"Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world's lingua franca\". *English Today*: 15/4: 3\\-13\\.", "" ]
History and controversies ------------------------- ### Thrown out with trash *Digital DNA* was commissioned in 2000\. In 2001, while moving from [Palo Alto](/wiki/Palo_Alto "Palo Alto") to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") Varella used her shared garage to store unattached pieces of the artwork. Her neighbor mistook the unfinished work for junk, and threw it out. Varella lost six months of work.{{cite journal \|last\= D'Agostino\|first\= Bill\|date\= June 23, 2004\|title\= 'Digital DNA' lost in fire last month \|journal\= Palo Alto Weekly Online Edition\|url\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2004/2004\_06\_23\.dna23mb.shtml\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-29}} The installation of the piece was originally scheduled for May 8, 2004, but was delayed due to changes in city policy regarding the hiring of city vendors. By June an installer had been hired, and *Digital DNA* was ready to be installed; however, a conflicting plan for the complete redesign of the plaza had been made public. Former Palo Alto mayor Leland Levy and real estate developer Roxy Rapp proposed a $500,000 revitalization of [Lytton](/wiki/Bart_Lytton "Bart Lytton") plaza. The design featured a central fountain, but did not include *Digital DNA*. On June 17, the Palo Alto Public Art Commission held a meeting to discuss the future of *Digital DNA* in relation to the fountain plan. Levy and Rapp requested that the installation of the artwork be further delayed until their proposal was formally presented to the City Council. The Commission unanimously voted to study the fountain plan, but also reiterated their desire for the immediate installation of *Digital DNA*. ### Destroyed by fire Following the vote, Arts and Culture Director Leon Kaplan, the city employee overseeing the project, made a shocking announcement. About a month prior, on May 19, there had been a fire in the [San Bruno](/wiki/San_Bruno "San Bruno") warehouse where *Digital DNA* was being stored. 11 days after the original installation date, *Digital DNA* was completely destroyed. Because the fire occurred after the installation of *Digital DNA* had been delayed by city staff, some public officials blamed its loss on city employees. Varella hired an attorney to investigate the city's liability for the loss. Suspicions rose that the fire had been masterminded to allow the fountain plan to move forward. Insurance reimbursed the city for the cost of the lost sculpture. On August 19, 2004, the Commission voted to fund a second version of the artwork.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.city.palo\-alto.ca.us/cityagenda/publish/public\-art\-meetings/4030\.pdf \|title\=Minutes, Public Art Commission \|access\-date\=2008\-04\-29 \|date\=August 19, 2004 \|publisher\=City of Palo Alto: Agenda and Minutes }}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} In late April 2005 *Digital DNA* was again ready to be displayed, however, the installation was slightly delayed due to weather and other factors.{{cite journal \|last\= D'Agostino\|first\= Bill\|date\= May 4, 2005\|title\= Digital DNA installation slightly delayed\|journal\= Palo Alto Online: News\|url\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/news/show\_story.php?id\=1326\|access\-date\= 2008\-04\-29}} ### Dedication June 2005 [thumb\|Plaque at the base of Digital DNA](/wiki/File:DigitalDNAplaque.jpg "DigitalDNAplaque.jpg") The second iteration of *Digital DNA* debuted in [Lytton Plaza](/wiki/Bart_Lytton "Bart Lytton") in May, and was officially unveiled June 9–10, 2005 with a reception and dedication.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.artsopolis.com/event/detail/9618 \|title\=Digital DNA, Art on the Street (Palo Alto Public Art Commission) \|access\-date\=2008\-04\-29 \|publisher\=Artsopolis.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707173359/http://www.artsopolis.com/event/detail/9618 \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-07 }}{{cite journal \|last\= D'Agostino\|first\= Bill\|author2\=Jocelyn Dong \|author3\=Alexandria Rocha \|date\= December 28, 2005\|title\= From Anarchists to Zero Waste, Palo Alto's year in review, from 'A' to 'Z' \|journal\= Palo Alto Weekly Online Edition\|url\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2005/2005\_12\_28\.ba.shtml\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-29}} ### Vandalism Two weeks prior to the unveiling, *Digital DNA* was vandalized. Six circuit boards were removed from the sculpture and several wires were pulled out, but Varella was able to repair the damages before the event. An earlier plan to install surveillance equipment in the plaza was reconsidered as a result of the vandalism. Police speculated that the crime was committed by drunken patrons of local bars. In April 2008, a public\-private partnership (including city staff, Levy, and Rapp) renewed the 2004 undertaking to revitalize Lytton Plaza with a large\-scale redesign. The old proposal, which did not incorporate *Digital DNA*, was never approved, but will be revisited. Levy expressed the group's desire to present a plan to which everyone can agree. According to Sunny Dykwel, a leader of the advocacy effort, *Digital DNA* is a beautiful piece of art, which they intend to protect.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.paloaltodailynews.com/article/2007\-3\-2\-03\-02\-07\-pa\-lytton\-redesign\|title\= Downtown plaza up for redesign again, Public\-private partnership in the works\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-29 \|author\= Kristina Peterson\|date\= April 29, 2008\|publisher\= Palo Alto Daily News}} ### Vote to remove In August 2017, the city staff issued a report recommending removal, because of the cost of maintenance. The staff was concerned about the continuing expense of maintaining a sculpture that does not hold up under outdoor weather conditions. The staff tried, but failed to find a suitable location within the city, for displaying the sculpture.{{cite web \|title\=City of Palo Alto Staff Report to Public Art Commission \|url\=http://www.cityofpaloalto.org/civicax/filebank/documents/62104 \|access\-date\=December 4, 2017}} In November 2017, the Arts Commission voted to remove the sculpture. In response, about 60 protesters gathered on December 7 at the sculpture. The artist wrapped the sculpture in a tarp labeled "CENSORED."{{cite news \|title\=Palo Alto residents, artist protest removal of 'Digital DNA' sculpture \|author\=Jacob Nierenberg \|date\=December 15, 2017 \|publisher\=Stanford University \|work\=Peninsula Press \|url\=http://peninsulapress.com/2017/12/15/palo\-alto\-residents\-artist\-protest\-removal\-of\-digital\-dna\-sculpture/ \|access\-date\=December 20, 2017}} ### Removal and relocation to Harvard In 2018, the sculpture was purchased by an anonymous art collector, who is also a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and a Harvard University graduate.{{cite news \|title\=Egg\-hausted effort \|work\=\[\[Palo Alto Online]] \|date\=2018\-06\-21 \|url\=https://www.paloaltoonline.com/news/2018/06/21/egg\-hausted\-effort \|last\=Padojino \|first\=Jamey \|access\-date\=2018\-06\-27}} The sculpture was removed from Lytton Plaza in June 2018\. The art collectors wanted to have the sculpture repaired and restored. {{Asof\|2019}}, the [Harvard Business School](/wiki/Harvard_Business_School "Harvard Business School") displays the restored work outside the [i\-Lab](/wiki/Harvard_Innovation_Lab "Harvard Innovation Lab") on Western Avenue.{{cite magazine \|magazine\=\[\[Harvard Magazine]] \|date\=March 2019 \|title\=The College Pump \|page\=76}}
[ "History and controversies\n-------------------------", "### Thrown out with trash", "*Digital DNA* was commissioned in 2000\\. In 2001, while moving from [Palo Alto](/wiki/Palo_Alto \"Palo Alto\") to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") Varella used her shared garage to store unattached pieces of the artwork. Her neighbor mistook the unfinished work for junk, and threw it out. Varella lost six months of work.{{cite journal \\|last\\= D'Agostino\\|first\\= Bill\\|date\\= June 23, 2004\\|title\\= 'Digital DNA' lost in fire last month\n\\|journal\\= Palo Alto Weekly Online Edition\\|url\\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2004/2004\\_06\\_23\\.dna23mb.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-29}}", "The installation of the piece was originally scheduled for May 8, 2004, but was delayed due to changes in city policy regarding the hiring of city vendors. By June an installer had been hired, and *Digital DNA* was ready to be installed; however, a conflicting plan for the complete redesign of the plaza had been made public. Former Palo Alto mayor Leland Levy and real estate developer Roxy Rapp proposed a $500,000 revitalization of [Lytton](/wiki/Bart_Lytton \"Bart Lytton\") plaza. The design featured a central fountain, but did not include *Digital DNA*.", "On June 17, the Palo Alto Public Art Commission held a meeting to discuss the future of *Digital DNA* in relation to the fountain plan. Levy and Rapp requested that the installation of the artwork be further delayed until their proposal was formally presented to the City Council. The Commission unanimously voted to study the fountain plan, but also reiterated their desire for the immediate installation of *Digital DNA*.", "### Destroyed by fire", "Following the vote, Arts and Culture Director Leon Kaplan, the city employee overseeing the project, made a shocking announcement. About a month prior, on May 19, there had been a fire in the [San Bruno](/wiki/San_Bruno \"San Bruno\") warehouse where *Digital DNA* was being stored. 11 days after the original installation date, *Digital DNA* was completely destroyed.", "Because the fire occurred after the installation of *Digital DNA* had been delayed by city staff, some public officials blamed its loss on city employees. Varella hired an attorney to investigate the city's liability for the loss. Suspicions rose that the fire had been masterminded to allow the fountain plan to move forward.", "Insurance reimbursed the city for the cost of the lost sculpture. On August 19, 2004, the Commission voted to fund a second version of the artwork.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.city.palo\\-alto.ca.us/cityagenda/publish/public\\-art\\-meetings/4030\\.pdf \\|title\\=Minutes, Public Art Commission \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-29 \\|date\\=August 19, 2004 \\|publisher\\=City of Palo Alto: Agenda and Minutes }}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "In late April 2005 *Digital DNA* was again ready to be displayed, however, the installation was slightly delayed due to weather and other factors.{{cite journal \\|last\\= D'Agostino\\|first\\= Bill\\|date\\= May 4, 2005\\|title\\= Digital DNA installation slightly delayed\\|journal\\= Palo Alto Online: News\\|url\\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/news/show\\_story.php?id\\=1326\\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-04\\-29}}", "### Dedication June 2005", "[thumb\\|Plaque at the base of Digital DNA](/wiki/File:DigitalDNAplaque.jpg \"DigitalDNAplaque.jpg\")\nThe second iteration of *Digital DNA* debuted in [Lytton Plaza](/wiki/Bart_Lytton \"Bart Lytton\") in May, and was officially unveiled June 9–10, 2005 with a reception and dedication.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.artsopolis.com/event/detail/9618 \\|title\\=Digital DNA, Art on the Street (Palo Alto Public Art Commission) \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-29 \\|publisher\\=Artsopolis.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707173359/http://www.artsopolis.com/event/detail/9618 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-07 }}{{cite journal \\|last\\= D'Agostino\\|first\\= Bill\\|author2\\=Jocelyn Dong \\|author3\\=Alexandria Rocha \\|date\\= December 28, 2005\\|title\\= From Anarchists to Zero Waste, Palo Alto's year in review, from 'A' to 'Z'\n\\|journal\\= Palo Alto Weekly Online Edition\\|url\\= https://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2005/2005\\_12\\_28\\.ba.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-29}}", "### Vandalism", "Two weeks prior to the unveiling, *Digital DNA* was vandalized. Six circuit boards were removed from the sculpture and several wires were pulled out, but Varella was able to repair the damages before the event. An earlier plan to install surveillance equipment in the plaza was reconsidered as a result of the vandalism. Police speculated that the crime was committed by drunken patrons of local bars.", "In April 2008, a public\\-private partnership (including city staff, Levy, and Rapp) renewed the 2004 undertaking to revitalize Lytton Plaza with a large\\-scale redesign. The old proposal, which did not incorporate *Digital DNA*, was never approved, but will be revisited. Levy expressed the group's desire to present a plan to which everyone can agree. According to Sunny Dykwel, a leader of the advocacy effort, *Digital DNA* is a beautiful piece of art, which they intend to protect.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.paloaltodailynews.com/article/2007\\-3\\-2\\-03\\-02\\-07\\-pa\\-lytton\\-redesign\\|title\\= Downtown plaza up for redesign again, Public\\-private partnership in the works\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-29 \\|author\\= Kristina Peterson\\|date\\= April 29, 2008\\|publisher\\= Palo Alto Daily News}}", "### Vote to remove", "In August 2017, the city staff issued a report recommending removal, because of the cost of maintenance. The staff was concerned about the continuing expense of maintaining a sculpture that does not hold up under outdoor weather conditions. The staff tried, but failed to find a suitable location within the city, for displaying the sculpture.{{cite web \\|title\\=City of Palo Alto Staff Report to Public Art Commission \\|url\\=http://www.cityofpaloalto.org/civicax/filebank/documents/62104 \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2017}}", "In November 2017, the Arts Commission voted to remove the sculpture. In response, about 60 protesters gathered on December 7 at the sculpture. The artist wrapped the sculpture in a tarp labeled \"CENSORED.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Palo Alto residents, artist protest removal of 'Digital DNA' sculpture \\|author\\=Jacob Nierenberg \\|date\\=December 15, 2017 \\|publisher\\=Stanford University \\|work\\=Peninsula Press \\|url\\=http://peninsulapress.com/2017/12/15/palo\\-alto\\-residents\\-artist\\-protest\\-removal\\-of\\-digital\\-dna\\-sculpture/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2017}}", "### Removal and relocation to Harvard", "In 2018, the sculpture was purchased by an anonymous art collector, who is also a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and a Harvard University graduate.{{cite news \\|title\\=Egg\\-hausted effort \\|work\\=\\[\\[Palo Alto Online]] \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-21 \\|url\\=https://www.paloaltoonline.com/news/2018/06/21/egg\\-hausted\\-effort \\|last\\=Padojino \\|first\\=Jamey \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-27}} The sculpture was removed from Lytton Plaza in June 2018\\. The art collectors wanted to have the sculpture repaired and restored. {{Asof\\|2019}}, the [Harvard Business School](/wiki/Harvard_Business_School \"Harvard Business School\") displays the restored work outside the [i\\-Lab](/wiki/Harvard_Innovation_Lab \"Harvard Innovation Lab\") on Western Avenue.{{cite magazine \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Harvard Magazine]] \\|date\\=March 2019 \\|title\\=The College Pump \\|page\\=76}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Early years The 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit was established on 24 April 1967 for a short mission and was quickly deactivated (as was the norm during this period) on 20 October 1967\. During June–December 1969, the 26th MEU was reactivated as the 36th Marine Expeditionary Unit for Exercise Landing Force Caribbean 3\-69 (LANFORCARIB 3\-69\). In 1975 the 36th Marine Amphibious Unit participated in Exercise Staff Zugel in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"). This marked the first time since [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") that the USMC took a combined arms force ashore in Germany. The unit was redesignated as the 26th Marine Amphibious Unit in 1982 and became part of the rotation cycle of three MAUs on the East Coast in 1985\. It was the first of the MAUs to undergo [Special Operations Capable](/wiki/Marine_expeditionary_unit_%28special_operations_capable%29 "Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable)") training, earn the SOC qualification, and have [AV\-8B Harriers](/wiki/AV-8B_Harrier_II "AV-8B Harrier II") attached. The SOC designation denotes the fact that a MEU has undergone an enhanced pre\-deployment training program and is able to provide special operations capabilities during an upcoming deployment. In 1988 the unit was again redesignated as the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable). ### 1990s through 2000 In 1991 the 26TH MEU supported [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Shield "Operation Desert Shield") by providing a "Show of Force" in the Mediterranean, and participated in [Operation Sharp Edge](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Edge "Operation Sharp Edge"), a non\-combatant evacuation operation of Liberia. The next year saw the 26th MEU participating in [Operation Provide Promise](/wiki/Operation_Provide_Promise "Operation Provide Promise"), [Operation Deny Flight](/wiki/Operation_Deny_Flight "Operation Deny Flight") and [Operation Sharp Guard](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Guard "Operation Sharp Guard") off the coast of Yugoslavia. In 1994 the 26th MEU participated in ceremonies marking the 50th Anniversary of the D\-Day invasion of Normandy, France. The 26th MEU also supported [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope "Operation Restore Hope") off the coast of Somalia and participated in continued operations in Bosnia. Three years later the 26th MEU launched [Operation Silver Wake](/wiki/Operation_Silver_Wake "Operation Silver Wake"), evacuating U.S. citizens and foreign nationals from [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania"), and also participated in [Operation Guardian Retrieval](/wiki/Operation_Guardian_Retrieval "Operation Guardian Retrieval"), the staging of forces in the Congo for a possible evacuation of [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire "Zaire"). In 1998 the 26th MEU served as the Headquarters for the Strategic Reserve Force during Exercise Dynamic Response in Bosnia. The SRF is a multinational force made up of forces from the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Romania, Poland, and the United States. The 26th MEU played a notable role in the Balkan conflict. In 1998 it participated in [Operation Determined Falcon](/wiki/Operation_Determined_Falcon "Operation Determined Falcon"), the one\-day NATO aerial show\-of\-force in Kosovo. From April to May 1999 it took part in [Operation Noble Anvil](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Anvil "Operation Noble Anvil") and [Operation Shining Hope](/wiki/Operation_Shining_Hope "Operation Shining Hope"). While supporting Noble Anvil, NATO's bombing campaign in Kosovo, with AV\-8B Harrier attack aircraft, the 26th ME also provided security for Kosovar refugees at Camps Hope and Eagle in Albania. From June to July 1999, it participated in [Operation Joint Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Joint_Guardian "Operation Joint Guardian"). As the first U.S. peacekeepers in Kosovo, the 26th MEU helped provide stability to the embattled region. August 1999 saw the 26th MEU taking part in [Operation Avid Response](/wiki/Operation_Avid_Response "Operation Avid Response"), providing Humanitarian Assistance to the people of Western Turkey left homeless by a devastating earthquake. The 26th MEU conducted Adriatic presence operations during the election crisis in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in September 2000\. The 26th MEU also participated in exercises Atlas Hinge in Tunisia and Croatian Phibex 2000, the first\-ever bilateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces. During the next two months, the 26th MEU supported diplomatic initiatives during unrest in Israel while simultaneously taking part in the NATO exercise Destined Glory 2000 and continued to break new ground through the second bi\-lateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces, exercise Slunj 2000\. ### Global War on Terrorism [thumb\|26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Maritime Raid Force members conduct an amphibious insertion during sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, 3 August 2013\.](/wiki/File:Force_Recon_Marines_with_26th_MEU_conduct_amphibious_insertion_operations.JPG "Force Recon Marines with 26th MEU conduct amphibious insertion operations.JPG") [thumb\|Marines of Company K, Battalion Landing Team 3/2, 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), sprint to the gun line with their 60mm mortars during their sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, August 2013\.](/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_with_the_26th_MEU_training_in_AFRICOM.JPG "U.S. Marines with the 26th MEU training in AFRICOM.JPG") Following the events of 11 September 2001, the 26th MEU(SOC) was among the first U.S. forces into Afghanistan as part of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom") and [Operation Swift Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Swift_Freedom "Operation Swift Freedom"). From December 2001 to February 2002, 26th MEU(SOC) Marines reinforced the [15th MEU](/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "15th Marine Expeditionary Unit") who had conducted the 450 mile seizure of [Camp Rhino](/wiki/Camp_Rhino "Camp Rhino") in November 2001 and [Kandahar International Airport](/wiki/Kandahar_International_Airport "Kandahar International Airport") in December 2001\. Both MEUs worked together and constructed a detainment facility that held more than 400 [Taliban](/wiki/Taliban "Taliban") and [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda "Al Qaeda") terrorists. From April to May 2003, the 26th MEU participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom by conducting operations in Erbil and Mosul, Iraq. It was inserted via [CH\-53](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion "CH-53E Super Stallion") and [KC\-130](/wiki/C-130_Hercules "C-130 Hercules") and conducted combat operations until relieved by the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 "101st Airborne Division (United States)"). The 26th MEU served as the primary tactical unit for [Joint Task Force Liberia](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Liberia "Joint Task Force Liberia") during Operation Sheltering Sky from August to September 2003 in the [Second Liberian Civil War](/wiki/Second_Liberian_Civil_War "Second Liberian Civil War"). The MEU capitalized on its extensive training in humanitarian assistance operations and U.S. embassy relations to help bring peace to the war\-torn nation following the [exile](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29%23Exile "Charles Taylor (Liberia)#Exile") of former [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia "Liberia") president [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 "Charles Taylor (Liberia)"). Marines and sailors from the 26th MEU conducted Operation Sea Horse from July to August 2005, supporting British\-led [Multi\-National Division Southeast](/wiki/Multi-National_Division_%28South-East%29_%28Iraq%29 "Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq)") with a mission to detect and deter illicit activity along the Iraqi border. The MEU maintained command and control of Operation Sea Horse from aboard ship in the Northern Persian Gulf, while simultaneously and concurrently conducting training missions in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") and [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti"). In August 2008, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the ships of the *[Iwo Jima](/wiki/USS_Iwo_Jima_%28LHD-7%29 "USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)")* [Strike Group](/wiki/Expeditionary_Strike_Group "Expeditionary Strike Group").{{Cite web \|title\=Underway: 26th MEU deploys \|url\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil\-080822\-usmc01\.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|website\=globalsecurity.org}} During the deployment, the 26th MEU detached to support combat operations in Iraq and in support of anti\-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden. The 26th MEU and several other USMC units formed Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force 26 in November 2009 to support the commissioning of {{USS\|New York\|LPD\-21\|6}} in New York City, New York. In August 2010, the 26th MEU sailed with the Kearsarge Amphibious Ready Group a month early for their scheduled deployment in order to assist with disaster relief operations in Pakistan. In early March 2016, the 26th MEU took part in the [Iraq Campaign](/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 "American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)") of [Operation Inherent Resolve](/wiki/Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Operation Inherent Resolve") against ISIL. Marines deployed to northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") to set up [Firebase Bell](/wiki/Firebase_Bell "Firebase Bell") near [Makhmur](/wiki/Makhmur%2C_Iraq "Makhmur, Iraq") to support Iraqi forces in their eventual offensive to liberate [ISIL](/wiki/ISIL "ISIL")\-occupied [Mosul](/wiki/Mosul "Mosul"). On 19 March 2016, ISIS militants attacked the fire base killing 1 Marine and injuring a further 8, the following day, coalition commanders announced that it was deploying additional Marines from the 26th MEU to Iraq.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.sky.com/story/1663548/more\-us\-marines\-sent\-to\-iraq\-to\-deal\-with\-is\|title\=More US Marines Sent To Iraq To Deal With IS\|publisher\=Sky News\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/20/politics/us\-firebase\-iraq\-isis/index.html\|title\=U.S. sets up firebase in Northern Iraq\|publisher\=CNN\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/more\-marines\-headed\-iraq\-fight\-isis\-after\-rocket\-attack/82049284/\|title\=More Marines headed to Iraq to fight ISIS after rocket attack\|work\=the marine corps times\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/marines\-identify\-staff\-nco\-killed\-isis\-rocket\-attack\-iraq/82048930/\|title\=Marines identify staff NCO killed in ISIS rocket attack in Iraq\|work\=the marine corps times\|date\=20 March 2016}} ### Involvement in Operation Odyssey Dawn Beginning on 19 March 2011, the 26th MEU took part in [Operation Odyssey Dawn](/wiki/Operation_Odyssey_Dawn "Operation Odyssey Dawn") to help enforce the [Libyan no\-fly zone](/wiki/Libyan_no-fly_zone "Libyan no-fly zone"). On 22 March, two [MV\-22 Osprey](/wiki/Bell-Boeing_V-22_Osprey "Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey"), containing a payload of twenty\-five USMC Recon members as a TRAP force, and operated by the 26th MEU operating off of {{USS\|Kearsarge\|LHD\-3\|6}} recovered the pilot of a USAF [F\-15E Strike Eagle](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle "McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle") who ejected after an equipment malfunction. The [Weapons Systems Officer](/wiki/Weapons_Systems_Officer "Weapons Systems Officer") was recovered by Libyan rebels and returned to U.S. forces unharmed.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/22/libya.civil.war/index.html?hpt\=T1 \|title\= U.S. aviators rescued; Gadhafi remains defiant\|date\=23 March 2011\|publisher\=CNN\|access\-date\=2012\-12\-13}}live reporting on CNN 20110322 between 0630 and 0845 CST including interviews with [Nic Robertson](/wiki/Nic_Robertson "Nic Robertson") and [Wesley Clark](/wiki/Wesley_Clark "Wesley Clark") ### Hurricane Sandy Disaster Relief Operations [thumb\|James Amos, commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps meets with Matt St. Clair, 26th MEU's commanding officer, to discuss further plans regarding Hurricane Sandy disaster relief.](/wiki/File:Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps%2C_Gen._James_Amos_meets_with_Col._Matthew_G._St._Clair%2C_26th_MEU_commanding_officer_before_being_briefed_on_Hurricane_Sandy_relief_operations.JPG "Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen. James Amos meets with Col. Matthew G. St. Clair, 26th MEU commanding officer before being briefed on Hurricane Sandy relief operations.JPG") In November 2012, the 26th MEU self\-deployed from Camp Lejeune aboard MV\-22B Osprey to the [USS *Wasp*](/wiki/USS_Wasp_%28LHD-1%29 "USS Wasp (LHD-1)"), which was stationed in New York Bay in the aftermath of [Hurricane Sandy](/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy "Hurricane Sandy").{{Cite web \|title\=USS Wasp (LHD 1\) history \|url\=http://uscarriers.net/lhd1history.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|website\=U.S. Carriers}} There, the MEU conducted Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) operations, clearing debris, distributing food and water, and providing aid and comfort to the residents of [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island "Staten Island") and [Rockaway, Queens](/wiki/Rockaway%2C_Queens "Rockaway, Queens"). The Marines and Sailors would move ashore by helicopter or surface craft in the morning, conduct disaster relief operations during the day, and return to the ship at night to put less strain on the stressed infrastructure ashore. The MEU also deployed aboard USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\) to the U.S. Virgin Island and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard USS Iwo Jima (LHD\-7\) to Key West, Florida for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricanes Irma and Maria September through October of 2017 ### Recent Deployments and Operations at Sea From March to November of 2013, the 26th MEU deployed to the Fifth and Sixth Fleets areas of responsibility (AORs) aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\), USS San Antonio (LPD\-17\), and USS Carter Hall (LSD\-50\) with Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 3/2 as the ground combat element (GCE), Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 26 as the logistics combat element (LCE), and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 266 (Reinforced) as the aviation combat element (ACE). The MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to planning for contingency missions and acting as the nation's crisis response force in the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The MEU also participated in multiple diplomatic events with the Department of State. From August 2014 to January 2015, the 26th MEU deployed in support of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force Crisis Response Africa 14\.2\. During this time, the MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe. November of 2015 marked the start of another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs, this time aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\), USS Arlington (LPD\-24\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/6 as the GCE, CLB 26 as the LCE, and VMM 162 (Rein) as the ACE. During this deployment, the 26th MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to supporting Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In this capacity, the 26th MEU sent a detachment of Marines to Iraq to provide indirect fire support to assist Iraqi security forces in the country's fight against the Islamic State. This deployment concluded in June of 2016\. From September to October of 2017, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\) to the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\-7\) to Key West, Florida, for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria. February 2018 to August 2018 coincided with another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The 26th MEU embarked aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\-7\), USS New York (LPD\-21\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/6, CLB 26, and VMM 162 (Rein). In addition multinational and bilateral exercises, the 26th MEU also provided aviation support with to Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In December 2019, the 26th MEU deployed to 2nd, 5th, and 6th Fleet AORs aboard the USS Bataan (LHD\-5\), USS New York (LPD\-21\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/8, CLB 26, and VMM 365 (Rein). Bilateral training took place throughout the Mediterranean and Africa, and the AV\-8B Harrier detachment provided air support for Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from Isa Air Base. From January to February of 2020, the MEU participated in Exercise JOINT VIKING 21 in Norway, with elements of the MEU participating in Exercise NARVAL in Toulon, France before conducting the Carribean Urban Warrior exercise near Camp Lejeune, North Carolina with Dutch partners. This deployment ended in July 2020, shortly after the outbreak of the COVID\-19 pandemic. ### Operations ALLIES WELCOME On the 20th anniversary of 9/11, the 26th MEU rapidly deployed within 72 hours of notification in support of Operation ALLIES WELCOME at Fort Pickett, Virginia. The 26th MEU formed as Task Force Pickett and was responsible for providing security for, ensuring safety of, and managing processing of approximately 10,000 Afghan evacuees transitioning to the U.S. after attacks in Kabul following the evacuation of the U.S. Embassy in Afghanistan and concurrent withdrawal of U.S. military forces. ### 2023 MEU(SOC) Redesignation and Deployment Prior to deployment in July of 2023, the 26th MEU was designated as Special Operations Capable following an enhanced pre\-deployment training program that entered on Special Operations Forces integration, interoperability, and interdependence. This was the first time in two decades that a MEU had earned and been employed with the MEU(SOC) designation, a designation that further demonstrates the Marine Corps' ability to partner with, complement, enable, and integrate with Joint and Coalition Special Operations Forces in support of campaigns, crisis response, and deterrence. While deployed, more than 4,000 Marines and sailors supported a wide range of interoperability training, exercises, and operations within the U.S. 5th and 6th Fleet areas of operations; covering the High North, Baltic Sea, Eastern Mediterranean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea, and Middle East.{{cite web \|title\=26th MEU(SOC) Returns Home from Eight\-Month Deployment \|url\=https://www.dvidshub.net/news/465712/26th\-meusoc\-returns\-home\-eight\-month\-deployment \|website\=DVIDS \|language\=en}}{{source\-attribution}} The 26th MEU(SOC) supported operations and engagements, conducted theater security cooperation activities, participated in bilateral training with U.S. NATO allies and partners, and executed sustainment training to ensure the force was ready and postured to respond to crisis in the region. During this deployment, the 26th MEU(SOC) served as the nation's premier response force, capable of conducting amphibious operations, crisis response, and limited contingency operations, to include enabling the introductions of follow\-on forces and designated special operations, in support of theater requirements of the Geographic Combatant Commanders. The 26th MEU(SOC) was composed of Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 1/6, Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 22, and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 162 (Reinforced). The Marines and sailors of the 26th MEU(SOC) deployed aboard the flagship Wasp\-class amphibious assault ship USS Bataan (LHD 50\), the San Antonio\-class amphibious transport dock USS Mesa Verde (LPD 19\) and the Harpers Ferry\-class dock landing ship USS Carter Hall (LSD 50\).
[ "History\n-------", "### Early years", "The 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit was established on 24 April 1967 for a short mission and was quickly deactivated (as was the norm during this period) on 20 October 1967\\. During June–December 1969, the 26th MEU was reactivated as the 36th Marine Expeditionary Unit for Exercise Landing Force Caribbean 3\\-69 (LANFORCARIB 3\\-69\\).", "In 1975 the 36th Marine Amphibious Unit participated in Exercise Staff Zugel in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"). This marked the first time since [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") that the USMC took a combined arms force ashore in Germany. The unit was redesignated as the 26th Marine Amphibious Unit in 1982 and became part of the rotation cycle of three MAUs on the East Coast in 1985\\. It was the first of the MAUs to undergo [Special Operations Capable](/wiki/Marine_expeditionary_unit_%28special_operations_capable%29 \"Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable)\") training, earn the SOC qualification, and have [AV\\-8B Harriers](/wiki/AV-8B_Harrier_II \"AV-8B Harrier II\") attached. The SOC designation denotes the fact that a MEU has undergone an enhanced pre\\-deployment training program and is able to provide special operations capabilities during an upcoming deployment. In 1988 the unit was again redesignated as the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable).", "### 1990s through 2000", "In 1991 the 26TH MEU supported [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Shield \"Operation Desert Shield\") by providing a \"Show of Force\" in the Mediterranean, and participated in [Operation Sharp Edge](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Edge \"Operation Sharp Edge\"), a non\\-combatant evacuation operation of Liberia. The next year saw the 26th MEU participating in [Operation Provide Promise](/wiki/Operation_Provide_Promise \"Operation Provide Promise\"), [Operation Deny Flight](/wiki/Operation_Deny_Flight \"Operation Deny Flight\") and [Operation Sharp Guard](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Guard \"Operation Sharp Guard\") off the coast of Yugoslavia.", "In 1994 the 26th MEU participated in ceremonies marking the 50th Anniversary of the D\\-Day invasion of Normandy, France. The 26th MEU also supported [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope \"Operation Restore Hope\") off the coast of Somalia and participated in continued operations in Bosnia.", "Three years later the 26th MEU launched [Operation Silver Wake](/wiki/Operation_Silver_Wake \"Operation Silver Wake\"), evacuating U.S. citizens and foreign nationals from [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\"), and also participated in [Operation Guardian Retrieval](/wiki/Operation_Guardian_Retrieval \"Operation Guardian Retrieval\"), the staging of forces in the Congo for a possible evacuation of [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire \"Zaire\").", "In 1998 the 26th MEU served as the Headquarters for the Strategic Reserve Force during Exercise Dynamic Response in Bosnia. The SRF is a multinational force made up of forces from the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Romania, Poland, and the United States.", "The 26th MEU played a notable role in the Balkan conflict. In 1998 it participated in [Operation Determined Falcon](/wiki/Operation_Determined_Falcon \"Operation Determined Falcon\"), the one\\-day NATO aerial show\\-of\\-force in Kosovo. From April to May 1999 it took part in [Operation Noble Anvil](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Anvil \"Operation Noble Anvil\") and [Operation Shining Hope](/wiki/Operation_Shining_Hope \"Operation Shining Hope\"). While supporting Noble Anvil, NATO's bombing campaign in Kosovo, with AV\\-8B Harrier attack aircraft, the 26th ME also provided security for Kosovar refugees at Camps Hope and Eagle in Albania. From June to July 1999, it participated in [Operation Joint Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Joint_Guardian \"Operation Joint Guardian\"). As the first U.S. peacekeepers in Kosovo, the 26th MEU helped provide stability to the embattled region.", "August 1999 saw the 26th MEU taking part in [Operation Avid Response](/wiki/Operation_Avid_Response \"Operation Avid Response\"), providing Humanitarian Assistance to the people of Western Turkey left homeless by a devastating earthquake.", "The 26th MEU conducted Adriatic presence operations during the election crisis in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in September 2000\\. The 26th MEU also participated in exercises Atlas Hinge in Tunisia and Croatian Phibex 2000, the first\\-ever bilateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces. During the next two months, the 26th MEU supported diplomatic initiatives during unrest in Israel while simultaneously taking part in the NATO exercise Destined Glory 2000 and continued to break new ground through the second bi\\-lateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces, exercise Slunj 2000\\.", "### Global War on Terrorism", "[thumb\\|26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Maritime Raid Force members conduct an amphibious insertion during sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, 3 August 2013\\.](/wiki/File:Force_Recon_Marines_with_26th_MEU_conduct_amphibious_insertion_operations.JPG \"Force Recon Marines with 26th MEU conduct amphibious insertion operations.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Marines of Company K, Battalion Landing Team 3/2, 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), sprint to the gun line with their 60mm mortars during their sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, August 2013\\.](/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_with_the_26th_MEU_training_in_AFRICOM.JPG \"U.S. Marines with the 26th MEU training in AFRICOM.JPG\")", "Following the events of 11 September 2001, the 26th MEU(SOC) was among the first U.S. forces into Afghanistan as part of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\") and [Operation Swift Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Swift_Freedom \"Operation Swift Freedom\"). From December 2001 to February 2002, 26th MEU(SOC) Marines reinforced the [15th MEU](/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"15th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") who had conducted the 450 mile seizure of [Camp Rhino](/wiki/Camp_Rhino \"Camp Rhino\") in November 2001 and [Kandahar International Airport](/wiki/Kandahar_International_Airport \"Kandahar International Airport\") in December 2001\\. Both MEUs worked together and constructed a detainment facility that held more than 400 [Taliban](/wiki/Taliban \"Taliban\") and [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda \"Al Qaeda\") terrorists.", "From April to May 2003, the 26th MEU participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom by conducting operations in Erbil and Mosul, Iraq. It was inserted via [CH\\-53](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion \"CH-53E Super Stallion\") and [KC\\-130](/wiki/C-130_Hercules \"C-130 Hercules\") and conducted combat operations until relieved by the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 \"101st Airborne Division (United States)\").", "The 26th MEU served as the primary tactical unit for [Joint Task Force Liberia](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Liberia \"Joint Task Force Liberia\") during Operation Sheltering Sky from August to September 2003 in the [Second Liberian Civil War](/wiki/Second_Liberian_Civil_War \"Second Liberian Civil War\"). The MEU capitalized on its extensive training in humanitarian assistance operations and U.S. embassy relations to help bring peace to the war\\-torn nation following the [exile](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29%23Exile \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)#Exile\") of former [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia \"Liberia\") president [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)\").\nMarines and sailors from the 26th MEU conducted Operation Sea Horse from July to August 2005, supporting British\\-led [Multi\\-National Division Southeast](/wiki/Multi-National_Division_%28South-East%29_%28Iraq%29 \"Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq)\") with a mission to detect and deter illicit activity along the Iraqi border. The MEU maintained command and control of Operation Sea Horse from aboard ship in the Northern Persian Gulf, while simultaneously and concurrently conducting training missions in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\") and [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti \"Djibouti\").\nIn August 2008, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the ships of the *[Iwo Jima](/wiki/USS_Iwo_Jima_%28LHD-7%29 \"USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)\")* [Strike Group](/wiki/Expeditionary_Strike_Group \"Expeditionary Strike Group\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Underway: 26th MEU deploys \\|url\\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil\\-080822\\-usmc01\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=globalsecurity.org}} During the deployment, the 26th MEU detached to support combat operations in Iraq and in support of anti\\-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden.", "The 26th MEU and several other USMC units formed Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force 26 in November 2009 to support the commissioning of {{USS\\|New York\\|LPD\\-21\\|6}} in New York City, New York.", "In August 2010, the 26th MEU sailed with the Kearsarge Amphibious Ready Group a month early for their scheduled deployment in order to assist with disaster relief operations in Pakistan.", "In early March 2016, the 26th MEU took part in the [Iraq Campaign](/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 \"American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)\") of [Operation Inherent Resolve](/wiki/Operation_Inherent_Resolve \"Operation Inherent Resolve\") against ISIL. Marines deployed to northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") to set up [Firebase Bell](/wiki/Firebase_Bell \"Firebase Bell\") near [Makhmur](/wiki/Makhmur%2C_Iraq \"Makhmur, Iraq\") to support Iraqi forces in their eventual offensive to liberate [ISIL](/wiki/ISIL \"ISIL\")\\-occupied [Mosul](/wiki/Mosul \"Mosul\"). On 19 March 2016, ISIS militants attacked the fire base killing 1 Marine and injuring a further 8, the following day, coalition commanders announced that it was deploying additional Marines from the 26th MEU to Iraq.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.sky.com/story/1663548/more\\-us\\-marines\\-sent\\-to\\-iraq\\-to\\-deal\\-with\\-is\\|title\\=More US Marines Sent To Iraq To Deal With IS\\|publisher\\=Sky News\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/20/politics/us\\-firebase\\-iraq\\-isis/index.html\\|title\\=U.S. sets up firebase in Northern Iraq\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/more\\-marines\\-headed\\-iraq\\-fight\\-isis\\-after\\-rocket\\-attack/82049284/\\|title\\=More Marines headed to Iraq to fight ISIS after rocket attack\\|work\\=the marine corps times\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/marines\\-identify\\-staff\\-nco\\-killed\\-isis\\-rocket\\-attack\\-iraq/82048930/\\|title\\=Marines identify staff NCO killed in ISIS rocket attack in Iraq\\|work\\=the marine corps times\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}", "### Involvement in Operation Odyssey Dawn", "Beginning on 19 March 2011, the 26th MEU took part in [Operation Odyssey Dawn](/wiki/Operation_Odyssey_Dawn \"Operation Odyssey Dawn\") to help enforce the [Libyan no\\-fly zone](/wiki/Libyan_no-fly_zone \"Libyan no-fly zone\"). On 22 March, two [MV\\-22 Osprey](/wiki/Bell-Boeing_V-22_Osprey \"Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey\"), containing a payload of twenty\\-five USMC Recon members as a TRAP force, and operated by the 26th MEU operating off of {{USS\\|Kearsarge\\|LHD\\-3\\|6}} recovered the pilot of a USAF [F\\-15E Strike Eagle](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle \"McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle\") who ejected after an equipment malfunction. The [Weapons Systems Officer](/wiki/Weapons_Systems_Officer \"Weapons Systems Officer\") was recovered by Libyan rebels and returned to U.S. forces unharmed.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/22/libya.civil.war/index.html?hpt\\=T1 \\|title\\= U.S. aviators rescued; Gadhafi remains defiant\\|date\\=23 March 2011\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-13}}live reporting on CNN 20110322 between 0630 and 0845 CST including interviews with [Nic Robertson](/wiki/Nic_Robertson \"Nic Robertson\") and [Wesley Clark](/wiki/Wesley_Clark \"Wesley Clark\")", "### Hurricane Sandy Disaster Relief Operations", "[thumb\\|James Amos, commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps meets with Matt St. Clair, 26th MEU's commanding officer, to discuss further plans regarding Hurricane Sandy disaster relief.](/wiki/File:Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps%2C_Gen._James_Amos_meets_with_Col._Matthew_G._St._Clair%2C_26th_MEU_commanding_officer_before_being_briefed_on_Hurricane_Sandy_relief_operations.JPG \"Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen. James Amos meets with Col. Matthew G. St. Clair, 26th MEU commanding officer before being briefed on Hurricane Sandy relief operations.JPG\")\nIn November 2012, the 26th MEU self\\-deployed from Camp Lejeune aboard MV\\-22B Osprey to the [USS *Wasp*](/wiki/USS_Wasp_%28LHD-1%29 \"USS Wasp (LHD-1)\"), which was stationed in New York Bay in the aftermath of [Hurricane Sandy](/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy \"Hurricane Sandy\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=USS Wasp (LHD 1\\) history \\|url\\=http://uscarriers.net/lhd1history.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=U.S. Carriers}} There, the MEU conducted Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) operations, clearing debris, distributing food and water, and providing aid and comfort to the residents of [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island \"Staten Island\") and [Rockaway, Queens](/wiki/Rockaway%2C_Queens \"Rockaway, Queens\"). The Marines and Sailors would move ashore by helicopter or surface craft in the morning, conduct disaster relief operations during the day, and return to the ship at night to put less strain on the stressed infrastructure ashore.", "The MEU also deployed aboard USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\) to the U.S. Virgin Island and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard USS Iwo Jima (LHD\\-7\\) to Key West, Florida for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricanes Irma and Maria September through October of 2017", "### Recent Deployments and Operations at Sea", "From March to November of 2013, the 26th MEU deployed to the Fifth and Sixth Fleets areas of responsibility (AORs) aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\), USS San Antonio (LPD\\-17\\), and USS Carter Hall (LSD\\-50\\) with Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 3/2 as the ground combat element (GCE), Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 26 as the logistics combat element (LCE), and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 266 (Reinforced) as the aviation combat element (ACE). The MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to planning for contingency missions and acting as the nation's crisis response force in the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The MEU also participated in multiple diplomatic events with the Department of State.", "From August 2014 to January 2015, the 26th MEU deployed in support of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force Crisis Response Africa 14\\.2\\. During this time, the MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe.", "November of 2015 marked the start of another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs, this time aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\), USS Arlington (LPD\\-24\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/6 as the GCE, CLB 26 as the LCE, and VMM 162 (Rein) as the ACE. During this deployment, the 26th MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to supporting Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In this capacity, the 26th MEU sent a detachment of Marines to Iraq to provide indirect fire support to assist Iraqi security forces in the country's fight against the Islamic State. This deployment concluded in June of 2016\\.", "From September to October of 2017, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\) to the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\\-7\\) to Key West, Florida, for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria.", "February 2018 to August 2018 coincided with another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The 26th MEU embarked aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\\-7\\), USS New York (LPD\\-21\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/6, CLB 26, and VMM 162 (Rein). In addition multinational and bilateral exercises, the 26th MEU also provided aviation support with to Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq.", "In December 2019, the 26th MEU deployed to 2nd, 5th, and 6th Fleet AORs aboard the USS Bataan (LHD\\-5\\), USS New York (LPD\\-21\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/8, CLB 26, and VMM 365 (Rein). Bilateral training took place throughout the Mediterranean and Africa, and the AV\\-8B Harrier detachment provided air support for Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from Isa Air Base. From January to February of 2020, the MEU participated in Exercise JOINT VIKING 21 in Norway, with elements of the MEU participating in Exercise NARVAL in Toulon, France before conducting the Carribean Urban Warrior exercise near Camp Lejeune, North Carolina with Dutch partners. This deployment ended in July 2020, shortly after the outbreak of the COVID\\-19 pandemic.", "### Operations ALLIES WELCOME", "On the 20th anniversary of 9/11, the 26th MEU rapidly deployed within 72 hours of notification in support of Operation ALLIES WELCOME at Fort Pickett, Virginia. The 26th MEU formed as Task Force Pickett and was responsible for providing security for, ensuring safety of, and managing processing of approximately 10,000 Afghan evacuees transitioning to the U.S. after attacks in Kabul following the evacuation of the U.S. Embassy in Afghanistan and concurrent withdrawal of U.S. military forces.", "### 2023 MEU(SOC) Redesignation and Deployment", "Prior to deployment in July of 2023, the 26th MEU was designated as Special Operations Capable following an enhanced pre\\-deployment training program that entered on Special Operations Forces integration, interoperability, and interdependence. This was the first time in two decades that a MEU had earned and been employed with the MEU(SOC) designation, a designation that further demonstrates the Marine Corps' ability to partner with, complement, enable, and integrate with Joint and Coalition Special Operations Forces in support of campaigns, crisis response, and deterrence.", "While deployed, more than 4,000 Marines and sailors supported a wide range of interoperability training, exercises, and operations within the U.S. 5th and 6th Fleet areas of operations; covering the High North, Baltic Sea, Eastern Mediterranean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea, and Middle East.{{cite web \\|title\\=26th MEU(SOC) Returns Home from Eight\\-Month Deployment \\|url\\=https://www.dvidshub.net/news/465712/26th\\-meusoc\\-returns\\-home\\-eight\\-month\\-deployment \\|website\\=DVIDS \\|language\\=en}}{{source\\-attribution}}", "The 26th MEU(SOC) supported operations and engagements, conducted theater security cooperation activities, participated in bilateral training with U.S. NATO allies and partners, and executed sustainment training to ensure the force was ready and postured to respond to crisis in the region. During this deployment, the 26th MEU(SOC) served as the nation's premier response force, capable of conducting amphibious operations, crisis response, and limited contingency operations, to include enabling the introductions of follow\\-on forces and designated special operations, in support of theater requirements of the Geographic Combatant Commanders.", "The 26th MEU(SOC) was composed of Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 1/6, Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 22, and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 162 (Reinforced). The Marines and sailors of the 26th MEU(SOC) deployed aboard the flagship Wasp\\-class amphibious assault ship USS Bataan (LHD 50\\), the San Antonio\\-class amphibious transport dock USS Mesa Verde (LPD 19\\) and the Harpers Ferry\\-class dock landing ship USS Carter Hall (LSD 50\\).", "" ]
### 1990s through 2000 In 1991 the 26TH MEU supported [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Shield "Operation Desert Shield") by providing a "Show of Force" in the Mediterranean, and participated in [Operation Sharp Edge](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Edge "Operation Sharp Edge"), a non\-combatant evacuation operation of Liberia. The next year saw the 26th MEU participating in [Operation Provide Promise](/wiki/Operation_Provide_Promise "Operation Provide Promise"), [Operation Deny Flight](/wiki/Operation_Deny_Flight "Operation Deny Flight") and [Operation Sharp Guard](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Guard "Operation Sharp Guard") off the coast of Yugoslavia. In 1994 the 26th MEU participated in ceremonies marking the 50th Anniversary of the D\-Day invasion of Normandy, France. The 26th MEU also supported [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope "Operation Restore Hope") off the coast of Somalia and participated in continued operations in Bosnia. Three years later the 26th MEU launched [Operation Silver Wake](/wiki/Operation_Silver_Wake "Operation Silver Wake"), evacuating U.S. citizens and foreign nationals from [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania"), and also participated in [Operation Guardian Retrieval](/wiki/Operation_Guardian_Retrieval "Operation Guardian Retrieval"), the staging of forces in the Congo for a possible evacuation of [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire "Zaire"). In 1998 the 26th MEU served as the Headquarters for the Strategic Reserve Force during Exercise Dynamic Response in Bosnia. The SRF is a multinational force made up of forces from the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Romania, Poland, and the United States. The 26th MEU played a notable role in the Balkan conflict. In 1998 it participated in [Operation Determined Falcon](/wiki/Operation_Determined_Falcon "Operation Determined Falcon"), the one\-day NATO aerial show\-of\-force in Kosovo. From April to May 1999 it took part in [Operation Noble Anvil](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Anvil "Operation Noble Anvil") and [Operation Shining Hope](/wiki/Operation_Shining_Hope "Operation Shining Hope"). While supporting Noble Anvil, NATO's bombing campaign in Kosovo, with AV\-8B Harrier attack aircraft, the 26th ME also provided security for Kosovar refugees at Camps Hope and Eagle in Albania. From June to July 1999, it participated in [Operation Joint Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Joint_Guardian "Operation Joint Guardian"). As the first U.S. peacekeepers in Kosovo, the 26th MEU helped provide stability to the embattled region. August 1999 saw the 26th MEU taking part in [Operation Avid Response](/wiki/Operation_Avid_Response "Operation Avid Response"), providing Humanitarian Assistance to the people of Western Turkey left homeless by a devastating earthquake. The 26th MEU conducted Adriatic presence operations during the election crisis in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in September 2000\. The 26th MEU also participated in exercises Atlas Hinge in Tunisia and Croatian Phibex 2000, the first\-ever bilateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces. During the next two months, the 26th MEU supported diplomatic initiatives during unrest in Israel while simultaneously taking part in the NATO exercise Destined Glory 2000 and continued to break new ground through the second bi\-lateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces, exercise Slunj 2000\.
[ "### 1990s through 2000", "In 1991 the 26TH MEU supported [Operation Desert Shield](/wiki/Operation_Desert_Shield \"Operation Desert Shield\") by providing a \"Show of Force\" in the Mediterranean, and participated in [Operation Sharp Edge](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Edge \"Operation Sharp Edge\"), a non\\-combatant evacuation operation of Liberia. The next year saw the 26th MEU participating in [Operation Provide Promise](/wiki/Operation_Provide_Promise \"Operation Provide Promise\"), [Operation Deny Flight](/wiki/Operation_Deny_Flight \"Operation Deny Flight\") and [Operation Sharp Guard](/wiki/Operation_Sharp_Guard \"Operation Sharp Guard\") off the coast of Yugoslavia.", "In 1994 the 26th MEU participated in ceremonies marking the 50th Anniversary of the D\\-Day invasion of Normandy, France. The 26th MEU also supported [Operation Restore Hope](/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope \"Operation Restore Hope\") off the coast of Somalia and participated in continued operations in Bosnia.", "Three years later the 26th MEU launched [Operation Silver Wake](/wiki/Operation_Silver_Wake \"Operation Silver Wake\"), evacuating U.S. citizens and foreign nationals from [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\"), and also participated in [Operation Guardian Retrieval](/wiki/Operation_Guardian_Retrieval \"Operation Guardian Retrieval\"), the staging of forces in the Congo for a possible evacuation of [Zaire](/wiki/Zaire \"Zaire\").", "In 1998 the 26th MEU served as the Headquarters for the Strategic Reserve Force during Exercise Dynamic Response in Bosnia. The SRF is a multinational force made up of forces from the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Romania, Poland, and the United States.", "The 26th MEU played a notable role in the Balkan conflict. In 1998 it participated in [Operation Determined Falcon](/wiki/Operation_Determined_Falcon \"Operation Determined Falcon\"), the one\\-day NATO aerial show\\-of\\-force in Kosovo. From April to May 1999 it took part in [Operation Noble Anvil](/wiki/Operation_Noble_Anvil \"Operation Noble Anvil\") and [Operation Shining Hope](/wiki/Operation_Shining_Hope \"Operation Shining Hope\"). While supporting Noble Anvil, NATO's bombing campaign in Kosovo, with AV\\-8B Harrier attack aircraft, the 26th ME also provided security for Kosovar refugees at Camps Hope and Eagle in Albania. From June to July 1999, it participated in [Operation Joint Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Joint_Guardian \"Operation Joint Guardian\"). As the first U.S. peacekeepers in Kosovo, the 26th MEU helped provide stability to the embattled region.", "August 1999 saw the 26th MEU taking part in [Operation Avid Response](/wiki/Operation_Avid_Response \"Operation Avid Response\"), providing Humanitarian Assistance to the people of Western Turkey left homeless by a devastating earthquake.", "The 26th MEU conducted Adriatic presence operations during the election crisis in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in September 2000\\. The 26th MEU also participated in exercises Atlas Hinge in Tunisia and Croatian Phibex 2000, the first\\-ever bilateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces. During the next two months, the 26th MEU supported diplomatic initiatives during unrest in Israel while simultaneously taking part in the NATO exercise Destined Glory 2000 and continued to break new ground through the second bi\\-lateral exercise between the Marine Corps and the Croatian Armed Forces, exercise Slunj 2000\\.", "" ]
### Global War on Terrorism [thumb\|26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Maritime Raid Force members conduct an amphibious insertion during sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, 3 August 2013\.](/wiki/File:Force_Recon_Marines_with_26th_MEU_conduct_amphibious_insertion_operations.JPG "Force Recon Marines with 26th MEU conduct amphibious insertion operations.JPG") [thumb\|Marines of Company K, Battalion Landing Team 3/2, 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), sprint to the gun line with their 60mm mortars during their sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, August 2013\.](/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_with_the_26th_MEU_training_in_AFRICOM.JPG "U.S. Marines with the 26th MEU training in AFRICOM.JPG") Following the events of 11 September 2001, the 26th MEU(SOC) was among the first U.S. forces into Afghanistan as part of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom") and [Operation Swift Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Swift_Freedom "Operation Swift Freedom"). From December 2001 to February 2002, 26th MEU(SOC) Marines reinforced the [15th MEU](/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit "15th Marine Expeditionary Unit") who had conducted the 450 mile seizure of [Camp Rhino](/wiki/Camp_Rhino "Camp Rhino") in November 2001 and [Kandahar International Airport](/wiki/Kandahar_International_Airport "Kandahar International Airport") in December 2001\. Both MEUs worked together and constructed a detainment facility that held more than 400 [Taliban](/wiki/Taliban "Taliban") and [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda "Al Qaeda") terrorists. From April to May 2003, the 26th MEU participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom by conducting operations in Erbil and Mosul, Iraq. It was inserted via [CH\-53](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion "CH-53E Super Stallion") and [KC\-130](/wiki/C-130_Hercules "C-130 Hercules") and conducted combat operations until relieved by the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 "101st Airborne Division (United States)"). The 26th MEU served as the primary tactical unit for [Joint Task Force Liberia](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Liberia "Joint Task Force Liberia") during Operation Sheltering Sky from August to September 2003 in the [Second Liberian Civil War](/wiki/Second_Liberian_Civil_War "Second Liberian Civil War"). The MEU capitalized on its extensive training in humanitarian assistance operations and U.S. embassy relations to help bring peace to the war\-torn nation following the [exile](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29%23Exile "Charles Taylor (Liberia)#Exile") of former [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia "Liberia") president [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 "Charles Taylor (Liberia)"). Marines and sailors from the 26th MEU conducted Operation Sea Horse from July to August 2005, supporting British\-led [Multi\-National Division Southeast](/wiki/Multi-National_Division_%28South-East%29_%28Iraq%29 "Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq)") with a mission to detect and deter illicit activity along the Iraqi border. The MEU maintained command and control of Operation Sea Horse from aboard ship in the Northern Persian Gulf, while simultaneously and concurrently conducting training missions in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") and [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti"). In August 2008, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the ships of the *[Iwo Jima](/wiki/USS_Iwo_Jima_%28LHD-7%29 "USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)")* [Strike Group](/wiki/Expeditionary_Strike_Group "Expeditionary Strike Group").{{Cite web \|title\=Underway: 26th MEU deploys \|url\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil\-080822\-usmc01\.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-18 \|website\=globalsecurity.org}} During the deployment, the 26th MEU detached to support combat operations in Iraq and in support of anti\-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden. The 26th MEU and several other USMC units formed Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force 26 in November 2009 to support the commissioning of {{USS\|New York\|LPD\-21\|6}} in New York City, New York. In August 2010, the 26th MEU sailed with the Kearsarge Amphibious Ready Group a month early for their scheduled deployment in order to assist with disaster relief operations in Pakistan. In early March 2016, the 26th MEU took part in the [Iraq Campaign](/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 "American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)") of [Operation Inherent Resolve](/wiki/Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Operation Inherent Resolve") against ISIL. Marines deployed to northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") to set up [Firebase Bell](/wiki/Firebase_Bell "Firebase Bell") near [Makhmur](/wiki/Makhmur%2C_Iraq "Makhmur, Iraq") to support Iraqi forces in their eventual offensive to liberate [ISIL](/wiki/ISIL "ISIL")\-occupied [Mosul](/wiki/Mosul "Mosul"). On 19 March 2016, ISIS militants attacked the fire base killing 1 Marine and injuring a further 8, the following day, coalition commanders announced that it was deploying additional Marines from the 26th MEU to Iraq.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.sky.com/story/1663548/more\-us\-marines\-sent\-to\-iraq\-to\-deal\-with\-is\|title\=More US Marines Sent To Iraq To Deal With IS\|publisher\=Sky News\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/20/politics/us\-firebase\-iraq\-isis/index.html\|title\=U.S. sets up firebase in Northern Iraq\|publisher\=CNN\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/more\-marines\-headed\-iraq\-fight\-isis\-after\-rocket\-attack/82049284/\|title\=More Marines headed to Iraq to fight ISIS after rocket attack\|work\=the marine corps times\|date\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/marines\-identify\-staff\-nco\-killed\-isis\-rocket\-attack\-iraq/82048930/\|title\=Marines identify staff NCO killed in ISIS rocket attack in Iraq\|work\=the marine corps times\|date\=20 March 2016}}
[ "### Global War on Terrorism", "[thumb\\|26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Maritime Raid Force members conduct an amphibious insertion during sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, 3 August 2013\\.](/wiki/File:Force_Recon_Marines_with_26th_MEU_conduct_amphibious_insertion_operations.JPG \"Force Recon Marines with 26th MEU conduct amphibious insertion operations.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Marines of Company K, Battalion Landing Team 3/2, 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), sprint to the gun line with their 60mm mortars during their sustainment training in the U.S. 6th Fleet area of responsibility, August 2013\\.](/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_with_the_26th_MEU_training_in_AFRICOM.JPG \"U.S. Marines with the 26th MEU training in AFRICOM.JPG\")", "Following the events of 11 September 2001, the 26th MEU(SOC) was among the first U.S. forces into Afghanistan as part of [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\") and [Operation Swift Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Swift_Freedom \"Operation Swift Freedom\"). From December 2001 to February 2002, 26th MEU(SOC) Marines reinforced the [15th MEU](/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit \"15th Marine Expeditionary Unit\") who had conducted the 450 mile seizure of [Camp Rhino](/wiki/Camp_Rhino \"Camp Rhino\") in November 2001 and [Kandahar International Airport](/wiki/Kandahar_International_Airport \"Kandahar International Airport\") in December 2001\\. Both MEUs worked together and constructed a detainment facility that held more than 400 [Taliban](/wiki/Taliban \"Taliban\") and [Al Qaeda](/wiki/Al_Qaeda \"Al Qaeda\") terrorists.", "From April to May 2003, the 26th MEU participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom by conducting operations in Erbil and Mosul, Iraq. It was inserted via [CH\\-53](/wiki/CH-53E_Super_Stallion \"CH-53E Super Stallion\") and [KC\\-130](/wiki/C-130_Hercules \"C-130 Hercules\") and conducted combat operations until relieved by the [101st Airborne Division](/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division_%28United_States%29 \"101st Airborne Division (United States)\").", "The 26th MEU served as the primary tactical unit for [Joint Task Force Liberia](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force_Liberia \"Joint Task Force Liberia\") during Operation Sheltering Sky from August to September 2003 in the [Second Liberian Civil War](/wiki/Second_Liberian_Civil_War \"Second Liberian Civil War\"). The MEU capitalized on its extensive training in humanitarian assistance operations and U.S. embassy relations to help bring peace to the war\\-torn nation following the [exile](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29%23Exile \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)#Exile\") of former [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia \"Liberia\") president [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)\").\nMarines and sailors from the 26th MEU conducted Operation Sea Horse from July to August 2005, supporting British\\-led [Multi\\-National Division Southeast](/wiki/Multi-National_Division_%28South-East%29_%28Iraq%29 \"Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq)\") with a mission to detect and deter illicit activity along the Iraqi border. The MEU maintained command and control of Operation Sea Horse from aboard ship in the Northern Persian Gulf, while simultaneously and concurrently conducting training missions in [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\") and [Djibouti](/wiki/Djibouti \"Djibouti\").\nIn August 2008, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the ships of the *[Iwo Jima](/wiki/USS_Iwo_Jima_%28LHD-7%29 \"USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)\")* [Strike Group](/wiki/Expeditionary_Strike_Group \"Expeditionary Strike Group\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Underway: 26th MEU deploys \\|url\\=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil\\-080822\\-usmc01\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=globalsecurity.org}} During the deployment, the 26th MEU detached to support combat operations in Iraq and in support of anti\\-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden.", "The 26th MEU and several other USMC units formed Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force 26 in November 2009 to support the commissioning of {{USS\\|New York\\|LPD\\-21\\|6}} in New York City, New York.", "In August 2010, the 26th MEU sailed with the Kearsarge Amphibious Ready Group a month early for their scheduled deployment in order to assist with disaster relief operations in Pakistan.", "In early March 2016, the 26th MEU took part in the [Iraq Campaign](/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 \"American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)\") of [Operation Inherent Resolve](/wiki/Operation_Inherent_Resolve \"Operation Inherent Resolve\") against ISIL. Marines deployed to northern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") to set up [Firebase Bell](/wiki/Firebase_Bell \"Firebase Bell\") near [Makhmur](/wiki/Makhmur%2C_Iraq \"Makhmur, Iraq\") to support Iraqi forces in their eventual offensive to liberate [ISIL](/wiki/ISIL \"ISIL\")\\-occupied [Mosul](/wiki/Mosul \"Mosul\"). On 19 March 2016, ISIS militants attacked the fire base killing 1 Marine and injuring a further 8, the following day, coalition commanders announced that it was deploying additional Marines from the 26th MEU to Iraq.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.sky.com/story/1663548/more\\-us\\-marines\\-sent\\-to\\-iraq\\-to\\-deal\\-with\\-is\\|title\\=More US Marines Sent To Iraq To Deal With IS\\|publisher\\=Sky News\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/20/politics/us\\-firebase\\-iraq\\-isis/index.html\\|title\\=U.S. sets up firebase in Northern Iraq\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/more\\-marines\\-headed\\-iraq\\-fight\\-isis\\-after\\-rocket\\-attack/82049284/\\|title\\=More Marines headed to Iraq to fight ISIS after rocket attack\\|work\\=the marine corps times\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2016/03/20/marines\\-identify\\-staff\\-nco\\-killed\\-isis\\-rocket\\-attack\\-iraq/82048930/\\|title\\=Marines identify staff NCO killed in ISIS rocket attack in Iraq\\|work\\=the marine corps times\\|date\\=20 March 2016}}", "" ]
### Recent Deployments and Operations at Sea From March to November of 2013, the 26th MEU deployed to the Fifth and Sixth Fleets areas of responsibility (AORs) aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\), USS San Antonio (LPD\-17\), and USS Carter Hall (LSD\-50\) with Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 3/2 as the ground combat element (GCE), Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 26 as the logistics combat element (LCE), and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 266 (Reinforced) as the aviation combat element (ACE). The MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to planning for contingency missions and acting as the nation's crisis response force in the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The MEU also participated in multiple diplomatic events with the Department of State. From August 2014 to January 2015, the 26th MEU deployed in support of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force Crisis Response Africa 14\.2\. During this time, the MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe. November of 2015 marked the start of another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs, this time aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\), USS Arlington (LPD\-24\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/6 as the GCE, CLB 26 as the LCE, and VMM 162 (Rein) as the ACE. During this deployment, the 26th MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to supporting Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In this capacity, the 26th MEU sent a detachment of Marines to Iraq to provide indirect fire support to assist Iraqi security forces in the country's fight against the Islamic State. This deployment concluded in June of 2016\. From September to October of 2017, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\-3\) to the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\-7\) to Key West, Florida, for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria. February 2018 to August 2018 coincided with another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The 26th MEU embarked aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\-7\), USS New York (LPD\-21\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/6, CLB 26, and VMM 162 (Rein). In addition multinational and bilateral exercises, the 26th MEU also provided aviation support with to Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In December 2019, the 26th MEU deployed to 2nd, 5th, and 6th Fleet AORs aboard the USS Bataan (LHD\-5\), USS New York (LPD\-21\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\-51\) with BLT 2/8, CLB 26, and VMM 365 (Rein). Bilateral training took place throughout the Mediterranean and Africa, and the AV\-8B Harrier detachment provided air support for Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from Isa Air Base. From January to February of 2020, the MEU participated in Exercise JOINT VIKING 21 in Norway, with elements of the MEU participating in Exercise NARVAL in Toulon, France before conducting the Carribean Urban Warrior exercise near Camp Lejeune, North Carolina with Dutch partners. This deployment ended in July 2020, shortly after the outbreak of the COVID\-19 pandemic.
[ "### Recent Deployments and Operations at Sea", "From March to November of 2013, the 26th MEU deployed to the Fifth and Sixth Fleets areas of responsibility (AORs) aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\), USS San Antonio (LPD\\-17\\), and USS Carter Hall (LSD\\-50\\) with Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 3/2 as the ground combat element (GCE), Combat Logistics Battalion (CLB) 26 as the logistics combat element (LCE), and Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM) 266 (Reinforced) as the aviation combat element (ACE). The MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to planning for contingency missions and acting as the nation's crisis response force in the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The MEU also participated in multiple diplomatic events with the Department of State.", "From August 2014 to January 2015, the 26th MEU deployed in support of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force Crisis Response Africa 14\\.2\\. During this time, the MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe.", "November of 2015 marked the start of another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs, this time aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\), USS Arlington (LPD\\-24\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/6 as the GCE, CLB 26 as the LCE, and VMM 162 (Rein) as the ACE. During this deployment, the 26th MEU participated in various multinational and bilateral exercises throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to supporting Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq. In this capacity, the 26th MEU sent a detachment of Marines to Iraq to provide indirect fire support to assist Iraqi security forces in the country's fight against the Islamic State. This deployment concluded in June of 2016\\.", "From September to October of 2017, the 26th MEU deployed aboard the USS Kearsarge (LHD\\-3\\) to the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, as well as aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\\-7\\) to Key West, Florida, for Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA) relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria.", "February 2018 to August 2018 coincided with another deployment to the 5th and 6th Fleet AORs. The 26th MEU embarked aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD\\-7\\), USS New York (LPD\\-21\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/6, CLB 26, and VMM 162 (Rein). In addition multinational and bilateral exercises, the 26th MEU also provided aviation support with to Operation INHERENT RESOLVE in Iraq.", "In December 2019, the 26th MEU deployed to 2nd, 5th, and 6th Fleet AORs aboard the USS Bataan (LHD\\-5\\), USS New York (LPD\\-21\\), and USS Oak Hill (LSD\\-51\\) with BLT 2/8, CLB 26, and VMM 365 (Rein). Bilateral training took place throughout the Mediterranean and Africa, and the AV\\-8B Harrier detachment provided air support for Operation INHERENT RESOLVE from Isa Air Base. From January to February of 2020, the MEU participated in Exercise JOINT VIKING 21 in Norway, with elements of the MEU participating in Exercise NARVAL in Toulon, France before conducting the Carribean Urban Warrior exercise near Camp Lejeune, North Carolina with Dutch partners. This deployment ended in July 2020, shortly after the outbreak of the COVID\\-19 pandemic.", "" ]
Biography --------- Tauro was born in [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts "Lynn, Massachusetts") to an [Italian](/wiki/Italy "Italy") immigrant cobbler and his wife. He graduated from Lynn public schools and attended [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University")'s College of Business Administration for a year before switching to [its law school](/wiki/Boston_University_School_of_Law "Boston University School of Law"). He received his law degree in 1927\. Admitted to the bar that year, he practiced in Lynn until 1961, when he became an associate Superior Court justice. Tauro's 1961 appointment was made by his longtime friend and business associate, Governor [John A. Volpe](/wiki/John_A._Volpe "John A. Volpe"). A practicing attorney in Lynn, Tauro had for many years been general counsel and a director for Volpe Construction Co. At the time of his appointment to a judgeship, he was the newly elected governor's legal counsel at the [State House](/wiki/Massachusetts_State_House "Massachusetts State House"). The next year, Judge Tauro became chief justice of the Superior Court. A short, compact man with dark brown eyes, a brush mustache, and wavy, snow white hair, he was noted during his years on the bench for his competence, courtesy, diligence, and preparation. Aware of the caseloads crushing Supreme Judicial Court (SJC) justices, he had advocated establishment of an intermediate appellate court to permit the high court to concentrate on cases of broad social impact. Within two years of his 1970 appointment by Governor [Francis W. Sargent](/wiki/Francis_W._Sargent "Francis W. Sargent") to the position of Chief Justice, Judge Tauro brought the project to fruition and the Appeals Court was established. He also worked to modernize state civil law and he wrote many decisions now considered landmarks in a variety of fields \- contracts, torts, real property, corporations, governmental regulations and environmental protection. Tauro was the first [Italian American](/wiki/Italian_American "Italian American") and [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") to hold the position of Chief Justice of the SJC. During his fourteen years on the bench, he made more than one landmark decision, including one that effectively abolished the death penalty in Massachusetts. "The state should not be in the business of taking lives," he said. The only person to serve as chief justice of both the Supreme Judicial Court and the Superior Court, he also became, upon his retirement in 1976, the first Chief Justice in the Supreme Judicial Court's long history to retire at age 70 in accordance with the 98th Amendment to the [Massachusetts Constitution](/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution "Massachusetts Constitution"), adopted in 1972\. A resident of [Swampscott](/wiki/Swampscott%2C_Massachusetts "Swampscott, Massachusetts"), he died at Salem Hospital. He was survived by his wife of 64 years, Helen M. (*née* Petrossi); a son, Judge [Joseph Louis Tauro](/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Tauro "Joseph Louis Tauro"); two brothers, Arthur L. and Raymond; and a sister, Celia Tricca. He is predeceased by his brother Dr. Antonio Tauro and his sister Carol A. Gioacchini.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Tauro was born in [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts \"Lynn, Massachusetts\") to an [Italian](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") immigrant cobbler and his wife. He graduated from Lynn public schools and attended [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\")'s College of Business Administration for a year before switching to [its law school](/wiki/Boston_University_School_of_Law \"Boston University School of Law\"). He received his law degree in 1927\\. Admitted to the bar that year, he practiced in Lynn until 1961, when he became an associate Superior Court justice.", "Tauro's 1961 appointment was made by his longtime friend and business associate, Governor [John A. Volpe](/wiki/John_A._Volpe \"John A. Volpe\"). A practicing attorney in Lynn, Tauro had for many years been general counsel and a director for Volpe Construction Co. At the time of his appointment to a judgeship, he was the newly elected governor's legal counsel at the [State House](/wiki/Massachusetts_State_House \"Massachusetts State House\"). The next year, Judge Tauro became chief justice of the Superior Court.", "A short, compact man with dark brown eyes, a brush mustache, and wavy, snow white hair, he was noted during his years on the bench for his competence, courtesy, diligence, and preparation.", "Aware of the caseloads crushing Supreme Judicial Court (SJC) justices, he had advocated establishment of an intermediate appellate court to permit the high court to concentrate on cases of broad social impact. Within two years of his 1970 appointment by Governor [Francis W. Sargent](/wiki/Francis_W._Sargent \"Francis W. Sargent\") to the position of Chief Justice, Judge Tauro brought the project to fruition and the Appeals Court was established. He also worked to modernize state civil law and he wrote many decisions now considered landmarks in a variety of fields \\- contracts, torts, real property, corporations, governmental regulations and environmental protection.", "Tauro was the first [Italian American](/wiki/Italian_American \"Italian American\") and [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") to hold the position of Chief Justice of the SJC.", "During his fourteen years on the bench, he made more than one landmark decision, including one that effectively abolished the death penalty in Massachusetts. \"The state should not be in the business of taking lives,\" he said.", "The only person to serve as chief justice of both the Supreme Judicial Court and the Superior Court, he also became, upon his retirement in 1976, the first Chief Justice in the Supreme Judicial Court's long history to retire at age 70 in accordance with the 98th Amendment to the [Massachusetts Constitution](/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution \"Massachusetts Constitution\"), adopted in 1972\\.", "A resident of [Swampscott](/wiki/Swampscott%2C_Massachusetts \"Swampscott, Massachusetts\"), he died at Salem Hospital. He was survived by his wife of 64 years, Helen M. (*née* Petrossi); a son, Judge [Joseph Louis Tauro](/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Tauro \"Joseph Louis Tauro\"); two brothers, Arthur L. and Raymond; and a sister, Celia Tricca. He is predeceased by his brother Dr. Antonio Tauro and his sister Carol A. Gioacchini.", "" ]
History ------- The first major U.S. warship built after the construction boom of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), *Norfolk* was designed beginning in 1945, designated project [SCB 1](/wiki/Ship_Characteristics_Board "Ship Characteristics Board") in 1946, and authorized in 1947 as **CLK\-1**, an anti\-submarine hunter killer ship which could operate under all weather conditions and would carry the latest [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar"), [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar"), and other electronic devices. She was designed on a [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser "Light cruiser") hull so she could carry a greater variety of detection gear than a [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer").Friedman, pp 255\-258 She was laid down 1 September 1949 by the [New York Shipbuilding Corporation](/wiki/New_York_Shipbuilding_Corporation "New York Shipbuilding Corporation"), [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey "Camden, New Jersey"), launched 29 December 1951 with the destroyer leader reclassification **DL\-1**, sponsored by Miss [Betty King Duckworth](/wiki/Betty_King_Duckworth "Betty King Duckworth"), and commissioned 4 March 1953, Capt. [Clarence Matheson Bowley](/wiki/Clarence_Matheson_Bowley "Clarence Matheson Bowley") in command. After her Caribbean [shakedown cruise](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") (February 1954\), *Norfolk* was assigned to the [U.S. Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet "U.S. Atlantic Fleet") and between 1955 and 1957 served successively as [flagship](/wiki/Flagship "Flagship") for Commander Destroyer Flotillas 2, 4, and 6\. During 1956 and 1957 she acted as flagship for Commander Destroyer Force, Atlantic Fleet. In June 1957, *Norfolk* participated in the International Fleet Review as flagship for Admiral [Jerauld Wright](/wiki/Jerauld_Wright "Jerauld Wright"), Commander\-in\-Chief Atlantic Fleet and [Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Atlantic "Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic") for NATO. A boiler on the ship blew up in late 1955\. By 1959 *Norfolk*{{'}}s eight [3 inch/50 caliber](/wiki/3%22/50_caliber_gun "3") guns had been replaced by eight [3 inch/70 caliber](/wiki/3%22/70_Mark_26_gun "3") guns and her [20 mm](/wiki/Oerlikon_20_mm_cannon "Oerlikon 20 mm cannon") battery had been removed. In 1960 the addition of an [ASROC](/wiki/ASROC "ASROC") launcher enhanced her antisubmarine capabilities. On 10 May 1960, an 83\-foot Cuban vessel harassed *Norfolk* while she was patrolling the [Florida Straits](/wiki/Florida_Straits "Florida Straits") with {{USS\|The Sullivans\|DD\-537\|2}} in Cuban waters. In Fall 1961 she took part in [UNITAS II](/wiki/UNITAS_II "UNITAS II") as flagship for Commander Cruiser Destroyer Flotilla 2\. During the operation she performed [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") training exercises with the navies of [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay"), and [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"). *Norfolk* repeated this cruise over the next five years during which she served as flagship of Commander South Atlantic Forces except in 1962 when she was flagship for Commander Cruiser Destroyer Forces Atlantic Fleet. In 1965 she was the flagship for UNITAS VI. *Norfolk* joined [LANTFLEX 66](/wiki/LANTFLEX_66 "LANTFLEX 66") as flagship between 28 November and 16 December 1966\. During this exercise she shadowed the Russian [trawlers](/wiki/Commercial_trawler "Commercial trawler") *Repiter* and *Teodilit*. She proved her antisubmarine capabilities again as flagship for Commander South Atlantic Forces during [UNITAS VIII](/wiki/UNITAS_VIII "UNITAS VIII") in Fall 1967\. *Norfolk* was assigned to Commander [Middle East Force](/wiki/Middle_East_Force "Middle East Force") as flagship (17 April–15 October 1968\). On this mission she visited Bahrain, French Somaliland, Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia. Kenya, the Seychelles, Mauritius, Malagasy Republic, India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Mexico, and Panama Canal Zone. In October 1968 *Norfolk* returned to Norfolk where she decommissioned 15 January 1970 and entered the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet "Atlantic Reserve Fleet"). By 1 September 1974, *Norfolk* was stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") and sold for scrap.{{cite web \|url\={{Naval Vessel Register URL\|id\=DL1}} \|title\= Naval Vessel Register DL1 \|access\-date\= 2008\-02\-23}}
[ "History\n-------", "The first major U.S. warship built after the construction boom of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), *Norfolk* was designed beginning in 1945, designated project [SCB 1](/wiki/Ship_Characteristics_Board \"Ship Characteristics Board\") in 1946, and authorized in 1947 as **CLK\\-1**, an anti\\-submarine hunter killer ship which could operate under all weather conditions and would carry the latest [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\"), [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\"), and other electronic devices. She was designed on a [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser \"Light cruiser\") hull so she could carry a greater variety of detection gear than a [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\").Friedman, pp 255\\-258", "She was laid down 1 September 1949 by the [New York Shipbuilding Corporation](/wiki/New_York_Shipbuilding_Corporation \"New York Shipbuilding Corporation\"), [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey \"Camden, New Jersey\"), launched 29 December 1951 with the destroyer leader reclassification **DL\\-1**, sponsored by Miss [Betty King Duckworth](/wiki/Betty_King_Duckworth \"Betty King Duckworth\"), and commissioned 4 March 1953, Capt. [Clarence Matheson Bowley](/wiki/Clarence_Matheson_Bowley \"Clarence Matheson Bowley\") in command.", "After her Caribbean [shakedown cruise](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") (February 1954\\), *Norfolk* was assigned to the [U.S. Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Atlantic_Fleet \"U.S. Atlantic Fleet\") and between 1955 and 1957 served successively as [flagship](/wiki/Flagship \"Flagship\") for Commander Destroyer Flotillas 2, 4, and 6\\. During 1956 and 1957 she acted as flagship for Commander Destroyer Force, Atlantic Fleet. In June 1957, *Norfolk* participated in the International Fleet Review as flagship for Admiral [Jerauld Wright](/wiki/Jerauld_Wright \"Jerauld Wright\"), Commander\\-in\\-Chief Atlantic Fleet and [Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Atlantic \"Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic\") for NATO.", "A boiler on the ship blew up in late 1955\\.", "By 1959 *Norfolk*{{'}}s eight [3 inch/50 caliber](/wiki/3%22/50_caliber_gun \"3\") guns had been replaced by eight [3 inch/70 caliber](/wiki/3%22/70_Mark_26_gun \"3\") guns and her [20 mm](/wiki/Oerlikon_20_mm_cannon \"Oerlikon 20 mm cannon\") battery had been removed. In 1960 the addition of an [ASROC](/wiki/ASROC \"ASROC\") launcher enhanced her antisubmarine capabilities.", "On 10 May 1960, an 83\\-foot Cuban vessel harassed *Norfolk* while she was patrolling the [Florida Straits](/wiki/Florida_Straits \"Florida Straits\") with {{USS\\|The Sullivans\\|DD\\-537\\|2}} in Cuban waters.", "In Fall 1961 she took part in [UNITAS II](/wiki/UNITAS_II \"UNITAS II\") as flagship for Commander Cruiser Destroyer Flotilla 2\\. During the operation she performed [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") training exercises with the navies of [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\"), and [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"). *Norfolk* repeated this cruise over the next five years during which she served as flagship of Commander South Atlantic Forces except in 1962 when she was flagship for Commander Cruiser Destroyer Forces Atlantic Fleet.", "In 1965 she was the flagship for UNITAS VI.", "*Norfolk* joined [LANTFLEX 66](/wiki/LANTFLEX_66 \"LANTFLEX 66\") as flagship between 28 November and 16 December 1966\\. During this exercise she shadowed the Russian [trawlers](/wiki/Commercial_trawler \"Commercial trawler\") *Repiter* and *Teodilit*. She proved her antisubmarine capabilities again as flagship for Commander South Atlantic Forces during [UNITAS VIII](/wiki/UNITAS_VIII \"UNITAS VIII\") in Fall 1967\\.", "*Norfolk* was assigned to Commander [Middle East Force](/wiki/Middle_East_Force \"Middle East Force\") as flagship (17 April–15 October 1968\\). On this mission she visited Bahrain, French Somaliland, Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia. Kenya, the Seychelles, Mauritius, Malagasy Republic, India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Mexico, and Panama Canal Zone.", "In October 1968 *Norfolk* returned to Norfolk where she decommissioned 15 January 1970 and entered the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"). By 1 September 1974, *Norfolk* was stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") and sold for scrap.{{cite web \\|url\\={{Naval Vessel Register URL\\|id\\=DL1}} \\|title\\= Naval Vessel Register DL1 \\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-02\\-23}}", "" ]
Groups ------ Goursat's lemma for groups can be stated as follows. Let G, G' be groups, and let H be a subgroup of G\\times G' such that the two [projections](/wiki/Projection_%28mathematics%29 "Projection (mathematics)") p\_1: H \\to G and p\_2: H \\to G' are [surjective](/wiki/Surjective "Surjective") (i.e., H is a [subdirect product](/wiki/Subdirect_product "Subdirect product") of G and G'). Let N be the kernel of p\_2 and N' the [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28algebra%29 "Kernel (algebra)") of p\_1. One can identify N as a [normal subgroup](/wiki/Normal_subgroup "Normal subgroup") of G, and N' as a normal subgroup of G'. Then the image of H in G/N \\times G'/N' is the [graph](/wiki/Graph_of_a_function "Graph of a function") of an [isomorphism](/wiki/Group_isomorphism "Group isomorphism") G/N \\cong G'/N'. One then obtains a bijection between: 1. Subgroups of G\\times G' which project onto both factors, 1. Triples (N, N', f) with N normal in G, N' normal in G' and f isomorphism of G/N onto G'/N'. An immediate consequence of this is that the subdirect product of two groups can be described as a [fiber product](/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups%23Fiber_products "Direct product of groups#Fiber products") and vice versa. Notice that if H is *any* subgroup of G\\times G' (the projections p\_1: H \\to G and p\_2: H \\to G' need not be surjective), then the projections from H onto p\_1(H) and p\_2(H) *are* surjective. Then one can apply Goursat's lemma to H \\leq p\_1(H)\\times p\_2(H). To motivate the proof, consider the slice S \= \\{g\\} \\times G' in G \\times G', for any arbitrary g \\in G. By the surjectivity of the projection map to G, this has a non trivial intersection with H. Then essentially, this intersection represents exactly one particular coset of N'. Indeed, if we have elements (g,a), (g,b) \\in S \\cap H with a \\in pN' \\subset G' and b \\in qN' \\subset G', then H being a group, we get that (e, ab^{\-1}) \\in H, and hence, (e, ab^{\-1}) \\in N'. It follows that (g,a) and (g,b) lie in the same coset of N'. Thus the intersection of H with every "horizontal" slice isomorphic to G' \\in G\\times G' is exactly one particular coset of N' in G'. By an identical argument, the intersection of H with every "vertical" slice isomorphic to G \\in G\\times G' is exactly one particular coset of N in G. All the cosets of N,N' are present in the group H, and by the above argument, there is an exact 1:1 correspondence between them. The proof below further shows that the map is an isomorphism. ### Proof Before proceeding with the [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof "Mathematical proof"), N and N' are shown to be normal in G \\times \\{e'\\} and \\{e\\} \\times G', respectively. It is in this sense that N and N' can be identified as normal in *G* and *G''', respectively.* Since p\_2 is a [homomorphism](/wiki/Group_homomorphism "Group homomorphism"), its kernel N *is normal in* H*. Moreover, given g \\in G, there exists h\=(g,g') \\in H, since p\_1 is surjective. Therefore, p\_1(N) is normal in* G*, viz: gp\_1(N) \= p\_1(h)p\_1(N) \= p\_1(hN) \= p\_1(Nh) \= p\_1(N)g. It follows that N is normal in G \\times \\{e'\\} since (g,e')N \= (g,e')(p\_1(N) \\times \\{e'\\}) \= gp\_1(N) \\times \\{e'\\} \= p\_1(N)g \\times \\{e'\\} \= (p\_1(N) \\times \\{e'\\})(g,e') \= N(g,e').* The proof that N' is normal in \\{e\\} \\times G' proceeds in a similar manner. Given the identification of G with G \\times \\{e'\\}, we can write G/N and gN instead of (G \\times \\{e'\\})/N and (g,e')N, g \\in G. Similarly, we can write G'/N' and g'N', g' \\in G'. On to the proof. Consider the map H \\to G/N \\times G'/N' defined by (g,g') \\mapsto (gN, g'N'). The image of H under this map is \\{(gN,g'N') \\mid (g,g') \\in H \\}. Since H \\to G/N is surjective, this [relation](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 "Relation (mathematics)") is the graph of a [well\-defined](/wiki/Well-defined "Well-defined") [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 "Function (mathematics)") G/N \\to G'/N' provided g\_1N \= g\_2N \\implies g\_1'N' \= g\_2'N' for every (g\_1,g\_1'),(g\_2,g\_2') \\in H, essentially an application of the [vertical line test](/wiki/Vertical_line_test "Vertical line test"). Since g\_1N\=g\_2N (more properly, (g\_1,e')N \= (g\_2,e')N), we have (g\_2^{\-1}g\_1,e') \\in N \\subset H. Thus (e,g\_2'^{\-1}g\_1') \= (g\_2,g\_2')^{\-1}(g\_1,g\_1')(g\_2^{\-1}g\_1,e')^{\-1} \\in H, whence (e,g\_2'^{\-1}g\_1') \\in N', that is, g\_1'N'\=g\_2'N'. Furthermore, for every (g\_1,g\_1'),(g\_2,g\_2')\\in H we have (g\_1g\_2,g\_1'g\_2')\\in H. It follows that this function is a group homomorphism. By symmetry, \\{(g'N',gN) \\mid (g,g') \\in H \\} is the graph of a well\-defined homomorphism G'/N' \\to G/N. These two homomorphisms are clearly [inverse](/wiki/Inverse_function "Inverse function") to each other and thus are indeed isomorphisms. Goursat varieties ----------------- {{expand section\|date\=April 2015}} As a consequence of Goursat's theorem, one can derive a very general version on the [Jordan–Hölder](/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93H%C3%B6lder_theorem "Jordan–Hölder theorem")–[Schreier theorem](/wiki/Schreier_refinement_theorem "Schreier refinement theorem") in Goursat varieties. References ---------- Édouard Goursat, "Sur les substitutions orthogonales et les divisions régulières de l'espace", * Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure *(1889\), Volume: 6, pages 9–102* {{cite book\|editor1\=Aldo Ursini \|editor2\=Paulo Agliano\|title\=Logic and Algebra\|year\=1996\|publisher\=CRC Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8247\-9606\-8\|pages\=161–180\|author\=J. Lambek\|author\-link\=Joachim Lambek\|chapter\=The Butterfly and the Serpent}} [Kenneth A. Ribet](/wiki/Ken_Ribet "Ken Ribet") (Autumn 1976\), "[Galois](/wiki/Galois "Galois") [Action](/wiki/Group_action_%28mathematics%29 "Group action (mathematics)") on Division Points of [Abelian Varieties](/wiki/Abelian_Variety "Abelian Variety") with Real Multiplications", * + [American Journal of Mathematics](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Mathematics "American Journal of Mathematics")'', Vol. 98, No. 3, 751–804\. * A. Carboni, G.M. Kelly and M.C. Pedicchio (1993\), Some remarks on Mal'tsev and Goursat categories, Applied Categorical Structures, Vol. 4, 385–421\. [Category:Lemmas in group theory](/wiki/Category:Lemmas_in_group_theory "Lemmas in group theory") [Category:Articles containing proofs](/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_proofs "Articles containing proofs")
[ "Groups\n------", "Goursat's lemma for groups can be stated as follows.\n Let G, G' be groups, and let H be a subgroup of G\\\\times G' such that the two [projections](/wiki/Projection_%28mathematics%29 \"Projection (mathematics)\") p\\_1: H \\\\to G and p\\_2: H \\\\to G' are [surjective](/wiki/Surjective \"Surjective\") (i.e., H is a [subdirect product](/wiki/Subdirect_product \"Subdirect product\") of G and G'). Let N be the kernel of p\\_2 and N' the [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28algebra%29 \"Kernel (algebra)\") of p\\_1. One can identify N as a [normal subgroup](/wiki/Normal_subgroup \"Normal subgroup\") of G, and N' as a normal subgroup of G'. Then the image of H in G/N \\\\times G'/N' is the [graph](/wiki/Graph_of_a_function \"Graph of a function\") of an [isomorphism](/wiki/Group_isomorphism \"Group isomorphism\") G/N \\\\cong G'/N'. One then obtains a bijection between:\n1. Subgroups of G\\\\times G' which project onto both factors,\n1. Triples (N, N', f) with N normal in G, N' normal in G' and f isomorphism of G/N onto G'/N'.", "An immediate consequence of this is that the subdirect product of two groups can be described as a [fiber product](/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups%23Fiber_products \"Direct product of groups#Fiber products\") and vice versa.", "Notice that if H is *any* subgroup of G\\\\times G' (the projections p\\_1: H \\\\to G and p\\_2: H \\\\to G' need not be surjective), then the projections from H onto p\\_1(H) and p\\_2(H) *are* surjective. Then one can apply Goursat's lemma to H \\\\leq p\\_1(H)\\\\times p\\_2(H).", "To motivate the proof, consider the slice S \\= \\\\{g\\\\} \\\\times G' in G \\\\times G', for any arbitrary g \\\\in G. By the surjectivity of the projection map to G, this has a non trivial intersection with H. Then essentially, this intersection represents exactly one particular coset of N'. Indeed, if we have elements (g,a), (g,b) \\\\in S \\\\cap H with a \\\\in pN' \\\\subset G' and b \\\\in qN' \\\\subset G', then H being a group, we get that (e, ab^{\\-1}) \\\\in H, and hence, (e, ab^{\\-1}) \\\\in N'. It follows that (g,a) and (g,b) lie in the same coset of N'. Thus the intersection of H with every \"horizontal\" slice isomorphic to G' \\\\in G\\\\times G' is exactly one particular coset of N' in G'.\nBy an identical argument, the intersection of H with every \"vertical\" slice isomorphic to G \\\\in G\\\\times G' is exactly one particular coset of N in G.", "All the cosets of N,N' are present in the group H, and by the above argument, there is an exact 1:1 correspondence between them. The proof below further shows that the map is an isomorphism.", "### Proof", "Before proceeding with the [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof \"Mathematical proof\"), N and N' are shown to be normal in G \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\} and \\\\{e\\\\} \\\\times G', respectively. It is in this sense that N and N' can be identified as normal in *G* and *G''', respectively.*", "Since p\\_2 is a [homomorphism](/wiki/Group_homomorphism \"Group homomorphism\"), its kernel N *is normal in* H*. Moreover, given g \\\\in G, there exists h\\=(g,g') \\\\in H, since p\\_1 is surjective. Therefore, p\\_1(N) is normal in* G*, viz:\ngp\\_1(N) \\= p\\_1(h)p\\_1(N) \\= p\\_1(hN) \\= p\\_1(Nh) \\= p\\_1(N)g.\nIt follows that N is normal in G \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\} since\n (g,e')N \\= (g,e')(p\\_1(N) \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\}) \\= gp\\_1(N) \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\} \\= p\\_1(N)g \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\} \\= (p\\_1(N) \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\})(g,e') \\= N(g,e').*", "The proof that N' is normal in \\\\{e\\\\} \\\\times G' proceeds in a similar manner.\nGiven the identification of G with G \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\}, we can write G/N and gN instead of (G \\\\times \\\\{e'\\\\})/N and (g,e')N, g \\\\in G. Similarly, we can write G'/N' and g'N', g' \\\\in G'.\nOn to the proof. Consider the map H \\\\to G/N \\\\times G'/N' defined by (g,g') \\\\mapsto (gN, g'N'). The image of H under this map is \\\\{(gN,g'N') \\\\mid (g,g') \\\\in H \\\\}. Since H \\\\to G/N is surjective, this [relation](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 \"Relation (mathematics)\") is the graph of a [well\\-defined](/wiki/Well-defined \"Well-defined\") [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 \"Function (mathematics)\") G/N \\\\to G'/N' provided g\\_1N \\= g\\_2N \\\\implies g\\_1'N' \\= g\\_2'N' for every (g\\_1,g\\_1'),(g\\_2,g\\_2') \\\\in H, essentially an application of the [vertical line test](/wiki/Vertical_line_test \"Vertical line test\").\nSince g\\_1N\\=g\\_2N (more properly, (g\\_1,e')N \\= (g\\_2,e')N), we have (g\\_2^{\\-1}g\\_1,e') \\\\in N \\\\subset H. Thus (e,g\\_2'^{\\-1}g\\_1') \\= (g\\_2,g\\_2')^{\\-1}(g\\_1,g\\_1')(g\\_2^{\\-1}g\\_1,e')^{\\-1} \\\\in H, whence (e,g\\_2'^{\\-1}g\\_1') \\\\in N', that is, g\\_1'N'\\=g\\_2'N'.\nFurthermore, for every (g\\_1,g\\_1'),(g\\_2,g\\_2')\\\\in H we have (g\\_1g\\_2,g\\_1'g\\_2')\\\\in H. It follows that this function is a group homomorphism.\nBy symmetry, \\\\{(g'N',gN) \\\\mid (g,g') \\\\in H \\\\} is the graph of a well\\-defined homomorphism G'/N' \\\\to G/N. These two homomorphisms are clearly [inverse](/wiki/Inverse_function \"Inverse function\") to each other and thus are indeed isomorphisms.\nGoursat varieties\n-----------------", "{{expand section\\|date\\=April 2015}}\nAs a consequence of Goursat's theorem, one can derive a very general version on the [Jordan–Hölder](/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93H%C3%B6lder_theorem \"Jordan–Hölder theorem\")–[Schreier theorem](/wiki/Schreier_refinement_theorem \"Schreier refinement theorem\") in Goursat varieties.\nReferences\n----------", "Édouard Goursat, \"Sur les substitutions orthogonales et les divisions régulières de l'espace\", * Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure *(1889\\), Volume: 6, pages 9–102*\n {{cite book\\|editor1\\=Aldo Ursini \\|editor2\\=Paulo Agliano\\|title\\=Logic and Algebra\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=CRC Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8247\\-9606\\-8\\|pages\\=161–180\\|author\\=J. Lambek\\|author\\-link\\=Joachim Lambek\\|chapter\\=The Butterfly and the Serpent}}\n [Kenneth A. Ribet](/wiki/Ken_Ribet \"Ken Ribet\") (Autumn 1976\\), \"[Galois](/wiki/Galois \"Galois\") [Action](/wiki/Group_action_%28mathematics%29 \"Group action (mathematics)\") on Division Points of [Abelian Varieties](/wiki/Abelian_Variety \"Abelian Variety\") with Real Multiplications\", * + [American Journal of Mathematics](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Mathematics \"American Journal of Mathematics\")'', Vol. 98, No. 3, 751–804\\.\n* A. Carboni, G.M. Kelly and M.C. Pedicchio (1993\\), Some remarks on Mal'tsev and Goursat categories, Applied Categorical Structures, Vol. 4, 385–421\\.", "[Category:Lemmas in group theory](/wiki/Category:Lemmas_in_group_theory \"Lemmas in group theory\")\n[Category:Articles containing proofs](/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_proofs \"Articles containing proofs\")", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left \| upright \| Ludwig Leiner: Old bridge over the Rhine in Konstanz, drawn in 1885 based on old sketches](/wiki/File:Leiner_Konstanz_Rheinbr%C3%BCcke.jpg "Leiner Konstanz Rheinbrücke.jpg") The first bridge over the [Seerhein](/wiki/Seerhein "Seerhein") was built by the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") at [Gottlieben](/wiki/Gottlieben "Gottlieben"). Since the medieval trade routes to northern Italy, France and Eastern Europe crossed in Constance, it is assumed that a wooden bridge existed below Constance before the 10th century. The construction of a wooden [pile bridge](/wiki/Pile_bridge "Pile bridge") in the flight of {{lang\|de\|Rheingasse}} around 1200 CE is documented.{{cite book \|last\=Maurer \|first\=H. \|title\=Die Konstanzer Bischöfe vom Ende des 6\. Jahrhunderts bis 1206 \|trans\-title\=The Bishops of Konstanz From the End of the 6th Century to 1206 \|date\=1981 \|series\=Das Bistum Konstanz \|volume\=5 \|page\=404 \|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter \|place\=Berlin \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-017664\-3 \|oclc\=8197661 \|language\=de}} A mill was built into the bridge in 1418 or 1427 or 1437, because the bridge piles held back the water of the [Upper lake](/wiki/Obersee_%28Lake_Constance%29 "Obersee (Lake Constance)") and increased the 30 cm difference in water level between the Upper and Lower lake. A lack of stability led to the bridge over the Rhine being demolished and reconstructed around 1540\. The new bridge was completed in 1544\. It consisted of a covered wooden bridge, based on double pillars, connected at both sides to a stone [arch bridge](/wiki/Arch_bridge "Arch bridge") and a [draw bridge](/wiki/Draw_bridge "Draw bridge"). A mill complex with a [weir](/wiki/Weir "Weir") completed the structure. The wooden bridge superstructure, including the mills, were destroyed several times by fire and rebuilt, in at least 1548 and 1675\. It was destroyed by fire for the last time in 1856\. In 1857, the states surrounding Lake Constance decided not to rebuild the weir, because it was regarded as the cause of the extreme high water conditions around the Upper Lake.{{cite magazine \|last\=Konold \|first\=W. \|title\=Die Regulierung des Bodensees: eine alte Geschichte \|trans\-title\=The Regulation of Lake Constance: An Old Story \|date\=2000 \|magazine\=Der Bürger im Staat \|volume\=50 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=82–86 \|publisher\=Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden\-Württemberg \|place\=Stuttgart \|url\=http://www.buergerimstaat.de/2\_00/rhein04\.htm \|lang\=de}} Until the new bridge was ready, a temporary wooden bridge allowed travellers to cross the Seerhein. ### Bridge of 1860 [thumb \| left \| In the center of the picture the old Rhine bridge, on the left [Dominicans Island](/wiki/Dominicans_Island "Dominicans Island")](/wiki/File:Konstanz_Bodensee_Inselhotel.jpg "Konstanz Bodensee Inselhotel.jpg") To ensure the largest possible flow cross\-section of the Seerhein, the new bridge was built 60 m upriver. It had three long spans of 42\.6 m each. In addition to the road, it carried the [Baden Mainline](/wiki/Baden_Mainline "Baden Mainline"). Construction Councillor [Robert Gerwig](/wiki/Robert_Gerwig "Robert Gerwig") from Baden designed the bridge and led the construction team. The Gebrüder Benckiser company from [Pforzheim](/wiki/Pforzheim "Pforzheim") built the sub\- and superstructures, starting in October 1858\. The road bridge was opened to traffic on 3 December 1860\. The double\-track railway bridge entered service as the Baden Mainline was opened on 15 June 1863\. Construction costs were {{gaps\|600\|000\|\[\[guilders]]}}. Due to increasing traffic loads of the trains, one railway track had to be shut down in 1873\. At the time of [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism"), the structure was renamed *[Horst\-Wessel](/wiki/Horst_Wessel "Horst Wessel")\-bridge*. ### Bridge of 1938 To increase the efficiency of the Rhine bridge, the city of Konstanz decided in co\-operation with the highway department of the day, and the [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn "Deutsche Reichsbahn"), to fundamentally rebuild the bridge. The spans were unchanged, but the bridge was widened by about 50%. The Ed. Züblin company from Stuttgart was awarded the contract to build the substructure. Construction work began in November 1936\. After a 190\-meter\-long temporary bridge was built downstream, the road bridge sections were taken apart, with the railway remaining in operation, albeit under restrictions. The superstructure of the old bridge, as well as the substructure, abutments and pillars were disassembled down to the water line. In the shelter of a [sheet pile](/wiki/Sheet_pile "Sheet pile") enclosed pit, timber piles with lengths of 18 to 20 m were driven into the river bottom, the abutments were extended downstream and the pillars were widened. New abutments were then built, using concrete with exposed brickwork from granite from Waldulm. The pillars were encased in concrete in the shelter of the sheet pile enclosed pit. The contract for the steel superstructure was awarded to the M.A.N. company from Mainz\-Gustavsburg. The bridge sections were constructed in the factory in Mainz\-Gustavsburg and transported by rail to the site where they were hoisted in place using a [gantry crane](/wiki/Gantry_crane "Gantry crane") and [rivetted](/wiki/Rivet "Rivet") together. The new bridge was inaugurated on 9 October 1938\. ### 1957 widening In the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), the Rhine Bridge remained intact. In the years 1956\-57 the roadway was widened to meet the increased traffic in the city. For this, the corridor was used that had been reserved for the second railway track in 1938\. This was possible because the [Bundesbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn "Deutsche Bundesbahn") had abandoned its plans to have two tracks connected to the Konstanz main railway station. To further relieve the now over 70\-year\-old road bridge, a second bridge was built. This {{lang\|de\|\[\[Schänzlebrücke]]}} was opened in 1980\.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left \\| upright \\| Ludwig Leiner: Old bridge over the Rhine in Konstanz, drawn in 1885 based on old sketches](/wiki/File:Leiner_Konstanz_Rheinbr%C3%BCcke.jpg \"Leiner Konstanz Rheinbrücke.jpg\")\nThe first bridge over the [Seerhein](/wiki/Seerhein \"Seerhein\") was built by the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") at [Gottlieben](/wiki/Gottlieben \"Gottlieben\"). Since the medieval trade routes to northern Italy, France and Eastern Europe crossed in Constance, it is assumed that a wooden bridge existed below Constance before the 10th century. The construction of a wooden [pile bridge](/wiki/Pile_bridge \"Pile bridge\") in the flight of {{lang\\|de\\|Rheingasse}} around 1200 CE is documented.{{cite book \\|last\\=Maurer \\|first\\=H. \\|title\\=Die Konstanzer Bischöfe vom Ende des 6\\. Jahrhunderts bis 1206 \\|trans\\-title\\=The Bishops of Konstanz From the End of the 6th Century to 1206 \\|date\\=1981 \\|series\\=Das Bistum Konstanz \\|volume\\=5 \\|page\\=404 \\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter \\|place\\=Berlin \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-017664\\-3 \\|oclc\\=8197661 \\|language\\=de}}", "A mill was built into the bridge in 1418 or 1427 or 1437, because the bridge piles held back the water of the [Upper lake](/wiki/Obersee_%28Lake_Constance%29 \"Obersee (Lake Constance)\") and increased the 30 cm difference in water level between the Upper and Lower lake.", "A lack of stability led to the bridge over the Rhine being demolished and reconstructed around 1540\\. The new bridge was completed in 1544\\. It consisted of a covered wooden bridge, based on double pillars, connected at both sides to a stone [arch bridge](/wiki/Arch_bridge \"Arch bridge\") and a [draw bridge](/wiki/Draw_bridge \"Draw bridge\"). A mill complex with a [weir](/wiki/Weir \"Weir\") completed the structure. The wooden bridge superstructure, including the mills, were destroyed several times by fire and rebuilt, in at least 1548 and 1675\\. It was destroyed by fire for the last time in 1856\\. In 1857, the states surrounding Lake Constance decided not to rebuild the weir, because it was regarded as the cause of the extreme high water conditions around the Upper Lake.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Konold \\|first\\=W. \\|title\\=Die Regulierung des Bodensees: eine alte Geschichte \\|trans\\-title\\=The Regulation of Lake Constance: An Old Story \\|date\\=2000 \\|magazine\\=Der Bürger im Staat \\|volume\\=50 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=82–86 \\|publisher\\=Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden\\-Württemberg \\|place\\=Stuttgart \\|url\\=http://www.buergerimstaat.de/2\\_00/rhein04\\.htm \\|lang\\=de}} Until the new bridge was ready, a temporary wooden bridge allowed travellers to cross the Seerhein.", "### Bridge of 1860", "[thumb \\| left \\| In the center of the picture the old Rhine bridge, on the left [Dominicans Island](/wiki/Dominicans_Island \"Dominicans Island\")](/wiki/File:Konstanz_Bodensee_Inselhotel.jpg \"Konstanz Bodensee Inselhotel.jpg\")\nTo ensure the largest possible flow cross\\-section of the Seerhein, the new bridge was built 60 m upriver. It had three long spans of 42\\.6 m each. In addition to the road, it carried the [Baden Mainline](/wiki/Baden_Mainline \"Baden Mainline\"). Construction Councillor [Robert Gerwig](/wiki/Robert_Gerwig \"Robert Gerwig\") from Baden designed the bridge and led the construction team. The Gebrüder Benckiser company from [Pforzheim](/wiki/Pforzheim \"Pforzheim\") built the sub\\- and superstructures, starting in October 1858\\. The road bridge was opened to traffic on 3 December 1860\\. The double\\-track railway bridge entered service as the Baden Mainline was opened on 15 June 1863\\. Construction costs were {{gaps\\|600\\|000\\|\\[\\[guilders]]}}. Due to increasing traffic loads of the trains, one railway track had to be shut down in 1873\\. At the time of [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\"), the structure was renamed *[Horst\\-Wessel](/wiki/Horst_Wessel \"Horst Wessel\")\\-bridge*.", "### Bridge of 1938", "To increase the efficiency of the Rhine bridge, the city of Konstanz decided in co\\-operation with the highway department of the day, and the [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn \"Deutsche Reichsbahn\"), to fundamentally rebuild the bridge. The spans were unchanged, but the bridge was widened by about 50%. The Ed. Züblin company from Stuttgart was awarded the contract to build the substructure. Construction work began in November 1936\\. After a 190\\-meter\\-long temporary bridge was built downstream, the road bridge sections were taken apart, with the railway remaining in operation, albeit under restrictions. The superstructure of the old bridge, as well as the substructure, abutments and pillars were disassembled down to the water line. In the shelter of a [sheet pile](/wiki/Sheet_pile \"Sheet pile\") enclosed pit, timber piles with lengths of 18 to 20 m were driven into the river bottom, the abutments were extended downstream and the pillars were widened. New abutments were then built, using concrete with exposed brickwork from granite from Waldulm. The pillars were encased in concrete in the shelter of the sheet pile enclosed pit. The contract for the steel superstructure was awarded to the M.A.N. company from Mainz\\-Gustavsburg. The bridge sections were constructed in the factory in Mainz\\-Gustavsburg and transported by rail to the site where they were hoisted in place using a [gantry crane](/wiki/Gantry_crane \"Gantry crane\") and [rivetted](/wiki/Rivet \"Rivet\") together. The new bridge was inaugurated on 9 October 1938\\.", "### 1957 widening", "In the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), the Rhine Bridge remained intact. In the years 1956\\-57 the roadway was widened to meet the increased traffic in the city. For this, the corridor was used that had been reserved for the second railway track in 1938\\. This was possible because the [Bundesbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbahn \"Deutsche Bundesbahn\") had abandoned its plans to have two tracks connected to the Konstanz main railway station.", "To further relieve the now over 70\\-year\\-old road bridge, a second bridge was built. This {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Schänzlebrücke]]}} was opened in 1980\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Formation and *Oracles* (2007–2009\) Fleshgod Apocalypse was formed in April 2007 by Francesco Paoli (formerly frontman of the band [Hour of Penance](/wiki/Hour_of_Penance "Hour of Penance")). They recorded their first demo, *Promo '07*, at 16th Cellar Studio, in Rome, with producer Stefano "Saul" Morabito, releasing it shortly after. The demo was re\-released the following year on a split CD with fellow Italian bands Septycal Gorge, Modus Delicti and Onirik. Fleshgod Apocalypse then signed to [Neurotic Records](/wiki/Neurotic_Records "Neurotic Records"). In early 2008 the band toured Europe, supporting bands like [Behemoth](/wiki/Behemoth_%28band%29 "Behemoth (band)"), [Origin](/wiki/Origin_%28band%29 "Origin (band)"), [Dying Fetus](/wiki/Dying_Fetus "Dying Fetus"), [Hate Eternal](/wiki/Hate_Eternal "Hate Eternal"), [Suffocation](/wiki/Suffocation_%28band%29 "Suffocation (band)"), [Napalm Death](/wiki/Napalm_Death "Napalm Death") and many more. In May 2008, the band recorded its first full\-length album, *[Oracles](/wiki/Oracles_%28album%29 "Oracles (album)")*. In December of that year the band decided to part ways with Neurotic Records and signed with Willowtip Records, who released *Oracles* in 2009\. Shortly thereafter, new member, Tommaso Riccardi took over vocals and rhythm guitar, which were previously handled by Francesco Paoli, and Paoli took over the drums, replacing session drummer Francesco Struglia.{{Cite web\|last\=Blabbermouth\|date\=31 March 2009\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Parts Ways With Drummer\|url\=https://blabbermouth.herokuapp.com/news/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-parts\-ways\-with\-drummer/\|access\-date\=7 August 2020\|website\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|archive\-date\=29 January 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129195402/https://blabbermouth.herokuapp.com/news/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-parts\-ways\-with\-drummer/\|url\-status\=dead}} ### *Mafia EP* and *Agony* (2009–2012\) In 2010, the *[Mafia](/wiki/Mafia_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 "Mafia (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)")* EP was recorded, again at 16th Cellar Studios, and was released via Willowtip Records. It includes four new tracks and a cover of the track "Blinded by Fear" by [At the Gates](/wiki/At_the_Gates "At the Gates"). The band embarked on another European tour shortly after the end of the *Mafia* recording sessions, supporting [Suffocation](/wiki/Suffocation_%28band%29 "Suffocation (band)"). Following this tour was a headlining tour of Russia. Until 2010, band founder Francesco Paoli was simultaneously in his former band [Hour of Penance](/wiki/Hour_of_Penance "Hour of Penance") doing vocals, as well as drumming in Fleshgod Apocalypse. He quit Hour of Penance to focus on Fleshgod Apocalypse full\-time as drummer and songwriter. In November 2010, the band signed a worldwide deal with record label Extreme Management Group, Inc. and began writing for the second full\-length album. In May 2011 the band signed a worldwide deal with [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records "Nuclear Blast Records") and began wrapping up work on their second album. During this time, another new member, Francesco Ferrini, the pianist and orchestrator of *Oracles* and *Mafia*, was added to the band as the full\-time pianist and orchestrator. This addition honed Fleshgod Apocalypse's sound on their upcoming album. The band released their second album, *[Agony](/wiki/Agony_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 "Agony (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)")*, on 9 August 2011 in North America and 19 August 2011 in Europe.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=159850\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130624184926/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=159850\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=24 June 2013\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE: New Album Artwork Unveiled\|publisher\=\[\[Blabbermouth]]\|date\=24 June 2011\|access\-date\=20 June 2013}} The [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes "ITunes") version of *Agony* also includes a cover of the track "[Heartwork](/wiki/Heartwork "Heartwork")" by [Carcass](/wiki/Carcass_%28band%29 "Carcass (band)"). Fleshgod Apocalypse took part in the 2011 [Summer Slaughter Tour](/wiki/Summer_Slaughter_Tour "Summer Slaughter Tour") in North America, alongside co\-headliners [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel_%28band%29 "Whitechapel (band)") and [The Black Dahlia Murder](/wiki/The_Black_Dahlia_Murder_%28band%29 "The Black Dahlia Murder (band)"). The band toured the US with [Decapitated](/wiki/Decapitated_%28band%29 "Decapitated (band)") in late 2011\. In January 2012, they toured the UK with The Black Dahlia Murder and [Skeletonwitch](/wiki/Skeletonwitch "Skeletonwitch"). During March 2012, Fleshgod Apocalypse toured South Africa, supported by local death metal acts. On 22 December 2012, the band released a music video for "The Forsaking" from the album *Agony*.{{cite web\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE: 'The Forsaking' Video Released\|date\=22 December 2012\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=183970\|publisher\=\[\[Blabbermouth]]\|access\-date\=23 December 2012}} ### *Labyrinth* (2012–2016\) [thumb\|Fleshgod Apocalypse in 2013](/wiki/File:FleshgodApocalypse.jpg "FleshgodApocalypse.jpg") Fleshgod Apocalypse's third album is entitled *[Labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 "Labyrinth (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)")*, and was released on 16 August 2013, in Europe, and on 20 August 2013, in North America, by Nuclear Blast.{{cite web\|author\=Wookubus\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE \- reveal cover \+ album details!\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/notes/fleshgod\-apocalypse/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-reveal\-cover\-album\-details/10151785745723319\|publisher\=Facebook.com\|access\-date\=20 June 2013}} *Labyrinth* was recorded with Stefano Morabito at 16th Cellar Studio. It features guest contributions, and is a concept album about the myth of [Labyrinth of Knossos](/wiki/Labyrinth "Labyrinth") and its analogies to modern times.{{cite web\|title\=NEWS TO FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE BEGIN TRACKING NEW ALBUM!\|url\=http://www.nuclearblast.com/en/music/band/news/details/2985828\.364415\.fleshgod\-apocalypse\-begin\-tracking\-new\-album.html\|publisher\=\[\[Nuclear Blast]]\|date\=19 June 2013\|access\-date\=19 June 2013\|archive\-date\=6 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106192513/http://www.nuclearblast.com/en/music/band/news/details/2985828\.364415\.fleshgod\-apocalypse\-begin\-tracking\-new\-album.html\|url\-status\=dead}} ### *King*, Trionfera's departure, and Riccardi's departure (2016–2018\) Fleshgod Apocalypse's fourth album entitled *[King](/wiki/King_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 "King (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)")* was released on 5 February 2016\. The work was an important success, peaking at \#27 in the [Billboard Chart](http://www.billboard.com/music/fleshgod-apocalypse). On 10 October 2017 the band announced that Tommaso Riccardi had left the band.{{cite web\|date\=10 October 2017\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE\|website\=\[\[Facebook]] \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/fleshgodapocalypse/posts/10155648808811878\|access\-date\=10 October 2017}} He was replaced by drummer Francesco Paoli who returned to lead vocals and rhythm guitar, while guitarist Fabio Bartoletti from Deceptionist joined the band on lead guitar. The band tapped David Folchitto as their live touring drummer, who stayed with the band for two years.FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Welcome Eugene Ryabchenko As New Live Drummer [https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-welcome\-eugene\-ryabchenko\-as\-new\-live\-drummer/](https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod-apocalypse-welcome-eugene-ryabchenko-as-new-live-drummer/) ### *Veleno*, official new members, and *No* (2019–2023\) In 2019 Fleshgod Apocalypse released their fifth album, *Veleno*. The album continued and expanded on the style they had honed with *King,*{{Cite web\|date\=25 May 2019\|title\=Angry Metal Guy himself reviews Fleshgod Apocalypse \- Veleno\|url\=https://www.angrymetalguy.com/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-veleno\-review/\|access\-date\=7 August 2020\|website\=Angry Metal Guy\|language\=en\-US}} and was accompanied by the release of two music videos directed by Giovanni Bucci for the songs "Sugar" and "Monnalisa". *[Loudwire](/wiki/Loudwire "Loudwire")* named it one of the 50 best metal albums of 2019{{cite web \|title\=The 50 Best Metal Albums of 2019 \|url\=https://loudwire.com/best\-metal\-albums\-2019/ \|website\=\[\[Loudwire]] \|publisher\=\[\[Townsquare Media]] \|access\-date\=7 March 2021 \|date\=3 December 2019}} and *[Metal Hammer](/wiki/Metal_Hammer "Metal Hammer")* ranked it 11th in their 2021 list of 25 best symphonic metal album of all time.{{cite web \|last1\=Davies \|first1\=Hywel \|last2\=Dome \|first2\=Malcolm \|last3\=Goodman \|first3\=Eleanor \|last4\=Chantler \|first4\=Chris \|last5\=Gordon \|first5\=Connie \|last6\=Grady \|first6\=Spencer \|last7\=Rees \|first7\=Adam \|last8\=Selzer \|first8\=Jonathan \|title\=The 25 best symphonic metal albums \|url\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/the\-25\-best\-symphonic\-metal\-albums \|website\=\[\[Metal Hammer]] \|publisher\=\[\[Future plc]] \|access\-date\=2 January 2022 \|date\=17 November 2021}} In April 2019, it was announced that the band would be touring with [Hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy_%28band%29 "Hypocrisy (band)"){{Cite web\|last\=Blabbermouth\|date\=12 November 2018\|title\=HYPOCRISY And FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE To Join Forces For Early 2019 North American Tour\|url\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/hypocrisy\-and\-fleshgod\-apocalypse\-to\-join\-forces\-for\-early\-2019\-north\-american\-tour/\|access\-date\=26 October 2020\|website\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET}} in North America with a string quartet. In February 2020, Eugene Ryabchenko from [Vital Remains](/wiki/Vital_Remains "Vital Remains") became the band's new live drummer.FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Welcome Eugene Ryabchenko As New Live Drummer [https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-welcome\-eugene\-ryabchenko\-as\-new\-live\-drummer/](https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod-apocalypse-welcome-eugene-ryabchenko-as-new-live-drummer/) Fleshgod Apocalypse was supposed to do another round of American shows with [The Agonist](/wiki/The_Agonist "The Agonist") in 2020, but this tour was for the most part cancelled due to [the COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"). The band has resorted to streaming on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") to host [Q\&A](/wiki/wikt:Q_and_A "Q and A") sessions with fans, as well as livestreaming a virtual concert at Bloom Studio in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") in August.{{Cite web\|date\=25 July 2020\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE TO LIVE STREAM FULL CONCERT FROM BLOOM STUDIO ON AUG 1st\|url\=https://musicexistence.com/blog/2020/07/25/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-to\-live\-stream\-full\-concert\-from\-bloom\-studio\-on\-aug\-1st/\|access\-date\=26 October 2020\|website\=Music Existence\|language\=en\-US}} A video for an acoustic version of "The Day We'll Be Gone" was released on 23 October 2020, whereupon it was announced that soprano Veronica Bordacchini, guitarist Fabio Bartoletti and drummer Eugene Ryabchenko had officially joined the band. On 18 December 2020, the band released a new EP titled *No* along with a new music video for the title track. In January 2021, they released a cover of [Blue (Da Ba Dee)](/wiki/Blue_%28Da_Ba_Dee%29 "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"). ### Rossi's departure and *Opera* (2024–present) In February 2024, the band confirmed on their Facebook page that founding bassist Paolo Rossi left the band following a year's absence. They explained further that he would not be replaced, and that Francesco Paoli would take over on bass and that all clean vocals would be handled by Veronica Bordacchini. In March 2024, the band released a new single, "Pendulum". The song chronicles Paoli's fall while mountain climbing in August 2021 that caused the band to go on hiatus.{{Cite web\|date\=9 March 2024\|title\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Streams First Song Since FRANCESCO PAOLI's Accident, "Pendulum"\|url\=https://metalinjection.net/video/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-streams\-first\-song\-since\-francesco\-paolis\-accident\-pendulum\|access\-date\=11 March 2024\|website\=Metal Injection\|language\=en\-US}} On 15 June 2024, a second single "Bloodclock" was released along with the announcement of their sixth studio album, *Opera*.{{cite web \|title\=Fleshgod Apocalypse To Release Opera Album In August; "Bloodclock" Single / Video Out Now \|url\=https://bravewords.com/news/fleshgod\-apocalypse\-to\-release\-opera\-album\-in\-august\-bloodclock\-single\-video\-out\-now \|website\=Brave Words \& Bloody Knuckles \|access\-date\=16 September 2024 \|language\=en \|date\=14 June 2024}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Formation and *Oracles* (2007–2009\\)", "Fleshgod Apocalypse was formed in April 2007 by Francesco Paoli (formerly frontman of the band [Hour of Penance](/wiki/Hour_of_Penance \"Hour of Penance\")). They recorded their first demo, *Promo '07*, at 16th Cellar Studio, in Rome, with producer Stefano \"Saul\" Morabito, releasing it shortly after. The demo was re\\-released the following year on a split CD with fellow Italian bands Septycal Gorge, Modus Delicti and Onirik. Fleshgod Apocalypse then signed to [Neurotic Records](/wiki/Neurotic_Records \"Neurotic Records\"). In early 2008 the band toured Europe, supporting bands like [Behemoth](/wiki/Behemoth_%28band%29 \"Behemoth (band)\"), [Origin](/wiki/Origin_%28band%29 \"Origin (band)\"), [Dying Fetus](/wiki/Dying_Fetus \"Dying Fetus\"), [Hate Eternal](/wiki/Hate_Eternal \"Hate Eternal\"), [Suffocation](/wiki/Suffocation_%28band%29 \"Suffocation (band)\"), [Napalm Death](/wiki/Napalm_Death \"Napalm Death\") and many more.", "In May 2008, the band recorded its first full\\-length album, *[Oracles](/wiki/Oracles_%28album%29 \"Oracles (album)\")*. In December of that year the band decided to part ways with Neurotic Records and signed with Willowtip Records, who released *Oracles* in 2009\\. Shortly thereafter, new member, Tommaso Riccardi took over vocals and rhythm guitar, which were previously handled by Francesco Paoli, and Paoli took over the drums, replacing session drummer Francesco Struglia.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Blabbermouth\\|date\\=31 March 2009\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Parts Ways With Drummer\\|url\\=https://blabbermouth.herokuapp.com/news/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-parts\\-ways\\-with\\-drummer/\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2020\\|website\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129195402/https://blabbermouth.herokuapp.com/news/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-parts\\-ways\\-with\\-drummer/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### *Mafia EP* and *Agony* (2009–2012\\)", "In 2010, the *[Mafia](/wiki/Mafia_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 \"Mafia (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)\")* EP was recorded, again at 16th Cellar Studios, and was released via Willowtip Records. It includes four new tracks and a cover of the track \"Blinded by Fear\" by [At the Gates](/wiki/At_the_Gates \"At the Gates\"). The band embarked on another European tour shortly after the end of the *Mafia* recording sessions, supporting [Suffocation](/wiki/Suffocation_%28band%29 \"Suffocation (band)\"). Following this tour was a headlining tour of Russia.", "Until 2010, band founder Francesco Paoli was simultaneously in his former band [Hour of Penance](/wiki/Hour_of_Penance \"Hour of Penance\") doing vocals, as well as drumming in Fleshgod Apocalypse. He quit Hour of Penance to focus on Fleshgod Apocalypse full\\-time as drummer and songwriter. In November 2010, the band signed a worldwide deal with record label Extreme Management Group, Inc. and began writing for the second full\\-length album. In May 2011 the band signed a worldwide deal with [Nuclear Blast Records](/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records \"Nuclear Blast Records\") and began wrapping up work on their second album. During this time, another new member, Francesco Ferrini, the pianist and orchestrator of *Oracles* and *Mafia*, was added to the band as the full\\-time pianist and orchestrator. This addition honed Fleshgod Apocalypse's sound on their upcoming album.", "The band released their second album, *[Agony](/wiki/Agony_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 \"Agony (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)\")*, on 9 August 2011 in North America and 19 August 2011 in Europe.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=159850\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130624184926/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=159850\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2013\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE: New Album Artwork Unveiled\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Blabbermouth]]\\|date\\=24 June 2011\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2013}} The [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\") version of *Agony* also includes a cover of the track \"[Heartwork](/wiki/Heartwork \"Heartwork\")\" by [Carcass](/wiki/Carcass_%28band%29 \"Carcass (band)\").", "Fleshgod Apocalypse took part in the 2011 [Summer Slaughter Tour](/wiki/Summer_Slaughter_Tour \"Summer Slaughter Tour\") in North America, alongside co\\-headliners [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel_%28band%29 \"Whitechapel (band)\") and [The Black Dahlia Murder](/wiki/The_Black_Dahlia_Murder_%28band%29 \"The Black Dahlia Murder (band)\"). The band toured the US with [Decapitated](/wiki/Decapitated_%28band%29 \"Decapitated (band)\") in late 2011\\. In January 2012, they toured the UK with The Black Dahlia Murder and [Skeletonwitch](/wiki/Skeletonwitch \"Skeletonwitch\"). During March 2012, Fleshgod Apocalypse toured South Africa, supported by local death metal acts.", "On 22 December 2012, the band released a music video for \"The Forsaking\" from the album *Agony*.{{cite web\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE: 'The Forsaking' Video Released\\|date\\=22 December 2012\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=183970\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Blabbermouth]]\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2012}}", "### *Labyrinth* (2012–2016\\)", "[thumb\\|Fleshgod Apocalypse in 2013](/wiki/File:FleshgodApocalypse.jpg \"FleshgodApocalypse.jpg\")\nFleshgod Apocalypse's third album is entitled *[Labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 \"Labyrinth (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)\")*, and was released on 16 August 2013, in Europe, and on 20 August 2013, in North America, by Nuclear Blast.{{cite web\\|author\\=Wookubus\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE \\- reveal cover \\+ album details!\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/notes/fleshgod\\-apocalypse/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-reveal\\-cover\\-album\\-details/10151785745723319\\|publisher\\=Facebook.com\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2013}} *Labyrinth* was recorded with Stefano Morabito at 16th Cellar Studio. It features guest contributions, and is a concept album about the myth of [Labyrinth of Knossos](/wiki/Labyrinth \"Labyrinth\") and its analogies to modern times.{{cite web\\|title\\=NEWS TO FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE BEGIN TRACKING NEW ALBUM!\\|url\\=http://www.nuclearblast.com/en/music/band/news/details/2985828\\.364415\\.fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-begin\\-tracking\\-new\\-album.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Nuclear Blast]]\\|date\\=19 June 2013\\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106192513/http://www.nuclearblast.com/en/music/band/news/details/2985828\\.364415\\.fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-begin\\-tracking\\-new\\-album.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### *King*, Trionfera's departure, and Riccardi's departure (2016–2018\\)", "Fleshgod Apocalypse's fourth album entitled *[King](/wiki/King_%28Fleshgod_Apocalypse_album%29 \"King (Fleshgod Apocalypse album)\")* was released on 5 February 2016\\. The work was an important success, peaking at \\#27 in the [Billboard Chart](http://www.billboard.com/music/fleshgod-apocalypse).", "On 10 October 2017 the band announced that Tommaso Riccardi had left the band.{{cite web\\|date\\=10 October 2017\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE\\|website\\=\\[\\[Facebook]] \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/fleshgodapocalypse/posts/10155648808811878\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2017}} He was replaced by drummer Francesco Paoli who returned to lead vocals and rhythm guitar, while guitarist Fabio Bartoletti from Deceptionist joined the band on lead guitar. The band tapped David Folchitto as their live touring drummer, who stayed with the band for two years.FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Welcome Eugene Ryabchenko As New Live Drummer [https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-welcome\\-eugene\\-ryabchenko\\-as\\-new\\-live\\-drummer/](https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod-apocalypse-welcome-eugene-ryabchenko-as-new-live-drummer/)", "### *Veleno*, official new members, and *No* (2019–2023\\)", "In 2019 Fleshgod Apocalypse released their fifth album, *Veleno*. The album continued and expanded on the style they had honed with *King,*{{Cite web\\|date\\=25 May 2019\\|title\\=Angry Metal Guy himself reviews Fleshgod Apocalypse \\- Veleno\\|url\\=https://www.angrymetalguy.com/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-veleno\\-review/\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2020\\|website\\=Angry Metal Guy\\|language\\=en\\-US}} and was accompanied by the release of two music videos directed by Giovanni Bucci for the songs \"Sugar\" and \"Monnalisa\". *[Loudwire](/wiki/Loudwire \"Loudwire\")* named it one of the 50 best metal albums of 2019{{cite web \\|title\\=The 50 Best Metal Albums of 2019 \\|url\\=https://loudwire.com/best\\-metal\\-albums\\-2019/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Loudwire]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Townsquare Media]] \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2021 \\|date\\=3 December 2019}} and *[Metal Hammer](/wiki/Metal_Hammer \"Metal Hammer\")* ranked it 11th in their 2021 list of 25 best symphonic metal album of all time.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Davies \\|first1\\=Hywel \\|last2\\=Dome \\|first2\\=Malcolm \\|last3\\=Goodman \\|first3\\=Eleanor \\|last4\\=Chantler \\|first4\\=Chris \\|last5\\=Gordon \\|first5\\=Connie \\|last6\\=Grady \\|first6\\=Spencer \\|last7\\=Rees \\|first7\\=Adam \\|last8\\=Selzer \\|first8\\=Jonathan \\|title\\=The 25 best symphonic metal albums \\|url\\=https://www.loudersound.com/features/the\\-25\\-best\\-symphonic\\-metal\\-albums \\|website\\=\\[\\[Metal Hammer]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Future plc]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2022 \\|date\\=17 November 2021}} In April 2019, it was announced that the band would be touring with [Hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy_%28band%29 \"Hypocrisy (band)\"){{Cite web\\|last\\=Blabbermouth\\|date\\=12 November 2018\\|title\\=HYPOCRISY And FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE To Join Forces For Early 2019 North American Tour\\|url\\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/hypocrisy\\-and\\-fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-to\\-join\\-forces\\-for\\-early\\-2019\\-north\\-american\\-tour/\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2020\\|website\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET}} in North America with a string quartet.", "In February 2020, Eugene Ryabchenko from [Vital Remains](/wiki/Vital_Remains \"Vital Remains\") became the band's new live drummer.FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Welcome Eugene Ryabchenko As New Live Drummer [https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-welcome\\-eugene\\-ryabchenko\\-as\\-new\\-live\\-drummer/](https://metalshockfinland.com/2020/02/19/fleshgod-apocalypse-welcome-eugene-ryabchenko-as-new-live-drummer/) Fleshgod Apocalypse was supposed to do another round of American shows with [The Agonist](/wiki/The_Agonist \"The Agonist\") in 2020, but this tour was for the most part cancelled due to [the COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). The band has resorted to streaming on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") to host [Q\\&A](/wiki/wikt:Q_and_A \"Q and A\") sessions with fans, as well as livestreaming a virtual concert at Bloom Studio in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") in August.{{Cite web\\|date\\=25 July 2020\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE TO LIVE STREAM FULL CONCERT FROM BLOOM STUDIO ON AUG 1st\\|url\\=https://musicexistence.com/blog/2020/07/25/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-to\\-live\\-stream\\-full\\-concert\\-from\\-bloom\\-studio\\-on\\-aug\\-1st/\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2020\\|website\\=Music Existence\\|language\\=en\\-US}} A video for an acoustic version of \"The Day We'll Be Gone\" was released on 23 October 2020, whereupon it was announced that soprano Veronica Bordacchini, guitarist Fabio Bartoletti and drummer Eugene Ryabchenko had officially joined the band.", "On 18 December 2020, the band released a new EP titled *No* along with a new music video for the title track. In January 2021, they released a cover of [Blue (Da Ba Dee)](/wiki/Blue_%28Da_Ba_Dee%29 \"Blue (Da Ba Dee)\").", "### Rossi's departure and *Opera* (2024–present)", "In February 2024, the band confirmed on their Facebook page that founding bassist Paolo Rossi left the band following a year's absence. They explained further that he would not be replaced, and that Francesco Paoli would take over on bass and that all clean vocals would be handled by Veronica Bordacchini. In March 2024, the band released a new single, \"Pendulum\". The song chronicles Paoli's fall while mountain climbing in August 2021 that caused the band to go on hiatus.{{Cite web\\|date\\=9 March 2024\\|title\\=FLESHGOD APOCALYPSE Streams First Song Since FRANCESCO PAOLI's Accident, \"Pendulum\"\\|url\\=https://metalinjection.net/video/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-streams\\-first\\-song\\-since\\-francesco\\-paolis\\-accident\\-pendulum\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2024\\|website\\=Metal Injection\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "On 15 June 2024, a second single \"Bloodclock\" was released along with the announcement of their sixth studio album, *Opera*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Fleshgod Apocalypse To Release Opera Album In August; \"Bloodclock\" Single / Video Out Now \\|url\\=https://bravewords.com/news/fleshgod\\-apocalypse\\-to\\-release\\-opera\\-album\\-in\\-august\\-bloodclock\\-single\\-video\\-out\\-now \\|website\\=Brave Words \\& Bloody Knuckles \\|access\\-date\\=16 September 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=14 June 2024}}", "" ]
Design and development ---------------------- ### Background At the height of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), it was recognised that the UK's flagship airline, the [British Overseas Airways Corporation](/wiki/British_Overseas_Airways_Corporation "British Overseas Airways Corporation") (BOAC), required new aircraft in its inventory. It was promptly recognised that, as the [Short Sunderland](/wiki/Short_Sunderland "Short Sunderland") military flying boats operated by the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") (RAF) bore considerable similarities to the [Short Empire](/wiki/Short_Empire "Short Empire"), a civilian flying boat, there were few challenges posed by converting excess Sunderlands for civil purposes if deemed necessary. Accordingly, during December 1942, work started on six Sunderland IIIs from Short's [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Kent "Rochester, Kent") works, stripping them of their armaments and military fittings, being instead refitted for airline purposes, having austere bench\-type seats installed within the cabin along with civil markings and registrations across their exteriors.. On 26 December 1942, the first of the conversions performed its [maiden flight](/wiki/Maiden_flight "Maiden flight"). After being delivered to BOAC, these flying boats were quickly used on the airline's [Poole](/wiki/Poole "Poole")\-[West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa "West Africa") service, transporting both passengers and [air mail](/wiki/Air_mail "Air mail") alike.Barnes 1967, p. 398\. The initial batch having been determined to be satisfactory, a further six Sunderlands were converted for similar purposes in 1943, along with a further batch of 12 during the following year.Barnes 1967, pp. 398–399\.London 2003, pp. 203–204\. Following the end of the Second World War, BOAC opted to convert its Sunderlands to a less\-austere standard, making them more suitable for peace\-time operations; they became known as the [Short Hythe](/wiki/Short_Sunderland%23Post-war_civilian_use "Short Sunderland#Post-war civilian use"). Specific changes including the replacement of the somewhat primitive bench seats with individual seats, initially permitting up to sixteen passengers to be accommodated on one deck in the initial H.1 configuration. Improved models, such as the H.2 variant, featured the addition of a [promenade](/wiki/Promenade "Promenade") deck, while the H.3 configuration, featured an additional eight seats. Up to {{convert\|6500\|lb\|kg}} of mail could also be carried. Engines were standardised as the [Bristol Pegasus 38](/wiki/Bristol_Pegasus "Bristol Pegasus").Jackson 1988, p. 152\.London 2003, p. 215\. ### Post\-war conversions [thumb\|Short Sandringham 7 VH\-APG at Cowes in 1954](/wiki/File:Short_Sandringham_7_at_Cowes.jpg "Short Sandringham 7 at Cowes.jpg") Even prior to the end of the conflict, it has been identified that, while the converted Sunderlands had proved to be successful, there were areas for improvement. Specifically, the temporary and somewhat basic fairings implemented to cover [turret](/wiki/Gun_turret%23Aircraft "Gun turret#Aircraft") positions could be replaced by more sophisticated low\-drag counterparts to improve aerodynamic efficiency. Deciding to proceed with this work, in November 1945, Shorts flew a thus refined conversion of BOAC's Sunderlands from their Rochester works. The conversions commenced with removal of their armaments and military fittings, removal of the bow and stern sections and then removal of the paint down to the bare metal before the extent of the corrosion was assessed and treated before reskinning of a considerable amount of the below waterline structure to restore its watertightness.Barton \& Heath, p. 127\. Along with the revised low\-drag fairings that were installed on both the nose and tail, a refurbished interior was installed. This flying boat was referred to as the *Sandringham*; it subsequently became known as the *Sandringham 1* to distinguish it from the more advanced conversions which had interiors customized to each customer, which later followed it. During January 1946, a [certificate of airworthiness](/wiki/Certificate_of_airworthiness "Certificate of airworthiness") was issued for the Sandringham I, it entered service with BOAC in June of that year after completing operational trials with [RAF Transport Command](/wiki/RAF_Transport_Command "RAF Transport Command"). Around this time, BOAC opted to have all of its Sunderlands refurbished to a standard akin to contemporary airliners. Shorts had envisioned BOAC issuing a prompt order for Sandringhams, but the first order for the type came from the [Argentine](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") airline [Compañía Argentina de Aeronavegación Dodero](/wiki/Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa_Argentina_de_Aeronavegaci%C3%B3n_Dodero "Compañía Argentina de Aeronavegación Dodero") instead. The airline had been keen to procure Sunderlands were its South American intercity routes, and had been impressed by information provided by Shorts on the Sandringham conversation. Ordered in two batches, one for short\-haul routes and the other for longer distances, the first *Sandringham II* was launched to great ceremony at Belfast on 17 November 1945\. There were several differences between the Sandringham I and the following production flying boats. While the first prototype had retained the Pegasus engines, common to both the Sunderland III and Hythe, later models of the Sandringham, which were converted by Short and Harland Ltd at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast") Harbour, were based on the later Sunderland V, which were instead powered by [Pratt \& Whitney "Twin Wasp"](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_R-1830 "Pratt & Whitney R-1830") engines.Barnes 1967, pp. 400\-401\. Every Sandringham was converted from surplus Sunderlands that had been formerly operated by [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command "RAF Coastal Command"). During 1963, an additional conversion of a former [Royal New Zealand Air Force](/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force "Royal New Zealand Air Force") Sunderland V was carried out by [Ansett](/wiki/Ansett_Australia "Ansett Australia") to a similar standard to the Sandringham. This aircraft, named *Islander*, was fitted with a 43\-seat interior.London 2003, p. 226\. Its conversion had been necessitated following the loss of an earlier Sandringham due to a [cyclone](/wiki/Cyclone "Cyclone") that had torn it from its moorings.Barnes 1967, pp. 406\-407\.
[ "Design and development\n----------------------", "### Background", "At the height of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), it was recognised that the UK's flagship airline, the [British Overseas Airways Corporation](/wiki/British_Overseas_Airways_Corporation \"British Overseas Airways Corporation\") (BOAC), required new aircraft in its inventory. It was promptly recognised that, as the [Short Sunderland](/wiki/Short_Sunderland \"Short Sunderland\") military flying boats operated by the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") (RAF) bore considerable similarities to the [Short Empire](/wiki/Short_Empire \"Short Empire\"), a civilian flying boat, there were few challenges posed by converting excess Sunderlands for civil purposes if deemed necessary. Accordingly, during December 1942, work started on six Sunderland IIIs from Short's [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Kent \"Rochester, Kent\") works, stripping them of their armaments and military fittings, being instead refitted for airline purposes, having austere bench\\-type seats installed within the cabin along with civil markings and registrations across their exteriors.. On 26 December 1942, the first of the conversions performed its [maiden flight](/wiki/Maiden_flight \"Maiden flight\"). After being delivered to BOAC, these flying boats were quickly used on the airline's [Poole](/wiki/Poole \"Poole\")\\-[West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa \"West Africa\") service, transporting both passengers and [air mail](/wiki/Air_mail \"Air mail\") alike.Barnes 1967, p. 398\\.", "The initial batch having been determined to be satisfactory, a further six Sunderlands were converted for similar purposes in 1943, along with a further batch of 12 during the following year.Barnes 1967, pp. 398–399\\.London 2003, pp. 203–204\\. Following the end of the Second World War, BOAC opted to convert its Sunderlands to a less\\-austere standard, making them more suitable for peace\\-time operations; they became known as the [Short Hythe](/wiki/Short_Sunderland%23Post-war_civilian_use \"Short Sunderland#Post-war civilian use\"). Specific changes including the replacement of the somewhat primitive bench seats with individual seats, initially permitting up to sixteen passengers to be accommodated on one deck in the initial H.1 configuration. Improved models, such as the H.2 variant, featured the addition of a [promenade](/wiki/Promenade \"Promenade\") deck, while the H.3 configuration, featured an additional eight seats. Up to {{convert\\|6500\\|lb\\|kg}} of mail could also be carried. Engines were standardised as the [Bristol Pegasus 38](/wiki/Bristol_Pegasus \"Bristol Pegasus\").Jackson 1988, p. 152\\.London 2003, p. 215\\.", "### Post\\-war conversions", "[thumb\\|Short Sandringham 7 VH\\-APG at Cowes in 1954](/wiki/File:Short_Sandringham_7_at_Cowes.jpg \"Short Sandringham 7 at Cowes.jpg\")\nEven prior to the end of the conflict, it has been identified that, while the converted Sunderlands had proved to be successful, there were areas for improvement. Specifically, the temporary and somewhat basic fairings implemented to cover [turret](/wiki/Gun_turret%23Aircraft \"Gun turret#Aircraft\") positions could be replaced by more sophisticated low\\-drag counterparts to improve aerodynamic efficiency. Deciding to proceed with this work, in November 1945, Shorts flew a thus refined conversion of BOAC's Sunderlands from their Rochester works. The conversions commenced with removal of their armaments and military fittings, removal of the bow and stern sections and then removal of the paint down to the bare metal before the extent of the corrosion was assessed and treated before reskinning of a considerable amount of the below waterline structure to restore its watertightness.Barton \\& Heath, p. 127\\. Along with the revised low\\-drag fairings that were installed on both the nose and tail, a refurbished interior was installed. This flying boat was referred to as the *Sandringham*; it subsequently became known as the *Sandringham 1* to distinguish it from the more advanced conversions which had interiors customized to each customer, which later followed it.", "During January 1946, a [certificate of airworthiness](/wiki/Certificate_of_airworthiness \"Certificate of airworthiness\") was issued for the Sandringham I, it entered service with BOAC in June of that year after completing operational trials with [RAF Transport Command](/wiki/RAF_Transport_Command \"RAF Transport Command\"). Around this time, BOAC opted to have all of its Sunderlands refurbished to a standard akin to contemporary airliners. Shorts had envisioned BOAC issuing a prompt order for Sandringhams, but the first order for the type came from the [Argentine](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") airline [Compañía Argentina de Aeronavegación Dodero](/wiki/Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa_Argentina_de_Aeronavegaci%C3%B3n_Dodero \"Compañía Argentina de Aeronavegación Dodero\") instead. The airline had been keen to procure Sunderlands were its South American intercity routes, and had been impressed by information provided by Shorts on the Sandringham conversation. Ordered in two batches, one for short\\-haul routes and the other for longer distances, the first *Sandringham II* was launched to great ceremony at Belfast on 17 November 1945\\.", "There were several differences between the Sandringham I and the following production flying boats. While the first prototype had retained the Pegasus engines, common to both the Sunderland III and Hythe, later models of the Sandringham, which were converted by Short and Harland Ltd at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\") Harbour, were based on the later Sunderland V, which were instead powered by [Pratt \\& Whitney \"Twin Wasp\"](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_R-1830 \"Pratt & Whitney R-1830\") engines.Barnes 1967, pp. 400\\-401\\. Every Sandringham was converted from surplus Sunderlands that had been formerly operated by [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command \"RAF Coastal Command\").", "During 1963, an additional conversion of a former [Royal New Zealand Air Force](/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force \"Royal New Zealand Air Force\") Sunderland V was carried out by [Ansett](/wiki/Ansett_Australia \"Ansett Australia\") to a similar standard to the Sandringham. This aircraft, named *Islander*, was fitted with a 43\\-seat interior.London 2003, p. 226\\. Its conversion had been necessitated following the loss of an earlier Sandringham due to a [cyclone](/wiki/Cyclone \"Cyclone\") that had torn it from its moorings.Barnes 1967, pp. 406\\-407\\.", "" ]
Operational history ------------------- [thumb\|right\|Short Sandringham 5 G\-AHZE of BOAC at Hamworthy Quay, Poole, Dorset in September 1954](/wiki/File:Short_Sandringham_5_at_Poole_1954.jpg "Short Sandringham 5 at Poole 1954.jpg") [thumb\|right\|Ansett Sandringham at [Rose Bay Sydney](/wiki/Rose_Bay%2C_New_South_Wales "Rose Bay, New South Wales") in 1970](/wiki/File:Short_S.25_Sandr_VH-BRC_Ansett_Rose_Bay_03.10.70_edited-3.jpg "Short S.25 Sandr VH-BRC Ansett Rose Bay 03.10.70 edited-3.jpg") The converted Sunderlands commenced operations with BOAC on its route between [Poole Harbour](/wiki/Poole_Harbour "Poole Harbour"), [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset "Dorset") and [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos "Lagos"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") in March 1943\. Following a proving flight to [British India](/wiki/British_India "British India"), the Sunderlands were transferred in October 1943 to flights between Poole and [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi"), via [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"). As Egypt was under military control, the aircraft were given military serial numbers and operated as part of RAF Transport Command.London 2003, p. 204\. The service was extended to [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta "Calcutta") in May 1944, while [VE\-Day](/wiki/VE-Day "VE-Day"), the end of the war in Europe, allowed the aircraft reverted to BOAC control. They continued on the India route, which was extended again to [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon "Rangoon") in [Burma](/wiki/Burma "Burma") following [VJ\-Day](/wiki/VJ-Day "VJ-Day").Barnes 1967, p. 399\. During 1946, BOAC's fleet of Hythes commenced long distance flights to Australia; on 12 May 1946, the Poole–[Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") route, which were operated in conjunction with the Australian airline [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas "Qantas"), commenced. In August of that year, BOAC's Hythes were also deployed on services to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") on what was known as the Dragon route.Barnes 1967, p. 400\. It was in 1946 that the initial production models of the Sandringham proved themselves to be capable performers in the [South American](/wiki/South_America "South America") market.Barnes 1967, p. 401\. Multiple airlines in Argentina, as well as the Uruguayan airline [CAUSA](/wiki/Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa_Aeron%C3%A1utica_Uruguaya "Compañía Aeronáutica Uruguaya"), became early operators of the type. [Aerolíneas Argentinas](/wiki/Aerol%C3%ADneas_Argentinas "Aerolíneas Argentinas") would operate Sandringhams in a passenger role up until 1962, after which they saw use as freighters up until the late 1960s.Barnes 1967, pp. 401\-402\. In 1946, BOAC recognised that its existing fleet of flying boats was insufficient to perform all of the routes it envisioned, thus the airline placed its first order for the Sandringham.Barnes 1967, p. 403\. During the following year, the Sandringham 5 was introduced into service with BOAC, which referred to it as the "Plymouth class" and operated it mainly the company's [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") routes from Southampton via Alexandria to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") and [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"). The type quickly proved to be both reliable and popular with the travelling public, leading to BOAC ordering the improved Sandringham 6, which it called the *Bermuda Class*, in 1948\.Barnes 1967, pp. 403\-404\. However, these operations were quickly overshadowed by other developments, with BOAC choosing to replace its flying boats on several routes with land\-based [Lockheed Constellation](/wiki/Lockheed_Constellation "Lockheed Constellation") airliners during 1949\. The New Zealand\-based airline [TEAL](/wiki/Tasman_Empire_Airways_Limited "Tasman Empire Airways Limited") was another early operator of the Sandringham, using it primarily on the [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") route as well as flights to various Pacific Islands. The airline opted to discontinue Sandringham operations on 19 December 1949, selling its fleet onto other airlines.Barnes 1967, pp. 404\-405\. In 1950, [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas "Qantas") introduced the first of five aircraft which flew from the [Rose Bay](/wiki/Rose_Bay%2C_New_South_Wales "Rose Bay, New South Wales") flying boat base on [Sydney Harbour](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour "Sydney Harbour") to destinations in [New Caledonia](/wiki/New_Caledonia "New Caledonia"), [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides "New Hebrides"), [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji "Fiji"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea") and [Lord Howe Island](/wiki/Lord_Howe_Island "Lord Howe Island"); two of these were purchased from TEAL and the other three were purchased from BOAC. Qantas kept its Sandringhams in regular service through to 1955\. The Sandringham was used by [Ansett](/wiki/Ansett_Australia "Ansett Australia") Flying Boat Services on the Sydney (Rose Bay) to [Lord Howe Island](/wiki/Lord_Howe_Island "Lord Howe Island") scheduled service until 1974\. One of Ansett's Sandringhams was converted from a S\-25 Sunderland previously owned by the [Royal New Zealand Air Force](/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force "Royal New Zealand Air Force"). The Sandringham was also operated by the Norwegian airline [DNL – Norwegian Airlines](/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines "Scandinavian Airlines") between 1946 and 1952 on the domestic service from [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo") to [Tromsø](/wiki/Troms%C3%B8 "Tromsø"). This customer's small fleet was specially equipped with flying in cold prevailing conditions, although services had to be halted during the winter regardless; they also featured the same [air\-to\-surface\-vessel radar](/wiki/Air-to-surface-vessel_radar "Air-to-surface-vessel radar") sets as fitted to the wartime Sunderland V for navigation purposes, helping the crew avoid mountainsides and safely operate from the [fjords](/wiki/Fjord "Fjord"). In October 1954, [Captain Sir Gordon Taylor](/wiki/Gordon_Taylor_%28aviator%29 "Gordon Taylor (aviator)") flew his newly acquired Sandringham 7 from the UK to Australia to begin a series of flying boat cruises of the south Pacific. The aircraft later passed to Réseau Aérien Interinsulaire in Tahiti and is presently stored at the [Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_et_de_l%27Espace "Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace") at [Paris Le Bourget](/wiki/Le_Bourget_aerodrome "Le Bourget aerodrome"). One of the last operators of the Sandringham was Antilles Air Boats in the [Virgin Islands](/wiki/Virgin_Islands "Virgin Islands") of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") which flew the aircraft in scheduled passenger service into the 1970s with flights from the [Charlotte Amalie Harbor Seaplane Base](/wiki/Charlotte_Amalie_Harbor_Seaplane_Base "Charlotte Amalie Harbor Seaplane Base") on [Saint Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands "Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands") and the [Christiansted Harbor Seaplane Base](/wiki/Christiansted_Harbor_Seaplane_Base "Christiansted Harbor Seaplane Base") on [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix "Saint Croix") among other destinations.<http://www.airliners.net>, photos of Antilles Air Boats Short Sandringham in the U.S. Virgin Islands
[ "Operational history\n-------------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|Short Sandringham 5 G\\-AHZE of BOAC at Hamworthy Quay, Poole, Dorset in September 1954](/wiki/File:Short_Sandringham_5_at_Poole_1954.jpg \"Short Sandringham 5 at Poole 1954.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Ansett Sandringham at [Rose Bay Sydney](/wiki/Rose_Bay%2C_New_South_Wales \"Rose Bay, New South Wales\") in 1970](/wiki/File:Short_S.25_Sandr_VH-BRC_Ansett_Rose_Bay_03.10.70_edited-3.jpg \"Short S.25 Sandr VH-BRC Ansett Rose Bay 03.10.70 edited-3.jpg\")\nThe converted Sunderlands commenced operations with BOAC on its route between [Poole Harbour](/wiki/Poole_Harbour \"Poole Harbour\"), [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset \"Dorset\") and [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos \"Lagos\"), [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\") in March 1943\\. Following a proving flight to [British India](/wiki/British_India \"British India\"), the Sunderlands were transferred in October 1943 to flights between Poole and [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\"), via [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\"). As Egypt was under military control, the aircraft were given military serial numbers and operated as part of RAF Transport Command.London 2003, p. 204\\. The service was extended to [Calcutta](/wiki/Calcutta \"Calcutta\") in May 1944, while [VE\\-Day](/wiki/VE-Day \"VE-Day\"), the end of the war in Europe, allowed the aircraft reverted to BOAC control. They continued on the India route, which was extended again to [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon \"Rangoon\") in [Burma](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\") following [VJ\\-Day](/wiki/VJ-Day \"VJ-Day\").Barnes 1967, p. 399\\.", "During 1946, BOAC's fleet of Hythes commenced long distance flights to Australia; on 12 May 1946, the Poole–[Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") route, which were operated in conjunction with the Australian airline [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas \"Qantas\"), commenced. In August of that year, BOAC's Hythes were also deployed on services to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") on what was known as the Dragon route.Barnes 1967, p. 400\\.", "It was in 1946 that the initial production models of the Sandringham proved themselves to be capable performers in the [South American](/wiki/South_America \"South America\") market.Barnes 1967, p. 401\\. Multiple airlines in Argentina, as well as the Uruguayan airline [CAUSA](/wiki/Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa_Aeron%C3%A1utica_Uruguaya \"Compañía Aeronáutica Uruguaya\"), became early operators of the type. [Aerolíneas Argentinas](/wiki/Aerol%C3%ADneas_Argentinas \"Aerolíneas Argentinas\") would operate Sandringhams in a passenger role up until 1962, after which they saw use as freighters up until the late 1960s.Barnes 1967, pp. 401\\-402\\.", "In 1946, BOAC recognised that its existing fleet of flying boats was insufficient to perform all of the routes it envisioned, thus the airline placed its first order for the Sandringham.Barnes 1967, p. 403\\. During the following year, the Sandringham 5 was introduced into service with BOAC, which referred to it as the \"Plymouth class\" and operated it mainly the company's [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") routes from Southampton via Alexandria to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") and [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"). The type quickly proved to be both reliable and popular with the travelling public, leading to BOAC ordering the improved Sandringham 6, which it called the *Bermuda Class*, in 1948\\.Barnes 1967, pp. 403\\-404\\. However, these operations were quickly overshadowed by other developments, with BOAC choosing to replace its flying boats on several routes with land\\-based [Lockheed Constellation](/wiki/Lockheed_Constellation \"Lockheed Constellation\") airliners during 1949\\.", "The New Zealand\\-based airline [TEAL](/wiki/Tasman_Empire_Airways_Limited \"Tasman Empire Airways Limited\") was another early operator of the Sandringham, using it primarily on the [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") route as well as flights to various Pacific Islands. The airline opted to discontinue Sandringham operations on 19 December 1949, selling its fleet onto other airlines.Barnes 1967, pp. 404\\-405\\. In 1950, [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas \"Qantas\") introduced the first of five aircraft which flew from the [Rose Bay](/wiki/Rose_Bay%2C_New_South_Wales \"Rose Bay, New South Wales\") flying boat base on [Sydney Harbour](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour \"Sydney Harbour\") to destinations in [New Caledonia](/wiki/New_Caledonia \"New Caledonia\"), [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"), [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\") and [Lord Howe Island](/wiki/Lord_Howe_Island \"Lord Howe Island\"); two of these were purchased from TEAL and the other three were purchased from BOAC. Qantas kept its Sandringhams in regular service through to 1955\\.", "The Sandringham was used by [Ansett](/wiki/Ansett_Australia \"Ansett Australia\") Flying Boat Services on the Sydney (Rose Bay) to [Lord Howe Island](/wiki/Lord_Howe_Island \"Lord Howe Island\") scheduled service until 1974\\. One of Ansett's Sandringhams was converted from a S\\-25 Sunderland previously owned by the [Royal New Zealand Air Force](/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force \"Royal New Zealand Air Force\"). The Sandringham was also operated by the Norwegian airline [DNL – Norwegian Airlines](/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines \"Scandinavian Airlines\") between 1946 and 1952 on the domestic service from [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\") to [Tromsø](/wiki/Troms%C3%B8 \"Tromsø\"). This customer's small fleet was specially equipped with flying in cold prevailing conditions, although services had to be halted during the winter regardless; they also featured the same [air\\-to\\-surface\\-vessel radar](/wiki/Air-to-surface-vessel_radar \"Air-to-surface-vessel radar\") sets as fitted to the wartime Sunderland V for navigation purposes, helping the crew avoid mountainsides and safely operate from the [fjords](/wiki/Fjord \"Fjord\").", "In October 1954, [Captain Sir Gordon Taylor](/wiki/Gordon_Taylor_%28aviator%29 \"Gordon Taylor (aviator)\") flew his newly acquired Sandringham 7 from the UK to Australia to begin a series of flying boat cruises of the south Pacific. The aircraft later passed to Réseau Aérien Interinsulaire in Tahiti and is presently stored at the [Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_et_de_l%27Espace \"Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace\") at [Paris Le Bourget](/wiki/Le_Bourget_aerodrome \"Le Bourget aerodrome\").", "One of the last operators of the Sandringham was Antilles Air Boats in the [Virgin Islands](/wiki/Virgin_Islands \"Virgin Islands\") of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") which flew the aircraft in scheduled passenger service into the 1970s with flights from the [Charlotte Amalie Harbor Seaplane Base](/wiki/Charlotte_Amalie_Harbor_Seaplane_Base \"Charlotte Amalie Harbor Seaplane Base\") on [Saint Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands \"Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands\") and the [Christiansted Harbor Seaplane Base](/wiki/Christiansted_Harbor_Seaplane_Base \"Christiansted Harbor Seaplane Base\") on [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix \"Saint Croix\") among other destinations.<http://www.airliners.net>, photos of Antilles Air Boats Short Sandringham in the U.S. Virgin Islands", "" ]
Notable cases ------------- In 1987, Richer acted for [surgeon](/wiki/Surgeon "Surgeon") Ian McGoldrick who was [indicted](/wiki/Indicted "Indicted") on 11 charges of [procuring abortions](/wiki/Abortion "Abortion") contrary to the then sections 64 to 66 of the Victorian *[Crimes Act 1958](/wiki/Crimes_Act_1958 "Crimes Act 1958")*{{cite Legislation AU\|Vic\|act\|ca195882\|Crimes Act 1958}}. The case was dismissed at [committal hearings](/wiki/Committal_hearing "Committal hearing"), the presiding Justice following Justice Menhennitt's reasoning in 1969 matter of *R v Davidson* \[1969] [VR](/wiki/Victorian_Reports "Victorian Reports") 667 at 670\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/VicBillsRR/2008/9\.pdf\|title\=Abortion Law Reform Bill 2008\|date\=1 September 2008\|publisher\=\[\[Parliament of Victoria]]\|accessdate\=4 February 2010}}{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=a3wQAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=dpIDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3158%2C1066997\|title\=McGoldrick cleared on 11 abortion counts\|date\=3 June 1987\|publisher\=\[\[The Age]]\|accessdate\=4 February 2010}} In 1994, Richter successfully defended [Victorian Police](/wiki/Victoria_Police "Victoria Police") officer Cliff Lockwood in the [Supreme Court of Victoria](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Victoria "Supreme Court of Victoria") against charges that Lockwood allegedly murdered [Walsh Street police shootings](/wiki/Walsh_Street_police_shootings "Walsh Street police shootings") suspect Gary Abdallah in 1989\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/drug\-case\-against\-ex\-cop\-cleared\-of\-murder/story\-e6frf7jo\-1225814275620\|title\=Drug case against ex\-cop shooter of Gary Abdallah\|last\=Buttler\|first\=Mark\|date\=29 December 2009\|publisher\=\[\[Herald Sun]]\|accessdate\=8 February 2010}} In 1996 Richter successfully defended [John Elliott](/wiki/John_Elliott_%28businessman%29 "John Elliott (businessman)") against charges that he allegedly illegally moved [A$](/wiki/Australian_Dollar "Australian Dollar") 66\.5 million from [Elders IXL](/wiki/Elders_IXL "Elders IXL"), to "Equiticorp Tasman Ltd", a [shelf company](/wiki/Shelf_company "Shelf company") Elliot was alleged to control.{{cite AustLII\|FCA\|976\|1999\|litigants\=Elliott v Seymour \|date\=19 July 1999 \|courtname\=auto}}.{{cite AustLII\|VSC\|48\|1997\|litigants\=DPP Reference No2 of 1996 \|date\=26 September 1997 \|courtname\=auto}}. In 1998 Richter [led](/wiki/King%27s_Counsel "King's Counsel") the defence for now convicted "[Hoddle Street Massacre](/wiki/Hoddle_Street_Massacre "Hoddle Street Massacre")" perpetrator [Julian Knight](/wiki/Julian_Knight_%28murderer%29 "Julian Knight (murderer)").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1301\&dat\=19880419\&id\=ilgVAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=1OQDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3095,3130719\|title\=Accused wanted to Die\|last\=Pitt\|first\=Helen\|date\=19 April 1998\|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\|accessdate\=2 February 2010}} Richter continues to represent Knight during his parole hearings on a pro\-bono basis.'[QC helps Hoddle Street killer Julian Knight's freedom bid'](http://www.news.com.au/national/victoria/qc-helps-hoddle-street-killer-julian-knights-feredom-bid/news-story/3dea643bfd4b11b1425b5d9081f10b63), *News.com.au*, 6 August 2012\. In 2000 and 2003, Richter acted for then [ATSIC](/wiki/ATSIC "ATSIC") chairman [Geoff Clark](/wiki/Geoff_Clark_%28politician%29 "Geoff Clark (politician)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/pm/stories/s792450\.htm\|title\=Clark claims racism in pub brawl case\|last\=Tozer\|first\=Kate\|date\=25 February 2003\|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\|accessdate\=10 February 2010}} In 2002 Richter acted for [Ray Williams](/wiki/Ray_Williams_%28businessman%29 "Ray Williams (businessman)") in the [HIH Insurance](/wiki/HIH_Insurance "HIH Insurance") [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") and the inter\-related court cases.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/pm/stories/s643822\.htm\|title\= Ray Williams' third day of defence at HIH inquiry\|last\=Mealy\|first\=Rachel\|date\=8 August 2002\|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\|accessdate\=1 February 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200208/s643573\.htm\|title\=Call for restraint following mobbing of former HIH chief\|date\=8 August 2002\|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\|accessdate\=1 February 2010}}{{cite AustLII\|NSWSC\|315\|2005\|litigants\=R v Williams \|date\=15 April 2005 \|courtname\=auto}}. In 2005, Richter successfully defended Melbourne underworld crime figure [Mick Gatto](/wiki/Mick_Gatto "Mick Gatto") against the charge of murdering suspected underworld hitman [Andrew Veniamin](/wiki/Andrew_Veniamin "Andrew Veniamin"). In 2009, Richter successfully defended Labor minister [Theo Theophanous](/wiki/Theo_Theophanous "Theo Theophanous") over rape charges.{{Cite news\|first\=Rick\|last\=Wallace\|url\=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/news/top\-silk\-to\-defend\-mp\-in\-sex\-case/news\-story/f19e3f4cf8b2e05af07e5f7e722ec25e?sv\=f0d686301b0894a0446f4365eefa3179\|title\=Top silk to defend MP in sex case\|newspaper\=\[\[The Australian]]\|date\=22 October 2008\|url\-access\=subscription}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.illawarramercury.com.au/story/619685/rape\-charge\-dismissed\-against\-mp\-theo\-theophanous/\|title\=Rape charge dismissed against MP Theo Theophanous\|first\=Sarah\-Jane\|last\=Collins\|date\=24 July 2009\|website\=Illawarra Mercury}} In the same year, Richter represented a high school teacher who pleaded guilty to committing sexual acts against a teenage girl. During the sentencing appeal, Richter argued that the victim was a "drama queen".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/news/teen\-sex\-victim\-drama\-queen\-lawyer/news\-story/7834309fc61763cbb68034d92566b3a8\|title\=Defence lawyer Robert Richter QC labels teen sex victim 'drama queen'\|website\=www.news.com.au}} The appeal was successful, with Richter's client being freed.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/news/sex\-act\-teacher\-in\-love\-150\-judge/news\-story/2d563a4472366defc74ba33949b41956\|title\=Teacher Paul Incani freed after appeal over student relationship\|website\=www.news.com.au}} In 2015, Richter represented an athletics coach to national champions, with extensive links to one of the country's elite Catholic schools, [St Kevin's College, Melbourne](/wiki/St_Kevin%27s_College%2C_Melbourne "St Kevin's College, Melbourne") Toorak, who was convicted of grooming a child under the age of 16\. In 2016, Richter represented one of the conspirators behind the [2015 Anzac Day Terror Plot](/wiki/Terrorism_in_Australia%232015_Anzac_Day_terror_plot "Terrorism in Australia#2015 Anzac Day terror plot"), with the conspirator sentenced to seven years imprisonment, for a crime that carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Richter argued that his client's "rehabilitation is in the public interest".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/jail\-sentences\-for\-men\-guilty\-of\-terrorrelated\-offences\-too\-lenient\-court\-told\-20170609\-gwnxtd.html\|title\=Jail sentences for men guilty of terror\-related offences too lenient, courts told\|first\=Adam Cooper, Tammy Mills, Jane\|last\=Lee\|date\=9 June 2017\|website\=The Age}} In 2017, Richter intervened in the case of [Susan Neill\-Fraser](/wiki/Susan_Neill-Fraser "Susan Neill-Fraser"), who was convicted in 2010 of [the murder of Bob Chappell](/wiki/Murder_of_Bob_Chappell "Murder of Bob Chappell"), meeting with [Tasmanian Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_Tasmania "Premier of Tasmania") [Will Hodgman](/wiki/Will_Hodgman "Will Hodgman") to call for an independent inquiry.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.themercury.com.au/news/tasmania/highprofile\-queens\-counsel\-robert\-richter\-met\-with\-premier\-will\-hodgman\-over\-murder\-case/news\-story/959fff4981f095b99a7f6401c3feed28\|publisher\=The Mercury\|title\=High profile Queens Counsel Robert Richter met with premier Will Hodgman over murder case\|accessdate\=1 September 2019\|url\-access\=subscription}} In 2017, Richter was retained by Cardinal [George Pell](/wiki/George_Pell "George Pell") after Pell was charged by Victoria Police in relation to multiple allegations of historical child sexual abuse.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/interactive/2017/misc/pellMagistratesCourt/\|title\=Pell Team 2017\|website\=www.theage.com.au\|accessdate\=22 March 2019}} At Pell's 2019 sentencing hearing, Richter said that the case was "no more than a plain vanilla sexual penetration case where the child is not actively participating".{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019\-02\-27/george\-pell\-returns\-to\-court\-for\-presentencing\-hearing/10851152\|title\='Plain vanilla' case: Pell's lawyer argues for leniency as cardinal prepares for jail\|last1\=Younger\|first1\=court reporter Emma\|last2\=staff\|date\=2019\-02\-27\|website\=ABC News\|language\=en\-AU\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-27}} He later issued a written apology for making the statement.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019\-02\-28/george\-pells\-lawyer\-robert\-richter\-apologises\-vanilla\-comments/10859414\|title\=George Pell's lawyer Robert Richter apologises for 'plain vanilla' offending comments\|date\=2019\-02\-28\|website\=ABC News\|language\=en\-AU\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-28}} [Bret Walker](/wiki/Bret_Walker "Bret Walker") replaced Richter as Pell's lead counsel for his subsequent appeal.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/national/robert\-richter\-no\-longer\-part\-of\-george\-pell\-s\-legal\-team\-for\-appeal\-20190305\-p511xj.html\|title\=Robert Richter no longer part of George Pell's legal team for appeal\|first\=Royce Millar, Chris Vedelago, Adam\|last\=Cooper\|date\=5 March 2019\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|accessdate\=5 March 2019}} Richter announced on 24 February 2021 that he would be lead counsel for [Susan Neill\-Fraser](/wiki/Murder_of_Bob_Chappell "Murder of Bob Chappell") on her subsequent appeal before the [Supreme Court of Tasmania](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Tasmania "Supreme Court of Tasmania").{{cite web\|url\= https://www.themercury.com.au/truecrimeaustralia/police\-courts/court\-of\-criminal\-appeal\-prepares\-for\-sue\-neillfrasers\-second\-bid\-to\-clear\-her\-name\-on\-march\-1/news\-story/14191e0b7f395e8a9a3c5316d8406025\|title\= Prominent silk Robert Richter QC announces he will lead Sue Neill\-Fraser's appeal hearing next week\|publisher\= The Mercury\|accessdate\= 2 March 2021}} In June 2021, he acted for [Witness K](/wiki/Bernard_Collaery%23Witness_K_Trial "Bernard Collaery#Witness K Trial") before the [ACT Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory "Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory"), arguing that the former spy should not be convicted.{{Cite news\|last\=Knaus\|first\=Christopher\|date\=17 June 2021\|title\=Witness K speaks for first time in open court as he pleads guilty to breaching secrecy laws\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/australia\-news/2021/jun/17/witness\-k\-speaks\-for\-first\-time\-in\-open\-court\-as\-he\-pleads\-guilty\-to\-breaching\-secrecy\-laws\|access\-date\=17 June 2021}} In 2021, he represented I Cook Foods at the [High Court of Australia](/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia "High Court of Australia") in a scandal named "[slug gate](/wiki/Slug_gate "Slug gate")" and won the case in 2023\.{{Cite web \|last\=Hutchinson \|first\=Stephen \|last2\=Samantha \|first2\=Brook \|date\=2021\-10\-20 \|title\=Firm in ‘slug gate’ case hires legal big gun \|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/firm\-in\-slug\-gate\-case\-hires\-legal\-big\-gun\-20211020\-p591qd.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-01 \|website\=The Age \|language\=en}}{{Cite news \|last\=Silva \|first\=Kristian \|date\=2023\-11\-13 \|title\=Former CHO Brett Sutton's decision in 'slug gate' saga unfair, court finds \|language\=en\-AU \|work\=ABC News \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023\-11\-13/i\-cook\-foods\-court\-victoria\-listeria\-outbreak\-saga/103097104 \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-01}} Richter has been described as a "progressive atheist".{{cite news\|last1\=Davey\|first1\=Melissa\|title\=George Pell committal: tension, theatre and tedium in courtroom 22\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/australia\-news/2018/mar/31/george\-pell\-committal\-tension\-theatre\-and\-tedium\-in\-courtroom\-22\|accessdate\=1 April 2018\|work\=the Guardian\|date\=30 March 2018\|language\=en}} Richter is reputed to charge between $12,000 and $15,000 a day.{{Cite news\|first\=Tessa\|last\=Akerman\|url\=https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/school\-athletics\-coach\-convicted\-of\-child\-sex\-offence/news\-story/c9a196d62ed80340f5e3a0503464b452\|title\=School athletics coach convicted of child sex offence\|newspaper\=\[\[The Australian]]\|date\=16 May 2015\|url\-access\=subscription}}
[ "Notable cases\n-------------", "In 1987, Richer acted for [surgeon](/wiki/Surgeon \"Surgeon\") Ian McGoldrick who was [indicted](/wiki/Indicted \"Indicted\") on 11 charges of [procuring abortions](/wiki/Abortion \"Abortion\") contrary to the then sections 64 to 66 of the Victorian *[Crimes Act 1958](/wiki/Crimes_Act_1958 \"Crimes Act 1958\")*{{cite Legislation AU\\|Vic\\|act\\|ca195882\\|Crimes Act 1958}}. The case was dismissed at [committal hearings](/wiki/Committal_hearing \"Committal hearing\"), the presiding Justice following Justice Menhennitt's reasoning in 1969 matter of *R v Davidson* \\[1969] [VR](/wiki/Victorian_Reports \"Victorian Reports\") 667 at 670\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/VicBillsRR/2008/9\\.pdf\\|title\\=Abortion Law Reform Bill 2008\\|date\\=1 September 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Parliament of Victoria]]\\|accessdate\\=4 February 2010}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=a3wQAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=dpIDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3158%2C1066997\\|title\\=McGoldrick cleared on 11 abortion counts\\|date\\=3 June 1987\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Age]]\\|accessdate\\=4 February 2010}}", "In 1994, Richter successfully defended [Victorian Police](/wiki/Victoria_Police \"Victoria Police\") officer Cliff Lockwood in the [Supreme Court of Victoria](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Victoria \"Supreme Court of Victoria\") against charges that Lockwood allegedly murdered [Walsh Street police shootings](/wiki/Walsh_Street_police_shootings \"Walsh Street police shootings\") suspect Gary Abdallah in 1989\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/drug\\-case\\-against\\-ex\\-cop\\-cleared\\-of\\-murder/story\\-e6frf7jo\\-1225814275620\\|title\\=Drug case against ex\\-cop shooter of Gary Abdallah\\|last\\=Buttler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=29 December 2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Herald Sun]]\\|accessdate\\=8 February 2010}}", "In 1996 Richter successfully defended [John Elliott](/wiki/John_Elliott_%28businessman%29 \"John Elliott (businessman)\") against charges that he allegedly illegally moved [A$](/wiki/Australian_Dollar \"Australian Dollar\") 66\\.5 million from [Elders IXL](/wiki/Elders_IXL \"Elders IXL\"), to \"Equiticorp Tasman Ltd\", a [shelf company](/wiki/Shelf_company \"Shelf company\") Elliot was alleged to control.{{cite AustLII\\|FCA\\|976\\|1999\\|litigants\\=Elliott v Seymour \\|date\\=19 July 1999 \\|courtname\\=auto}}.{{cite AustLII\\|VSC\\|48\\|1997\\|litigants\\=DPP Reference No2 of 1996 \\|date\\=26 September 1997 \\|courtname\\=auto}}.", "In 1998 Richter [led](/wiki/King%27s_Counsel \"King's Counsel\") the defence for now convicted \"[Hoddle Street Massacre](/wiki/Hoddle_Street_Massacre \"Hoddle Street Massacre\")\" perpetrator [Julian Knight](/wiki/Julian_Knight_%28murderer%29 \"Julian Knight (murderer)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1301\\&dat\\=19880419\\&id\\=ilgVAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=1OQDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3095,3130719\\|title\\=Accused wanted to Die\\|last\\=Pitt\\|first\\=Helen\\|date\\=19 April 1998\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]]\\|accessdate\\=2 February 2010}} Richter continues to represent Knight during his parole hearings on a pro\\-bono basis.'[QC helps Hoddle Street killer Julian Knight's freedom bid'](http://www.news.com.au/national/victoria/qc-helps-hoddle-street-killer-julian-knights-feredom-bid/news-story/3dea643bfd4b11b1425b5d9081f10b63), *News.com.au*, 6 August 2012\\.", "In 2000 and 2003, Richter acted for then [ATSIC](/wiki/ATSIC \"ATSIC\") chairman [Geoff Clark](/wiki/Geoff_Clark_%28politician%29 \"Geoff Clark (politician)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/pm/stories/s792450\\.htm\\|title\\=Clark claims racism in pub brawl case\\|last\\=Tozer\\|first\\=Kate\\|date\\=25 February 2003\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\\|accessdate\\=10 February 2010}}", "In 2002 Richter acted for [Ray Williams](/wiki/Ray_Williams_%28businessman%29 \"Ray Williams (businessman)\") in the [HIH Insurance](/wiki/HIH_Insurance \"HIH Insurance\") [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") and the inter\\-related court cases.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/pm/stories/s643822\\.htm\\|title\\= Ray Williams' third day of defence at HIH inquiry\\|last\\=Mealy\\|first\\=Rachel\\|date\\=8 August 2002\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\\|accessdate\\=1 February 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200208/s643573\\.htm\\|title\\=Call for restraint following mobbing of former HIH chief\\|date\\=8 August 2002\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]\\|accessdate\\=1 February 2010}}{{cite AustLII\\|NSWSC\\|315\\|2005\\|litigants\\=R v Williams \\|date\\=15 April 2005 \\|courtname\\=auto}}.", "In 2005, Richter successfully defended Melbourne underworld crime figure [Mick Gatto](/wiki/Mick_Gatto \"Mick Gatto\") against the charge of murdering suspected underworld hitman [Andrew Veniamin](/wiki/Andrew_Veniamin \"Andrew Veniamin\").", "", "In 2009, Richter successfully defended Labor minister [Theo Theophanous](/wiki/Theo_Theophanous \"Theo Theophanous\") over rape charges.{{Cite news\\|first\\=Rick\\|last\\=Wallace\\|url\\=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/news/top\\-silk\\-to\\-defend\\-mp\\-in\\-sex\\-case/news\\-story/f19e3f4cf8b2e05af07e5f7e722ec25e?sv\\=f0d686301b0894a0446f4365eefa3179\\|title\\=Top silk to defend MP in sex case\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\|date\\=22 October 2008\\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.illawarramercury.com.au/story/619685/rape\\-charge\\-dismissed\\-against\\-mp\\-theo\\-theophanous/\\|title\\=Rape charge dismissed against MP Theo Theophanous\\|first\\=Sarah\\-Jane\\|last\\=Collins\\|date\\=24 July 2009\\|website\\=Illawarra Mercury}} In the same year, Richter represented a high school teacher who pleaded guilty to committing sexual acts against a teenage girl. During the sentencing appeal, Richter argued that the victim was a \"drama queen\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/news/teen\\-sex\\-victim\\-drama\\-queen\\-lawyer/news\\-story/7834309fc61763cbb68034d92566b3a8\\|title\\=Defence lawyer Robert Richter QC labels teen sex victim 'drama queen'\\|website\\=www.news.com.au}} The appeal was successful, with Richter's client being freed.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/news/sex\\-act\\-teacher\\-in\\-love\\-150\\-judge/news\\-story/2d563a4472366defc74ba33949b41956\\|title\\=Teacher Paul Incani freed after appeal over student relationship\\|website\\=www.news.com.au}}", "In 2015, Richter represented an athletics coach to national champions, with extensive links to one of the country's elite Catholic schools, [St Kevin's College, Melbourne](/wiki/St_Kevin%27s_College%2C_Melbourne \"St Kevin's College, Melbourne\") Toorak, who was convicted of grooming a child under the age of 16\\.", "In 2016, Richter represented one of the conspirators behind the [2015 Anzac Day Terror Plot](/wiki/Terrorism_in_Australia%232015_Anzac_Day_terror_plot \"Terrorism in Australia#2015 Anzac Day terror plot\"), with the conspirator sentenced to seven years imprisonment, for a crime that carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Richter argued that his client's \"rehabilitation is in the public interest\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/jail\\-sentences\\-for\\-men\\-guilty\\-of\\-terrorrelated\\-offences\\-too\\-lenient\\-court\\-told\\-20170609\\-gwnxtd.html\\|title\\=Jail sentences for men guilty of terror\\-related offences too lenient, courts told\\|first\\=Adam Cooper, Tammy Mills, Jane\\|last\\=Lee\\|date\\=9 June 2017\\|website\\=The Age}}", "In 2017, Richter intervened in the case of [Susan Neill\\-Fraser](/wiki/Susan_Neill-Fraser \"Susan Neill-Fraser\"), who was convicted in 2010 of [the murder of Bob Chappell](/wiki/Murder_of_Bob_Chappell \"Murder of Bob Chappell\"), meeting with [Tasmanian Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_Tasmania \"Premier of Tasmania\") [Will Hodgman](/wiki/Will_Hodgman \"Will Hodgman\") to call for an independent inquiry.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.themercury.com.au/news/tasmania/highprofile\\-queens\\-counsel\\-robert\\-richter\\-met\\-with\\-premier\\-will\\-hodgman\\-over\\-murder\\-case/news\\-story/959fff4981f095b99a7f6401c3feed28\\|publisher\\=The Mercury\\|title\\=High profile Queens Counsel Robert Richter met with premier Will Hodgman over murder case\\|accessdate\\=1 September 2019\\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}", "In 2017, Richter was retained by Cardinal [George Pell](/wiki/George_Pell \"George Pell\") after Pell was charged by Victoria Police in relation to multiple allegations of historical child sexual abuse.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/interactive/2017/misc/pellMagistratesCourt/\\|title\\=Pell Team 2017\\|website\\=www.theage.com.au\\|accessdate\\=22 March 2019}} At Pell's 2019 sentencing hearing, Richter said that the case was \"no more than a plain vanilla sexual penetration case where the child is not actively participating\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019\\-02\\-27/george\\-pell\\-returns\\-to\\-court\\-for\\-presentencing\\-hearing/10851152\\|title\\='Plain vanilla' case: Pell's lawyer argues for leniency as cardinal prepares for jail\\|last1\\=Younger\\|first1\\=court reporter Emma\\|last2\\=staff\\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-27\\|website\\=ABC News\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-27}} He later issued a written apology for making the statement.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019\\-02\\-28/george\\-pells\\-lawyer\\-robert\\-richter\\-apologises\\-vanilla\\-comments/10859414\\|title\\=George Pell's lawyer Robert Richter apologises for 'plain vanilla' offending comments\\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-28\\|website\\=ABC News\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-28}} [Bret Walker](/wiki/Bret_Walker \"Bret Walker\") \nreplaced Richter as Pell's lead counsel for his subsequent appeal.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/national/robert\\-richter\\-no\\-longer\\-part\\-of\\-george\\-pell\\-s\\-legal\\-team\\-for\\-appeal\\-20190305\\-p511xj.html\\|title\\=Robert Richter no longer part of George Pell's legal team for appeal\\|first\\=Royce Millar, Chris Vedelago, Adam\\|last\\=Cooper\\|date\\=5 March 2019\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|accessdate\\=5 March 2019}}", "Richter announced on 24 February 2021 that he would be lead counsel for [Susan Neill\\-Fraser](/wiki/Murder_of_Bob_Chappell \"Murder of Bob Chappell\") on her subsequent appeal before the [Supreme Court of Tasmania](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Tasmania \"Supreme Court of Tasmania\").{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.themercury.com.au/truecrimeaustralia/police\\-courts/court\\-of\\-criminal\\-appeal\\-prepares\\-for\\-sue\\-neillfrasers\\-second\\-bid\\-to\\-clear\\-her\\-name\\-on\\-march\\-1/news\\-story/14191e0b7f395e8a9a3c5316d8406025\\|title\\= Prominent silk Robert Richter QC announces he will lead Sue Neill\\-Fraser's appeal hearing next week\\|publisher\\= The Mercury\\|accessdate\\= 2 March 2021}}", "In June 2021, he acted for [Witness K](/wiki/Bernard_Collaery%23Witness_K_Trial \"Bernard Collaery#Witness K Trial\") before the [ACT Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory\"), arguing that the former spy should not be convicted.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Knaus\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=17 June 2021\\|title\\=Witness K speaks for first time in open court as he pleads guilty to breaching secrecy laws\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/australia\\-news/2021/jun/17/witness\\-k\\-speaks\\-for\\-first\\-time\\-in\\-open\\-court\\-as\\-he\\-pleads\\-guilty\\-to\\-breaching\\-secrecy\\-laws\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2021}}", "In 2021, he represented I Cook Foods at the [High Court of Australia](/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia \"High Court of Australia\") in a scandal named \"[slug gate](/wiki/Slug_gate \"Slug gate\")\" and won the case in 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hutchinson \\|first\\=Stephen \\|last2\\=Samantha \\|first2\\=Brook \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-20 \\|title\\=Firm in ‘slug gate’ case hires legal big gun \\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/firm\\-in\\-slug\\-gate\\-case\\-hires\\-legal\\-big\\-gun\\-20211020\\-p591qd.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-01 \\|website\\=The Age \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Silva \\|first\\=Kristian \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-13 \\|title\\=Former CHO Brett Sutton's decision in 'slug gate' saga unfair, court finds \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|work\\=ABC News \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023\\-11\\-13/i\\-cook\\-foods\\-court\\-victoria\\-listeria\\-outbreak\\-saga/103097104 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-01}}", "Richter has been described as a \"progressive atheist\".{{cite news\\|last1\\=Davey\\|first1\\=Melissa\\|title\\=George Pell committal: tension, theatre and tedium in courtroom 22\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/australia\\-news/2018/mar/31/george\\-pell\\-committal\\-tension\\-theatre\\-and\\-tedium\\-in\\-courtroom\\-22\\|accessdate\\=1 April 2018\\|work\\=the Guardian\\|date\\=30 March 2018\\|language\\=en}}", "Richter is reputed to charge between $12,000 and $15,000 a day.{{Cite news\\|first\\=Tessa\\|last\\=Akerman\\|url\\=https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/school\\-athletics\\-coach\\-convicted\\-of\\-child\\-sex\\-offence/news\\-story/c9a196d62ed80340f5e3a0503464b452\\|title\\=School athletics coach convicted of child sex offence\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\|date\\=16 May 2015\\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}", "" ]
Event ----- | \+ Other on\-screen personnel | Role: | Name: | | --- | --- | --- | |Commentator [Jim Ross](/wiki/Jim_Ross "Jim Ross") | | [Magnum T. A.](/wiki/Magnum_T._A. "Magnum T. A.") | |Referee [Teddy Long](/wiki/Teddy_Long "Teddy Long") | | [Tommy Young](/wiki/Tommy_Young "Tommy Young") | |Interviewer [Bob Caudle](/wiki/Bob_Caudle "Bob Caudle") | |Ring announcer [Gary Michael Cappetta](/wiki/Gary_Michael_Cappetta "Gary Michael Cappetta") | ### Preliminary matches As the event aired live on pay\-per\-view, the first match to take place was between [Michael Hayes](/wiki/Michael_Hayes_%28wrestler%29 "Michael Hayes (wrestler)") and [Russian Assassin \#1](/wiki/David_Sheldon_%28wrestler%29 "David Sheldon (wrestler)"). Assassin delivered a series of [Jumping Lariats](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Lariat "Professional wrestling attacks#Lariat") called *Russian Sickle* to Hayes. Hayes made comebacks during the match but Assassin dominated him. Assassin's [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Manager (professional wrestling)") [Paul Jones](/wiki/Paul_Jones_%28wrestler%29 "Paul Jones (wrestler)") interfered in the match by attacking Hayes. Assassin tried to attack Hayes in the corner but Hayes countered it and tried to perform a [Bulldog](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Bulldog "Professional wrestling throws#Bulldog") but Assassin pushed him to the mat. Assassin tried to deliver a [Suplex](/wiki/Suplex "Suplex") but Hayes countered it. Hayes avoided a [Corner Clothesline](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Corner_clothesline "Professional wrestling attacks#Corner clothesline") by Assassin and delivered him [Mounted Punches](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Mounted_punches "Professional wrestling attacks#Mounted punches") in the corner. Hayes followed with a [DDT](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29 "DDT (professional wrestling)") to win the match. The next match was between [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 "Sting (wrestler)") and [Butch Reed](/wiki/Butch_Reed "Butch Reed"). Sting dominated Reed in the earlier part of the match. Reed gained momentum in the match with the help of his manager [Hiro Matsuda](/wiki/Yasuhiro_Kojima "Yasuhiro Kojima"). Reed applied a [Chinlock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Chinlock "Professional wrestling holds#Chinlock") and began using dirty tactics. Sting tossed Reed into the corner and tried to perform a [Corner Splash](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Stinger_splash "Professional wrestling attacks#Stinger splash"), which he called *Stinger Splash* but Reed avoided it. Reed tried to perform a Corner Clothesline but fell out to the floor. Sting delivered a [Vertical Suplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Vertical_suplex "Suplex#Vertical suplex") to Reed and tried to [pin](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Pin (professional wrestling)") him but got a [near\-fall](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Near-fall "Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Near-fall") as Matsuda pulled Sting out of the ring. Reed took advantage and pulled Sting in the ring to perform a [Swinging Neckbreaker](/wiki/Neckbreaker%23Swinging_neckbreaker "Neckbreaker#Swinging neckbreaker"). He applied another Chinlock. Sting countered with a [Jawbreaker](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Jawbreaker "Professional wrestling throws#Jawbreaker"). Sting performed a [Diving Elbow Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_elbow_drop "Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving elbow drop"). Reed threw Sting out of the ring and [stomped](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Stomp "Professional wrestling attacks#Stomp") him on the apron. Sting managed to deliver a [Shoulder Block](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Shoulder_block "Professional wrestling attacks#Shoulder block") and tried to perform a [Sunset Flip](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Sunset_flip "Pin (professional wrestling)#Sunset flip") but Reed fell on Sting and held the ropes for the pinfall. The [referee](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Referee (professional wrestling)") [Teddy Long](/wiki/Theodore_Long "Theodore Long") pulled Reed from the ropes, causing Sting to pin Reed with the Sunset Flip for the win. The third match was a [Loser Leaves NWA match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Loser_Leaves_Town_match "Professional wrestling match types#Loser Leaves Town match") pitting the [Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)") ([Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton "Bobby Eaton") and [Stan Lane](/wiki/Stan_Lane "Stan Lane")) and their manager [Jim Cornette](/wiki/Jim_Cornette "Jim Cornette") against [Original Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Randy_Rose_and_Dennis_Condrey "The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)#Randy Rose and Dennis Condrey") ([Dennis Condrey](/wiki/Dennis_Condrey "Dennis Condrey") and [Randy Rose](/wiki/Randy_Rose "Randy Rose")) and their manager [Paul E. Dangerously](/wiki/Paul_Heyman "Paul Heyman"). Condrey left NWA just before the event and was replaced by [Jack Victory](/wiki/Jack_Victory "Jack Victory"). Lane and Rose started the match. The match went back and forth with both teams exchanging momentum. Dangerously was eventually tagged into the match. Dangerously tagged in Rose after a few attacks. Rose was tagged in. Dangerously distracted Cornette, allowing Rose to attack Cornette. He tagged in Dangerously, allowing Cornette and Dangerously to battle each other for the first time in the match. The match continued until miscommunication occurred between Original Midnight Express. Cornette tripped Dangerously outside the ring while Eaton and Lane delivered a [Double Flapjack](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Double_flapjack "Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Double flapjack") to Rose to win the match. The next match that occurred was between [Rick Steiner](/wiki/Rick_Steiner "Rick Steiner") and [Mike Rotunda](/wiki/Mike_Rotunda "Mike Rotunda") for the [NWA World Television Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Television_Championship "WCW World Television Championship"). Steiner's younger brother [Scott Steiner](/wiki/Scott_Steiner "Scott Steiner") made his NWA debut at the event and appeared at ringside with Rick to manage him. Steiner and Rotunda exchanged submission maneuvers on each other. Rotunda offered Steiner a handshake but Steiner did not shake hands with him. Rotunda applied an [Abdominal Stretch](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Abdominal_stretch "Professional wrestling holds#Abdominal stretch") and cheated near the ropes. Steiner countered the hold with an [Oklahoma Roll](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Oklahoma_roll "Pin (professional wrestling)#Oklahoma roll") but was in the ropes. Rotunda gained momentum and attacked Steiner in the corner with his shoulder. Steiner performed a [Scoop Powerslam](/wiki/Powerslam%23Scoop_powerslam "Powerslam#Scoop powerslam") to Rotunda. Steiner was about to win the match until [Kevin Sullivan](/wiki/Kevin_Sullivan_%28wrestler%29 "Kevin Sullivan (wrestler)") distracted Steiner by talking about his dog Spike. Rotunda took advantage and delivered a [Back Suplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Belly_to_back_suplex "Suplex#Belly to back suplex") to Steiner. Rotunda missed a [Dropkick](/wiki/Dropkick "Dropkick") on Steiner and received Mounted Punches in the corner by Steiner. Steiner applied a [Sleeper Hold](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Sleeper_hold "Professional wrestling holds#Sleeper hold") on Rotunda. Rotunda's back fell on Steiner and Steiner's shoulders were pinned. As a result, Rotunda won the title. ### Main event matches The fifth match pitted [Barry Windham](/wiki/Barry_Windham "Barry Windham") defending the [NWA United States Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_States_Championship "WWE United States Championship") against [Lex Luger](/wiki/Lex_Luger "Lex Luger"). Luger dominated Windham for much of the earlier part of the match by performing his power moves, the then action spilled to the ringside. The two returned with Windham delivering a Suplex to Luger to gain the advantage. The two outside the ring where Windham attacked Luger on the guardrail. Windham tried to [punch](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Punch "Professional wrestling attacks#Punch") Luger into the ringpost but Luger avoided it and Windham injured his hand. It became trouble for Windham as he was unable to use his hurt hand. He managed to apply a [clawhold](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Clawhold "Professional wrestling holds#Clawhold") on Luger but Luger escaped the hold. Windham then delivered a [superplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Superplex "Suplex#Superplex") from the top rope and tried to pin Luger's shoulders to the mat. Luger reversed the pin into one of his own and got the three count. As a result, Luger won the title. The final match on the [undercard](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29%23Undercard "Card (sports)#Undercard") was a [tag team](/wiki/Tag_team "Tag team") match between [The Road Warriors](/wiki/The_Road_Warriors "The Road Warriors") ([Hawk](/wiki/Road_Warrior_Hawk "Road Warrior Hawk") and [Animal](/wiki/Road_Warrior_Animal "Road Warrior Animal")) and [The Varsity Club](/wiki/The_Varsity_Club "The Varsity Club") (["Dr. Death" Steve Williams](/wiki/%22Dr._Death%22_Steve_Williams) and [Kevin Sullivan](/wiki/Kevin_Sullivan_%28wrestler%29 "Kevin Sullivan (wrestler)")) for the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship "WCW World Tag Team Championship"). Sullivan and Williams' [NWA United States Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_United_States_Tag_Team_Championship "WCW United States Tag Team Championship") was not on the line, despite being the champions. Animal and Williams started the match. Hawk and Animal dominated Williams in the beginning, before Williams eventually tagged in Sullivan. Sullivan and Williams double\-teamed Animal to gain control of the match. Hawk and Williams started battling each other outside the ring and the referee was distracted by their fight. This allowed Sullivan to perform a [chair shot](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Chair_shot "Professional wrestling attacks#Chair shot") on Animal. Sullivan and Williams continued to dominate Animal, before Hawk was tagged in. The Road Warriors tried to perform a [Doomsday Device](/wiki/Doomsday_Device_%28wrestling%29 "Doomsday Device (wrestling)"), but Williams broke it up. Animal fought Williams while Hawk performed a [Flying Clothesline](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_clothesline "Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving clothesline") on Sullivan to win the match and retain the titles. The [main event](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29%23Main_event "Card (sports)#Main event") featured [Ric Flair](/wiki/Ric_Flair "Ric Flair") defending the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship "NWA World Heavyweight Championship") against [Ricky Steamboat](/wiki/Ricky_Steamboat "Ricky Steamboat"). Steamboat got the early momentum until Flair began attacking Steamboat. Flair performed a [Jumping Knee Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Knee_drop "Professional wrestling attacks#Knee drop") on Steamboat. Steamboat [whipped](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Irish_whip "Professional wrestling throws#Irish whip") Flair and Flair did a [Flair Flip](/wiki/Ric_Flair%23In_wrestling "Ric Flair#In wrestling") onto the apron. He climbed the top rope and delivered a [Diving Crossbody](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_crossbody "Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving crossbody") to Steamboat but Steamboat countered it into a pinfall. Flair delivered an [Inverted Atomic Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Inverted_atomic_drop "Professional wrestling throws#Inverted atomic drop") to Steamboat and followed a [Figure Four Leglock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Figure-four_leglock "Professional wrestling holds#Figure-four leglock"). Flair began attacking Steamboat's knee. Steamboat eventually gained momentum by performing a Clothesline. Steamboat tried to deliver a Diving Crossbody on Flair but the referee was hit as well. Steamboat tried to wake up the referee. Flair took advantage and tried to pin Steamboat with a [Roll\-up](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Roll-up "Pin (professional wrestling)#Roll-up"). Flair tossed Steamboat over the top rope and Steamboat climbed the top rope to perform a Diving Crossbody but Flair moved out of the way. Teddy Long came in as the replacement referee. Flair tried to apply a Figure Four Leglock on Steamboat but Steamboat countered it with a [Small Package](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Small_package "Pin (professional wrestling)#Small package") to pin Flair to win the title.
[ "Event\n-----", "", "| \\+ Other on\\-screen personnel | Role: | Name: |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n|Commentator", "[Jim Ross](/wiki/Jim_Ross \"Jim Ross\") |\n| [Magnum T. A.](/wiki/Magnum_T._A. \"Magnum T. A.\") |\n|Referee", "[Teddy Long](/wiki/Teddy_Long \"Teddy Long\") |\n| [Tommy Young](/wiki/Tommy_Young \"Tommy Young\") |\n|Interviewer", "[Bob Caudle](/wiki/Bob_Caudle \"Bob Caudle\") |\n|Ring announcer", "[Gary Michael Cappetta](/wiki/Gary_Michael_Cappetta \"Gary Michael Cappetta\") |", "### Preliminary matches", "As the event aired live on pay\\-per\\-view, the first match to take place was between [Michael Hayes](/wiki/Michael_Hayes_%28wrestler%29 \"Michael Hayes (wrestler)\") and [Russian Assassin \\#1](/wiki/David_Sheldon_%28wrestler%29 \"David Sheldon (wrestler)\"). Assassin delivered a series of [Jumping Lariats](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Lariat \"Professional wrestling attacks#Lariat\") called *Russian Sickle* to Hayes. Hayes made comebacks during the match but Assassin dominated him. Assassin's [manager](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Manager (professional wrestling)\") [Paul Jones](/wiki/Paul_Jones_%28wrestler%29 \"Paul Jones (wrestler)\") interfered in the match by attacking Hayes. Assassin tried to attack Hayes in the corner but Hayes countered it and tried to perform a [Bulldog](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Bulldog \"Professional wrestling throws#Bulldog\") but Assassin pushed him to the mat. Assassin tried to deliver a [Suplex](/wiki/Suplex \"Suplex\") but Hayes countered it. Hayes avoided a [Corner Clothesline](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Corner_clothesline \"Professional wrestling attacks#Corner clothesline\") by Assassin and delivered him [Mounted Punches](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Mounted_punches \"Professional wrestling attacks#Mounted punches\") in the corner. Hayes followed with a [DDT](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"DDT (professional wrestling)\") to win the match.", "The next match was between [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 \"Sting (wrestler)\") and [Butch Reed](/wiki/Butch_Reed \"Butch Reed\"). Sting dominated Reed in the earlier part of the match. Reed gained momentum in the match with the help of his manager [Hiro Matsuda](/wiki/Yasuhiro_Kojima \"Yasuhiro Kojima\"). Reed applied a [Chinlock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Chinlock \"Professional wrestling holds#Chinlock\") and began using dirty tactics. Sting tossed Reed into the corner and tried to perform a [Corner Splash](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Stinger_splash \"Professional wrestling attacks#Stinger splash\"), which he called *Stinger Splash* but Reed avoided it. Reed tried to perform a Corner Clothesline but fell out to the floor. Sting delivered a [Vertical Suplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Vertical_suplex \"Suplex#Vertical suplex\") to Reed and tried to [pin](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Pin (professional wrestling)\") him but got a [near\\-fall](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Near-fall \"Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Near-fall\") as Matsuda pulled Sting out of the ring. Reed took advantage and pulled Sting in the ring to perform a [Swinging Neckbreaker](/wiki/Neckbreaker%23Swinging_neckbreaker \"Neckbreaker#Swinging neckbreaker\"). He applied another Chinlock. Sting countered with a [Jawbreaker](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Jawbreaker \"Professional wrestling throws#Jawbreaker\"). Sting performed a [Diving Elbow Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_elbow_drop \"Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving elbow drop\"). Reed threw Sting out of the ring and [stomped](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Stomp \"Professional wrestling attacks#Stomp\") him on the apron. Sting managed to deliver a [Shoulder Block](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Shoulder_block \"Professional wrestling attacks#Shoulder block\") and tried to perform a [Sunset Flip](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Sunset_flip \"Pin (professional wrestling)#Sunset flip\") but Reed fell on Sting and held the ropes for the pinfall. The [referee](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Referee (professional wrestling)\") [Teddy Long](/wiki/Theodore_Long \"Theodore Long\") pulled Reed from the ropes, causing Sting to pin Reed with the Sunset Flip for the win.", "The third match was a [Loser Leaves NWA match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Loser_Leaves_Town_match \"Professional wrestling match types#Loser Leaves Town match\") pitting the [Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)\") ([Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton \"Bobby Eaton\") and [Stan Lane](/wiki/Stan_Lane \"Stan Lane\")) and their manager [Jim Cornette](/wiki/Jim_Cornette \"Jim Cornette\") against [Original Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Randy_Rose_and_Dennis_Condrey \"The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)#Randy Rose and Dennis Condrey\") ([Dennis Condrey](/wiki/Dennis_Condrey \"Dennis Condrey\") and [Randy Rose](/wiki/Randy_Rose \"Randy Rose\")) and their manager [Paul E. Dangerously](/wiki/Paul_Heyman \"Paul Heyman\"). Condrey left NWA just before the event and was replaced by [Jack Victory](/wiki/Jack_Victory \"Jack Victory\"). Lane and Rose started the match. The match went back and forth with both teams exchanging momentum. Dangerously was eventually tagged into the match. Dangerously tagged in Rose after a few attacks. Rose was tagged in. Dangerously distracted Cornette, allowing Rose to attack Cornette. He tagged in Dangerously, allowing Cornette and Dangerously to battle each other for the first time in the match. The match continued until miscommunication occurred between Original Midnight Express. Cornette tripped Dangerously outside the ring while Eaton and Lane delivered a [Double Flapjack](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Double_flapjack \"Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Double flapjack\") to Rose to win the match.", "The next match that occurred was between [Rick Steiner](/wiki/Rick_Steiner \"Rick Steiner\") and [Mike Rotunda](/wiki/Mike_Rotunda \"Mike Rotunda\") for the [NWA World Television Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Television_Championship \"WCW World Television Championship\"). Steiner's younger brother [Scott Steiner](/wiki/Scott_Steiner \"Scott Steiner\") made his NWA debut at the event and appeared at ringside with Rick to manage him. Steiner and Rotunda exchanged submission maneuvers on each other. Rotunda offered Steiner a handshake but Steiner did not shake hands with him. Rotunda applied an [Abdominal Stretch](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Abdominal_stretch \"Professional wrestling holds#Abdominal stretch\") and cheated near the ropes. Steiner countered the hold with an [Oklahoma Roll](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Oklahoma_roll \"Pin (professional wrestling)#Oklahoma roll\") but was in the ropes. Rotunda gained momentum and attacked Steiner in the corner with his shoulder. Steiner performed a [Scoop Powerslam](/wiki/Powerslam%23Scoop_powerslam \"Powerslam#Scoop powerslam\") to Rotunda. Steiner was about to win the match until [Kevin Sullivan](/wiki/Kevin_Sullivan_%28wrestler%29 \"Kevin Sullivan (wrestler)\") distracted Steiner by talking about his dog Spike. Rotunda took advantage and delivered a [Back Suplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Belly_to_back_suplex \"Suplex#Belly to back suplex\") to Steiner. Rotunda missed a [Dropkick](/wiki/Dropkick \"Dropkick\") on Steiner and received Mounted Punches in the corner by Steiner. Steiner applied a [Sleeper Hold](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Sleeper_hold \"Professional wrestling holds#Sleeper hold\") on Rotunda. Rotunda's back fell on Steiner and Steiner's shoulders were pinned. As a result, Rotunda won the title.", "### Main event matches", "The fifth match pitted [Barry Windham](/wiki/Barry_Windham \"Barry Windham\") defending the [NWA United States Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWE_United_States_Championship \"WWE United States Championship\") against [Lex Luger](/wiki/Lex_Luger \"Lex Luger\"). Luger dominated Windham for much of the earlier part of the match by performing his power moves, the then action spilled to the ringside. The two returned with Windham delivering a Suplex to Luger to gain the advantage. The two outside the ring where Windham attacked Luger on the guardrail. Windham tried to [punch](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Punch \"Professional wrestling attacks#Punch\") Luger into the ringpost but Luger avoided it and Windham injured his hand. It became trouble for Windham as he was unable to use his hurt hand. He managed to apply a [clawhold](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Clawhold \"Professional wrestling holds#Clawhold\") on Luger but Luger escaped the hold. Windham then delivered a [superplex](/wiki/Suplex%23Superplex \"Suplex#Superplex\") from the top rope and tried to pin Luger's shoulders to the mat. Luger reversed the pin into one of his own and got the three count. As a result, Luger won the title.", "The final match on the [undercard](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29%23Undercard \"Card (sports)#Undercard\") was a [tag team](/wiki/Tag_team \"Tag team\") match between [The Road Warriors](/wiki/The_Road_Warriors \"The Road Warriors\") ([Hawk](/wiki/Road_Warrior_Hawk \"Road Warrior Hawk\") and [Animal](/wiki/Road_Warrior_Animal \"Road Warrior Animal\")) and [The Varsity Club](/wiki/The_Varsity_Club \"The Varsity Club\") ([\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams](/wiki/%22Dr._Death%22_Steve_Williams) and [Kevin Sullivan](/wiki/Kevin_Sullivan_%28wrestler%29 \"Kevin Sullivan (wrestler)\")) for the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"WCW World Tag Team Championship\"). Sullivan and Williams' [NWA United States Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_United_States_Tag_Team_Championship \"WCW United States Tag Team Championship\") was not on the line, despite being the champions. Animal and Williams started the match. Hawk and Animal dominated Williams in the beginning, before Williams eventually tagged in Sullivan. Sullivan and Williams double\\-teamed Animal to gain control of the match. Hawk and Williams started battling each other outside the ring and the referee was distracted by their fight. This allowed Sullivan to perform a [chair shot](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Chair_shot \"Professional wrestling attacks#Chair shot\") on Animal. Sullivan and Williams continued to dominate Animal, before Hawk was tagged in. The Road Warriors tried to perform a [Doomsday Device](/wiki/Doomsday_Device_%28wrestling%29 \"Doomsday Device (wrestling)\"), but Williams broke it up. Animal fought Williams while Hawk performed a [Flying Clothesline](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_clothesline \"Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving clothesline\") on Sullivan to win the match and retain the titles.", "The [main event](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29%23Main_event \"Card (sports)#Main event\") featured [Ric Flair](/wiki/Ric_Flair \"Ric Flair\") defending the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"NWA World Heavyweight Championship\") against [Ricky Steamboat](/wiki/Ricky_Steamboat \"Ricky Steamboat\"). Steamboat got the early momentum until Flair began attacking Steamboat. Flair performed a [Jumping Knee Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_attacks%23Knee_drop \"Professional wrestling attacks#Knee drop\") on Steamboat. Steamboat [whipped](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Irish_whip \"Professional wrestling throws#Irish whip\") Flair and Flair did a [Flair Flip](/wiki/Ric_Flair%23In_wrestling \"Ric Flair#In wrestling\") onto the apron. He climbed the top rope and delivered a [Diving Crossbody](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Diving_crossbody \"Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving crossbody\") to Steamboat but Steamboat countered it into a pinfall. Flair delivered an [Inverted Atomic Drop](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_throws%23Inverted_atomic_drop \"Professional wrestling throws#Inverted atomic drop\") to Steamboat and followed a [Figure Four Leglock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Figure-four_leglock \"Professional wrestling holds#Figure-four leglock\"). Flair began attacking Steamboat's knee. Steamboat eventually gained momentum by performing a Clothesline. Steamboat tried to deliver a Diving Crossbody on Flair but the referee was hit as well. Steamboat tried to wake up the referee. Flair took advantage and tried to pin Steamboat with a [Roll\\-up](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Roll-up \"Pin (professional wrestling)#Roll-up\"). Flair tossed Steamboat over the top rope and Steamboat climbed the top rope to perform a Diving Crossbody but Flair moved out of the way. Teddy Long came in as the replacement referee. Flair tried to apply a Figure Four Leglock on Steamboat but Steamboat countered it with a [Small Package](/wiki/Pin_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Small_package \"Pin (professional wrestling)#Small package\") to pin Flair to win the title.", "" ]
Intellectual collaboration between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov ------------------------------------------------------------------- ### *Correspondence from Two Corners* Olga Shore worked for many years on the preface to the Italian edition of Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon's philosophical treatise *Correspondence from Two Corners*, written in Moscow in the early 1920s. In Lydia Ivanova's memoirs, the history of this publication is presented in a humorous way.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanova\|1992\|pp\=291—292}} A verbal agreement between Ivanov and O. Resnevich\-Seniorelli on the translation seems to have been reached around 1928\. The reason for the beginning of this work was obvious: in 1926 a German translation of the treatise was published, which caused a certain resonance in the European philosophical community. O. Signorelli already had experience in translating the Russian philosopher of religion: it was she who produced the Italian version of [N. A. Berdyaev's](/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev "Nikolai Berdyaev") article *The Soul of Russia*, which made him famous in Italy. Olga Shore, who had known Gershenzon for a long time, supported her friend and patron in every possible way. A letter from Resnevich\-Seniorelli to Olga Shore (17 August 1928\) expressed the hope that the book would be published by the end of September; in fact, it was not until 1932 that it appeared. The original plan was frustrated by the indifference of Ivanov, who took a long time to proofread. In February 1929, O. Seniorelli urged Vyacheslav Ivanovich to complete the "revision" of the translation, expecting to conclude a contract with the Carabba publishing house "so that the book would be published at the latest in May" of the same year. The contract was never signed, however, because Ivanov sent the manuscript on 3 March, on the pretext that he was busy teaching. In his correspondence with Olga Shore, the poet expressed his dissatisfaction, claiming that these difficulties "distracted" him. Olga Alexandrovna herself was convinced of the quality of the translation, "perfect in its way and place".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 256—258\. In a letter dated 31 August 1928, O. Signorelli suggested that Olga Shore "prepare a short introduction, at least in a few words". According to the correspondence that followed, Olga Alexandrovna did not immediately decide to accept the proposal. On 17 February 1929, she asked Vyacheslav Ivanov to tell her about himself and M. Gershenzon "what you think is necessary and possible to tell the Italian public". She called her own inability to talk about the views of Mikhail Osipovich, whom she had known for a long time, "wildness". Ivanov did not reply, and Olga Shore then undertook to personally reconstruct her world view and creative biography. In subsequent correspondence, the preface is referred to as "articulus", "articuletto" or "articuletto". It seems impossible to trace the moment when a brief biographical note became a fundamental study. Judging by the fragments that have survived, the early version differed greatly from the published one: for example, Olga Shore wrote extensively about the role of [L. D. Zinovieva\-Annibal](/wiki/Lydia_Zinovieva-Annibal "Lydia Zinovieva-Annibal") in the poet's formation. Vyacheslav Ivanovich described the written work as "a broadly conceived and philosophically constructive work", but doubting Senorelli's ability to translate it adequately, he began to correct and shorten the text, for which he received thanks in a letter dated 6 May 1929\. Seniorelli noted that the "articulos" were "more difficult" than the correspondence between Gershenzon and Ivanov, "more esoteric", and based on almost untranslatable quotations from Ivanov's early articles. According to the researcher Ksenia Kumpan, "Ivanov did not trust not only the translator but, it seems, the interpreter of his work", and in a letter of 8 May he directly regretted that Olga Alexandrovna had taken on a work she could not cope with. The same idea was repeated in a letter of 29 June: "in this long and complicated work you will still not say the most important thing 'due to circumstances beyond your control'...". The work was interrupted in July 1929 when Olga Shore went to Paris to look after her sick cousin, but she took the manuscript with her and reported from the French capital on 1 August that "the articulos have become unrecognisable". However, she was immediately self\-critical, stating that the text was "irritatingly helpless and colourless". This version raised the question of the philosopher Ivanov's movement from Dionysianism to Christ and the Church. In a reply dated 12 August, Vyacheslav Ivanovich even toyed with the idea of personally translating Olga Shore's article to Italian.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 258—260\. In her September correspondence with O. Signorelli, Shore complained that Ivanov was 'terribly difficult and elusive', which delayed the completion of his biography until November. Ivanov himself sarcastically compared himself to a 'bottomless vessel' and Olga to 'one of the [Danaids](/wiki/Dana%C3%AFdes "Danaïdes")'. It was not until 3 December, that he received the four chapters devoted to himself. On 11 February 1930, in their correspondence, it was noted that O. A. Shore had decided to completely revise the entire plan of the publication. О. Signorelli insisted that the preface should not exceed 30 pages in order to maintain the proportion between the introduction and the main text. Olga Alexandrovna responded by suggesting, on behalf of Ivanov, that the book should include the article *Kruchi* and also Gershenzon's *Sun Over the Darkness*. Then it was possible to write a ten\-page preface and, as an appendix in small print, a long article by Shore "on the thoughts and fates of both authors". The Italian publisher did not agree to this plan and rushed the translator and the author of the preface to publish a religious\-philosophical treatise before [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") (20 April). Olga Shore had to admit to writing a new, lighter text ("to clarify the 'letters'..."), but it was not ready before Easter. Seniorelli left to visit her daughter in Latvia, and in May Ivanov urged Shore to "work well". In August Olga Shore wrote the last pages of her essay directly in Italian. It was not until 23 August that Ivanov sent a draft with his corrections; after an urgent re\-whitening, the manuscript was sent to O. Signorelli on 27 August 1930\. According to the correspondence between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov, he disapproved of the "articuletto", especially the part devoted to his own views, calling it "inarticulate". At the last stage he excluded the last fragment, which compared the two philosophical systems of the correspondents "from two angles". Ivanov rewrote the fragment on time and space, which is recognisable in the published version by its complicated stylistics and "quotational language".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 260—262\. In the published version, the introduction by Olga Shore (under the pseudonym *O. Deschartes*) ran to 63 small\-format pages, divided into an introduction on the history of the correspondence itself and two chapters of equal length on Ivanov and Gershenzon. The chapters are organised in the same way, beginning with a statement of worldview and "spiritual path" and ending with a biographical paragraph. The manuscript was submitted to the Karabba publishing house on 7 September 1930, but in November printing was postponed until February 1931\. During this time a French translation was published, for which the text of *Correspondence*... was substantially edited by Vyacheslav Ivanov, who wrote an epilogue describing the development of his spiritual life. The book was not published until the winter of 1931, and a new proof\-reading, taking into account the French revision, was sent to the publisher on 8 September. Giuseppe Carabba, the owner of the publishing house, was literally furious that he had received a new text under the guise of a proofreading and demanded payment for a new typesetting. As a result, two new proofs were required in November and December. Further delays followed in 1932, and it was not until 25 June that the Italian edition of *Correspondence from Two Corners* was printed.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 263—265\. Olga Shore's biographical essays on Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon were the first publications on these thinkers in Italian. Her so\-called "short biography" (*Cenni biografici*) of Ivanov was published in a special issue of "Il Convegno. Rivista di letteratura e di arte" (1934, no. 8\-12, pp. 384\-408\) and became the basis for an extensive biography of Vyacheslav Ivanovich, published in 1971 as an introduction to his collected works. Ivanov himself, at the end of his life, recognised that his life, worldview and creativity "in their development" were "fully and penetratingly shown" by Olga Alexandrovna. ### *The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir* According to the testimony of O. Shore, Vyacheslav Ivanov began to write the text of *{{Interlanguage link\|The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir\|lt\=The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir\|ru\|Повесть о Светомире царевиче}}* in Rome on the night of 27\-28 September 1928\. The first song was finished in the autumn of the same year, in its original version it contained texts that were later incorporated into the next song; the poet worked on the second part (the third song of the published version) in Pavia, finishing it on 16 June 1929\. The first chapters of the third song were composed in Pavia between 1930 and 1932\. After moving to Rome in 1934, V. I. Ivanov continued to work on chapters 11\-17 of the *Third Song*, returning to them periodically until 1939\. He was greatly stimulated by his work at the [Pontifical Oriental Institute](/wiki/Pontifical_Oriental_Institute "Pontifical Oriental Institute"), for which he reread sacred texts and immersed himself in Church Slavonic studies. It was not until January 1945 that the third song of the story was completed. The notes on the autographs of the fourth song indicate that work on it was carried out from February to December 1945\. According to the testimony of O. Shore and the poet's daughter L. V. Ivanova, Vyacheslav Ivanovich continued working on the story literally until his death.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|pp\=194—196, 199—200}} On 25 August 1930, Olga Alexandrovna Shore sent Ivanov a postcard in which she reported that Svetomir was "haunting" her and that he had finally mystically "revealed" to her the story of his life. The poet's reply, dated 29 August, shows that Vyacheslav Ivanov had no clear plan for the continuation of his work at that time. A. L. Toporkov drew attention to two problems in this connection: first, O. A. Shore thought it possible to compose the plot of the story for Ivanov; second, it is quite possible that the continuation and was embodied in their own version of *Adolescence of Svetomir*. Information about the continuation of the story is rather contradictory. For example, in a letter to the translator B. von Geiserel from the same year, 1930, V. Ivanov speaks of 9 books, while O. Shore, in her notes to the 1971 edition, speaks of 12\. The discrepancies can be explained by the fact that the creative plans may have changed considerably over time. At the same time, the "continuation" written by O. Schor contained four books, i.e. in the end the structure of the *Tale* returned to the nine\-part structure mentioned in the letter to von Geiserel.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|pp\=199, 204}} In V. I. Ivanov's archive in Rome, separate notes, sketches and plans relating to the unrealised songs have been preserved. One of the plans contains motifs used by O. Shore in her sixth book.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|p\=204}} S. K. Makovsky, after his interaction with O. Shore, also gave a detailed account of the author's intentions. According to him, the *Tale* was to consist of two large parts of approximately equal length, of which the first was about three\-quarters finished. Makovsky did not know about V. Ivanov's manuscript projects and prospectuses, but he mentioned that O. Shore had written down the poet's ideas. There was no mention of a will to complete the story or of O. Shore's own plans for it.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|p\=204}} In the retelling of the story by S. Makovsky there is no clear indication of Svetomir's stay at the court of John the Presbyter and in the realm of the dead. However, the plots of the golden arrow, the crystal coffin and the life in the monastery correspond to the plots used by O. Shore. The "continuation" of Olga Alexandrovna ends with the tsarina waking Svetomir from his sleep. Rising from his crystal coffin, he discovers a golden arrow in his hands and orders it to carry him to his homeland. In his homeland, he meets the Apostle John and St Egorius, who bless him and give him a white horse. This differs from S. K. Makovsky's version, in which the Tsar\-Devitsa is the transformed Svetomir after the Resurrection — the ruler of the renewed earth.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|pp\=209—210}} Olga Alexandrovna had mystical moods: a letter of 25 January 1929 describes a vision of L. D. Zinovieva\-Annibal who visited her, the feeling of "a sensual connection with the departed", but at the same time O. Shore "painfully could not remember what she said".{{Cite book \|title\=Переписка В. И. Иванова и О. А. Шор (Публ. А. Кондюриной, Л. Ивановой, Д. Рицци, А. Шишкина) // Archivio italo\-russo III \= Русско\-итальянский архив III: Vjačeslav Ivanov — Testi inediti / a cura di Daniela Rizzi e Andrei Shishkin. \|year\=2001 \|series\=Collana di Europa orientalis \|location\=Salerno \|pages\=352 \|language\=ru \|trans\-title\=Correspondence of V. I. Ivanov and O. A. Shor (PUBLISHED by A. Kondurina, L. Ivanova, D. Rizzi, A. Shishkin) \|issn\=0392\-4580}} Yuri Ivask recounted one of Olga Shore's memories from the time of Berdyaev's *Academy*: during a furious argument between I. A. Ilyin and P. A. Florensky, when Father Paul was "humbly listening", a small pink ball flew out of his mouth and entered Ilyin's: "It blocked his mouth, but painlessly!"{{Harvard citation text\|Shore\|2023\|p\=157}} While working on *Svetomir*, O. Shore claimed that she was fulfilling V. Ivanov's dying wish.{{Harvard citation text\|Deschartes\|1971\|pp\=222—223}} Moreover, V. I. Ivanov and O. A. Shore sincerely believed, that their spiritual connection would not be broken after their physical death and that the poet could "dictate" from the other side of the world. D. V. Ivanov, the poet's son, wrote about the same: in O. Shore's letter to him, dated 26 August 1967,{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanov\|2015\|pp\=210—211}} he describes one of these visions. However, it is quite possible that Ivanov's command to save *Svetomir* correlates with what Ludwig Tieck did for Novalis's novel Heinrich von Oftendingen, that is, to publish the text with a statement of the author's intention in order to save it for posterity\[58]. The materials mentioned by O. Schor in her biography, the preface to the *Brussels Collected Works*, have not yet been found, but in 2023 the O. A. Schor archive, also kept at the V. Ivanov Research Centre in Rome, was still being processed.{{Harvard citation text\|Shore\|2023\|p\=7}}
[ "Intellectual collaboration between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov\n-------------------------------------------------------------------", "### *Correspondence from Two Corners*", "Olga Shore worked for many years on the preface to the Italian edition of Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon's philosophical treatise *Correspondence from Two Corners*, written in Moscow in the early 1920s. In Lydia Ivanova's memoirs, the history of this publication is presented in a humorous way.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanova\\|1992\\|pp\\=291—292}} A verbal agreement between Ivanov and O. Resnevich\\-Seniorelli on the translation seems to have been reached around 1928\\. The reason for the beginning of this work was obvious: in 1926 a German translation of the treatise was published, which caused a certain resonance in the European philosophical community. O. Signorelli already had experience in translating the Russian philosopher of religion: it was she who produced the Italian version of [N. A. Berdyaev's](/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev \"Nikolai Berdyaev\") article *The Soul of Russia*, which made him famous in Italy. Olga Shore, who had known Gershenzon for a long time, supported her friend and patron in every possible way. A letter from Resnevich\\-Seniorelli to Olga Shore (17 August 1928\\) expressed the hope that the book would be published by the end of September; in fact, it was not until 1932 that it appeared. The original plan was frustrated by the indifference of Ivanov, who took a long time to proofread. In February 1929, O. Seniorelli urged Vyacheslav Ivanovich to complete the \"revision\" of the translation, expecting to conclude a contract with the Carabba publishing house \"so that the book would be published at the latest in May\" of the same year. The contract was never signed, however, because Ivanov sent the manuscript on 3 March, on the pretext that he was busy teaching. In his correspondence with Olga Shore, the poet expressed his dissatisfaction, claiming that these difficulties \"distracted\" him. Olga Alexandrovna herself was convinced of the quality of the translation, \"perfect in its way and place\".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 256—258\\.", "In a letter dated 31 August 1928, O. Signorelli suggested that Olga Shore \"prepare a short introduction, at least in a few words\". According to the correspondence that followed, Olga Alexandrovna did not immediately decide to accept the proposal. On 17 February 1929, she asked Vyacheslav Ivanov to tell her about himself and M. Gershenzon \"what you think is necessary and possible to tell the Italian public\". She called her own inability to talk about the views of Mikhail Osipovich, whom she had known for a long time, \"wildness\". Ivanov did not reply, and Olga Shore then undertook to personally reconstruct her world view and creative biography. In subsequent correspondence, the preface is referred to as \"articulus\", \"articuletto\" or \"articuletto\". It seems impossible to trace the moment when a brief biographical note became a fundamental study. Judging by the fragments that have survived, the early version differed greatly from the published one: for example, Olga Shore wrote extensively about the role of [L. D. Zinovieva\\-Annibal](/wiki/Lydia_Zinovieva-Annibal \"Lydia Zinovieva-Annibal\") in the poet's formation. Vyacheslav Ivanovich described the written work as \"a broadly conceived and philosophically constructive work\", but doubting Senorelli's ability to translate it adequately, he began to correct and shorten the text, for which he received thanks in a letter dated 6 May 1929\\. Seniorelli noted that the \"articulos\" were \"more difficult\" than the correspondence between Gershenzon and Ivanov, \"more esoteric\", and based on almost untranslatable quotations from Ivanov's early articles. According to the researcher Ksenia Kumpan, \"Ivanov did not trust not only the translator but, it seems, the interpreter of his work\", and in a letter of 8 May he directly regretted that Olga Alexandrovna had taken on a work she could not cope with. The same idea was repeated in a letter of 29 June: \"in this long and complicated work you will still not say the most important thing 'due to circumstances beyond your control'...\". The work was interrupted in July 1929 when Olga Shore went to Paris to look after her sick cousin, but she took the manuscript with her and reported from the French capital on 1 August that \"the articulos have become unrecognisable\". However, she was immediately self\\-critical, stating that the text was \"irritatingly helpless and colourless\". This version raised the question of the philosopher Ivanov's movement from Dionysianism to Christ and the Church. In a reply dated 12 August, Vyacheslav Ivanovich even toyed with the idea of personally translating Olga Shore's article to Italian.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 258—260\\.", "In her September correspondence with O. Signorelli, Shore complained that Ivanov was 'terribly difficult and elusive', which delayed the completion of his biography until November. Ivanov himself sarcastically compared himself to a 'bottomless vessel' and Olga to 'one of the [Danaids](/wiki/Dana%C3%AFdes \"Danaïdes\")'. It was not until 3 December, that he received the four chapters devoted to himself. On 11 February 1930, in their correspondence, it was noted that O. A. Shore had decided to completely revise the entire plan of the publication. О. Signorelli insisted that the preface should not exceed 30 pages in order to maintain the proportion between the introduction and the main text. Olga Alexandrovna responded by suggesting, on behalf of Ivanov, that the book should include the article *Kruchi* and also Gershenzon's *Sun Over the Darkness*. Then it was possible to write a ten\\-page preface and, as an appendix in small print, a long article by Shore \"on the thoughts and fates of both authors\". The Italian publisher did not agree to this plan and rushed the translator and the author of the preface to publish a religious\\-philosophical treatise before [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") (20 April). Olga Shore had to admit to writing a new, lighter text (\"to clarify the 'letters'...\"), but it was not ready before Easter. Seniorelli left to visit her daughter in Latvia, and in May Ivanov urged Shore to \"work well\". In August Olga Shore wrote the last pages of her essay directly in Italian. It was not until 23 August that Ivanov sent a draft with his corrections; after an urgent re\\-whitening, the manuscript was sent to O. Signorelli on 27 August 1930\\. According to the correspondence between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov, he disapproved of the \"articuletto\", especially the part devoted to his own views, calling it \"inarticulate\". At the last stage he excluded the last fragment, which compared the two philosophical systems of the correspondents \"from two angles\". Ivanov rewrote the fragment on time and space, which is recognisable in the published version by its complicated stylistics and \"quotational language\".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 260—262\\.", "In the published version, the introduction by Olga Shore (under the pseudonym *O. Deschartes*) ran to 63 small\\-format pages, divided into an introduction on the history of the correspondence itself and two chapters of equal length on Ivanov and Gershenzon. The chapters are organised in the same way, beginning with a statement of worldview and \"spiritual path\" and ending with a biographical paragraph. The manuscript was submitted to the Karabba publishing house on 7 September 1930, but in November printing was postponed until February 1931\\. During this time a French translation was published, for which the text of *Correspondence*... was substantially edited by Vyacheslav Ivanov, who wrote an epilogue describing the development of his spiritual life. The book was not published until the winter of 1931, and a new proof\\-reading, taking into account the French revision, was sent to the publisher on 8 September. Giuseppe Carabba, the owner of the publishing house, was literally furious that he had received a new text under the guise of a proofreading and demanded payment for a new typesetting. As a result, two new proofs were required in November and December. Further delays followed in 1932, and it was not until 25 June that the Italian edition of *Correspondence from Two Corners* was printed.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 263—265\\.", "Olga Shore's biographical essays on Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon were the first publications on these thinkers in Italian. Her so\\-called \"short biography\" (*Cenni biografici*) of Ivanov was published in a special issue of \"Il Convegno. Rivista di letteratura e di arte\" (1934, no. 8\\-12, pp. 384\\-408\\) and became the basis for an extensive biography of Vyacheslav Ivanovich, published in 1971 as an introduction to his collected works. Ivanov himself, at the end of his life, recognised that his life, worldview and creativity \"in their development\" were \"fully and penetratingly shown\" by Olga Alexandrovna.", "### *The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir*", "According to the testimony of O. Shore, Vyacheslav Ivanov began to write the text of *{{Interlanguage link\\|The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir\\|lt\\=The Tale of Tsarevich Svetomir\\|ru\\|Повесть о Светомире царевиче}}* in Rome on the night of 27\\-28 September 1928\\. The first song was finished in the autumn of the same year, in its original version it contained texts that were later incorporated into the next song; the poet worked on the second part (the third song of the published version) in Pavia, finishing it on 16 June 1929\\. The first chapters of the third song were composed in Pavia between 1930 and 1932\\. After moving to Rome in 1934, V. I. Ivanov continued to work on chapters 11\\-17 of the *Third Song*, returning to them periodically until 1939\\. He was greatly stimulated by his work at the [Pontifical Oriental Institute](/wiki/Pontifical_Oriental_Institute \"Pontifical Oriental Institute\"), for which he reread sacred texts and immersed himself in Church Slavonic studies. It was not until January 1945 that the third song of the story was completed. The notes on the autographs of the fourth song indicate that work on it was carried out from February to December 1945\\. According to the testimony of O. Shore and the poet's daughter L. V. Ivanova, Vyacheslav Ivanovich continued working on the story literally until his death.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|pp\\=194—196, 199—200}}", "On 25 August 1930, Olga Alexandrovna Shore sent Ivanov a postcard in which she reported that Svetomir was \"haunting\" her and that he had finally mystically \"revealed\" to her the story of his life. The poet's reply, dated 29 August, shows that Vyacheslav Ivanov had no clear plan for the continuation of his work at that time. A. L. Toporkov drew attention to two problems in this connection: first, O. A. Shore thought it possible to compose the plot of the story for Ivanov; second, it is quite possible that the continuation and was embodied in their own version of *Adolescence of Svetomir*. Information about the continuation of the story is rather contradictory. For example, in a letter to the translator B. von Geiserel from the same year, 1930, V. Ivanov speaks of 9 books, while O. Shore, in her notes to the 1971 edition, speaks of 12\\. The discrepancies can be explained by the fact that the creative plans may have changed considerably over time. At the same time, the \"continuation\" written by O. Schor contained four books, i.e. in the end the structure of the *Tale* returned to the nine\\-part structure mentioned in the letter to von Geiserel.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|pp\\=199, 204}}", "In V. I. Ivanov's archive in Rome, separate notes, sketches and plans relating to the unrealised songs have been preserved. One of the plans contains motifs used by O. Shore in her sixth book.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|p\\=204}} S. K. Makovsky, after his interaction with O. Shore, also gave a detailed account of the author's intentions. According to him, the *Tale* was to consist of two large parts of approximately equal length, of which the first was about three\\-quarters finished. Makovsky did not know about V. Ivanov's manuscript projects and prospectuses, but he mentioned that O. Shore had written down the poet's ideas. There was no mention of a will to complete the story or of O. Shore's own plans for it.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|p\\=204}} In the retelling of the story by S. Makovsky there is no clear indication of Svetomir's stay at the court of John the Presbyter and in the realm of the dead. However, the plots of the golden arrow, the crystal coffin and the life in the monastery correspond to the plots used by O. Shore. The \"continuation\" of Olga Alexandrovna ends with the tsarina waking Svetomir from his sleep. Rising from his crystal coffin, he discovers a golden arrow in his hands and orders it to carry him to his homeland. In his homeland, he meets the Apostle John and St Egorius, who bless him and give him a white horse. This differs from S. K. Makovsky's version, in which the Tsar\\-Devitsa is the transformed Svetomir after the Resurrection — the ruler of the renewed earth.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|pp\\=209—210}}", "Olga Alexandrovna had mystical moods: a letter of 25 January 1929 describes a vision of L. D. Zinovieva\\-Annibal who visited her, the feeling of \"a sensual connection with the departed\", but at the same time O. Shore \"painfully could not remember what she said\".{{Cite book \\|title\\=Переписка В. И. Иванова и О. А. Шор (Публ. А. Кондюриной, Л. Ивановой, Д. Рицци, А. Шишкина) // Archivio italo\\-russo III \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив III: Vjačeslav Ivanov — Testi inediti / a cura di Daniela Rizzi e Andrei Shishkin. \\|year\\=2001 \\|series\\=Collana di Europa orientalis \\|location\\=Salerno \\|pages\\=352 \\|language\\=ru \\|trans\\-title\\=Correspondence of V. I. Ivanov and O. A. Shor (PUBLISHED by A. Kondurina, L. Ivanova, D. Rizzi, A. Shishkin) \\|issn\\=0392\\-4580}} Yuri Ivask recounted one of Olga Shore's memories from the time of Berdyaev's *Academy*: during a furious argument between I. A. Ilyin and P. A. Florensky, when Father Paul was \"humbly listening\", a small pink ball flew out of his mouth and entered Ilyin's: \"It blocked his mouth, but painlessly!\"{{Harvard citation text\\|Shore\\|2023\\|p\\=157}} While working on *Svetomir*, O. Shore claimed that she was fulfilling V. Ivanov's dying wish.{{Harvard citation text\\|Deschartes\\|1971\\|pp\\=222—223}} Moreover, V. I. Ivanov and O. A. Shore sincerely believed, that their spiritual connection would not be broken after their physical death and that the poet could \"dictate\" from the other side of the world. D. V. Ivanov, the poet's son, wrote about the same: in O. Shore's letter to him, dated 26 August 1967,{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanov\\|2015\\|pp\\=210—211}} he describes one of these visions. However, it is quite possible that Ivanov's command to save *Svetomir* correlates with what Ludwig Tieck did for Novalis's novel Heinrich von Oftendingen, that is, to publish the text with a statement of the author's intention in order to save it for posterity\\[58]. The materials mentioned by O. Schor in her biography, the preface to the *Brussels Collected Works*, have not yet been found, but in 2023 the O. A. Schor archive, also kept at the V. Ivanov Research Centre in Rome, was still being processed.{{Harvard citation text\\|Shore\\|2023\\|p\\=7}}", "" ]
### *Correspondence from Two Corners* Olga Shore worked for many years on the preface to the Italian edition of Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon's philosophical treatise *Correspondence from Two Corners*, written in Moscow in the early 1920s. In Lydia Ivanova's memoirs, the history of this publication is presented in a humorous way.{{Harvard citation text\|Ivanova\|1992\|pp\=291—292}} A verbal agreement between Ivanov and O. Resnevich\-Seniorelli on the translation seems to have been reached around 1928\. The reason for the beginning of this work was obvious: in 1926 a German translation of the treatise was published, which caused a certain resonance in the European philosophical community. O. Signorelli already had experience in translating the Russian philosopher of religion: it was she who produced the Italian version of [N. A. Berdyaev's](/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev "Nikolai Berdyaev") article *The Soul of Russia*, which made him famous in Italy. Olga Shore, who had known Gershenzon for a long time, supported her friend and patron in every possible way. A letter from Resnevich\-Seniorelli to Olga Shore (17 August 1928\) expressed the hope that the book would be published by the end of September; in fact, it was not until 1932 that it appeared. The original plan was frustrated by the indifference of Ivanov, who took a long time to proofread. In February 1929, O. Seniorelli urged Vyacheslav Ivanovich to complete the "revision" of the translation, expecting to conclude a contract with the Carabba publishing house "so that the book would be published at the latest in May" of the same year. The contract was never signed, however, because Ivanov sent the manuscript on 3 March, on the pretext that he was busy teaching. In his correspondence with Olga Shore, the poet expressed his dissatisfaction, claiming that these difficulties "distracted" him. Olga Alexandrovna herself was convinced of the quality of the translation, "perfect in its way and place".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 256—258\. In a letter dated 31 August 1928, O. Signorelli suggested that Olga Shore "prepare a short introduction, at least in a few words". According to the correspondence that followed, Olga Alexandrovna did not immediately decide to accept the proposal. On 17 February 1929, she asked Vyacheslav Ivanov to tell her about himself and M. Gershenzon "what you think is necessary and possible to tell the Italian public". She called her own inability to talk about the views of Mikhail Osipovich, whom she had known for a long time, "wildness". Ivanov did not reply, and Olga Shore then undertook to personally reconstruct her world view and creative biography. In subsequent correspondence, the preface is referred to as "articulus", "articuletto" or "articuletto". It seems impossible to trace the moment when a brief biographical note became a fundamental study. Judging by the fragments that have survived, the early version differed greatly from the published one: for example, Olga Shore wrote extensively about the role of [L. D. Zinovieva\-Annibal](/wiki/Lydia_Zinovieva-Annibal "Lydia Zinovieva-Annibal") in the poet's formation. Vyacheslav Ivanovich described the written work as "a broadly conceived and philosophically constructive work", but doubting Senorelli's ability to translate it adequately, he began to correct and shorten the text, for which he received thanks in a letter dated 6 May 1929\. Seniorelli noted that the "articulos" were "more difficult" than the correspondence between Gershenzon and Ivanov, "more esoteric", and based on almost untranslatable quotations from Ivanov's early articles. According to the researcher Ksenia Kumpan, "Ivanov did not trust not only the translator but, it seems, the interpreter of his work", and in a letter of 8 May he directly regretted that Olga Alexandrovna had taken on a work she could not cope with. The same idea was repeated in a letter of 29 June: "in this long and complicated work you will still not say the most important thing 'due to circumstances beyond your control'...". The work was interrupted in July 1929 when Olga Shore went to Paris to look after her sick cousin, but she took the manuscript with her and reported from the French capital on 1 August that "the articulos have become unrecognisable". However, she was immediately self\-critical, stating that the text was "irritatingly helpless and colourless". This version raised the question of the philosopher Ivanov's movement from Dionysianism to Christ and the Church. In a reply dated 12 August, Vyacheslav Ivanovich even toyed with the idea of personally translating Olga Shore's article to Italian.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 258—260\. In her September correspondence with O. Signorelli, Shore complained that Ivanov was 'terribly difficult and elusive', which delayed the completion of his biography until November. Ivanov himself sarcastically compared himself to a 'bottomless vessel' and Olga to 'one of the [Danaids](/wiki/Dana%C3%AFdes "Danaïdes")'. It was not until 3 December, that he received the four chapters devoted to himself. On 11 February 1930, in their correspondence, it was noted that O. A. Shore had decided to completely revise the entire plan of the publication. О. Signorelli insisted that the preface should not exceed 30 pages in order to maintain the proportion between the introduction and the main text. Olga Alexandrovna responded by suggesting, on behalf of Ivanov, that the book should include the article *Kruchi* and also Gershenzon's *Sun Over the Darkness*. Then it was possible to write a ten\-page preface and, as an appendix in small print, a long article by Shore "on the thoughts and fates of both authors". The Italian publisher did not agree to this plan and rushed the translator and the author of the preface to publish a religious\-philosophical treatise before [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") (20 April). Olga Shore had to admit to writing a new, lighter text ("to clarify the 'letters'..."), but it was not ready before Easter. Seniorelli left to visit her daughter in Latvia, and in May Ivanov urged Shore to "work well". In August Olga Shore wrote the last pages of her essay directly in Italian. It was not until 23 August that Ivanov sent a draft with his corrections; after an urgent re\-whitening, the manuscript was sent to O. Signorelli on 27 August 1930\. According to the correspondence between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov, he disapproved of the "articuletto", especially the part devoted to his own views, calling it "inarticulate". At the last stage he excluded the last fragment, which compared the two philosophical systems of the correspondents "from two angles". Ivanov rewrote the fragment on time and space, which is recognisable in the published version by its complicated stylistics and "quotational language".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 260—262\. In the published version, the introduction by Olga Shore (under the pseudonym *O. Deschartes*) ran to 63 small\-format pages, divided into an introduction on the history of the correspondence itself and two chapters of equal length on Ivanov and Gershenzon. The chapters are organised in the same way, beginning with a statement of worldview and "spiritual path" and ending with a biographical paragraph. The manuscript was submitted to the Karabba publishing house on 7 September 1930, but in November printing was postponed until February 1931\. During this time a French translation was published, for which the text of *Correspondence*... was substantially edited by Vyacheslav Ivanov, who wrote an epilogue describing the development of his spiritual life. The book was not published until the winter of 1931, and a new proof\-reading, taking into account the French revision, was sent to the publisher on 8 September. Giuseppe Carabba, the owner of the publishing house, was literally furious that he had received a new text under the guise of a proofreading and demanded payment for a new typesetting. As a result, two new proofs were required in November and December. Further delays followed in 1932, and it was not until 25 June that the Italian edition of *Correspondence from Two Corners* was printed.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\) // Archivio italo\-russo IX \= Русско\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\-Signorelli (1925\-1948\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\. pp. 263—265\. Olga Shore's biographical essays on Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon were the first publications on these thinkers in Italian. Her so\-called "short biography" (*Cenni biografici*) of Ivanov was published in a special issue of "Il Convegno. Rivista di letteratura e di arte" (1934, no. 8\-12, pp. 384\-408\) and became the basis for an extensive biography of Vyacheslav Ivanovich, published in 1971 as an introduction to his collected works. Ivanov himself, at the end of his life, recognised that his life, worldview and creativity "in their development" were "fully and penetratingly shown" by Olga Alexandrovna.
[ "### *Correspondence from Two Corners*", "Olga Shore worked for many years on the preface to the Italian edition of Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon's philosophical treatise *Correspondence from Two Corners*, written in Moscow in the early 1920s. In Lydia Ivanova's memoirs, the history of this publication is presented in a humorous way.{{Harvard citation text\\|Ivanova\\|1992\\|pp\\=291—292}} A verbal agreement between Ivanov and O. Resnevich\\-Seniorelli on the translation seems to have been reached around 1928\\. The reason for the beginning of this work was obvious: in 1926 a German translation of the treatise was published, which caused a certain resonance in the European philosophical community. O. Signorelli already had experience in translating the Russian philosopher of religion: it was she who produced the Italian version of [N. A. Berdyaev's](/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev \"Nikolai Berdyaev\") article *The Soul of Russia*, which made him famous in Italy. Olga Shore, who had known Gershenzon for a long time, supported her friend and patron in every possible way. A letter from Resnevich\\-Seniorelli to Olga Shore (17 August 1928\\) expressed the hope that the book would be published by the end of September; in fact, it was not until 1932 that it appeared. The original plan was frustrated by the indifference of Ivanov, who took a long time to proofread. In February 1929, O. Seniorelli urged Vyacheslav Ivanovich to complete the \"revision\" of the translation, expecting to conclude a contract with the Carabba publishing house \"so that the book would be published at the latest in May\" of the same year. The contract was never signed, however, because Ivanov sent the manuscript on 3 March, on the pretext that he was busy teaching. In his correspondence with Olga Shore, the poet expressed his dissatisfaction, claiming that these difficulties \"distracted\" him. Olga Alexandrovna herself was convinced of the quality of the translation, \"perfect in its way and place\".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 256—258\\.", "In a letter dated 31 August 1928, O. Signorelli suggested that Olga Shore \"prepare a short introduction, at least in a few words\". According to the correspondence that followed, Olga Alexandrovna did not immediately decide to accept the proposal. On 17 February 1929, she asked Vyacheslav Ivanov to tell her about himself and M. Gershenzon \"what you think is necessary and possible to tell the Italian public\". She called her own inability to talk about the views of Mikhail Osipovich, whom she had known for a long time, \"wildness\". Ivanov did not reply, and Olga Shore then undertook to personally reconstruct her world view and creative biography. In subsequent correspondence, the preface is referred to as \"articulus\", \"articuletto\" or \"articuletto\". It seems impossible to trace the moment when a brief biographical note became a fundamental study. Judging by the fragments that have survived, the early version differed greatly from the published one: for example, Olga Shore wrote extensively about the role of [L. D. Zinovieva\\-Annibal](/wiki/Lydia_Zinovieva-Annibal \"Lydia Zinovieva-Annibal\") in the poet's formation. Vyacheslav Ivanovich described the written work as \"a broadly conceived and philosophically constructive work\", but doubting Senorelli's ability to translate it adequately, he began to correct and shorten the text, for which he received thanks in a letter dated 6 May 1929\\. Seniorelli noted that the \"articulos\" were \"more difficult\" than the correspondence between Gershenzon and Ivanov, \"more esoteric\", and based on almost untranslatable quotations from Ivanov's early articles. According to the researcher Ksenia Kumpan, \"Ivanov did not trust not only the translator but, it seems, the interpreter of his work\", and in a letter of 8 May he directly regretted that Olga Alexandrovna had taken on a work she could not cope with. The same idea was repeated in a letter of 29 June: \"in this long and complicated work you will still not say the most important thing 'due to circumstances beyond your control'...\". The work was interrupted in July 1929 when Olga Shore went to Paris to look after her sick cousin, but she took the manuscript with her and reported from the French capital on 1 August that \"the articulos have become unrecognisable\". However, she was immediately self\\-critical, stating that the text was \"irritatingly helpless and colourless\". This version raised the question of the philosopher Ivanov's movement from Dionysianism to Christ and the Church. In a reply dated 12 August, Vyacheslav Ivanovich even toyed with the idea of personally translating Olga Shore's article to Italian.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 258—260\\.", "In her September correspondence with O. Signorelli, Shore complained that Ivanov was 'terribly difficult and elusive', which delayed the completion of his biography until November. Ivanov himself sarcastically compared himself to a 'bottomless vessel' and Olga to 'one of the [Danaids](/wiki/Dana%C3%AFdes \"Danaïdes\")'. It was not until 3 December, that he received the four chapters devoted to himself. On 11 February 1930, in their correspondence, it was noted that O. A. Shore had decided to completely revise the entire plan of the publication. О. Signorelli insisted that the preface should not exceed 30 pages in order to maintain the proportion between the introduction and the main text. Olga Alexandrovna responded by suggesting, on behalf of Ivanov, that the book should include the article *Kruchi* and also Gershenzon's *Sun Over the Darkness*. Then it was possible to write a ten\\-page preface and, as an appendix in small print, a long article by Shore \"on the thoughts and fates of both authors\". The Italian publisher did not agree to this plan and rushed the translator and the author of the preface to publish a religious\\-philosophical treatise before [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") (20 April). Olga Shore had to admit to writing a new, lighter text (\"to clarify the 'letters'...\"), but it was not ready before Easter. Seniorelli left to visit her daughter in Latvia, and in May Ivanov urged Shore to \"work well\". In August Olga Shore wrote the last pages of her essay directly in Italian. It was not until 23 August that Ivanov sent a draft with his corrections; after an urgent re\\-whitening, the manuscript was sent to O. Signorelli on 27 August 1930\\. According to the correspondence between Olga Shore and Vyacheslav Ivanov, he disapproved of the \"articuletto\", especially the part devoted to his own views, calling it \"inarticulate\". At the last stage he excluded the last fragment, which compared the two philosophical systems of the correspondents \"from two angles\". Ivanov rewrote the fragment on time and space, which is recognisable in the published version by its complicated stylistics and \"quotational language\".*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 260—262\\.", "In the published version, the introduction by Olga Shore (under the pseudonym *O. Deschartes*) ran to 63 small\\-format pages, divided into an introduction on the history of the correspondence itself and two chapters of equal length on Ivanov and Gershenzon. The chapters are organised in the same way, beginning with a statement of worldview and \"spiritual path\" and ending with a biographical paragraph. The manuscript was submitted to the Karabba publishing house on 7 September 1930, but in November printing was postponed until February 1931\\. During this time a French translation was published, for which the text of *Correspondence*... was substantially edited by Vyacheslav Ivanov, who wrote an epilogue describing the development of his spiritual life. The book was not published until the winter of 1931, and a new proof\\-reading, taking into account the French revision, was sent to the publisher on 8 September. Giuseppe Carabba, the owner of the publishing house, was literally furious that he had received a new text under the guise of a proofreading and demanded payment for a new typesetting. As a result, two new proofs were required in November and December. Further delays followed in 1932, and it was not until 25 June that the Italian edition of *Correspondence from Two Corners* was printed.*Тройная переписка: Вяч. Иванов и Ольга Шор в переписке с Ольгой Ресневич\\-Синьорелли (1925—1948\\) // Archivio italo\\-russo IX \\= Русско\\-итальянский архив IX / предисл. и подгот. текста К. Кумпан; коммент. А. д’Амелия, К. Кумпан, Д. Рицци* \\[*A Triple Correspondence: Vyacheslav Ivanov and Olga Shore in Correspondence with Olga Resnevich\\-Signorelli (1925\\-1948\\)*]. Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici – Università di Salerno (in Russian). Салерно: Europa Orientalis. 2012\\. pp. 263—265\\.", "Olga Shore's biographical essays on Vyacheslav Ivanov and M. Gershenzon were the first publications on these thinkers in Italian. Her so\\-called \"short biography\" (*Cenni biografici*) of Ivanov was published in a special issue of \"Il Convegno. Rivista di letteratura e di arte\" (1934, no. 8\\-12, pp. 384\\-408\\) and became the basis for an extensive biography of Vyacheslav Ivanovich, published in 1971 as an introduction to his collected works. Ivanov himself, at the end of his life, recognised that his life, worldview and creativity \"in their development\" were \"fully and penetratingly shown\" by Olga Alexandrovna.", "" ]
IEC battery nomenclature ------------------------ {{More citations needed section\|date\=May 2019}} Three different [technical committees of IEC](/wiki/List_of_IEC_technical_committees "List of IEC technical committees") make standards on batteries: TC21 ([lead\-acid](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery "Lead–acid battery")), SC21 (other [secondary](/wiki/Secondary_battery "Secondary battery")) and TC35 ([primary](/wiki/Primary_battery "Primary battery")). Each group has published standards relating to the nomenclature of [batteries](/wiki/Electric_battery "Electric battery") \- IEC 60095 for lead\-acid [starter batteries](/wiki/Starter_battery "Starter battery"), IEC 61951\-1 and 61951\-2 for [Ni\-Cd](/wiki/Ni-Cd "Ni-Cd") and [Ni\-MH](/wiki/Ni-MH "Ni-MH") batteries, IEC 61960 for [Li\-ion](/wiki/Li-Ion "Li-Ion"), and IEC 60086\-1 for primary batteries. ### Primary batteries #### Battery numbering [thumb\|IEC 60086 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-60086--battery-code.svg "IEC-60086--battery-code.svg") Examples of the IEC nomenclature are batteries coded R20, 4R25X, 4LR25\-2, 6F22, 6P222/162, CR17345 and LR2616J. The letters and numbers in the code indicate the number of cells, cell chemistry, shape, dimensions, the number of parallel paths in the assembled battery and any modifying letters deemed necessary. A multi\-section battery (two or more [voltages](/wiki/Voltage "Voltage") from the same package) will have a multi\-section designation. Prior to October 1990, round cells were designated with a sequential numeric size code ranging from R06 through to R70, for example R20 is the size of a "D" cell or ANSI"13" size. After October 1990, round cells are systematically identified with a number derived from their diameter and height. Primary cells larger than 100 mm in diameter or height are designated with an oblique "/" between [diameter](/wiki/Diameter "Diameter") and height. | \+ Examples of IEC battery designations | Designation | Series Cells | System | Shape | Standardized code or diameter code | Diameter modifier | Height code | Height adjustment modifier | Modifier(s) | Parallel strings | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | R20 | | | R | 20 | | | | | | A single [zinc\-carbon](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery "Zinc-carbon battery") cell, "size 20" which is equivalent to D, or ANSI "13" size | | 4R25X | 4 | | R | 25 | | | | X | | A zinc\-carbon lantern battery, consisting of 4 round "size 25" cells in series. Terminated with spring terminals. | | 4LR25\-2 | 4 | L | R | 25 | | | | | 2 | An alkaline lantern battery, consisting of 2 parallel strings of 4 round "size 25" cells in series | | 6F22 | 6 | | F | 22 | | | | | | A zinc\-carbon rectangular battery, consisting of 6 flat "size 22" cells. Equivalent to a PP3 or transistor battery. | | 6P222/162 | 6 | | P | 222 | | 162 | | | | A zinc\-carbon battery, maximum dimensions: length 192 mm, width 113 mm, and height 162 mm. Consisting of 6 cells in series. | | CR17345 | | C | R | 17 | | 345 | | | | A single\-cell round lithium cell, 17 mm diameter, 34\.5 mm height | | LR2616J | | L | R | 26 | | 16 | J | | | A single\-cell round alkaline battery, 26\.2 mm diameter, 1\.67 mm height | | LR8D425 | | L | R | 8\.5 | D | 425 | | | | A single\-cell round alkaline battery, 8\.8 mm diameter (8\.5 \+0\.3 for modifier) and 42\.5 mm long, AAAA or ANSI "25" size | #### Electrochemical system The first letter identifies the chemical composition of the battery, which also implies a nominal voltage. It is common to refer to the negative electrode first in IEC battery definitions. | \+ IEC codes for battery electrochemical systemsIEC 60086\-1 ed10\.0 | Lettercode | Negative electrode | Electrolyte | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Maximum opencircuit voltage (V) | Main article | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | (none) | [Zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc") | [Ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride "Ammonium chloride"), [Zinc chloride](/wiki/Zinc_chloride "Zinc chloride") | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide "Manganese dioxide") | 1\.5 | 1\.725 | [Zinc\-carbon battery](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery "Zinc-carbon battery") | | *A* | *Zinc* | *Ammonium chloride, Zinc chloride* | *[Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen")* | *1\.4* | *1\.55* | [Zinc\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery "Zinc-air battery") | | B | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") | Organic electrolyte | [Carbon monofluoride](/wiki/Carbon_monofluoride "Carbon monofluoride") | 3\.0 | 3\.7 | [Lithium battery](/wiki/Lithium_battery "Lithium battery") | | C | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide "Manganese dioxide") | 3\.0 | 3\.7 | | *E* | *Lithium* | *Non\-aqueous inorganic electrolyte* | *[Thionyl chloride](/wiki/Thionyl_chloride "Thionyl chloride")* | *3\.6* | *3\.9* | | F | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Iron disulfide](/wiki/Iron_disulfide "Iron disulfide") | 1\.5 | 1\.83 | | *G* | *Lithium* | *Organic electrolyte* | *[Copper(II) oxide](/wiki/Copper%28II%29_oxide "Copper(II) oxide")* | *1\.5* | *2\.3* | | L | Zinc | [Alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide "Alkali metal hydroxide") | Manganese dioxide | 1\.5 | 1\.65 | [Alkaline battery](/wiki/Alkaline_battery "Alkaline battery") | | *M(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *[Mercuric oxide](/wiki/Mercuric_oxide "Mercuric oxide")* | *1\.35* | | [Mercury battery](/wiki/Mercury_battery "Mercury battery") | | *N(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *Mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide* | *1\.4* | | | P | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Oxygen | 1\.4 | 1\.68 | [Zinc\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery "Zinc-air battery") | | S | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | [Silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide "Silver oxide") | 1\.55 | 1\.63 | [Silver\-oxide battery](/wiki/Silver-oxide_battery "Silver-oxide battery") | | Z | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Manganese dioxide, nickel oxyhydroxide | 1\.5 | 1\.78 | [Nickel oxyhydroxide battery](/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery "Nickel oxyhydroxide battery") | *Italics* indicate a chemical system unlikely to be found in consumer or general\-purpose batteries, or withdrawn from the current standard. #### Shape [thumb\|[LR44](/wiki/LR44_battery "LR44 battery") alkaline cell](/wiki/File:LR44_Button_Cell_Battery_IEC_Standard_Version.jpg "LR44 Button Cell Battery IEC Standard Version.jpg") Shape codes are: R Round, (coin, button or cylindrical) P Not round *F Flat (layer built)* *S Square (or rectangular or prismatic)* The *F* and *S* shape codes are still in use but are not to be used for new battery definitions. #### Size code Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height. The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres. As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\.0 – 0\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\.00 – 0\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\.0 or 0\.00 and L being 0\.9 or 0\.09\. For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area. {{Expand German\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\-60086 bis 1990\|date\=June 2022\|section\=yes}} Standardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to: A more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53 | \+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | R25 | 32 | 91 | F | | R20 | 34\.2 | 61\.5 | D | | R14 | 26\.2 | 50\.0 | C | | R6 | 14\.5 | 50\.5 | AA | | R1 | 12\.0 | 30\.2 | N | | R03 | 10\.5 | 44\.5 | AAA | Round button batteries also carry two\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells "List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\-cell batteries. [thumb\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline "Alkaline") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide "Silver oxide") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png "Button cells and 9v cells (3).png") The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells: | \+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 | 4\.8 | | | 5 | 5\.8 | | | 6 | 6\.8 | | | 7 | 7\.9 | | | 9 | 9\.5 | | | 10 | 10\.0 | | | 11 | 11\.6 | | | 12 | 12\.5 | 1\.20 | | 16 | 16 | 1\.60 | | 20 | 20 | 2\.00 | | 23 | 23 | | | 24 | 24\.5 | | | 25 | | 2\.50 | | 30 | | 3\.00 | | 36 | | 3\.60 | | 50 | | 5\.00 | #### Modifiers After the package size code(s), additional letters may optionally appear. Terminal styles and variants of the same battery can be designated with the letters X or Y. Performance levels may also be designated with a C, P, S, CF, HH, or HB or other letter suffixes. An appended letter "W" states that this battery complies with all the requirements of the IEC 60086\-3 standard for watch batteries, such as dimensional tolerance, [chemical leakage](/wiki/Battery_leakage "Battery leakage"), and test methods. #### Battery categories IEC nomenclature classifies batteries according to their general shape and overall physical appearance. These categories, however, are not identified in the IEC battery nomenclature:As indicated in IEC 60086\-2 §7All information is correct to the current version (2011\) of IEC 60086 (Parts 1 to 3\). As of Thursday 9 June 2011\. * **Category 1**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and recessed or flat negative terminals. The positive terminal shall be concentric with the cell overall. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for nubs, recesses and battery casings). The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. R1 \& LR8D425* * **Category 2**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and protruding or flat negative terminals. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. CR14250, LR61* * **Category 3**: Cylindrical cells with flat positive and negative terminals. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for any protuberances from the negative terminal). The cell casing is in connection with the positive terminal. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. CR11108, LR9* * **Category 4**: Cylindrical cells with a protruding flat negative terminal. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is the positive terminal and it is recommended that the outer surface is used for positive connection even though it is possible from the base. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. LR44, CR2032* * **Category 5**: Cylindrical batteries which fit none of the other categories. *E.g. R40, 8LR23* * **Category 6**: Non\-cylindrical batteries. *E.g. 3R12, 4R25, 6F22* ### Secondary batteries #### Nickel\-cadmium and nickel\-metal hydride batteries Nickel\-cadmium and Nickel\-metal hydride batteries follow a similar rule as the system above;IEC61951\-1 ed2\.1IEC 61951\-2 ed2\.0 especially cylindrical cells designed to be dimensionally interchangeable with primary batteries use the same designation as the primary batteries, the codes for electrochemical systems as below. | Lettercode | Negative electrode | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Main article | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | H | Hydrogen\-absorbing alloy | Nickel oxide | 1\.2 | [Nickel\-metal hydride battery](/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride_battery "Nickel-metal hydride battery") | | K | Cadmium | Nickel oxide | 1\.2 | [Nickel\-cadmium battery](/wiki/Nickel-cadmium_battery "Nickel-cadmium battery") | All other cells use the following system: * **Small prismatic cells**: KF or HF followed by maximum width in mm / maximum thickness in mm / maximum height in mm. E.g. KF 18/07/49 * **Cylindrical cells**: KR or HR followed by a letter indicating discharge rate (L, M, H or X for low, medium, high and very high, respectively); then another letter may be added to indicate use at elevated temperatures (T or U) or rapid charge (R); then maximum diameter in mm / maximum height in mm. E.g. KRL 33/62, HRHR 23/43 * **Button cells**: KB or HB followed by maximum diameter in tenths of mm / maximum height in tenths of mm. E.g. KBL 116/055 #### Lithium\-ion batteries [thumb\|IEC 61960 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-61960_lithium_battery_codes.svg "IEC-61960 lithium battery codes.svg") Lithium\-ion batteries have a different rule for naming, which applies both to batteries of multiple cells and single cell. They will be designated as:IEC 61960 ed1\.0 N1A1A2A3N2/N3/N4\-N5 where N1 denotes number of series connected cells and N5 denotes number of parallel connected cells (only when the number is greater than 1\); these numbers only apply to batteries. A1 indicates the basis of negative electrode phase, where I is for lithium ion and L is for lithium metal or alloy. A2 indicates the basis of positive electrode phase, and could be C, N, M, V or T for cobalt, nickel, manganese, vanadium and titanium respectively. A3 is for the shape of the cell; either R for cylinder or P for prism. N2 is the maximum diameter (in case of cylindrical cells) or thickness (prismatic cells) in mm. N3 is only used for prismatic cells to denote the maximum width in mm. N4 is the maximum overall height in mm. (For any of the lengths above, if the dimension is smaller than 1 mm it can be written as tN, where N is tenths of mm) E.g. ICR19/66, ICP9/35/48, 2ICP20/34/70, 1ICP20/68/70\-2
[ "IEC battery nomenclature\n------------------------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=May 2019}}", "Three different [technical committees of IEC](/wiki/List_of_IEC_technical_committees \"List of IEC technical committees\") make standards on batteries: TC21 ([lead\\-acid](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery \"Lead–acid battery\")), SC21 (other [secondary](/wiki/Secondary_battery \"Secondary battery\")) and TC35 ([primary](/wiki/Primary_battery \"Primary battery\")). Each group has published standards relating to the nomenclature of [batteries](/wiki/Electric_battery \"Electric battery\") \\- IEC 60095 for lead\\-acid [starter batteries](/wiki/Starter_battery \"Starter battery\"), IEC 61951\\-1 and 61951\\-2 for [Ni\\-Cd](/wiki/Ni-Cd \"Ni-Cd\") and [Ni\\-MH](/wiki/Ni-MH \"Ni-MH\") batteries, IEC 61960 for [Li\\-ion](/wiki/Li-Ion \"Li-Ion\"), and IEC 60086\\-1 for primary batteries.", "### Primary batteries", "#### Battery numbering", "[thumb\\|IEC 60086 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-60086--battery-code.svg \"IEC-60086--battery-code.svg\")", "Examples of the IEC nomenclature are batteries coded R20, 4R25X, 4LR25\\-2, 6F22, 6P222/162, CR17345 and LR2616J. The letters and numbers in the code indicate the number of cells, cell chemistry, shape, dimensions, the number of parallel paths in the assembled battery and any modifying letters deemed necessary. A multi\\-section battery (two or more [voltages](/wiki/Voltage \"Voltage\") from the same package) will have a multi\\-section designation.", "Prior to October 1990, round cells were designated with a sequential numeric size code ranging from R06 through to R70, for example R20 is the size of a \"D\" cell or ANSI\"13\" size. After October 1990, round cells are systematically identified with a number derived from their diameter and height. Primary cells larger than 100 mm in diameter or height are designated with an oblique \"/\" between [diameter](/wiki/Diameter \"Diameter\") and height.", "", "| \\+ Examples of IEC battery designations | Designation | Series Cells | System | Shape | Standardized code or diameter code | Diameter modifier | Height code | Height adjustment modifier | Modifier(s) | Parallel strings | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| R20 | | | R | 20 | | | | | | A single [zinc\\-carbon](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery \"Zinc-carbon battery\") cell, \"size 20\" which is equivalent to D, or ANSI \"13\" size |\n| 4R25X | 4 | | R | 25 | | | | X | | A zinc\\-carbon lantern battery, consisting of 4 round \"size 25\" cells in series. Terminated with spring terminals. |\n| 4LR25\\-2 | 4 | L | R | 25 | | | | | 2 | An alkaline lantern battery, consisting of 2 parallel strings of 4 round \"size 25\" cells in series |\n| 6F22 | 6 | | F | 22 | | | | | | A zinc\\-carbon rectangular battery, consisting of 6 flat \"size 22\" cells. Equivalent to a PP3 or transistor battery. |\n| 6P222/162 | 6 | | P | 222 | | 162 | | | | A zinc\\-carbon battery, maximum dimensions: length 192 mm, width 113 mm, and height 162 mm. Consisting of 6 cells in series. |\n| CR17345 | | C | R | 17 | | 345 | | | | A single\\-cell round lithium cell, 17 mm diameter, 34\\.5 mm height |\n| LR2616J | | L | R | 26 | | 16 | J | | | A single\\-cell round alkaline battery, 26\\.2 mm diameter, 1\\.67 mm height |\n| LR8D425 | | L | R | 8\\.5 | D | 425 | | | | A single\\-cell round alkaline battery, 8\\.8 mm diameter (8\\.5 \\+0\\.3 for modifier) and 42\\.5 mm long, AAAA or ANSI \"25\" size |", "#### Electrochemical system", "The first letter identifies the chemical composition of the battery, which also implies a nominal voltage.", "It is common to refer to the negative electrode first in IEC battery definitions.", "", "| \\+ IEC codes for battery electrochemical systemsIEC 60086\\-1 ed10\\.0 | Lettercode | Negative electrode | Electrolyte | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Maximum opencircuit voltage (V) | Main article |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| (none) | [Zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") | [Ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride \"Ammonium chloride\"), [Zinc chloride](/wiki/Zinc_chloride \"Zinc chloride\") | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide \"Manganese dioxide\") | 1\\.5 | 1\\.725 | [Zinc\\-carbon battery](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery \"Zinc-carbon battery\") |\n| *A* | *Zinc* | *Ammonium chloride, Zinc chloride* | *[Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\")* | *1\\.4* | *1\\.55* | [Zinc\\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery \"Zinc-air battery\") |\n| B | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | Organic electrolyte | [Carbon monofluoride](/wiki/Carbon_monofluoride \"Carbon monofluoride\") | 3\\.0 | 3\\.7 | [Lithium battery](/wiki/Lithium_battery \"Lithium battery\") |\n| C | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide \"Manganese dioxide\") | 3\\.0 | 3\\.7 |\n| *E* | *Lithium* | *Non\\-aqueous inorganic electrolyte* | *[Thionyl chloride](/wiki/Thionyl_chloride \"Thionyl chloride\")* | *3\\.6* | *3\\.9* |\n| F | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Iron disulfide](/wiki/Iron_disulfide \"Iron disulfide\") | 1\\.5 | 1\\.83 |\n| *G* | *Lithium* | *Organic electrolyte* | *[Copper(II) oxide](/wiki/Copper%28II%29_oxide \"Copper(II) oxide\")* | *1\\.5* | *2\\.3* |\n| L | Zinc | [Alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide \"Alkali metal hydroxide\") | Manganese dioxide | 1\\.5 | 1\\.65 | [Alkaline battery](/wiki/Alkaline_battery \"Alkaline battery\") |\n| *M(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *[Mercuric oxide](/wiki/Mercuric_oxide \"Mercuric oxide\")* | *1\\.35* | | [Mercury battery](/wiki/Mercury_battery \"Mercury battery\") |\n| *N(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *Mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide* | *1\\.4* | |\n| P | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Oxygen | 1\\.4 | 1\\.68 | [Zinc\\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery \"Zinc-air battery\") |\n| S | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | [Silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide \"Silver oxide\") | 1\\.55 | 1\\.63 | [Silver\\-oxide battery](/wiki/Silver-oxide_battery \"Silver-oxide battery\") |\n| Z | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Manganese dioxide, nickel oxyhydroxide | 1\\.5 | 1\\.78 | [Nickel oxyhydroxide battery](/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery \"Nickel oxyhydroxide battery\") |", "*Italics* indicate a chemical system unlikely to be found in consumer or general\\-purpose batteries, or withdrawn from the current standard.", "#### Shape", "[thumb\\|[LR44](/wiki/LR44_battery \"LR44 battery\") alkaline cell](/wiki/File:LR44_Button_Cell_Battery_IEC_Standard_Version.jpg \"LR44 Button Cell Battery IEC Standard Version.jpg\")", "Shape codes are:\n R Round, (coin, button or cylindrical)\n P Not round\n *F Flat (layer built)*\n *S Square (or rectangular or prismatic)*", "The *F* and *S* shape codes are still in use but are not to be used for new battery definitions.", "#### Size code", "Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height.", "The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \\< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres.", "As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\\.0 – 0\\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\\.00 – 0\\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\\.0 or 0\\.00 and L being 0\\.9 or 0\\.09\\.", "For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area.", "{{Expand German\\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\\-60086 bis 1990\\|date\\=June 2022\\|section\\=yes}}\nStandardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to:\nA more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53", "| \\+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| R25 | 32 | 91 | F |\n| R20 | 34\\.2 | 61\\.5 | D |\n| R14 | 26\\.2 | 50\\.0 | C |\n| R6 | 14\\.5 | 50\\.5 | AA |\n| R1 | 12\\.0 | 30\\.2 | N |\n| R03 | 10\\.5 | 44\\.5 | AAA |", "", "Round button batteries also carry two\\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells \"List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells\") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\\-cell batteries.", "[thumb\\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline \"Alkaline\") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide \"Silver oxide\") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png \"Button cells and 9v cells (3).png\")", "The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells:", "| \\+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 4 | 4\\.8 | |\n| 5 | 5\\.8 | |\n| 6 | 6\\.8 | |\n| 7 | 7\\.9 | |\n| 9 | 9\\.5 | |\n| 10 | 10\\.0 | |\n| 11 | 11\\.6 | |\n| 12 | 12\\.5 | 1\\.20 |\n| 16 | 16 | 1\\.60 |\n| 20 | 20 | 2\\.00 |\n| 23 | 23 | |\n| 24 | 24\\.5 | |\n| 25 | | 2\\.50 |\n| 30 | | 3\\.00 |\n| 36 | | 3\\.60 |\n| 50 | | 5\\.00 |", "", "#### Modifiers", "After the package size code(s), additional letters may optionally appear. Terminal styles and variants of the same battery can be designated with the letters X or Y. Performance levels may also be designated with a C, P, S, CF, HH, or HB or other letter suffixes.\nAn appended letter \"W\" states that this battery complies with all the requirements of the IEC 60086\\-3 standard for watch batteries, such as dimensional tolerance, [chemical leakage](/wiki/Battery_leakage \"Battery leakage\"), and test methods.", "#### Battery categories", "IEC nomenclature classifies batteries according to their general shape and overall physical appearance. These categories, however, are not identified in the IEC battery nomenclature:As indicated in IEC 60086\\-2 §7All information is correct to the current version (2011\\) of IEC 60086 (Parts 1 to 3\\). As of Thursday 9 June 2011\\.\n* **Category 1**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and recessed or flat negative terminals. The positive terminal shall be concentric with the cell overall. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for nubs, recesses and battery casings). The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. R1 \\& LR8D425*\n* **Category 2**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and protruding or flat negative terminals. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. CR14250, LR61*\n* **Category 3**: Cylindrical cells with flat positive and negative terminals. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for any protuberances from the negative terminal). The cell casing is in connection with the positive terminal. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. CR11108, LR9*\n* **Category 4**: Cylindrical cells with a protruding flat negative terminal. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is the positive terminal and it is recommended that the outer surface is used for positive connection even though it is possible from the base. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. LR44, CR2032*\n* **Category 5**: Cylindrical batteries which fit none of the other categories. *E.g. R40, 8LR23*\n* **Category 6**: Non\\-cylindrical batteries. *E.g. 3R12, 4R25, 6F22*", "### Secondary batteries", "#### Nickel\\-cadmium and nickel\\-metal hydride batteries", "Nickel\\-cadmium and Nickel\\-metal hydride batteries follow a similar rule as the system above;IEC61951\\-1 ed2\\.1IEC 61951\\-2 ed2\\.0 especially cylindrical cells designed to be dimensionally interchangeable with primary batteries use the same designation as the primary batteries, the codes for electrochemical systems as below.", "| Lettercode | Negative electrode | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Main article |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| H | Hydrogen\\-absorbing alloy | Nickel oxide | 1\\.2 | [Nickel\\-metal hydride battery](/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride_battery \"Nickel-metal hydride battery\") |\n| K | Cadmium | Nickel oxide | 1\\.2 | [Nickel\\-cadmium battery](/wiki/Nickel-cadmium_battery \"Nickel-cadmium battery\") |", "", "All other cells use the following system:\n* **Small prismatic cells**: KF or HF followed by maximum width in mm / maximum thickness in mm / maximum height in mm. E.g. KF 18/07/49\n* **Cylindrical cells**: KR or HR followed by a letter indicating discharge rate (L, M, H or X for low, medium, high and very high, respectively); then another letter may be added to indicate use at elevated temperatures (T or U) or rapid charge (R); then maximum diameter in mm / maximum height in mm. E.g. KRL 33/62, HRHR 23/43\n* **Button cells**: KB or HB followed by maximum diameter in tenths of mm / maximum height in tenths of mm. E.g. KBL 116/055", "#### Lithium\\-ion batteries", "[thumb\\|IEC 61960 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-61960_lithium_battery_codes.svg \"IEC-61960 lithium battery codes.svg\")", "Lithium\\-ion batteries have a different rule for naming, which applies both to batteries of multiple cells and single cell. They will be designated as:IEC 61960 ed1\\.0", "N1A1A2A3N2/N3/N4\\-N5", "where N1 denotes number of series connected cells and N5 denotes number of parallel connected cells (only when the number is greater than 1\\); these numbers only apply to batteries.", "A1 indicates the basis of negative electrode phase, where I is for lithium ion and L is for lithium metal or alloy.", "A2 indicates the basis of positive electrode phase, and could be C, N, M, V or T for cobalt, nickel, manganese, vanadium and titanium respectively.", "A3 is for the shape of the cell; either R for cylinder or P for prism.", "N2 is the maximum diameter (in case of cylindrical cells) or thickness (prismatic cells) in mm.", "N3 is only used for prismatic cells to denote the maximum width in mm.", "N4 is the maximum overall height in mm.", "(For any of the lengths above, if the dimension is smaller than 1 mm it can be written as tN, where N is tenths of mm)", "E.g. ICR19/66, ICP9/35/48, 2ICP20/34/70, 1ICP20/68/70\\-2", "" ]
### Primary batteries #### Battery numbering [thumb\|IEC 60086 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-60086--battery-code.svg "IEC-60086--battery-code.svg") Examples of the IEC nomenclature are batteries coded R20, 4R25X, 4LR25\-2, 6F22, 6P222/162, CR17345 and LR2616J. The letters and numbers in the code indicate the number of cells, cell chemistry, shape, dimensions, the number of parallel paths in the assembled battery and any modifying letters deemed necessary. A multi\-section battery (two or more [voltages](/wiki/Voltage "Voltage") from the same package) will have a multi\-section designation. Prior to October 1990, round cells were designated with a sequential numeric size code ranging from R06 through to R70, for example R20 is the size of a "D" cell or ANSI"13" size. After October 1990, round cells are systematically identified with a number derived from their diameter and height. Primary cells larger than 100 mm in diameter or height are designated with an oblique "/" between [diameter](/wiki/Diameter "Diameter") and height. | \+ Examples of IEC battery designations | Designation | Series Cells | System | Shape | Standardized code or diameter code | Diameter modifier | Height code | Height adjustment modifier | Modifier(s) | Parallel strings | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | R20 | | | R | 20 | | | | | | A single [zinc\-carbon](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery "Zinc-carbon battery") cell, "size 20" which is equivalent to D, or ANSI "13" size | | 4R25X | 4 | | R | 25 | | | | X | | A zinc\-carbon lantern battery, consisting of 4 round "size 25" cells in series. Terminated with spring terminals. | | 4LR25\-2 | 4 | L | R | 25 | | | | | 2 | An alkaline lantern battery, consisting of 2 parallel strings of 4 round "size 25" cells in series | | 6F22 | 6 | | F | 22 | | | | | | A zinc\-carbon rectangular battery, consisting of 6 flat "size 22" cells. Equivalent to a PP3 or transistor battery. | | 6P222/162 | 6 | | P | 222 | | 162 | | | | A zinc\-carbon battery, maximum dimensions: length 192 mm, width 113 mm, and height 162 mm. Consisting of 6 cells in series. | | CR17345 | | C | R | 17 | | 345 | | | | A single\-cell round lithium cell, 17 mm diameter, 34\.5 mm height | | LR2616J | | L | R | 26 | | 16 | J | | | A single\-cell round alkaline battery, 26\.2 mm diameter, 1\.67 mm height | | LR8D425 | | L | R | 8\.5 | D | 425 | | | | A single\-cell round alkaline battery, 8\.8 mm diameter (8\.5 \+0\.3 for modifier) and 42\.5 mm long, AAAA or ANSI "25" size | #### Electrochemical system The first letter identifies the chemical composition of the battery, which also implies a nominal voltage. It is common to refer to the negative electrode first in IEC battery definitions. | \+ IEC codes for battery electrochemical systemsIEC 60086\-1 ed10\.0 | Lettercode | Negative electrode | Electrolyte | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Maximum opencircuit voltage (V) | Main article | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | (none) | [Zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc") | [Ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride "Ammonium chloride"), [Zinc chloride](/wiki/Zinc_chloride "Zinc chloride") | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide "Manganese dioxide") | 1\.5 | 1\.725 | [Zinc\-carbon battery](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery "Zinc-carbon battery") | | *A* | *Zinc* | *Ammonium chloride, Zinc chloride* | *[Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen")* | *1\.4* | *1\.55* | [Zinc\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery "Zinc-air battery") | | B | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") | Organic electrolyte | [Carbon monofluoride](/wiki/Carbon_monofluoride "Carbon monofluoride") | 3\.0 | 3\.7 | [Lithium battery](/wiki/Lithium_battery "Lithium battery") | | C | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide "Manganese dioxide") | 3\.0 | 3\.7 | | *E* | *Lithium* | *Non\-aqueous inorganic electrolyte* | *[Thionyl chloride](/wiki/Thionyl_chloride "Thionyl chloride")* | *3\.6* | *3\.9* | | F | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Iron disulfide](/wiki/Iron_disulfide "Iron disulfide") | 1\.5 | 1\.83 | | *G* | *Lithium* | *Organic electrolyte* | *[Copper(II) oxide](/wiki/Copper%28II%29_oxide "Copper(II) oxide")* | *1\.5* | *2\.3* | | L | Zinc | [Alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide "Alkali metal hydroxide") | Manganese dioxide | 1\.5 | 1\.65 | [Alkaline battery](/wiki/Alkaline_battery "Alkaline battery") | | *M(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *[Mercuric oxide](/wiki/Mercuric_oxide "Mercuric oxide")* | *1\.35* | | [Mercury battery](/wiki/Mercury_battery "Mercury battery") | | *N(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *Mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide* | *1\.4* | | | P | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Oxygen | 1\.4 | 1\.68 | [Zinc\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery "Zinc-air battery") | | S | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | [Silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide "Silver oxide") | 1\.55 | 1\.63 | [Silver\-oxide battery](/wiki/Silver-oxide_battery "Silver-oxide battery") | | Z | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Manganese dioxide, nickel oxyhydroxide | 1\.5 | 1\.78 | [Nickel oxyhydroxide battery](/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery "Nickel oxyhydroxide battery") | *Italics* indicate a chemical system unlikely to be found in consumer or general\-purpose batteries, or withdrawn from the current standard. #### Shape [thumb\|[LR44](/wiki/LR44_battery "LR44 battery") alkaline cell](/wiki/File:LR44_Button_Cell_Battery_IEC_Standard_Version.jpg "LR44 Button Cell Battery IEC Standard Version.jpg") Shape codes are: R Round, (coin, button or cylindrical) P Not round *F Flat (layer built)* *S Square (or rectangular or prismatic)* The *F* and *S* shape codes are still in use but are not to be used for new battery definitions. #### Size code Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height. The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres. As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\.0 – 0\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\.00 – 0\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\.0 or 0\.00 and L being 0\.9 or 0\.09\. For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area. {{Expand German\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\-60086 bis 1990\|date\=June 2022\|section\=yes}} Standardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to: A more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53 | \+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | R25 | 32 | 91 | F | | R20 | 34\.2 | 61\.5 | D | | R14 | 26\.2 | 50\.0 | C | | R6 | 14\.5 | 50\.5 | AA | | R1 | 12\.0 | 30\.2 | N | | R03 | 10\.5 | 44\.5 | AAA | Round button batteries also carry two\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells "List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\-cell batteries. [thumb\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline "Alkaline") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide "Silver oxide") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png "Button cells and 9v cells (3).png") The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells: | \+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 | 4\.8 | | | 5 | 5\.8 | | | 6 | 6\.8 | | | 7 | 7\.9 | | | 9 | 9\.5 | | | 10 | 10\.0 | | | 11 | 11\.6 | | | 12 | 12\.5 | 1\.20 | | 16 | 16 | 1\.60 | | 20 | 20 | 2\.00 | | 23 | 23 | | | 24 | 24\.5 | | | 25 | | 2\.50 | | 30 | | 3\.00 | | 36 | | 3\.60 | | 50 | | 5\.00 | #### Modifiers After the package size code(s), additional letters may optionally appear. Terminal styles and variants of the same battery can be designated with the letters X or Y. Performance levels may also be designated with a C, P, S, CF, HH, or HB or other letter suffixes. An appended letter "W" states that this battery complies with all the requirements of the IEC 60086\-3 standard for watch batteries, such as dimensional tolerance, [chemical leakage](/wiki/Battery_leakage "Battery leakage"), and test methods. #### Battery categories IEC nomenclature classifies batteries according to their general shape and overall physical appearance. These categories, however, are not identified in the IEC battery nomenclature:As indicated in IEC 60086\-2 §7All information is correct to the current version (2011\) of IEC 60086 (Parts 1 to 3\). As of Thursday 9 June 2011\. * **Category 1**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and recessed or flat negative terminals. The positive terminal shall be concentric with the cell overall. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for nubs, recesses and battery casings). The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. R1 \& LR8D425* * **Category 2**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and protruding or flat negative terminals. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. CR14250, LR61* * **Category 3**: Cylindrical cells with flat positive and negative terminals. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for any protuberances from the negative terminal). The cell casing is in connection with the positive terminal. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. CR11108, LR9* * **Category 4**: Cylindrical cells with a protruding flat negative terminal. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is the positive terminal and it is recommended that the outer surface is used for positive connection even though it is possible from the base. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. LR44, CR2032* * **Category 5**: Cylindrical batteries which fit none of the other categories. *E.g. R40, 8LR23* * **Category 6**: Non\-cylindrical batteries. *E.g. 3R12, 4R25, 6F22*
[ "### Primary batteries", "#### Battery numbering", "[thumb\\|IEC 60086 battery type designation system](/wiki/File:IEC-60086--battery-code.svg \"IEC-60086--battery-code.svg\")", "Examples of the IEC nomenclature are batteries coded R20, 4R25X, 4LR25\\-2, 6F22, 6P222/162, CR17345 and LR2616J. The letters and numbers in the code indicate the number of cells, cell chemistry, shape, dimensions, the number of parallel paths in the assembled battery and any modifying letters deemed necessary. A multi\\-section battery (two or more [voltages](/wiki/Voltage \"Voltage\") from the same package) will have a multi\\-section designation.", "Prior to October 1990, round cells were designated with a sequential numeric size code ranging from R06 through to R70, for example R20 is the size of a \"D\" cell or ANSI\"13\" size. After October 1990, round cells are systematically identified with a number derived from their diameter and height. Primary cells larger than 100 mm in diameter or height are designated with an oblique \"/\" between [diameter](/wiki/Diameter \"Diameter\") and height.", "", "| \\+ Examples of IEC battery designations | Designation | Series Cells | System | Shape | Standardized code or diameter code | Diameter modifier | Height code | Height adjustment modifier | Modifier(s) | Parallel strings | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| R20 | | | R | 20 | | | | | | A single [zinc\\-carbon](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery \"Zinc-carbon battery\") cell, \"size 20\" which is equivalent to D, or ANSI \"13\" size |\n| 4R25X | 4 | | R | 25 | | | | X | | A zinc\\-carbon lantern battery, consisting of 4 round \"size 25\" cells in series. Terminated with spring terminals. |\n| 4LR25\\-2 | 4 | L | R | 25 | | | | | 2 | An alkaline lantern battery, consisting of 2 parallel strings of 4 round \"size 25\" cells in series |\n| 6F22 | 6 | | F | 22 | | | | | | A zinc\\-carbon rectangular battery, consisting of 6 flat \"size 22\" cells. Equivalent to a PP3 or transistor battery. |\n| 6P222/162 | 6 | | P | 222 | | 162 | | | | A zinc\\-carbon battery, maximum dimensions: length 192 mm, width 113 mm, and height 162 mm. Consisting of 6 cells in series. |\n| CR17345 | | C | R | 17 | | 345 | | | | A single\\-cell round lithium cell, 17 mm diameter, 34\\.5 mm height |\n| LR2616J | | L | R | 26 | | 16 | J | | | A single\\-cell round alkaline battery, 26\\.2 mm diameter, 1\\.67 mm height |\n| LR8D425 | | L | R | 8\\.5 | D | 425 | | | | A single\\-cell round alkaline battery, 8\\.8 mm diameter (8\\.5 \\+0\\.3 for modifier) and 42\\.5 mm long, AAAA or ANSI \"25\" size |", "#### Electrochemical system", "The first letter identifies the chemical composition of the battery, which also implies a nominal voltage.", "It is common to refer to the negative electrode first in IEC battery definitions.", "", "| \\+ IEC codes for battery electrochemical systemsIEC 60086\\-1 ed10\\.0 | Lettercode | Negative electrode | Electrolyte | Positive electrode | Nominalvoltage (V) | Maximum opencircuit voltage (V) | Main article |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| (none) | [Zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") | [Ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride \"Ammonium chloride\"), [Zinc chloride](/wiki/Zinc_chloride \"Zinc chloride\") | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide \"Manganese dioxide\") | 1\\.5 | 1\\.725 | [Zinc\\-carbon battery](/wiki/Zinc-carbon_battery \"Zinc-carbon battery\") |\n| *A* | *Zinc* | *Ammonium chloride, Zinc chloride* | *[Oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\")* | *1\\.4* | *1\\.55* | [Zinc\\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery \"Zinc-air battery\") |\n| B | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | Organic electrolyte | [Carbon monofluoride](/wiki/Carbon_monofluoride \"Carbon monofluoride\") | 3\\.0 | 3\\.7 | [Lithium battery](/wiki/Lithium_battery \"Lithium battery\") |\n| C | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Manganese dioxide](/wiki/Manganese_dioxide \"Manganese dioxide\") | 3\\.0 | 3\\.7 |\n| *E* | *Lithium* | *Non\\-aqueous inorganic electrolyte* | *[Thionyl chloride](/wiki/Thionyl_chloride \"Thionyl chloride\")* | *3\\.6* | *3\\.9* |\n| F | Lithium | Organic electrolyte | [Iron disulfide](/wiki/Iron_disulfide \"Iron disulfide\") | 1\\.5 | 1\\.83 |\n| *G* | *Lithium* | *Organic electrolyte* | *[Copper(II) oxide](/wiki/Copper%28II%29_oxide \"Copper(II) oxide\")* | *1\\.5* | *2\\.3* |\n| L | Zinc | [Alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide \"Alkali metal hydroxide\") | Manganese dioxide | 1\\.5 | 1\\.65 | [Alkaline battery](/wiki/Alkaline_battery \"Alkaline battery\") |\n| *M(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *[Mercuric oxide](/wiki/Mercuric_oxide \"Mercuric oxide\")* | *1\\.35* | | [Mercury battery](/wiki/Mercury_battery \"Mercury battery\") |\n| *N(withdrawn)* | *Zinc* | *Alkali metal hydroxide* | *Mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide* | *1\\.4* | |\n| P | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Oxygen | 1\\.4 | 1\\.68 | [Zinc\\-air battery](/wiki/Zinc-air_battery \"Zinc-air battery\") |\n| S | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | [Silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide \"Silver oxide\") | 1\\.55 | 1\\.63 | [Silver\\-oxide battery](/wiki/Silver-oxide_battery \"Silver-oxide battery\") |\n| Z | Zinc | Alkali metal hydroxide | Manganese dioxide, nickel oxyhydroxide | 1\\.5 | 1\\.78 | [Nickel oxyhydroxide battery](/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery \"Nickel oxyhydroxide battery\") |", "*Italics* indicate a chemical system unlikely to be found in consumer or general\\-purpose batteries, or withdrawn from the current standard.", "#### Shape", "[thumb\\|[LR44](/wiki/LR44_battery \"LR44 battery\") alkaline cell](/wiki/File:LR44_Button_Cell_Battery_IEC_Standard_Version.jpg \"LR44 Button Cell Battery IEC Standard Version.jpg\")", "Shape codes are:\n R Round, (coin, button or cylindrical)\n P Not round\n *F Flat (layer built)*\n *S Square (or rectangular or prismatic)*", "The *F* and *S* shape codes are still in use but are not to be used for new battery definitions.", "#### Size code", "Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height.", "The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \\< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres.", "As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\\.0 – 0\\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\\.00 – 0\\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\\.0 or 0\\.00 and L being 0\\.9 or 0\\.09\\.", "For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area.", "{{Expand German\\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\\-60086 bis 1990\\|date\\=June 2022\\|section\\=yes}}\nStandardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to:\nA more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53", "| \\+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| R25 | 32 | 91 | F |\n| R20 | 34\\.2 | 61\\.5 | D |\n| R14 | 26\\.2 | 50\\.0 | C |\n| R6 | 14\\.5 | 50\\.5 | AA |\n| R1 | 12\\.0 | 30\\.2 | N |\n| R03 | 10\\.5 | 44\\.5 | AAA |", "", "Round button batteries also carry two\\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells \"List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells\") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\\-cell batteries.", "[thumb\\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline \"Alkaline\") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide \"Silver oxide\") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png \"Button cells and 9v cells (3).png\")", "The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells:", "| \\+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 4 | 4\\.8 | |\n| 5 | 5\\.8 | |\n| 6 | 6\\.8 | |\n| 7 | 7\\.9 | |\n| 9 | 9\\.5 | |\n| 10 | 10\\.0 | |\n| 11 | 11\\.6 | |\n| 12 | 12\\.5 | 1\\.20 |\n| 16 | 16 | 1\\.60 |\n| 20 | 20 | 2\\.00 |\n| 23 | 23 | |\n| 24 | 24\\.5 | |\n| 25 | | 2\\.50 |\n| 30 | | 3\\.00 |\n| 36 | | 3\\.60 |\n| 50 | | 5\\.00 |", "", "#### Modifiers", "After the package size code(s), additional letters may optionally appear. Terminal styles and variants of the same battery can be designated with the letters X or Y. Performance levels may also be designated with a C, P, S, CF, HH, or HB or other letter suffixes.\nAn appended letter \"W\" states that this battery complies with all the requirements of the IEC 60086\\-3 standard for watch batteries, such as dimensional tolerance, [chemical leakage](/wiki/Battery_leakage \"Battery leakage\"), and test methods.", "#### Battery categories", "IEC nomenclature classifies batteries according to their general shape and overall physical appearance. These categories, however, are not identified in the IEC battery nomenclature:As indicated in IEC 60086\\-2 §7All information is correct to the current version (2011\\) of IEC 60086 (Parts 1 to 3\\). As of Thursday 9 June 2011\\.\n* **Category 1**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and recessed or flat negative terminals. The positive terminal shall be concentric with the cell overall. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for nubs, recesses and battery casings). The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. R1 \\& LR8D425*\n* **Category 2**: Cylindrical cells with protruding positive and protruding or flat negative terminals. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is insulated. *E.g. CR14250, LR61*\n* **Category 3**: Cylindrical cells with flat positive and negative terminals. The total height of the cell is not necessarily the same as the total distance between terminals (This accounts for any protuberances from the negative terminal). The cell casing is in connection with the positive terminal. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. CR11108, LR9*\n* **Category 4**: Cylindrical cells with a protruding flat negative terminal. The total height of the cell is the same as the total distance between terminals. The cell casing is the positive terminal and it is recommended that the outer surface is used for positive connection even though it is possible from the base. No part of the cell is allowed to protrude from the positive terminal surface. *E.g. LR44, CR2032*\n* **Category 5**: Cylindrical batteries which fit none of the other categories. *E.g. R40, 8LR23*\n* **Category 6**: Non\\-cylindrical batteries. *E.g. 3R12, 4R25, 6F22*", "" ]
#### Size code Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height. The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres. As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\.0 – 0\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\.00 – 0\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\.0 or 0\.00 and L being 0\.9 or 0\.09\. For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area. {{Expand German\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\-60086 bis 1990\|date\=June 2022\|section\=yes}} Standardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to: A more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53 | \+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | R25 | 32 | 91 | F | | R20 | 34\.2 | 61\.5 | D | | R14 | 26\.2 | 50\.0 | C | | R6 | 14\.5 | 50\.5 | AA | | R1 | 12\.0 | 30\.2 | N | | R03 | 10\.5 | 44\.5 | AAA | Round button batteries also carry two\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells "List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\-cell batteries. [thumb\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline "Alkaline") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide "Silver oxide") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png "Button cells and 9v cells (3).png") The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells: | \+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 | 4\.8 | | | 5 | 5\.8 | | | 6 | 6\.8 | | | 7 | 7\.9 | | | 9 | 9\.5 | | | 10 | 10\.0 | | | 11 | 11\.6 | | | 12 | 12\.5 | 1\.20 | | 16 | 16 | 1\.60 | | 20 | 20 | 2\.00 | | 23 | 23 | | | 24 | 24\.5 | | | 25 | | 2\.50 | | 30 | | 3\.00 | | 36 | | 3\.60 | | 50 | | 5\.00 |
[ "#### Size code", "Certain sizes, given by one or two digit numbers, represent standard size codes from previous editions of the standard. Sizes given as 4 or more digits indicate the diameter of the battery and the overall height.", "The numbers in the code correlate with the battery dimensions. For batteries with dimensions of \\< 100 mm the (truncated) diameter in millimetres, followed by the height in tenths of a millimetre; for batteries with a single dimension ≥ 100 mm the diameter in millimetres, then a slash (/) followed by the height in millimetres.", "As well as the recommended size code definitions there are also ten modifying suffix letters that can be added to the end of the specific size code. These run from A to L (omitting F and I) and depending on the largest dimension of the battery can either signify 0\\.0 – 0\\.9 mm maximum dimensions or 0\\.00 – 0\\.09 mm maximum dimensions with A being 0\\.0 or 0\\.00 and L being 0\\.9 or 0\\.09\\.", "For flat cells the diameter code is given as the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the whole cell's area.", "{{Expand German\\|Liste aller Standardgrößen für Rundzellen nach IEC\\-60086 bis 1990\\|date\\=June 2022\\|section\\=yes}}\nStandardized size codes for round batteries which do not follow the current nomenclature but have been retained for ease of use are given by a one or two digit number following the R. These include but are not limited to:\nA more complete table is found in the current IEC standard (Table C.1 Annex C) or in Barak 1980 page 53", "| \\+ IEC size codes for round batteries | Numbercode | Nominaldiameter | Nominalheight | Common name |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| R25 | 32 | 91 | F |\n| R20 | 34\\.2 | 61\\.5 | D |\n| R14 | 26\\.2 | 50\\.0 | C |\n| R6 | 14\\.5 | 50\\.5 | AA |\n| R1 | 12\\.0 | 30\\.2 | N |\n| R03 | 10\\.5 | 44\\.5 | AAA |", "", "Round button batteries also carry two\\-digit size codes such as R44, see the [button battery table](/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes%23Silver_oxide_and_alkaline_cells \"List of battery sizes#Silver oxide and alkaline cells\") for typical dimensions. Other round, flat, and square sizes have been standardized but are used mostly for components of multi\\-cell batteries.", "[thumb\\|Assorted sizes of button and coin cells, including [alkaline](/wiki/Alkaline \"Alkaline\") and [silver oxide](/wiki/Silver_oxide \"Silver oxide\") chemistries. Four rectangular 9 V batteries are also shown, for size comparison. Enlarge to see the button and coin cell size code markings.](/wiki/File:Button_cells_and_9v_cells_%283%29.png \"Button cells and 9v cells (3).png\")", "The following is a partial list of IEC standard recommended diameter and height codes for round cells:", "| \\+ IEC recommended round cell diameter and height codes | Numbercode | Maximumdiameter | Maximumheight |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 4 | 4\\.8 | |\n| 5 | 5\\.8 | |\n| 6 | 6\\.8 | |\n| 7 | 7\\.9 | |\n| 9 | 9\\.5 | |\n| 10 | 10\\.0 | |\n| 11 | 11\\.6 | |\n| 12 | 12\\.5 | 1\\.20 |\n| 16 | 16 | 1\\.60 |\n| 20 | 20 | 2\\.00 |\n| 23 | 23 | |\n| 24 | 24\\.5 | |\n| 25 | | 2\\.50 |\n| 30 | | 3\\.00 |\n| 36 | | 3\\.60 |\n| 50 | | 5\\.00 |", "", "" ]
Rules ----- ### The cards and dealing 500 rum is played using a standard [French deck](/wiki/French_deck "French deck") and can use 52 cards, or 53–54 cards including one or two [jokers](/wiki/Joker_%28playing_card%29 "Joker (playing card)"). When playing with 5 or more players, two decks of cards should be used with a total of 104–108 cards. The players draw for deal, low dealing first. Ace is the lowest card in the draw. The dealer shuffles, and the player to the right cuts. The dealer completes the cut and deals cards one at a time to each player face down, clockwise starting at the dealer's left. The number of cards dealt depends on the number of players. | \+ | | --- | | Number of players | Number of cards dealt | | 2 players | 13 cards | | 3 or more | 7 cards | | The remaining cards are placed in a single pile face down between the players, forming the stock. The top card of the stock is turned face up and placed besides the stock to start the discard pile. As play continues any cards added to the discard pile are placed face up on top of any cards already in the discard pile. The discard pile should be slightly spread, so that players can readily see all the cards in it. Players are permitted to move the cards in the discard pile to view the cards, but may not change the order of the discard pile. After a round is complete, the next player to the left becomes the dealer. In one variation, the discard pile is started by dealing one extra card face down to the player on the dealer's left, who can then choose any card from their hand to place face up besides the stock to start the discard pile. The player that wins the round then becomes the dealer in the next round. ### Game play The object of the game is to score points as in regular rummy by laying down or laying off cards, initially in groups of matching cards known as [*melds*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)"), with a [*meld*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)") consisting of either: 3 or 4 cards of the same rank (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|8h\|8c}} or {{cards\|8d\|8s\|8h\|8c}}) called a [*set*](/wiki/Set_%28cards%29 "Set (cards)"); or in sequences of three or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}}) called a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 "Run (cards)"). One variation of the game requires that laying down a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 "Run (cards)") can only be done starting with four or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\|7s\|8s\|9s\|10s}}). Aces can be played as either a high card or a low card, meaning that they may be played after a king as a high card (e.g. {{cards\|Qs\|Ks\|As}}) or before a two as a low card (e.g. {{cards\|As\|2s\|3s}}). Going "around the corner" means that Ace is allowed to be both high and low in the same run (e.g. {{cards\|Qs\|Ks\|As\|2s}}). If going around the corner is not allowed, Q\-K\-A and 2\-3\-4 must be separate runs. Each player in turn, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer, may draw either the top card of the stock or any card from the discard pile. Once a card is picked up, either from the stock or the discard pile, it is final and no other cards may be picked up. However, there are two conditions when drawing a card from the discard pile: 1. The player must take all the cards on top of (i.e., discarded after) the selected card. 2. The selected card so drawn must immediately be used, either by laying it down in a meld or by laying it off on a meld already on the table if permitted. When drawing a card from the discard pile any remaining cards taken with the card drawn from the discard pile may be either melded in the same turn or simply added to the player's hand. Also, multiple cards picked up from the discard pile are left out until the selected card is played in an acceptable manner. During a player's turn, after drawing but before discarding, they may lay down any meld of matching cards, or may lay off any cards that match a meld or cards that have already been played. A player may lay down a single card or pairs of cards, but only if they match cards that have already been played. For example, a player may lay down a single card (e.g. {{cards\|7s}}) on either a set that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\|7d\|7c\|7h}}), or a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}} or {{cards\|8s\|9s}}). A player may also lay down a pair of cards in sequence of the same suit on a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. lay down the {{cards\|6s\|7s}} on a run of {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}} or {{cards\|8s\|9s}} previously laid down). Cards that are laid down or laid off are kept spread out on the table in front of the player, visible to other players. The player ends his turn by discarding a single card from his hand to the discard pile. Players are usually only permitted to lay down cards when it is their turn, after drawing but before discarding. In a variation, players may put down melds or matching cards on other people's turns. The round is not over until one of the players puts down their last card, so with this variation a player can put down a meld when ever they want, until that last card is down. If jokers are used in the game, they are treated as [wild cards](/wiki/Wild_card_%28card_games%29 "Wild card (card games)") and can represent any card the player chooses even if that card is already used in another [meld](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)"). The round is over when one player has no cards in his or her hand, either by melding or laying off all cards, or when there are no cards left in the stock pile. Players typically receive no bonus for finishing first. ### Discarding When picking up from the discard pile you cannot pick up just to play a single card on a meld or other cards that have already been laid down, sometimes referred to as "picking up to hit". You may only pick up from the discard pile if you were to put down a meld consisting of 3 or more cards including the card that was picked up. In one variation, a player may pick up from the discard pile to play a single card or pair of cards on a meld or other cards that have already been laid down by any of the players. In another variation, a player may pick up only the top card from the discard pile and keep it in their hand without immediately playing it. ### Scoring Face cards count as 10 as does the 10 card. A\-9 are 5 points, unless the Ace is used high, when it is 15\. Jokers count as 15 points. In order to begin scoring all players must lay no less than 30 points for their first score. When any player discards the last card in their hand, the play immediately ends. Each player's score is then figured as follows: The player is credited with the point value of all cards that he has showing on the table. From this figure is subtracted the point value of all cards remaining in his hand. The difference is added or subtracted from their score, as the case may be. If the cards they have shown total 85 points, and the cards left in their hand total 90 points, 5 points are subtracted from their previous net score. If the drawing pile runs out of cards and nobody is able to make a play, then the hand ends and nobody deducts the score from their hand. The first player whose score reaches \+500 wins the game. If two or more players reach 500 on the same hand, the one who goes out is the winner. #### Modified scoring systems These additional or alternate rules have been put in to simplify scoring and speed up games. Point variants for Aces change the game dynamic somewhat as players may be more or less likely to reveal and play them as a part of runs. * Aces count 15 no exceptions or variations. * Aces are worth 25\. * Aces played high are worth 15 except in the case where a single player plays a 4\-of\-a\-kind Ace meld, in which case the meld is worth 100 points (25/ea.). * Aces can be allowed to "go\-around" in order to speed up games; thus allowing a meld of K\-A\-2\. * All other cards are worth 5 points. * If preferred, all of these scores may be divided by five and the game played to 100\. #### Boathouse rule Some rummy players play that any player must discard on the turn in which they go out. (A completed turn includes a discard in most variations of Rummy 500, and every turn, even the final turn, is not considered complete without a pile discard). This is often considered standard rules for Rummy. For example, if a player held a hand of two 3's and picked up another 3, this player would be unable to go out as they would not have a discard. Under this variation, the last card in a set picked up from the discard pile cannot be used as the discard in that round. This may prevent a player from picking up cards that would complete a meld if, after laying down the meld, they would not have a card left to discard. This is a variation that should be agreed upon before play begins. Also, if the stock is finished then players may continue to draw from the pile only so long as they are able and willing to do so. Otherwise, the hand is finished with all cards in each player's hand counting against them. This is also normally standard. However some play the alternative that the cards should be reshuffled, and play should continue. Another alternative with a depleted stock is for play to continue, with players discarding after each turn until one of the players goes out. Some variations require that the player must draw two cards from the stock pile. This variation is played as "Boathouse Rum" in Best of Card Games for [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 "Windows 95") and Card Hero for [Windows 8](/wiki/Windows_8 "Windows 8"). #### Add opponent's hand rule Instead of players subtracting their remaining totals when play is finished, they add the values in their hands to the total of the player who went out. If nobody has gone out when the stock is depleted (see Boathouse rule): * With two players, or two partnerships: add opponent's remainder to your score. * With more than two players: do not add any totals. * Alternatively, continue play with a discard after each turn until one of the players goes out. This again, is meant to speed up the game. Also when one player plays his last card, the other player reserves the chance to add any of his deadwood cards to his opponent's melds.
[ "Rules\n-----", "### The cards and dealing", "500 rum is played using a standard [French deck](/wiki/French_deck \"French deck\") and can use 52 cards, or 53–54 cards including one or two [jokers](/wiki/Joker_%28playing_card%29 \"Joker (playing card)\"). When playing with 5 or more players, two decks of cards should be used with a total of 104–108 cards.", "The players draw for deal, low dealing first. Ace is the lowest card in the draw. The dealer shuffles, and the player to the right cuts. The dealer completes the cut and deals cards one at a time to each player face down, clockwise starting at the dealer's left. The number of cards dealt depends on the number of players.", "", "| \\+ |\n| --- |\n| Number of players | Number of cards dealt |\n| 2 players | 13 cards |\n| 3 or more | 7 cards |\n|", "The remaining cards are placed in a single pile face down between the players, forming the stock. The top card of the stock is turned face up and placed besides the stock to start the discard pile. As play continues any cards added to the discard pile are placed face up on top of any cards already in the discard pile. The discard pile should be slightly spread, so that players can readily see all the cards in it. Players are permitted to move the cards in the discard pile to view the cards, but may not change the order of the discard pile. After a round is complete, the next player to the left becomes the dealer.", "In one variation, the discard pile is started by dealing one extra card face down to the player on the dealer's left, who can then choose any card from their hand to place face up besides the stock to start the discard pile. The player that wins the round then becomes the dealer in the next round.", "### Game play", "The object of the game is to score points as in regular rummy by laying down or laying off cards, initially in groups of matching cards known as [*melds*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\"), with a [*meld*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\") consisting of either: 3 or 4 cards of the same rank (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|8h\\|8c}} or {{cards\\|8d\\|8s\\|8h\\|8c}}) called a [*set*](/wiki/Set_%28cards%29 \"Set (cards)\"); or in sequences of three or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}}) called a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 \"Run (cards)\"). One variation of the game requires that laying down a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 \"Run (cards)\") can only be done starting with four or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\\|7s\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}}).", "Aces can be played as either a high card or a low card, meaning that they may be played after a king as a high card (e.g. {{cards\\|Qs\\|Ks\\|As}}) or before a two as a low card (e.g. {{cards\\|As\\|2s\\|3s}}). Going \"around the corner\" means that Ace is allowed to be both high and low in the same run (e.g. {{cards\\|Qs\\|Ks\\|As\\|2s}}). If going around the corner is not allowed, Q\\-K\\-A and 2\\-3\\-4 must be separate runs.", "Each player in turn, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer, may draw either the top card of the stock or any card from the discard pile. Once a card is picked up, either from the stock or the discard pile, it is final and no other cards may be picked up. However, there are two conditions when drawing a card from the discard pile:\n1. The player must take all the cards on top of (i.e., discarded after) the selected card.\n2. The selected card so drawn must immediately be used, either by laying it down in a meld or by laying it off on a meld already on the table if permitted.\nWhen drawing a card from the discard pile any remaining cards taken with the card drawn from the discard pile may be either melded in the same turn or simply added to the player's hand. Also, multiple cards picked up from the discard pile are left out until the selected card is played in an acceptable manner.", "During a player's turn, after drawing but before discarding, they may lay down any meld of matching cards, or may lay off any cards that match a meld or cards that have already been played. A player may lay down a single card or pairs of cards, but only if they match cards that have already been played. For example, a player may lay down a single card (e.g. {{cards\\|7s}}) on either a set that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\\|7d\\|7c\\|7h}}), or a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}} or {{cards\\|8s\\|9s}}). A player may also lay down a pair of cards in sequence of the same suit on a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. lay down the {{cards\\|6s\\|7s}} on a run of {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}} or {{cards\\|8s\\|9s}} previously laid down).", "Cards that are laid down or laid off are kept spread out on the table in front of the player, visible to other players. The player ends his turn by discarding a single card from his hand to the discard pile.", "Players are usually only permitted to lay down cards when it is their turn, after drawing but before discarding. In a variation, players may put down melds or matching cards on other people's turns. The round is not over until one of the players puts down their last card, so with this variation a player can put down a meld when ever they want, until that last card is down.", "If jokers are used in the game, they are treated as [wild cards](/wiki/Wild_card_%28card_games%29 \"Wild card (card games)\") and can represent any card the player chooses even if that card is already used in another [meld](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\").", "The round is over when one player has no cards in his or her hand, either by melding or laying off all cards, or when there are no cards left in the stock pile. Players typically receive no bonus for finishing first.", "### Discarding", "When picking up from the discard pile you cannot pick up just to play a single card on a meld or other cards that have already been laid down, sometimes referred to as \"picking up to hit\". You may only pick up from the discard pile if you were to put down a meld consisting of 3 or more cards including the card that was picked up.", "In one variation, a player may pick up from the discard pile to play a single card or pair of cards on a meld or other cards that have already been laid down by any of the players. In another variation, a player may pick up only the top card from the discard pile and keep it in their hand without immediately playing it.", "### Scoring", "Face cards count as 10 as does the 10 card. A\\-9 are 5 points, unless the Ace is used high, when it is 15\\. Jokers count as 15 points.", "In order to begin scoring all players must lay no less than 30 points for their first score.", "When any player discards the last card in their hand, the play immediately ends. Each player's score is then figured as follows: The player is credited with the point value of all cards that he has showing on the table. From this figure is subtracted the point value of all cards remaining in his hand. The difference is added or subtracted from their score, as the case may be.", "If the cards they have shown total 85 points, and the cards left in their hand total 90 points, 5 points are subtracted from their previous net score. If the drawing pile runs out of cards and nobody is able to make a play, then the hand ends and nobody deducts the score from their hand.", "The first player whose score reaches \\+500 wins the game. If two or more players reach 500 on the same hand, the one who goes out is the winner.", "#### Modified scoring systems", "These additional or alternate rules have been put in to simplify scoring and speed up games. Point variants for Aces change the game dynamic somewhat as players may be more or less likely to reveal and play them as a part of runs.", "* Aces count 15 no exceptions or variations.\n* Aces are worth 25\\.\n* Aces played high are worth 15 except in the case where a single player plays a 4\\-of\\-a\\-kind Ace meld, in which case the meld is worth 100 points (25/ea.).\n* Aces can be allowed to \"go\\-around\" in order to speed up games; thus allowing a meld of K\\-A\\-2\\.\n* All other cards are worth 5 points.\n* If preferred, all of these scores may be divided by five and the game played to 100\\.", "#### Boathouse rule", "Some rummy players play that any player must discard on the turn in which they go out. (A completed turn includes a discard in most variations of Rummy 500, and every turn, even the final turn, is not considered complete without a pile discard). This is often considered standard rules for Rummy.", "For example, if a player held a hand of two 3's and picked up another 3, this player would be unable to go out as they would not have a discard. Under this variation, the last card in a set picked up from the discard pile cannot be used as the discard in that round. This may prevent a player from picking up cards that would complete a meld if, after laying down the meld, they would not have a card left to discard. This is a variation that should be agreed upon before play begins.", "Also, if the stock is finished then players may continue to draw from the pile only so long as they are able and willing to do so. Otherwise, the hand is finished with all cards in each player's hand counting against them. This is also normally standard. However some play the alternative that the cards should be reshuffled, and play should continue. Another alternative with a depleted stock is for play to continue, with players discarding after each turn until one of the players goes out.", "Some variations require that the player must draw two cards from the stock pile. This variation is played as \"Boathouse Rum\" in Best of Card Games for [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 \"Windows 95\") and Card Hero for [Windows 8](/wiki/Windows_8 \"Windows 8\").", "#### Add opponent's hand rule", "Instead of players subtracting their remaining totals when play is finished, they add the values in their hands to the total of the player who went out. If nobody has gone out when the stock is depleted (see Boathouse rule):", "* With two players, or two partnerships: add opponent's remainder to your score.\n* With more than two players: do not add any totals.\n* Alternatively, continue play with a discard after each turn until one of the players goes out.", "This again, is meant to speed up the game. Also when one player plays his last card, the other player reserves the chance to add any of his deadwood cards to his opponent's melds.", "" ]
### Game play The object of the game is to score points as in regular rummy by laying down or laying off cards, initially in groups of matching cards known as [*melds*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)"), with a [*meld*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)") consisting of either: 3 or 4 cards of the same rank (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|8h\|8c}} or {{cards\|8d\|8s\|8h\|8c}}) called a [*set*](/wiki/Set_%28cards%29 "Set (cards)"); or in sequences of three or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}}) called a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 "Run (cards)"). One variation of the game requires that laying down a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 "Run (cards)") can only be done starting with four or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\|7s\|8s\|9s\|10s}}). Aces can be played as either a high card or a low card, meaning that they may be played after a king as a high card (e.g. {{cards\|Qs\|Ks\|As}}) or before a two as a low card (e.g. {{cards\|As\|2s\|3s}}). Going "around the corner" means that Ace is allowed to be both high and low in the same run (e.g. {{cards\|Qs\|Ks\|As\|2s}}). If going around the corner is not allowed, Q\-K\-A and 2\-3\-4 must be separate runs. Each player in turn, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer, may draw either the top card of the stock or any card from the discard pile. Once a card is picked up, either from the stock or the discard pile, it is final and no other cards may be picked up. However, there are two conditions when drawing a card from the discard pile: 1. The player must take all the cards on top of (i.e., discarded after) the selected card. 2. The selected card so drawn must immediately be used, either by laying it down in a meld or by laying it off on a meld already on the table if permitted. When drawing a card from the discard pile any remaining cards taken with the card drawn from the discard pile may be either melded in the same turn or simply added to the player's hand. Also, multiple cards picked up from the discard pile are left out until the selected card is played in an acceptable manner. During a player's turn, after drawing but before discarding, they may lay down any meld of matching cards, or may lay off any cards that match a meld or cards that have already been played. A player may lay down a single card or pairs of cards, but only if they match cards that have already been played. For example, a player may lay down a single card (e.g. {{cards\|7s}}) on either a set that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\|7d\|7c\|7h}}), or a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}} or {{cards\|8s\|9s}}). A player may also lay down a pair of cards in sequence of the same suit on a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. lay down the {{cards\|6s\|7s}} on a run of {{cards\|8s\|9s\|10s}} or {{cards\|8s\|9s}} previously laid down). Cards that are laid down or laid off are kept spread out on the table in front of the player, visible to other players. The player ends his turn by discarding a single card from his hand to the discard pile. Players are usually only permitted to lay down cards when it is their turn, after drawing but before discarding. In a variation, players may put down melds or matching cards on other people's turns. The round is not over until one of the players puts down their last card, so with this variation a player can put down a meld when ever they want, until that last card is down. If jokers are used in the game, they are treated as [wild cards](/wiki/Wild_card_%28card_games%29 "Wild card (card games)") and can represent any card the player chooses even if that card is already used in another [meld](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 "Meld (cards)"). The round is over when one player has no cards in his or her hand, either by melding or laying off all cards, or when there are no cards left in the stock pile. Players typically receive no bonus for finishing first.
[ "### Game play", "The object of the game is to score points as in regular rummy by laying down or laying off cards, initially in groups of matching cards known as [*melds*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\"), with a [*meld*](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\") consisting of either: 3 or 4 cards of the same rank (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|8h\\|8c}} or {{cards\\|8d\\|8s\\|8h\\|8c}}) called a [*set*](/wiki/Set_%28cards%29 \"Set (cards)\"); or in sequences of three or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}}) called a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 \"Run (cards)\"). One variation of the game requires that laying down a [*run*](/wiki/Run_%28cards%29 \"Run (cards)\") can only be done starting with four or more cards of the same suit (e.g. {{cards\\|7s\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}}).", "Aces can be played as either a high card or a low card, meaning that they may be played after a king as a high card (e.g. {{cards\\|Qs\\|Ks\\|As}}) or before a two as a low card (e.g. {{cards\\|As\\|2s\\|3s}}). Going \"around the corner\" means that Ace is allowed to be both high and low in the same run (e.g. {{cards\\|Qs\\|Ks\\|As\\|2s}}). If going around the corner is not allowed, Q\\-K\\-A and 2\\-3\\-4 must be separate runs.", "Each player in turn, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer, may draw either the top card of the stock or any card from the discard pile. Once a card is picked up, either from the stock or the discard pile, it is final and no other cards may be picked up. However, there are two conditions when drawing a card from the discard pile:\n1. The player must take all the cards on top of (i.e., discarded after) the selected card.\n2. The selected card so drawn must immediately be used, either by laying it down in a meld or by laying it off on a meld already on the table if permitted.\nWhen drawing a card from the discard pile any remaining cards taken with the card drawn from the discard pile may be either melded in the same turn or simply added to the player's hand. Also, multiple cards picked up from the discard pile are left out until the selected card is played in an acceptable manner.", "During a player's turn, after drawing but before discarding, they may lay down any meld of matching cards, or may lay off any cards that match a meld or cards that have already been played. A player may lay down a single card or pairs of cards, but only if they match cards that have already been played. For example, a player may lay down a single card (e.g. {{cards\\|7s}}) on either a set that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\\|7d\\|7c\\|7h}}), or a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}} or {{cards\\|8s\\|9s}}). A player may also lay down a pair of cards in sequence of the same suit on a run or part of a run that has already been laid down (e.g. lay down the {{cards\\|6s\\|7s}} on a run of {{cards\\|8s\\|9s\\|10s}} or {{cards\\|8s\\|9s}} previously laid down).", "Cards that are laid down or laid off are kept spread out on the table in front of the player, visible to other players. The player ends his turn by discarding a single card from his hand to the discard pile.", "Players are usually only permitted to lay down cards when it is their turn, after drawing but before discarding. In a variation, players may put down melds or matching cards on other people's turns. The round is not over until one of the players puts down their last card, so with this variation a player can put down a meld when ever they want, until that last card is down.", "If jokers are used in the game, they are treated as [wild cards](/wiki/Wild_card_%28card_games%29 \"Wild card (card games)\") and can represent any card the player chooses even if that card is already used in another [meld](/wiki/Meld_%28cards%29 \"Meld (cards)\").", "The round is over when one player has no cards in his or her hand, either by melding or laying off all cards, or when there are no cards left in the stock pile. Players typically receive no bonus for finishing first.", "" ]
### Scoring Face cards count as 10 as does the 10 card. A\-9 are 5 points, unless the Ace is used high, when it is 15\. Jokers count as 15 points. In order to begin scoring all players must lay no less than 30 points for their first score. When any player discards the last card in their hand, the play immediately ends. Each player's score is then figured as follows: The player is credited with the point value of all cards that he has showing on the table. From this figure is subtracted the point value of all cards remaining in his hand. The difference is added or subtracted from their score, as the case may be. If the cards they have shown total 85 points, and the cards left in their hand total 90 points, 5 points are subtracted from their previous net score. If the drawing pile runs out of cards and nobody is able to make a play, then the hand ends and nobody deducts the score from their hand. The first player whose score reaches \+500 wins the game. If two or more players reach 500 on the same hand, the one who goes out is the winner. #### Modified scoring systems These additional or alternate rules have been put in to simplify scoring and speed up games. Point variants for Aces change the game dynamic somewhat as players may be more or less likely to reveal and play them as a part of runs. * Aces count 15 no exceptions or variations. * Aces are worth 25\. * Aces played high are worth 15 except in the case where a single player plays a 4\-of\-a\-kind Ace meld, in which case the meld is worth 100 points (25/ea.). * Aces can be allowed to "go\-around" in order to speed up games; thus allowing a meld of K\-A\-2\. * All other cards are worth 5 points. * If preferred, all of these scores may be divided by five and the game played to 100\. #### Boathouse rule Some rummy players play that any player must discard on the turn in which they go out. (A completed turn includes a discard in most variations of Rummy 500, and every turn, even the final turn, is not considered complete without a pile discard). This is often considered standard rules for Rummy. For example, if a player held a hand of two 3's and picked up another 3, this player would be unable to go out as they would not have a discard. Under this variation, the last card in a set picked up from the discard pile cannot be used as the discard in that round. This may prevent a player from picking up cards that would complete a meld if, after laying down the meld, they would not have a card left to discard. This is a variation that should be agreed upon before play begins. Also, if the stock is finished then players may continue to draw from the pile only so long as they are able and willing to do so. Otherwise, the hand is finished with all cards in each player's hand counting against them. This is also normally standard. However some play the alternative that the cards should be reshuffled, and play should continue. Another alternative with a depleted stock is for play to continue, with players discarding after each turn until one of the players goes out. Some variations require that the player must draw two cards from the stock pile. This variation is played as "Boathouse Rum" in Best of Card Games for [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 "Windows 95") and Card Hero for [Windows 8](/wiki/Windows_8 "Windows 8"). #### Add opponent's hand rule Instead of players subtracting their remaining totals when play is finished, they add the values in their hands to the total of the player who went out. If nobody has gone out when the stock is depleted (see Boathouse rule): * With two players, or two partnerships: add opponent's remainder to your score. * With more than two players: do not add any totals. * Alternatively, continue play with a discard after each turn until one of the players goes out. This again, is meant to speed up the game. Also when one player plays his last card, the other player reserves the chance to add any of his deadwood cards to his opponent's melds.
[ "### Scoring", "Face cards count as 10 as does the 10 card. A\\-9 are 5 points, unless the Ace is used high, when it is 15\\. Jokers count as 15 points.", "In order to begin scoring all players must lay no less than 30 points for their first score.", "When any player discards the last card in their hand, the play immediately ends. Each player's score is then figured as follows: The player is credited with the point value of all cards that he has showing on the table. From this figure is subtracted the point value of all cards remaining in his hand. The difference is added or subtracted from their score, as the case may be.", "If the cards they have shown total 85 points, and the cards left in their hand total 90 points, 5 points are subtracted from their previous net score. If the drawing pile runs out of cards and nobody is able to make a play, then the hand ends and nobody deducts the score from their hand.", "The first player whose score reaches \\+500 wins the game. If two or more players reach 500 on the same hand, the one who goes out is the winner.", "#### Modified scoring systems", "These additional or alternate rules have been put in to simplify scoring and speed up games. Point variants for Aces change the game dynamic somewhat as players may be more or less likely to reveal and play them as a part of runs.", "* Aces count 15 no exceptions or variations.\n* Aces are worth 25\\.\n* Aces played high are worth 15 except in the case where a single player plays a 4\\-of\\-a\\-kind Ace meld, in which case the meld is worth 100 points (25/ea.).\n* Aces can be allowed to \"go\\-around\" in order to speed up games; thus allowing a meld of K\\-A\\-2\\.\n* All other cards are worth 5 points.\n* If preferred, all of these scores may be divided by five and the game played to 100\\.", "#### Boathouse rule", "Some rummy players play that any player must discard on the turn in which they go out. (A completed turn includes a discard in most variations of Rummy 500, and every turn, even the final turn, is not considered complete without a pile discard). This is often considered standard rules for Rummy.", "For example, if a player held a hand of two 3's and picked up another 3, this player would be unable to go out as they would not have a discard. Under this variation, the last card in a set picked up from the discard pile cannot be used as the discard in that round. This may prevent a player from picking up cards that would complete a meld if, after laying down the meld, they would not have a card left to discard. This is a variation that should be agreed upon before play begins.", "Also, if the stock is finished then players may continue to draw from the pile only so long as they are able and willing to do so. Otherwise, the hand is finished with all cards in each player's hand counting against them. This is also normally standard. However some play the alternative that the cards should be reshuffled, and play should continue. Another alternative with a depleted stock is for play to continue, with players discarding after each turn until one of the players goes out.", "Some variations require that the player must draw two cards from the stock pile. This variation is played as \"Boathouse Rum\" in Best of Card Games for [Windows 95](/wiki/Windows_95 \"Windows 95\") and Card Hero for [Windows 8](/wiki/Windows_8 \"Windows 8\").", "#### Add opponent's hand rule", "Instead of players subtracting their remaining totals when play is finished, they add the values in their hands to the total of the player who went out. If nobody has gone out when the stock is depleted (see Boathouse rule):", "* With two players, or two partnerships: add opponent's remainder to your score.\n* With more than two players: do not add any totals.\n* Alternatively, continue play with a discard after each turn until one of the players goes out.", "This again, is meant to speed up the game. Also when one player plays his last card, the other player reserves the chance to add any of his deadwood cards to his opponent's melds.", "" ]
Variations ---------- ### Dealer's gambit This game is the same as 500 Rum, with the following exceptions. The pack is 54 cards: the standard 52 cards plus two jokers. Some people play with 56 cards, including four jokers. Unlike ordinary rummy, dealing is always rotated anti\-clockwise. At the beginning of each deal one joker is removed from the pack. After shuffling and dealing that joker is placed face\-up at the side of the pack closest to the dealer. This is the 'dealer's joker' and may be used at any time in the game by the dealer, unless it has been 'blocked' \[see below] by another player's joker. The second joker is shuffled and dealt with the rest of the cards. After dealing but before any of the players look at their cards the dealer must nominate the effect of the jokers for that hand. The dealer may nominate the joker to do one of the following: 1. Wild card. The joker may be used as a wild card in any set or sequence. The wild joker is worth zero points. 2. Double. The joker doubles the value of any set. The joker is placed face up over any meld, whilst it is being melded. Once the joker has been added to the meld, that set is 'sealed' and no further cards can laid off onto it. 3. The joker is used to 'split' the discard pile from either side of the card selected. Those cards on the inside of the split are then removed from the game for the remainder of that hand. Those cards on the outside of the split are added to the players hand. As per normal the selected card must be used immediately either by laying it down in a set or by laying it off on a set already on the table. The dealer's joker can be 'blocked' at any time in the game by placing another joker face down over it. If the dealer's joker is so blocked it may not be used by the dealer for the remainder of that hand. Jokers have a zero value if still in a players hand at the end of the turn. There are no penalties for not using the jokers. Each joker nomination may be used strategically by the dealer to improve their position or undermine that of other players. As a result, this is a highly strategic variant of the game which may result in long games with significant fluctuations in the score. As a result, some people only play to a smaller score of 250 points. ### Partnership 500 rum This game is the same as 500 rum, with the following exceptions. Four players are organized into two teams of two players each, with partners facing each other across the table. The rules are exactly as in 500 rum, except the partners may play off on each other's matched sets and sequences in an effort to go out as quickly as possible. When any player goes out, the play ends and the score of each partnership is figured as a unit. The game is over when either side reaches \+500\. The team with the highest score over 500 wins, even if a team goes out first. ### Persian rummy The game is the same as partnership 500 rum, with the following exceptions, and the pack is 56 cards: the standard 52 cards plus four jokers. Each joker counts as 20 points, and jokers may not be used in sequences or as wild cards, but only in groups of three or four jokers. Any meld of four, laid down all at once, counts double its face value. Thus, four jokers laid down together count 160; three jokers laid down count 60, and the fourth joker when added counts only 20 more. Four 6s put down together count 48, but three 6s count only 18, and the fourth 6 adds only 6 points. If a player gets rid of all his cards, his side scores a bonus of 25\. A game ends after two deals. The side with the best score receives a bonus of 50 points and wins the difference between its final score and the opponents' score. ### Rummy If a player discards a card that plays into any match set or sequence already laid\-off on the table then other players may call\-out "Rum". The first player to call "Rum" may only take the discarded card and must lay\-off it on the table in front of them in their laid\-off cards area. They may not combine it with cards in their hand to create a new match set or sequence. ### 7\-card straight If a player lays down a 7\-card straight and then discards his last card, he is awarded 500 points. This is known as the "Rummy Master's Hand".
[ "Variations\n----------", "### Dealer's gambit", "This game is the same as 500 Rum, with the following exceptions. The pack is 54 cards: the standard 52 cards plus two jokers. Some people play with 56 cards, including four jokers. Unlike ordinary rummy, dealing is always rotated anti\\-clockwise.", "At the beginning of each deal one joker is removed from the pack. After shuffling and dealing that joker is placed face\\-up at the side of the pack closest to the dealer. This is the 'dealer's joker' and may be used at any time in the game by the dealer, unless it has been 'blocked' \\[see below] by another player's joker. The second joker is shuffled and dealt with the rest of the cards.", "After dealing but before any of the players look at their cards the dealer must nominate the effect of the jokers for that hand. The dealer may nominate the joker to do one of the following:\n1. Wild card. The joker may be used as a wild card in any set or sequence. The wild joker is worth zero points.\n2. Double. The joker doubles the value of any set. The joker is placed face up over any meld, whilst it is being melded. Once the joker has been added to the meld, that set is 'sealed' and no further cards can laid off onto it.\n3. The joker is used to 'split' the discard pile from either side of the card selected. Those cards on the inside of the split are then removed from the game for the remainder of that hand. Those cards on the outside of the split are added to the players hand. As per normal the selected card must be used immediately either by laying it down in a set or by laying it off on a set already on the table.", "The dealer's joker can be 'blocked' at any time in the game by placing another joker face down over it. If the dealer's joker is so blocked it may not be used by the dealer for the remainder of that hand.", "Jokers have a zero value if still in a players hand at the end of the turn. There are no penalties for not using the jokers.", "Each joker nomination may be used strategically by the dealer to improve their position or undermine that of other players. As a result, this is a highly strategic variant of the game which may result in long games with significant fluctuations in the score. As a result, some people only play to a smaller score of 250 points.", "### Partnership 500 rum", "This game is the same as 500 rum, with the following exceptions.", "Four players are organized into two teams of two players each, with partners facing each other across the table. The rules are exactly as in 500 rum, except the partners may play off on each other's matched sets and sequences in an effort to go out as quickly as possible. When any player goes out, the play ends and the score of each partnership is figured as a unit. The game is over when either side reaches \\+500\\. The team with the highest score over 500 wins, even if a team goes out first.", "### Persian rummy", "The game is the same as partnership 500 rum, with the following exceptions, and the pack is 56 cards: the standard 52 cards plus four jokers.", "Each joker counts as 20 points, and jokers may not be used in sequences or as wild cards, but only in groups of three or four jokers. Any meld of four, laid down all at once, counts double its face value. Thus, four jokers laid down together count 160; three jokers laid down count 60, and the fourth joker when added counts only 20 more. Four 6s put down together count 48, but three 6s count only 18, and the fourth 6 adds only 6 points. If a player gets rid of all his cards, his side scores a bonus of 25\\.", "A game ends after two deals. The side with the best score receives a bonus of 50 points and wins the difference between its final score and the opponents' score.", "### Rummy", "If a player discards a card that plays into any match set or sequence already laid\\-off on the table then other players may call\\-out \"Rum\". The first player to call \"Rum\" may only take the discarded card and must lay\\-off it on the table in front of them in their laid\\-off cards area. They may not combine it with cards in their hand to create a new match set or sequence.", "### 7\\-card straight", "If a player lays down a 7\\-card straight and then discards his last card, he is awarded 500 points. This is known as the \"Rummy Master's Hand\".", "" ]
### Dealer's gambit This game is the same as 500 Rum, with the following exceptions. The pack is 54 cards: the standard 52 cards plus two jokers. Some people play with 56 cards, including four jokers. Unlike ordinary rummy, dealing is always rotated anti\-clockwise. At the beginning of each deal one joker is removed from the pack. After shuffling and dealing that joker is placed face\-up at the side of the pack closest to the dealer. This is the 'dealer's joker' and may be used at any time in the game by the dealer, unless it has been 'blocked' \[see below] by another player's joker. The second joker is shuffled and dealt with the rest of the cards. After dealing but before any of the players look at their cards the dealer must nominate the effect of the jokers for that hand. The dealer may nominate the joker to do one of the following: 1. Wild card. The joker may be used as a wild card in any set or sequence. The wild joker is worth zero points. 2. Double. The joker doubles the value of any set. The joker is placed face up over any meld, whilst it is being melded. Once the joker has been added to the meld, that set is 'sealed' and no further cards can laid off onto it. 3. The joker is used to 'split' the discard pile from either side of the card selected. Those cards on the inside of the split are then removed from the game for the remainder of that hand. Those cards on the outside of the split are added to the players hand. As per normal the selected card must be used immediately either by laying it down in a set or by laying it off on a set already on the table. The dealer's joker can be 'blocked' at any time in the game by placing another joker face down over it. If the dealer's joker is so blocked it may not be used by the dealer for the remainder of that hand. Jokers have a zero value if still in a players hand at the end of the turn. There are no penalties for not using the jokers. Each joker nomination may be used strategically by the dealer to improve their position or undermine that of other players. As a result, this is a highly strategic variant of the game which may result in long games with significant fluctuations in the score. As a result, some people only play to a smaller score of 250 points.
[ "### Dealer's gambit", "This game is the same as 500 Rum, with the following exceptions. The pack is 54 cards: the standard 52 cards plus two jokers. Some people play with 56 cards, including four jokers. Unlike ordinary rummy, dealing is always rotated anti\\-clockwise.", "At the beginning of each deal one joker is removed from the pack. After shuffling and dealing that joker is placed face\\-up at the side of the pack closest to the dealer. This is the 'dealer's joker' and may be used at any time in the game by the dealer, unless it has been 'blocked' \\[see below] by another player's joker. The second joker is shuffled and dealt with the rest of the cards.", "After dealing but before any of the players look at their cards the dealer must nominate the effect of the jokers for that hand. The dealer may nominate the joker to do one of the following:\n1. Wild card. The joker may be used as a wild card in any set or sequence. The wild joker is worth zero points.\n2. Double. The joker doubles the value of any set. The joker is placed face up over any meld, whilst it is being melded. Once the joker has been added to the meld, that set is 'sealed' and no further cards can laid off onto it.\n3. The joker is used to 'split' the discard pile from either side of the card selected. Those cards on the inside of the split are then removed from the game for the remainder of that hand. Those cards on the outside of the split are added to the players hand. As per normal the selected card must be used immediately either by laying it down in a set or by laying it off on a set already on the table.", "The dealer's joker can be 'blocked' at any time in the game by placing another joker face down over it. If the dealer's joker is so blocked it may not be used by the dealer for the remainder of that hand.", "Jokers have a zero value if still in a players hand at the end of the turn. There are no penalties for not using the jokers.", "Each joker nomination may be used strategically by the dealer to improve their position or undermine that of other players. As a result, this is a highly strategic variant of the game which may result in long games with significant fluctuations in the score. As a result, some people only play to a smaller score of 250 points.", "" ]
Career ------ In the 1900s, Fry started to teach art history at the [Slade School of Fine Art](/wiki/Slade_School_of_Fine_Art "Slade School of Fine Art"), [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London "University College London"). In 1903 Fry was involved in the foundation of *[The Burlington Magazine](/wiki/The_Burlington_Magazine "The Burlington Magazine")*, the first scholarly periodical dedicated to art history in Britain. Fry was its co\-editor between 1909 and 1919 (first with Lionel Cust, then with Cust and [More Adey](/wiki/More_Adey "More Adey")) but his influence on it continued until his death: Fry was on the consultative committee of *The Burlington* since its beginnings and when he left the editorship, following a dispute with Cust and Adey regarding the editorial policy on modern art, he was able to use his influence on the committee to choose the successor he considered appropriate, Robert Rattray Tatlock.Sutton (ed.), *Letters of Roger Fry* (1972\) pp. 448, 452 Fry wrote for *The Burlington* from 1903 until his death: he published over two hundred pieces on eclectic subjects – from children's drawings to bushman art. From the pages of *The Burlington*, it is also possible to follow Fry's growing interest in Post\-Impressionism. [thumb\|*[Edward Carpenter](/wiki/Edward_Carpenter "Edward Carpenter")* (1894\)](/wiki/File:Edward_Carpenter%2C_1894.jpg "Edward Carpenter, 1894.jpg") Fry's later reputation as a critic rested upon essays he wrote on [Post\-Impressionist](/wiki/Post-Impressionism "Post-Impressionism") painters,[Blunt, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Blunt "Anthony Blunt"), Introduction *Seurat*, Phaidon Press, London, September 1965 and his most important theoretical statement is considered to be *An essay in Aesthetics*,Bullen, J. B., Introduction *Vision and Design* by Roger Fry, Dover Paperbacks, 1998 {{ISBN\|9780486400877}} one of a selection of Fry's writings on art extending over a period of twenty years published in 1920\.Fry, Roger Preface to *Vision and design* Chatto and Windus, London, 1920 In "An essay in Aesthetics", Fry argues that the response felt from examining art comes from the form of an artwork; meaning that it is the use of line, mass, colour and overall design that invokes an emotional response. His greatest gift was the ability to perceive the elements that give an artist his significance.Sutton, Denys, Introduction *Letters of Roger Fry* Chatto and Windus, London, 1972 {{ISBN\|0701115998}} Fry was also a born letter writer, able to communicate his observations on art or human beings to his friends and family.Sutton Denys, Preface to *Letters of Roger Fry*, Chatto and Windus, London 1972 {{ISBN\|0701115998}} In 1906 Fry was appointed Curator of Paintings at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art") in New York. This was also the year in which he "discovered" the art of [Paul Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne "Paul Cézanne"), the year the artist died, beginning the shift in his scholarly interests away from the Italian Old Masters and towards modern French art. In November 1910, Fry organised the exhibition 'Manet and the Post\-Impressionists' (post\-impressionism being a term which Fry coined{{Cite web \|last\=Tate \|title\=Post\-impressionism – Art Term \|url\=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art\-terms/p/post\-impressionism \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12 \|website\=Tate \|language\=en\-GB}}) at the [Grafton Galleries](/wiki/Grafton_Galleries "Grafton Galleries"), London. This exhibition was the first to prominently feature [Gauguin](/wiki/Paul_Gauguin "Paul Gauguin"), [Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne "Paul Cézanne"), [Matisse](/wiki/Henri_Matisse "Henri Matisse"), and [Van Gogh](/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh "Vincent van Gogh") in England and brought their art to the public.{{Cite web \|title\=Roger Fry {{!}} Artist {{!}} Blue Plaques\|url\=https://www.english\-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue\-plaques/roger\-fry/\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12\|website\=English Heritage}} Though the exhibition would eventually be widely celebrated, the sentiments at the time were much less favourable. This was due to the exhibition's selection of art that the public was unaccustomed to at the time. Fry was not immune to the backlash. Desmond MacCarthy, the secretary of the exhibition stated that "by introducing the works of Cézanne, Matisse, Seurat, Van Gogh, Gauguin and Picasso to the British public, he smashed for a long time his reputation as an art critic. Kind people called him mad and reminded others that his wife was in an asylum. The majority declared him to be a subverter of morals and art, and a blatant self\-advertiser." Yet the foreignness of "post\-impressionism" would inevitably disappear and eventually, the exhibition would be regarded as a critical moment for art and culture.MacCarthy, Desmond, "Desmond MacCarthy: The Post\-Impressionist Exhibition of 1910", *The Bloomsbury Group: A Collection of Memoirs and Commentary,* University of Toronto Press, 1995; Print. Rev ed. Virginia Woolf later said, "On or about December 1910 human character changed", referring to the effect this exhibit had on the world. Fry followed it up with the Second Post\-Impressionist Exhibition in 1912\. It was patronised by Lady [Ottoline Morrell](/wiki/Ottoline_Morrell "Ottoline Morrell"), with whom Fry had a fleeting romantic attachment. [thumb\|240px\|[English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage "English Heritage") blue plaque for Fry and his Omega Studios at [33 Fitzroy Square](/wiki/33_Fitzroy_Square "33 Fitzroy Square"), [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia "Fitzrovia"), [London Borough of Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden "London Borough of Camden")](/wiki/File:RogerFryOmeagaPlaque.jpg "RogerFryOmeagaPlaque.jpg") In 1913 he founded the [Omega Workshops](/wiki/Omega_Workshops "Omega Workshops"), a design workshop based in London's [Fitzroy Square](/wiki/Fitzroy_Square "Fitzroy Square"), whose members included [Vanessa Bell](/wiki/Vanessa_Bell "Vanessa Bell") and [Duncan Grant](/wiki/Duncan_Grant "Duncan Grant") and other artists of the [Bloomsbury Group](/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group "Bloomsbury Group"). It was an experimental design collective in which all the work was anonymous with everything that was produced in the workshops, bold decorative homeware ranging from rugs to ceramics and furniture to clothing, bearing only the Greek letter Ω (Omega). As Fry told a journalist in 1913: 'It is time that the spirit of fun was introduced into furniture and into fabrics. We have suffered too long from the dull and the stupidly serious.'{{Cite web \|title\=Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\-19 \|url\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\-on/exhibitions\-displays/archive/beyond\-bloomsbury\-designs\-of\-the\-omega\-workshops\-1913\-19 \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=courtauld.ac.uk}} As well as high society figures such as [Lady Ottoline Morrell](/wiki/Lady_Ottoline_Morrell "Lady Ottoline Morrell") and [Maud Cunard](/wiki/Maud_Cunard "Maud Cunard"), other clients included [Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf "Virginia Woolf"), [George Bernard Shaw](/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw "George Bernard Shaw"), [H.G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells"), [W.B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats "W. B. Yeats") and [E.M. Forster](/wiki/E._M._Forster "E. M. Forster") and also [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein "Gertrude Stein"), with whom Fry shared a love of contemporary art, on one of her visits to London in the 1910s. The workshops also brought together the artists [Wyndham Lewis](/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis "Wyndham Lewis"), [Frederick Etchells](/wiki/Frederick_Etchells "Frederick Etchells"), [Edward Wadsworth](/wiki/Edward_Wadsworth "Edward Wadsworth") and [Henri Gaudier\-Brzeska](/wiki/Henri_Gaudier-Brzeska "Henri Gaudier-Brzeska") who would later, following a quarrel between Fry and Wyndham Lewis with the latter setting up The [Rebel Art Centre](/wiki/Rebel_Art_Centre "Rebel Art Centre") in 1914 as a rival business,{{Cite web \|last\=Tate \|title\=Rebel Art Centre – Art Term \|url\=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art\-terms/r/rebel\-art\-centre \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=Tate \|language\=en\-GB}} branch away to form the [Vorticist](/wiki/Vorticism "Vorticism") movement. The workshops stayed open during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") but closed in 1919\. [The Courtauld Gallery](/wiki/Courtauld_Gallery "Courtauld Gallery") houses one of the most important collections of designs and decorative objects made by artists of the Omega Workshops{{Cite web \|title\=The 20th Century \|url\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/collection/decorative\-arts/the\-20th\-century \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=The Courtauld Institute of Art \|language\=en\-US}} and, in 2017, held an exhibition 'Bloomsbury Art and Design' that presented a wide\-ranging selection of objects from its holdings, many of which were bequeathed to [The Courtauld Institute of Art](/wiki/The_Courtauld_Institute_of_Art "The Courtauld Institute of Art") by Roger Fry.{{Cite web \|title\=Bloomsbury Art \& Design \|url\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\-on/exhibitions\-displays/bloomsbury\-art\-and\-design \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=The Courtauld Institute of Art \|language\=en\-US}} An earlier exhibition in 2009, 'Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\-19', contained the largest collection of surviving working drawings of the Omega Workshops, bequeathed to The Courtauld Gallery by Fry's daughter Pamela Diamand in 1958\.{{Cite web \|title\=Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\-19 \|url\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\-on/exhibitions\-displays/archive/beyond\-bloomsbury\-designs\-of\-the\-omega\-workshops\-1913\-19 \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=courtauld.ac.uk}} The London Artists' Association was set up in 1925 by [Samuel Courtauld](/wiki/Samuel_Courtauld_%28art_collector%29 "Samuel Courtauld (art collector)") and [John Maynard Keynes](/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes "John Maynard Keynes") at the instigation of Roger Fry{{Cite web \|title\=London Artists' Association {{!}} Artist Biographies\|url\=https://www.artbiogs.co.uk/2/societies/london\-artists\-association\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14\|website\=www.artbiogs.co.uk}} who was a friend of both men and advised them on their art collections.{{Cite web \|title\=Courtauld History \|url\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/about/history \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=courtauld.ac.uk}}{{Cite web \|title\=Collecting for Cambridge {{!}} The Fitzwilliam Museum\|url\=https://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/frenchimpressionists/collecting\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14\|website\=www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk}} Fry's association with Samuel Courtauld was celebrated by him in [The Burlington Magazine](/wiki/The_Burlington_Magazine "The Burlington Magazine") after Courtauld endowed a chair in History of Art at [London University](/wiki/London_University "London University") which Fry welcomed as an 'unexpected realisation of a long\-cherished hope'.{{Cite journal \|title\=The Warburg and Courtauld Institutes \|url\=https://www.burlington.org.uk/archive/editorial/the\-warburg\-and\-courtauld\-institutes \|journal\=The Burlington Magazine \|volume\=132 \|issue\=1048 July 1990}} In 1933, he was appointed the [Slade Professor](/wiki/Slade_Professor_of_Fine_Art%23Slade_Professors%2C_Cambridge_University "Slade Professor of Fine Art#Slade Professors, Cambridge University") at [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge "Cambridge"), a position that Fry had much desired. In September 1926 Fry wrote a definitive essay on [Seurat](/wiki/Georges_Seurat "Georges Seurat") in *[The Dial](/wiki/The_Dial "The Dial")*.*Seurat*, Phaidon Press, London, 1965 Fry also spent ten years translating, "for his own pleasure",Letter to Marie Mauron 12 November 1920 the poems of the [symbolist](/wiki/Symbolism_%28movement%29 "Symbolism (movement)") poet [Stephane Mallarmé](/wiki/Stephane_Mallarm%C3%A9 "Stephane Mallarmé").Sutton, Denys, Biographical Notes, *Letters of Roger Fry*, Chatto and Windus, London 1972\. Between 1929 and 1934, the BBC released a series of twelve broadcasts wherein Fry conveys his belief that art appreciation should begin with a sensibility to form as opposed to an inclination to praise art of high culture. Fry also argues that an African sculpture or a Chinese vase is just as deserving of study as a Greek sculpture. His works can be seen in [Tate Britain](/wiki/Tate_Britain "Tate Britain"), the [Ashmolean Museum](/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum "Ashmolean Museum"), [Leeds Art Gallery](/wiki/Leeds_Art_Gallery "Leeds Art Gallery"), [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London "National Portrait Gallery, London"), [Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art](/wiki/Scottish_National_Gallery_of_Modern_Art "Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art"), [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery "Manchester Art Gallery"), [Somerville College](/wiki/Somerville_College%2C_Oxford "Somerville College, Oxford"), [Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](/wiki/Museum_of_New_Zealand_Te_Papa_Tongarewa "Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa") and the [Courtauld Gallery](/wiki/Courtauld_Gallery "Courtauld Gallery") who purchased the 1928 self\-portrait (above) with the assistance of the [Art Fund](/wiki/Art_Fund "Art Fund"){{Cite web \|title\=Self\-Portrait by Roger Fry \|url\=https://www.artfund.org/supporting\-museums/art\-weve\-helped\-buy/artwork/5452/self\-portrait \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=Art Fund \|language\=en}} and others in 1994\.{{Cite web \|title\=A\&A {{!}} Self\-Portrait\|url\=http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/gallery/b67d06f2\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14\|website\=www.artandarchitecture.org.uk}} The Collection of Roger Fry of paintings and decorative art objects bequeathed to the Courtauld {{Cite web \|title\=The Courtauld Collection \|url\=https://assets.courtauld.ac.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2020/12/15105947/3\.\-THE\-COURTAULD\-COLLECTION.pdf?\_ga\=2\.209625175\.410855784\.1617614840\-1819175958\.1617614840}}{{Cite web \|title\=Courtauld Institute Galleries {{!}} museum, London, United Kingdom\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Courtauld\-Institute\-Galleries\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en}} also contains photographs which are held in the [Conway Library](/wiki/Conway_Library "Conway Library") who are in the process of digitising their collection of primarily architectural images as part of the wider Courtauld Connects project.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-06\-30 \|title\=Who made the Conway Library? \|url\=http://blog.courtauld.ac.uk/digitalmedia/2020/06/30/who\-made\-the\-conway\-library/ \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-14 \|website\=Digital Media}} [Lithographs](/wiki/Lithography "Lithography") produced by Fry from 1927 to 1930 are held at [Tate Britain](/wiki/Tate_Britain "Tate Britain") and the [Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](/wiki/Museum_of_New_Zealand_Te_Papa_Tongarewa "Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa").{{Cite Q\|Q106839642}} The lithographs were drawn in France (except for one from Trinity College, Cambridge) and many were published in the portfolio, Ten Architectural Lithographs. The [Arts Council](/wiki/Arts_Council "Arts Council") exhibition 'Roger Fry Paintings and Drawings' at their St James Square gallery in 1952, consolidated Fry's reputation as an artist. A [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque "Blue plaque") was unveiled in Fitzroy Square on 20 May 2010\.
[ "Career\n------", "In the 1900s, Fry started to teach art history at the [Slade School of Fine Art](/wiki/Slade_School_of_Fine_Art \"Slade School of Fine Art\"), [University College London](/wiki/University_College_London \"University College London\").", "In 1903 Fry was involved in the foundation of *[The Burlington Magazine](/wiki/The_Burlington_Magazine \"The Burlington Magazine\")*, the first scholarly periodical dedicated to art history in Britain. Fry was its co\\-editor between 1909 and 1919 (first with Lionel Cust, then with Cust and [More Adey](/wiki/More_Adey \"More Adey\")) but his influence on it continued until his death: Fry was on the consultative committee of *The Burlington* since its beginnings and when he left the editorship, following a dispute with Cust and Adey regarding the editorial policy on modern art, he was able to use his influence on the committee to choose the successor he considered appropriate, Robert Rattray Tatlock.Sutton (ed.), *Letters of Roger Fry* (1972\\) pp. 448, 452 Fry wrote for *The Burlington* from 1903 until his death: he published over two hundred pieces on eclectic subjects – from children's drawings to bushman art. From the pages of *The Burlington*, it is also possible to follow Fry's growing interest in Post\\-Impressionism.\n[thumb\\|*[Edward Carpenter](/wiki/Edward_Carpenter \"Edward Carpenter\")* (1894\\)](/wiki/File:Edward_Carpenter%2C_1894.jpg \"Edward Carpenter, 1894.jpg\")", "Fry's later reputation as a critic rested upon essays he wrote on [Post\\-Impressionist](/wiki/Post-Impressionism \"Post-Impressionism\") painters,[Blunt, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Blunt \"Anthony Blunt\"), Introduction *Seurat*, Phaidon Press, London, September 1965 and his most important theoretical statement is considered to be *An essay in Aesthetics*,Bullen, J. B., Introduction *Vision and Design* by Roger Fry, Dover Paperbacks, 1998 {{ISBN\\|9780486400877}} one of a selection of Fry's writings on art extending over a period of twenty years published in 1920\\.Fry, Roger Preface to *Vision and design* Chatto and Windus, London, 1920 In \"An essay in Aesthetics\", Fry argues that the response felt from examining art comes from the form of an artwork; meaning that it is the use of line, mass, colour and overall design that invokes an emotional response. His greatest gift was the ability to perceive the elements that give an artist his significance.Sutton, Denys, Introduction *Letters of Roger Fry* Chatto and Windus, London, 1972 {{ISBN\\|0701115998}}\nFry was also a born letter writer, able to communicate his observations on art or human beings to his friends and family.Sutton Denys, Preface to *Letters of Roger Fry*, Chatto and Windus, London 1972 {{ISBN\\|0701115998}}", "In 1906 Fry was appointed Curator of Paintings at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"Metropolitan Museum of Art\") in New York. This was also the year in which he \"discovered\" the art of [Paul Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne \"Paul Cézanne\"), the year the artist died, beginning the shift in his scholarly interests away from the Italian Old Masters and towards modern French art.", "In November 1910, Fry organised the exhibition 'Manet and the Post\\-Impressionists' (post\\-impressionism being a term which Fry coined{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tate \\|title\\=Post\\-impressionism – Art Term \\|url\\=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art\\-terms/p/post\\-impressionism \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12 \\|website\\=Tate \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}) at the [Grafton Galleries](/wiki/Grafton_Galleries \"Grafton Galleries\"), London. This exhibition was the first to prominently feature [Gauguin](/wiki/Paul_Gauguin \"Paul Gauguin\"), [Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne \"Paul Cézanne\"), [Matisse](/wiki/Henri_Matisse \"Henri Matisse\"), and [Van Gogh](/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh \"Vincent van Gogh\") in England and brought their art to the public.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Roger Fry {{!}} Artist {{!}} Blue Plaques\\|url\\=https://www.english\\-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue\\-plaques/roger\\-fry/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12\\|website\\=English Heritage}} Though the exhibition would eventually be widely celebrated, the sentiments at the time were much less favourable. This was due to the exhibition's selection of art that the public was unaccustomed to at the time. Fry was not immune to the backlash. Desmond MacCarthy, the secretary of the exhibition stated that \"by introducing the works of Cézanne, Matisse, Seurat, Van Gogh, Gauguin and Picasso to the British public, he smashed for a long time his reputation as an art critic. Kind people called him mad and reminded others that his wife was in an asylum. The majority declared him to be a subverter of morals and art, and a blatant self\\-advertiser.\" Yet the foreignness of \"post\\-impressionism\" would inevitably disappear and eventually, the exhibition would be regarded as a critical moment for art and culture.MacCarthy, Desmond, \"Desmond MacCarthy: The Post\\-Impressionist Exhibition of 1910\", *The Bloomsbury Group: A Collection of Memoirs and Commentary,* University of Toronto Press, 1995; Print. Rev ed. Virginia Woolf later said, \"On or about December 1910 human character changed\", referring to the effect this exhibit had on the world. Fry followed it up with the Second Post\\-Impressionist Exhibition in 1912\\. It was patronised by Lady [Ottoline Morrell](/wiki/Ottoline_Morrell \"Ottoline Morrell\"), with whom Fry had a fleeting romantic attachment.", "[thumb\\|240px\\|[English Heritage](/wiki/English_Heritage \"English Heritage\") blue plaque for Fry and his Omega Studios at [33 Fitzroy Square](/wiki/33_Fitzroy_Square \"33 Fitzroy Square\"), [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia \"Fitzrovia\"), [London Borough of Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden \"London Borough of Camden\")](/wiki/File:RogerFryOmeagaPlaque.jpg \"RogerFryOmeagaPlaque.jpg\")", "In 1913 he founded the [Omega Workshops](/wiki/Omega_Workshops \"Omega Workshops\"), a design workshop based in London's [Fitzroy Square](/wiki/Fitzroy_Square \"Fitzroy Square\"), whose members included [Vanessa Bell](/wiki/Vanessa_Bell \"Vanessa Bell\") and [Duncan Grant](/wiki/Duncan_Grant \"Duncan Grant\") and other artists of the [Bloomsbury Group](/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group \"Bloomsbury Group\"). It was an experimental design collective in which all the work was anonymous with everything that was produced in the workshops, bold decorative homeware ranging from rugs to ceramics and furniture to clothing, bearing only the Greek letter Ω (Omega). As Fry told a journalist in 1913: 'It is time that the spirit of fun was introduced into furniture and into fabrics. We have suffered too long from the dull and the stupidly serious.'{{Cite web \\|title\\=Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\\-19 \\|url\\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\\-on/exhibitions\\-displays/archive/beyond\\-bloomsbury\\-designs\\-of\\-the\\-omega\\-workshops\\-1913\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=courtauld.ac.uk}} As well as high society figures such as [Lady Ottoline Morrell](/wiki/Lady_Ottoline_Morrell \"Lady Ottoline Morrell\") and [Maud Cunard](/wiki/Maud_Cunard \"Maud Cunard\"), other clients included [Virginia Woolf](/wiki/Virginia_Woolf \"Virginia Woolf\"), [George Bernard Shaw](/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw \"George Bernard Shaw\"), [H.G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\"), [W.B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats \"W. B. Yeats\") and [E.M. Forster](/wiki/E._M._Forster \"E. M. Forster\") and also [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\"), with whom Fry shared a love of contemporary art, on one of her visits to London in the 1910s. The workshops also brought together the artists [Wyndham Lewis](/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis \"Wyndham Lewis\"), [Frederick Etchells](/wiki/Frederick_Etchells \"Frederick Etchells\"), [Edward Wadsworth](/wiki/Edward_Wadsworth \"Edward Wadsworth\") and [Henri Gaudier\\-Brzeska](/wiki/Henri_Gaudier-Brzeska \"Henri Gaudier-Brzeska\") who would later, following a quarrel between Fry and Wyndham Lewis with the latter setting up The [Rebel Art Centre](/wiki/Rebel_Art_Centre \"Rebel Art Centre\") in 1914 as a rival business,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tate \\|title\\=Rebel Art Centre – Art Term \\|url\\=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art\\-terms/r/rebel\\-art\\-centre \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=Tate \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} branch away to form the [Vorticist](/wiki/Vorticism \"Vorticism\") movement. The workshops stayed open during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") but closed in 1919\\. [The Courtauld Gallery](/wiki/Courtauld_Gallery \"Courtauld Gallery\") houses one of the most important collections of designs and decorative objects made by artists of the Omega Workshops{{Cite web \\|title\\=The 20th Century \\|url\\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/collection/decorative\\-arts/the\\-20th\\-century \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=The Courtauld Institute of Art \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and, in 2017, held an exhibition 'Bloomsbury Art and Design' that presented a wide\\-ranging selection of objects from its holdings, many of which were bequeathed to [The Courtauld Institute of Art](/wiki/The_Courtauld_Institute_of_Art \"The Courtauld Institute of Art\") by Roger Fry.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bloomsbury Art \\& Design \\|url\\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\\-on/exhibitions\\-displays/bloomsbury\\-art\\-and\\-design \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=The Courtauld Institute of Art \\|language\\=en\\-US}} An earlier exhibition in 2009, 'Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\\-19', contained the largest collection of surviving working drawings of the Omega Workshops, bequeathed to The Courtauld Gallery by Fry's daughter Pamela Diamand in 1958\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Beyond Bloomsbury: Designs of the Omega Workshops 1913\\-19 \\|url\\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what\\-on/exhibitions\\-displays/archive/beyond\\-bloomsbury\\-designs\\-of\\-the\\-omega\\-workshops\\-1913\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=courtauld.ac.uk}}", "The London Artists' Association was set up in 1925 by [Samuel Courtauld](/wiki/Samuel_Courtauld_%28art_collector%29 \"Samuel Courtauld (art collector)\") and [John Maynard Keynes](/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes \"John Maynard Keynes\") at the instigation of Roger Fry{{Cite web \\|title\\=London Artists' Association {{!}} Artist Biographies\\|url\\=https://www.artbiogs.co.uk/2/societies/london\\-artists\\-association\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14\\|website\\=www.artbiogs.co.uk}} who was a friend of both men and advised them on their art collections.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Courtauld History \\|url\\=https://courtauld.ac.uk/about/history \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=courtauld.ac.uk}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Collecting for Cambridge {{!}} The Fitzwilliam Museum\\|url\\=https://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/frenchimpressionists/collecting\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14\\|website\\=www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk}} Fry's association with Samuel Courtauld was celebrated by him in [The Burlington Magazine](/wiki/The_Burlington_Magazine \"The Burlington Magazine\") after Courtauld endowed a chair in History of Art at [London University](/wiki/London_University \"London University\") which Fry welcomed as an 'unexpected realisation of a long\\-cherished hope'.{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Warburg and Courtauld Institutes \\|url\\=https://www.burlington.org.uk/archive/editorial/the\\-warburg\\-and\\-courtauld\\-institutes \\|journal\\=The Burlington Magazine \\|volume\\=132 \\|issue\\=1048 July 1990}} In 1933, he was appointed the [Slade Professor](/wiki/Slade_Professor_of_Fine_Art%23Slade_Professors%2C_Cambridge_University \"Slade Professor of Fine Art#Slade Professors, Cambridge University\") at [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge \"Cambridge\"), a position that Fry had much desired.", "In September 1926 Fry wrote a definitive essay on [Seurat](/wiki/Georges_Seurat \"Georges Seurat\") in *[The Dial](/wiki/The_Dial \"The Dial\")*.*Seurat*, Phaidon Press, London, 1965 Fry also spent ten years translating, \"for his own pleasure\",Letter to Marie Mauron 12 November 1920 the poems of the [symbolist](/wiki/Symbolism_%28movement%29 \"Symbolism (movement)\") poet [Stephane Mallarmé](/wiki/Stephane_Mallarm%C3%A9 \"Stephane Mallarmé\").Sutton, Denys, Biographical Notes, *Letters of Roger Fry*, Chatto and Windus, London 1972\\. Between 1929 and 1934, the BBC released a series of twelve broadcasts wherein Fry conveys his belief that art appreciation should begin with a sensibility to form as opposed to an inclination to praise art of high culture. Fry also argues that an African sculpture or a Chinese vase is just as deserving of study as a Greek sculpture.", "His works can be seen in [Tate Britain](/wiki/Tate_Britain \"Tate Britain\"), the [Ashmolean Museum](/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum \"Ashmolean Museum\"), [Leeds Art Gallery](/wiki/Leeds_Art_Gallery \"Leeds Art Gallery\"), [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London \"National Portrait Gallery, London\"), [Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art](/wiki/Scottish_National_Gallery_of_Modern_Art \"Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art\"), [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery \"Manchester Art Gallery\"), [Somerville College](/wiki/Somerville_College%2C_Oxford \"Somerville College, Oxford\"), [Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](/wiki/Museum_of_New_Zealand_Te_Papa_Tongarewa \"Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa\") and the [Courtauld Gallery](/wiki/Courtauld_Gallery \"Courtauld Gallery\") who purchased the 1928 self\\-portrait (above) with the assistance of the [Art Fund](/wiki/Art_Fund \"Art Fund\"){{Cite web \\|title\\=Self\\-Portrait by Roger Fry \\|url\\=https://www.artfund.org/supporting\\-museums/art\\-weve\\-helped\\-buy/artwork/5452/self\\-portrait \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=Art Fund \\|language\\=en}} and others in 1994\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=A\\&A {{!}} Self\\-Portrait\\|url\\=http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/gallery/b67d06f2\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14\\|website\\=www.artandarchitecture.org.uk}} The Collection of Roger Fry of paintings and decorative art objects bequeathed to the Courtauld {{Cite web \\|title\\=The Courtauld Collection \\|url\\=https://assets.courtauld.ac.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2020/12/15105947/3\\.\\-THE\\-COURTAULD\\-COLLECTION.pdf?\\_ga\\=2\\.209625175\\.410855784\\.1617614840\\-1819175958\\.1617614840}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Courtauld Institute Galleries {{!}} museum, London, United Kingdom\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Courtauld\\-Institute\\-Galleries\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en}} also contains photographs which are held in the [Conway Library](/wiki/Conway_Library \"Conway Library\") who are in the process of digitising their collection of primarily architectural images as part of the wider Courtauld Connects project.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-30 \\|title\\=Who made the Conway Library? \\|url\\=http://blog.courtauld.ac.uk/digitalmedia/2020/06/30/who\\-made\\-the\\-conway\\-library/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=Digital Media}} [Lithographs](/wiki/Lithography \"Lithography\") produced by Fry from 1927 to 1930 are held at [Tate Britain](/wiki/Tate_Britain \"Tate Britain\") and the [Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](/wiki/Museum_of_New_Zealand_Te_Papa_Tongarewa \"Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa\").{{Cite Q\\|Q106839642}} The lithographs were drawn in France (except for one from Trinity College, Cambridge) and many were published in the portfolio, Ten Architectural Lithographs.", "The [Arts Council](/wiki/Arts_Council \"Arts Council\") exhibition 'Roger Fry Paintings and Drawings' at their St James Square gallery in 1952, consolidated Fry's reputation as an artist.\nA [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque \"Blue plaque\") was unveiled in Fitzroy Square on 20 May 2010\\.", "" ]
Expedition ---------- The expedition sailed from [Cádiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz "Cádiz") in 1777 and arrived at [Lima](/wiki/Lima "Lima") in April 1778\. For over ten years, from 1778 to 1788, they explored the territories of present Peru and Chile studying and collecting specimens. The expedition suffered all kinds of setbacks during this time, ranging from the sinking of the ship *San Pedro de Alcantara* in 1784 that carried numerous botanical samples, a 1785 fire in the Peruvian population in Macora that resulted in the loss of additional samples and equipment, to quarrels between the members of the expeditionary team, specially between Ruiz and Dombey, that resulted in the latter leaving the group in 1784\. He was replaced by Juan José Tafalla Navascués that same year. In 1788, the bulk of the expedition returned to Spain, leaving only Tafalla in Peru with a mandate to continue sending material. Painters Xavier Cortes and Jose Gabriel Rivera joined botanist Agustin Jose Manzanilla in 1793\. Between 1799 and 1808, an herbarium was set up in the territory of present Quito (Ecuador) to further study the Huayaquilensis Flora, that continued making regular mailings of material to Spain until the death of Tafalla in 1811\. All together, more than 3,000 specimens of plants were collected and 2,500 life\-sized botanical illustrations were produced, and when they returned to Spain they brought back a great many living plants, among which was a medicinal remedy for the flu as well as toothaches, using as a base the boiled sprouts of *[Buddleja incana](/wiki/Buddleja "Buddleja")*. The collections that arrived in Cádiz in 1788 were in the most part in good condition, and were housed in Madrid's [Royal Botanical Garden](/wiki/Real_Jard%C3%ADn_Bot%C3%A1nico_de_Madrid "Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid") and the *[Gabinete de Historia Natural](/wiki/Gabinete_de_Historia_Natural "Gabinete de Historia Natural")*, the precursor of the [Museum of Natural History](/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Ciencias_Naturales "Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales"). The discoveries included about 150 new genera and 500 new species, which still retain the names given them by Ruiz and Pavón. Unfortunately, a part of the collection consisting of 53 crates with 800 illustrations, dried plants, seeds, resins and minerals was lost when the ship transporting it was wrecked on the coast of Portugal.
[ "Expedition\n----------", "The expedition sailed from [Cádiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz \"Cádiz\") in 1777 and arrived at [Lima](/wiki/Lima \"Lima\") in April 1778\\. For over ten years, from 1778 to 1788, they explored the territories of present Peru and Chile studying and collecting specimens.", "The expedition suffered all kinds of setbacks during this time, ranging from the sinking of the ship *San Pedro de Alcantara* in 1784 that carried numerous botanical samples, a 1785 fire in the Peruvian population in Macora that resulted in the loss of additional samples and equipment, to quarrels between the members of the expeditionary team, specially between Ruiz and Dombey, that resulted in the latter leaving the group in 1784\\. He was replaced by Juan José Tafalla Navascués that same year.", "In 1788, the bulk of the expedition returned to Spain, leaving only Tafalla in Peru with a mandate to continue sending material. Painters Xavier Cortes and Jose Gabriel Rivera joined botanist Agustin Jose Manzanilla in 1793\\. Between 1799 and 1808, an herbarium was set up in the territory of present Quito (Ecuador) to further study the Huayaquilensis Flora, that continued making regular mailings of material to Spain until the death of Tafalla in 1811\\.", "All together, more than 3,000 specimens of plants were collected and 2,500 life\\-sized botanical illustrations were produced, and when they returned to Spain they brought back a great many living plants, among which was a medicinal remedy for the flu as well as toothaches, using as a base the boiled sprouts of *[Buddleja incana](/wiki/Buddleja \"Buddleja\")*.", "The collections that arrived in Cádiz in 1788 were in the most part in good condition, and were housed in Madrid's [Royal Botanical Garden](/wiki/Real_Jard%C3%ADn_Bot%C3%A1nico_de_Madrid \"Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid\") and the *[Gabinete de Historia Natural](/wiki/Gabinete_de_Historia_Natural \"Gabinete de Historia Natural\")*, the precursor of the [Museum of Natural History](/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Ciencias_Naturales \"Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales\"). The discoveries included about 150 new genera and 500 new species, which still retain the names given them by Ruiz and Pavón. Unfortunately, a part of the collection consisting of 53 crates with 800 illustrations, dried plants, seeds, resins and minerals was lost when the ship transporting it was wrecked on the coast of Portugal.", "" ]
Plot ---- ### Characters [200px\|right\|thumb\|Tatsuya Yoshikawa's character designs for *Breath of Fire III*](/wiki/File:Groupbof3.jpg "Groupbof3.jpg") The main character in *Breath of Fire III* is Ryu. As a member of the ancient Brood race, Ryu is a human with the ability to transform into powerful dragons, an ability he does not fully understand, but pieces together as time goes on. He is accompanied on his quest by several other playable characters, including Nina, a winged princess from the Kingdom of Wyndia and powerful magician; Rei, member of the cat\-like Woren tribe and skilled thief; Teepo, an orphaned rogue and longtime friend of Rei's with no memory of his past; Momo, daughter of a famous [engineer](/wiki/Engineer "Engineer") and [inventor](/wiki/Inventor "Inventor"); Garr (Garland in the Japanese version{{cite web \|url\=http://www.capcom.co.jp/newproducts/consumer/breath3/char.html \|title\=Characters \|language\=ja \|year\=1997 \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-06 \|publisher\=\[\[Capcom]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214215109/http://www.capcom.co.jp/newproducts/consumer/breath3/char.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-14 \|url\-status\=dead }}), an experienced warrior and member of a group known as the Guardians who serve the goddess Myria; and Peco (Pecoros in the Japanese version), a [onion](/wiki/Onion "Onion")\-like creature with limited speech and a connection with nature.{{cite book \|year\=1998 \|author\=Capcom \|title\=Breath of Fire III Instruction Manual \|pages\=6, 7 \| publisher\=Capcom \| id\=SLUS\-00422}} Balio and Sunder, brothers and [horse](/wiki/Horse "Horse")\-men, act as mercenaries to a powerful crime lord and frequent adversaries of Ryu. Their boss, Mikba, is the head of a criminal organization with the ability to transform into a [demon](/wiki/Demon "Demon"). Deis{{efn\|Deis is known as "Bleu" in the original English translations of ''\[\[Breath of Fire (video game)\|Breath of Fire]]'' and ''\[\[Breath of Fire II]]''}} returns as a powerful sorceress who knows the secrets of the past. Myria, an ancient Goddess of Destruction, serves as the antagonist once more, though her motives have changed, and she is instead set on preserving the lives of humanity by ordering the deaths of the dragons. Ryu, Teepo and Rei run afoul of the giant woodsman Bunyan; Mygas, a traveling wizard who is camped outside of McNeil village; and the self\-doubting master of non\-lethal combat, Durandal, who provides the party with the skills to impress Hondara, the benevolent Urkan priest who despises violence. Fahl, the tipsy barkeep from Genmel and friend of Balio and Sunder will become one with them after those villains are defeated and if they have fought 30 battles without resting. A strange fishman named Giotto teaches skills once the party reaches a high\-enough fishing level. Once Ryu and his team fix Rhapala's lighthouse situation and meet the fairies, the errant fairy Meryleep turns up at a secluded pond, asking for her flower jewel which was stolen by a crow. The party can also use Peco to communicate with Yggdrasil trees. Near the end of the game, the dragon spirit Ladon offers to communicate with Ryu in a similar fashion. ### Story Ryu, a preserved baby dragon unearthed by miners, inadvertently shifts form into a young blue\-haired boy and is taken in by wandering thieves named Rei and Teepo, members of the cat\-like Woren clan. They believe Ryu to be just an abandoned child.**Teepo**: So who is he? / **Rei**: I told you\-\- I don't know—I found him in the woods / **Teepo**: Really...? Sounds like what happened with me... / **Rei**: An orphan... Not surprising—It's been a lean year... *Breath of Fire III* (English version). Capcom Co., Ltd. 1998\. SLUS\-0042\. The trio are hired by a hooded figure named Loki to steal all the money from the town's corrupt mayor. They break into the manor, pilfer the gold, and re\-distribute his money among the villagers. The mayor hires two [hitmen](/wiki/Hitmen "Hitmen"), the horse brothers Balio and Sunder, to exact revenge on the gang for their theft. Balio and Sunder burn down the trio's home, attack them, and leave them for dead. Ryu awakens in the care of a woodsman who fished him out of the river and found no trace of his friends. Ryu leaves Yraald Region. Ryu comes across Balio and Sunder in Mt. Myrneg. He is stabbed and reanimates into a dragon. The horse brothers take him to the Royal Family in Wyndia to sell him, but he transforms back to human. Balio, Sunder, and Ryu are locked up in the prison, where they meet Nina, child daughter of the King. Balio and Sunder trick Nina into releasing them and Ryu breaks out of his cell. Nina saves Ryu from Balio and Sunder, who are now on their trail. Ryu and Nina come across a large tower and meet Momo, an inventor and engineer who is researching chrysm. They escape the tower by rocket when bounty hunters arrive looking for them. Momo leads Ryu and Nina to a chrysm research facility. The institute's chairman and colleague of Momo's late father, Dr. Palet, informs the party of a mutant creature causing trouble at the biological waste dump. After defeat, the mutant plant creature gives up its offspring, whom Nina names Peco, to be cared for in its absence.**Nina**: Why don't we call him... Peco? I mean, he does look like an onion, right? (*Breath of Fire III*) They hop onto a cart to be smuggled back to Wyndia, unaware that Palet sold them out to Balio and Sunder. They are recaptured by Balio and Sunder, transported back to Genmel, and signed up to fight in the arena. Garr, a seasoned warrior, beats Ryu in the arena, and demands Ryu as his prize, sidestepping his deal with the horse brothers. With Garr's help, the team defeats the horse brothers. Garr agrees to help the group find Rei and Teepo, on the condition that Ryu accompany him to a sacred temple far to the east.**Garr**: Once we've taken the princess back to Windia, you must come with me to the Angel Tower, Ryu... (*Breath of Fire III*) They travel to Urkan Region, and arrive at the temple. Inside, Garr reveals the Brood, the race of dragons that once populated the world, was slaughtered by Garr and his fellow guardians at the behest of Myria, an ancient goddess who promised an age of peace in return. Ryu being the last living dragon, Garr attempts to slay him. Ryu beats him and escapes. Having been easily defeated by a child of the Brood, Garr has an epiphany: the Brood did not really fight back against him and the other guardians. Several years later, reports of a rampaging dragon lead Garr to Ryu, now a young adult. Garr asks forgiveness for his actions against his people and entreats Ryu to help him discover the true motivation behind Myria's genocide of the Brood.**Garr**: Why did they let us kill them??? Why did God have us kill the Brood!? I may not have the right to say this... But I want to know the truth... That's why I ask you... I ask you to let me live until then... (*Breath of Fire III*) Back in Yraald Region, the pair regroups with Nina, who led a regiment in arresting Mayor McNeil for his involvement with the attempt on Ryu's life and the destruction of their home. A weretiger has moved through the village, and Loki was mauled. They track the weretiger, revealed to be Rei. Rei has not seen Teepo since the incident. The team reunites with Momo, who has been performing experiments at the plant institute with Peco. The party receives information about Myria's whereabouts from a deity named Deis. After traversing the ocean, the group proceeds to the last known village of the Brood, Dragnier. They learn of a battle with Myria millennia ago. The party crosses a desert, and find the ruined city of Caer Xhan, which contains an escalator leading to Myria's fortress. The group fights its way into the facility's inner sanctum, where they meet Teepo. After surviving the attack by Balio and Sunder by drawing on his latent dragon powers, Teepo was contacted by the Goddess, who convinced him to live in peaceful seclusion in her fortress to spare the world from his destructive power. Unable to convince Ryu or his friends to do the same, Teepo morphs into his Dragon Lord form and fights them to the death. The group makes their way to Myria. She reveals that she exterminated the dragons centuries ago for the same reason she destroyed the world's advanced technology: to keep humanity from inadvertently destroying itself. She presents Ryu the same choice she gave Teepo: to live the rest of his life in peace within her station or be destroyed. If the player complies with Myria, the game ends with Ryu in Eden. If the player challenges her, the spirit of the great tree Yggdrasil channels itself through Peco and tells Myria she is taking her power too far. Ryu and his friends overcome Myria and then flee the station as it crumbles. Garr reveals that his life must end with Myria's, turning to stone. Deis, now revealed to be Myria's sister, appears before Myria as the station falls apart, stating that they will henceforth leave the world in humanity's hands.**Myria**: Sister...? / **Deis**: It's for the best, Myria... You went too far in your attempt to wipe out the Brood... (*Breath of Fire III*) Ryu, Nina, Momo, Rei, and Peco begin their long journey home.
[ "Plot\n----", "### Characters", "[200px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Tatsuya Yoshikawa's character designs for *Breath of Fire III*](/wiki/File:Groupbof3.jpg \"Groupbof3.jpg\")\nThe main character in *Breath of Fire III* is Ryu. As a member of the ancient Brood race, Ryu is a human with the ability to transform into powerful dragons, an ability he does not fully understand, but pieces together as time goes on. He is accompanied on his quest by several other playable characters, including Nina, a winged princess from the Kingdom of Wyndia and powerful magician; Rei, member of the cat\\-like Woren tribe and skilled thief; Teepo, an orphaned rogue and longtime friend of Rei's with no memory of his past; Momo, daughter of a famous [engineer](/wiki/Engineer \"Engineer\") and [inventor](/wiki/Inventor \"Inventor\"); Garr (Garland in the Japanese version{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.capcom.co.jp/newproducts/consumer/breath3/char.html \\|title\\=Characters \\|language\\=ja \\|year\\=1997 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-06 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Capcom]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214215109/http://www.capcom.co.jp/newproducts/consumer/breath3/char.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}), an experienced warrior and member of a group known as the Guardians who serve the goddess Myria; and Peco (Pecoros in the Japanese version), a [onion](/wiki/Onion \"Onion\")\\-like creature with limited speech and a connection with nature.{{cite book \\|year\\=1998 \\|author\\=Capcom \\|title\\=Breath of Fire III Instruction Manual \\|pages\\=6, 7 \\| publisher\\=Capcom \\| id\\=SLUS\\-00422}}", "Balio and Sunder, brothers and [horse](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\")\\-men, act as mercenaries to a powerful crime lord and frequent adversaries of Ryu. Their boss, Mikba, is the head of a criminal organization with the ability to transform into a [demon](/wiki/Demon \"Demon\"). Deis{{efn\\|Deis is known as \"Bleu\" in the original English translations of ''\\[\\[Breath of Fire (video game)\\|Breath of Fire]]'' and ''\\[\\[Breath of Fire II]]''}} returns as a powerful sorceress who knows the secrets of the past. Myria, an ancient Goddess of Destruction, serves as the antagonist once more, though her motives have changed, and she is instead set on preserving the lives of humanity by ordering the deaths of the dragons.", "Ryu, Teepo and Rei run afoul of the giant woodsman Bunyan; Mygas, a traveling wizard who is camped outside of McNeil village; and the self\\-doubting master of non\\-lethal combat, Durandal, who provides the party with the skills to impress Hondara, the benevolent Urkan priest who despises violence. Fahl, the tipsy barkeep from Genmel and friend of Balio and Sunder will become one with them after those villains are defeated and if they have fought 30 battles without resting. A strange fishman named Giotto teaches skills once the party reaches a high\\-enough fishing level. Once Ryu and his team fix Rhapala's lighthouse situation and meet the fairies, the errant fairy Meryleep turns up at a secluded pond, asking for her flower jewel which was stolen by a crow. The party can also use Peco to communicate with Yggdrasil trees. Near the end of the game, the dragon spirit Ladon offers to communicate with Ryu in a similar fashion.", "### Story", "Ryu, a preserved baby dragon unearthed by miners, inadvertently shifts form into a young blue\\-haired boy and is taken in by wandering thieves named Rei and Teepo, members of the cat\\-like Woren clan. They believe Ryu to be just an abandoned child.**Teepo**: So who is he? / **Rei**: I told you\\-\\- I don't know—I found him in the woods / **Teepo**: Really...? Sounds like what happened with me... / **Rei**: An orphan... Not surprising—It's been a lean year... *Breath of Fire III* (English version). Capcom Co., Ltd. 1998\\. SLUS\\-0042\\.", "The trio are hired by a hooded figure named Loki to steal all the money from the town's corrupt mayor. They break into the manor, pilfer the gold, and re\\-distribute his money among the villagers. The mayor hires two [hitmen](/wiki/Hitmen \"Hitmen\"), the horse brothers Balio and Sunder, to exact revenge on the gang for their theft. Balio and Sunder burn down the trio's home, attack them, and leave them for dead. Ryu awakens in the care of a woodsman who fished him out of the river and found no trace of his friends. Ryu leaves Yraald Region. Ryu comes across Balio and Sunder in Mt. Myrneg. He is stabbed and reanimates into a dragon. The horse brothers take him to the Royal Family in Wyndia to sell him, but he transforms back to human. Balio, Sunder, and Ryu are locked up in the prison, where they meet Nina, child daughter of the King. Balio and Sunder trick Nina into releasing them and Ryu breaks out of his cell. Nina saves Ryu from Balio and Sunder, who are now on their trail.", "Ryu and Nina come across a large tower and meet Momo, an inventor and engineer who is researching chrysm. They escape the tower by rocket when bounty hunters arrive looking for them. Momo leads Ryu and Nina to a chrysm research facility. The institute's chairman and colleague of Momo's late father, Dr. Palet, informs the party of a mutant creature causing trouble at the biological waste dump. After defeat, the mutant plant creature gives up its offspring, whom Nina names Peco, to be cared for in its absence.**Nina**: Why don't we call him... Peco? I mean, he does look like an onion, right? (*Breath of Fire III*) They hop onto a cart to be smuggled back to Wyndia, unaware that Palet sold them out to Balio and Sunder. They are recaptured by Balio and Sunder, transported back to Genmel, and signed up to fight in the arena. Garr, a seasoned warrior, beats Ryu in the arena, and demands Ryu as his prize, sidestepping his deal with the horse brothers. With Garr's help, the team defeats the horse brothers.", "Garr agrees to help the group find Rei and Teepo, on the condition that Ryu accompany him to a sacred temple far to the east.**Garr**: Once we've taken the princess back to Windia, you must come with me to the Angel Tower, Ryu... (*Breath of Fire III*) They travel to Urkan Region, and arrive at the temple. Inside, Garr reveals the Brood, the race of dragons that once populated the world, was slaughtered by Garr and his fellow guardians at the behest of Myria, an ancient goddess who promised an age of peace in return. Ryu being the last living dragon, Garr attempts to slay him. Ryu beats him and escapes. Having been easily defeated by a child of the Brood, Garr has an epiphany: the Brood did not really fight back against him and the other guardians.", "Several years later, reports of a rampaging dragon lead Garr to Ryu, now a young adult. Garr asks forgiveness for his actions against his people and entreats Ryu to help him discover the true motivation behind Myria's genocide of the Brood.**Garr**: Why did they let us kill them??? Why did God have us kill the Brood!? I may not have the right to say this... But I want to know the truth... That's why I ask you... I ask you to let me live until then... (*Breath of Fire III*) Back in Yraald Region, the pair regroups with Nina, who led a regiment in arresting Mayor McNeil for his involvement with the attempt on Ryu's life and the destruction of their home. A weretiger has moved through the village, and Loki was mauled. They track the weretiger, revealed to be Rei. Rei has not seen Teepo since the incident.", "The team reunites with Momo, who has been performing experiments at the plant institute with Peco. The party receives information about Myria's whereabouts from a deity named Deis. After traversing the ocean, the group proceeds to the last known village of the Brood, Dragnier. They learn of a battle with Myria millennia ago. The party crosses a desert, and find the ruined city of Caer Xhan, which contains an escalator leading to Myria's fortress.", "The group fights its way into the facility's inner sanctum, where they meet Teepo. After surviving the attack by Balio and Sunder by drawing on his latent dragon powers, Teepo was contacted by the Goddess, who convinced him to live in peaceful seclusion in her fortress to spare the world from his destructive power. Unable to convince Ryu or his friends to do the same, Teepo morphs into his Dragon Lord form and fights them to the death. The group makes their way to Myria. She reveals that she exterminated the dragons centuries ago for the same reason she destroyed the world's advanced technology: to keep humanity from inadvertently destroying itself. She presents Ryu the same choice she gave Teepo: to live the rest of his life in peace within her station or be destroyed.", "If the player complies with Myria, the game ends with Ryu in Eden. If the player challenges her, the spirit of the great tree Yggdrasil channels itself through Peco and tells Myria she is taking her power too far. Ryu and his friends overcome Myria and then flee the station as it crumbles. Garr reveals that his life must end with Myria's, turning to stone. Deis, now revealed to be Myria's sister, appears before Myria as the station falls apart, stating that they will henceforth leave the world in humanity's hands.**Myria**: Sister...? / **Deis**: It's for the best, Myria... You went too far in your attempt to wipe out the Brood... (*Breath of Fire III*) Ryu, Nina, Momo, Rei, and Peco begin their long journey home.", "" ]
### Story Ryu, a preserved baby dragon unearthed by miners, inadvertently shifts form into a young blue\-haired boy and is taken in by wandering thieves named Rei and Teepo, members of the cat\-like Woren clan. They believe Ryu to be just an abandoned child.**Teepo**: So who is he? / **Rei**: I told you\-\- I don't know—I found him in the woods / **Teepo**: Really...? Sounds like what happened with me... / **Rei**: An orphan... Not surprising—It's been a lean year... *Breath of Fire III* (English version). Capcom Co., Ltd. 1998\. SLUS\-0042\. The trio are hired by a hooded figure named Loki to steal all the money from the town's corrupt mayor. They break into the manor, pilfer the gold, and re\-distribute his money among the villagers. The mayor hires two [hitmen](/wiki/Hitmen "Hitmen"), the horse brothers Balio and Sunder, to exact revenge on the gang for their theft. Balio and Sunder burn down the trio's home, attack them, and leave them for dead. Ryu awakens in the care of a woodsman who fished him out of the river and found no trace of his friends. Ryu leaves Yraald Region. Ryu comes across Balio and Sunder in Mt. Myrneg. He is stabbed and reanimates into a dragon. The horse brothers take him to the Royal Family in Wyndia to sell him, but he transforms back to human. Balio, Sunder, and Ryu are locked up in the prison, where they meet Nina, child daughter of the King. Balio and Sunder trick Nina into releasing them and Ryu breaks out of his cell. Nina saves Ryu from Balio and Sunder, who are now on their trail. Ryu and Nina come across a large tower and meet Momo, an inventor and engineer who is researching chrysm. They escape the tower by rocket when bounty hunters arrive looking for them. Momo leads Ryu and Nina to a chrysm research facility. The institute's chairman and colleague of Momo's late father, Dr. Palet, informs the party of a mutant creature causing trouble at the biological waste dump. After defeat, the mutant plant creature gives up its offspring, whom Nina names Peco, to be cared for in its absence.**Nina**: Why don't we call him... Peco? I mean, he does look like an onion, right? (*Breath of Fire III*) They hop onto a cart to be smuggled back to Wyndia, unaware that Palet sold them out to Balio and Sunder. They are recaptured by Balio and Sunder, transported back to Genmel, and signed up to fight in the arena. Garr, a seasoned warrior, beats Ryu in the arena, and demands Ryu as his prize, sidestepping his deal with the horse brothers. With Garr's help, the team defeats the horse brothers. Garr agrees to help the group find Rei and Teepo, on the condition that Ryu accompany him to a sacred temple far to the east.**Garr**: Once we've taken the princess back to Windia, you must come with me to the Angel Tower, Ryu... (*Breath of Fire III*) They travel to Urkan Region, and arrive at the temple. Inside, Garr reveals the Brood, the race of dragons that once populated the world, was slaughtered by Garr and his fellow guardians at the behest of Myria, an ancient goddess who promised an age of peace in return. Ryu being the last living dragon, Garr attempts to slay him. Ryu beats him and escapes. Having been easily defeated by a child of the Brood, Garr has an epiphany: the Brood did not really fight back against him and the other guardians. Several years later, reports of a rampaging dragon lead Garr to Ryu, now a young adult. Garr asks forgiveness for his actions against his people and entreats Ryu to help him discover the true motivation behind Myria's genocide of the Brood.**Garr**: Why did they let us kill them??? Why did God have us kill the Brood!? I may not have the right to say this... But I want to know the truth... That's why I ask you... I ask you to let me live until then... (*Breath of Fire III*) Back in Yraald Region, the pair regroups with Nina, who led a regiment in arresting Mayor McNeil for his involvement with the attempt on Ryu's life and the destruction of their home. A weretiger has moved through the village, and Loki was mauled. They track the weretiger, revealed to be Rei. Rei has not seen Teepo since the incident. The team reunites with Momo, who has been performing experiments at the plant institute with Peco. The party receives information about Myria's whereabouts from a deity named Deis. After traversing the ocean, the group proceeds to the last known village of the Brood, Dragnier. They learn of a battle with Myria millennia ago. The party crosses a desert, and find the ruined city of Caer Xhan, which contains an escalator leading to Myria's fortress. The group fights its way into the facility's inner sanctum, where they meet Teepo. After surviving the attack by Balio and Sunder by drawing on his latent dragon powers, Teepo was contacted by the Goddess, who convinced him to live in peaceful seclusion in her fortress to spare the world from his destructive power. Unable to convince Ryu or his friends to do the same, Teepo morphs into his Dragon Lord form and fights them to the death. The group makes their way to Myria. She reveals that she exterminated the dragons centuries ago for the same reason she destroyed the world's advanced technology: to keep humanity from inadvertently destroying itself. She presents Ryu the same choice she gave Teepo: to live the rest of his life in peace within her station or be destroyed. If the player complies with Myria, the game ends with Ryu in Eden. If the player challenges her, the spirit of the great tree Yggdrasil channels itself through Peco and tells Myria she is taking her power too far. Ryu and his friends overcome Myria and then flee the station as it crumbles. Garr reveals that his life must end with Myria's, turning to stone. Deis, now revealed to be Myria's sister, appears before Myria as the station falls apart, stating that they will henceforth leave the world in humanity's hands.**Myria**: Sister...? / **Deis**: It's for the best, Myria... You went too far in your attempt to wipe out the Brood... (*Breath of Fire III*) Ryu, Nina, Momo, Rei, and Peco begin their long journey home.
[ "### Story", "Ryu, a preserved baby dragon unearthed by miners, inadvertently shifts form into a young blue\\-haired boy and is taken in by wandering thieves named Rei and Teepo, members of the cat\\-like Woren clan. They believe Ryu to be just an abandoned child.**Teepo**: So who is he? / **Rei**: I told you\\-\\- I don't know—I found him in the woods / **Teepo**: Really...? Sounds like what happened with me... / **Rei**: An orphan... Not surprising—It's been a lean year... *Breath of Fire III* (English version). Capcom Co., Ltd. 1998\\. SLUS\\-0042\\.", "The trio are hired by a hooded figure named Loki to steal all the money from the town's corrupt mayor. They break into the manor, pilfer the gold, and re\\-distribute his money among the villagers. The mayor hires two [hitmen](/wiki/Hitmen \"Hitmen\"), the horse brothers Balio and Sunder, to exact revenge on the gang for their theft. Balio and Sunder burn down the trio's home, attack them, and leave them for dead. Ryu awakens in the care of a woodsman who fished him out of the river and found no trace of his friends. Ryu leaves Yraald Region. Ryu comes across Balio and Sunder in Mt. Myrneg. He is stabbed and reanimates into a dragon. The horse brothers take him to the Royal Family in Wyndia to sell him, but he transforms back to human. Balio, Sunder, and Ryu are locked up in the prison, where they meet Nina, child daughter of the King. Balio and Sunder trick Nina into releasing them and Ryu breaks out of his cell. Nina saves Ryu from Balio and Sunder, who are now on their trail.", "Ryu and Nina come across a large tower and meet Momo, an inventor and engineer who is researching chrysm. They escape the tower by rocket when bounty hunters arrive looking for them. Momo leads Ryu and Nina to a chrysm research facility. The institute's chairman and colleague of Momo's late father, Dr. Palet, informs the party of a mutant creature causing trouble at the biological waste dump. After defeat, the mutant plant creature gives up its offspring, whom Nina names Peco, to be cared for in its absence.**Nina**: Why don't we call him... Peco? I mean, he does look like an onion, right? (*Breath of Fire III*) They hop onto a cart to be smuggled back to Wyndia, unaware that Palet sold them out to Balio and Sunder. They are recaptured by Balio and Sunder, transported back to Genmel, and signed up to fight in the arena. Garr, a seasoned warrior, beats Ryu in the arena, and demands Ryu as his prize, sidestepping his deal with the horse brothers. With Garr's help, the team defeats the horse brothers.", "Garr agrees to help the group find Rei and Teepo, on the condition that Ryu accompany him to a sacred temple far to the east.**Garr**: Once we've taken the princess back to Windia, you must come with me to the Angel Tower, Ryu... (*Breath of Fire III*) They travel to Urkan Region, and arrive at the temple. Inside, Garr reveals the Brood, the race of dragons that once populated the world, was slaughtered by Garr and his fellow guardians at the behest of Myria, an ancient goddess who promised an age of peace in return. Ryu being the last living dragon, Garr attempts to slay him. Ryu beats him and escapes. Having been easily defeated by a child of the Brood, Garr has an epiphany: the Brood did not really fight back against him and the other guardians.", "Several years later, reports of a rampaging dragon lead Garr to Ryu, now a young adult. Garr asks forgiveness for his actions against his people and entreats Ryu to help him discover the true motivation behind Myria's genocide of the Brood.**Garr**: Why did they let us kill them??? Why did God have us kill the Brood!? I may not have the right to say this... But I want to know the truth... That's why I ask you... I ask you to let me live until then... (*Breath of Fire III*) Back in Yraald Region, the pair regroups with Nina, who led a regiment in arresting Mayor McNeil for his involvement with the attempt on Ryu's life and the destruction of their home. A weretiger has moved through the village, and Loki was mauled. They track the weretiger, revealed to be Rei. Rei has not seen Teepo since the incident.", "The team reunites with Momo, who has been performing experiments at the plant institute with Peco. The party receives information about Myria's whereabouts from a deity named Deis. After traversing the ocean, the group proceeds to the last known village of the Brood, Dragnier. They learn of a battle with Myria millennia ago. The party crosses a desert, and find the ruined city of Caer Xhan, which contains an escalator leading to Myria's fortress.", "The group fights its way into the facility's inner sanctum, where they meet Teepo. After surviving the attack by Balio and Sunder by drawing on his latent dragon powers, Teepo was contacted by the Goddess, who convinced him to live in peaceful seclusion in her fortress to spare the world from his destructive power. Unable to convince Ryu or his friends to do the same, Teepo morphs into his Dragon Lord form and fights them to the death. The group makes their way to Myria. She reveals that she exterminated the dragons centuries ago for the same reason she destroyed the world's advanced technology: to keep humanity from inadvertently destroying itself. She presents Ryu the same choice she gave Teepo: to live the rest of his life in peace within her station or be destroyed.", "If the player complies with Myria, the game ends with Ryu in Eden. If the player challenges her, the spirit of the great tree Yggdrasil channels itself through Peco and tells Myria she is taking her power too far. Ryu and his friends overcome Myria and then flee the station as it crumbles. Garr reveals that his life must end with Myria's, turning to stone. Deis, now revealed to be Myria's sister, appears before Myria as the station falls apart, stating that they will henceforth leave the world in humanity's hands.**Myria**: Sister...? / **Deis**: It's for the best, Myria... You went too far in your attempt to wipe out the Brood... (*Breath of Fire III*) Ryu, Nina, Momo, Rei, and Peco begin their long journey home.", "" ]
Career ------ She contributed illustrations to magazines such as *Child Life*, *Interiors*, and *Portfolio: An Intercontinental Quarterly*. In 1935 she illustrated a children's book for the [Bronx Zoo](/wiki/Bronx_Zoo "Bronx Zoo"), *Picture Book Zoo*.[Picture Book Zoo](http://www.williamreesecompany.com/pages/books/WRCLIT73972/saarinen-illus-verse-lilian-swann-myrtle-glenn-terry/the-picture-book-zoo), from William Reese Company. In 1946 she wrote and illustrated the children's book *Who Am I?*[Who Am I? Children's Book by Lily Swann Saarinen](https://www.nps.gov/jeff/blogs/Who-Am-I-Childrens-Book-by-Lily-Swann-Saarinen-Artifact-of-the-Month-for-January-2013.htm), from National Park Service. Saarinen's early sculpture commissions included: 23 glazed terra cotta reliefs (most of animals) at the [Crow Island School](/wiki/Crow_Island_School "Crow Island School") in [Winnetka, Illinois](/wiki/Winnetka%2C_Illinois "Winnetka, Illinois"), 1938, Eliel Saarinen, architect;[Relief panels](https://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/images/3949299860_8c9bb6fc2b-by-chicagogeek.jpg), Crow Island School. reliefs at the U.S. post office in [Carlisle, Kentucky](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Kentucky "Carlisle, Kentucky"); and a terra cotta relief, *Waiting for the Mail* (1941\), at the U.S. post office in [Bloomfield, Indiana](/wiki/Bloomfield%2C_Indiana "Bloomfield, Indiana") (Missing as of 2016{{Cite web \|url\=http://sites.temple.edu/endangeredmurals/murals/california/ \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=August 29, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911003916/http://sites.temple.edu/endangeredmurals/murals/california/ \|archive\-date\=September 11, 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}).[Waiting for the Mail](http://www.wpamurals.com/bloomfld.htm), from WPA Murals.Park, Marlene and Gerald E. Markowitz, *Democratic Vistas: Post Offices and Public Art in the New Deal*, Temple University Press, Philadelphia 1984 p. 209 She frequently supplied "ceramic embellishments" for her husband's architectural projects.Clark, Belloli, Harris, Taragin et al., *Design in America: The Cranbrook Vision 1925\-1950*, Founders Society of the Detroit Institute of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1983, p. 215\. [thumb\|*Bagheera Fountain* at Boston Public Garden](/wiki/File:%22Bagheera%22.jpg) She exhibited the sculpture *Night* (now called *[Bagheera](/wiki/Bagheera_Fountain "Bagheera Fountain")*) at the [1939 World's Fair](/wiki/1939_World%27s_Fair "1939 World's Fair"). It illustrates a scene from [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling "Rudyard Kipling")'s *[The Jungle Book](/wiki/The_Jungle_Book "The Jungle Book")*—the [panther](/wiki/Black_panther "Black panther") Bagheera hunting an owl by night.{{cite web\|title\=Bagheera Fountain\|url\=http://www.publicartboston.com/content/bagheera\-fountain\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630105712/http://www.publicartboston.com/content/bagheera\-fountain\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=June 30, 2015\|website\=Public Art Boston\|publisher\=Boston Art Commission\|accessdate\=October 26, 2015}} Placed in the [Boston Public Garden](/wiki/Boston_Public_Garden "Boston Public Garden") in 1986,[Bagheera Fountain (sculpture)](http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1472GKF785186.2818&profile=ariall&source=~!siartinventories&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!297743~!3&ri=1&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=saarinen&index=.AW&uindex=&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ri=1), from SIRIS. it is a feature of the [Boston Women's Heritage Trail](/wiki/Boston_Women%27s_Heritage_Trail "Boston Women's Heritage Trail").{{cite web\|title\=Back Bay East\|url\=http://bwht.org/back\-bay\-east/\|website\=Boston Women's Heritage Trail}} She was part of her husband's design team that won the 1947 national competition to design the [Gateway Arch](/wiki/Gateway_Arch "Gateway Arch") in [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri") at the [Gateway Arch National Park](/wiki/Gateway_Arch_National_Park "Gateway Arch National Park"). Her bas\-relief panels of the Mississippi River were eliminated from the final design. She specialized in animal portraits. Among these were the [Royal Dutch Airlines](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Airlines "Royal Dutch Airlines") sculpture at [John F. Kennedy Airport](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Airport "John F. Kennedy Airport") in New York City; and *Screaming Eagle* (1951\) at the [Federal Reserve Bank Building Annex](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Chicago_Detroit_Branch_Building "Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Detroit Branch Building") in Detroit, Michigan. The latter piece, designed at the request of architect [Minoru Yamasaki](/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki "Minoru Yamasaki"), is an abstract American [bald eagle](/wiki/Bald_eagle "Bald eagle") constructed of welded brass rods.John Rood, *Sculpture with a Torch* (University of Minnesota Press, 1968\), p. 100\. She created the *Fountain of Noah* (1954\) at the [Northland Center](/wiki/Northland_Center "Northland Center"), a shopping mall in [Southfield, Michigan](/wiki/Southfield%2C_Michigan "Southfield, Michigan"); interior sculpture at the Toffenetti Restaurant in Chicago, Illinois; and a mural of Boston Harbor with glazed terra cotta reliefs of sea creatures (1960s) at the Harbor National Bank on Franklin Street in Boston, Massachusetts. In later years, she modeled a number of portrait heads, among them that of her friend Gardner Cox (1967\).[Head of Gardner Cox (sculpture)](http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1472GKF785186.2818&profile=ariall&source=~!siartinventories&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!327611~!4&ri=1&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=saarinen&index=.AW&uindex=&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ri=1), from SIRIS.[Head of Gardner Cox](https://new.liveauctioneers.com/item/26943732_lilian-swann-saarinen-american-1912-1995-gardner), from LiveAuctioneers. In 1945, as part of the Red Cross Arts and Skills Unit rehabilitation program, she taught returning soldiers to model and fire ceramic sculpture. Later she taught at the [Pratt Institute](/wiki/Pratt_Institute "Pratt Institute") in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), New York City; the [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston "Museum of Fine Arts, Boston") School in Boston; and the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology") in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her cousin, socialite and actress [Edie Sedgwick](/wiki/Edie_Sedgwick "Edie Sedgwick"), was one of her private students.{{cite magazine\|last1\=Anolik\|first1\=Lili\|title\=Andy Warhol and Edie Sedgwick: A Brief, White\-Hot, and Totally Doomed Romance\|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2017/12/andy\-warhol\-and\-edie\-sedgwick\-a\-brief\-white\-hot\-and\-totally\-doomed\-romance/amp\|magazine\=Vanity Fair\|publisher\=vanityfair.com\|accessdate\=December 29, 2017\|date\=December 6, 2017}} She exhibited at the [Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Academy_of_the_Fine_Arts "Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts") from 1945 to 1947\.Peter Hastings Falk, ed., *The Annual Exhibition Record of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Volume III, 1914\-1968* (Sound View Press, 1989\), p. 403\. She was the winner of several awards: the A.H. Huntington First Prize, the Rome Collaborative Competition (1939\), and the I.B.M. Competition (1943\), among others.
[ "Career\n------", "She contributed illustrations to magazines such as *Child Life*, *Interiors*, and *Portfolio: An Intercontinental Quarterly*. In 1935 she illustrated a children's book for the [Bronx Zoo](/wiki/Bronx_Zoo \"Bronx Zoo\"), *Picture Book Zoo*.[Picture Book Zoo](http://www.williamreesecompany.com/pages/books/WRCLIT73972/saarinen-illus-verse-lilian-swann-myrtle-glenn-terry/the-picture-book-zoo), from William Reese Company. In 1946 she wrote and illustrated the children's book *Who Am I?*[Who Am I? Children's Book by Lily Swann Saarinen](https://www.nps.gov/jeff/blogs/Who-Am-I-Childrens-Book-by-Lily-Swann-Saarinen-Artifact-of-the-Month-for-January-2013.htm), from National Park Service.", "Saarinen's early sculpture commissions included: 23 glazed terra cotta reliefs (most of animals) at the [Crow Island School](/wiki/Crow_Island_School \"Crow Island School\") in [Winnetka, Illinois](/wiki/Winnetka%2C_Illinois \"Winnetka, Illinois\"), 1938, Eliel Saarinen, architect;[Relief panels](https://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/images/3949299860_8c9bb6fc2b-by-chicagogeek.jpg), Crow Island School. reliefs at the U.S. post office in [Carlisle, Kentucky](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Kentucky \"Carlisle, Kentucky\"); and a terra cotta relief, *Waiting for the Mail* (1941\\), at the U.S. post office in [Bloomfield, Indiana](/wiki/Bloomfield%2C_Indiana \"Bloomfield, Indiana\") (Missing as of 2016{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://sites.temple.edu/endangeredmurals/murals/california/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911003916/http://sites.temple.edu/endangeredmurals/murals/california/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}).[Waiting for the Mail](http://www.wpamurals.com/bloomfld.htm), from WPA Murals.Park, Marlene and Gerald E. Markowitz, *Democratic Vistas: Post Offices and Public Art in the New Deal*, Temple University Press, Philadelphia 1984 p. 209 She frequently supplied \"ceramic embellishments\" for her husband's architectural projects.Clark, Belloli, Harris, Taragin et al., *Design in America: The Cranbrook Vision 1925\\-1950*, Founders Society of the Detroit Institute of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1983, p. 215\\.", "[thumb\\|*Bagheera Fountain* at Boston Public Garden](/wiki/File:%22Bagheera%22.jpg)", "She exhibited the sculpture *Night* (now called *[Bagheera](/wiki/Bagheera_Fountain \"Bagheera Fountain\")*) at the [1939 World's Fair](/wiki/1939_World%27s_Fair \"1939 World's Fair\"). It illustrates a scene from [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\")'s *[The Jungle Book](/wiki/The_Jungle_Book \"The Jungle Book\")*—the [panther](/wiki/Black_panther \"Black panther\") Bagheera hunting an owl by night.{{cite web\\|title\\=Bagheera Fountain\\|url\\=http://www.publicartboston.com/content/bagheera\\-fountain\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630105712/http://www.publicartboston.com/content/bagheera\\-fountain\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=June 30, 2015\\|website\\=Public Art Boston\\|publisher\\=Boston Art Commission\\|accessdate\\=October 26, 2015}} Placed in the [Boston Public Garden](/wiki/Boston_Public_Garden \"Boston Public Garden\") in 1986,[Bagheera Fountain (sculpture)](http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1472GKF785186.2818&profile=ariall&source=~!siartinventories&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!297743~!3&ri=1&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=saarinen&index=.AW&uindex=&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ri=1), from SIRIS. it is a feature of the [Boston Women's Heritage Trail](/wiki/Boston_Women%27s_Heritage_Trail \"Boston Women's Heritage Trail\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Back Bay East\\|url\\=http://bwht.org/back\\-bay\\-east/\\|website\\=Boston Women's Heritage Trail}}", "She was part of her husband's design team that won the 1947 national competition to design the [Gateway Arch](/wiki/Gateway_Arch \"Gateway Arch\") in [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\") at the [Gateway Arch National Park](/wiki/Gateway_Arch_National_Park \"Gateway Arch National Park\"). Her bas\\-relief panels of the Mississippi River were eliminated from the final design.", "She specialized in animal portraits. Among these were the [Royal Dutch Airlines](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Airlines \"Royal Dutch Airlines\") sculpture at [John F. Kennedy Airport](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Airport \"John F. Kennedy Airport\") in New York City; and *Screaming Eagle* (1951\\) at the [Federal Reserve Bank Building Annex](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Chicago_Detroit_Branch_Building \"Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Detroit Branch Building\") in Detroit, Michigan. The latter piece, designed at the request of architect [Minoru Yamasaki](/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki \"Minoru Yamasaki\"), is an abstract American [bald eagle](/wiki/Bald_eagle \"Bald eagle\") constructed of welded brass rods.John Rood, *Sculpture with a Torch* (University of Minnesota Press, 1968\\), p. 100\\. She created the *Fountain of Noah* (1954\\) at the [Northland Center](/wiki/Northland_Center \"Northland Center\"), a shopping mall in [Southfield, Michigan](/wiki/Southfield%2C_Michigan \"Southfield, Michigan\"); interior sculpture at the Toffenetti Restaurant in Chicago, Illinois; and a mural of Boston Harbor with glazed terra cotta reliefs of sea creatures (1960s) at the Harbor National Bank on Franklin Street in Boston, Massachusetts. In later years, she modeled a number of portrait heads, among them that of her friend Gardner Cox (1967\\).[Head of Gardner Cox (sculpture)](http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1472GKF785186.2818&profile=ariall&source=~!siartinventories&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100001~!327611~!4&ri=1&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=saarinen&index=.AW&uindex=&aspect=Keyword&menu=search&ri=1), from SIRIS.[Head of Gardner Cox](https://new.liveauctioneers.com/item/26943732_lilian-swann-saarinen-american-1912-1995-gardner), from LiveAuctioneers.", "In 1945, as part of the Red Cross Arts and Skills Unit rehabilitation program, she taught returning soldiers to model and fire ceramic sculpture. Later she taught at the [Pratt Institute](/wiki/Pratt_Institute \"Pratt Institute\") in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), New York City; the [Museum of Fine Arts](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston \"Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\") School in Boston; and the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\") in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her cousin, socialite and actress [Edie Sedgwick](/wiki/Edie_Sedgwick \"Edie Sedgwick\"), was one of her private students.{{cite magazine\\|last1\\=Anolik\\|first1\\=Lili\\|title\\=Andy Warhol and Edie Sedgwick: A Brief, White\\-Hot, and Totally Doomed Romance\\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2017/12/andy\\-warhol\\-and\\-edie\\-sedgwick\\-a\\-brief\\-white\\-hot\\-and\\-totally\\-doomed\\-romance/amp\\|magazine\\=Vanity Fair\\|publisher\\=vanityfair.com\\|accessdate\\=December 29, 2017\\|date\\=December 6, 2017}}", "She exhibited at the [Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Academy_of_the_Fine_Arts \"Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts\") from 1945 to 1947\\.Peter Hastings Falk, ed., *The Annual Exhibition Record of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Volume III, 1914\\-1968* (Sound View Press, 1989\\), p. 403\\. She was the winner of several awards: the A.H. Huntington First Prize, the Rome Collaborative Competition (1939\\), and the I.B.M. Competition (1943\\), among others.", "" ]
Internet Accessibility ---------------------- In France internet accessibility is not equally distributed among the entire population. Factors that determine internet accessibility in the French community are age, education, and income. Higher internet availability was found among French residents younger than 30 years of age, completed some level of higher education, and are currently employed or in school.{{cite journal\|last1\=Renahy\|first1\=Emilie\|title\=Health information seeking on the Internet: a double divide? Results from a representative survey in the Paris metropolitan area, France, 2005–2006\|journal\=BMC Public Health\|date\=21 February 2008\|volume\=8\|issue\=69\|pages\=69\|doi\=10\.1186/1471\-2458\-8\-69\|pmid\=18291024\|pmc\=2275260 \|doi\-access\=free }} ### Age A decrease in internet accessibility correlates with increasing age in France. Those younger than 30 have been recorded to have the highest access to internet. French students retain the highest accessibility. After 30 years of age, accessibility declines. French 59 years and older retain the lowest internet accessibility. Less than 17% of people over the age of 75 have a computer at their home. In comparison, more than 90% of people aged 15 to 24 have a home computer. This is quite a large divide with senior citizens who make up about 20% of the population. ### Education Higher education correlates to increasing internet accessibility. There is a sharp division between primary and secondary education. [Secondary education](/wiki/Secondary_education "Secondary education") graduates have four times the accessibility to internet versus those with only [primary education](/wiki/Primary_education "Primary education"). [Post\-secondary education](/wiki/Post-secondary_education "Post-secondary education") degrees continue to show an exponential increase in internet accessibility. ### Income Households with higher income levels reflect an increased internet accessibility. Residents with higher salaries are more likely to be able to afford internet connection. The trend persists between employed and unemployed residents. The employed population is 40% more likely to have access to internet. Of the individuals with lowest incomes in France only 34% have a home computer and only 28% have internet connection. In contrast, 91% of the individuals with considerable wealth have a home computer and 87% have internet connection.
[ "Internet Accessibility\n----------------------", "In France internet accessibility is not equally distributed among the entire population. Factors that determine internet accessibility in the French community are age, education, and income. Higher internet availability was found among French residents younger than 30 years of age, completed some level of higher education, and are currently employed or in school.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Renahy\\|first1\\=Emilie\\|title\\=Health information seeking on the Internet: a double divide? Results from a representative survey in the Paris metropolitan area, France, 2005–2006\\|journal\\=BMC Public Health\\|date\\=21 February 2008\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=69\\|pages\\=69\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/1471\\-2458\\-8\\-69\\|pmid\\=18291024\\|pmc\\=2275260 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "### Age", "A decrease in internet accessibility correlates with increasing age in France. Those younger than 30 have been recorded to have the highest access to internet. French students retain the highest accessibility. After 30 years of age, accessibility declines. French 59 years and older retain the lowest internet accessibility.", "Less than 17% of people over the age of 75 have a computer at their home. In comparison, more than 90% of people aged 15 to 24 have a home computer. This is quite a large divide with senior citizens who make up about 20% of the population.", "### Education", "Higher education correlates to increasing internet accessibility. There is a sharp division between primary and secondary education. [Secondary education](/wiki/Secondary_education \"Secondary education\") graduates have four times the accessibility to internet versus those with only [primary education](/wiki/Primary_education \"Primary education\"). [Post\\-secondary education](/wiki/Post-secondary_education \"Post-secondary education\") degrees continue to show an exponential increase in internet accessibility.", "### Income", "Households with higher income levels reflect an increased internet accessibility. Residents with higher salaries are more likely to be able to afford internet connection. The trend persists between employed and unemployed residents. The employed population is 40% more likely to have access to internet.", "Of the individuals with lowest incomes in France only 34% have a home computer and only 28% have internet connection. In contrast, 91% of the individuals with considerable wealth have a home computer and 87% have internet connection.", "" ]
Investigation ------------- Roughly 100 eyewitnesses stated that they saw flames and smoke from the right engine shortly after the explosion and that some parts of the plane detached and fell to the ground.{{cite news\|author\=Malcolm\|first\=Andrew H.\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/08/us/jet\-parts\-found\-near\-crash.html\|title\=Jet Parts Found Near Crash\|date\=September 8, 1985\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|accessdate\=June 27, 2017\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 7, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807153243/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/08/us/jet\-parts\-found\-near\-crash.html\|url\-status\=live}} They also stated that loud bangs were continuously heard during the accident. Shortly afterwards, the crew lost control of the plane and the plane crashed into the field. Investigators then constructed several possible scenarios as to what might have caused the plane to lose control. ### Possible control failure due to turbine explosion Investigators immediately examined the fragments of the engine. They stated that the explosion might have been powerful enough to propel fragments of the turbine with sufficient speed to penetrate the plane and damage the flight controls, which could explain why the plane suddenly pitched up and barrel\-rolled immediately after the explosion. 5 years before the crash of Flight 105, in Poland an [Ilyushin Il\-62](/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-62 "Ilyushin Il-62") [crashed](/wiki/LOT_Flight_007 "LOT Flight 007") into a moat after its engine number 2 exploded and damaged the plane's elevator and aileron. Immediately after the explosion, the plane nosedived to the ground. The explosion was caused by a detached removable sleeve spacer inside the right engine. The detachment was caused by metal fatigue. Examination of the turbine fragments and their distribution during the explosion led to the conclusion that the ejection of the fragments didn't contribute to the crash, as the velocity of the fragments was substantially absorbed and decreased by the engine cowling. The NTSB noted that several parts of the engine could not be found; they concluded that, based on their calculation and distribution of the fragments on the ground, the unidentified parts were reduced to tiny, harmless bits. The left engine did not exhibit any signs of pre\-impact damage or failure The NTSB also stated that, although the explosion caused serious damage to the engine cowling, the cowlings were all latched. None blew outwards, which would have caused a massive drag force on the plane. This, in turn, could have affected the controllability of the plane. Small portions of the cowling did blow outwards, but the NTSB concluded that these parts caused very little drag force. The NTSB later concluded that even if any turbine parts were ejected and somehow able to penetrate the plane, the impact would be small and no controls would be affected. ### Pilot error In the initial seconds after the explosion, Flight 105 swayed to the right and left. In response, the pilot used the rudder to counteract the plane's movements. The examination concluded that the plane was easily controllable and that it could still be controlled properly without the rudder inputs. Additionally, the crew made a pitch input, raising the aircraft's nose. The crew may have wrongly perceived the nature of the emergency. Since the explosion of the engine caused the loss of engine thrust, the speed of the plane decreased. This rapid deceleration caused the crew to think that the plane was pitching down, which may explain why the crew made a nose\-up input, while in reality, it didn't pitch down. This phenomenon is known as a [somatogravic illusion](/wiki/Sensory_illusions_in_aviation%23Vestibular.2Fsomatogravic_illusions "Sensory illusions in aviation#Vestibular.2Fsomatogravic illusions"). However, instead of fixing the situation, the nose\-up input that the crew made only caused the plane to decelerate even more. The pilot may have suffered spatial disorientation immediately after the emergency. [thumbnail\|Animation of an accelerated stall.](/wiki/File:Accelerated_stall.gif "Accelerated stall.gif") The NTSB noted that the plane had banked to the right to such a severe angle that the plane entered a state which investigators call an "accelerated stall". ### Cockpit breakdown During the emergency, Captain Martin called for the instrument readings to First Officer Weiss. However, Weiss didn't reply to any of his questions or remarks. Since an emergency had occurred on board the plane, First Officer Weiss should have responded and worked with Martin in order to handle the emergency properly. Weiss' failure to respond may have further confused Captain Martin. Investigators stated that Weiss also might have been confused by the information on his instruments. They also stated that Weiss' action might have been influenced by Midwest Express' "silent cockpit" philosophy. Midwest Express expected its pilots to adhere to an unwritten policy called the "silent cockpit", where pilots would make no unnecessary callouts or even verbalize the nature of an emergency after {{convert\|100\|knots\|kph\|abbr\=off}} and before reaching an altitude of {{convert\|800\|ft\|abbr\=on}}. The emergency on board Flight 105 that day started at roughly {{convert\|700\|ft\|abbr\=on}} above the ground, meaning that the "silent cockpit" rule was in effect at the time. Investigators stated that the pilots should have worked together immediately since an emergency that occurred at low altitude was dangerous. With the silent cockpit rule, the crew's ability to effectively work together would have been hampered. This rule conflicted with FAA regulations and therefore should have been prohibited by the FAA. Seconds after the failure of the right engine, Captain Martin applied proper inputs to the plane. However, he was uncertain about the situation of Flight 105 at the time. Due to this, he asked First Officer Weiss for assistance. The NTSB, on their report, stated that Martin might have asked Weiss as he was far more senior and had more experience. He may have thought that Weiss was far more knowledgeable than him in identifying the nature of the emergency. Weiss didn't respond to any of Martin's remarks and questions. Based on the evidence from the [cockpit voice recorder](/wiki/Cockpit_voice_recorder "Cockpit voice recorder") (CVR), investigators believe that Weiss actually heard Martin's questions and remarks but ignored them for some reason. He was not incapacitated, as evidence from the recordings indicated that he communicated with Milwaukee Tower while Martin was asking him about the information of the plane's instruments. Captain Martin held primary responsibility for handling the emergency and taking corrective actions. However, the emergency should have been handled by both men working together as a team. Weiss should have assisted the Captain in responding and diagnosing the problem that had occurred on board Flight 105\. The NTSB stated: > "The redundancy provided by the First Officer is one of the basic tenets of Cockpit Resource Management." The NTSB then concluded that breakdown in crew coordination was one of the main causes of the accident, one possible cause being their inexperience{{snd}}only a few hundred hours in this jet. ### Inadequate FAA oversight The lack of experience of an FAA Principal Operations Inspector (POI) may have caused the silent cockpit philosophy to be approved by the FAA without proper examination. The philosophy was contrary to the approved practice by the FAA. If she had had more experience, she might have recognized that the concept had flaws, and that the airline was already teaching the concept to their employees. The NTSB believed that the POI who worked with Midwest Express did not perform her duties at an adequate level. As per the final report: > "The safety board believes that the FAA oversight of Midwest Express procedures and training during certification and ongoing day\-to\-day activity in the carrier's first 2 years of operation was less than optimum and probably suffered as a direct result of the inexperience of the POI. The POI testified that she devoted only 20 percent of her worktime to Midwest Express, her only FAR 121 scheduled passenger airline, and that she was still obligated to perform routine general aviation rules. The Board noted that the POI had no previous FAR 121 air carrier experience, that she was not rated in a turbojet of the category and class used by the airline, and that she had not rated received any formal training in the DC\-9 airplane used by the certificate holder for which she was responsible. In fact, she had no turbojet pilot experience. Neither did the POI have available for consultation or assistance air carrier inspectors assigned to other offices to fulfill her responsibilities. Apparently, she had become so dependent on other inspectors in surveilling Midwest Express that her own role was reduced primarily to administrative matters. The absence of first\-hand knowledge of the carrier and her lack of experience in turbojet air carrier operations severely handicapped her ability to perform the quality of surveillance required to detect shortcomings of FAR 121 airline operation. The Safety Board believes that the experience level of the POI was inappropriate for her assignment as the POI of a new air carrier operating turbojet equipment. She even testified that she was not totally comfortable with the arrangement."
[ "Investigation\n-------------", "Roughly 100 eyewitnesses stated that they saw flames and smoke from the right engine shortly after the explosion and that some parts of the plane detached and fell to the ground.{{cite news\\|author\\=Malcolm\\|first\\=Andrew H.\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/08/us/jet\\-parts\\-found\\-near\\-crash.html\\|title\\=Jet Parts Found Near Crash\\|date\\=September 8, 1985\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|accessdate\\=June 27, 2017\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 7, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807153243/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/08/us/jet\\-parts\\-found\\-near\\-crash.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} They also stated that loud bangs were continuously heard during the accident. Shortly afterwards, the crew lost control of the plane and the plane crashed into the field. Investigators then constructed several possible scenarios as to what might have caused the plane to lose control.", "### Possible control failure due to turbine explosion", "Investigators immediately examined the fragments of the engine. They stated that the explosion might have been powerful enough to propel fragments of the turbine with sufficient speed to penetrate the plane and damage the flight controls, which could explain why the plane suddenly pitched up and barrel\\-rolled immediately after the explosion. 5 years before the crash of Flight 105, in Poland an [Ilyushin Il\\-62](/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-62 \"Ilyushin Il-62\") [crashed](/wiki/LOT_Flight_007 \"LOT Flight 007\") into a moat after its engine number 2 exploded and damaged the plane's elevator and aileron. Immediately after the explosion, the plane nosedived to the ground.", "The explosion was caused by a detached removable sleeve spacer inside the right engine. The detachment was caused by metal fatigue. Examination of the turbine fragments and their distribution during the explosion led to the conclusion that the ejection of the fragments didn't contribute to the crash, as the velocity of the fragments was substantially absorbed and decreased by the engine cowling. The NTSB noted that several parts of the engine could not be found; they concluded that, based on their calculation and distribution of the fragments on the ground, the unidentified parts were reduced to tiny, harmless bits. The left engine did not exhibit any signs of pre\\-impact damage or failure", "The NTSB also stated that, although the explosion caused serious damage to the engine cowling, the cowlings were all latched. None blew outwards, which would have caused a massive drag force on the plane. This, in turn, could have affected the controllability of the plane. Small portions of the cowling did blow outwards, but the NTSB concluded that these parts caused very little drag force.", "The NTSB later concluded that even if any turbine parts were ejected and somehow able to penetrate the plane, the impact would be small and no controls would be affected.", "### Pilot error", "In the initial seconds after the explosion, Flight 105 swayed to the right and left. In response, the pilot used the rudder to counteract the plane's movements. The examination concluded that the plane was easily controllable and that it could still be controlled properly without the rudder inputs. Additionally, the crew made a pitch input, raising the aircraft's nose.", "The crew may have wrongly perceived the nature of the emergency. Since the explosion of the engine caused the loss of engine thrust, the speed of the plane decreased. This rapid deceleration caused the crew to think that the plane was pitching down, which may explain why the crew made a nose\\-up input, while in reality, it didn't pitch down. This phenomenon is known as a [somatogravic illusion](/wiki/Sensory_illusions_in_aviation%23Vestibular.2Fsomatogravic_illusions \"Sensory illusions in aviation#Vestibular.2Fsomatogravic illusions\"). However, instead of fixing the situation, the nose\\-up input that the crew made only caused the plane to decelerate even more. The pilot may have suffered spatial disorientation immediately after the emergency.", "[thumbnail\\|Animation of an accelerated stall.](/wiki/File:Accelerated_stall.gif \"Accelerated stall.gif\")", "The NTSB noted that the plane had banked to the right to such a severe angle that the plane entered a state which investigators call an \"accelerated stall\".", "### Cockpit breakdown", "During the emergency, Captain Martin called for the instrument readings to First Officer Weiss. However, Weiss didn't reply to any of his questions or remarks. Since an emergency had occurred on board the plane, First Officer Weiss should have responded and worked with Martin in order to handle the emergency properly. Weiss' failure to respond may have further confused Captain Martin.", "Investigators stated that Weiss also might have been confused by the information on his instruments. They also stated that Weiss' action might have been influenced by Midwest Express' \"silent cockpit\" philosophy.", "Midwest Express expected its pilots to adhere to an unwritten policy called the \"silent cockpit\", where pilots would make no unnecessary callouts or even verbalize the nature of an emergency after {{convert\\|100\\|knots\\|kph\\|abbr\\=off}} and before reaching an altitude of {{convert\\|800\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}. The emergency on board Flight 105 that day started at roughly {{convert\\|700\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} above the ground, meaning that the \"silent cockpit\" rule was in effect at the time. Investigators stated that the pilots should have worked together immediately since an emergency that occurred at low altitude was dangerous. With the silent cockpit rule, the crew's ability to effectively work together would have been hampered. This rule conflicted with FAA regulations and therefore should have been prohibited by the FAA.", "Seconds after the failure of the right engine, Captain Martin applied proper inputs to the plane. However, he was uncertain about the situation of Flight 105 at the time. Due to this, he asked First Officer Weiss for assistance. The NTSB, on their report, stated that Martin might have asked Weiss as he was far more senior and had more experience. He may have thought that Weiss was far more knowledgeable than him in identifying the nature of the emergency. Weiss didn't respond to any of Martin's remarks and questions. Based on the evidence from the [cockpit voice recorder](/wiki/Cockpit_voice_recorder \"Cockpit voice recorder\") (CVR), investigators believe that Weiss actually heard Martin's questions and remarks but ignored them for some reason. He was not incapacitated, as evidence from the recordings indicated that he communicated with Milwaukee Tower while Martin was asking him about the information of the plane's instruments.", "Captain Martin held primary responsibility for handling the emergency and taking corrective actions. However, the emergency should have been handled by both men working together as a team. Weiss should have assisted the Captain in responding and diagnosing the problem that had occurred on board Flight 105\\. The NTSB stated:", "", "> \"The redundancy provided by the First Officer is one of the basic tenets of Cockpit Resource Management.\"", "The NTSB then concluded that breakdown in crew coordination was one of the main causes of the accident, one possible cause being their inexperience{{snd}}only a few hundred hours in this jet.", "### Inadequate FAA oversight", "The lack of experience of an FAA Principal Operations Inspector (POI) may have caused the silent cockpit philosophy to be approved by the FAA without proper examination. The philosophy was contrary to the approved practice by the FAA. If she had had more experience, she might have recognized that the concept had flaws, and that the airline was already teaching the concept to their employees.", "The NTSB believed that the POI who worked with Midwest Express did not perform her duties at an adequate level. As per the final report:", "", "> \"The safety board believes that the FAA oversight of Midwest Express procedures and training during certification and ongoing day\\-to\\-day activity in the carrier's first 2 years of operation was less than optimum and probably suffered as a direct result of the inexperience of the POI. The POI testified that she devoted only 20 percent of her worktime to Midwest Express, her only FAR 121 scheduled passenger airline, and that she was still obligated to perform routine general aviation rules. The Board noted that the POI had no previous FAR 121 air carrier experience, that she was not rated in a turbojet of the category and class used by the airline, and that she had not rated received any formal training in the DC\\-9 airplane used by the certificate holder for which she was responsible. In fact, she had no turbojet pilot experience. Neither did the POI have available for consultation or assistance air carrier inspectors assigned to other offices to fulfill her responsibilities. Apparently, she had become so dependent on other inspectors in surveilling Midwest Express that her own role was reduced primarily to administrative matters. The absence of first\\-hand knowledge of the carrier and her lack of experience in turbojet air carrier operations severely handicapped her ability to perform the quality of surveillance required to detect shortcomings of FAR 121 airline operation. The Safety Board believes that the experience level of the POI was inappropriate for her assignment as the POI of a new air carrier operating turbojet equipment. She even testified that she was not totally comfortable with the arrangement.\"", "" ]
### Cockpit breakdown During the emergency, Captain Martin called for the instrument readings to First Officer Weiss. However, Weiss didn't reply to any of his questions or remarks. Since an emergency had occurred on board the plane, First Officer Weiss should have responded and worked with Martin in order to handle the emergency properly. Weiss' failure to respond may have further confused Captain Martin. Investigators stated that Weiss also might have been confused by the information on his instruments. They also stated that Weiss' action might have been influenced by Midwest Express' "silent cockpit" philosophy. Midwest Express expected its pilots to adhere to an unwritten policy called the "silent cockpit", where pilots would make no unnecessary callouts or even verbalize the nature of an emergency after {{convert\|100\|knots\|kph\|abbr\=off}} and before reaching an altitude of {{convert\|800\|ft\|abbr\=on}}. The emergency on board Flight 105 that day started at roughly {{convert\|700\|ft\|abbr\=on}} above the ground, meaning that the "silent cockpit" rule was in effect at the time. Investigators stated that the pilots should have worked together immediately since an emergency that occurred at low altitude was dangerous. With the silent cockpit rule, the crew's ability to effectively work together would have been hampered. This rule conflicted with FAA regulations and therefore should have been prohibited by the FAA. Seconds after the failure of the right engine, Captain Martin applied proper inputs to the plane. However, he was uncertain about the situation of Flight 105 at the time. Due to this, he asked First Officer Weiss for assistance. The NTSB, on their report, stated that Martin might have asked Weiss as he was far more senior and had more experience. He may have thought that Weiss was far more knowledgeable than him in identifying the nature of the emergency. Weiss didn't respond to any of Martin's remarks and questions. Based on the evidence from the [cockpit voice recorder](/wiki/Cockpit_voice_recorder "Cockpit voice recorder") (CVR), investigators believe that Weiss actually heard Martin's questions and remarks but ignored them for some reason. He was not incapacitated, as evidence from the recordings indicated that he communicated with Milwaukee Tower while Martin was asking him about the information of the plane's instruments. Captain Martin held primary responsibility for handling the emergency and taking corrective actions. However, the emergency should have been handled by both men working together as a team. Weiss should have assisted the Captain in responding and diagnosing the problem that had occurred on board Flight 105\. The NTSB stated: > "The redundancy provided by the First Officer is one of the basic tenets of Cockpit Resource Management." The NTSB then concluded that breakdown in crew coordination was one of the main causes of the accident, one possible cause being their inexperience{{snd}}only a few hundred hours in this jet.
[ "### Cockpit breakdown", "During the emergency, Captain Martin called for the instrument readings to First Officer Weiss. However, Weiss didn't reply to any of his questions or remarks. Since an emergency had occurred on board the plane, First Officer Weiss should have responded and worked with Martin in order to handle the emergency properly. Weiss' failure to respond may have further confused Captain Martin.", "Investigators stated that Weiss also might have been confused by the information on his instruments. They also stated that Weiss' action might have been influenced by Midwest Express' \"silent cockpit\" philosophy.", "Midwest Express expected its pilots to adhere to an unwritten policy called the \"silent cockpit\", where pilots would make no unnecessary callouts or even verbalize the nature of an emergency after {{convert\\|100\\|knots\\|kph\\|abbr\\=off}} and before reaching an altitude of {{convert\\|800\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}}. The emergency on board Flight 105 that day started at roughly {{convert\\|700\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} above the ground, meaning that the \"silent cockpit\" rule was in effect at the time. Investigators stated that the pilots should have worked together immediately since an emergency that occurred at low altitude was dangerous. With the silent cockpit rule, the crew's ability to effectively work together would have been hampered. This rule conflicted with FAA regulations and therefore should have been prohibited by the FAA.", "Seconds after the failure of the right engine, Captain Martin applied proper inputs to the plane. However, he was uncertain about the situation of Flight 105 at the time. Due to this, he asked First Officer Weiss for assistance. The NTSB, on their report, stated that Martin might have asked Weiss as he was far more senior and had more experience. He may have thought that Weiss was far more knowledgeable than him in identifying the nature of the emergency. Weiss didn't respond to any of Martin's remarks and questions. Based on the evidence from the [cockpit voice recorder](/wiki/Cockpit_voice_recorder \"Cockpit voice recorder\") (CVR), investigators believe that Weiss actually heard Martin's questions and remarks but ignored them for some reason. He was not incapacitated, as evidence from the recordings indicated that he communicated with Milwaukee Tower while Martin was asking him about the information of the plane's instruments.", "Captain Martin held primary responsibility for handling the emergency and taking corrective actions. However, the emergency should have been handled by both men working together as a team. Weiss should have assisted the Captain in responding and diagnosing the problem that had occurred on board Flight 105\\. The NTSB stated:", "", "> \"The redundancy provided by the First Officer is one of the basic tenets of Cockpit Resource Management.\"", "The NTSB then concluded that breakdown in crew coordination was one of the main causes of the accident, one possible cause being their inexperience{{snd}}only a few hundred hours in this jet.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=left \|1910\= 1519 \|1920\= 1643 \|1930\= 1434 \|1940\= 1652 \|1950\= 1407 \|1960\= 1232 \|1970\= 1095 \|1980\= 912 \|1990\= 857 \|2000\= 781 \|2010\= 665 \|2020\= 589 \|estyear\= 2023 \|estimate\= 599 \|estref\= \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 665 people, 294 households, and 187 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1705\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 357 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|915\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.2% of the population. There were 294 households, of which 26\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.4% were non\-families. 31\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.23 and the average family size was 2\.78\. The median age in the village was 43\.4 years. 20\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\.7% were from 25 to 44; 27\.7% were from 45 to 64; and 20\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47\.2% male and 52\.8% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 781 people, 339 households, and 234 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|1,889\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 392 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|948\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\.46% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.51% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.13% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.90% from two or more races. There were 339 households, out of which 25\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 13\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\.7% were non\-families. 28\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.30 and the average family size was 2\.74\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 20\.2% under the age of 18, 7\.6% from 18 to 24, 25\.1% from 25 to 44, 22\.0% from 45 to 64, and 25\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\.8 males. The median income for a household in the village was $28,636, and the median income for a family was $34,625\. Males had a median income of $29,500 versus $19,615 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $14,446\. About 8\.5% of families and 11\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 13\.2% of those under age 18 and 10\.3% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|1910\\= 1519\n\\|1920\\= 1643\n\\|1930\\= 1434\n\\|1940\\= 1652\n\\|1950\\= 1407\n\\|1960\\= 1232\n\\|1970\\= 1095\n\\|1980\\= 912\n\\|1990\\= 857\n\\|2000\\= 781\n\\|2010\\= 665\n\\|2020\\= 589\n\\|estyear\\= 2023\n\\|estimate\\= 599\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 665 people, 294 households, and 187 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1705\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 357 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|915\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.2% of the population.", "There were 294 households, of which 26\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.4% were non\\-families. 31\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.23 and the average family size was 2\\.78\\.", "The median age in the village was 43\\.4 years. 20\\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\\.7% were from 25 to 44; 27\\.7% were from 45 to 64; and 20\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47\\.2% male and 52\\.8% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 781 people, 339 households, and 234 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|1,889\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 392 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|948\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\\.46% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.51% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.13% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.90% from two or more races.", "There were 339 households, out of which 25\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\\.7% were non\\-families. 28\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.30 and the average family size was 2\\.74\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 20\\.2% under the age of 18, 7\\.6% from 18 to 24, 25\\.1% from 25 to 44, 22\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 25\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\\.8 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $28,636, and the median income for a family was $34,625\\. Males had a median income of $29,500 versus $19,615 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $14,446\\. About 8\\.5% of families and 11\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 13\\.2% of those under age 18 and 10\\.3% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Acting career ------------- Smith had been a long\-time friend of *[Trailer Park Boys](/wiki/Trailer_Park_Boys "Trailer Park Boys")* director [Mike Clattenburg](/wiki/Mike_Clattenburg "Mike Clattenburg"), and starred in "Cart Boy" with [Robb Wells](/wiki/Robb_Wells "Robb Wells") (who plays Ricky) and [John Paul Tremblay](/wiki/John_Paul_Tremblay "John Paul Tremblay") (who plays Julian) in 1995\. Smith was "messing" around on the set one day and slipped into his Cart Boy character from the short "The Cart Boy". Clattenburg apparently realized the depth this character held, and the Cart Boy, now known as Bubbles, was written into the show. Bubbles was never intended to be a main character, but the more outrageously he behaved, the more audiences loved him, developing him to become a [breakout character](/wiki/Breakout_character "Breakout character"). Bubbles then became one of the three main protagonists, having established that he knew Julian and Ricky from school back in the late 1970s to high school in the late '80s. Smith made an appearance as Bubbles in [Snow](/wiki/Snow_%28musician%29 "Snow (musician)")'s 2002 music video *Legal*, but his swearing remained censored. He was also featured in Country Star [George Canyon](/wiki/George_Canyon "George Canyon")'s video for "Drinkin Thinkin", which showed Bubbles going after his girlfriend. Mike and the rest of the Trailer park boys appeared in [The Tragically Hip](/wiki/The_Tragically_Hip "The Tragically Hip") video, "The Darkest One". He has appeared in character as Bubbles at several [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses") 2006 Canadian tour dates and dates in Australia and Japan in 2007\. Bubbles, along with Ricky and Julian, hosted the 2006 and the 2007 [East Coast Music Awards](/wiki/East_Coast_Music_Awards "East Coast Music Awards"), in [Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island](/wiki/Charlottetown%2C_Prince_Edward_Island "Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island") and [Halifax, Nova Scotia](/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality "Halifax Regional Municipality") respectively. In March 2008, Smith, along with three others, opened a sports bar in Halifax called "Bubba Ray's".[http://www.thecoast.ca/Articles\-i\-2008\-03\-13\-151808\.114125\_Bubba\_Rays.html](http://www.thecoast.ca/Articles-i-2008-03-13-151808.114125_Bubba_Rays.html) {{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Smith also was involved in another bar, "Bubbles' Mansion", located in [Downtown Halifax](/wiki/Downtown_Halifax "Downtown Halifax"). The bar, partly owned by Smith, closed in March 2010 after four years of operation, a decision the management attributed to government hikes in the minimum wage and minimum drink prices.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova\-scotia/bubbles\-mansion\-closes\-its\-doors\-1\.893794\| url\-status \= live\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100327141533/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova\-scotia/story/2010/03/24/ns\-bubbles\-mansion\-closed.html\| archive\-date \= 2010\-03\-27\| title \= CBC News \- Nova Scotia \- Bubbles Mansion closes its doors}} In 2010, Smith reunited with many of his former *Trailer Park Boys* castmates in the new series *[The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour](/wiki/The_Drunk_and_On_Drugs_Happy_Fun_Time_Hour "The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour")*. The 6\-episode series centers on the idea that a powerful narcotic derived from local berries transforms the cast, leading them to believe they are the characters they're playing, including pirates, superheroes, a mafia family and drug dealers. Tremblay, Wells and Smith, who created and scripted the show, performed in many scenes opposite themselves. It was directed by sitcom veteran Ron Murphy.["The Boys are back and on drugs"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100715073349/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/the-boys-are-back-this-time-on-drugs/article1637258). *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")*, July 12, 2010\. He also performed a live version of "Closer to the Heart" with [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock") band Rush. On October 22, 2012, it was confirmed that Smith was to return to his role as Bubbles for a third feature length *Trailer Park Boys* film entitled "Don't Legalize It" which concluded filming in late April 2013\. The film was released on April 18, 2014\. In the spring of 2013, Smith along with his Trailer Park Boys cohorts Wells and Tremblay started Swearnet, an internet\-based television network that is entirely uncensored. The trio have also produced a film that is a fictional take on their website.
[ "Acting career\n-------------", "Smith had been a long\\-time friend of *[Trailer Park Boys](/wiki/Trailer_Park_Boys \"Trailer Park Boys\")* director [Mike Clattenburg](/wiki/Mike_Clattenburg \"Mike Clattenburg\"), and starred in \"Cart Boy\" with [Robb Wells](/wiki/Robb_Wells \"Robb Wells\") (who plays Ricky) and [John Paul Tremblay](/wiki/John_Paul_Tremblay \"John Paul Tremblay\") (who plays Julian) in 1995\\.", "Smith was \"messing\" around on the set one day and slipped into his Cart Boy character from the short \"The Cart Boy\". Clattenburg apparently realized the depth this character held, and the Cart Boy, now known as Bubbles, was written into the show. Bubbles was never intended to be a main character, but the more outrageously he behaved, the more audiences loved him, developing him to become a [breakout character](/wiki/Breakout_character \"Breakout character\"). Bubbles then became one of the three main protagonists, having established that he knew Julian and Ricky from school back in the late 1970s to high school in the late '80s.", "Smith made an appearance as Bubbles in [Snow](/wiki/Snow_%28musician%29 \"Snow (musician)\")'s 2002 music video *Legal*, but his swearing remained censored. He was also featured in Country Star [George Canyon](/wiki/George_Canyon \"George Canyon\")'s video for \"Drinkin Thinkin\", which showed Bubbles going after his girlfriend. Mike and the rest of the Trailer park boys appeared in [The Tragically Hip](/wiki/The_Tragically_Hip \"The Tragically Hip\") video, \"The Darkest One\". He has appeared in character as Bubbles at several [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\") 2006 Canadian tour dates and dates in Australia and Japan in 2007\\. Bubbles, along with Ricky and Julian, hosted the 2006 and the 2007 [East Coast Music Awards](/wiki/East_Coast_Music_Awards \"East Coast Music Awards\"), in [Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island](/wiki/Charlottetown%2C_Prince_Edward_Island \"Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island\") and [Halifax, Nova Scotia](/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality \"Halifax Regional Municipality\") respectively.", "In March 2008, Smith, along with three others, opened a sports bar in Halifax called \"Bubba Ray's\".[http://www.thecoast.ca/Articles\\-i\\-2008\\-03\\-13\\-151808\\.114125\\_Bubba\\_Rays.html](http://www.thecoast.ca/Articles-i-2008-03-13-151808.114125_Bubba_Rays.html) {{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "Smith also was involved in another bar, \"Bubbles' Mansion\", located in [Downtown Halifax](/wiki/Downtown_Halifax \"Downtown Halifax\"). The bar, partly owned by Smith, closed in March 2010 after four years of operation, a decision the management attributed to government hikes in the minimum wage and minimum drink prices.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova\\-scotia/bubbles\\-mansion\\-closes\\-its\\-doors\\-1\\.893794\\| url\\-status \\= live\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100327141533/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova\\-scotia/story/2010/03/24/ns\\-bubbles\\-mansion\\-closed.html\\| archive\\-date \\= 2010\\-03\\-27\\| title \\= CBC News \\- Nova Scotia \\- Bubbles Mansion closes its doors}}", "In 2010, Smith reunited with many of his former *Trailer Park Boys* castmates in the new series *[The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour](/wiki/The_Drunk_and_On_Drugs_Happy_Fun_Time_Hour \"The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour\")*. The 6\\-episode series centers on the idea that a powerful narcotic derived from local berries transforms the cast, leading them to believe they are the characters they're playing, including pirates, superheroes, a mafia family and drug dealers. Tremblay, Wells and Smith, who created and scripted the show, performed in many scenes opposite themselves. It was directed by sitcom veteran Ron Murphy.[\"The Boys are back and on drugs\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100715073349/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/the-boys-are-back-this-time-on-drugs/article1637258). *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")*, July 12, 2010\\.", "He also performed a live version of \"Closer to the Heart\" with [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\") band Rush.", "On October 22, 2012, it was confirmed that Smith was to return to his role as Bubbles for a third feature length *Trailer Park Boys* film entitled \"Don't Legalize It\" which concluded filming in late April 2013\\. The film was released on April 18, 2014\\.", "In the spring of 2013, Smith along with his Trailer Park Boys cohorts Wells and Tremblay started Swearnet, an internet\\-based television network that is entirely uncensored. The trio have also produced a film that is a fictional take on their website.", "" ]
Description ----------- ### Background The paintings were commissioned by the [Loredan](/wiki/House_of_Loredan "House of Loredan") family, who had the Scuola of St. Ursula under their patronage and who had been distinguished for their military deeds against the "infidel" [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"), which are repeatedly echoed in the panels of the cycle. This was not one of the six [Scuole Grandi of Venice](/wiki/Scuole_Grandi_of_Venice "Scuole Grandi of Venice"), but a similar [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity "Confraternity"). According to [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine "Jacobus de Voragine")'s *[Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend "Golden Legend")*, [Saint Ursula](/wiki/Saint_Ursula "Saint Ursula") was the daughter of the Christian king of [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany"), who was betrothed to a pagan prince in exchange to his conversion to Christianity and they both made a pilgrimage to Rome. On her way back home, at [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne"), she was martyred by [Attila](/wiki/Attila "Attila"), King of the [Huns](/wiki/Huns "Huns"), together with her following of 11,000 virgins, after she had refused to become his wife. ### *Arrival of the Ambassadors* The first two paintings, despite depicting the first events of the cycle, were the last to be painted, in 1497–1498\. The first painting is set in an open pavilion, and its scene, divided into three parts, is read from right to left. The scene is reminiscent of the [liturgical drama](/wiki/Liturgical_drama "Liturgical drama") of the period, where all the characters sat on the stage and stood up when they had to take part in the play. On the right Ursula and her father are portrayed talking; sitting on the first step of a staircase leading to the interior is her nurse. The central scene portrays the meeting between the king and the ambassadors. In the background is a centrally planned temple and other imaginary buildings, resembling those of contemporary Venice. On the left, in the foreground under a [loggia](/wiki/Loggia "Loggia"), is a marine panorama with a [galleon](/wiki/Galleon "Galleon"). Outside the [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium "Proscenium") is a man wearing a red [toga](/wiki/Toga "Toga"), a hint at the *didascalos*, a narrator figure of the Renaissance theatre who described or commented on the play to the audience, usually in the person of an angel. Among the spectators are characters wearing the crest of the *Compagnia della Calza*, a Venetian [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity "Confraternity") which organized events and spectacles during [Carnival](/wiki/Carnival "Carnival") and other religious celebrations. ### *The Departure of the Ambassadors* The second painting, smaller in size, depicts, in a sumptuous interior, another court meeting, usually described as the parting of the ambassadors from the king of Brittany. A scribe in the background is writing the reply for Ursula's prince. According to a different interpretation{{cite book\|first\=Augusto \|last\=Gentili\|title\=Carpaccio\|publisher\=Art Dossier 111\|location\=Florence\|year\=1996}} the clothes of the figures indicate that they are pagans, and thus the characters would be part of the Brittany court, with the ambassadors leaving for their mission. ### *The Return of the Ambassadors* The third painting portrays the ambassadors of Brittany received in an open pavilion, with an imaginary city in the background, also resembling contemporary Venetian architecture. ### *The Meeting of Ursula and the Prince* The painting is divided in two by a pennant. Immediately at its left, sitting on a parapet, is [Antonio Loredan](/wiki/Antonio_Loredan "Antonio Loredan"), member of the *Compagnia della Calza* and commissioner of the work. The division allowed Carpaccio to portray two different landscapes: on the left is Brittany (England) with castles and steep cliffs, with the prince parting from his father; on the right is the meeting of the betrothed, and her separation from her father. In the background is the departure for the pilgrimage, with an imaginary Breton/British city characterized by Renaissance and Venetian edifices. [center\|220px\|Detail of the *Meeting of Ursula and the Prince*.](/wiki/File:Vittore_Carpaccio_046.jpg "Vittore Carpaccio 046.jpg") ### *Meeting of the Pilgrims with the Pope* The prince respects the pact with St. Ursula, accompanying her in pilgrimage to Rome. Here, outside the city's walls, the pilgrims are welcomed by the Pope, who will baptize the pagan prince and crown the spouses. Here too the ceremonial is reminiscent of the Venetian ones, and the *didascalos* is also present next to the Pope, in a red toga and with the appearance of the [Renaissance humanist](/wiki/Renaissance_humanist "Renaissance humanist") [Ermolao Barbaro](/wiki/Ermolao_Barbaro "Ermolao Barbaro"). ### *The Saint's Dream* The canvas illustrates the saint sleeping in the nuptial bed, alone, an allusion to the impossibility of the marriage. While she is sleeping, an angel enters the room while a rose sunray illuminates it. The angel is carrying the news of her upcoming martyrdom. The interior is portrayed with notable realism, such as in the furniture and the flowers: the latter, a [myrtle](/wiki/Myrtus "Myrtus") and a [carnation](/wiki/Carnation "Carnation"), symbolize faithfulness in the marriage. The inscription *DIVA FAUSTA*, located under [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules "Hercules")'s statue, indicates the redemptive nature of the divine message. The angel brings purity and clears the saint's mind. ### *Arrival of the Pilgrims in Cologne* This painting is dated 1490, and is the first executed by Carpaccio for the cycle. It describes the arrival of the pilgrims, accompanied by the Pope, at [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne"), then under siege by the [Huns](/wiki/Huns "Huns"). The banners over the tower, red\-white with three golden crowns, are those of the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") sultan [Mehmet II](/wiki/Mehmet_II "Mehmet II"), the main Venetian enemy during Carpaccio's life. The three crowns allude to the lands under his rule: [Asia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia"), [Trabzon](/wiki/Trabzon "Trabzon") and [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"). ### *The Martyrdom and the Funeral of St. Ursula* A column in the middle of the painting, bearing the Loredan family's coat of arms, divides it into two scenes: on the left is the martyrdom of St. Ursula and her following of 11,000 virgins; on the right, her funeral. As in the previous painting, Mehmet II and his troops are depicted as Huns, with the exception of a [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish "Moorish") soldier in the middle of the left scene. ### *Glory of St. Ursula* This canvas was originally located in the Scuola's chapel, concluding the narration in the cycle. Ursula is depicted in the presence of God, over a bundle of palms (symbol of martyrdom), surrounded by her companions. Six [seraphims](/wiki/Seraphim "Seraphim") are surrounding her with crowns. On the left are three male characters, most likely Antonio Loredan's three sons. Loredan had defended [Shkodër](/wiki/Shkod%C3%ABr "Shkodër") in [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania") against the Turks; his deed is recalled by the castle in the background.
[ "Description\n-----------", "### Background", "The paintings were commissioned by the [Loredan](/wiki/House_of_Loredan \"House of Loredan\") family, who had the Scuola of St. Ursula under their patronage and who had been distinguished for their military deeds against the \"infidel\" [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"), which are repeatedly echoed in the panels of the cycle. This was not one of the six [Scuole Grandi of Venice](/wiki/Scuole_Grandi_of_Venice \"Scuole Grandi of Venice\"), but a similar [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity \"Confraternity\").", "According to [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine \"Jacobus de Voragine\")'s *[Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend \"Golden Legend\")*, [Saint Ursula](/wiki/Saint_Ursula \"Saint Ursula\") was the daughter of the Christian king of [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"), who was betrothed to a pagan prince in exchange to his conversion to Christianity and they both made a pilgrimage to Rome. On her way back home, at [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\"), she was martyred by [Attila](/wiki/Attila \"Attila\"), King of the [Huns](/wiki/Huns \"Huns\"), together with her following of 11,000 virgins, after she had refused to become his wife.", "### *Arrival of the Ambassadors*", "The first two paintings, despite depicting the first events of the cycle, were the last to be painted, in 1497–1498\\.", "The first painting is set in an open pavilion, and its scene, divided into three parts, is read from right to left. The scene is reminiscent of the [liturgical drama](/wiki/Liturgical_drama \"Liturgical drama\") of the period, where all the characters sat on the stage and stood up when they had to take part in the play. On the right Ursula and her father are portrayed talking; sitting on the first step of a staircase leading to the interior is her nurse.", "The central scene portrays the meeting between the king and the ambassadors. In the background is a centrally planned temple and other imaginary buildings, resembling those of contemporary Venice. On the left, in the foreground under a [loggia](/wiki/Loggia \"Loggia\"), is a marine panorama with a [galleon](/wiki/Galleon \"Galleon\"). Outside the [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium \"Proscenium\") is a man wearing a red [toga](/wiki/Toga \"Toga\"), a hint at the *didascalos*, a narrator figure of the Renaissance theatre who described or commented on the play to the audience, usually in the person of an angel. Among the spectators are characters wearing the crest of the *Compagnia della Calza*, a Venetian [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity \"Confraternity\") which organized events and spectacles during [Carnival](/wiki/Carnival \"Carnival\") and other religious celebrations.", "### *The Departure of the Ambassadors*", "The second painting, smaller in size, depicts, in a sumptuous interior, another court meeting, usually described as the parting of the ambassadors from the king of Brittany. A scribe in the background is writing the reply for Ursula's prince. According to a different interpretation{{cite book\\|first\\=Augusto \\|last\\=Gentili\\|title\\=Carpaccio\\|publisher\\=Art Dossier 111\\|location\\=Florence\\|year\\=1996}} the clothes of the figures indicate that they are pagans, and thus the characters would be part of the Brittany court, with the ambassadors leaving for their mission.", "### *The Return of the Ambassadors*", "The third painting portrays the ambassadors of Brittany received in an open pavilion, with an imaginary city in the background, also resembling contemporary Venetian architecture.", "### *The Meeting of Ursula and the Prince*", "The painting is divided in two by a pennant. Immediately at its left, sitting on a parapet, is [Antonio Loredan](/wiki/Antonio_Loredan \"Antonio Loredan\"), member of the *Compagnia della Calza* and commissioner of the work. The division allowed Carpaccio to portray two different landscapes: on the left is Brittany (England) with castles and steep cliffs, with the prince parting from his father; on the right is the meeting of the betrothed, and her separation from her father. In the background is the departure for the pilgrimage, with an imaginary Breton/British city characterized by Renaissance and Venetian edifices.\n[center\\|220px\\|Detail of the *Meeting of Ursula and the Prince*.](/wiki/File:Vittore_Carpaccio_046.jpg \"Vittore Carpaccio 046.jpg\")", "### *Meeting of the Pilgrims with the Pope*", "The prince respects the pact with St. Ursula, accompanying her in pilgrimage to Rome. Here, outside the city's walls, the pilgrims are welcomed by the Pope, who will baptize the pagan prince and crown the spouses. Here too the ceremonial is reminiscent of the Venetian ones, and the *didascalos* is also present next to the Pope, in a red toga and with the appearance of the [Renaissance humanist](/wiki/Renaissance_humanist \"Renaissance humanist\") [Ermolao Barbaro](/wiki/Ermolao_Barbaro \"Ermolao Barbaro\").", "### *The Saint's Dream*", "The canvas illustrates the saint sleeping in the nuptial bed, alone, an allusion to the impossibility of the marriage. While she is sleeping, an angel enters the room while a rose sunray illuminates it. The angel is carrying the news of her upcoming martyrdom.", "The interior is portrayed with notable realism, such as in the furniture and the flowers: the latter, a [myrtle](/wiki/Myrtus \"Myrtus\") and a [carnation](/wiki/Carnation \"Carnation\"), symbolize faithfulness in the marriage. The inscription *DIVA FAUSTA*, located under [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules \"Hercules\")'s statue, indicates the redemptive nature of the divine message.", "The angel brings purity and clears the saint's mind.", "### *Arrival of the Pilgrims in Cologne*", "This painting is dated 1490, and is the first executed by Carpaccio for the cycle. It describes the arrival of the pilgrims, accompanied by the Pope, at [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\"), then under siege by the [Huns](/wiki/Huns \"Huns\"). The banners over the tower, red\\-white with three golden crowns, are those of the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") sultan [Mehmet II](/wiki/Mehmet_II \"Mehmet II\"), the main Venetian enemy during Carpaccio's life. The three crowns allude to the lands under his rule: [Asia](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\"), [Trabzon](/wiki/Trabzon \"Trabzon\") and [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\").", "### *The Martyrdom and the Funeral of St. Ursula*", "A column in the middle of the painting, bearing the Loredan family's coat of arms, divides it into two scenes: on the left is the martyrdom of St. Ursula and her following of 11,000 virgins; on the right, her funeral. As in the previous painting, Mehmet II and his troops are depicted as Huns, with the exception of a [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish \"Moorish\") soldier in the middle of the left scene.", "### *Glory of St. Ursula*", "This canvas was originally located in the Scuola's chapel, concluding the narration in the cycle. Ursula is depicted in the presence of God, over a bundle of palms (symbol of martyrdom), surrounded by her companions. Six [seraphims](/wiki/Seraphim \"Seraphim\") are surrounding her with crowns. On the left are three male characters, most likely Antonio Loredan's three sons. Loredan had defended [Shkodër](/wiki/Shkod%C3%ABr \"Shkodër\") in [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") against the Turks; his deed is recalled by the castle in the background.", "" ]
Biography --------- Chandra, a graduate of [Gurukul Kangri University](/wiki/Gurukul_Kangri_University "Gurukul Kangri University") in India, arrived in Fiji on 22 December 1927 at the behest of the [Arya Samaj](/wiki/Arya_Samaj_in_Fiji "Arya Samaj in Fiji"), which wanted to improve the education standard of [Indo\-Fijian](/wiki/Indo-Fijians "Indo-Fijians") students and promote [Arya Samaj in Fiji](/wiki/Arya_Samaj_in_Fiji "Arya Samaj in Fiji"). After a brief sojourn at Suva, he started teaching at the [Gurukul Primary School](/wiki/Gurukul_Primary_School "Gurukul Primary School") in Saweni, [Lautoka](/wiki/Lautoka "Lautoka"). In 1928 he became the Principal and under his leadership, boarding facilities were established at the school with 45 boarders out of a total population of 140, including 25 [native Fijian](/wiki/Fijians "Fijians") students. During his time as Principal, the school made remarkable progress and he was commended by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Fiji "Governor of Fiji"), [Sir Murchison Fletcher](/wiki/Arthur_George_Murchison_Fletcher "Arthur George Murchison Fletcher"). He was the founder of the [Fiji Teachers Union](/wiki/Fiji_Teachers_Union "Fiji Teachers Union") in 1929 and its first President.{{cite book\| last \= Sharma \| first \= Guru Dayal \| title \= Memories of Fiji: 1887 – 1987 \| publisher \=Guru Dayal Sharma, Suva, Fiji \| year \= 1987 \| page \= 182 }} He was mentor of many of the early trade unionists and was the inspiration behind the formation of the *Chini Mazdur Sangh* (now known as the [Sugar General Workers Union](/wiki/Sugar_General_Workers_Union "Sugar General Workers Union")) and the [Gold Mine Workers Union of Vatukoula](/wiki/Gold_Mine_Workers_Union_of_Vatukoula "Gold Mine Workers Union of Vatukoula").Sir Vijay R. Singh, Speaking Out, Knightsbrook Publications, 2006, {{ISBN\|0\-9775166\-0\-1}} He was seen as a person who could be trusted by all sections of the Indian community, and when the [Kisan Sangh](/wiki/Kisan_Sangh "Kisan Sangh") split into two factions in 1943, both sides agreed to have the union's books audited by him.A.P. Sharma, *A History of Fiji Kisan Sangh*, Vicas Press, Lautoka, Fiji, 2005 He was the president of the Fiji Industrial Workers Congress (now the [Fiji Trades Union Congress](/wiki/Fiji_Trades_Union_Congress "Fiji Trades Union Congress")), an umbrella organisation representing all but one of the unions in Fiji. He promoted multi\-racial trade unions and opposed the participation of any trade union in politics.[Industrial associations and local politics.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2R3Nk3jUlsC&dq=%22ami+chandra%22&pg=PA9) In 1930 Chandra moved to Suva where he was instrumental in the establishment of Arya Samaj Girls School at Samabula. Later, he went to [Ba](/wiki/Ba_District%2C_Fiji "Ba District, Fiji"), establishing another school, Arya Kanya Pathshala (Arya Girls School). While in [Ba](/wiki/Ba_District%2C_Fiji "Ba District, Fiji") Chandra was also recruited by the [Colonial Sugar Refining Company](/wiki/Colonial_Sugar_Refining_Company_%28Fiji%29 "Colonial Sugar Refining Company (Fiji)") (CSR) to teach company employees and overseers to speak proper Hindi and understand Indian culture. His greatest contribution was the series of books, *Hindi Ki Pothi* (Hindi Readers), that he published to enable Indian students to learn Hindi easily.{{cite book \|last\=Kanwal \|first\=Jogindar Singh \|title\=A hundred years of Hindi in Fiji \|year\= 1980\|publisher\=Fiji Teachers Union \|location\= Suva, Fiji\|page \= 79}} These readers were compiled for students of different levels in primary schools and were used in Fiji for over twenty years. In 1935, with support from CSR, he formed the [Ba](/wiki/Ba_Province "Ba Province") Indian Football Association with a local league which grew to four teams by 1940\.M. Prasad, *Sixty Years of Soccer in Fiji 1938–1998: The Official History of Fiji Football Association*, Fiji Football Association, Suva, 1998 Between 1947 and 1950 he was a nominated member of the Legislative Council, working closely with [Vishnu Deo](/wiki/Vishnu_Deo "Vishnu Deo"). In 1950, he opened a post primary class for youth using volunteer professionals from a cross section of society in Ba. Chandra died in [a plane crash](/wiki/1954_BOAC_Lockheed_Constellation_crash "1954 BOAC Lockheed Constellation crash") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") on 13 March 1954\. [Ami Chandra's Death is a Grave Loss to Fiji](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-325729224/view?partId=nla.obj-325761529#page/n44/mode/1up/) *Pacific Islands Monthly*, April 1954, p43 He had been married to Sarvati Deviji and had four daughters; Saroj, Jyan, Pushpa and Om.{{Cite news \|title \=Pandit Ami Chandra Family\| newspaper \= Arya Samaj Centenary Volume (1904–2004\)\| pages \=59 \| year \=2004 }}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Chandra, a graduate of [Gurukul Kangri University](/wiki/Gurukul_Kangri_University \"Gurukul Kangri University\") in India, arrived in Fiji on 22 December 1927 at the behest of the [Arya Samaj](/wiki/Arya_Samaj_in_Fiji \"Arya Samaj in Fiji\"), which wanted to improve the education standard of [Indo\\-Fijian](/wiki/Indo-Fijians \"Indo-Fijians\") students and promote [Arya Samaj in Fiji](/wiki/Arya_Samaj_in_Fiji \"Arya Samaj in Fiji\").", "After a brief sojourn at Suva, he started teaching at the [Gurukul Primary School](/wiki/Gurukul_Primary_School \"Gurukul Primary School\") in Saweni, [Lautoka](/wiki/Lautoka \"Lautoka\"). In 1928 he became the Principal and under his leadership, boarding facilities were established at the school with 45 boarders out of a total population of 140, including 25 [native Fijian](/wiki/Fijians \"Fijians\") students. During his time as Principal, the school made remarkable progress and he was commended by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Fiji \"Governor of Fiji\"), [Sir Murchison Fletcher](/wiki/Arthur_George_Murchison_Fletcher \"Arthur George Murchison Fletcher\").", "He was the founder of the [Fiji Teachers Union](/wiki/Fiji_Teachers_Union \"Fiji Teachers Union\") in 1929 and its first President.{{cite book\\| last \\= Sharma \\| first \\= Guru Dayal \\| title \\= Memories of Fiji: 1887 – 1987 \\| publisher \\=Guru Dayal Sharma, Suva, Fiji \\| year \\= 1987 \\| page \\= 182 }} He was mentor of many of the early trade unionists and was the inspiration behind the formation of the *Chini Mazdur Sangh* (now known as the [Sugar General Workers Union](/wiki/Sugar_General_Workers_Union \"Sugar General Workers Union\")) and the [Gold Mine Workers Union of Vatukoula](/wiki/Gold_Mine_Workers_Union_of_Vatukoula \"Gold Mine Workers Union of Vatukoula\").Sir Vijay R. Singh, Speaking Out, Knightsbrook Publications, 2006, {{ISBN\\|0\\-9775166\\-0\\-1}} He was seen as a person who could be trusted by all sections of the Indian community, and when the [Kisan Sangh](/wiki/Kisan_Sangh \"Kisan Sangh\") split into two factions in 1943, both sides agreed to have the union's books audited by him.A.P. Sharma, *A History of Fiji Kisan Sangh*, Vicas Press, Lautoka, Fiji, 2005 He was the president of the Fiji Industrial Workers Congress (now the [Fiji Trades Union Congress](/wiki/Fiji_Trades_Union_Congress \"Fiji Trades Union Congress\")), an umbrella organisation representing all but one of the unions in Fiji. He promoted multi\\-racial trade unions and opposed the participation of any trade union in politics.[Industrial associations and local politics.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2R3Nk3jUlsC&dq=%22ami+chandra%22&pg=PA9)", "In 1930 Chandra moved to Suva where he was instrumental in the establishment of Arya Samaj Girls School at Samabula. Later, he went to [Ba](/wiki/Ba_District%2C_Fiji \"Ba District, Fiji\"), establishing another school, Arya Kanya Pathshala (Arya Girls School).", "While in [Ba](/wiki/Ba_District%2C_Fiji \"Ba District, Fiji\") Chandra was also recruited by the [Colonial Sugar Refining Company](/wiki/Colonial_Sugar_Refining_Company_%28Fiji%29 \"Colonial Sugar Refining Company (Fiji)\") (CSR) to teach company employees and overseers to speak proper Hindi and understand Indian culture. His greatest contribution was the series of books, *Hindi Ki Pothi* (Hindi Readers), that he published to enable Indian students to learn Hindi easily.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kanwal \\|first\\=Jogindar Singh \\|title\\=A hundred years of Hindi in Fiji \\|year\\= 1980\\|publisher\\=Fiji Teachers Union \\|location\\= Suva, Fiji\\|page \\= 79}} These readers were compiled for students of different levels in primary schools and were used in Fiji for over twenty years.", "In 1935, with support from CSR, he formed the [Ba](/wiki/Ba_Province \"Ba Province\") Indian Football Association with a local league which grew to four teams by 1940\\.M. Prasad, *Sixty Years of Soccer in Fiji 1938–1998: The Official History of Fiji Football Association*, Fiji Football Association, Suva, 1998", "Between 1947 and 1950 he was a nominated member of the Legislative Council, working closely with [Vishnu Deo](/wiki/Vishnu_Deo \"Vishnu Deo\").", "In 1950, he opened a post primary class for youth using volunteer professionals from a cross section of society in Ba.", "Chandra died in [a plane crash](/wiki/1954_BOAC_Lockheed_Constellation_crash \"1954 BOAC Lockheed Constellation crash\") in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") on 13 March 1954\\. [Ami Chandra's Death is a Grave Loss to Fiji](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-325729224/view?partId=nla.obj-325761529#page/n44/mode/1up/) *Pacific Islands Monthly*, April 1954, p43 He had been married to Sarvati Deviji and had four daughters; Saroj, Jyan, Pushpa and Om.{{Cite news\n \\|title \\=Pandit Ami Chandra Family\\| newspaper \\= Arya Samaj Centenary Volume (1904–2004\\)\\| pages \\=59 \\| year \\=2004 }}", "" ]
Recently deceased rhinos ------------------------ ### Wild population The northern white rhino formerly ranged over parts of northwestern [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), southern [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan"), the eastern part of [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic "Central African Republic"), and northeastern [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Democratic Republic of the Congo").{{cite journal \| author \= Sydney, J. \|year\=1965\|title\= The past and present distribution of some African ungulates\|journal\= Transactions of the Zoological Society of London \|volume\=3\|pages\=1–397\|doi\=10\.1017/S0030605300006815 \|doi\-access\=free}} Their range possibly extended as far west as [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad "Lake Chad"), into [Chad](/wiki/Chad "Chad") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf\_files/133/1337160222\.pdf\|title\=The Rhinos of the Central African Republic\|author\=C.A. Spinage\|website\=Rhinoresourcecenter.com\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-24}} Poachers reduced their population from 500 to 15 in the 1970s and 1980s. From the early 1990s through mid\-2003, the population recovered to more than 32 animals.International Rhino Foundation. 2002\. [Rhino Information – Northern White Rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20071023203029/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/rhinoinformation/whiterhino/subspecies/northern.htm). 19 September 2006{{cite journal \| author \= Smith, Kes Hillman \|title\= Status of northern white rhinos and elephants in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, during the wars\|journal\= Pachyderm Journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups\|date\= July–December 2001\|volume\= 31\|pages\= 79–81\|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf\_files/125/1255075757\.pdf}} Since mid\-2003, poaching has intensified and further reduced the wild population. #### Garamba National Park The last known surviving population of wild northern white rhinos was in [Garamba National Park](/wiki/Garamba_National_Park "Garamba National Park"), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).{{cite web\|url\=http://mammals\-of\-papua.webs.com/whiterhino.htm\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20141207163226/http://mammals\-of\-papua.webs.com/whiterhino.htm\|title\=White rhino \- Mammals of Papua\|date\=7 December 2014\|archive\-date\=7 December 2014}} In January 2005, the government of the DRC approved a two\-part plan for five northern white rhinos to be moved from Garamba National Park to a wildlife sanctuary in Kenya. The second part commits the government and its international partners to increase conservation efforts in Garamba, so the northern white rhinos can be returned when it is safe again.IUCN. (25 January 2005\). [Reprieve planned for Garamba's rhinos: extra efforts promised to safeguard their homeland](https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033201/http://www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2001_2005/press/pr-garamba-translocation.pdf). Gland, Switzerland. However, the translocation did not occur. In August 2005, ground and aerial surveys conducted under the direction of [African Parks Foundation](/wiki/African_Parks_Foundation "African Parks Foundation") and the African Rhino Specialist Group (ARSG) had only found four animals, a solitary adult male and a group of one adult male and two adult females.IUCN. (6 July 2006\). [West African black rhino feared extinct](https://web.archive.org/web/20070220005649/http://www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2006/07/7_pr_rhino.htm). Gland, Switzerland. They were the last known wild northern white rhinos, according to the [World Wide Fund for Nature](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature "World Wide Fund for Nature").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/northernwhiterhinoceros/item587\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605114753/http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/northernwhiterhinoceros/northernwhiterhinoceros.html\|archive\-date\=5 June 2011\|title\=Northern White Rhino\|website\=Worldwildlife.org\|access\-date\=7 April 2009}} In June 2008, it was reported that the species may have gone extinct in the wild, since there has been no sighting of these four known remaining individuals since 2006, or of their signs since 2007, despite intensive systematic ground and aerial searches in 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951\.ece \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629113419/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951\.ece \|archive\-date\=29 June 2011 \|title\=News \|work\=The Times \|location\=London \|date\= 17 June 2008\|access\-date\=7 April 2009 \| first\=Lewis \| last\=Smith}} One carcass has been found.Smith, Lewis (17 June 2008\) [Poachers kill last four wild northern white rhinos](https://web.archive.org/web/20080905201726/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951.ece). *The Times*.Skinner, J.D. and Smithers, R.H.N. (1990\). *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, Cambridge University Press, p. 567, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-84418\-5}}. On 28 November 2009, two Russian helicopter pilots reported seeing rhinoceroses in southern Sudan.[An alternative approach to species conservation](http://www.backtoafrica.co.za/operations/northern-white-rhino-project.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071153/http://www.backtoafrica.co.za/operations/northern\-white\-rhino\-project.html \|date\=4 March 2016}}. Back to Africa (20 December 2009\). Retrieved 7 April 2013\. It was assumed that the three rhinos that were spotted belonged to the northern white rhinoceros subspecies, as black rhinos had not lived in the area for a long time and southern white rhinos never lived in southern Sudan.[V Súdánu objevili téměř vyhynulé bílé nosorožce](http://www.novinky.cz/koktejl/188173-v-sudanu-objevili-temer-vyhynule-bile-nosorozce.html). Novinky.cz (3 January 2010\). Retrieved 7 April 2013\. However, as of August 2011, no other sightings have been reported, and this population is now considered to have probably gone extinct. ### Captive population At the beginning of 2015, the fully captive northern white rhino population consisted of only two animals maintained in two zoological institutions: in the United States ([San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park")) and the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") ([Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo")). However, both of them died later the same year, and no zoo in the world has any northern white rhinos any longer. #### Dvůr Králové Zoo [thumb\|A northern white rhinoceros with an *[Einiosaurus](/wiki/Einiosaurus "Einiosaurus")*\-like horn at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo")](/wiki/File:Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg "Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg") In 1975, the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo"), located in [Dvůr Králové nad Labem](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_nad_Labem "Dvůr Králové nad Labem"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), got six northern white rhinos from Sudan and, in later years, two more from English zoos. One rhino from an English zoo arrived pregnant. The Dvůr Králové Zoo is the only zoo in the world where northern white rhinos birthed offspring, with the last calf being born in 2000; the current world population consists of their shared descendants.[Královédvorská zoo spouští unikátní projekt na záchranu vzácných nosorožců –](http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/360494-kralovedvorska-zoo-spousti-unikatni-projekt-na-zachranu-vzacnych-nosorozcu.html). Novinky.cz. Retrieved 16 April 2015\. Former residents include: * Ben, a male wild born in Africa in about 1951\. He was transferred to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England and died 25 June 1990\. * Nasima, a female wild born in Uganda in about 1965\. She was transferred pregnant to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England. She was the mother of Nasi, Suni, Nabire, and Najin. She birthed four out of five Northern White Rhino calves born in captivity, making her the most fruitful Northern White in captivity to date.[Northern white rhinos](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/blog/can-science-save-northern-white-rhino-sudan-najin-fatu/). Public Broadcasting Service (28 July 2016\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\. She died in 1992 at about age 27\. * Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Suni and Fatu. He was loaned to San Diego Zoo Safari Park by Dvůr Králové Zoo from 1989 until 1998 when he was returned to Dvůr Králové Zoo. He mated with females at both faculties.[Breeding rhinos: Not an easy chore](http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9603/white_rhino/). CNN (2 March 1996\). Retrieved 31 August 2017\. He died in August 2006, aged around 33\.[The Rhino Resource Center – Rhino Images](http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/Dvur-0373_i1224678742.php). Rhinoresourcecenter.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013\. * Nuri, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died on 4 January 1982, aged about 10\. * Nesari, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died in 2011 at the age of 39\.{{cite news\|last\=Johnston\|first\=Raymond\|title\=White rhino dies in Czech zoo, seven left worldwide\|url\=http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\-rhino\-dies\-czech\-zoo\-seven\-left\-worldwide\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144646/http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\-rhino\-dies\-czech\-zoo\-seven\-left\-worldwide\|archive\-date\=13 April 2014\|newspaper\=Czech Position\|date\=2 June 2011}} * Nasi, a female born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 11 November 1977\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was a southern white rhino, which made her a northern and southern white rhino hybrid. She died in 2008, aged about 31\.[The Sixth Rhino: A Taxonomic Re\-Assessment of the Critically Endangered Northern White Rhinoceros](http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0009703). journals.plos.org. Retrieved 31 August 2017\. * Suni, a male born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 8 June 1980\. He was the half\-brother of Najin and Fatu, but through different parents. His mother was Nasima and his father was Saut. He had mated while in zoos, and was transferred to [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") in 2009\. Some of his sperm was collected and frozen. On 17 October 2014, he died of natural causes. * Nabire, born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 15 November 1983\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was Sudan. She died on 27 July 2015\.[Rare rhino dies at Czech zoo, leaving just four northern white rhino on Earth](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/28/rare-rhino-dies-at-czech-zoo-leaving-just-four-northern-white-rhino-on-earth). The Guardian (28 July 2015\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\. * [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 "Sudan (rhinoceros)"), caught from the wild in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Najin and Nabire. In March 2018, his state seriously deteriorated despite intensive care, due to a recurrent infection in his right hind leg,{{cite news\|last\=Torchia\|first\=Christopher\|title\=Health of world's last male northern white rhino in decline\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/health\-worlds\-male\-northern\-white\-rhino\-decline\-53433855\|work\=ABC News\|date\=1 March 2018}} and he was euthanized on 19 March 2018\. He was the last known male of the subspecies. Dvůr Králové Zoo sent Suni, Sudan and two females, which are still alive, to the [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") in Kenya on 19 December 2009[Four of the World's Last Known Eight Northern White Rhinos Come Home to Africa](http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330112658/http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215 \|date\=30 March 2010}}, [Ol Pejeta](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta "Ol Pejeta") website, Saturday, 19 December 2009 in a joint effort by the zoo, [Fauna and Flora International](/wiki/Fauna_and_Flora_International "Fauna and Flora International"), Back to Africa, [Lewa](/wiki/Lewa_Wildlife_Conservancy "Lewa Wildlife Conservancy"), and [Kenya Wildlife Service](/wiki/Kenya_Wildlife_Service "Kenya Wildlife Service"). Hoping to stimulate the rhinos' sexual appetite, the zoo decided to send them back into their natural habitat in Kenya. The agreement with the Kenyan government expects the rhinos never to be returned to the Czech Republic. The female named Nabire stayed in Dvůr Králové Zoo, because, as Jan Stejskal, a projects coordinator at the zoo, stated, "she is no longer capable of breeding naturally. But it seems she has one healthy ovary and this could provide us with material from which to create an embryo in artificial conditions." Efforts to do so began in autumn 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://hradec.idnes.cz/snaha\-o\-rozmnozeni\-vzacneho\-nosorozce\-ve\-dvorske\-zoo\-pfd\-/hradec\-zpravy.aspx?c\=A141008\_112311\_hradec\-zpravy\_pos\#\|title\=Zoo se snaží rozmnožit nosorožce, samici Nabiré zavěsili na jeřáb\|language\=cs\|work\=Mladá fronta DNES\|date\=8 October 2014\|access\-date\=19 October 2014}} Immediately after the death of Nabire in 2015, her [ovary](/wiki/Ovary "Ovary") with four [oocytes](/wiki/Oocyte "Oocyte") was removed and transferred to a laboratory in [Cremona](/wiki/Cremona "Cremona"), Italy. The laboratory was able to extract two [egg cells](/wiki/Egg_cell "Egg cell") and fertilise them. However, without consulting the Dvůr Králové Zoo, the semen of a southern white rhino was used instead of a northern white rhino, which the zoo considers a wasted opportunity.Tůmová, Štěpánka (4 August 2015\) [V Itálii oplodnili vajíčka uhynulé nosorožčí samice, ale špatným semenem – iDNES.cz](http://hradec.idnes.cz/zoo-dvur-kralove-se-pokousi-o-zachranu-severnich-bilych-nosorozcu-1du-/hradec-zpravy.aspx?c=A150804_151202_hradec-zpravy_tuu). Hradec.idnes.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\. Nevertheless, the experiment showed that viable hybrid embryos of the northern and southern white rhino are possible through IVF, as well as a path to the creation of pure northern white rhino embryos.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/science\-and\-technology/2018/07/05/ivf\-may\-bring\-northern\-white\-rhinos\-back\-from\-the\-brink\-of\-extinction\|title\=IVF may bring northern white rhinos back from the brink of extinction\|newspaper\=The Economist\|date\=5 July 2018}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.novinky.cz/veda\-skoly/clanek/pro\-zachranu\-nosorozcu\-maji\-vedci\-dostatek\-genetickych\-zdroju\-40253142\|title\=Pro záchranu nosorožců mají vědci dostatek genetických zdrojů \- Novinky.cz\|website\=Novinky.cz\|date\=7 November 2018 }} #### San Diego Zoo Safari Park The [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), [California](/wiki/California "California"), had eight wild\-caught northern white rhinos.Eastman, Q. (2007\) [Northern white rhinos in danger](https://web.archive.org/web/20080630093803/http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/06/11/news/inland/61007190722.txt). North County Times (11 June 2007\) via Web Archive. Former residents include: * Dinka, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. He died in 1974\. * Bill, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. He died in 1975\. * Lucy, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. She died in 1979\. * Joyce, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. She died in 1996\. * Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan from [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") from 1989 to 1998\. He died in August 2006 at about age 33\. * Nadi, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo. She died on 30 May 2007 at about age 35\. * [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu_%28rhinoceros%29 "Angalifu (rhinoceros)"), a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1973 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1990 from Khartoum Zoo in [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum "Khartoum"). He died on 14 December 2014 at about age 42\. * [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 "Nola (rhinoceros)"), a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo.[Last Chance to Survive: Northern White Rhino Conservation Project. Frequently Asked Questions. Northern white rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20120104135117/http://olpejetaconservancy.org/sites/default/files/NWR_FAQ_FINAL.pdf). olpejetaconservancy.org[Severní bílí nosorožci v zajetí](http://www2.rozhlas.cz/mlade/portal/vt000411b.htm). .rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\.Kohoutová, Kateřina (13 May 2015\) [Samice nosorožce bílého Nola je nemocná. Patří k posledním zvířatům svého druhu \| Příroda](http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/priroda/_zprava/samice-nosorozce-bileho-nola-je-nemocna-patri-k-poslednim-zviratum-sveho-druhu--1489706). Rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\. She died on 22 November 2015 at about age 41\.{{cite web\|title \= Nola, a northern white rhino at San Diego Zoo's Safari Park, has died\|url \= https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\-me\-ln\-nola\-death\-20151122\-story.html\|website \= \[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date \= 22 November 2015\|access\-date \= 22 November 2015}} The San Diego Wild Animal Park provided Angalifu's semen to female rhinos at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") but the insemination attempts were unsuccessful. The only reproductive animals of this subspecies were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya. In 2016, it was reported that scientists were exploring alternatives (such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) to develop northern white rhino embryos and implant them in female southern white rhinos at the San Diego Zoo.{{cite news\|last1\=Morrow\|first1\=Chris\|title\=Bringing Northern White Rhinos Back From Brink of Extinction\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/chris\-morrow/bringing\-northern\-white\-rhinos\_b\_9163630\.html\|access\-date\=24 February 2016\|work\=Huffington Post\|date\=5 February 2016}} #### List of known captive northern white rhinoceros [thumb\|Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity](/wiki/File:Timeline_of_known_northern_white_rhinoceros_in_captivity.png "Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity.png") | \+List of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity (updated 2011\){{cite journal \|title\=International studbook for the African white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817\), 01\.01\.2001 Ninth edition \|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\=7fc0a7f8effd00694c4e795e02447d06\&act\=refs\&CODE\=ref\_detail\&id\=1165242026 \|author\=Dr Andreas Ochs \|journal\=Rhino Resource Center \|access\-date\=2018\-03\-31 \|language\=en\-US}}{{cite journal \|title\=International studbook for the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum (Burchell 1817\), vol. 12 (status 31\.12\.2011\) \|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\=1\&act\=refs\&CODE\=ref\_detail\&id\=1354699195 \|author\=Joe Christman\|journal\=Rhino Resource Center \|access\-date\=2018\-03\-31 \|language\=en\-US \|pages\=289–291}} | Stud \# | Sex | Name | Date of birth | Place of birth | Date of death | Place of death | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 | M | Paul | 1948\-08\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1968\-04\-13 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo "Antwerp Zoo") | | 16 | F | Chloe | 1948\-06\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-08\-07 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo "Antwerp Zoo") | | 19 | M | Ben | 1950\-07\-25 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1990\-06\-25 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 27 | M | Bill | 1954\-03\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1975\-05\-02 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 28 | F | Lucy | 1954\-03\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1979\-03\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 54 | M | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-12\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo "Riyadh National Zoo") | | 55 | F | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-12\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo "Riyadh National Zoo") | | 74 | M | Dinka | 1952\-07\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") | 1991\-01\-28 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 75 | F | Joyce | 1953\-01\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") | 1974\-08\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 290 | F | Bebe | 1950\-07\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1964\-05\-29 | [Zoological Society of London](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_London "Zoological Society of London") | | 345 | F | Tofacha | 1970\-01\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1978\-09\-12 | [Al Ain Zoo](/wiki/Al_Ain_Zoo "Al Ain Zoo") | | 347 | M | \[n/a] | 1968\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1978\-01\-18 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 348 | M | [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu "Angalifu") | 1972\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2014\-12\-14 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 351 | F | Nasima | 1965\-07\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1992\-08\-28 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 372 | M | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 "Sudan (rhinoceros)") | 1973\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2018\-03\-19 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") | | 373 | M | Saut | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2006\-08\-14 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 374 | F | [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 "Nola (rhinoceros)") | 1974\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2015\-11\-22 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 375 | F | Nuri | 1973\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1982\-01\-04 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 376 | F | Nadi | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2007\-05\-30 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 377 | F | Nesari | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2011\-05\-26 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 476 | F | Nasi | 1977\-11\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2007\-07\-20 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 630 | M | Suni | 1980\-06\-08 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2014\-10\-18 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") | | 789 | F | Nabire | 1983\-11\-15 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2015\-07\-27 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 943 | F | Najin | 1989\-07\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | | | 1122 | F | \[n/a] | 1991\-07\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 1991\-07\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 1123 | F | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1967\-08\-02 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 1252 | ? | \[n/a] | 1948\-11\-17 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1949\-01\-29 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 1305 | F | Fatu | 2000\-06\-29 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | |
[ "Recently deceased rhinos\n------------------------", "### Wild population", "The northern white rhino formerly ranged over parts of northwestern [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), southern [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan \"South Sudan\"), the eastern part of [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic \"Central African Republic\"), and northeastern [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Democratic Republic of the Congo\").{{cite journal \\| author \\= Sydney, J. \\|year\\=1965\\|title\\= The past and present distribution of some African ungulates\\|journal\\= Transactions of the Zoological Society of London \\|volume\\=3\\|pages\\=1–397\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0030605300006815 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Their range possibly extended as far west as [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad \"Lake Chad\"), into [Chad](/wiki/Chad \"Chad\") and [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon \"Cameroon\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf\\_files/133/1337160222\\.pdf\\|title\\=The Rhinos of the Central African Republic\\|author\\=C.A. Spinage\\|website\\=Rhinoresourcecenter.com\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-24}}", "Poachers reduced their population from 500 to 15 in the 1970s and 1980s. From the early 1990s through mid\\-2003, the population recovered to more than 32 animals.International Rhino Foundation. 2002\\. [Rhino Information – Northern White Rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20071023203029/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/rhinoinformation/whiterhino/subspecies/northern.htm). 19 September 2006{{cite journal \\| author \\= Smith, Kes Hillman \\|title\\= Status of northern white rhinos and elephants in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, during the wars\\|journal\\= Pachyderm Journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups\\|date\\= July–December 2001\\|volume\\= 31\\|pages\\= 79–81\\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf\\_files/125/1255075757\\.pdf}} Since mid\\-2003, poaching has intensified and further reduced the wild population.", "#### Garamba National Park", "The last known surviving population of wild northern white rhinos was in [Garamba National Park](/wiki/Garamba_National_Park \"Garamba National Park\"), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mammals\\-of\\-papua.webs.com/whiterhino.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20141207163226/http://mammals\\-of\\-papua.webs.com/whiterhino.htm\\|title\\=White rhino \\- Mammals of Papua\\|date\\=7 December 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=7 December 2014}}", "In January 2005, the government of the DRC approved a two\\-part plan for five northern white rhinos to be moved from Garamba National Park to a wildlife sanctuary in Kenya. The second part commits the government and its international partners to increase conservation efforts in Garamba, so the northern white rhinos can be returned when it is safe again.IUCN. (25 January 2005\\). [Reprieve planned for Garamba's rhinos: extra efforts promised to safeguard their homeland](https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033201/http://www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2001_2005/press/pr-garamba-translocation.pdf). Gland, Switzerland. However, the translocation did not occur.", "In August 2005, ground and aerial surveys conducted under the direction of [African Parks Foundation](/wiki/African_Parks_Foundation \"African Parks Foundation\") and the African Rhino Specialist Group (ARSG) had only found four animals, a solitary adult male and a group of one adult male and two adult females.IUCN. (6 July 2006\\). [West African black rhino feared extinct](https://web.archive.org/web/20070220005649/http://www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2006/07/7_pr_rhino.htm). Gland, Switzerland. They were the last known wild northern white rhinos, according to the [World Wide Fund for Nature](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature \"World Wide Fund for Nature\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/northernwhiterhinoceros/item587\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605114753/http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/northernwhiterhinoceros/northernwhiterhinoceros.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2011\\|title\\=Northern White Rhino\\|website\\=Worldwildlife.org\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2009}}", "In June 2008, it was reported that the species may have gone extinct in the wild, since there has been no sighting of these four known remaining individuals since 2006, or of their signs since 2007, despite intensive systematic ground and aerial searches in 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951\\.ece \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629113419/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2011 \\|title\\=News \\|work\\=The Times \\|location\\=London \\|date\\= 17 June 2008\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2009 \\| first\\=Lewis \\| last\\=Smith}} One carcass has been found.Smith, Lewis (17 June 2008\\) [Poachers kill last four wild northern white rhinos](https://web.archive.org/web/20080905201726/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4152951.ece). *The Times*.Skinner, J.D. and Smithers, R.H.N. (1990\\). *The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion*, Cambridge University Press, p. 567, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-84418\\-5}}. On 28 November 2009, two Russian helicopter pilots reported seeing rhinoceroses in southern Sudan.[An alternative approach to species conservation](http://www.backtoafrica.co.za/operations/northern-white-rhino-project.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071153/http://www.backtoafrica.co.za/operations/northern\\-white\\-rhino\\-project.html \\|date\\=4 March 2016}}. Back to Africa (20 December 2009\\). Retrieved 7 April 2013\\. It was assumed that the three rhinos that were spotted belonged to the northern white rhinoceros subspecies, as black rhinos had not lived in the area for a long time and southern white rhinos never lived in southern Sudan.[V Súdánu objevili téměř vyhynulé bílé nosorožce](http://www.novinky.cz/koktejl/188173-v-sudanu-objevili-temer-vyhynule-bile-nosorozce.html). Novinky.cz (3 January 2010\\). Retrieved 7 April 2013\\. However, as of August 2011, no other sightings have been reported, and this population is now considered to have probably gone extinct.", "### Captive population", "At the beginning of 2015, the fully captive northern white rhino population consisted of only two animals maintained in two zoological institutions: in the United States ([San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\")) and the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\") ([Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\")). However, both of them died later the same year, and no zoo in the world has any northern white rhinos any longer.", "#### Dvůr Králové Zoo", "[thumb\\|A northern white rhinoceros with an *[Einiosaurus](/wiki/Einiosaurus \"Einiosaurus\")*\\-like horn at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\")](/wiki/File:Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg \"Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg\")", "In 1975, the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\"), located in [Dvůr Králové nad Labem](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_nad_Labem \"Dvůr Králové nad Labem\"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"), got six northern white rhinos from Sudan and, in later years, two more from English zoos. One rhino from an English zoo arrived pregnant. The Dvůr Králové Zoo is the only zoo in the world where northern white rhinos birthed offspring, with the last calf being born in 2000; the current world population consists of their shared descendants.[Královédvorská zoo spouští unikátní projekt na záchranu vzácných nosorožců –](http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/360494-kralovedvorska-zoo-spousti-unikatni-projekt-na-zachranu-vzacnych-nosorozcu.html). Novinky.cz. Retrieved 16 April 2015\\.", "Former residents include:\n* Ben, a male wild born in Africa in about 1951\\. He was transferred to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England and died 25 June 1990\\.\n* Nasima, a female wild born in Uganda in about 1965\\. She was transferred pregnant to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England. She was the mother of Nasi, Suni, Nabire, and Najin. She birthed four out of five Northern White Rhino calves born in captivity, making her the most fruitful Northern White in captivity to date.[Northern white rhinos](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/blog/can-science-save-northern-white-rhino-sudan-najin-fatu/). Public Broadcasting Service (28 July 2016\\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\\. She died in 1992 at about age 27\\.\n* Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Suni and Fatu. He was loaned to San Diego Zoo Safari Park by Dvůr Králové Zoo from 1989 until 1998 when he was returned to Dvůr Králové Zoo. He mated with females at both faculties.[Breeding rhinos: Not an easy chore](http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9603/white_rhino/). CNN (2 March 1996\\). Retrieved 31 August 2017\\. He died in August 2006, aged around 33\\.[The Rhino Resource Center – Rhino Images](http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/Dvur-0373_i1224678742.php). Rhinoresourcecenter.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013\\.\n* Nuri, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died on 4 January 1982, aged about 10\\.\n* Nesari, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died in 2011 at the age of 39\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Johnston\\|first\\=Raymond\\|title\\=White rhino dies in Czech zoo, seven left worldwide\\|url\\=http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\\-rhino\\-dies\\-czech\\-zoo\\-seven\\-left\\-worldwide\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144646/http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\\-rhino\\-dies\\-czech\\-zoo\\-seven\\-left\\-worldwide\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2014\\|newspaper\\=Czech Position\\|date\\=2 June 2011}}\n* Nasi, a female born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 11 November 1977\\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was a southern white rhino, which made her a northern and southern white rhino hybrid. She died in 2008, aged about 31\\.[The Sixth Rhino: A Taxonomic Re\\-Assessment of the Critically Endangered Northern White Rhinoceros](http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0009703). journals.plos.org. Retrieved 31 August 2017\\.\n* Suni, a male born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 8 June 1980\\. He was the half\\-brother of Najin and Fatu, but through different parents. His mother was Nasima and his father was Saut. He had mated while in zoos, and was transferred to [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") in 2009\\. Some of his sperm was collected and frozen. On 17 October 2014, he died of natural causes.\n* Nabire, born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 15 November 1983\\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was Sudan. She died on 27 July 2015\\.[Rare rhino dies at Czech zoo, leaving just four northern white rhino on Earth](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/28/rare-rhino-dies-at-czech-zoo-leaving-just-four-northern-white-rhino-on-earth). The Guardian (28 July 2015\\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\\.\n* [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Sudan (rhinoceros)\"), caught from the wild in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Najin and Nabire. In March 2018, his state seriously deteriorated despite intensive care, due to a recurrent infection in his right hind leg,{{cite news\\|last\\=Torchia\\|first\\=Christopher\\|title\\=Health of world's last male northern white rhino in decline\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/health\\-worlds\\-male\\-northern\\-white\\-rhino\\-decline\\-53433855\\|work\\=ABC News\\|date\\=1 March 2018}} and he was euthanized on 19 March 2018\\. He was the last known male of the subspecies.", "Dvůr Králové Zoo sent Suni, Sudan and two females, which are still alive, to the [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") in Kenya on 19 December 2009[Four of the World's Last Known Eight Northern White Rhinos Come Home to Africa](http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330112658/http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215 \\|date\\=30 March 2010}}, [Ol Pejeta](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta \"Ol Pejeta\") website, Saturday, 19 December 2009 in a joint effort by the zoo, [Fauna and Flora International](/wiki/Fauna_and_Flora_International \"Fauna and Flora International\"), Back to Africa, [Lewa](/wiki/Lewa_Wildlife_Conservancy \"Lewa Wildlife Conservancy\"), and [Kenya Wildlife Service](/wiki/Kenya_Wildlife_Service \"Kenya Wildlife Service\"). Hoping to stimulate the rhinos' sexual appetite, the zoo decided to send them back into their natural habitat in Kenya. The agreement with the Kenyan government expects the rhinos never to be returned to the Czech Republic.", "The female named Nabire stayed in Dvůr Králové Zoo, because, as Jan Stejskal, a projects coordinator at the zoo, stated, \"she is no longer capable of breeding naturally. But it seems she has one healthy ovary and this could provide us with material from which to create an embryo in artificial conditions.\" Efforts to do so began in autumn 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hradec.idnes.cz/snaha\\-o\\-rozmnozeni\\-vzacneho\\-nosorozce\\-ve\\-dvorske\\-zoo\\-pfd\\-/hradec\\-zpravy.aspx?c\\=A141008\\_112311\\_hradec\\-zpravy\\_pos\\#\\|title\\=Zoo se snaží rozmnožit nosorožce, samici Nabiré zavěsili na jeřáb\\|language\\=cs\\|work\\=Mladá fronta DNES\\|date\\=8 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2014}} Immediately after the death of Nabire in 2015, her [ovary](/wiki/Ovary \"Ovary\") with four [oocytes](/wiki/Oocyte \"Oocyte\") was removed and transferred to a laboratory in [Cremona](/wiki/Cremona \"Cremona\"), Italy. The laboratory was able to extract two [egg cells](/wiki/Egg_cell \"Egg cell\") and fertilise them. However, without consulting the Dvůr Králové Zoo, the semen of a southern white rhino was used instead of a northern white rhino, which the zoo considers a wasted opportunity.Tůmová, Štěpánka (4 August 2015\\) [V Itálii oplodnili vajíčka uhynulé nosorožčí samice, ale špatným semenem – iDNES.cz](http://hradec.idnes.cz/zoo-dvur-kralove-se-pokousi-o-zachranu-severnich-bilych-nosorozcu-1du-/hradec-zpravy.aspx?c=A150804_151202_hradec-zpravy_tuu). Hradec.idnes.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\. Nevertheless, the experiment showed that viable hybrid embryos of the northern and southern white rhino are possible through IVF, as well as a path to the creation of pure northern white rhino embryos.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/science\\-and\\-technology/2018/07/05/ivf\\-may\\-bring\\-northern\\-white\\-rhinos\\-back\\-from\\-the\\-brink\\-of\\-extinction\\|title\\=IVF may bring northern white rhinos back from the brink of extinction\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|date\\=5 July 2018}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.novinky.cz/veda\\-skoly/clanek/pro\\-zachranu\\-nosorozcu\\-maji\\-vedci\\-dostatek\\-genetickych\\-zdroju\\-40253142\\|title\\=Pro záchranu nosorožců mají vědci dostatek genetických zdrojů \\- Novinky.cz\\|website\\=Novinky.cz\\|date\\=7 November 2018 }}", "#### San Diego Zoo Safari Park", "The [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), had eight wild\\-caught northern white rhinos.Eastman, Q. (2007\\) [Northern white rhinos in danger](https://web.archive.org/web/20080630093803/http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/06/11/news/inland/61007190722.txt). North County Times (11 June 2007\\) via Web Archive.", "Former residents include:", "* Dinka, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. He died in 1974\\.\n* Bill, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. He died in 1975\\.\n* Lucy, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. She died in 1979\\.\n* Joyce, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. She died in 1996\\.\n* Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan from [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") from 1989 to 1998\\. He died in August 2006 at about age 33\\.\n* Nadi, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo. She died on 30 May 2007 at about age 35\\.\n* [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Angalifu (rhinoceros)\"), a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1973 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1990 from Khartoum Zoo in [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum \"Khartoum\"). He died on 14 December 2014 at about age 42\\.\n* [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Nola (rhinoceros)\"), a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo.[Last Chance to Survive: Northern White Rhino Conservation Project. Frequently Asked Questions. Northern white rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20120104135117/http://olpejetaconservancy.org/sites/default/files/NWR_FAQ_FINAL.pdf). olpejetaconservancy.org[Severní bílí nosorožci v zajetí](http://www2.rozhlas.cz/mlade/portal/vt000411b.htm). .rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\.Kohoutová, Kateřina (13 May 2015\\) [Samice nosorožce bílého Nola je nemocná. Patří k posledním zvířatům svého druhu \\| Příroda](http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/priroda/_zprava/samice-nosorozce-bileho-nola-je-nemocna-patri-k-poslednim-zviratum-sveho-druhu--1489706). Rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\. She died on 22 November 2015 at about age 41\\.{{cite web\\|title \\= Nola, a northern white rhino at San Diego Zoo's Safari Park, has died\\|url \\= https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\\-me\\-ln\\-nola\\-death\\-20151122\\-story.html\\|website \\= \\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date \\= 22 November 2015\\|access\\-date \\= 22 November 2015}}", "The San Diego Wild Animal Park provided Angalifu's semen to female rhinos at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") but the insemination attempts were unsuccessful. The only reproductive animals of this subspecies were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya.", "In 2016, it was reported that scientists were exploring alternatives (such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) to develop northern white rhino embryos and implant them in female southern white rhinos at the San Diego Zoo.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Morrow\\|first1\\=Chris\\|title\\=Bringing Northern White Rhinos Back From Brink of Extinction\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/chris\\-morrow/bringing\\-northern\\-white\\-rhinos\\_b\\_9163630\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2016\\|work\\=Huffington Post\\|date\\=5 February 2016}}", "#### List of known captive northern white rhinoceros", "[thumb\\|Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity](/wiki/File:Timeline_of_known_northern_white_rhinoceros_in_captivity.png \"Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity.png\")", "| \\+List of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity (updated 2011\\){{cite journal \\|title\\=International studbook for the African white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817\\), 01\\.01\\.2001 Ninth edition \\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\\=7fc0a7f8effd00694c4e795e02447d06\\&act\\=refs\\&CODE\\=ref\\_detail\\&id\\=1165242026 \\|author\\=Dr Andreas Ochs \\|journal\\=Rhino Resource Center \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-31 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=International studbook for the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum (Burchell 1817\\), vol. 12 (status 31\\.12\\.2011\\) \\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\\=1\\&act\\=refs\\&CODE\\=ref\\_detail\\&id\\=1354699195 \\|author\\=Joe Christman\\|journal\\=Rhino Resource Center \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-31 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|pages\\=289–291}} | Stud \\# | Sex | Name | Date of birth | Place of birth | Date of death | Place of death |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 15 | M | Paul | 1948\\-08\\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1968\\-04\\-13 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo \"Antwerp Zoo\") |\n| 16 | F | Chloe | 1948\\-06\\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-08\\-07 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo \"Antwerp Zoo\") |\n| 19 | M | Ben | 1950\\-07\\-25 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1990\\-06\\-25 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 27 | M | Bill | 1954\\-03\\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1975\\-05\\-02 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 28 | F | Lucy | 1954\\-03\\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1979\\-03\\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 54 | M | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-12\\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo \"Riyadh National Zoo\") |\n| 55 | F | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-12\\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo \"Riyadh National Zoo\") |\n| 74 | M | Dinka | 1952\\-07\\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan \"South Sudan\") | 1991\\-01\\-28 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 75 | F | Joyce | 1953\\-01\\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan \"South Sudan\") | 1974\\-08\\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 290 | F | Bebe | 1950\\-07\\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1964\\-05\\-29 | [Zoological Society of London](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_London \"Zoological Society of London\") |\n| 345 | F | Tofacha | 1970\\-01\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1978\\-09\\-12 | [Al Ain Zoo](/wiki/Al_Ain_Zoo \"Al Ain Zoo\") |\n| 347 | M | \\[n/a] | 1968\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1978\\-01\\-18 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 348 | M | [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu \"Angalifu\") | 1972\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2014\\-12\\-14 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 351 | F | Nasima | 1965\\-07\\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1992\\-08\\-28 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 372 | M | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Sudan (rhinoceros)\") | 1973\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2018\\-03\\-19 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") |\n| 373 | M | Saut | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2006\\-08\\-14 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 374 | F | [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Nola (rhinoceros)\") | 1974\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2015\\-11\\-22 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 375 | F | Nuri | 1973\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1982\\-01\\-04 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 376 | F | Nadi | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2007\\-05\\-30 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 377 | F | Nesari | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2011\\-05\\-26 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 476 | F | Nasi | 1977\\-11\\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2007\\-07\\-20 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 630 | M | Suni | 1980\\-06\\-08 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2014\\-10\\-18 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") |\n| 789 | F | Nabire | 1983\\-11\\-15 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2015\\-07\\-27 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 943 | F | Najin | 1989\\-07\\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | | |\n| 1122 | F | \\[n/a] | 1991\\-07\\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 1991\\-07\\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 1123 | F | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1967\\-08\\-02 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 1252 | ? | \\[n/a] | 1948\\-11\\-17 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1949\\-01\\-29 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 1305 | F | Fatu | 2000\\-06\\-29 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | | |", "", "" ]
### Captive population At the beginning of 2015, the fully captive northern white rhino population consisted of only two animals maintained in two zoological institutions: in the United States ([San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park")) and the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") ([Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo")). However, both of them died later the same year, and no zoo in the world has any northern white rhinos any longer. #### Dvůr Králové Zoo [thumb\|A northern white rhinoceros with an *[Einiosaurus](/wiki/Einiosaurus "Einiosaurus")*\-like horn at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo")](/wiki/File:Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg "Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg") In 1975, the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo"), located in [Dvůr Králové nad Labem](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_nad_Labem "Dvůr Králové nad Labem"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), got six northern white rhinos from Sudan and, in later years, two more from English zoos. One rhino from an English zoo arrived pregnant. The Dvůr Králové Zoo is the only zoo in the world where northern white rhinos birthed offspring, with the last calf being born in 2000; the current world population consists of their shared descendants.[Královédvorská zoo spouští unikátní projekt na záchranu vzácných nosorožců –](http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/360494-kralovedvorska-zoo-spousti-unikatni-projekt-na-zachranu-vzacnych-nosorozcu.html). Novinky.cz. Retrieved 16 April 2015\. Former residents include: * Ben, a male wild born in Africa in about 1951\. He was transferred to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England and died 25 June 1990\. * Nasima, a female wild born in Uganda in about 1965\. She was transferred pregnant to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England. She was the mother of Nasi, Suni, Nabire, and Najin. She birthed four out of five Northern White Rhino calves born in captivity, making her the most fruitful Northern White in captivity to date.[Northern white rhinos](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/blog/can-science-save-northern-white-rhino-sudan-najin-fatu/). Public Broadcasting Service (28 July 2016\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\. She died in 1992 at about age 27\. * Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Suni and Fatu. He was loaned to San Diego Zoo Safari Park by Dvůr Králové Zoo from 1989 until 1998 when he was returned to Dvůr Králové Zoo. He mated with females at both faculties.[Breeding rhinos: Not an easy chore](http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9603/white_rhino/). CNN (2 March 1996\). Retrieved 31 August 2017\. He died in August 2006, aged around 33\.[The Rhino Resource Center – Rhino Images](http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/Dvur-0373_i1224678742.php). Rhinoresourcecenter.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013\. * Nuri, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died on 4 January 1982, aged about 10\. * Nesari, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died in 2011 at the age of 39\.{{cite news\|last\=Johnston\|first\=Raymond\|title\=White rhino dies in Czech zoo, seven left worldwide\|url\=http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\-rhino\-dies\-czech\-zoo\-seven\-left\-worldwide\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144646/http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\-rhino\-dies\-czech\-zoo\-seven\-left\-worldwide\|archive\-date\=13 April 2014\|newspaper\=Czech Position\|date\=2 June 2011}} * Nasi, a female born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 11 November 1977\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was a southern white rhino, which made her a northern and southern white rhino hybrid. She died in 2008, aged about 31\.[The Sixth Rhino: A Taxonomic Re\-Assessment of the Critically Endangered Northern White Rhinoceros](http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0009703). journals.plos.org. Retrieved 31 August 2017\. * Suni, a male born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 8 June 1980\. He was the half\-brother of Najin and Fatu, but through different parents. His mother was Nasima and his father was Saut. He had mated while in zoos, and was transferred to [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") in 2009\. Some of his sperm was collected and frozen. On 17 October 2014, he died of natural causes. * Nabire, born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 15 November 1983\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was Sudan. She died on 27 July 2015\.[Rare rhino dies at Czech zoo, leaving just four northern white rhino on Earth](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/28/rare-rhino-dies-at-czech-zoo-leaving-just-four-northern-white-rhino-on-earth). The Guardian (28 July 2015\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\. * [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 "Sudan (rhinoceros)"), caught from the wild in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Najin and Nabire. In March 2018, his state seriously deteriorated despite intensive care, due to a recurrent infection in his right hind leg,{{cite news\|last\=Torchia\|first\=Christopher\|title\=Health of world's last male northern white rhino in decline\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/health\-worlds\-male\-northern\-white\-rhino\-decline\-53433855\|work\=ABC News\|date\=1 March 2018}} and he was euthanized on 19 March 2018\. He was the last known male of the subspecies. Dvůr Králové Zoo sent Suni, Sudan and two females, which are still alive, to the [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") in Kenya on 19 December 2009[Four of the World's Last Known Eight Northern White Rhinos Come Home to Africa](http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330112658/http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215 \|date\=30 March 2010}}, [Ol Pejeta](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta "Ol Pejeta") website, Saturday, 19 December 2009 in a joint effort by the zoo, [Fauna and Flora International](/wiki/Fauna_and_Flora_International "Fauna and Flora International"), Back to Africa, [Lewa](/wiki/Lewa_Wildlife_Conservancy "Lewa Wildlife Conservancy"), and [Kenya Wildlife Service](/wiki/Kenya_Wildlife_Service "Kenya Wildlife Service"). Hoping to stimulate the rhinos' sexual appetite, the zoo decided to send them back into their natural habitat in Kenya. The agreement with the Kenyan government expects the rhinos never to be returned to the Czech Republic. The female named Nabire stayed in Dvůr Králové Zoo, because, as Jan Stejskal, a projects coordinator at the zoo, stated, "she is no longer capable of breeding naturally. But it seems she has one healthy ovary and this could provide us with material from which to create an embryo in artificial conditions." Efforts to do so began in autumn 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://hradec.idnes.cz/snaha\-o\-rozmnozeni\-vzacneho\-nosorozce\-ve\-dvorske\-zoo\-pfd\-/hradec\-zpravy.aspx?c\=A141008\_112311\_hradec\-zpravy\_pos\#\|title\=Zoo se snaží rozmnožit nosorožce, samici Nabiré zavěsili na jeřáb\|language\=cs\|work\=Mladá fronta DNES\|date\=8 October 2014\|access\-date\=19 October 2014}} Immediately after the death of Nabire in 2015, her [ovary](/wiki/Ovary "Ovary") with four [oocytes](/wiki/Oocyte "Oocyte") was removed and transferred to a laboratory in [Cremona](/wiki/Cremona "Cremona"), Italy. The laboratory was able to extract two [egg cells](/wiki/Egg_cell "Egg cell") and fertilise them. However, without consulting the Dvůr Králové Zoo, the semen of a southern white rhino was used instead of a northern white rhino, which the zoo considers a wasted opportunity.Tůmová, Štěpánka (4 August 2015\) [V Itálii oplodnili vajíčka uhynulé nosorožčí samice, ale špatným semenem – iDNES.cz](http://hradec.idnes.cz/zoo-dvur-kralove-se-pokousi-o-zachranu-severnich-bilych-nosorozcu-1du-/hradec-zpravy.aspx?c=A150804_151202_hradec-zpravy_tuu). Hradec.idnes.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\. Nevertheless, the experiment showed that viable hybrid embryos of the northern and southern white rhino are possible through IVF, as well as a path to the creation of pure northern white rhino embryos.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/science\-and\-technology/2018/07/05/ivf\-may\-bring\-northern\-white\-rhinos\-back\-from\-the\-brink\-of\-extinction\|title\=IVF may bring northern white rhinos back from the brink of extinction\|newspaper\=The Economist\|date\=5 July 2018}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.novinky.cz/veda\-skoly/clanek/pro\-zachranu\-nosorozcu\-maji\-vedci\-dostatek\-genetickych\-zdroju\-40253142\|title\=Pro záchranu nosorožců mají vědci dostatek genetických zdrojů \- Novinky.cz\|website\=Novinky.cz\|date\=7 November 2018 }} #### San Diego Zoo Safari Park The [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), [California](/wiki/California "California"), had eight wild\-caught northern white rhinos.Eastman, Q. (2007\) [Northern white rhinos in danger](https://web.archive.org/web/20080630093803/http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/06/11/news/inland/61007190722.txt). North County Times (11 June 2007\) via Web Archive. Former residents include: * Dinka, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. He died in 1974\. * Bill, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. He died in 1975\. * Lucy, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. She died in 1979\. * Joyce, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\. She died in 1996\. * Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan from [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") from 1989 to 1998\. He died in August 2006 at about age 33\. * Nadi, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo. She died on 30 May 2007 at about age 35\. * [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu_%28rhinoceros%29 "Angalifu (rhinoceros)"), a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1973 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1990 from Khartoum Zoo in [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum "Khartoum"). He died on 14 December 2014 at about age 42\. * [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 "Nola (rhinoceros)"), a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo.[Last Chance to Survive: Northern White Rhino Conservation Project. Frequently Asked Questions. Northern white rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20120104135117/http://olpejetaconservancy.org/sites/default/files/NWR_FAQ_FINAL.pdf). olpejetaconservancy.org[Severní bílí nosorožci v zajetí](http://www2.rozhlas.cz/mlade/portal/vt000411b.htm). .rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\.Kohoutová, Kateřina (13 May 2015\) [Samice nosorožce bílého Nola je nemocná. Patří k posledním zvířatům svého druhu \| Příroda](http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/priroda/_zprava/samice-nosorozce-bileho-nola-je-nemocna-patri-k-poslednim-zviratum-sveho-druhu--1489706). Rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\. She died on 22 November 2015 at about age 41\.{{cite web\|title \= Nola, a northern white rhino at San Diego Zoo's Safari Park, has died\|url \= https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\-me\-ln\-nola\-death\-20151122\-story.html\|website \= \[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date \= 22 November 2015\|access\-date \= 22 November 2015}} The San Diego Wild Animal Park provided Angalifu's semen to female rhinos at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") but the insemination attempts were unsuccessful. The only reproductive animals of this subspecies were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya. In 2016, it was reported that scientists were exploring alternatives (such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) to develop northern white rhino embryos and implant them in female southern white rhinos at the San Diego Zoo.{{cite news\|last1\=Morrow\|first1\=Chris\|title\=Bringing Northern White Rhinos Back From Brink of Extinction\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/chris\-morrow/bringing\-northern\-white\-rhinos\_b\_9163630\.html\|access\-date\=24 February 2016\|work\=Huffington Post\|date\=5 February 2016}} #### List of known captive northern white rhinoceros [thumb\|Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity](/wiki/File:Timeline_of_known_northern_white_rhinoceros_in_captivity.png "Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity.png") | \+List of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity (updated 2011\){{cite journal \|title\=International studbook for the African white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817\), 01\.01\.2001 Ninth edition \|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\=7fc0a7f8effd00694c4e795e02447d06\&act\=refs\&CODE\=ref\_detail\&id\=1165242026 \|author\=Dr Andreas Ochs \|journal\=Rhino Resource Center \|access\-date\=2018\-03\-31 \|language\=en\-US}}{{cite journal \|title\=International studbook for the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum (Burchell 1817\), vol. 12 (status 31\.12\.2011\) \|url\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\=1\&act\=refs\&CODE\=ref\_detail\&id\=1354699195 \|author\=Joe Christman\|journal\=Rhino Resource Center \|access\-date\=2018\-03\-31 \|language\=en\-US \|pages\=289–291}} | Stud \# | Sex | Name | Date of birth | Place of birth | Date of death | Place of death | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 | M | Paul | 1948\-08\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1968\-04\-13 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo "Antwerp Zoo") | | 16 | F | Chloe | 1948\-06\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-08\-07 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo "Antwerp Zoo") | | 19 | M | Ben | 1950\-07\-25 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1990\-06\-25 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 27 | M | Bill | 1954\-03\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1975\-05\-02 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 28 | F | Lucy | 1954\-03\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1979\-03\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 54 | M | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-12\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo "Riyadh National Zoo") | | 55 | F | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1985\-12\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo "Riyadh National Zoo") | | 74 | M | Dinka | 1952\-07\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") | 1991\-01\-28 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 75 | F | Joyce | 1953\-01\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") | 1974\-08\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 290 | F | Bebe | 1950\-07\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1964\-05\-29 | [Zoological Society of London](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_London "Zoological Society of London") | | 345 | F | Tofacha | 1970\-01\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1978\-09\-12 | [Al Ain Zoo](/wiki/Al_Ain_Zoo "Al Ain Zoo") | | 347 | M | \[n/a] | 1968\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1978\-01\-18 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 348 | M | [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu "Angalifu") | 1972\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2014\-12\-14 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 351 | F | Nasima | 1965\-07\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | 1992\-08\-28 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 372 | M | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 "Sudan (rhinoceros)") | 1973\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2018\-03\-19 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") | | 373 | M | Saut | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2006\-08\-14 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 374 | F | [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 "Nola (rhinoceros)") | 1974\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2015\-11\-22 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 375 | F | Nuri | 1973\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1982\-01\-04 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 376 | F | Nadi | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2007\-05\-30 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park "San Diego Zoo Safari Park") | | 377 | F | Nesari | 1972\-09\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 2011\-05\-26 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 476 | F | Nasi | 1977\-11\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2007\-07\-20 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 630 | M | Suni | 1980\-06\-08 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2014\-10\-18 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy "Ol Pejeta Conservancy") | | 789 | F | Nabire | 1983\-11\-15 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 2015\-07\-27 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 943 | F | Najin | 1989\-07\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | | | 1122 | F | \[n/a] | 1991\-07\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | 1991\-07\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | 1123 | F | \[n/a] | 1963\-04\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1967\-08\-02 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 1252 | ? | \[n/a] | 1948\-11\-17 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | 1949\-01\-29 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo "Khartoum Zoo") | | 1305 | F | Fatu | 2000\-06\-29 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo "Dvůr Králové Zoo") | | |
[ "### Captive population", "At the beginning of 2015, the fully captive northern white rhino population consisted of only two animals maintained in two zoological institutions: in the United States ([San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\")) and the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\") ([Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\")). However, both of them died later the same year, and no zoo in the world has any northern white rhinos any longer.", "#### Dvůr Králové Zoo", "[thumb\\|A northern white rhinoceros with an *[Einiosaurus](/wiki/Einiosaurus \"Einiosaurus\")*\\-like horn at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\")](/wiki/File:Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg \"Ceratotherium.simum.cottoni-01-ZOO.Dvur.Kralove.jpg\")", "In 1975, the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\"), located in [Dvůr Králové nad Labem](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_nad_Labem \"Dvůr Králové nad Labem\"), [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"), got six northern white rhinos from Sudan and, in later years, two more from English zoos. One rhino from an English zoo arrived pregnant. The Dvůr Králové Zoo is the only zoo in the world where northern white rhinos birthed offspring, with the last calf being born in 2000; the current world population consists of their shared descendants.[Královédvorská zoo spouští unikátní projekt na záchranu vzácných nosorožců –](http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/360494-kralovedvorska-zoo-spousti-unikatni-projekt-na-zachranu-vzacnych-nosorozcu.html). Novinky.cz. Retrieved 16 April 2015\\.", "Former residents include:\n* Ben, a male wild born in Africa in about 1951\\. He was transferred to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England and died 25 June 1990\\.\n* Nasima, a female wild born in Uganda in about 1965\\. She was transferred pregnant to Dvůr Králové Zoo from a faculty in England. She was the mother of Nasi, Suni, Nabire, and Najin. She birthed four out of five Northern White Rhino calves born in captivity, making her the most fruitful Northern White in captivity to date.[Northern white rhinos](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/blog/can-science-save-northern-white-rhino-sudan-najin-fatu/). Public Broadcasting Service (28 July 2016\\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\\. She died in 1992 at about age 27\\.\n* Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Suni and Fatu. He was loaned to San Diego Zoo Safari Park by Dvůr Králové Zoo from 1989 until 1998 when he was returned to Dvůr Králové Zoo. He mated with females at both faculties.[Breeding rhinos: Not an easy chore](http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9603/white_rhino/). CNN (2 March 1996\\). Retrieved 31 August 2017\\. He died in August 2006, aged around 33\\.[The Rhino Resource Center – Rhino Images](http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/Dvur-0373_i1224678742.php). Rhinoresourcecenter.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013\\.\n* Nuri, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died on 4 January 1982, aged about 10\\.\n* Nesari, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age. She died in 2011 at the age of 39\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Johnston\\|first\\=Raymond\\|title\\=White rhino dies in Czech zoo, seven left worldwide\\|url\\=http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\\-rhino\\-dies\\-czech\\-zoo\\-seven\\-left\\-worldwide\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144646/http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/white\\-rhino\\-dies\\-czech\\-zoo\\-seven\\-left\\-worldwide\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2014\\|newspaper\\=Czech Position\\|date\\=2 June 2011}}\n* Nasi, a female born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 11 November 1977\\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was a southern white rhino, which made her a northern and southern white rhino hybrid. She died in 2008, aged about 31\\.[The Sixth Rhino: A Taxonomic Re\\-Assessment of the Critically Endangered Northern White Rhinoceros](http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0009703). journals.plos.org. Retrieved 31 August 2017\\.\n* Suni, a male born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 8 June 1980\\. He was the half\\-brother of Najin and Fatu, but through different parents. His mother was Nasima and his father was Saut. He had mated while in zoos, and was transferred to [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") in 2009\\. Some of his sperm was collected and frozen. On 17 October 2014, he died of natural causes.\n* Nabire, born at Dvůr Králové Zoo on 15 November 1983\\. Her mother was Nasima and her father was Sudan. She died on 27 July 2015\\.[Rare rhino dies at Czech zoo, leaving just four northern white rhino on Earth](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/28/rare-rhino-dies-at-czech-zoo-leaving-just-four-northern-white-rhino-on-earth). The Guardian (28 July 2015\\) Retrieved 31 August 2017\\.\n* [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Sudan (rhinoceros)\"), caught from the wild in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") in 1975 at about 3 years of age. He was the father of Najin and Nabire. In March 2018, his state seriously deteriorated despite intensive care, due to a recurrent infection in his right hind leg,{{cite news\\|last\\=Torchia\\|first\\=Christopher\\|title\\=Health of world's last male northern white rhino in decline\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/health\\-worlds\\-male\\-northern\\-white\\-rhino\\-decline\\-53433855\\|work\\=ABC News\\|date\\=1 March 2018}} and he was euthanized on 19 March 2018\\. He was the last known male of the subspecies.", "Dvůr Králové Zoo sent Suni, Sudan and two females, which are still alive, to the [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") in Kenya on 19 December 2009[Four of the World's Last Known Eight Northern White Rhinos Come Home to Africa](http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330112658/http://www.olpejetaconservancy.org/node/215 \\|date\\=30 March 2010}}, [Ol Pejeta](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta \"Ol Pejeta\") website, Saturday, 19 December 2009 in a joint effort by the zoo, [Fauna and Flora International](/wiki/Fauna_and_Flora_International \"Fauna and Flora International\"), Back to Africa, [Lewa](/wiki/Lewa_Wildlife_Conservancy \"Lewa Wildlife Conservancy\"), and [Kenya Wildlife Service](/wiki/Kenya_Wildlife_Service \"Kenya Wildlife Service\"). Hoping to stimulate the rhinos' sexual appetite, the zoo decided to send them back into their natural habitat in Kenya. The agreement with the Kenyan government expects the rhinos never to be returned to the Czech Republic.", "The female named Nabire stayed in Dvůr Králové Zoo, because, as Jan Stejskal, a projects coordinator at the zoo, stated, \"she is no longer capable of breeding naturally. But it seems she has one healthy ovary and this could provide us with material from which to create an embryo in artificial conditions.\" Efforts to do so began in autumn 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hradec.idnes.cz/snaha\\-o\\-rozmnozeni\\-vzacneho\\-nosorozce\\-ve\\-dvorske\\-zoo\\-pfd\\-/hradec\\-zpravy.aspx?c\\=A141008\\_112311\\_hradec\\-zpravy\\_pos\\#\\|title\\=Zoo se snaží rozmnožit nosorožce, samici Nabiré zavěsili na jeřáb\\|language\\=cs\\|work\\=Mladá fronta DNES\\|date\\=8 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2014}} Immediately after the death of Nabire in 2015, her [ovary](/wiki/Ovary \"Ovary\") with four [oocytes](/wiki/Oocyte \"Oocyte\") was removed and transferred to a laboratory in [Cremona](/wiki/Cremona \"Cremona\"), Italy. The laboratory was able to extract two [egg cells](/wiki/Egg_cell \"Egg cell\") and fertilise them. However, without consulting the Dvůr Králové Zoo, the semen of a southern white rhino was used instead of a northern white rhino, which the zoo considers a wasted opportunity.Tůmová, Štěpánka (4 August 2015\\) [V Itálii oplodnili vajíčka uhynulé nosorožčí samice, ale špatným semenem – iDNES.cz](http://hradec.idnes.cz/zoo-dvur-kralove-se-pokousi-o-zachranu-severnich-bilych-nosorozcu-1du-/hradec-zpravy.aspx?c=A150804_151202_hradec-zpravy_tuu). Hradec.idnes.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\. Nevertheless, the experiment showed that viable hybrid embryos of the northern and southern white rhino are possible through IVF, as well as a path to the creation of pure northern white rhino embryos.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/science\\-and\\-technology/2018/07/05/ivf\\-may\\-bring\\-northern\\-white\\-rhinos\\-back\\-from\\-the\\-brink\\-of\\-extinction\\|title\\=IVF may bring northern white rhinos back from the brink of extinction\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|date\\=5 July 2018}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.novinky.cz/veda\\-skoly/clanek/pro\\-zachranu\\-nosorozcu\\-maji\\-vedci\\-dostatek\\-genetickych\\-zdroju\\-40253142\\|title\\=Pro záchranu nosorožců mají vědci dostatek genetických zdrojů \\- Novinky.cz\\|website\\=Novinky.cz\\|date\\=7 November 2018 }}", "#### San Diego Zoo Safari Park", "The [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), had eight wild\\-caught northern white rhinos.Eastman, Q. (2007\\) [Northern white rhinos in danger](https://web.archive.org/web/20080630093803/http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/06/11/news/inland/61007190722.txt). North County Times (11 June 2007\\) via Web Archive.", "Former residents include:", "* Dinka, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. He died in 1974\\.\n* Bill, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. He died in 1975\\.\n* Lucy, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1956 at about 4 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. She died in 1979\\.\n* Joyce, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1957 at about 5 years of age, which arrived from another U.S. zoo in 1972\\. She died in 1996\\.\n* Saut, a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan from [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") from 1989 to 1998\\. He died in August 2006 at about age 33\\.\n* Nadi, a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 3 years of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo. She died on 30 May 2007 at about age 35\\.\n* [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Angalifu (rhinoceros)\"), a male caught from the wild in Sudan in 1973 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1990 from Khartoum Zoo in [Khartoum](/wiki/Khartoum \"Khartoum\"). He died on 14 December 2014 at about age 42\\.\n* [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Nola (rhinoceros)\"), a female caught from the wild in Sudan in 1975 at about 1 year of age, which was on loan since 1989 from Dvůr Králové Zoo.[Last Chance to Survive: Northern White Rhino Conservation Project. Frequently Asked Questions. Northern white rhino](https://web.archive.org/web/20120104135117/http://olpejetaconservancy.org/sites/default/files/NWR_FAQ_FINAL.pdf). olpejetaconservancy.org[Severní bílí nosorožci v zajetí](http://www2.rozhlas.cz/mlade/portal/vt000411b.htm). .rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\.Kohoutová, Kateřina (13 May 2015\\) [Samice nosorožce bílého Nola je nemocná. Patří k posledním zvířatům svého druhu \\| Příroda](http://www.rozhlas.cz/zpravy/priroda/_zprava/samice-nosorozce-bileho-nola-je-nemocna-patri-k-poslednim-zviratum-sveho-druhu--1489706). Rozhlas.cz. Retrieved on 24 November 2015\\. She died on 22 November 2015 at about age 41\\.{{cite web\\|title \\= Nola, a northern white rhino at San Diego Zoo's Safari Park, has died\\|url \\= https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la\\-me\\-ln\\-nola\\-death\\-20151122\\-story.html\\|website \\= \\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date \\= 22 November 2015\\|access\\-date \\= 22 November 2015}}", "The San Diego Wild Animal Park provided Angalifu's semen to female rhinos at the [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") but the insemination attempts were unsuccessful. The only reproductive animals of this subspecies were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya.", "In 2016, it was reported that scientists were exploring alternatives (such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) to develop northern white rhino embryos and implant them in female southern white rhinos at the San Diego Zoo.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Morrow\\|first1\\=Chris\\|title\\=Bringing Northern White Rhinos Back From Brink of Extinction\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/chris\\-morrow/bringing\\-northern\\-white\\-rhinos\\_b\\_9163630\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2016\\|work\\=Huffington Post\\|date\\=5 February 2016}}", "#### List of known captive northern white rhinoceros", "[thumb\\|Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity](/wiki/File:Timeline_of_known_northern_white_rhinoceros_in_captivity.png \"Timeline of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity.png\")", "| \\+List of known northern white rhinoceros in captivity (updated 2011\\){{cite journal \\|title\\=International studbook for the African white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817\\), 01\\.01\\.2001 Ninth edition \\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\\=7fc0a7f8effd00694c4e795e02447d06\\&act\\=refs\\&CODE\\=ref\\_detail\\&id\\=1165242026 \\|author\\=Dr Andreas Ochs \\|journal\\=Rhino Resource Center \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-31 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=International studbook for the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum (Burchell 1817\\), vol. 12 (status 31\\.12\\.2011\\) \\|url\\=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s\\=1\\&act\\=refs\\&CODE\\=ref\\_detail\\&id\\=1354699195 \\|author\\=Joe Christman\\|journal\\=Rhino Resource Center \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-31 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|pages\\=289–291}} | Stud \\# | Sex | Name | Date of birth | Place of birth | Date of death | Place of death |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 15 | M | Paul | 1948\\-08\\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1968\\-04\\-13 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo \"Antwerp Zoo\") |\n| 16 | F | Chloe | 1948\\-06\\-07 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-08\\-07 | [Antwerp Zoo](/wiki/Antwerp_Zoo \"Antwerp Zoo\") |\n| 19 | M | Ben | 1950\\-07\\-25 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1990\\-06\\-25 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 27 | M | Bill | 1954\\-03\\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1975\\-05\\-02 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 28 | F | Lucy | 1954\\-03\\-04 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1979\\-03\\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 54 | M | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-12\\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo \"Riyadh National Zoo\") |\n| 55 | F | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1985\\-12\\-31 | [Riyadh National Zoo](/wiki/Riyadh_National_Zoo \"Riyadh National Zoo\") |\n| 74 | M | Dinka | 1952\\-07\\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan \"South Sudan\") | 1991\\-01\\-28 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 75 | F | Joyce | 1953\\-01\\-28 | [South Sudan](/wiki/South_Sudan \"South Sudan\") | 1974\\-08\\-15 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 290 | F | Bebe | 1950\\-07\\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1964\\-05\\-29 | [Zoological Society of London](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_London \"Zoological Society of London\") |\n| 345 | F | Tofacha | 1970\\-01\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1978\\-09\\-12 | [Al Ain Zoo](/wiki/Al_Ain_Zoo \"Al Ain Zoo\") |\n| 347 | M | \\[n/a] | 1968\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1978\\-01\\-18 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 348 | M | [Angalifu](/wiki/Angalifu \"Angalifu\") | 1972\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2014\\-12\\-14 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 351 | F | Nasima | 1965\\-07\\-01 | [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") | 1992\\-08\\-28 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 372 | M | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Sudan (rhinoceros)\") | 1973\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2018\\-03\\-19 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") |\n| 373 | M | Saut | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2006\\-08\\-14 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 374 | F | [Nola](/wiki/Nola_%28rhinoceros%29 \"Nola (rhinoceros)\") | 1974\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2015\\-11\\-22 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 375 | F | Nuri | 1973\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1982\\-01\\-04 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 376 | F | Nadi | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2007\\-05\\-30 | [San Diego Zoo Safari Park](/wiki/San_Diego_Zoo_Safari_Park \"San Diego Zoo Safari Park\") |\n| 377 | F | Nesari | 1972\\-09\\-19 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 2011\\-05\\-26 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 476 | F | Nasi | 1977\\-11\\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2007\\-07\\-20 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 630 | M | Suni | 1980\\-06\\-08 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2014\\-10\\-18 | [Ol Pejeta Conservancy](/wiki/Ol_Pejeta_Conservancy \"Ol Pejeta Conservancy\") |\n| 789 | F | Nabire | 1983\\-11\\-15 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 2015\\-07\\-27 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 943 | F | Najin | 1989\\-07\\-11 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | | |\n| 1122 | F | \\[n/a] | 1991\\-07\\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | 1991\\-07\\-18 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") |\n| 1123 | F | \\[n/a] | 1963\\-04\\-01 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1967\\-08\\-02 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 1252 | ? | \\[n/a] | 1948\\-11\\-17 | [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") | 1949\\-01\\-29 | [Khartoum Zoo](/wiki/Khartoum_Zoo \"Khartoum Zoo\") |\n| 1305 | F | Fatu | 2000\\-06\\-29 | [Dvůr Králové Zoo](/wiki/Dv%C5%AFr_Kr%C3%A1lov%C3%A9_Zoo \"Dvůr Králové Zoo\") | | |", "", "" ]
History ------- ### Pre Historic A prehistoric tool (biface) testifying to the human presence from [prehistoric](/wiki/Prehistoric "Prehistoric") times was found west of the city. It is a town inhabited since prehistoric times, the first city founded in Roman province in the center of deep Algeria, a [Roman fortress](/wiki/Castra "Castra") but originally a [Numidian](/wiki/Numidia "Numidia") city. Its construction dates from the year 33 av. AD during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Auzia quickly became a powerful city, capital of the highland regions, which relegates to a secondary role the strategic importance of the Roman city of Djemila, the ancient Cuicui, in the wilaya of [Setif](/wiki/Setif "Setif") because of its remoteness from the centers Of Roman power. ### Roman Empire {{main\|Auzia}} At the time of the [Roman presence](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") in [Africa](/wiki/Roman_North_Africa "Roman North Africa"), the city bore the name of Auzia. The remains of a theater have been spotted there. It is the location of the Roman city [Auzia](/wiki/Auzia "Auzia"), in the province [Mauretania Caesariensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis "Mauretania Caesariensis").[Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138\) Roman times and names now](http://forum.e-dz.com/topic/4094-names-of-cities-in-algerie-in-ad-138-roman-times-and-names-now/) from [E\-DZ Community \| Education \& Learning](http://forum.e-dz.com/) \| [Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics](http://forum.e-dz.com/forum/4-algerian-history-culture-art-law-politics/) (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008\). The name Auzia is still used as a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") [titular bishopric](/wiki/Titular_bishopric "Titular bishopric").[GCatholic \- Titular Episcopal See of Auzia](http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0246.htm). Auzia was part of the division of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa"). Its position as a city at the gates of the [Sahara](/wiki/Sahara "Sahara") marked the beginning of the period when the Roman conquest reached the limits of the world known at the time and where the Roman civilization. The city of Auzia has two characteristics in Roman history in North Africa, its great influence on its bureaucratic and military structure and its strategic location as a great religious edifice. Like the construction of the temple of Apollo, supposed to be located at the present site of the civil hospital of Sour\-El\-Ghozlane. Auzia was equipped with an [amphitheater](/wiki/Amphitheater "Amphitheater") built by the city's bourgeois institution to host shows, such as [gladiatorial](/wiki/Gladiator "Gladiator") fights. The [ruins](/wiki/Ruins "Ruins") also have a bath house, [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 "Forum (Roman)") and [temples](/wiki/Roman_temple "Roman temple"). In addition, Auzia is identified as a city with political power dominated by a patriarchal link and entirely in the hands of two comices, organized to reflect at best the tribal divisions of the city. On the other hand, its administrative and military status reveals that it was definitively subjected to the order of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") with the status of autonomous city of the Roman province (free zone: region of Algiers to Bou\-Saada) caesarean. Auzia is a large city of ovoid form, destined to serve as capital in this region of central Algeria, Auguste had it endowed with several public edifices: a forum (present room of the festivals), several temples, a curia, a market, a theater and large thermal baths. Auzia was erected on a hill at a moderate altitude, where to this day a wall was in good condition in some places, revealing a kind of citadel which protected the inhabitants. Around the year 17 [Tacfarinas](/wiki/Tacfarinas "Tacfarinas"), who had served in the Roman Army before deserting to take the lead of a revolt by federated Berber tribes and their [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish "Moorish") neighbors, whose leaders [Mazippa](/wiki/Mazippa "Mazippa"), and the [Cinithians](/wiki/Cinithian "Cinithian") revolted against the [Roman army](/wiki/Roman_army "Roman army"). The insurrection, based on the tactics of harassment (contemporary guerrilla warfare), stretched from Little Syrte in the east to [Mauretania](/wiki/Mauretania "Mauretania") in the west and lasted seven years. The proconsul [Cornelius Dolabella](/wiki/Cornelius_Dolabella "Cornelius Dolabella") ended the war by besieging the fort of Tacfarinas, presumably situated at Auzia, in the year 24 apr. AD It was also the most frequented Roman tourist spot for the gazelle hunting that the city itself was named by the Algerian administration Sour\-El\-Ghozlane meaning Rampart of the Gazelles. For a long time, Auzia was a commercial city but its development was hampered by several internal conflicts and violent tribal revolts. ### French Colonial Sour El Ghozlane served under the French as a [military](/wiki/Military "Military") post from 1845 and received the name of **Aumale** in honor of the [Duke of Aumale](/wiki/Henri_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans%2C_Duke_of_Aumale "Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale"), son of [Louis Philippe](/wiki/Louis_Philippe "Louis Philippe").Par Mohammed Harbi, [1954, la guerre commence en Algérie](https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WydNuXLuwC&dq=%22Boumahra+Ahmed%22&pg=PA193) (Editions Complexe, 1998\) p194].
[ "History\n-------", "### Pre Historic", "A prehistoric tool (biface) testifying to the human presence from [prehistoric](/wiki/Prehistoric \"Prehistoric\") times was found west of the city.", "It is a town inhabited since prehistoric times, the first city founded in Roman province in the center of deep Algeria, a [Roman fortress](/wiki/Castra \"Castra\") but originally a [Numidian](/wiki/Numidia \"Numidia\") city. Its construction dates from the year 33 av. AD during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Auzia quickly became a powerful city, capital of the highland regions, which relegates to a secondary role the strategic importance of the Roman city of Djemila, the ancient Cuicui, in the wilaya of [Setif](/wiki/Setif \"Setif\") because of its remoteness from the centers Of Roman power.", "### Roman Empire", "{{main\\|Auzia}}", "At the time of the [Roman presence](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") in [Africa](/wiki/Roman_North_Africa \"Roman North Africa\"), the city bore the name of Auzia. The remains of a theater have been spotted there. It is the location of the Roman city [Auzia](/wiki/Auzia \"Auzia\"), in the province [Mauretania Caesariensis](/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis \"Mauretania Caesariensis\").[Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138\\) Roman times and names now](http://forum.e-dz.com/topic/4094-names-of-cities-in-algerie-in-ad-138-roman-times-and-names-now/) from [E\\-DZ Community \\| Education \\& Learning](http://forum.e-dz.com/) \\| [Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics](http://forum.e-dz.com/forum/4-algerian-history-culture-art-law-politics/) (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008\\). The name Auzia is still used as a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") [titular bishopric](/wiki/Titular_bishopric \"Titular bishopric\").[GCatholic \\- Titular Episcopal See of Auzia](http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0246.htm).", "Auzia was part of the division of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\"). Its position as a city at the gates of the [Sahara](/wiki/Sahara \"Sahara\") marked the beginning of the period when the Roman conquest reached the limits of the world known at the time and where the Roman civilization. The city of Auzia has two characteristics in Roman history in North Africa, its great influence on its bureaucratic and military structure and its strategic location as a great religious edifice. Like the construction of the temple of Apollo, supposed to be located at the present site of the civil hospital of Sour\\-El\\-Ghozlane. Auzia was equipped with an [amphitheater](/wiki/Amphitheater \"Amphitheater\") built by the city's bourgeois institution to host shows, such as [gladiatorial](/wiki/Gladiator \"Gladiator\") fights. The [ruins](/wiki/Ruins \"Ruins\") also have a bath house, [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 \"Forum (Roman)\") and [temples](/wiki/Roman_temple \"Roman temple\"). In addition, Auzia is identified as a city with political power dominated by a patriarchal link and entirely in the hands of two comices, organized to reflect at best the tribal divisions of the city.", "On the other hand, its administrative and military status reveals that it was definitively subjected to the order of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") with the status of autonomous city of the Roman province (free zone: region of Algiers to Bou\\-Saada) caesarean. Auzia is a large city of ovoid form, destined to serve as capital in this region of central Algeria, Auguste had it endowed with several public edifices: a forum (present room of the festivals), several temples, a curia, a market, a theater and large thermal baths. Auzia was erected on a hill at a moderate altitude, where to this day a wall was in good condition in some places, revealing a kind of citadel which protected the inhabitants.", "Around the year 17 [Tacfarinas](/wiki/Tacfarinas \"Tacfarinas\"), who had served in the Roman Army before deserting to take the lead of a revolt by federated Berber tribes and their [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish \"Moorish\") neighbors, whose leaders [Mazippa](/wiki/Mazippa \"Mazippa\"), and the [Cinithians](/wiki/Cinithian \"Cinithian\") revolted against the [Roman army](/wiki/Roman_army \"Roman army\"). The insurrection, based on the tactics of harassment (contemporary guerrilla warfare), stretched from Little Syrte in the east to [Mauretania](/wiki/Mauretania \"Mauretania\") in the west and lasted seven years. The proconsul [Cornelius Dolabella](/wiki/Cornelius_Dolabella \"Cornelius Dolabella\") ended the war by besieging the fort of Tacfarinas, presumably situated at Auzia, in the year 24 apr. AD", "It was also the most frequented Roman tourist spot for the gazelle hunting that the city itself was named by the Algerian administration Sour\\-El\\-Ghozlane meaning Rampart of the Gazelles. For a long time, Auzia was a commercial city but its development was hampered by several internal conflicts and violent tribal revolts.", "### French Colonial", "Sour El Ghozlane served under the French as a [military](/wiki/Military \"Military\") post from 1845 and received the name of **Aumale** in honor of the [Duke of Aumale](/wiki/Henri_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans%2C_Duke_of_Aumale \"Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale\"), son of [Louis Philippe](/wiki/Louis_Philippe \"Louis Philippe\").Par Mohammed Harbi,\n [1954, la guerre commence en Algérie](https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WydNuXLuwC&dq=%22Boumahra+Ahmed%22&pg=PA193) (Editions Complexe, 1998\\) p194].", "" ]
Plot ---- The series follows the adventures of [Cole Evans](/wiki/Cole_Evans "Cole Evans"), who had been staying with a [tribe](/wiki/Tribe "Tribe") in the [jungle](/wiki/Jungle "Jungle") for most of his life, as he tries to find his destiny in the town of Turtle Cove. He encounters the Animarium, an island shaped like a turtle floating in the sky, which many believed to exist only in fairy tales, and is the home of the Wild Zords, and the Wild Force Power Rangers' mentor, Princess Shayla. He joins four other teens, Taylor Earhardt, Max Cooper, Alyssa Enrilé, and Danny Delgado, becoming the new leader of the Wild Force Rangers. Throughout time, the Rangers use their powers to defeat the forces of the [Orgs](/wiki/Orc "Orc"), monsters created from human pollution, led by one [Master Org](/wiki/Master_Org "Master Org"). As Cole was fond of other animals, he was shocked to discover that the Orgs were literally heartless horned monsters. As the series continues, he finds out the truth about his real parents, Richard and Elizabeth Evans, who were professors at Turtle Cove University, along with a family friend, Dr. Viktor Adler, who was secretly in love with Elizabeth. When they were sent to the jungle for research, they discover the remains of Master Org, which a jealous Adler consumes in order to exact revenge on Richard, who had proposed to Elizabeth before he could. However, the seeds drive Adler mad and he ends up killing both him and Elizabeth. For a while, their son Cole, who was only two years old at the time, was presumed dead as well. In an attempt to defeat the rangers, Master Org releases Zen\-Aku, a wolf duke\-org who was sealed away by the ancient warriors, the predecessors of the Wild Force Rangers, 3000 years ago. Zen\-Aku, however, is soon to be revealed as Merrick Baliton, a member of ancient warriors who defeated the original Master Org by using the powers of a cursed wolf mask. The rangers break the curse, returning Merrick to his human form, allowing him to join the team as the Lunar Wolf Ranger. Zen\-Aku is later revealed to have been freed from the curse and attempts to repossess Merrick, but is defeated. During the annual team\-up episode, a trio of powerful half\-mutant, half\-org monsters called Mut\-Orgs travel back in time from the year 3001 to join forces with Master Org and clash with Wes Collins and Eric Myers, the Red Time Force Ranger and Quantum Ranger, prompting the Wild Force Rangers to come to their aid. Wes and Eric contact the other four Time Force rangers in the future and they travel back to aid them, along the previous season's villains Ransik and his daughter Nadira. Ransik, who has reformed, reveals that he was the one who freed the Mut\-Orgs and works with the rangers, stripping the three monster mutant powers and weakening them enough for the rangers to destroy them. Ransik is also stripped of his own powers during the battle, turning him into a normal human. Eventually, Duke Orgs Jindrax and Toxica learn of Master Org's human origins and turn on him, awakening the Org General Mandilok to overthrow him. Shortly after, during a battle with Cole, Master Org is stripped of his powers. Mandilok takes this opportunity to kill the now powerless Dr. Adler. Mandilok then proceeds to take control of the Org forces. Meanwhile, the rangers befriend an amnesiac boy named Kite who has mysterious powers. Kite is revealed to the reborn Animus, the ancestor of the Wild Zords, who was destroyed by the original Master Org 3000 years ago. Mandilok attempts to turn Animus against the rangers by showing him the destruction and pollution humans have caused over the last 3000 years, and appears to be successful as Animus takes away the Ranger's Wild Zords. However, Animus revealed he was only testing the rangers and returns to aid them and gives them back their Wild Zords. Soon after, the original Master Org, reawakened and reborn in Dr. Adler's body after his death, returns to exact his revenge, destroying Mandilok and kidnapping Princess Shayla to use her powerful necklace to create the powerful Org Heart. Though the Rangers rescue the princess with the aid of the reformed Jindrax and Toxica, Master Org uses the Org Heart to transform into a powerful new form that can regenerate from any attack. Using his new powers, Master Org easily destroys all the rangers' Zords, stripping the rangers of their powers, and brings the Animarium crashing down to Earth. The rangers, though now powerless, refuse to give up and make a final stand against Master Org. This causes not only the Wild Zords that Master Org destroyed to be revived, but for the 77 other lost Wilds Zords to return and restore the rangers' powers. The rangers, together with all 100 Wild Zords, destroy Master Org and the Org Heart, ending the threat of the Orgs once and for all. With the threat over, Princess Shayla allows the rangers to return to their civilian lives, taking the Wild Zords and the Animarium back up into the sky until they're needed again. Cole travels the world, using his skills to help animals everywhere, Taylor returns to the Air Force, Max and Danny travel the world on a sight\-seeing tour, Merrick travels the world as well, accompanied by a now reformed Zen\-Aku, and Alyssa finishes college and becomes a teacher. The series ends with Alyssa telling her story to a kindergarten class. In addition to the annual team\-up episodes, *Power Rangers Wild Force* also had a special episode commemorating it as the tenth incarnation, *Forever Red*, by having Cole team up with the nine Red Rangers before him ([Jason Lee Scott](/wiki/Jason_Lee_Scott "Jason Lee Scott"), [Aurico](/wiki/Aquitian_Rangers%23Aurico "Aquitian Rangers#Aurico"), [Tommy Oliver](/wiki/Tommy_Oliver "Tommy Oliver"), [T.J. Johnson](/wiki/Power_Rangers_Turbo%23Cast_and_Characters "Power Rangers Turbo#Cast and Characters"), [Andros](/wiki/Power_Rangers_in_Space%23Characters "Power Rangers in Space#Characters"), [Leo Corbett](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Lost_Galaxy_characters%23Galaxy_Power_Rangers "List of Power Rangers Lost Galaxy characters#Galaxy Power Rangers"), [Carter Grayson](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Lightspeed_Rescue_characters%23Carter_Grayson "List of Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue characters#Carter Grayson"), [Wes Collins](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Time_Force_characters%23Wesley_%22Wes%22_Collins "List of Power Rangers Time Force characters#Wesley ") and [Eric Myers](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Time_Force_characters%23Eric_Myers "List of Power Rangers Time Force characters#Eric Myers")) to prevent the remaining generals of the Machine Empire from unearthing and reactivating Lord Zedd's Zord, Serpentera, which had been left buried on the moon. The Animarium reappeared during *[Power Rangers Super Megaforce](/wiki/Power_Rangers_Super_Megaforce "Power Rangers Super Megaforce")* in "A Lion's Alliance".
[ "Plot\n----", "The series follows the adventures of [Cole Evans](/wiki/Cole_Evans \"Cole Evans\"), who had been staying with a [tribe](/wiki/Tribe \"Tribe\") in the [jungle](/wiki/Jungle \"Jungle\") for most of his life, as he tries to find his destiny in the town of Turtle Cove. He encounters the Animarium, an island shaped like a turtle floating in the sky, which many believed to exist only in fairy tales, and is the home of the Wild Zords, and the Wild Force Power Rangers' mentor, Princess Shayla. He joins four other teens, Taylor Earhardt, Max Cooper, Alyssa Enrilé, and Danny Delgado, becoming the new leader of the Wild Force Rangers.", "Throughout time, the Rangers use their powers to defeat the forces of the [Orgs](/wiki/Orc \"Orc\"), monsters created from human pollution, led by one [Master Org](/wiki/Master_Org \"Master Org\"). As Cole was fond of other animals, he was shocked to discover that the Orgs were literally heartless horned monsters. As the series continues, he finds out the truth about his real parents, Richard and Elizabeth Evans, who were professors at Turtle Cove University, along with a family friend, Dr. Viktor Adler, who was secretly in love with Elizabeth. When they were sent to the jungle for research, they discover the remains of Master Org, which a jealous Adler consumes in order to exact revenge on Richard, who had proposed to Elizabeth before he could. However, the seeds drive Adler mad and he ends up killing both him and Elizabeth. For a while, their son Cole, who was only two years old at the time, was presumed dead as well.", "In an attempt to defeat the rangers, Master Org releases Zen\\-Aku, a wolf duke\\-org who was sealed away by the ancient warriors, the predecessors of the Wild Force Rangers, 3000 years ago. Zen\\-Aku, however, is soon to be revealed as Merrick Baliton, a member of ancient warriors who defeated the original Master Org by using the powers of a cursed wolf mask. The rangers break the curse, returning Merrick to his human form, allowing him to join the team as the Lunar Wolf Ranger. Zen\\-Aku is later revealed to have been freed from the curse and attempts to repossess Merrick, but is defeated.", "During the annual team\\-up episode, a trio of powerful half\\-mutant, half\\-org monsters called Mut\\-Orgs travel back in time from the year 3001 to join forces with Master Org and clash with Wes Collins and Eric Myers, the Red Time Force Ranger and Quantum Ranger, prompting the Wild Force Rangers to come to their aid. Wes and Eric contact the other four Time Force rangers in the future and they travel back to aid them, along the previous season's villains Ransik and his daughter Nadira. Ransik, who has reformed, reveals that he was the one who freed the Mut\\-Orgs and works with the rangers, stripping the three monster mutant powers and weakening them enough for the rangers to destroy them. Ransik is also stripped of his own powers during the battle, turning him into a normal human.", "Eventually, Duke Orgs Jindrax and Toxica learn of Master Org's human origins and turn on him, awakening the Org General Mandilok to overthrow him. Shortly after, during a battle with Cole, Master Org is stripped of his powers. Mandilok takes this opportunity to kill the now powerless Dr. Adler. Mandilok then proceeds to take control of the Org forces. Meanwhile, the rangers befriend an amnesiac boy named Kite who has mysterious powers. Kite is revealed to the reborn Animus, the ancestor of the Wild Zords, who was destroyed by the original Master Org 3000 years ago. Mandilok attempts to turn Animus against the rangers by showing him the destruction and pollution humans have caused over the last 3000 years, and appears to be successful as Animus takes away the Ranger's Wild Zords. However, Animus revealed he was only testing the rangers and returns to aid them and gives them back their Wild Zords.", "Soon after, the original Master Org, reawakened and reborn in Dr. Adler's body after his death, returns to exact his revenge, destroying Mandilok and kidnapping Princess Shayla to use her powerful necklace to create the powerful Org Heart. Though the Rangers rescue the princess with the aid of the reformed Jindrax and Toxica, Master Org uses the Org Heart to transform into a powerful new form that can regenerate from any attack. Using his new powers, Master Org easily destroys all the rangers' Zords, stripping the rangers of their powers, and brings the Animarium crashing down to Earth. The rangers, though now powerless, refuse to give up and make a final stand against Master Org. This causes not only the Wild Zords that Master Org destroyed to be revived, but for the 77 other lost Wilds Zords to return and restore the rangers' powers. The rangers, together with all 100 Wild Zords, destroy Master Org and the Org Heart, ending the threat of the Orgs once and for all.", "With the threat over, Princess Shayla allows the rangers to return to their civilian lives, taking the Wild Zords and the Animarium back up into the sky until they're needed again. Cole travels the world, using his skills to help animals everywhere, Taylor returns to the Air Force, Max and Danny travel the world on a sight\\-seeing tour, Merrick travels the world as well, accompanied by a now reformed Zen\\-Aku, and Alyssa finishes college and becomes a teacher. The series ends with Alyssa telling her story to a kindergarten class.", "In addition to the annual team\\-up episodes, *Power Rangers Wild Force* also had a special episode commemorating it as the tenth incarnation, *Forever Red*, by having Cole team up with the nine Red Rangers before him ([Jason Lee Scott](/wiki/Jason_Lee_Scott \"Jason Lee Scott\"), [Aurico](/wiki/Aquitian_Rangers%23Aurico \"Aquitian Rangers#Aurico\"), [Tommy Oliver](/wiki/Tommy_Oliver \"Tommy Oliver\"), [T.J. Johnson](/wiki/Power_Rangers_Turbo%23Cast_and_Characters \"Power Rangers Turbo#Cast and Characters\"), [Andros](/wiki/Power_Rangers_in_Space%23Characters \"Power Rangers in Space#Characters\"), [Leo Corbett](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Lost_Galaxy_characters%23Galaxy_Power_Rangers \"List of Power Rangers Lost Galaxy characters#Galaxy Power Rangers\"), [Carter Grayson](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Lightspeed_Rescue_characters%23Carter_Grayson \"List of Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue characters#Carter Grayson\"), [Wes Collins](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Time_Force_characters%23Wesley_%22Wes%22_Collins \"List of Power Rangers Time Force characters#Wesley \") and [Eric Myers](/wiki/List_of_Power_Rangers_Time_Force_characters%23Eric_Myers \"List of Power Rangers Time Force characters#Eric Myers\")) to prevent the remaining generals of the Machine Empire from unearthing and reactivating Lord Zedd's Zord, Serpentera, which had been left buried on the moon.", "The Animarium reappeared during *[Power Rangers Super Megaforce](/wiki/Power_Rangers_Super_Megaforce \"Power Rangers Super Megaforce\")* in \"A Lion's Alliance\".", "" ]
2024 Russian Deputy Prime Minister’s Visit to Pakistan ------------------------------------------------------ [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")'s Deputy Prime Minister [Alexey Overchuk](/wiki/Alexey_Overchuk "Alexey Overchuk") arrived in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") for a two\-day official visit from September 18 to 19\. He was welcomed at [Islamabad Airport](/wiki/Islamabad_Airport "Islamabad Airport") by Pakistan's Ambassador to Moscow, Muhammad Khalid Jamali, and Additional Foreign Secretary [Shafqat Ali Khan](/wiki/Shafqat_Ali_Khan "Shafqat Ali Khan"). During his visit, Overchuk is scheduled to hold talks with President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari"), Prime Minister [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif"), and Finance Minister [Ishaq Dar](/wiki/Ishaq_Dar "Ishaq Dar"). Discussions will focus on potential [Liquefied Natural Gas](/wiki/Liquefied_Natural_Gas "Liquefied Natural Gas") (LNG) transactions, with Russian terminals expected to be ready by 2026\. Additionally, a Russian delegation is set to explore establishing a [state\-of\-the\-art](/wiki/State-of-the-art "State-of-the-art") steel mill at the Pakistan Steel Mills site. Overchuk emphasized the importance of enhancing socio\-cultural ties and cooperation under the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation"). Both countries are looking forward to make their relations best in Asia. Pakistan considers Strengthening relations with Russia as an important priority of Pakistan's foreign policy.Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Mr. [Alexey Overchuk](/wiki/Alexey_Overchuk "Alexey Overchuk") characterized [Pakistan\-Russia relations](/wiki/Pakistan-Russia_relations "Pakistan-Russia relations") as Constructive and Mutually Beneficial. Pakistan is keen to expand [trade](/wiki/Trade "Trade"), [economic](/wiki/Economic "Economic"), [energy](/wiki/Energy "Energy"), connectivity and security cooperation with Russia. Signing of a [MoU](/wiki/MoU "MoU") between Russia and Pakistan To further strengthen mutually advantageous cooperation in all areas of shared interest. Pakistan Considers Proposal to Establish New Steel Mill in [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi") with Russian Cooperation.
[ "2024 Russian Deputy Prime Minister’s Visit to Pakistan\n------------------------------------------------------", "[Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\")'s Deputy Prime Minister [Alexey Overchuk](/wiki/Alexey_Overchuk \"Alexey Overchuk\") arrived in [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") for a two\\-day official visit from September 18 to 19\\.", "He was welcomed at [Islamabad Airport](/wiki/Islamabad_Airport \"Islamabad Airport\") by Pakistan's Ambassador to Moscow, Muhammad Khalid Jamali, and Additional Foreign Secretary [Shafqat Ali Khan](/wiki/Shafqat_Ali_Khan \"Shafqat Ali Khan\"). During his visit, Overchuk is scheduled to hold talks with President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\"), Prime Minister [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\"), and Finance Minister [Ishaq Dar](/wiki/Ishaq_Dar \"Ishaq Dar\").", "Discussions will focus on potential [Liquefied Natural Gas](/wiki/Liquefied_Natural_Gas \"Liquefied Natural Gas\") (LNG) transactions, with Russian terminals expected to be ready by 2026\\. Additionally, a Russian delegation is set to explore establishing a [state\\-of\\-the\\-art](/wiki/State-of-the-art \"State-of-the-art\") steel mill at the Pakistan Steel Mills site.", "Overchuk emphasized the importance of enhancing socio\\-cultural ties and cooperation under the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\").", "Both countries are looking forward to make their relations best in Asia. Pakistan considers Strengthening relations with Russia as an important priority of Pakistan's foreign policy.Deputy Prime Minister of the\nRussian Federation Mr. [Alexey Overchuk](/wiki/Alexey_Overchuk \"Alexey Overchuk\") characterized [Pakistan\\-Russia relations](/wiki/Pakistan-Russia_relations \"Pakistan-Russia relations\") as Constructive and Mutually Beneficial.", "Pakistan is keen to expand [trade](/wiki/Trade \"Trade\"), [economic](/wiki/Economic \"Economic\"), [energy](/wiki/Energy \"Energy\"), connectivity and security cooperation with Russia. Signing of a [MoU](/wiki/MoU \"MoU\") between\nRussia and Pakistan To further strengthen mutually advantageous cooperation in all areas of shared interest. Pakistan Considers Proposal to Establish New Steel Mill in [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\") with Russian\nCooperation.", "" ]
Relations with the Russian Federation: 1991\-present ---------------------------------------------------- After the Soviet Union [troop withdrawal](/wiki/Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan "Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan") withdrawing the combatant troops from [Communist Afghanistan](/wiki/Communist_Afghanistan "Communist Afghanistan"), relations began to normalize with Pakistan. In the wake of [fall of communism](/wiki/Fall_of_communism "Fall of communism"), Russian\-Pakistan relations were warmed rapidly. In 1989, Soviet ambassador to Pakistan offered Pakistan to install a commercial nuclear power plant in the country, however after U.S. intervention, the plans were sent into cold storage. In 1994–95, Benazir Bhutto attempted to warm relations with Russia but suffered a major setback when Benazir Bhutto's government recognized [Taliban\-controlled government](/wiki/Taliban-administered_Afghanistan "Taliban-administered Afghanistan") in Afghanistan as legitimate entity. In 1996, Russia willingly agreed to launch Pakistan's second satellite, *[Badr\-B](/wiki/Badr-B "Badr-B")*, from its [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome "Baikonur Cosmodrome") for the lowest possible charges. [left\|thumb\|[Pervez Musharraf](/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf "Pervez Musharraf") shakes hands with Vladimir Putin (left), 2002\.](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_in_Kazakhstan_4_June_2002-4.jpg "Vladimir Putin in Kazakhstan 4 June 2002-4.jpg") In 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif attempted to warm relations with Russia after sending farewell messages to Russian Federation. In 1998, although Russia congratulated India for conducting second nuclear tests, (see *[Pokhran\-II](/wiki/Pokhran-II "Pokhran-II")*), Russia did not immediately criticize Pakistan for performing its nuclear tests (see *[Chagai\-I](/wiki/Chagai-I "Chagai-I")* and *[Chagai\-II](/wiki/Chagai-II "Chagai-II")*) by the weekend of May 1998\. In April 1999, Prime Minister [Nawaz Sharif](/wiki/Nawaz_Sharif "Nawaz Sharif") paid an important [state visit](/wiki/State_visit "State visit") to [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin "Kremlin"), this was the first trip to Moscow paid by a Pakistani Prime Minister in 25 years, but no breakthrough was made.{{Cite journal \|last\=Shah \|first\=Adnan Ali \|title\=Pakistan\-Russia Relations: Post\-Cold War Era \|date\=2001 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45242254 \|journal\=Strategic Studies \|volume\=21 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=31–60 \|jstor\=45242254 \|issn\=1029\-0990}} In 1999, Russia welcomed Pakistan and India for making a breakthrough in their relations with the [Lahore Declaration](/wiki/Lahore_Declaration "Lahore Declaration") but vehemently criticized Pakistan for holding it responsible for the outbreak of [Indo\-Pakistani War of 1999](/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1999 "Indo-Pakistani War of 1999"). Meanwhile, Russia played a major role in ending the war but remained hostile towards Pakistan. Russia condemned the [1999 Pakistani coup d'état](/wiki/1999_Pakistani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1999 Pakistani coup d'état") against Nawaz Sharif that removed him from power. On 19 April 2001, the [Russian Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Deputy_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs "Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs") [Alexander Losyukov](/wiki/Alexander_Losyukov "Alexander Losyukov") paid a state visit to Pakistan, and both countries agreed to co\-operate in economic development and to work towards peace and prosperity in the region.{{cite news\|last\=Staff\|title\=Islamabad, Moscow seek better ties\|url\=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area\-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/2001/apr2101\.html\#isla\|access\-date\=19 December 2012\|newspaper\=Dawn Archives, April 21, 2001\|date\=April 21, 2001}} In the wake of [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks"), the relations were warmed rapidly when Pakistan denounced the Taliban and joined the [NATO coalition](/wiki/2001_Coalition_Attack_on_Afghanistan "2001 Coalition Attack on Afghanistan") to hunt down jihadist organizations and [al\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda"). The decision of Pakistan to join the international struggle against terrorism has led to Russia\-Pakistan relations being greatly improved. Russia also played an integral role to ease off the nuclear [2001 Indo\-Pakistan tensions](/wiki/2001%E2%80%932002_India%E2%80%93Pakistan_standoff "2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff"). In November 2016, Pakistan also decided to grant Russia access to the [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port "Gwadar Port"), a warm water sea port as has done to both [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") and [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Turkmenistan "Turkmenistan").{{Cite web \|title\=Russia allowed use of Gwadar Port \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/167827\-Russia\-allowed\-use\-of\-Gwadar\-Port \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} ### Improvement in relations [180px\|thumb\|[Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev "Dmitry Medvedev") (right) meeting [Asif Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") (left) in 2010\.](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_Uzbekistan_10_June_2010-6.jpeg "Dmitry Medvedev in Uzbekistan 10 June 2010-6.jpeg") {{Rquote\|right\|We must know where we deceived ourselves to avoid being deceived again.... Russia is one of our closest neighbors... And (could) be an important partner. \|\[\[Ardeshir Cowasjee]] and \[\[Dawn News]]\|Cited source{{cite news\|title\=A Recap of Soviet\-Pakistan relations\|url\=http://dawn.com/2011/03/13/a\-recap\-of\-soviet\-pakistan\-relations/\|access\-date\=21 August 2012\|newspaper\=Dawn News13th March, 2011\|date\=13 March 2011}} }} Russia vowed its support for Pakistan in its struggle against the Taliban militants. In 2007, the relations between Pakistan and the [Russian](/wiki/Russia "Russia") Federation were reactivated after the 3\-day official visit of [Russian Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia "Prime Minister of Russia") [Mikhail Fradkov](/wiki/Mikhail_Fradkov "Mikhail Fradkov"). He was the first Russian Prime Minister to visit Pakistan in the post [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union")\-era in 38 years. He had "in\-depth discussions" with President [Pervez Musharraf](/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf "Pervez Musharraf") and Prime Minister [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz "Shaukat Aziz"). [left\|thumb\|Dmitry Medvedev engaged in conversation with Asif Zardari, 2010\.](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_Tajikistan%2C_September_2011-10.jpeg "Dmitry Medvedev in Tajikistan, September 2011-10.jpeg") The major focus of the visit was to improve bilateral relations with particular emphasis on ways and means to enhance economic cooperation between the two countries. Under the Presidency of [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") and Prime Minister [Yousef Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yousef_Raza_Gilani "Yousef Raza Gilani"), relations between Pakistan and Russia improved significantly. In 2010, Prime Minister [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin") of Russia stated that Russia was against developing strategic and military ties with Pakistan because of Russian desire to place emphasis on strategic ties with India.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2020}} [thumb\|[Hina Rabbani Khar](/wiki/Hina_Rabbani_Khar "Hina Rabbani Khar") meeting with Russian deputy foreign minister A.N. Borodavkin, 2012\.](/wiki/File:Borodavkin_and_Khar.JPG "Borodavkin and Khar.JPG") In 2011, Russia changed its policy and Putin publicly endorsed Pakistans bid to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and said that Pakistan was a very important partner in South Asia and the Muslim world for Russia. Putin offered Russia's assistance in expansion of [Pakistan Steel Mills](/wiki/Pakistan_Steel_Mills "Pakistan Steel Mills") and provision of technical support for the Guddu and Muzaffargarh power plants and Russia was interested in developing the Thar Coal Project{{cite news\|url\=http://www.dawn.com/2011/11/07/russia\-endorses\-full\-sco\-membership\-for\-pakistan.html\|title\=Russia endorses full SCO membership for Pakistan\|author\=APP\|newspaper\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]]\|date\=7 November 2011 \|access\-date\=26 April 2016}} In 2011, Russia strongly condemned the [NATO strike in Pakistan](/wiki/2011_NATO_attack_in_Pakistan "2011 NATO attack in Pakistan") and the Russian foreign minister stated it is unacceptable to violate the sovereignty of a state, even when planning and carrying out counter\-insurgent operations.{{Cite news \|date\=2011\-11\-28 \|title\=No excuse to violate Pakistan sovereignty: Russia \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/11/28/no\-excuse\-to\-violate\-pakistan\-sovereignty\-russia/ \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|newspaper\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|language\=en}} In 2012, Russian president [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin") announced to pay a state visit to Pakistan soon after his re\-election, later he cancelled it, citing other crucial engagement.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nation.com.pk/03\-Oct\-2012/cancellation\-of\-putin\-s\-visit\-to\-pakistan\|title\=Cancellation of Putin's visit to Pakistan\|date\=3 October 2012\|work\=The Nation\|access\-date\=26 April 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424095741/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan\-news\-newspaper\-daily\-english\-online/columns/03\-Oct\-2012/cancellation\-of\-putin\-s\-visit\-to\-pakistan\|archive\-date\=24 April 2013\|url\-status\=live}} To offset the diplomatic setback caused by this unexpected cancellation of much\-anticipated visit, Putin's sent his Foreign Minister [Sergey Lavrov](/wiki/Sergey_Lavrov "Sergey Lavrov").{{Cite web \|date\=2012\-10\-03 \|title\=Pakistan to seek early rescheduling of Russian president's visit \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/446669/pakistan\-to\-seek\-early\-rescheduling\-of\-russian\-presidents\-visit \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} Meanwhile, [Pakistan army chief](/wiki/Pakistan_Army "Pakistan Army") general [Ashfaq Parvez Kayani](/wiki/Ashfaq_Parvez_Kayani "Ashfaq Parvez Kayani") visited Moscow from October 4 for three\-day official visit. Where he was received warmly by Defence Minister [Anatoly Serdyukov](/wiki/Anatoly_Serdyukov "Anatoly Serdyukov") and Russian Ground Forces Commander\-in\-Chief (C\-in\-C) Colonel General [Vladimir Chirkin](/wiki/Vladimir_Chirkin "Vladimir Chirkin").{{cite web\|url\=http://pakistanintheworld.com/content/russian\-defence\-minister\-cancels\-delhi\-visit\-welcome\-gen\-kayani\-moscow\|title\=Russian Defence Minister cancels Delhi visit 'to welcome Gen Kayani in Moscow'\|work\=pakistanintheworld.com\|access\-date\=26 April 2016}} On 5\-August\-2013 Colonel General Vladimir Chirkin visited Pakistan where he was received by General [Ashfaq Parvez Kayani](/wiki/Ashfaq_Parvez_Kayani "Ashfaq Parvez Kayani"). The two generals discussed matters of mutual interest with emphasis on improving defence cooperation, army\-to\-army relations the security situation in the region, especially in Afghanistan post 2014\.{{Cite web \|last\=Misbah \|first\=Maham \|title\=Pakistan, Russia to boost military cooperation {{!}} Pakistan Today \|url\=https://archive.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/08/05/pakistan\-russia\-to\-boost\-military\-cooperation/ \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|language\=en\-GB}} In a press conference, the ambassador of Russia has agreed to sell helicopters to Pakistan to assist the country with terrorism and security related issues. Russia was still holding talks with Pakistan on the supply of the combat helicopters, and had lifted its embargo on the arms supply to Pakistan. "Such a decision has been taken. We are holding talks on supplying the helicopters," head of state\-owned Rostec, Sergei Chemezov said, adding that the negotiations were about Russian Mi\-35 Hind attack helicopters. Russia has long been the largest supplier of arms to India, which is the world's top arms buyer. But Moscow's move to supply Islamabad came as New Delhi is seeking to modernise its armed forces' ageing hardware and has recently chosen to buy arms from Israel, France, Britain and the United States. Pakistan and Russia wrapped up their first strategic dialogue on 31\-August\-2013\. At the talks held at the foreign secretaries' level in Moscow, the Pakistani side was led by Foreign Secretary [Jalil Abbas Jilani](/wiki/Jalil_Abbas_Jilani "Jalil Abbas Jilani") and Russia's First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs [Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov](/wiki/Vladimir_Georgiyevich_Titov "Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov") led his side. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister [Igor Morgulov](/wiki/Igor_Morgulov "Igor Morgulov") also participated in the consultations. The dialogue, the Foreign Office says, lays an institutional framework for building closer relations between the two countries through discussions for cooperation in political, economic, defence and other sectors. The two sides exchanged views on regional and international developments. Broadly, Pakistan and Russia agreed for more high\-level contacts, closely coordinating positions on regional and international issues, and expanding trade and investment relations and cooperation in the field of energy and power generation.{{cite news\|url\=http://dawn.com/news/1039487/accord\-to\-diversify\-ties\-with\-russia \|title\=Accord to diversify ties with Russia \|author\=Baqir Sajjad Syed \|newspaper\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|access\-date\=26 April 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061827/http://www.dawn.com/news/1039487/accord\-to\-diversify\-ties\-with\-russia \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 }} In July 2015 The [COAS](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)") [General Raheel Sharif](/wiki/General_Raheel_Sharif "General Raheel Sharif") paid a visit to Russia where he was received by the military leadership of Russia at [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin "Kremlin"). This was the 1st visit of An COAS to [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"). He was given a Guard of Honour and while laying wreath at the Tomb of Unknown Soldier the [National Anthem of Pakistan](/wiki/National_Anthem_of_Pakistan "National Anthem of Pakistan") was played. This was seen as an improvement in ties as Russia's longtime ally [India](/wiki/India "India") moved towards [US](/wiki/US "US"). Pakistan, Russia signs a landmark defence deal in 2015\. This deal includes sale of four Mi\-35 ‘Hind E’ attack helicopters to Pakistan. Russia is also interested in joining CPEC, which will benefit CPEC and strengthen Pakistan's economy. Another deal in 2015 includes Russia to invest $2bn in project of constructing north–south gas pipeline, first phase of which is expected to conclude by Dec 2017\. ### Economic and geopolitical convergence [thumb\|left\|President Putin meets Pakistani Prime Minister [Nawaz Sharif](/wiki/Nawaz_Sharif "Nawaz Sharif").](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_%26_Nawaz_Sharif_in_Ufa%2C_10_July_2015.jpg "Vladimir Putin & Nawaz Sharif in Ufa, 10 July 2015.jpg") In 1990, Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan sent a fare well message to Moscow in an attempt to set up the economic coordination between the two countries. In 1991, Benazir Bhutto headed a high\-level economic delegation to Central Asia and Russia after the [collapse of Soviet Union](/wiki/Collapse_of_Soviet_Union "Collapse of Soviet Union").{{cite web\|last\=Ahmad\|first\=Sultan\|title\=If Pakistan is the gateway to Central Asia\|url\=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/july/gateway\-asia.htm\|work\=Sultan Ahmad\|publisher\=If Pakistan is the gateway to Central Asia\|access\-date\=19 August 2012}} In 2003, the bilateral trade between Russia and Pakistan reached to 92 million US dollar, which increased to 411\.4 million in 2006\.{{cite web\|title\=RUSSIAN – PAKISTANI RELATIONS \|url\=http://www.rusconsulkarachi.mid.ru/RUSSIA\-PAKISTAN.htm \|work\=Consulate\-General of The Russian Federation In Karachi \|publisher\=Consulate\-General of The Russian Federation In Karachi \|access\-date\=19 August 2012 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315070730/http://www.rusconsulkarachi.mid.ru/RUSSIA\-PAKISTAN.htm \|archive\-date\=15 March 2013 }} The bilateral trade between each country reached to 630 million in 2008 and \~400 million in 2009\. During this following year, both countries established the "Russian–Pakistan Intergovernmental Commission on Trade and Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation to cooperation in science and technology and education. In 2011, Prime Minister [Yousaf Raza Gillani](/wiki/Yousaf_Raza_Gillani "Yousaf Raza Gillani") and [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin") held a frank discussion in a cordial atmosphere on the 10th Heads of Government meeting of the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation").{{cite news\|last\=APP\|title\=Pakistan, Russia to go for FTA, currency swap agreement \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/289029/pakistan\-russia\-to\-go\-for\-fta\-currency\-swap\-agreement/\|access\-date\=19 August 2012\|newspaper\=Tribune Express\|date\=November 8, 2011}} Russia is currently financing the mega\-energy project, [CASA\-1000](/wiki/CASA-1000 "CASA-1000"), transmitting power generation from Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan") to Pakistan; Russia has provided 500Mn US dollars for the CASA\-1000 power transmission project. In 2011, both countries initiated the work on the framework n the proposed Free Trade Agreement and currency swap arrangement to boost bilateral trade and further strengthen their economic ties. In 2012, Russia and Pakistan have covertly developed geopolitical and strategic relations behind the scenes of world politics for the last two years, as Stephen Blank of [Strategic Studies Institute](/wiki/Strategic_Studies_Institute "Strategic Studies Institute") maintained. As the NATO\-led [ISAF](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force "International Security Assistance Force") and the [US Forces, Afghanistan Command](/wiki/United_States_Forces_casualties_in_the_war_in_Afghanistan "United States Forces casualties in the war in Afghanistan"), is planning to depart Afghanistan in 2014, the Russian Federation came to a conclusion that Pakistan is a crucial player in Afghanistan and that, as NATO withdraws, it becomes all the more urgent for Moscow to seek some sort of *modus vivendi* with Islamabad. #### Cooperation of Pakistan after joining the SCO In November 2019, Pakistan decided to solve a Soviet\-era trade dispute with Russia, in which the Pakistani government should pay $93\.5 million to Russia within 90 days. The settlement would pave the way for Russia to invest over $8 billion in Pakistan.{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-11\-06 \|title\=Pakistan settles Soviet\-era trade dispute with Russia \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2095099/2\-pakistan\-settles\-decades\-old\-trade\-dispute\-russia \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} The Special Representative of Pakistan for Afghanistan, Mohammad Sadiq, noted after visit in Moscow on September 9, 2022, that both sides share similar views on the situation in Afghanistan and plan to continue consultations on this issue in the future.{{cite web \|title\=Pakistan's top envoy for Afghanistan visits Russian ambassador in Moscow \|date\=9 September 2022 \|url\=https://www.ariananews.af/pakistans\-top\-envoy\-for\-afghanistan\-visits\-russian\-ambassador\-in\-moscow/ \|publisher\=Ariana News\|access\-date\=9 September 2022}} Against the background of catastrophic floods in Pakistan in 2022 and possible food shortages, Russia, in addition to gas supplies, offered to supply wheat to Pakistan.{{cite web \|title\=Russia offered gas, wheat aid amid famine risk in Pakistan: Khawaja Asif \|url\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/440931\-russia\-offered\-gas\-wheat\-aid\-amid\-famine\-risk\-in\-pakistan\-khawaja\-asif \|publisher\=Geo TV\|access\-date\=18 September 2022}} In addition, on the sidelines of the SCO summit, at a meeting with [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif"), Russian President Vladimir Putin mentioned that pipeline gas supplies to Pakistan are possible and part of the infrastructure has already been created. In addition, according to the statements of the Minister of Defense of Pakistan, Russian President Vladimir Putin highly appreciated Pakistan's position on the Russian\-Ukrainian war at the UN and at the international level.{{cite web \|title\=Pakistan, Russia ready for partnership \|date\=17 September 2022 \|url\=https://www.nation.com.pk/17\-Sep\-2022/pakistan\-russia\-ready\-for\-partnership \|publisher\=The Nation\|access\-date\=17 September 2022}} ### Cooperation in the field of energy {{see also\|Energy policy of Pakistan}} Cooperation in the field of energy between Pakistan and Russia occupies an important place in bilateral relations, since the Russian Federation is an advanced power in the field of oil and gas production, and Pakistan, in turn, is a developing country with huge energy needs. In October 2015, the partners signed an Intergovernmental Agreement on constructing the North\-South gas pipeline from Karachi to Lahore. In addition, an Intergovernmental Agreement on Cooperation in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) was signed on October 13, 2017\. In September 2018, the countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding to conduct a feasibility study for the construction of an offshore gas pipeline. As a follow\-up, on February 6, 2019, Russian Gazprom and the Pakistani company Inter State Gas Company Limited signed a Memorandum of Understanding regarding a feasibility study of gas supplies from the Middle East to South Asia.{{Cite web\|language\=ru\|url\=http://parepmoscow.com/en/pakistan\-russia\-relations/\|title\=Pakistan\-Russia Relations\|website\=Embassy of Pakistan, Moscow}} In January 2022, Imran Khan strongly supported [Pakistan Stream gas pipeline](/wiki/Pakistan_Stream_gas_pipeline "Pakistan Stream gas pipeline") and imports of discounted [Russian oil](/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Russia "Petroleum industry in Russia") and wheat.{{cite web \|title\=Khan After Putin Visit: Pakistan to Import Wheat, Gas from Russia \|url\=https://www.voanews.com/a/khan\-after\-putin\-visit\-pakistan\-to\-import\-wheat\-gas\-from\-russia\-/6463734\.html \|publisher\=VOA \|access\-date\=28 February 2022}} In December 2022, Minister of State for Petroleum [Musadik Malik](/wiki/Musadik_Malik "Musadik Malik") says the Pakistani government has held fruitful talks with Russia for import of cheap oil, diesel and gas.{{cite web \|title\=Pakistan to import POL products from Russia: Musadik \|url\=https://www.radio.gov.pk/06\-12\-2022/pakistan\-to\-import\-pol\-products\-from\-russia\-musadik \|publisher\=Radio Pakistan}} *[The Express Tribune](/wiki/The_Express_Tribune "The Express Tribune")* said that Russia had raised doubt “over the seriousness of Pakistan to mature the oil deal”. Moscow had asked Islamabad to import “one oil cargo” as a test case. The first oil cargo from Russia may arrive in Pakistan by the end of April 2023\.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-03\-21 \|title\='Pakistan can overcome the economic crisis with Moscow's help' \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2407326/pakistan\-can\-overcome\-economic\-crisis\-with\-moscows\-help \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} The Pakistani prime minister Shehbaz Sharif announced that the country had received its first shipment of discounted Russian oil in 12 June.{{Cite web \|title\=Cash\-strapped Pakistan welcomes the arrival of the first shipment of discounted crude from Russia \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory/cash\-strapped\-pakistan\-welcomes\-arrival\-shipment\-discounted\-crude\-100004777 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-12 \|website\=ABC News \|language\=en}} ### Military cooperation [thumb\|Senior military officials and [Defence Attaché](/wiki/Defence_Attach%C3%A9 "Defence Attaché") of Pakistan and Russia, jointly working together at the communications tent at a Nigerian Air Force Base.](/wiki/File:Defense_attach%C3%A9s_from_Russia_and_Pakistan_visit_the_communications_tent_at_the_Nigerian_Air_Force_Base%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg "Defense attachés from Russia and Pakistan visit the communications tent at the Nigerian Air Force Base, Abuja, Nigeria.jpg") Military\-technical cooperation between Russia and Pakistan is under development. The Russian Federation had to establish relations with Pakistan, which were severed at the initiative of the USSR back in the 1980s. In 1996, Russia for the first time signed an agreement on the supply of multi\-purpose Mi\-17 helicopters to Pakistan. During the period from 1996 to 2004, the Russian Federation supplied about 70 helicopters to the partner.{{Cite web\|language\=ru\|url\=https://islamnews.ru/Rossija\-postavit\-Pakistanu\-partiju\-boevyh\-vertoletov \|title\=Россия поставит Пакистану партию боевых вертолетов \|website\=«IslamNews»}} Increasing military cooperation between Islamabad and Moscow would not negatively impact Russia's ties with India, Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov said in 2015, adding that Pak\-Russia ties were improving in other sectors as well—including energy.Regional Posts, September 13, 2015"\>{{cite news\|last\=APP\|title\=Pak\-Russia talks on delivery of Su\-35, Mi\-35s underway\|url\=http://www.regionalposts.com/index.php/2015/09/12/pak\-russia\-talks\-on\-delivery\-of\-su\-35\-mi\-35s\-underway\-russian\-deputy\-fm/\|access\-date\=10 September 2015\|newspaper\=Regional posts\|date\=September 13, 2015\|archive\-date\=13 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913000859/http://www.regionalposts.com/index.php/2015/09/12/pak\-russia\-talks\-on\-delivery\-of\-su\-35\-mi\-35s\-underway\-russian\-deputy\-fm/\|url\-status\=dead}} The two countries signed a defense cooperation agreement in 2014\. As of early 2021, Moscow has supplied Pakistan with a batch of Mi\-35 attack helicopters and it has signed contracts with the Asian nation to deliver anti\-tank systems, air defence weapons and small arms.{{Cite web \|title\=ЦАМТО / / Россия и Пакистан подписали контракты на поставку вооружений \|url\=https://armstrade.org/includes/periodics/news/2021/0217/104061692/detail.shtml \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-25 \|website\=armstrade.org}} In addition, Islamabad intended to purchase another 10\-12 units of such helicopters and also showed interest in purchasing multi\-purpose Su\-35 fighters with a longer range than light Chinese JF\-17s, which are in service with the Pakistani Air Force along with American F\-16s.*Каменев С*. Российско\-пакистанские отношения: вчера, сегодня, завтра // Россия и мусульманский мир. 2016\. №8 (290\) Back in 2018, the telegram channel "Militarist" reported that Pakistan had finalized a contract for the purchase of 54 SU\-35 fighters, however, this information was not confirmed.{{Cite web\|language\=ru\|url\=https://vpk.name/news/213974\_poyavilis\_sluhi\_o\_prodazhe\_krupnoi\_partii\_su\-35\_eshe\_odnoi\_strane.html \|title\=Появились слухи о продаже крупной партии Су\-35 еще одной стране\|website\=Новости ВПК \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-28}} On August 7, 2018, during the visit to Pakistan of the Deputy Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation Alexander Fomin, a contract was signed between Moscow and Islamabad, providing Pakistani servicemen with the opportunity to study at universities of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. The agreement was signed following the results of the first meeting of the Russian\-Pakistani Joint Military Advisory Committee (JMCC). Before signing this document, officers of the Pakistani army were trained in the United States.{{Cite web\|language\=ru\|url\=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/07\-Aug\-2018/coas\-bajwa\-russian\-deputy\-defence\-minister\-discuss\-security\-cooperation\|title\=COAS Bajwa, Russian Deputy Defence Minister discuss security cooperation \|website\=Daily Pakistan\|date\=7 August 2018 \|access\-date\=2018\-08\-07}} #### Russian Army War Games 2015 Pakistan Army actively participated in the Russian Army War Games 2015 held in the Russian Far East. Pakistan was also among the six countries that took part in the Master of The Air Defense Battle Competition in August 2015 besides Russia, China, Egypt, Venezuela and Belarus. {{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}} #### "Friendship" ("Druzhba") exercises The first annual joint exercise between the Russian military and the Pakistan Army took place under the name "Friendship 2016". 70 Russians and 130 Pakistanis took part in the exercise, held from 24 September to 10 October 2016, in [Cherat](/wiki/Cherat "Cherat"), in Pakistan's north\-western [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa_Province "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province").{{Cite journal\|last\=Jagtiani\|first\=Ashini\|date\=2017\|title\=Russia\-Pakistan Military Cooperation: A Tectonic Shift?\|url\=http://nbn\-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0168\-ssoar\-50989\-3\|journal\=IndraStra Global\|language\=en\|issue\=1\|pages\=2}} India had unsuccessfully asked Russia to call off the exercise as a gesture of "solidarity" following the [18 September 2016 militant attack on an Indian Army base](/wiki/Kashmir_conflict%23Recent_developments "Kashmir conflict#Recent developments"), which the [government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") had blamed on the [government of Pakistan](/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan "Government of Pakistan").{{cite journal\|last1\=Bedi\|first1\=Rahul\|title\=Russia presses on with first\-ever joint exercise with Pakistan\|journal\=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly\|date\=5 October 2016\|volume\=53\|issue\=40\|page\=6}} From November 8 to 21, 2020, the 5th joint Russian\-Pakistani Druzhba 2020 exercise was held. More than 150 servicemen of the armies of the two countries took part in the exercises. From the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, more than 70 military personnel of special purpose units of the 49th Combined Arms Army of the Southern Military District were involved in the exercise.{{cite journal\|title\=Russia and Pakistan kick\-off joint military drill\|journal\=ArmyTechnology\|date\=10 October 2020}} October 2021 — joint Russian\-Pakistani exercise "Friendship\-2021", at the Molkino training ground in the Krasnodar Territory. The main task of the exercises was to improve the ways of interaction when performing a wide range of tasks. Special attention was paid to the development of fighting skills in urban conditions and the use of a "consolidated assault company" in the liberation of settlements and objects captured by terrorists.{{Cite news\|url\=https://tass.com/defense/1342671\|title\=Russian\-Pakistani Druzhba\-2021 drills begin in southern Russia\|website\=Tass\|date\=27 September 2021}} From February 15 to 16, 2021, a detachment of ships of the Russian Navy, at the invitation of the Pakistani side, took part in the maritime phase of the multinational naval exercises "Aman\-2021".{{cite journal\|title\=Multinational naval exercise 'Aman\-2021' begins in the Arabian Sea\|journal\=Naval Technology\|date\=15 February 2021}} #### During Russo\-Ukrainian war [thumb\|President Putin meets Pakistani Prime Minister [Imran Khan](/wiki/Imran_Khan "Imran Khan") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") on the eve of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine")](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Imran_Khan_%282022-02-24%29_04.jpg "Vladimir Putin and Imran Khan (2022-02-24) 04.jpg") Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan visited Russia on 23 February 2022\.{{Cite web\|last\=Mohan\|first\=C. Raja\|title\=Imran Khan Goes to Moscow as Pakistan Romances Russia\|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/23/imran\-khan\-pakistan\-russia\-putin\-india\-geopolitics/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-24\|website\=Foreign Policy\|language\=en\-US}} It was the first visit of any Pakistani PM to Russia since 1999\.{{Cite news\|agency\=PTI\|date\=2022\-02\-24\|title\=Pakistan PM Imran Khan in Moscow, set to meet President Putin amidst Ukraine conflict\|language\=en\-IN\|work\=The Hindu\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/imran\-khans\-moscow\-visit\-is\-proceeding\-pakistan\-minister/article65079977\.ece\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-24\|issn\=0971\-751X}} During the two\-day visit, he talked with President Putin in [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin "Kremlin") about strengthening bilateral "economic and energy cooperation".{{Cite web \|title\=In the midst of Ukraine crisis, Pakistan seeks 'multi\-dimensional relationship' with Russia as Imran Khan meet Putin \|url\=https://www.southasiamonitor.org/pakistan/midst\-ukraine\-crisis\-pakistan\-seeks\-multi\-dimensional\-relationship\-russia\-imran\-khan\-meet \|access\-date\=19 July 2022 \|website\=South Asia Monitor \|language\=en}} Pakistan abstained from voting as [UN General Assembly censures Russia](/wiki/Eleventh_emergency_special_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly "Eleventh emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly") in March 2022,{{cite web \|title\=Pakistan abstains from UN vote to condemn Russia over Ukraine violence \|date\=3 March 2022 \|url\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/03/03/pakistan\-abstains\-from\-un\-vote\-to\-condemn\-russia\-over\-ukraine\-violence/ \|publisher\=Pakistan Today}} and says it ‘remains neutral’.{{cite news \|title\=Pakistan 'remains neutral' as UNGA censures Russia \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1678013 \|newspaper\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|date\=3 March 2022 \|access\-date\=3 March 2022}} According to Indian media reports, Pakistan has provided weapons to Ukraine despite Russian protests,{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-02\-06 \|title\=Russia warns Pak after Ukraine 'betrayal'; Moscow 'closely monitoring' Islamabad's arms aid to Kyiv \|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/videos/news/russia\-warns\-pak\-after\-ukraine\-betrayal\-moscow\-closely\-monitoring\-islamabad\-s\-arms\-aid\-to\-kyiv\-101675687744254\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-12 \|website\=Hindustan Times \|language\=en}} a claim denied by Pakistan's foreign ministry.{{Cite news \|last\=Syed \|first\=Baqir Sajjad \|date\=2023\-02\-17 \|title\=Pakistan denies supplying ammunition to Ukraine \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1737577 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-17 \|newspaper\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|language\=en}} ### Post\-flood relief in 2022 After the devastating floods in 2022, Russia provided assistance to Pakistan. Food, tents and water purification devices were handed over.{{cite web \|title\=First flight carrying relief goods from Russia reaches Pakistan \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/993385\-first\-flight\-carrying\-relief\-goods\-from\-russia\-reaches\-pakistan \|website\=The News \|access\-date\=21 September 2022}}
[ "Relations with the Russian Federation: 1991\\-present\n----------------------------------------------------", "After the Soviet Union [troop withdrawal](/wiki/Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan \"Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan\") withdrawing the combatant troops from [Communist Afghanistan](/wiki/Communist_Afghanistan \"Communist Afghanistan\"), relations began to normalize with Pakistan. In the wake of [fall of communism](/wiki/Fall_of_communism \"Fall of communism\"), Russian\\-Pakistan relations were warmed rapidly. In 1989, Soviet ambassador to Pakistan offered Pakistan to install a commercial nuclear power plant in the country, however after U.S. intervention, the plans were sent into cold storage. In 1994–95, Benazir Bhutto attempted to warm relations with Russia but suffered a major setback when Benazir Bhutto's government recognized [Taliban\\-controlled government](/wiki/Taliban-administered_Afghanistan \"Taliban-administered Afghanistan\") in Afghanistan as legitimate entity. In 1996, Russia willingly agreed to launch Pakistan's second satellite, *[Badr\\-B](/wiki/Badr-B \"Badr-B\")*, from its [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome \"Baikonur Cosmodrome\") for the lowest possible charges.", "[left\\|thumb\\|[Pervez Musharraf](/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf \"Pervez Musharraf\") shakes hands with Vladimir Putin (left), 2002\\.](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_in_Kazakhstan_4_June_2002-4.jpg \"Vladimir Putin in Kazakhstan 4 June 2002-4.jpg\")\nIn 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif attempted to warm relations with Russia after sending farewell messages to Russian Federation. In 1998, although Russia congratulated India for conducting second nuclear tests, (see *[Pokhran\\-II](/wiki/Pokhran-II \"Pokhran-II\")*), Russia did not immediately criticize Pakistan for performing its nuclear tests (see *[Chagai\\-I](/wiki/Chagai-I \"Chagai-I\")* and *[Chagai\\-II](/wiki/Chagai-II \"Chagai-II\")*) by the weekend of May 1998\\. In April 1999, Prime Minister [Nawaz Sharif](/wiki/Nawaz_Sharif \"Nawaz Sharif\") paid an important [state visit](/wiki/State_visit \"State visit\") to [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin \"Kremlin\"), this was the first trip to Moscow paid by a Pakistani Prime Minister in 25 years, but no breakthrough was made.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Shah \\|first\\=Adnan Ali \\|title\\=Pakistan\\-Russia Relations: Post\\-Cold War Era \\|date\\=2001 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45242254 \\|journal\\=Strategic Studies \\|volume\\=21 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=31–60 \\|jstor\\=45242254 \\|issn\\=1029\\-0990}} In 1999, Russia welcomed Pakistan and India for making a breakthrough in their relations with the [Lahore Declaration](/wiki/Lahore_Declaration \"Lahore Declaration\") but vehemently criticized Pakistan for holding it responsible for the outbreak of [Indo\\-Pakistani War of 1999](/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1999 \"Indo-Pakistani War of 1999\"). Meanwhile, Russia played a major role in ending the war but remained hostile towards Pakistan.", "Russia condemned the [1999 Pakistani coup d'état](/wiki/1999_Pakistani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1999 Pakistani coup d'état\") against Nawaz Sharif that removed him from power. On 19 April 2001, the [Russian Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Deputy_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs \"Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs\") [Alexander Losyukov](/wiki/Alexander_Losyukov \"Alexander Losyukov\") paid a state visit to Pakistan, and both countries agreed to co\\-operate in economic development and to work towards peace and prosperity in the region.{{cite news\\|last\\=Staff\\|title\\=Islamabad, Moscow seek better ties\\|url\\=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area\\-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/2001/apr2101\\.html\\#isla\\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2012\\|newspaper\\=Dawn Archives, April 21, 2001\\|date\\=April 21, 2001}} In the wake of [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\"), the relations were warmed rapidly when Pakistan denounced the Taliban and joined the [NATO coalition](/wiki/2001_Coalition_Attack_on_Afghanistan \"2001 Coalition Attack on Afghanistan\") to hunt down jihadist organizations and [al\\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda \"Al-Qaeda\"). The decision of Pakistan to join the international struggle against terrorism has led to Russia\\-Pakistan relations being greatly improved. Russia also played an integral role to ease off the nuclear [2001 Indo\\-Pakistan tensions](/wiki/2001%E2%80%932002_India%E2%80%93Pakistan_standoff \"2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff\").", "In November 2016, Pakistan also decided to grant Russia access to the [Gwadar Port](/wiki/Gwadar_Port \"Gwadar Port\"), a warm water sea port as has done to both [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") and [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Turkmenistan \"Turkmenistan\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russia allowed use of Gwadar Port \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/167827\\-Russia\\-allowed\\-use\\-of\\-Gwadar\\-Port \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}", "### Improvement in relations", "[180px\\|thumb\\|[Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev \"Dmitry Medvedev\") (right) meeting [Asif Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") (left) in 2010\\.](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_Uzbekistan_10_June_2010-6.jpeg \"Dmitry Medvedev in Uzbekistan 10 June 2010-6.jpeg\")", "{{Rquote\\|right\\|We must know where we deceived ourselves to avoid being deceived again.... Russia is one of our closest neighbors... And (could) be an important partner.\n\\|\\[\\[Ardeshir Cowasjee]] and \\[\\[Dawn News]]\\|Cited source{{cite news\\|title\\=A Recap of Soviet\\-Pakistan relations\\|url\\=http://dawn.com/2011/03/13/a\\-recap\\-of\\-soviet\\-pakistan\\-relations/\\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2012\\|newspaper\\=Dawn News13th March, 2011\\|date\\=13 March 2011}} }}", "Russia vowed its support for Pakistan in its struggle against the Taliban militants. In 2007, the relations between Pakistan and the [Russian](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") Federation were reactivated after the 3\\-day official visit of [Russian Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia \"Prime Minister of Russia\") [Mikhail Fradkov](/wiki/Mikhail_Fradkov \"Mikhail Fradkov\"). He was the first Russian Prime Minister to visit Pakistan in the post [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\")\\-era in 38 years. He had \"in\\-depth discussions\" with President [Pervez Musharraf](/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf \"Pervez Musharraf\") and Prime Minister [Shaukat Aziz](/wiki/Shaukat_Aziz \"Shaukat Aziz\").", "[left\\|thumb\\|Dmitry Medvedev engaged in conversation with Asif Zardari, 2010\\.](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_Tajikistan%2C_September_2011-10.jpeg \"Dmitry Medvedev in Tajikistan, September 2011-10.jpeg\")\nThe major focus of the visit was to improve bilateral relations with particular emphasis on ways and means to enhance economic cooperation between the two countries. Under the Presidency of [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") and Prime Minister [Yousef Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yousef_Raza_Gilani \"Yousef Raza Gilani\"), relations between Pakistan and Russia improved significantly. In 2010, Prime Minister [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\") of Russia stated that Russia was against developing strategic and military ties with Pakistan because of Russian desire to place emphasis on strategic ties with India.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2020}}", "[thumb\\|[Hina Rabbani Khar](/wiki/Hina_Rabbani_Khar \"Hina Rabbani Khar\") meeting with Russian deputy foreign minister A.N. Borodavkin, 2012\\.](/wiki/File:Borodavkin_and_Khar.JPG \"Borodavkin and Khar.JPG\")\nIn 2011, Russia changed its policy and Putin publicly endorsed Pakistans bid to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and said that Pakistan was a very important partner in South Asia and the Muslim world for Russia. Putin offered Russia's assistance in expansion of [Pakistan Steel Mills](/wiki/Pakistan_Steel_Mills \"Pakistan Steel Mills\") and provision of technical support for the Guddu and Muzaffargarh power plants and Russia was interested in developing the Thar Coal Project{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dawn.com/2011/11/07/russia\\-endorses\\-full\\-sco\\-membership\\-for\\-pakistan.html\\|title\\=Russia endorses full SCO membership for Pakistan\\|author\\=APP\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]]\\|date\\=7 November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2016}} In 2011, Russia strongly condemned the [NATO strike in Pakistan](/wiki/2011_NATO_attack_in_Pakistan \"2011 NATO attack in Pakistan\") and the Russian foreign minister stated it is unacceptable to violate the sovereignty of a state, even when planning and carrying out counter\\-insurgent operations.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2011\\-11\\-28 \\|title\\=No excuse to violate Pakistan sovereignty: Russia \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/11/28/no\\-excuse\\-to\\-violate\\-pakistan\\-sovereignty\\-russia/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|language\\=en}} In 2012, Russian president [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\") announced to pay a state visit to Pakistan soon after his re\\-election, later he cancelled it, citing other crucial engagement.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nation.com.pk/03\\-Oct\\-2012/cancellation\\-of\\-putin\\-s\\-visit\\-to\\-pakistan\\|title\\=Cancellation of Putin's visit to Pakistan\\|date\\=3 October 2012\\|work\\=The Nation\\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424095741/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan\\-news\\-newspaper\\-daily\\-english\\-online/columns/03\\-Oct\\-2012/cancellation\\-of\\-putin\\-s\\-visit\\-to\\-pakistan\\|archive\\-date\\=24 April 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live}} To offset the diplomatic setback caused by this unexpected cancellation of much\\-anticipated visit, Putin's sent his Foreign Minister [Sergey Lavrov](/wiki/Sergey_Lavrov \"Sergey Lavrov\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-03 \\|title\\=Pakistan to seek early rescheduling of Russian president's visit \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/446669/pakistan\\-to\\-seek\\-early\\-rescheduling\\-of\\-russian\\-presidents\\-visit \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}}", "Meanwhile, [Pakistan army chief](/wiki/Pakistan_Army \"Pakistan Army\") general [Ashfaq Parvez Kayani](/wiki/Ashfaq_Parvez_Kayani \"Ashfaq Parvez Kayani\") visited Moscow from October 4 for three\\-day official visit. Where he was received warmly by Defence Minister [Anatoly Serdyukov](/wiki/Anatoly_Serdyukov \"Anatoly Serdyukov\") and Russian Ground Forces Commander\\-in\\-Chief (C\\-in\\-C) Colonel General [Vladimir Chirkin](/wiki/Vladimir_Chirkin \"Vladimir Chirkin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pakistanintheworld.com/content/russian\\-defence\\-minister\\-cancels\\-delhi\\-visit\\-welcome\\-gen\\-kayani\\-moscow\\|title\\=Russian Defence Minister cancels Delhi visit 'to welcome Gen Kayani in Moscow'\\|work\\=pakistanintheworld.com\\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2016}}", "On 5\\-August\\-2013 Colonel General Vladimir Chirkin visited Pakistan where he was received by General [Ashfaq Parvez Kayani](/wiki/Ashfaq_Parvez_Kayani \"Ashfaq Parvez Kayani\"). The two generals discussed matters of mutual interest with emphasis on improving defence cooperation, army\\-to\\-army relations the security situation in the region, especially in Afghanistan post 2014\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Misbah \\|first\\=Maham \\|title\\=Pakistan, Russia to boost military cooperation {{!}} Pakistan Today \\|url\\=https://archive.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/08/05/pakistan\\-russia\\-to\\-boost\\-military\\-cooperation/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}", "In a press conference, the ambassador of Russia has agreed to sell helicopters to Pakistan to assist the country with terrorism and security related issues. Russia was still holding talks with Pakistan on the supply of the combat helicopters, and had lifted its embargo on the arms supply to Pakistan. \"Such a decision has been taken. We are holding talks on supplying the helicopters,\" head of state\\-owned Rostec, Sergei Chemezov said, adding that the negotiations were about Russian Mi\\-35 Hind attack helicopters. Russia has long been the largest supplier of arms to India, which is the world's top arms buyer. But Moscow's move to supply Islamabad came as New Delhi is seeking to modernise its armed forces' ageing hardware and has recently chosen to buy arms from Israel, France, Britain and the United States.", "Pakistan and Russia wrapped up their first strategic dialogue on 31\\-August\\-2013\\. At the talks held at the foreign secretaries' level in Moscow, the Pakistani side was led by Foreign Secretary [Jalil Abbas Jilani](/wiki/Jalil_Abbas_Jilani \"Jalil Abbas Jilani\") and Russia's First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs [Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov](/wiki/Vladimir_Georgiyevich_Titov \"Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov\") led his side. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister [Igor Morgulov](/wiki/Igor_Morgulov \"Igor Morgulov\") also participated in the consultations. The dialogue, the Foreign Office says, lays an institutional framework for building closer relations between the two countries through discussions for cooperation in political, economic, defence and other sectors. The two sides exchanged views on regional and international developments. Broadly, Pakistan and Russia agreed for more high\\-level contacts, closely coordinating positions on regional and international issues, and expanding trade and investment relations and cooperation in the field of energy and power generation.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://dawn.com/news/1039487/accord\\-to\\-diversify\\-ties\\-with\\-russia \\|title\\=Accord to diversify ties with Russia \\|author\\=Baqir Sajjad Syed \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061827/http://www.dawn.com/news/1039487/accord\\-to\\-diversify\\-ties\\-with\\-russia \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 }} In July 2015 The [COAS](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)\") [General Raheel Sharif](/wiki/General_Raheel_Sharif \"General Raheel Sharif\") paid a visit to Russia where he was received by the military leadership of Russia at [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin \"Kremlin\"). This was the 1st visit of An COAS to [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"). He was given a Guard of Honour and while laying wreath at the Tomb of Unknown Soldier the [National Anthem of Pakistan](/wiki/National_Anthem_of_Pakistan \"National Anthem of Pakistan\") was played. This was seen as an improvement in ties as Russia's longtime ally [India](/wiki/India \"India\") moved towards [US](/wiki/US \"US\"). Pakistan, Russia signs a landmark defence deal in 2015\\. This deal includes sale of four Mi\\-35 ‘Hind E’ attack helicopters to Pakistan. Russia is also interested in joining CPEC, which will benefit CPEC and strengthen Pakistan's economy. Another deal in 2015 includes Russia to invest $2bn in project of constructing north–south gas pipeline, first phase of which is expected to conclude by Dec 2017\\.", "### Economic and geopolitical convergence", "[thumb\\|left\\|President Putin meets Pakistani Prime Minister [Nawaz Sharif](/wiki/Nawaz_Sharif \"Nawaz Sharif\").](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_%26_Nawaz_Sharif_in_Ufa%2C_10_July_2015.jpg \"Vladimir Putin & Nawaz Sharif in Ufa, 10 July 2015.jpg\")", "In 1990, Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan sent a fare well message to Moscow in an attempt to set up the economic coordination between the two countries. In 1991, Benazir Bhutto headed a high\\-level economic delegation to Central Asia and Russia after the [collapse of Soviet Union](/wiki/Collapse_of_Soviet_Union \"Collapse of Soviet Union\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Ahmad\\|first\\=Sultan\\|title\\=If Pakistan is the gateway to Central Asia\\|url\\=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/july/gateway\\-asia.htm\\|work\\=Sultan Ahmad\\|publisher\\=If Pakistan is the gateway to Central Asia\\|access\\-date\\=19 August 2012}}", "In 2003, the bilateral trade between Russia and Pakistan reached to 92 million US dollar, which increased to 411\\.4 million in 2006\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=RUSSIAN – PAKISTANI RELATIONS \\|url\\=http://www.rusconsulkarachi.mid.ru/RUSSIA\\-PAKISTAN.htm \\|work\\=Consulate\\-General of The Russian Federation In Karachi \\|publisher\\=Consulate\\-General of The Russian Federation In Karachi \\|access\\-date\\=19 August 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315070730/http://www.rusconsulkarachi.mid.ru/RUSSIA\\-PAKISTAN.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2013 }} The bilateral trade between each country reached to 630 million in 2008 and \\~400 million in 2009\\. During this following year, both countries established the \"Russian–Pakistan Intergovernmental Commission on Trade and Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation to cooperation in science and technology and education.", "In 2011, Prime Minister [Yousaf Raza Gillani](/wiki/Yousaf_Raza_Gillani \"Yousaf Raza Gillani\") and [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\") held a frank discussion in a cordial atmosphere on the 10th Heads of Government meeting of the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\").{{cite news\\|last\\=APP\\|title\\=Pakistan, Russia to go for FTA, currency swap agreement \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/289029/pakistan\\-russia\\-to\\-go\\-for\\-fta\\-currency\\-swap\\-agreement/\\|access\\-date\\=19 August 2012\\|newspaper\\=Tribune Express\\|date\\=November 8, 2011}} Russia is currently financing the mega\\-energy project, [CASA\\-1000](/wiki/CASA-1000 \"CASA-1000\"), transmitting power generation from Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\") to Pakistan; Russia has provided 500Mn US dollars for the CASA\\-1000 power transmission project. In 2011, both countries initiated the work on the framework n the proposed Free Trade Agreement and currency swap arrangement to boost bilateral trade and further strengthen their economic ties.", "In 2012, Russia and Pakistan have covertly developed geopolitical and strategic relations behind the scenes of world politics for the last two years, as Stephen Blank of [Strategic Studies Institute](/wiki/Strategic_Studies_Institute \"Strategic Studies Institute\") maintained. As the NATO\\-led [ISAF](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force \"International Security Assistance Force\") and the [US Forces, Afghanistan Command](/wiki/United_States_Forces_casualties_in_the_war_in_Afghanistan \"United States Forces casualties in the war in Afghanistan\"), is planning to depart Afghanistan in 2014, the Russian Federation came to a conclusion that Pakistan is a crucial player in Afghanistan and that, as NATO withdraws, it becomes all the more urgent for Moscow to seek some sort of *modus vivendi* with Islamabad.", "#### Cooperation of Pakistan after joining the SCO", "In November 2019, Pakistan decided to solve a Soviet\\-era trade dispute with Russia, in which the Pakistani government should pay $93\\.5 million to Russia within 90 days. The settlement would pave the way for Russia to invest over $8 billion in Pakistan.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Pakistan settles Soviet\\-era trade dispute with Russia \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2095099/2\\-pakistan\\-settles\\-decades\\-old\\-trade\\-dispute\\-russia \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}}", "The Special Representative of Pakistan for Afghanistan, Mohammad Sadiq, noted after visit in Moscow on September 9, 2022, that both sides share similar views on the situation in Afghanistan and plan to continue consultations on this issue in the future.{{cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan's top envoy for Afghanistan visits Russian ambassador in Moscow \\|date\\=9 September 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.ariananews.af/pakistans\\-top\\-envoy\\-for\\-afghanistan\\-visits\\-russian\\-ambassador\\-in\\-moscow/ \\|publisher\\=Ariana News\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2022}}", "Against the background of catastrophic floods in Pakistan in 2022 and possible food shortages, Russia, in addition to gas supplies, offered to supply wheat to Pakistan.{{cite web \\|title\\=Russia offered gas, wheat aid amid famine risk in Pakistan: Khawaja Asif \\|url\\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/440931\\-russia\\-offered\\-gas\\-wheat\\-aid\\-amid\\-famine\\-risk\\-in\\-pakistan\\-khawaja\\-asif \\|publisher\\=Geo TV\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2022}} In addition, on the sidelines of the SCO summit, at a meeting with [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\"), Russian President Vladimir Putin mentioned that pipeline gas supplies to Pakistan are possible and part of the infrastructure has already been created. In addition, according to the statements of the Minister of Defense of Pakistan, Russian President Vladimir Putin highly appreciated Pakistan's position on the Russian\\-Ukrainian war at the UN and at the international level.{{cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan, Russia ready for partnership \\|date\\=17 September 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.nation.com.pk/17\\-Sep\\-2022/pakistan\\-russia\\-ready\\-for\\-partnership \\|publisher\\=The Nation\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2022}}", "### Cooperation in the field of energy", "{{see also\\|Energy policy of Pakistan}}\nCooperation in the field of energy between Pakistan and Russia occupies an important place in bilateral relations, since the Russian Federation is an advanced power in the field of oil and gas production, and Pakistan, in turn, is a developing country with huge energy needs.", "In October 2015, the partners signed an Intergovernmental Agreement on constructing the North\\-South gas pipeline from Karachi to Lahore. In addition, an Intergovernmental Agreement on Cooperation in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) was signed on October 13, 2017\\. In September 2018, the countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding to conduct a feasibility study for the construction of an offshore gas pipeline. As a follow\\-up, on February 6, 2019, Russian Gazprom and the Pakistani company Inter State Gas Company Limited signed a Memorandum of Understanding regarding a feasibility study of gas supplies from the Middle East to South Asia.{{Cite web\\|language\\=ru\\|url\\=http://parepmoscow.com/en/pakistan\\-russia\\-relations/\\|title\\=Pakistan\\-Russia Relations\\|website\\=Embassy of Pakistan, Moscow}}", "In January 2022, Imran Khan strongly supported [Pakistan Stream gas pipeline](/wiki/Pakistan_Stream_gas_pipeline \"Pakistan Stream gas pipeline\") and imports of discounted [Russian oil](/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Russia \"Petroleum industry in Russia\") and wheat.{{cite web \\|title\\=Khan After Putin Visit: Pakistan to Import Wheat, Gas from Russia \\|url\\=https://www.voanews.com/a/khan\\-after\\-putin\\-visit\\-pakistan\\-to\\-import\\-wheat\\-gas\\-from\\-russia\\-/6463734\\.html \\|publisher\\=VOA \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2022}}", "In December 2022, Minister of State for Petroleum [Musadik Malik](/wiki/Musadik_Malik \"Musadik Malik\") says the Pakistani government has held fruitful talks with Russia for import of cheap oil, diesel and gas.{{cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan to import POL products from Russia: Musadik \\|url\\=https://www.radio.gov.pk/06\\-12\\-2022/pakistan\\-to\\-import\\-pol\\-products\\-from\\-russia\\-musadik \\|publisher\\=Radio Pakistan}}", "*[The Express Tribune](/wiki/The_Express_Tribune \"The Express Tribune\")* said that Russia had raised doubt “over the seriousness of Pakistan to mature the oil deal”. Moscow had asked Islamabad to import “one oil cargo” as a test case. The first oil cargo from Russia may arrive in Pakistan by the end of April 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-21 \\|title\\='Pakistan can overcome the economic crisis with Moscow's help' \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2407326/pakistan\\-can\\-overcome\\-economic\\-crisis\\-with\\-moscows\\-help \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}} The Pakistani prime minister Shehbaz Sharif announced that the country had received its first shipment of discounted Russian oil in 12 June.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cash\\-strapped Pakistan welcomes the arrival of the first shipment of discounted crude from Russia \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory/cash\\-strapped\\-pakistan\\-welcomes\\-arrival\\-shipment\\-discounted\\-crude\\-100004777 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-12 \\|website\\=ABC News \\|language\\=en}}", "### Military cooperation", "[thumb\\|Senior military officials and [Defence Attaché](/wiki/Defence_Attach%C3%A9 \"Defence Attaché\") of Pakistan and Russia, jointly working together at the communications tent at a Nigerian Air Force Base.](/wiki/File:Defense_attach%C3%A9s_from_Russia_and_Pakistan_visit_the_communications_tent_at_the_Nigerian_Air_Force_Base%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg \"Defense attachés from Russia and Pakistan visit the communications tent at the Nigerian Air Force Base, Abuja, Nigeria.jpg\")", "Military\\-technical cooperation between Russia and Pakistan is under development. The Russian Federation had to establish relations with Pakistan, which were severed at the initiative of the USSR back in the 1980s. In 1996, Russia for the first time signed an agreement on the supply of multi\\-purpose Mi\\-17 helicopters to Pakistan. During the period from 1996 to 2004, the Russian Federation supplied about 70 helicopters to the partner.{{Cite web\\|language\\=ru\\|url\\=https://islamnews.ru/Rossija\\-postavit\\-Pakistanu\\-partiju\\-boevyh\\-vertoletov \\|title\\=Россия поставит Пакистану партию боевых вертолетов \\|website\\=«IslamNews»}}", "Increasing military cooperation between Islamabad and Moscow would not negatively impact Russia's ties with India, Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov said in 2015, adding that Pak\\-Russia ties were improving in other sectors as well—including energy.Regional Posts, September 13, 2015\"\\>{{cite news\\|last\\=APP\\|title\\=Pak\\-Russia talks on delivery of Su\\-35, Mi\\-35s underway\\|url\\=http://www.regionalposts.com/index.php/2015/09/12/pak\\-russia\\-talks\\-on\\-delivery\\-of\\-su\\-35\\-mi\\-35s\\-underway\\-russian\\-deputy\\-fm/\\|access\\-date\\=10 September 2015\\|newspaper\\=Regional posts\\|date\\=September 13, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913000859/http://www.regionalposts.com/index.php/2015/09/12/pak\\-russia\\-talks\\-on\\-delivery\\-of\\-su\\-35\\-mi\\-35s\\-underway\\-russian\\-deputy\\-fm/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The two countries signed a defense cooperation agreement in 2014\\. As of early 2021, Moscow has supplied Pakistan with a batch of Mi\\-35 attack helicopters and it has signed contracts with the Asian nation to deliver anti\\-tank systems, air defence weapons and small arms.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ЦАМТО / / Россия и Пакистан подписали контракты на поставку вооружений \\|url\\=https://armstrade.org/includes/periodics/news/2021/0217/104061692/detail.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-25 \\|website\\=armstrade.org}} In addition, Islamabad intended to purchase another 10\\-12 units of such helicopters and also showed interest in purchasing multi\\-purpose Su\\-35 fighters with a longer range than light Chinese JF\\-17s, which are in service with the Pakistani Air Force along with American F\\-16s.*Каменев С*. Российско\\-пакистанские отношения: вчера, сегодня, завтра // Россия и мусульманский мир. 2016\\. №8 (290\\) Back in 2018, the telegram channel \"Militarist\" reported that Pakistan had finalized a contract for the purchase of 54 SU\\-35 fighters, however, this information was not confirmed.{{Cite web\\|language\\=ru\\|url\\=https://vpk.name/news/213974\\_poyavilis\\_sluhi\\_o\\_prodazhe\\_krupnoi\\_partii\\_su\\-35\\_eshe\\_odnoi\\_strane.html \\|title\\=Появились слухи о продаже крупной партии Су\\-35 еще одной стране\\|website\\=Новости ВПК \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-28}}", "On August 7, 2018, during the visit to Pakistan of the Deputy Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation Alexander Fomin, a contract was signed between Moscow and Islamabad, providing Pakistani servicemen with the opportunity to study at universities of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. The agreement was signed following the results of the first meeting of the Russian\\-Pakistani Joint Military Advisory Committee (JMCC). Before signing this document, officers of the Pakistani army were trained in the United States.{{Cite web\\|language\\=ru\\|url\\=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/07\\-Aug\\-2018/coas\\-bajwa\\-russian\\-deputy\\-defence\\-minister\\-discuss\\-security\\-cooperation\\|title\\=COAS Bajwa, Russian Deputy Defence Minister discuss security cooperation\n\\|website\\=Daily Pakistan\\|date\\=7 August 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-07}}", "#### Russian Army War Games 2015", "Pakistan Army actively participated in the Russian Army War Games 2015 held in the Russian Far East. Pakistan was also among the six countries that took part in the Master of The Air Defense Battle Competition in August 2015 besides Russia, China, Egypt, Venezuela and Belarus. {{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}", "#### \"Friendship\" (\"Druzhba\") exercises", "The first annual joint exercise between the Russian military and the Pakistan Army took place under the name \"Friendship 2016\". 70 Russians and 130 Pakistanis took part in the exercise, held from 24 September to 10 October 2016, in [Cherat](/wiki/Cherat \"Cherat\"), in Pakistan's north\\-western [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa_Province \"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Jagtiani\\|first\\=Ashini\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Russia\\-Pakistan Military Cooperation: A Tectonic Shift?\\|url\\=http://nbn\\-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0168\\-ssoar\\-50989\\-3\\|journal\\=IndraStra Global\\|language\\=en\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=2}} India had unsuccessfully asked Russia to call off the exercise as a gesture of \"solidarity\" following the [18 September 2016 militant attack on an Indian Army base](/wiki/Kashmir_conflict%23Recent_developments \"Kashmir conflict#Recent developments\"), which the [government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") had blamed on the [government of Pakistan](/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan \"Government of Pakistan\").{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Bedi\\|first1\\=Rahul\\|title\\=Russia presses on with first\\-ever joint exercise with Pakistan\\|journal\\=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly\\|date\\=5 October 2016\\|volume\\=53\\|issue\\=40\\|page\\=6}}", "From November 8 to 21, 2020, the 5th joint Russian\\-Pakistani Druzhba 2020 exercise was held. More than 150 servicemen of the armies of the two countries took part in the exercises. From the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, more than 70 military personnel of special purpose units of the 49th Combined Arms Army of the Southern Military District were involved in the exercise.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Russia and Pakistan kick\\-off joint military drill\\|journal\\=ArmyTechnology\\|date\\=10 October 2020}}", "October 2021 — joint Russian\\-Pakistani exercise \"Friendship\\-2021\", at the Molkino training ground in the Krasnodar Territory. The main task of the exercises was to improve the ways of interaction when performing a wide range of tasks. Special attention was paid to the development of fighting skills in urban conditions and the use of a \"consolidated assault company\" in the liberation of settlements and objects captured by terrorists.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://tass.com/defense/1342671\\|title\\=Russian\\-Pakistani Druzhba\\-2021 drills begin in southern Russia\\|website\\=Tass\\|date\\=27 September 2021}}", "From February 15 to 16, 2021, a detachment of ships of the Russian Navy, at the invitation of the Pakistani side, took part in the maritime phase of the multinational naval exercises \"Aman\\-2021\".{{cite journal\\|title\\=Multinational naval exercise 'Aman\\-2021' begins in the Arabian Sea\\|journal\\=Naval Technology\\|date\\=15 February 2021}}", "#### During Russo\\-Ukrainian war", "[thumb\\|President Putin meets Pakistani Prime Minister [Imran Khan](/wiki/Imran_Khan \"Imran Khan\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") on the eve of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\")](/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Imran_Khan_%282022-02-24%29_04.jpg \"Vladimir Putin and Imran Khan (2022-02-24) 04.jpg\")\nPakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan visited Russia on 23 February 2022\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Mohan\\|first\\=C. Raja\\|title\\=Imran Khan Goes to Moscow as Pakistan Romances Russia\\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/23/imran\\-khan\\-pakistan\\-russia\\-putin\\-india\\-geopolitics/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-24\\|website\\=Foreign Policy\\|language\\=en\\-US}} It was the first visit of any Pakistani PM to Russia since 1999\\.{{Cite news\\|agency\\=PTI\\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-24\\|title\\=Pakistan PM Imran Khan in Moscow, set to meet President Putin amidst Ukraine conflict\\|language\\=en\\-IN\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/imran\\-khans\\-moscow\\-visit\\-is\\-proceeding\\-pakistan\\-minister/article65079977\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-24\\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}} During the two\\-day visit, he talked with President Putin in [Kremlin](/wiki/Kremlin \"Kremlin\") about strengthening bilateral \"economic and energy cooperation\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=In the midst of Ukraine crisis, Pakistan seeks 'multi\\-dimensional relationship' with Russia as Imran Khan meet Putin \\|url\\=https://www.southasiamonitor.org/pakistan/midst\\-ukraine\\-crisis\\-pakistan\\-seeks\\-multi\\-dimensional\\-relationship\\-russia\\-imran\\-khan\\-meet \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2022 \\|website\\=South Asia Monitor \\|language\\=en}}", "Pakistan abstained from voting as [UN General Assembly censures Russia](/wiki/Eleventh_emergency_special_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly \"Eleventh emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly\") in March 2022,{{cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan abstains from UN vote to condemn Russia over Ukraine violence \\|date\\=3 March 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/03/03/pakistan\\-abstains\\-from\\-un\\-vote\\-to\\-condemn\\-russia\\-over\\-ukraine\\-violence/ \\|publisher\\=Pakistan Today}} and says it ‘remains neutral’.{{cite news \\|title\\=Pakistan 'remains neutral' as UNGA censures Russia \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1678013 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|date\\=3 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2022}}", "According to Indian media reports, Pakistan has provided weapons to Ukraine despite Russian protests,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-06 \\|title\\=Russia warns Pak after Ukraine 'betrayal'; Moscow 'closely monitoring' Islamabad's arms aid to Kyiv \\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/videos/news/russia\\-warns\\-pak\\-after\\-ukraine\\-betrayal\\-moscow\\-closely\\-monitoring\\-islamabad\\-s\\-arms\\-aid\\-to\\-kyiv\\-101675687744254\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-12 \\|website\\=Hindustan Times \\|language\\=en}} a claim denied by Pakistan's foreign ministry.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Syed \\|first\\=Baqir Sajjad \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=Pakistan denies supplying ammunition to Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1737577 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-17 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|language\\=en}}", "### Post\\-flood relief in 2022", "After the devastating floods in 2022, Russia provided assistance to Pakistan. Food, tents and water purification devices were handed over.{{cite web \\|title\\=First flight carrying relief goods from Russia reaches Pakistan \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/993385\\-first\\-flight\\-carrying\\-relief\\-goods\\-from\\-russia\\-reaches\\-pakistan \\|website\\=The News \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2022}}", "" ]
Career ------ Hafed Al\-Ghwell served as a permanent Staff Member of the [World Bank Group](/wiki/World_Bank_Group "World Bank Group") for 16 years, in various positions, e.g. as an Advisor to the Dean of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank Group until the end of 2015 after taking an early retirement. Between 2009 and 2012, he also served as a *Strategy and Communications Advisor* in the Office of the Vice President for Middle East and North Africa and as well as the *Program Coordinator* in the Office of the Vice President of UN and External Affairs, also at the World Bank. He was also a *Director of External Affairs and Communications* at the [Dubai School of Government](/wiki/Mohammed_bin_Rashid_School_of_Government "Mohammed bin Rashid School of Government"),"Gender and Economics in MENA: From Theory to Policymaking." DSG News. December 2008\. Accessed August 29, 2016\. <http://www.mbrsg.ae/home.aspx> . and part of its Senior Management Team (SMT), from 2007 to 2009\. He joined the Dubai School of Government, a partnership with the [Harvard University's](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") [John F. Kennedy School of Government](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government "John F. Kennedy School of Government") for the Arab World, now renamed as *Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government*, on a secondment from his position as the *Head of the Global Network of Public Diplomacy, Information, and Communication Centers* for the World Bank. Prior to that, Hafed served as a *Principal Associate* at [Foreign Reports Inc.](/wiki/Foreign_Reports "Foreign Reports"), a Washington, D.C.\-based management\-consulting firm that publishes and distributes intelligence reports and analyses on political developments in the Middle East oil industry and key issues facing energy markets around the world. He later joined the World Bank in 1999\. In the late 80's, upon graduation from the [George Washington University](/wiki/George_Washington_University "George Washington University"), Hafed also served as a *Junior Economist* at the [International Monetary Fund (IMF)](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund"), focusing on monetary and exchange rate policy of the [OPEC](/wiki/OPEC "OPEC") countries in the Middle East and North Africa.
[ "Career\n------", "Hafed Al\\-Ghwell served as a permanent Staff Member of the [World Bank Group](/wiki/World_Bank_Group \"World Bank Group\") for 16 years, in various positions, e.g. as an Advisor to the Dean of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank Group until the end of 2015 after taking an early retirement.", "Between 2009 and 2012, he also served as a *Strategy and Communications Advisor* in the Office of the Vice President for Middle East and North Africa and as well as the *Program Coordinator* in the Office of the Vice President of UN and External Affairs, also at the World Bank.", "He was also a *Director of External Affairs and Communications* at the [Dubai School of Government](/wiki/Mohammed_bin_Rashid_School_of_Government \"Mohammed bin Rashid School of Government\"),\"Gender and Economics in MENA: From Theory to Policymaking.\" DSG News. December 2008\\. Accessed August 29, 2016\\. <http://www.mbrsg.ae/home.aspx> . and part of its Senior Management Team (SMT), from 2007 to 2009\\. He joined the Dubai School of Government, a partnership with the [Harvard University's](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") [John F. Kennedy School of Government](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government \"John F. Kennedy School of Government\") for the Arab World, now renamed as *Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government*, on a secondment from his position as the *Head of the Global Network of Public Diplomacy, Information, and Communication Centers* for the World Bank.", "Prior to that, Hafed served as a *Principal Associate* at [Foreign Reports Inc.](/wiki/Foreign_Reports \"Foreign Reports\"), a Washington, D.C.\\-based management\\-consulting firm that publishes and distributes intelligence reports and analyses on political developments in the Middle East oil industry and key issues facing energy markets around the world. He later joined the World Bank in 1999\\.", "In the late 80's, upon graduation from the [George Washington University](/wiki/George_Washington_University \"George Washington University\"), Hafed also served as a *Junior Economist* at the [International Monetary Fund (IMF)](/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund \"International Monetary Fund\"), focusing on monetary and exchange rate policy of the [OPEC](/wiki/OPEC \"OPEC\") countries in the Middle East and North Africa.", "" ]